Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-018-0225-2(2018) 5:76

Progress in Earth andPlanetary Science

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open Access

Water on Mars: Do submarine cyclic steps
exist on the red planet?
Svetlana Kostic1* and Isaac B. Smith2

Abstract
Submarine cyclic steps have a significant impact on the evolution of the ocean floor on Earth. These upper-flow
regime bedforms should be even more common in Martian reduced-gravity environments. We postulate that, if
early Mars had an ocean, cyclic steps would have formed on Martian deltas spreading along the putative ancient
shorelines in the northern plains. The main challenge to identifying submarine cyclic steps on Mars is geologic
activity, in particular impacts, volcanism, and aeolian erosion, which have erased or modify much of the geomorphic
evidence. Even though many Martian deltaic deposits do not bear much resemblance to the original depositionalsurfaces, we hypothesize that cementation and consolidation of marine sediments had facilitated the preservationof at least some Martian cyclic steps on deltaic deposits. We combine data from several orbital missions at Mars with aliterature review and numerical analysis to inspect bedforms near the foreset-bottomset transition of 17 documenteddeltaic deposits. The most promising piece of evidence for Martian submarine cyclic steps is a linear series of rhythmic
long-wavelength bedforms within a channel incised into the upper delta front of the Aeolis Mensae Delta. These
bedforms are remarkably similar to their counterparts observed in channels on deltas and deep-water fans on Earth.
Moreover, we speculate that two fields of cyclic steps, likely emanating from a crater upstream of the Aeolis Mensae
Delta, are a potential example of contemporary cyclic steps and attest to the sporadic presence of flowing water on
present-day Mars.
Keywords: Water on Mars, Martian ocean, Delta, Martian submarine cyclic steps, Foreset deposit, Foreset-bottomset
transition, Aeolian bedforms, Reduced gravity, Inverted channel, Consolidation of submarine sediments

Introduction
Ancient ocean on Mars

The paradigm that early Mars could have supported acomplex hydrological system and an ancient ocean located in the low-lying northern plains (Fig. 1) is one of
the most challenged concepts in Mars research (Baker etal. 1991; Parker et al. 1989, 1993; Malin and Edgett
1999; Head et al. 1999; Ivanov and Head 2001, Fairen etal., 2003; Carr and Head 2003; Ghatan and Zimbelman
2006; McEwen et al. 2007). Yet, the evidence for thenorthern hemispheric Martian ocean is mounting steadily.
Among most compelling is the recent work of Citron etal. (2018) and Villanueva et al. (2015). The putative shorelines in the northern plains (e.g., Parker et al. 1989; Carrand Head 2003) fail to follow an equipotential surface,* Correspondence: skostic@sdsu.edu
1Computational Science Research Center, San Diego State University, San
Diego, CA, USA
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

which has been commonly used to challenge the existenceof an early ocean (e.g., Malin and Edgett 1999). Citron etal. (2018) confirmed that variations in shoreline topography could be explained by the emplacement of Tharsis(Perron et al. 2007), a volcanic province that dominates
the gravity and topography of Mars. However, their work
demonstrates that the shorelines must have formed before
and during the emplacement of Tharsis. The results indicate a close relationship between the evolution of theMartian ocean and the initiation and decline of Tharsis
volcanism. More importantly, they imply that the Martian
ocean formed concurrent with the valley networks (Bouley
et al. 2016), which is significantly earlier than previously
thought and have broad implications for the geology,hydrological cycle, and climate of early Mars. Villanueva
et al. (2015) used observations of the present-day deuterium (hydrogen with an extra neutron) to hydrogen ration(D/H) to model how much water has escaped into spaceover Martian history. They suggest that early Mars (4.5

© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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Fig. 1 Rendition of the ancient ocean occupying nearly half of Martian northern hemisphere (NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center public domain image)billion years ago) had a global equivalent water layer of atleast 137 m, enough to fill the many basins on the planet.
Evidence from the surface of Mars today implies that thiswater at least temporarily pooled to form an ocean in the
low-lying northern plains (Fig. 1). The primordial ocean
could have held more water than Earth’s Arctic Ocean
and covered 19% of the planet’s surface (in contrast to the
Atlantic Ocean, which occupies 17% of the Earth’s
surface).
Other earlier observations and important evidence forthe ocean encompass the interpretation of ancient
shorelines from Viking Orbiter images (Parker et al.
1993), the topography of deformed shorelines (Perron etal. 2007), global distribution of Martian deltas and valleys within and along the margins of the northern lowlands (Di Achille and Hynek 2010), a branching networkof inverted channel and channel-lobe deposits at Aeolis
Dorsa (DiBiase et al. 2013), and tsunami deposits withrunout lobes and backwash erosion (Rodriguez et al.
2016; Costard et al. 2017). For years, the controversial
paleo-shoreline interpretation (Parker et al. 1989, 1993)
has driven research in a very specific direction of documenting terrestrial analogs for the deposits located on
the northern plains, where the hypothetical ocean
existed. Some of the most convincing evidence includes
a resemblance between teardrop-shaped islands in
Martian outflow channels and erosional shadow remnants documented in deep-water environments on Earth(Moscardelli and Wood 2011), terrestrial submarine analogs for streamlined forms on Mars (Burr 2011), similarities between large-scale polygonal terrains on Mars anddeep-water polygonal fault systems on Earth (Cooke etal. 2011; Allen et al. 2013; Moscardelli et al. 2012), comparisons between high-albedo mounds in Acidalia Planitia and terrestrial submarine mud volcanoes (Allen et al.
2013; Oehler and Allen 2012), and resemblance between
boulder-size rocks contained within the Vastitas Borealis

