Somalia
Key socio-economic
indicators
Country of Origin
Information Report
September 2021

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet ( http://europa.eu)
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ISBN 978-92-9465-233-1

doi: 10.2847/497133

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Cover photo, Coastline in Mogadishu, (Creative Commons) Enough/Laura Heaton, 11 December 2011 (CC
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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Acknowledgements
EASO would like to acknowledge ACCORD as the drafter of this report.
The following departments and organisations have reviewed the report, together with EASO:▪
▪

Denmark, Ministry of Immigration and Integration, Danish Immigration Service (DIS), COI Unit
Greece, General Secretariat for Migration Policy, Greek Asylum Service, Asylum Processes andTraining Department

It must be noted that the drafting and review carried out by the mentioned departments, experts ororganisations contributes to the overall quality of the report, but does not necessarily imply theirformal endorsement of the final report, which is the full responsibility of EASO.

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Contents
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... 3Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Disclaimer .................................................................................................................................... 6
Glossary and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................... 7
Introduction................................................................................................................................. 8
Methodology............................................................................................................................ 8
Collecting information .......................................................................................................... 8
Quality control ..................................................................................................................... 9
Sources.................................................................................................................................... 9
Structure and use of the report ................................................................................................. 9Note on Transliteration ............................................................................................................. 9Districts Map of Mogadishu......................................................................................................... 10
1. Mogadishu ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.1 Mogadishu’s overview....................................................................................................... 11
1.1.1 Demographics and clan composition/distribution......................................................... 11
1.1.2 Humanitarian situation overview ................................................................................ 15
1.2 Mobility and accessibility ................................................................................................... 20
1.2.1 Mogadishu airport and flight connections .................................................................... 20
1.2.2 Internal mobility, including checkpoints....................................................................... 22
1.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city ................................................................................. 24
1.3 Socio-economic indicators ................................................................................................. 27
1.3.1 Economic overview and food security.......................................................................... 27
1.3.2 Housing and shelter.................................................................................................... 31
1.3.3 Hygiene, water and sanitation..................................................................................... 35
1.3.4 Health care ................................................................................................................ 37
1.3.5 Education for children ................................................................................................ 41
1.3.6 Means of basic subsistence and employment............................................................... 45
1.4 Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specific groups...................................... 47
1.4.1 Clan-based protection ................................................................................................ 47
1.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups ..................................................................................... 49
2. Garowe .................................................................................................................................. 52
2.1 Garowe’s overview............................................................................................................ 52

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

2.1.1 Demographics and clan composition ........................................................................... 52
2.1.2 Humanitarian situation overview ................................................................................ 54
2.2 Mobility and accessibility ................................................................................................... 55
2.2.1 Garowe’s airport and flight connections ...................................................................... 55
2.2.2 Internal mobility, including checkpoints....................................................................... 56
2.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city ................................................................................. 57
2.3 Socio-economic indicators ................................................................................................. 59
2.3.1 Economic overview and food security.......................................................................... 59
2.3.2 Housing and shelter.................................................................................................... 61
2.3.3 Hygiene, water and sanitation..................................................................................... 63
2.3.4 Health care ................................................................................................................ 64
2.3.5 Education for children ................................................................................................ 65
2.3.6 Means of basic subsistence and employment............................................................... 67
2.4 Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specific groups...................................... 68
2.4.1 Clan-based protection ................................................................................................ 69
2.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups ..................................................................................... 70
3. Hargeisa ................................................................................................................................. 71
3.1 Hargeisa’s overview .......................................................................................................... 71
3.1.1 Demographics and clan composition ........................................................................... 72
3.1.2 Humanitarian situation overview ................................................................................ 73
3.2 Mobility and accessibility ................................................................................................... 74
3.2.1 Hargeisa’s airport and flight connections ..................................................................... 74
3.2.2 Internal mobility......................................................................................................... 75
3.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city ................................................................................. 77
3.3 Socio-economic indicators ................................................................................................. 78
3.3.1 Economic overview and food security.......................................................................... 78
3.3.2 Housing and shelter.................................................................................................... 80
3.3.3 Hygiene, water and sanitation..................................................................................... 83
3.3.4 Health care ................................................................................................................ 84
3.3.5 Education for children ................................................................................................ 86
3.3.6 Means of basic subsistence and employment............................................................... 88
3.4 Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specific groups...................................... 90
3.4.1 Clan-based protection ................................................................................................ 91
3.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups ..................................................................................... 91
Annex 1: Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 93
Annex 2: Terms of Reference......................................................................................................123
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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Disclaimer
This report was written according to the EASO COI Report Methodology (2019) 1. The report is basedon carefully selected sources of information. All sources used are referenced.
The information contained in this report has been researched, evaluated and analysed with utmost
care. However, this document does not claim to be exhaustive. If a particular event, person ororganisation is not mentioned in the report, this does not mean that the event has not taken place orthat the person or organisation does not exist.
Furthermore, this report is not conclusive as to the determination or merit of any particularapplication for international protection. Terminology used should not be regarded as indicative of aparticular legal position.
‘Refugee’, ‘risk’ and similar terminology are used as generic terminology and not in the legal sense as
applied in the EU Asylum Acquis, the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the
Status of Refugees.
Neither EASO nor any person acting on its behalf may be held responsible for the use which may bemade of the information contained in this report.
The drafting of this report was finalised on 13 August 2021, while the reference period of the report
is January 2020 – 30 June 2021, or earlier whenever relevant. Any event taking place after this period
is not included in this report. More information on the reference period for this report can be foundin the Methodology section of the Introduction.

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The 2019 EASO COI Report Methodology can be downloaded from the EASO COI Portal urlCountry of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Glossary and Abbreviations
aqal

dome-shaped nomadic hut

berked (berkad)

water reservoir used in arid areas to collect water during the wet season

BRA

Benadir Regional Administration

buul (pl. buush)makeshift hut

deyr

minor rain season in Somalia (September – November)

FFM

Fact-Finding Mission

FPENS

Formal Private Education Network in Somalia

FSNAU

Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit

GAR

Gross Attendance Ration

GBV

Gender-Based ViolenceGDP

Gross Domestic Productgoof

uninhabited, unused land

goof-lehowner of unused landgumajor rain season in Somalia (April – July)hagaa

dry spell in Somalia (July – September)

ITZInter Tropical Convergence Zone

jilaaldry spell in Somalia (January – March)khat

stimulant. Its leaves are usually chewed or brewed as a tea

MRC

Migrant Response Centre

NAR

Net Attendance Ratio

NISANational Intelligence and Security Agency

tahriib

Somali youth migration to Europe

UNOCHA

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

WASH

Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Introduction
The purpose of this report is to provide relevant context information in view of the assessment ofinternational protection status determination, including refugee status and subsidiary protection.
Among others, the report is intended to inform the development of Country Guidance on Somalia(2022).
The report provides background information and details on key socio-economic indicators in three
Somali cities, namely Mogadishu, Garowe, and Hargeisa. These represent the main urban centres inSomalia, including Puntland and Somaliland. The report builds upon the preceding EASO COI reporton Somalia: Actors (July 2021) and belongs to the same Somalia COI project along with the EASO COI
report on Somalia: Targeted profiles and EASO’s COI report on Somalia: Security situation (September2021).
This report provides an overview as well as details about demographic/clan composition,
humanitarian issues, mobility and accessibility, socio-economic indicators, and social-protection
networks in the above-mentioned cities.