Formation on the northern plains of Mars and blocks
and boulders that have been documented in deep-water
terrestrial environments and reported in outcrop (Moscardelli 2014).
The work presented herein provides an additional lineof evidence for the northern hemispheric ocean by recognizing a new class of bedforms on Mars called submarine cyclic steps. Submarine cyclic steps (Fig. 2) arerhythmic, upstream-migrating bedforms bounded by internal hydraulic jumps in overriding turbidity currents(Kostic and Parker 2006). They signify one manifestationof fundamental morphodynamic instability of Froudesupercritical flow over an erodible bed (Kostic 2011).
We use submarine analogs on Earth and compare theirmorphology and geometry to properties of channelizedfeatures on Martian deltas in order to establish that submarine cyclic steps exist on Mars. We postulate thatthese bedforms are created by the same processes (i.e.,
sediment gravity flows) on our planet and on Mars.
Channelized cyclic steps are particularly instrumental in
the analysis presented herein as they are net-erosionalfeatures, which cannot be mistaken for aeolian net-depositional bedforms.

Research objective, hypotheses, and challenges
The focused objective of this research is to evaluate
whether submarine cyclic steps are present on 17 deltaic
deposits documented by Di Achille and Hynek (2010),
which spread along the putative shorelines of a primordial northern ocean (Fig. 3). The presence of a slope
break is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for the
spontaneous evolution of an erodible plane bed into cyclic steps on deep-sea fan-deltas on Earth (Kostic 2011).
The foreset-bottomset transition (Fig. 4) associated witha transition from a steep delta front or foreset deposit to amildly sloping bottomset deposit constitutes such a slope
break. Thus, we hypothesize that the foreset-bottomset

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science

Turbidity current
interface(2018) 5:76

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Internal hydraulic jumps

Flow direction

Cyclic steps

Fig. 2 Schematics of submarine cyclic steps bounded by internal hydraulic jumps (modified from Fildani et al. 2006)

transition on Martian deltas could have triggered the formation of submarine cyclic steps analogous to their terrestrial counterparts (e.g., Normandeau et al. 2016) in bothprocess and form.
The main challenge of this research is that the current
Mars topography provides an imperfect record of its depositional/erosional history because of resurfacing
caused by impacts, volcanism, and mass wasting, as wellas ongoing aeolian and likely occasion fluvial modification. Widespread aeolian surface modification is a particularly important factor in ongoing surface processes(Irwin III and Zimbelman 2012). Assuming e.g. a lateHesperian ocean was present (Fairen et al. 2003), it isquestionable whether the morphologic signature of cyclic steps (O(1–102 m) height, O(10–103 m) wavelength)
would be preserved. We postulate that Martian northerndeltas are likely to host remnants of ancient cyclic steps,
because marine bed sediments tend to develop strength
over time through consolidation, and thus resist erosion. Furthermore, we assume that remnants of cyclic
steps are more likely to be preserved on deltas displaying inverted channels due to cementation (DiBiaseet al. 2013) as these deltas are more resistant toweathering and erosion.

Submarine cyclic steps as new analog for Martianstreamlined forms emplaced by turbidity currents
Cyclic steps emplaced by turbidity currents are common
features on the ocean floor of Earth (e.g., Kostic 2011).
They were first discovered in numerical experiments on

internal hydraulic jumps (Kostic and Parker 2006). Since
then, they have swiftly gained recognition as importantbuilding blocks of deep-water depositional systems inboth unconfined and confined submarine environments(e.g., Fildani et al. 2006, 2013; Kostic 2011, 2014;
Cartigny et al. 2011; Covault et al. 2014, 2017; Hamilton
et al. 2015; Postma et al. 2016).
Submarine cyclic steps should be more prevalent on
Mars than on our planet. This becomes apparent fromthe densimetric Froude number Frd for turbidity currents that can be written as:
Fr d ¼ U=

pﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
RCgH

ð1Þ

where H is an appropriate measure of turbidity current
thickness, U is the layer-averaged flow velocity, g is theacceleration of gravity, C is the layer-averaged volumeconcentration of suspended sediment carried by the turbidity current (C < < 1), and R is the submerged specificgravity of the sediment (which is close to 1.65 for mostnatural sediments). For the same values of flow velocity
U, concentration of suspended sediment C, and turbidity
current thickness H, turbidity currents on Mars should
be intrinsically more biased toward supercritical flows
than their analogs on Earth due to the significantly lower
gravitational acceleration (g = 3.7 m/s2, which is a little
over 1/3 of the acceleration of gravity on Earth). By extension, it should be more likely for slope breaks on
Mars (such as e.g. the foreset-bottomset transition) to

Fig. 3 MOLA topography of the low-laying northern plains of Mars with white squares showing remnants of 17 deltaic deposits identified by Di
Achille and Hynek (2010). The yellow square indicates the location of Aeolis Mensae Delta

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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Topset deposit
Bottomset deposit
Foreset
Foreset-bottomset
transition

Fig. 4 Structure of a typical deltaic deposit on Mars (modified from Di Achille and Hynek 2010). Schematic diagram illustrates a topset (also calleddelta plain), foreset (also called delta front), and bottomset deposit (also called delta base), as well as the foreset-bottomset transition. Under theright conditions, the foreset-bottomset transition generates submarine cyclic steps

trigger internal hydraulic jumps and associated cyclic
steps under the right conditions.

Formative conditions for Martian submarine cyclic
steps
The dimensionless parameters that control the formation of submarine cyclic steps are summarized in Kostic(2011). Two of them, i.e., the dimensionless fall velocity
vs/Uo and the drop in bed Shields number Δτ* across thejump, are particularly important for the analysis at hand.
The dimensionless fall velocity vs/Uo defines the ratio of
the sediment fall velocity vs to layer-averaged inflow velocity Uo. This parameter can be useful in estimating thecutoff size of sediment that causes turbidity currents toundergo internal hydraulic jumps (Kostic 2011). Supercritical turbidity currents driven by sediment fine enough tosatisfy the approximate conditionvs< 3  10−3
Uoð2Þregularly display an internal hydraulic jump induced by
the slope break, whereas the coarse-grained turbidity
currents with the ratiovs> 5  10−3Uoð3Þ

do not undergo a transition to subcritical flow due to a
rapid rate of sediment deposition on the bed (Kostic andParker 2006; Kostic 2011). When an internal hydraulicjump occurs in response to a slope break, it is not always
strong enough to leave a clear depositional signal in associated depositional record. A drop in the bed Shields
number Δτ* quantifies the corresponding drop in mobility of bed sediment across the jump, such that:


2
Δu
Δτ ¼
Rf
vs


ð4Þ

where Δu∗ denotes the drop in shear velocity across thejump and Rf is a dimensionless particle fall velocity,
given by:pﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃﬃ
R f ¼ vs = RgDð5Þwith D being the mean grain size of sediment. The drop
in bed Shields number across the jump needs to satisfy
the following crude criterion to yield a detectable depositional signal (Kostic and Parker 2006; Kostic 2011):
Δτ  > 3

ð6Þ

The analysis in Table 1 was carried out for mediangrain size taking values of 20, 50, 80, 100, 150, and200 μm. The results imply that the formation of cyclic
steps on Mars can be triggered by flows that are about
60% slower than their counterparts on Earth (i.e., the ratio k in Table 1). For example, a turbidity current driven
by 50-μm sediment on Mars should have the inflow velocity of the order of 30 cm/s or higher (in contrast to
over 70 cm/s on Earth) to trigger submarine cyclic steps.
For a 100-μm turbidity current, the inflow velocity
higher than 1.0 m/s (in contrast to 2.5 m/s on Earth) is
necessary for steps to emerge.
Other results from Table 1 that should interest theplanetary science community can be summarized as following: If the incoming flow velocity is less than 17 cm/s
for a 50-μm current and 62 cm/s for a 100-μm current,
the turbidity current after a slope break remains supercritical and cyclic steps never form. For higher underflow velocity of the order of 3–4 m/s the cutoff size forKostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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Table 1 Calculated formative conditions for submarine cyclic steps on Earth and Mars
Ds (μm)

20

50

80

100

150

200

0.04

0.22

0.51

0.74

1.43

2.20

On Earthvs (cm/s)
Always steps

Uo (cm/s) >

11.8

72.6

169.5

247.9

476.5

734.6

No steps

Uo (cm/s) b <

7.1

43.5

101. 7

148.7

285.9

440.8

Rf

0.020

0.077

0.141

0.185

0.290

0.388

Δu*(cm/s)c >

3.1

4.9

6.2

7.0

8.5

9.8

vs (cm/s)

0.01

0.08

0.21

0.31

0.62

0.98

a

On Mars

Always steps

Uo (cm/s) >

4.3

28.2

68.6

102.5

204.9

325.1

No steps

Uo (cm/s) b <

2.6

16.9

41.2

61.5

122.9

195.1

a

Rf

0.012

0.048

0.093

0.124

0.203

0.279

Δu*(cm/s) c >

1.9

3.0

3.8

4.3

5.2

6.1

kd

0.64

0.61

0.60

0.59

0.57

0.56

m

0.39

0.39

0.39

0.39

0.39

0.39

Comparison
Always stepseNote: aEq. (2), bEq. (3), cEq. (6), d(UoEarth - UoMars)/UoEarth, e(Δu*Earth - Δu*Mars)/Δu*Earthsubmarine cyclic steps is roughly between 100 and
150 μm on Earth, and between 200 and 300 μm on
Mars. The required drop in shear velocity across thejump that yields detectable cyclic steps on Mars is 40%
lower than on Earth (i.e., the ratio m in Table 1).