Methodology
The reference period is from 1 January 2020 to 30 June 2021. The information gathered is a result ofresearch using public, specialised paper-based and electronic sources until 30 July 2021. Some limited
additional information was added during the finalisation of this report in response to feedback
received during the quality control process, until 13 August 2021.
This report is produced in line with the EASO COI Report Methodology (2019) 2 and the EASO COI
Writing and Referencing Style Guide (2019). 3

Defining the terms of reference
The terms of reference of this report build on the input received from policy experts from EU+
countries4 within the context of country guidance development on Somalia. Terms of reference forthis report can be found in Annex 2.

Collecting information
The information gathered results from two main sets of sources: on the one hand extensive desk
research using predominantly public, specialised paper-based, and electronic sources until 13 August
2021; on the other hand on a number of oral sources and expe rts interviews that were conducted forthe purposes of the report between 23 June and 29 July 2021. All these sources, including whenrestricted or non-public information has been used to cover specific details, were duly referenced anddescribed.

2 EASO, EASO Country of Origin Information (COI) Report Methodology, June 2019, url
3 EASO, Writing and Referencing Guide for EASO Country of Origin Information (COI) Reports, June 2019, url
4 EU Member States plus Norway and Switzerland

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

The sources used are referenced in the Bibliography. Wherever information could not be found within
the timeframes for drafting this report after carefully consulting a range of sources, this is stated in
the report. The main sources consulted are included in the bibliography.

Quality control
To ensure that the authors respected the EASO COI Report Methodology and that the Terms ofReference were comprehensively addressed, a review was carried out by COI specialists from thecountries and organisations listed as reviewers in the Acknowledgements section. All comments madeby the reviewers were taken into consideration and almost all of them were implemented in the final
draft of this report, which was finalised on 13 August 2021. EASO also performed the final quality
review and editing of the text.

Sources
In accordance with EASO COI methodology, a range of different published documentary sources havebeen consulted on relevant topics for this report. These include: COI reports by governments; national
and international think tank reports and specialised sources covering Somalia; information from civilsociety, humanitarian organisations, and NGOs; international and NGO human rights reports; reports
produced by various bodies of the United Nations; Somali and regionally-based media; academic
publications and books.
At the same time the report relies extensively on experts interviews that were carried out for the
purpose of the report between 23 June and 29 July 2021 (see the Bibliography for additional details).

Structure and use of the report
The report is divided into three parts, each one of them addressing specifically the socio -economic
situation in the three selected Somali cities: Mogadishu, Garowe, and Hargeisa. Each part provides an
overview as well as details about demographic/clan composition, humanitarian issues, mobility andaccessibility, socio-economic indicators, and social-protection networks in the above-mentioned
cities.

Note on Transliteration
A national orthography for the Somali language was codified relatively late by adopting a Latin script(21 October 1972). Nevertheless, even today, Somali lacks a commonly applied and binding
orthography.
In this text, Somali places, clans and personal names usually follow Somali orthography: ‘long vowels
are indicated by doubling them’, as in Darood or Abbaan, ‘the Latin ‘c’ stands for a sound close to the
Arabic ‫( ع‬ayn), while “x” denotes the strongly aspirated ‫( ح‬ha)’.5 However, given the fact that othersources adopt different conventions, the reader will sometimes find other forms of place s, clans, andpersonal names in the text, including where direct citations are used or in references.

59

Hoehne M., Between Somaliland and Puntland, 2015, url, p. 7

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Districts Map of Mogadishu

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Figure 1. Mogadishu City Zones

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Open Street Map, City Boundaries © UNDP, 2021

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

1. Mogadishu
1.1 Mogadishu’s overview
Mogadishu is the capital city of both Somalia and the administrative region of Benadir (Banadir) andcovers the same territory. 7 The terms ‘Municipality of Mogadishu and Benadir Regional Administration
are used interchangeably’. 8 The city is divided into 17 districts. 9 A reference map of the Benadir region
dated March 2012 published by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs(UNOCHA) lists the following 16 districts: Dharkeynley, Deyninle, Hodan, Wadajir (Medina), Waberi,Hawl-Wadag, Wardhigley (renamed as Warta Nabadda) 10 , Yaqshid, Bondhere, Hamar Jajab, HamarWeyne, Shingani, Shibis, Abdi-Aziz, Huriwa and Karan.11 Kaxda (Kahda) district was formed in 2012 andbecame Mogadishu’s seventeenth district. 12 The mayor of Mogadishu is also the governor of the
Benadir Regional Administration. 13 As of May 2021, these positions are held by Omar Filish. 14
For further general information on Benadir and Mogadishu, on relevant dynamics and the governancestructure, please see sections 7.3 and 7.3.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors, published in July2021.

1.1.1 Demographics and clan composition/distribution
1.1.1.1 Population
In 1975 Somalia conducted its first population and housing census, publishing fragmented results. The
findings from the following census, carried out in 1986, were not published officially, ‘as they wereconsidered to suffer from significant biases’. 15 Owing to the unfolding civil war and state decay in199116, no subsequent census was conducted. In 2014, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
and the Ministry of Planning published the Population Estimation Survey of Somalia (PESS), the mostrecent nationwide population estimation. 17 The survey estimated the total population at 12 316 89518
and noted that the population was growing relatively fast. 19

7 Global Shelter Cluster, Ababa - Overview, June 2021, url; BRA, About Benaadir, n.d., url
8 Somalia, MPWR, RAP Ex-Post Audit Report For Sharif Abow Road: Shangani District, Mogadishu, 3 February 2021, url, p. 1,

footnote 2
9 Global Shelter Cluster, Banadir - Overview, June 2021, url
10 AMISOM, Somali district name changed to symbolize peace [source: Radio Bar-kulan], 9 April 2012, url; some sources
still refer to the district as Wardhigley, e.g. Global Shelter Cluster, Banadir - Overview, June 2021, url
11 UNOCHA, Banadir Region - Mogadishu City [Map], 16 March 2012, url
12 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 457
13 Somalia, MPWR, RAP Ex-Post Audit Report For Sharif Abow Road: Shangani District, Mogadishu, 3 February 2021, url,
p. 1, footnote 2; RVI and HIPS, Land Matters in Mogadishu - Settlement, ownership and displacement in a contested city,
February 2017, url, p. 8, footnote 5
14 East African (The), Somalia election certain, now the focus is women seats, security, 31 May 2021, url
15 Somalia and UNFPA, The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, p. 2
16 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021. Jutta Bakonyi is Professor of Conflict and Development from Durham
University, specialised in Somalia.
17 Somalia and UNFPA, The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, pp. 2-3
18 UNFPA and Somalia, Population Estimation Survey of Somalia (PESS), October 2014, url, p. 31
19 UNFPA and Somalia, Population Estimation Survey of Somalia (PESS), October 2014, url, p. 44