Examples of potential terrestrial analogs inchannels
The focus here is on cyclic steps in channels (Fildani etal. 2006; Smith et al. 2007; Lamb et al. 2008; Maier et al.
2012; Fildani et al. 2013; Covault et al. 2014; Tubau etal. 2015) and their role in channel initiation and maintenance. In particular, we review cyclic steps in theMonterey East Channel (Fildani et al. 2006) and San
Mateo Channel (Covault et al. 2014) in California as
potential terrestrial analogs for channelized cyclic
steps on Martian deltas. The Monterey East system incentral California is a unique deep-water environment
to study cyclic steps as a means of channel initiation
on modern submarine fans. Fildani et al. (2006) combined high-resolution acoustic data with numericalmodeling to investigate the Monterey East Channel at
the Monterey Fan. This fan segment is characterized
by a linear train of large crescent-shaped scours incised into large-scale sediment waves at the outer
levee of the Monterey Channel at the Shepard
Meander (Fig. 5a). The scours in the channel range
from 3 to 5 km in width, 3 to 6 km in length, and
80 to 200 m in depth. Fildani et al. (2006) offer evidence that these features constitute net-erosional cyclic steps carved by supercritical turbidity currents
stripped from the main flow in the Monterey Channel

moving through the meander. The formative supercriticalflows were postulated to have focused through a breach in
the levee, likely triggered by slumping of the steep meander wall. More importantly, net-erosional cyclic steps
were recognized for the first time as a means of the earlystage of an eventual avulsion from the present-day
Monterey Channel and initiation of a new channel named
the Monterey East Channel.
The San Mateo Channel located on a tectonically active slope offshore of southern California is anothervaluable deep-water environment to study channel initiation, filling, and maintenance by way of generation of
cyclic steps. Covault et al. (2014) combined numericalexperiments with interpretations of sea-floor and shallow subsurface stratigraphic imagery to examine a seriesof flute-shaped bedforms along the preset-day channel
thalweg (Fig. 5b). These features, ranging in wavelengthfrom 0.3 to 1.1 km and in height from 20 to 50 m, wereidentified as net-depositional cyclic steps emplaced byturbidity currents and credited with the channel maintenance. Moreover, numerical simulations suggested thatan incipient, proto-San Mateo Channel was originallyinitiated by way of a series of net-erosional cyclic steps,
which nucleated out of sea-floor perturbations acrossthe tectonically active lower slope.
The Gravel River emptying into fjord-Lake Walker in
Canada is selected as an additional delta analog forchannelized cyclic steps on Martian deltas. The mean
foreset slope of the Gravel River Delta is 4°, although theupper slope is significantly steeper, reaching 12°.
Normandeau et al. (2016) reported noticeable bedforms
covering an approximate area of 633,500 m2 of the deltaKostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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Fig. 5 Cyclic steps in submarine channels on Earth as analogs for bedforms on Martian deltas. a Large-scale net-depositional cyclic steps on theouter levee of the Shepard Meander dissected by a linear train of net-erosional cyclic steps in the Monterey East Channel, California, USA (image
courtesy A. Fildani; high vertical exaggeration is to enhance bedforms); b A series of cyclic steps along the thalweg of the San Mateo Channel,
California, USA (modified from Covault et al. 2014)

front (Fig. 6). These features have a mean wavelength of
35 m and a mean height of 2.2 m. They are mostly channelized between depths of 25 and 100 m, but also occur
on the open delta plain. Normandeau et al. (2016) used
the shape of the bedforms and the relationships between
their morphological properties to demonstrate that thesefeatures were likely cyclic steps emplaced by supercritical
turbidity currents. The underflows on the Gravel River
Delta were attributed to hyperpycnal flows, even though
there was also some evidence of delta-front slope failures.
All three selected terrestrial analogs are useful in theirown way for identification and classification of channelized cyclic steps on Martian deltas. The Monterey East
Channel analog establishes cyclic steps as a means of initiation of a new channel. The San Mateo Channel analog
distinguishes between net-erosional cyclic steps as ameans of channel initiation and net-depositional cyclic
steps as a means of channel maintenance. The Gravel
River Delta, even though not in a marine setting, illustrates well the effect of the foreset-bottomset transition on the formation of channelized cyclic steps on
the foreset deposit.

Can cyclic steps form on Mars?
Aeolian cyclic steps

Cyclic steps were already discovered on Mars in an unexpected environment: the polar ice caps (Smith et al.
2013). They are attributed to atmospheric processes, i.e.,
katabatic winds and asymmetric ice accumulation.
Katabatic winds have been studied extensively on
Earth (Ball 1956; Pettré and André 1991) and haveanalogous properties to turbidity currents in submarine
environments. They experience disruptive katabatic jumps
that behave similarly to internal hydraulic jumps in turbidity currents. At the Martian polar caps, the cold air on topof the polar plateau densifies and begins to flow downhill,
beneath the ambient air, as seasonal katabatic winds
reaching speeds upwards of 20 m/s (Smith et al. 2013).
The winds are disturbed by katabatic jumps similar to terrestrial katabatic jumps, but with one notable difference.
Air is more compressible on Mars, so the fluid at the
katabatic jump decompresses, lowering the atmospheric temperature enough to create water-ice clouds
instead of preserving the water vapor (Smith et al.
2013). Additionally, the winds are unimpeded byKostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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Gravel River Delta
Schmon River Delta

Channelized cyclic steps
Cyclic steps

Fig. 6 Cyclic steps observed on deltas on Earth. Channelized and unconfined cyclic steps on foreset deposits of fjord-lake deltas at the Gravel Riverand Schmon River, Québec, Canada, (modified from Normandeau et al. 2016)

regional topography, so the southward slope drives
the primary direction of the winds, and the Coriolis
force steers them clockwise, setting up a recognizablespiraling pattern of polar troughs emplaced by katabatic winds.
Figure 7 illustrates curvilinear depressions called spiraltroughs of the Norther Polar Layered Deposits (NPLD).
These aeolian features are stratigraphy consistent with
net-depositional cyclic steps and have a characteristic
wavelength from 20 to 70 km and wave heights of theorder of 400 to 1000 m (Smith and Holt 2010; Smith etal. 2013). They have migrated approximately 50 km upslope in two million years (Fig. 7b; Smith et al. 2013).
The scale of aeolian cyclic steps, which is well beyond
the scale of submarine cyclic steps, and their signaturespiral pattern make them easily distinguishable fromsubmarine cyclic steps.

Aeolian transverse ridges

Mars exhibits many aeolian bedforms besides polar
spiral troughs. First, large dunes of black olivine- andpyroxene-rich sand are found in many dune fields acrossthe planet. These have identical forms to dunes on
Earth, namely barchanoid and parabolic shapes and longitudinal and latitudinal dunes with fingering modes.
Some confined locations, i.e., within large craters, may
contain star dunes hundred kilometers tall. In many locations, the dunes have been observed to migrate withthe same behavior and sediment flux of terrestrial dunes

Fig. 7 Aeolian cyclic steps on the North Pole of Mars (modified from Smith et al. 2013). Shaded relief surface from MOLA elevation data demonstrates
that a spiral troughs cover majority of the polar cap (left) and display a recognizable spiraling pattern due to the direction of katabatic winds working
together with the Coriolis force (right). SHARAD profile a-a’ shows b stratigraphy associated with spiral trough migration

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

(Silvestro et al. 2010; Bridges et al. 2012`, 2012b), except
where hindered by seasonal CO2 frost at the polar caps.
Besides the sand dunes, another aeolian bedform isexpressed across much of the Mars surface. These arecalled transverse aeolian ridges, or TARs (Balme et al.
2008; Zimbelman 2010; Fig. 8). TARs are not well understood. They are mid-way in height between dunes andripples. Unlike the dark sand that comprises the dunes,
TARs frequently consist of light-toned sand due to induration and are immobile. None have been observed to
move, even over time spans greater than a decade(Zimbelman 2010). They are believed to be cemented
material from a previous period in Martian history.
Both TARs and dunes are always positive relief features, frequently observed in fields among similar features (Figs. 8 and 9). They are common in low places
like valley floors. These features can be sometimes confused for net-depositional cyclic steps, especially in unconfined environments. This is in part why this work
focuses on channelized net-erosional cyclic steps, which
are quite distinctive upper-flow regime bedforms.

Methods/experimental
In seeking cyclic steps in submarine deposits, we analyzed high resolution context imager (CTX, Malin et al.
2007) data over 17 open basin deltas recognized by Di
Achille and Hynek (2010). CTX has approximately 6 m/
pixel resolution and full coverage over these features.
Additionally, data from the High Resolution Imaging
Science Experiment (HiRISE, McEwen et al. 2007) was
consulted when greater detail was necessary. HiRISE has
a resolution of roughly 0.5 m/pixel, but lower coverage.
The JMARS geospatial information system platform
loads the georeferenced images automatically, and weused this tool to make the mosaics (Christensen et al.
2009). Once the data were loaded, we sought periodic
structure in the visible imagery and analyzed CTX mosaics at ever site.
To measure slopes and elevation, we first used gridded
data from the Mars Orbital Laser Altimeter (MOLA,

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Smith et al. 2001) and then digital terrain models (DTMs)
generated from stereo pairs of the High Resolution Stereo
Camera (HRSC, Neukum and Jaumann 2004). From those
products, we were able to extract elevations and traverse
distance, and then derive slopes and bedform characteristic wavelengths.