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

According to a World Bank report published in 2021, existing population numbers were ‘the result of
projections or estimations, both of which suffer from large error margins given the scale of uncertainty
regarding population movements.’ 20
The PESS of 2014 estimated the population of the Benadir region at 1 650 227, including 369 288
IDPs.21 49.3 % of the non-IDP population was male, while 50.7 % was female.22 The above-mentioned
2021 World Bank report noted that Mogadishu had a population ‘between 1.7 million and 2.6 million
people, depending on estimates’.23 According to UN data referring to ‘the urban agglomeration’of thecapital city, Mogadishu’s population numbered 2 179 900 as of 201924, while the CIA World Factbook
lists 2 388 000 people as Mogadishu’s inhabitants as of 2021. 25
As of 2016, ‘at least 400,000 IDPs lived in Mogadishu, 55 percent of whom lived in Daynile and Kaxda
on the city outskirts.’ 26 According to the UNHCR Operational Data Portal as of 9 April 2020
Mogadishu’s IDP population at sites assessed by the Global Camp Coordination and CampManagement (CCCM) Cluster27 was estimated to be 497 000 persons.28 An overview on the websiteof the Global Shelter Cluster notes that ‘estimates of IDPs in Mogadishu range between 500,000 and
700,000’.29

1.1.1.2 Religion
The majority of the population of Somalia is Sunni Muslim, traditionally following the Shafi’i school ofjurisprudence and practicing Sufism. 30 However, before the civil war, most other Islamic schools ofthought also existed in the country. 31 Non-Islamic religious groups combined are estimated toconstitute less than one percent of the population. 32
In April 2021 Vatican News published an article mentioning ‘a very small Christian community which[…] continues to move forward with its faith.’ 33 WorldAtlas mentioned in 2018 a small Christiancommunity of approximately 1 000 persons.34 Bishop Giorgio Bertin, the Apostolic Administrator of
Mogadishu and president of Caritas Somalia35, leads the community. According to the article the‘Somali Catholic community is very small: in the entire country there are just a few dozen who secretly
profess Christianity.’ 36

20 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 58
21 UNFPA and Somalia, Population Estimation Survey of Somalia (PESS), October 2014, url, p. 31
22 UNFPA and Somalia, Population Estimation Survey of Somalia (PESS), October 2014, url, p. 104
23 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 74
24 UN Data, Somalia, n.d., url
25 US, CIA, The World Factbook, Somalia, last updated 3 May 2021, url
26 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 63
27 For further information on the Global Camp Coordination and Camp Management (CCCM) Cluster please see CCCM,

About, n.d., url
28 UNHCR, Operational Data Portal - CCCM Cluster Somalia, last updated 9 April 2020, url
29 Global Shelter Cluster, Banadir - Overview, June 2021, url
30 USDOS, International Religious Freedom Report 2020 - Somalia, 12 May 2021, url, p. 2; USAID, The Shari’ah in Somalia The Expanding Access to Justice Program in Somalia (EAJ), March 2020, url, p. 8; Marchal, R. and Sheikh, Z., Salafism inSomalia: Coping with Coercion, Civil War and its own Contradictions, 2015, p. 136
31 Marchal, R. and Sheikh, Z., Salafism in Somalia: Coping with Coercion, Civil War and its own Contradictions, 2015, p. 140
32 WorldAtlas, What Religions are Practiced in Somalia?, 4 April 2018, url
33 Vatican News, The hidden life of Somalia’s Christians, 30 April 2021, url
34 WorldAtlas, What Religions are Practiced in Somalia?, 4 April 2018, url
35 ICMC, H.E. Bishop Giorgio Bertin, n.d., url
36 Vatican News, The hidden life of Somalia’s Christians, 30 April 2021, url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Traditionally, the majority of Somalis were organised in Sufi orders. 37 However, since the 1970s theSalafi schools of thought gained prominence. 38 Some Salafi groups (like Al-Ittihaad, Raas Kambooni,
Hisbul Islaam or Al-Shabaab) propose a violent solution while others opt for the use of non-violentmeans (like the Somali Muslim Brotherhood -Al-Islaah- whose members also held a significant
influence on the consecutive Federal Governments and Parliaments). Al-Shabaab showed no
tolerance for non-Salafi Islam interpretations and practices, and actively targeted Sunni-Sufi practices
and Sufi leaders. 39 The latter were labelled as ‘non-believers’ and therewith presented as ‘legitimate
targets for attacks’. 40 In reaction to destructions of Sufi shrines and tombs by Al-Shabaab in 2008, Ahlu
Sunna wa Jama’a, a loose coalition of Sufi orders, took up its fight against Al-Shabaab.41 However,beyond the so-called Jihadist groups, the rise of Muslim Brotherhoods (al-Islaah, Damul Jadid) andtheir deep-seated influence in contemporary political affairs also attests to a transformation ofreligious practices and a tendency towards Salafist Islam interpretations. The country, however, alsosees attempts to re-emphasize Sufi practices.42 An article by Al Jazeera published in March 2016
described a religious parade by a group of Sufi in Mogadishu, ‘making a short but a symbolic slow walkto a nearby mosque in the Bakara area of the seaside city to continue their afternoon prayer
programme.’43 Cultural Atlas, a website that provides information on the cultural background of the
migrant community in Australia, states in 2019 that ‘Sufism is having a resurgence as some Somalis
are becoming disaffected with Salafism over the actions of offshoot militant groups such as AlShabaab. Some see Sufism as a non-political spiritual alternative’. 44 A local radio station reported in
September 2020 that officials from the Benadir regional administration, among others, visited tombsof Sufi clerics and saints buried in Warsheekh, a town about 90 km north of Mogadishu. 45
According to the US Department of State (USDOS) report on International Religious Freedom in 2020
there is also ‘an unknown number of Shia Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Jews, and those not affiliatedwith any religion’ in the country as a whole. 46

1.1.1.3 Clan distribution
Mogadishu is dominated by the Hawiye, in particular the Abgaal, Habar Gidir47 and the Murasade subclans.48 According to sources interviewed for a report on a Finnish fact-finding mission in March 2020,
members of the Abgaal are living in Karan, those of Habar Gidir mostly ‘in districts that were occupied

37 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Allgemeine Informationen zum Sufismus in Somalia; Informationen zur

Behandlung von Sufi-Angehörigen in Mogadischu seitens der Gesellschaft und al-Schabaab, Vertretung von Sufis inpolitischen Ämtern [Query Response on Somalia: General Information on Sufism in Somalia; Information on the treatmentof Sufi members in Mogadishu by society and al-Shabaab, political representation of Sufis], a-11388-1, 16 October 2020, url
38 Marchal, R. and Sheikh, Z., Salafism in Somalia: Coping with Coercion, Civil War and its own Contradictions, 2015, p. 137
39 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
40 Al Jazeera, Somalia’s Sufi revival, 29 March 2016, url
41 Marchal, R. and Sheikh, Z., Salafism in Somalia: Coping with Coercion, Civil War and its own Contradictions, 2015, p. 157 ;Stanford University, Mapping Militant organizations - Ahlu Sunna Wal Jama, url, 18 June 2016
42 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
43 Al Jazeera, Somalia’s Sufi revival, 29 March 2016, url
44 Cultural Atlas, Somali Culture, 2019, url
45 Radio Dalsan, Officials visit Warshsheekh Somalia’s Popular Tour Destination, 2 September 2020, url
46 USDOS, International Religious Freedom Report 2020 - Somalia, 12 May 2021, url, p. 2
47 Norway, Landinfo, Somalia: Security challenges in Mogadishu, 15 May 2018, url, p. 12; see also International Crisis
Group, Why Somalia’s Electoral Crisis Has Tipped into Violence, 27 April 2021, url; IOM and Altai Consulting, Youth,
Employment And Migration In Mogadishu, Kismayo And Baidoa, 9 February 2016, url, pp. 70, 87
48 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 38; see also International Crisis Group, Why Somalia’s Electoral Crisis Has Tipped into
Violence, 27 April 2021, url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

by the clan during the civil war’, 49 while members of the Murasade have ‘a strong foothold in theDayniile district’. 50 The majority of people in IDP camps/settlements in Mogadishu belongs to theRahanweyne (Digil-Mirifle). In addition, there is an unknown, but not small number of Somali Bantu
and other minorities. 51 In a May 2018 report Landinfo noted that ‘there is no survey of the clan orgroup affiliation of Mogadishu’s residents, but according to local resource persons, “most” clans are
represented in the city’. 52
Members of (sub-)clans tend to settle in the same neighbourhoods53 and certain (sub-)clans dominate
over others, 54 however ‘people come together across clan boundaries in terms of work, trade,schooling and other social settings.’ 55 According to the Finnish fact-finding mission report of August
2020, the population from most districts in Mogadishu ‘has a heterogeneous clan background andthere are people from many different communities.’ However, the old neighbourhoods such as
Hamar-Weyne, Bondhere, Shibis, Shingan, Abdi-Aziz, and Hamar-Jajab are ‘regarded as morecosmopolitan’. 56 A report by the World Bank from 2020 stated that inhabitants in most urban districts,
including Mogadishu, ‘are treated locally as the domains of their most numerically and politicallydominant sub-clans. Others may live and do business there, but the dominant clans of these districts
invoke the right to govern and enjoy most of whatever “rents” accrue from control of the district, suchas local taxes, jobs, and contracts.’ 57
In 2016 IOM stated in a report that the largest companies and most of the district administrations in
Mogadishu are managed by members of the Hawiye. 58 A World Bank report published in 2021 notedthat the different water companies constituting Mogadishu’s water sector are owned by sub -groupsof the Hawiye. The report mentioned that Xamer Water Development is owned by Murusade
members, the Banadir Water Development Co. by members of the Habar Gidir, and the Somali Water
Development Union by members of the Abgaal. 59 With regard to district administrations, the Finnish
fact-finding mission report of 2020 further noted that the ‘administration of districts is usually the
responsibility of the powerful clan in the district’, which ‘emphasises the position of the
Hawiye/Abgaal and Hawiye/Habr Gedir clans’. Bantu do not hold influential positions, although asignificant number of members live in Mogadishu. 60 The governor of the Abdiaziz district stems from49 The FIS report notes that ‘the north side of the capital city and its districts of Kaaraan, Yaaqshid, Bondheere, and the

Bermuda area, as well as the district of Madina in the south, were manned by the Hawiye/Abgaal clan. The rest of the city
centre and the southern sections were controlled by Hawiye/Habr Gedir.’ Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to
Mogadishu in March 2020; Security situation and humanitarian conditions in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 38; see also
RVI and HIPS, Land Matters in Mogadishu - Settlement, ownership and displacement in a contested city, February 2017,
url, pp. 42-44
50 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020; Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 38
51 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
52 Norway, Landinfo, Somalia: Security challenges in Mogadishu, 15 May 2018, url, p. 13
53 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 40
54 RVI and HIPS, Land Matters in Mogadishu - Settlement, ownership and displacement in a contested city, February 2017,
url, p. 65
55 Norway, Landinfo, Somalia: Security challenges in Mogadishu, 15 May 2018, url, p. 13
56 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020; Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 39
57 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 90
58 IOM and Altai Consulting, Youth, Employment And Migration In Mogadishu, Kismayo And Baidoa, 9 February 2016, url,p. 70
59 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 101
60 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020; Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 40

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

the Darood-Majeerteen clan, Hamar-Weyne and Shangani district is governed by a Reer Hamar(minority clan) and the Hamar-Jajab district has a governor from the Dir-Biyomaal.61
Members of marginalised groups mostly live in the districts of Wadajir, Hamar-Jajab, Hamar-Weyne,
Dharkenley, Medina, Bondhere, Shibis, and Shingani. Members of the Bantu are predominantly livingin the districts of Bondhere and Waberi. 62 Alongside the Bantu, the report further mentions the Reer
Hamar/Benadiri and the Tumal as marginalised groups living in Mogadishu. 63 Most, if not all, minority
groups are likely residing in Mogadishu. Their numbers are, however, not known.64
Regarding fighting that erupted on 25 April 2021 in the context of the postponed indirect elections,65
the International Crisis Group noted that it mostly took place in ‘neighbourhoods where proopposition Abgaal, Haber Gedir and Murosade sub-clans of the Hawiye are dominant.’66

1.1.2 Humanitarian situation overview
People in Somalia face continuous socio-economic challenges due to high poverty and highly
precarious conditions regarding employment, housing, food and water supplies. Violent conflicts andclimatic shocks, among which droughts and floods, lead to displacements and contribute tovulnerabilities. 67 Since no formal social protection program exists, vulnerable households mainly rely
on remittances, community-based safety nets and international aid. 68 Somalia’s malnutrition rates are
high, and health outcomes poor.69 By mid-2020, almost 70 % of the population was reported to live inpoverty, and one-third of the population was in need of humanitarian assistance. 70 In general, wage
labour employment and remittances are better accessible in cities. Only land and housing are easieraccessible in rural areas. 71
Within this context, Mogadishu stands out with a poverty incidence above average. However, accessto basic services such as electricity, water, sanitation, improved housing, education, and health isbetter than in other cities in south and central Somalia. 72 The Finnish Immigration Service publishedfindings of their fact-finding mission to Mogadishu undertaken in March 2020. They concluded that‘the humanitarian conditions in the capital city are severe’. Ongoing instability and a troublesome
security situation prevented people in need from seeking assistance and services. An expert told themission in March 2020 that the problematic conditions in Mogadishu are ‘mostly related to