Results
Setting

Aeolis Mensae is located close to the volcanic regionof Elysium and near the boundary (i.e., hemispherical
topographic dichotomy) between the heavily crateredhighlands in the southern hemisphere and the flat,sparsely cratered plains that cover most of the northern hemisphere of Mars (Irwin III et al. 2004). Thisregion of Mars is of particular geological interest as it
has been shaped by a powerful combination of tectonic activity and wind activity in the transitionalzone between the highlands and lowlands. Thus, thescenery of the region includes many unusual features
such as tectonic grabens, mesas, and sinuous and linear ridges. Numerous tectonic grabens (or fracturezones) crossing this region are the result of theMartian crust stretching apart under tectonic activity
early in Mars’ history. The occasional stranded blocks
called freestanding mesas rise above the surrounding
terrain as remnants of the crust’s expansion. They
have been eroded by wind, and possibly water and icefor over millions of years, and will disappear in the
distant future. Several sinuous ridges in the region exhibit strong characteristics of ancient channels thathave become inverted, as illustrated in Fig. 9. This
positive relief in channels is attributed to early sediment cementation (DiBiase et al. 2013), which makes
channels more resistant to weathering and erosion
than surrounding floodplain material. Linear ridges,
also called yardangs, frequently observed on the sides
of inverted channels indicate the course of the prevailing wind over a long period of time.

N

500 m

Fig. 8 Aeolian dunes in a channel on Mars

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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TARs

Inverted channels
5 km

Fig. 9 Aeolis Mensae perspective, illustrating TARs and inverted channels

Aeolis Mensae Delta

We examine a deltaic deposit centered at 132.861° E, −5.149° N near the rim of Robert Sharp Crater, west of Gale
Crater. The Aeolis Mensae Delta resides downstream of acanyon that enters the crater from the southwest. The
mouth of the canyon leading to the delta is at − 2357 m
elevation (below mean elevation of the planet), and thetopset deposit varies in elevation around − 2580 m.
The catchment of water is from the south, where an
extensive valley network drained water into the canyon
that fed the delta (Fig. 10a, b). Because the setting iswithin a crater, the rim acted as the boundary of thebasin, and the shoreline would have been on steep
slopes. The delta measures nearly 20 km across and11.5 km from mouth to foreset-bottomset transition.
A massive mesa, taller than the mean elevation of thedelta, blocked the delta from prograding toward theeast (Fig. 10b).
The upper foreset deposit of the Aeolis Mensae Delta is
steep, with a mean slope of 2°. It should be noted that the
local slopes are greater than the mean slope due to a poor
resolution of interpolated data. For example, local foreset
slopes in the vicinity of field 1 and field 2 (Fig. 10b) are of
the order of 3° and 3–5°, respectively. There is a distinct
break in slope between upper and lower foreset beds, withthe lower delta front being quite short, i.e., spreading overa distance of about 100–110 m.
Aeolis Mensae Delta bedforms

We found evidence of three distinctive fields of bedforms on the upper foreset deposit of the Aeolis Mensae
Delta, as illustrated in Fig. 10b. The first field (field 1 inFig. 10b, c) includes a linear train of crescent-shapescours within a channel leading from the feeder canyon,
as well as broader un-channelized constructive bedforms
immediately outside of this channel. Further east, there
are two more fields of wave-like bedforms (field 2 andfield 3 in Figs. 10b and 11), possibly triggered by asmall break in the crater rim that acted as a catchment for water.
Our focus here is on the channelized scour-like bedforms within field 1 located in the upper reaches of thedelta slope (Fig. 10c). The channel rises 223 m over
4.3 km distance, giving an average slope of 3°. The channel and accompanying channelized bedforms start at
300 m wide and narrow to 115 m wide before disappearing. Bedforms have an average wavelength of 540 m.
This geomorphology is coined the Aeolis Mensae Channel and compared to its thoroughly investigated terrestrial analogs, i.e., Monterey East and San Mateo
Channel. A relatively discontinuous series of scours in
the Monterey East Channel were classified as net-erosional cyclic steps associated with the channel initiation(Fildani et al. 2006), whereas more continuous bedforms
in the San Mateo Channel were found to be
net-erosional to net-depositional cyclic steps related tothe channel maintenance (Covault et al. 2014). In contrast to the Monterey East Channel, the Aeolis Mensae
Channel appears to be more continuous, better established, and in that respect more reminiscent of the San
Mateo Channel (Fig. 10c). Based on this analogy, Aeolis
Mensae Channel is found to be in the late initiation or
early maintenance phase by way of submarine cyclic
steps emplaced by turbidity currents.
This is the first time that submarine cyclic steps havebeen recognized on Mars. The bedforms that are confined within the Aeolis Mensae Channel suggest powerful flow events capable of eroding the floor of theprimordial northern hemispheric ocean. We postulatethat the bedforms of field 1 have been likely formed byhyperpycnal flows and/or slope failures of the prograding delta front. Similar events have been observed indeltas on Earth (Hughes Clarke et al. 2014; Normandeau
et al. 2016; Winsemann et al. 2018).