61 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
62 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020; Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 39
63 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020; Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 41
64 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
65 The fighting broke out between forces loyal to President Farmajo and those aligned with the politi cal opposition. The
rival forces exchanged gunfire in parts of Mogadishu., International Crisis Group, Why Somalia’s Electoral Crisis Has Tipped
into Violence, 27 April 2021, url
66 International Crisis Group, Why Somalia’s Electoral Crisis Has Tipped into Violence, 27 April 2021, url
67 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
68 ILO, Employment programs and conflict in Somalia, December 2019, 17 October 2019, url, pp. 13-15
69 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 3
70 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 2; Heritage Institute,
State of Somalia 2020 Report: SOS 2020 Year in Review, 10 February 2021, url, p. 4
71 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 35
72 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 35

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

accelerated urbanisation, urban poverty, chronic cholera, diarrhoea, malnutrition and lack of
education and health services’. The expert added that malnutrition affects IDPs most but also applies
to other urban poor, and thus to a large part of the city’s population. 73
From information by NGOs, the Finnish mission learned that Mogadishu has poor food security andrelies heavily on food imports because of insufficient food production in the country. Therefore, foodprices are high. 74 In 2020, the largest locust swarms in 25 years hit Somalia’s agriculture and drove
Somalia into severe food insecurity. 75 In November 2020, they invaded farmlands at Mogadishu’s
outskirts putting farmers’ livelihoods at risk.76
According to a 2018 article by the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), fast urban growth and highnumbers of arrivals of people fleeing crises in rural areas have made Mogadishu the most crowded
city in Africa and the second-most densely populated city in the world. 77 This development increases
the scarcity of already overstretched resources and challenges urban infrastructure and service
facilities.78
UNHCR related the three main challenges with regard to the humanitarian conditions in Mogadishu
to education, health care, and housing. 79 Access to safe water is equally challenging and water-borne
diseases are common across the city. 80

1.1.2.1 Floods
Mogadishu is located in an area affected by recurrent flash floods. 81 The Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) moves across Somalia twice a year, creating the major rain season, the gu, from April toJuly in its northerly movement and the minor rain season, the deyr, from September to November in
its southerly movement. The two rain seasons alternate with the dry spells jilaal from January to
March and hagaa from July to September. 82 In Mogadishu, heavy rainfall leads to floods because thedrainage system cannot intercept the water. Houses can collapse, or the water seeps in. Many
dwellings of internally displaced people lack adequate protection from rain. Strong rainfall and floods
caused severe problems again in the first rainy season of 2021. 83 Between January and April 2021,
Benadir district (in Benadir region) recorded the highest number of internal displacements due to73 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 30
74 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 30
75 BBC News, Somalia declares emergency over locust swarms, 2 February 2020, url; Welthungerhilfe, Heuschreckenplagein Ostafrika und Südasien, 12 May 2020, url;
76 Independent (The), Locusts swarm into Mogadishu’s pasture land amid resurgence in Horn of Africa, 10 November 2020,
url; Reuters, Outside Mogadishu, locusts turn farmland into desert, 13 November 2020, url
77 NRC, As Somalis flee to cities, Mogadishu becomes most crowded city in Africa, 11 Dec 2018, url; see also IDMC,
UnSettlement: Urban displacement in the 21st century - City of flight: New and secondary displacements in Mogadishu,
Somalia, November 2018, url, p. 2
78 NRC, As Somalis flee to cities, Mogadishu becomes most crowded city in Africa, 11 Dec 2018, url; UNOCHA, Humanitarian
Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 16; Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021. Jutta Bakonyi is Professor in
Development and Conflict at Durham University, specialised in Somalia.
79 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
80 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
81 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 26; UNOCHA, Somalia Deyr Season Floods
Update #3: As of 22 November 2020, 23 November 2020, url, p. 1
82 FSNAU, Somalia - Climate, n.d., url; FAO and SWALIM, Somalia Rainfall Outlook for the 2020 Deyr Season, 3 September
2020, url, p. 1
83 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

floods. 1 610 people departed while 1 790 arrived.84 Flash floods and heavy rains continued in May
2021, killing at least 16 individuals in Benadir.85 On the other hand, if rainfall fails or remains below
average, this also has serious implications, especially for pastoral and farming populations raising thenumber of food-insecure households as both livestock and crop production will decline. 86 A ‘stressed’food security situation was forecasted for March to June 2021 for the Benadir region87 and reported
in the first quarter of 2021. 88 Severe droughts are linked to climate change 89 and increase disruptions
to water access, malnutrition, disease outbreaks, and food insecurity. 90 The Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) predicted below-average rainfall in the Benadir region forthe deyr season 2020.91 However, in November 2020, UNOCHA reported that a number of 13 000
people were affected by deyr flash floods, 6 500 had been displaced, and three had been killed within
the past month.92 More than 10 000 people had already been displaced by floods during the hagaa
season (drought season) in Benadir between June and September 2020. 93

1.1.2.2 Impact of the security situation
Somalia ranks among the most insecure places worldwide. Armed conflict between the Somali
government, and non-state groups, primarily Al-Shabaab, is ongoing.94 Al-Shabaab commits terrorist
attacks, regularly causing dozens of civilian casualties in Mogadishu. 95 UNOCHA reported that 15
humanitarian workers had been killed, 12 wounded and 24 kidnapped between 1 January and
31 December 2020.96 The UN compound in Mogadishu was hit by mortar bombs six times, and four
aircrafts carrying humanitarian aid and humanitarian workers crashed, were hit by ground fire or werebeing shot down in the first half of 2020. 97 As of February 2021, Al-Shabaab continued to hold threeinternational staff members. 98 For more details, please see the sections 4.1 and 4.3 of EASO’s COI
report Somalia: Actors (July 2021) as well as EASO’s COI report Somalia: Security situation (September2021). The situation in Mogadishu destabilised further in February 2021, because the scheduledpresidential elections had been cancelled. In response, opposition candidates were building clan
militias to fight the central government.99 According to Jutta Bakonyi, who was interviewed for thisreport, violence and regular attacks in Mogadishu and the conflict between the president and his
84 UNHCR, Somalia: Internal Displacements Monitored by Protection & Return Monitoring Network (PRMN) April 2021, 17