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

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Fig. 10 Newly documented submarine cyclic steps on Mars. A compilation of HiRISE and CTX images shows a extensive valley network draining
water into the feeder canyon and Aeolis Mensae Delta, b fields of cyclic steps on the upper foreset deposit of this delta, and c a close-up of field
1 of channelized cyclic steps along the Aeolis Mensae Channel (left) in comparison to San Mateo channelized cyclic steps (right). The white line
(left) loosely follows the right side of the Aeolis Mensae Channel

Two additional fields of bedforms on the foreset of the
Aeolis Mensae Delta (field 2 and field 3 in Fig. 11) deserve to be noted as well. The slope of field 2 is about
5°, and of field 3 close to 2°. The average wavelength of
bedforms is 156 m, and 195 m, respectively. It ishighly unlikely for the morphologic signature of
net-depositional cyclic steps, such as features in field
2 and field 3, to be widely preserved on Mars due togeologic activity that has erased or modify much of
the geomorphic evidence. We speculate that thesefields of bedforms could be a first piece of evidence

for contemporary cyclic steps generated by the sporadic presence of flowing water on Mars.

Discussion
Cyclic steps on deltas on Earth appear to be far less documented and understood than cyclic steps in overbank
regions of deep-sea fans (e.g., Fildani et al. 2006; Lambet al. 2008). Wave-like undulations on steep forest slopes(Prior and Bornhold, 1989; Gilbert and Crookshanks,
2009; Urgeles et al. 2011) are by far the most commonly
reported delta bedforms. The term that is used to

N

ld

e
Fi
2

~2 km

d3

l
Fie

Fig. 11 A close-up of potential contemporary cyclic steps (field 2 and field 3) on the Aeolis Mensae Delta

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

describe them is sediment waves or sediment undulations. The scientific community is still debating on their
origin, and it will take time before many of these features get identified as net-depositional cyclic steps(Kostic 2011, 2014). Urgeles et al. (2011) noted the similarity between cyclic steps tied to channel-levee systems(Fildani et al. 2006) and sediment undulations on some
Mediterranean prodeltas and introduced the idea thatthese undulations could be cyclic steps generated byhyperpycnal flows. A common misconception is thatcyclic steps on deltas form only on the steep foreset deposits. However, cyclic steps on deltas get triggered,under the right conditions, by the foreset-bottomset
transition, and can emerge upstream, downstream, or at
this slope break (Kostic 2011). In addition, the upper
foreset slope is commonly steeper than the downstream
foreset slope due to failure and/or reworking of delta
front (Kostic et al. 2002; Girardclos et al. 2012; Hughes
Clarke et al. 2014). This additional slope break can work
together with the foreset-bottomset transition to facilitate the flow conditions conducive to cyclic steps (e.g.,
Kostic 2011). Cyclic sedimentation of delta foreset canalso be triggered by the periodic alternation between
supercritical and subcritical flow on the delta topset just
upstream of the shoreline, as illustrated in the flume experiments of Muto et al. (2012). Undulations on thedelta front can be sustained as long as the inflow conditions of water and sediment support the formation of
cyclic steps on the alluvial topset deposit. Other examples of cyclicity in delta foreset bedding observed in experiments should be noted as well (Kleinhans, 2005;
Kim et al. 2006).
The Squamish Prodelta in British Columbia is possibly the best known natural delta laboratory, and research conducted there has significantly improved ourunderstanding of channelized upper-flow regime bedforms on deltas emplaced by turbidity currents. The
Squamish Prodelta team (Hughes Clarke et al. 2012,2014; Hughes Clarke 2016) conducted repeat monitoring surveys (1–3-day period during 4 months) ofchannels on the Squamish Prodelta. They establishedprocesses of occasional, aperiodic failure of the delta
front at the shelf edge and intense channel reworking
by what they taught to be cyclic steps in all channels.
Covault et al. (2017) applied the morphodynamic
model of Kostic (2011) to small sediment waves (30–70 m wavelength; 2–3 m wave height) that dominate
the floor of the Northern Channel of the Squamish
Prodelta and demonstrated that these channelized features were likely transitional upper-flow regime bedforms consisting of cyclic steps and antidunes rather
than cyclic steps. Recent work of Casalbore et al.
(2017) reported cyclic steps in gullies on the deltaic
deposit of the Mazzarrà River and outer shelf