May 2021, url
85 UNOCHA, Somalia: 2021 Gu’ Season Floods Update 1, As of 9 May 2021, 9 May 2021, url, p. 1; see also FloodList, Somalia– 400,000 Affected by Floods Says UN, 7 June 2021, url; FloodList, Somalia – Deadly Floods Strike Mogadishu, Rivers
Overflow in Jowhar, 9 May 2021, url
86 afrol News, Deyr rainfall fails in Somalia, Somaliland, 14 November 2003, url
87 UNOCHA, Somalia: Overview of Water Shortages (As of 09 March 2021), 9 March 2021, url
88 FSNAU and IPC, Somalia Acute Food Insecurity Situation Overview - Rural, Urban and IDP: Current Food Security
Outcomes: January - March 2021, 4 February 2021, url
89 ILO, Employment programs and conflict in Somalia, December 2019, 17 October 2019, url, p. 15
90 ILO, Employment programs and conflict in Somalia, December 2019, 17 October 2019, url, p. 15
91 FAO and SWALIM, Somalia Rainfall Outlook for the 2020 Deyr Season, 3 September 2020, url
92 UNOCHA, Somalia: Deyr Season Floods Update #3: As of 22 November 2020, 23 November 2020, url, p. 1
93 UNOCHA, Somalia: Hagaa Floods Response Status [table, map], 22 November 2020, url, p. 1, see also UNOCHA, Somalia:
Hagaa Floods Update 2, 26 July 2020, url, p. 2
94 ILO, Employment programs and conflict in Somalia, December 2019, 17 October 2019, url, pp. 8, 10; ACCORD, Somalia:
Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch staatliche und nichtstaatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi], 31 May 2021, url, p. 6
95 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi], 31 May 2021, url, p. 11
96 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan - Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, p. 42
97 UNOCHA, Somalia: Situation Report, as of 6 September 2020, url, p. 3; UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 18
98 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan - Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, p. 42
99 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi], 31 May 2021, url, p. 6

17

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorscompetitors affect the humanitarian situation in Benadir region with its capital Mogadishu. It caused
people to rather stay indoor, and transportation efficiency to worsen.100 Security issues were also amajor reason for limitations and barriers in terms of internal mobility, which hampered humanitarianorganisations’ ability to provide their services. 101

1.1.2.3 Displacement and humanitarian assistance
IDP populations, inflows and outflows
A qualitative study undertaken in 2020 in Baidoa and Mogadishu, investigating the impact of
COVID-19, showed that Mogadishu is hosting the largest IDP population in the country. The study
concluded that the city is ‘host to respectively 497 000 IDPs’.102 UNHCR numbers for April 2021
indicate 198 000 IDPs arriving in and 186 000 departing from the Benadir region; the number due tofloods is particularly high. 103 According to the World Bank, Mogadishu was hosting 20 % of theapproximately 2.6 million IDPs in Somalia in 2018, and one-third between 2016 and 2019. 104
IDP sites in Mogadishu and general conditions
The number of IDP sites is fluctuating due to ongoing evictions and establishments of squattersettlements and camps across the city and at its outskirts. Estimates range between 500 and 1 500
IDP sites in Mogadishu. 105 Displaced people often join overcrowded IDP camps at Mogadishu's
outskirts.106
According to UNOCHA, as of January 2021, 1.6 million IDPs in Somalia are in humanitarian need. Ahigh number of them lives in the Benadir region.107 The safety and protection situation in IDP camps
is generally weak and unsanitary conditions prevail. 108 Many women in Mogadishu are affected bygender-based violence (GBV). 109 Distance to water points and firewood collection sites constitutes asafety risk for women and girls in IDP camps at the outskirts of the city.110 IDPs face severe risks of
exclusion, discrimination, and evictions. Most evictions are enforced without adequate previous
notice. UNOCHA reported that 139 000 people were evicted in Mogadishu from January to October
2019.111
For more information on IDP sites in Mogadishu, please see sections 1.3.2.3 Informal settlements and
IDP sites and 1.3.2.4 Evictions.

100 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
101 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict

Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 3; UNOCHA,
Humanitarian Response Plan - Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, p. 74
102 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 4
103 UNHCR, Somalia: Internal Displacements Monitored by Protection & Return Monitoring Network (PRMN) April 2021, 17
May 2021, url
104 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 36
105 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
106 Bakonyi, J. et al., War and City-Making in Somalia: Property, Power and Disposable Lives, August 2019, url, p. 85
107 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, pp. 22, 32
108 European Commission, European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations: Somalia, 18 May 2021, url, p. 1;
UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 22 December 2019, url, p. 56
109 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
110 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 22 December 2019, url, pp. 22, 57; see also UNOCHA, Humanitarian
Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 84
111 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 22 December 2019, url, pp. 4, 12

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Humanitarian needs
On arrival in Benadir in April 2021, displaced people’s priority humanitarian assistance needs were,according to UNHCR, food (39 %), livelihood support (35 %), shelter (21 %), and health services(5 %).112 There is a high need for material to protect houses and shelter from the rain. The low needfor health services might be explained by a hesitance of people to seek medical support in the context
of chronic exhaustion and inability to pay fees. 113 Humanitarian assistance has been disrupted byprevalent violence and insecurity. 114 Based on data collected between November 2019 and February
2020, REACH and the CCCM Cluster assessed ‘severe’ and ‘extreme’ severity of humanitarian needsof residents in IDP camps in three districts in Mogadishu. 115
For more information on this topic, please see sections 1.3 Socio-economic indicators and 1.4.2.2
Returnees, vulnerable groups.
Access to humanitarian assistanceSeveral districts in Mogadishu are inaccessible to humanitarian operations. As of May 2021, people
who were displaced to Garasbaly and Kahda districts have not yet received humanitarian assistance. 116
Under the prevalent circumstances, IOM scaled-up its cooperation with the Somali government
regarding COVID-19 response in order to access hard-to-reach locations and communities in 2020. 117
Furthermore, IOM established a new Migrant Response Centre (MRC) in Mogadishu, which was
handed over to the Benadir Regional Administration in November 2020. The MRC serves the purposeof ‘providing direct assistance, information, counselling, and referrals, to returnees, host communities
and migrants in the city’. 118 According to UNOCHA, COVID-19 restrictions in 2020 resulted ‘in the
reduction, suspension or cancellation of humanitarian projects and programmes’. 119 Humanitarian
actors, state, local governmental, and other actors have responded to displaced people’ s needs with
‘unprecedented or exceedingly rare actions’ during the pandemic response measures. 120

1.1.2.4 Diseases
Moreover, the Benadir region is affected by outbreaks of cholera following floods – the current
outbreak had started in December 2017 –,121 counting 102 cases between January and April 2021 asreported by the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU) and the Famine Early Warning
System Network (FEWS NET). Even though measle infections are decreasing compared to the years
2016-2020, Benadir had the highest number in Somalia, with 280 recorded cases between January
and April 2021.122 Also, high numbers of tuberculosis and malaria cases have been reported for

112 UNHCR, Somalia: Internal Displacements Monitored by Protection & Return Monitoring Network (PRMN) April 2021, 17

May 2021, url
113 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
114 UNOCHA, Somalia: Displacement Update for Banadir, Berdale, and Baadweyn, as of May 2021, 6 May 2021, url
115 CCCM and REACH, Detailed Site Assessment (DSA): Key Findings, January 2020, 31 January 2020, url, p. 1
116 UNOCHA, Somalia: Displacement Update for Banadir, Berdale, and Baadweyn, as of May 2021, 6 May 2021, url
117 IOM, IOM Somalia: COVID-19 Preparedness and Response, the Year in Review (March - December 2020), 31 January
2021, url, p. 1
118 IOM, IOM Somalia 2020 Programmatic Overview, 14 June 2021, url, p. 34
119 UNOCHA, Somalia: Situation Report, 10 August 2020, url, p. 4
120 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan - Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, p. 91
121 WHO, Epidemic and Pandemic-Prone Diseases: Outbreak Update – Cholera in Somalia, 7 March 2021, 23 March 2021,
url
122 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May
2021, url, p. 919

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Somalia.123 In response, the government implemented a national malaria programme aiming to ‘attain
zero deaths and reduce malaria incidence to at least 0.5 per 1,000 people by 2025’. 124 Jutta Bakonyi
confirmed the prevalence of high tuberculosis and malaria rates in Mogadishu. Regarding HIV, shefurther noted that infections are not being tested on a regular basis because HIV is highly stigmatised.
Therefore, estimates vary greatly. 125

1.1.2.5 COVID-19
In March 2020, the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic reached Somalia, adding another dimension
to the overall situation of humanitarian need. 126 The government implemented rapid measures tocurb the spread of the pandemic as soon as the first COVID-19 cases were detected, such as the closureof border crossings and schools, restrictions of in-country movements and group functions. 127 With
1 593 cases and 57 deaths, the Benadir region recorded more than 36 % of the total number ofreported cases as of 21 November 2020.128 Mogadishu had high infection rates. From 1 to 22 February
2021 alone, a total of 1 432 new cases and 76 deaths were reported in Mogadishu – the largest
increase in a week since May-June 2020.129 The De Martino Hospital in Mogadishu serves countrywide
as the main referral hospital for COVID-19 patients.130 It is being supported by the WHO with training,
medical supplies, and funding. 131 For more information on the impact of COVID-19 on health care in
Mogadishu, please see section 1.3.4 Health care.

1.2 Mobility and accessibility
1.2.1 Mogadishu airport and flight connections
Mogadishu has an international airport, the Mogadishu Aden Adde International Airport (MGQ),
which has formerly been known as Mogadishu International Airport. 132 Mogadishu airport is locatedabout 1 mile (1.6 kilometres) west of the town on the Indian Ocean coast. 133 Information on the
airport’s website says that it has one terminal134 serving the following international airports via directflight connections or via transit: Ambouli Airport (JIB) (Djibouti), Berbera Airport (BBO), Bosasso
Airport (BSA), Dubai (DXB) (United Arab Emirates), Entebbe (EBB) (Uganda), Galkacyo Airport (GLK),
Hargeisa Airport (HGA), Istanbul (IST) (Turkey), Jeddah (JED) (Saudi Arabia), Nairobi (NBO) (Kenya),
Riyan Mukalli Airport (RIY) (Yemen), Sharjah (SHJ) (United Arab Emirates) and Wajir Airport (WJR)(Kenya). Closest airports to Mogadishu airport are K50 Airport (89.6 kilometres), Baledogle Airport
123 Global Fund (The), Data Explorer: Somalia, n.d., url; on Tuberculosis see also World Bank, Incidence of tuberculosis (per100,000 people) – Somalia, n.d., url
124 UNOCHA, Somalia - Humanitarian Bulletin, April 2021, 11 May 2021, url, p. 5
125 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
126 UN Somalia, UN Country Results Report: Somalia 2020, March 2021, url, p. 5
127 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, pp. 1-3
128 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 22
129 UNICEF, COVID-19 vaccines arrive in Somalia: Bringing new hope to the fight against the global pandemic, 19 March
2021, url
130 UNFPA, UNFPA Humanitarian Response in Somalia: Situation Report No. 4, 30 April 2021, url, p. 4
131 WHO, WHO intensifies support to improve case management in Somalia as cases soar, 20 May 2020, url; WHO, UN
Envoy calls for continuing support for Somalia’s ongoing response to COVID-19 and praises frontline health workers, 2 July
2020, url
132 Mogadishu Aden Adde International Airport, Airport Information, n.d., url; ICAO, Flight Information Services for Somalia(FISS): List of Valid NOTAM, 12 April 2017, url
133 ICAO, AIP – Aeronautical Information Publication: Somalia, Part 3 Aerodrome (AD), 1 February 2018, url, p. 41;
Mogadishu Aden Adde International Airport, To & From The Airport [map], n.d., url
134 Mogadishu Aden Adde International Airport, Contact Us, n.d., url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators(105 kilometres), Baidoa Airport (246 kilometres), Bardera Airport (335.05 kilometres), Beledweyne
Airport (339.4 kilometres), Garbaharey Airport (376.55 kilometres), Lugh Ganane Airport (412.49
kilometres), Kismayo Airport (413.49 kilometres) and Kelafo Airport (Ethiopia) (418.72 kilometres).135

1.2.1.1 International flights and carriers
The airline African Express Airways operates in Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, Yemen, Bahrain, the United
Arab Emirates and Somalia connecting Mogadishu with Nairobi in Kenya on Sundays, Tuesdays,
Thursdays and Fridays, as well as Juba in South Sudan. 136 Freedom Airline Express approaches
Mogadishu on Sundays, Tuesdays and Thursdays,137 as well as Galkacyo and Kismayo from Nairobi. 138
Air Djibouti connects Mogadishu to Aden (ADE) (Yemen), Addis Ababa (ABB) (Ethiopia) and Djibouti(JIB).139 The Djibouti Daallo Airlines offers flight connections to and from Mogadishu to and from Dubai(DXB), Nairobi (NBO) on Mondays, Thursdays and Saturdays, and Jeddah (JED) about once a month.140
Ethiopian Airlines connect Mogadishu to Addis Ababa on a daily basis.141 Turkish Airlines serve
Mogadishu to and from Istanbul (IST), 142 Kenya Airways to and from Nairobi (NBO) 143 and Qatar
Airways to and from Doha (DOH). 144 Salaam Air Express operates between Mogadishu and Nairobi on
a demand basis. 145 Fly Premier Airlines operates flights from Nairobi to Mogadishu on Fridays andSundays.146 Utair Express operates between Mogadishu and Entebbe (EBB). 147