Page 11 of 14

sediments along the NE Sicilian margin (southern
Tyrrhenian Sea). Delta waveforms had wavelengths of
34–110 m and wave heights of 0.5–3 m. They were
attributed to hyperpycnal flows, but the effect of internal waves or slow deformation processes (i.e., creeps)
was also noted. Casalbore et al. (2017) postulated the connection between these bedforms and the onset and growth of
the Mazzarrà Delta since the Last Glacial Maximum. Someof the most illustrative examples of terrestrial cyclic steps on
the foreset deposit of deltas were recently documented inlakes rather than in marine settings (i.e., Fricke et al. 2015;
Normandeau et al. 2016; Winsemann et al. 2018).
Our work showcases marine cyclic steps on deltas asan additional terrestrial analog in support of the hypothetical existence of the relatively shallow northernhemispheric ocean on Mars. This is not the first timethat streamlined forms shaped by turbidity currents andsubmarine debris flows on Earth were invoked as analogs for some Martian features (Komar 1979; Nummedal
and Prior 1981). Burr (2011) argued that, due to thelower gravity on Mars, the physical sedimentology ofsome or all streamlined forms on Mars could to be similar
to that of submarine (Komar 1979) rather than terrestrial
environments on Earth. Work of Moscardelli and Wood
(2011) and Burr (2014) suggests that submarine-styleprocesses on Earth could likely provide a new analog for
Martian streamlined forms in general, regardless of their
proposed subaerial or submarine context.
Ojha et al. (2015) provided the strongest evidence yetthat liquid water flows intermittently on present-day
Mars. They used the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging
Spectrometer for Mars instrument onboard the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) to analyze four different
locations where downhill flows, known as recurring
slope lineae (RSL), were present. They uncovered evidence
for hydrated salts at all four locations in the seasons whenrecurring slope lineae are most extensive, which suggests
modern-day water activity on Mars.
We speculate that the sporadic presence of flowing
water in reduced-gravity environments of present-day
Mars could promote the formation of contemporary
subaerial cyclic steps in the vicinity of slope breaks.
One such example could be two fields of cyclic steps
possibly emanating from a catchment/crater upstreamof the Aeolis Mensae Delta. Contemporary cyclic steps
on Mars may have their terrestrial analogs in the field(e.g., Winterwerp et al. 1992) and in the laboratory(e.g., Taki & Parker, 2005). Also, Sun and Parker (2005)
explained theoretically cyclic steps in alluvium underconditions of bed aggradation or degradation, as well as
in the absence of net bed level change. These newly
identified subaerial cyclic steps on Mars are beyond thescope of work presented herein and deserve further
investigation.

Kostic and Smith Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2018) 5:76

Conclusions
Cyclic steps may have a crucial role in the onset, growth,and evolution of deltas on Earth and Mars via processesof channel avulsion, initiation, filling, and maintenance.
Our research is the first modest step toward better understanding of marine cyclic steps on Mars. We wereable to identify a relatively well-preserved train of cyclic
steps along the Aeolis Mensae Channel thalweg on
Mars, which is strikingly similar to the linear series ofcyclic steps observed in channels on deltas anddeep-water fans on Earth. These channelized erosional
bedforms have been most likely formed by turbidity currents triggered by hyperpycnal flows and delta-front failure events. Based on the Monterey East and San Mateo
terrestrial analogs, the Aeolis Mensae Channel on Mars
is estimated to be in the late initiation or early maintenance phase. The analysis also unveiled potential examples of contemporary Martian cyclic steps, which are
attributed to the sporadic presence of flowing water on
Aeolis Mensae.
Submarine cyclic steps on Mars are a newly recognized phenomenon. The analysis presented here suggeststhat they can be triggered by flows that are 60% slower
than corresponding formative flows on Earth. These important upper-flow regime bedforms warrant future investigation in order to better understand the effect of
reduced gravity on both ancient and contemporary
streamline forms and sedimentary landforms on Mars.
Abbreviations
CTX: Context imager; DTMs: Digital terrain models; HDO: Deuterated water
form; HiRISE: High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment; HRSC: High
Resolution Stereo Camera; JMARS: Java Mission-planning and Analysis for
Remote Sensing; MOLA: Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter; MRO: Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter; RSL: Recurring slope lineae; TARs: Transverse aeolian ridges
Acknowledgements
SK gratefully acknowledges the conveners’ travel support from the Japan
Geoscience Union to attend the JpGU-AGU Joint Meeting 2017 held in
Chiba, Japan. The authors thank Jacob Covault for editing the manuscript andproviding helpful inputs. The paper benefited from constructive reviews by
Miwa Yokokawa and Andrea Fildani.
Funding
This research is an extension of authors’ collaboration dating back to 2015
and is currently not supported by any grants.
Availability of data and materials
Our findings are based on surface data for Mars collected by MOLA, CTX,HiRISE, and HRSC. These data are publicly available at the Planetary Data
System and accessible easily by JMARS, provided by the University of
Arizona.
Authors’ contributions
SK proposed the topic, conceived the study, performed the numericalanalysis, and wrote the paper. IS compiled the database, prepared thefigures, and contributed to the manuscript. Both authors read and approved
the final manuscript.
Authors’ information
SK developed the first numerical model of submarine upper-flow regime
bedforms and identified submarine cyclic steps, which paved the way

Page 12 of 14

for a growing recognition of the global presence and importance of thesefeatures in terrestrial deep-water environments. IS contributed to the discovery
of aeolian cyclic steps on Mars Polar Layer Deposits.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims inpublished maps and institutional affiliations.
Author details
1Computational Science Research Center, San Diego State University, San
Diego, CA, USA. 2Planetary Science Institute, Lakewood, CO, USA.
Received: 20 November 2017 Accepted: 8 October 2018

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