1.2.1.2 National flights and carriers
Domestic flights of African Express Airways connect Mogadishu with Bosasso, Garowe, Hargeisa on
Mondays and Thursdays, and Kismayo.148 Air Djibouti operates domestic flights between Mogadishu
and Hargeisa (HGA). 149 Daallo Airlines offers connections between Mogadishu and Bosasso (once aweek) as well as Hargeisa (twice a week).150 Ethiopian Airlines serves Mogadishu, Hargeisa andGarowe.151 Freedom Airline Express operates domestic flights between Mogadishu and Garowe on
Sundays, Tuesdays and Thursdays,152 and Blue Sky Air serves Adado (AAD), Abudwak (AWQ), Baidoa(BIB), Beledweyne (BWY), Dhobley (DHO), Galkacyo (GLK), Guriel (GUK) and Kismayo (KMU) from
Mogadishu.153 Blue Sky Air in cooperation with Freedom Airline Express connects Mogadishu with
Adado (AAD), Abudwak (AWQ), Baidoa (BIB), Beledweyne (BWY), Bosasso (BSA), Galkacyo (GLK),

135 Mogadishu Aden Adde International Airport, Airport Information, n.d., url
136 African Express Airways, Home, n.d., url; FlightConnections, Non-stop flights to Mogadishu (MGQ), n.d., as of 13 August

2021, url
137 FlightConnections, Non-stop flights to Mogadishu (MGQ), n.d., as of 13 August 2021, url
138 Freedom Airline Express, Nairobi – Mogadishu, n.d., url
139 Air Djibouti, Home, n.d., url
140 Daallo Airlines, Home, n.d., url
141 Ethiopian Airlines, International, n.d., url; FlightConnections, Non-stop flights to Mogadishu (MGQ), n.d., as of 13 August
2021, url
142 Turkish Airlines, Flights to Somalia, n.d., url
143 Kenya Airways, Kenya Airways Network, n.d., url
144 Qatar Airways, Flights to Africa, n.d., url
145 Salaam Air Express, Home, n.d., url; Salaam Air Express [Facebook], posted on 15 July 2021, url
146
Fly Premier Airlines, Flights to Mogadishu, n.d., url
147
FlightConnections, Utair Express routes and airport map, n.d., as of 13 August 2021, url
148 African Express Airways, Home, n.d., url; FlightConnections, Non-stop flights to Mogadishu (MGQ), n.d., as of 13 August
2021, url
149 Air Djibouti, Home, n.d., url
150 Daallo Airlines, Home, n.d., url; FlightConnections, Non-stop flights to Mogadishu (MGQ), n.d., as of 13 August 2021, url
151 Ethiopian Airlines, International, n.d., url
152 Freedom Airline Express, Nairobi – Mogadishu, n.d., url; FlightConnections, Non-stop flights to Mogadishu (MGQ), n.d.,as of 13 August 2021, url
153 Blue Sky Air, Flights, n.d., url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Garowe (GGR), Guriel (GUK), Hargeisa (HGA) and Kismayo (KMU). 154 Salaam Air Express schedules
passenger and cargo flights within Somalia on a demand basis. 155 The Mogadishu based airline
Mandeeq Air announced in a social media post in August 2018 that it connected Mogadishu with
Adado, Galkacyo, Dhobley, Nairobi, Baidoa and was starting to serve additional connections between
Mogadishu - Kismayo and Dolow – Mogadishu from August 2018. 156 Saacid Airline, also based in
Mogadishu, offers charter flights and tours within Somalia as well as cargo flights. 157
In April 2020, the government imposed COVID-19 related restrictions on Mogadishu and closed all
airports.158 FAO reported that the restrictions were partly lifted in October 2020 and airports
reopened.159 UNOCHA stated that flight suspensions were lifted on 3 August 2020 and thathumanitarian cargo had been exempt from the suspensions throughout. 160 The closure of the airport
in Mogadishu had a significant impact. People who can afford it prefer travelling by plane to travellingby bus, since it is considered safer and domestic flights are not overly expensive. 161

1.2.2 Internal mobility, including checkpoints
The Finnish Immigration Service published findings of their fact-finding mission to Mogadishu
undertaken in March 2020. The report mentioned several hundred checkpoints in Mogadishu mannedby security forces that were meant to ensure the safety of the city. Most of them were in the city
centre, where political institutions are situated, and in the northern section around the military
headquarters. All main roads leading to the city – two from the coastline: one from the south andanother one from the north; two from the west towards Ethiopia: one towards west from Baidoa andBuurhakaba and one from the northwest from Beled-Weyne, Jowhar and Afgooye – hadcheckpoints. 162 According to Bakonyi, their number has not decreased since, on the contrary, thenumber of checkpoints has increased.
It happened in 2020, under prime minister Mahdi Mohammed Gulaid, that whole streets were closed.
This led to protests, particularly by businessmen, who said they were not able to transport and trade
their goods anymore. His successor, Mohamed Hussein Roble did not continue this practice.163
According to sources interviewed by the Finnish Immigration Service, the checkpoints were partly
temporarily, partly permanently installed to stop traffic. Responsibility for maintenance was divided
between police, the Somali National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA) and the military.
Sometimes clan affiliations were considered. For example, members of the subclans Habar Gidir andAbgaal (both from the Hawiye clan) who belonged to the security forces, were posted at checkpoints
in areas populated by the respective clan communities. 164 UNHCR in Mogadishu confirmed in an

154 Freedom Airline Express, Nairobi – Mogadishu, n.d., url; Blue Sky Air, Flights, n.d., url
155 Salaam Air Express, Home, n.d., url; Salaam Air Express [Facebook], posted on 11 July 2021, url
156 Mandeeq Air [Facebook], posted on: 5 August 2018, url; Mandeeq Air [Facebook], posted on: 15 August 2018, url
157 Saacid Airline, Home, n.d., url
158 USDOS, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Somalia, 30 March 2021, url, p. 19; FAO, Somalia:

Agricultural livelihoods and food security in the context of COVID-19, January 2021, url, p. 7
159 FAO, Somalia: Agricultural livelihoods and food security in the context of COVID-19, January 2021, url, p. 7
160 UNOCHA, Somalia: Situation Report, as of 6 September 2020, url, p. 4
161 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
162 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 22; Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
163 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
164 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, pp. 21-22

22

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorsinterview with the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (IRB) in June 2020 that the main
checkpoints in the city were controlled by Federal Government forces.165
The Finnish mission could not acquire confirmed information on official fees for passage. One expert
said that security forces sometimes extorted money from people passing through checkpoints; one
said that drivers of vehicles always had to pay a fee and only pedestrians were exempt; and others
said that fees applied to everyone; or that no fees applied to passers-by but that identities werechecked and that it was necessary to indicate a contact person on the other side of the checkpointthat would take responsibility for them. Regarding the amount charged by security forces atcheckpoints experts and NGO members stated a range between 0.25 and 5 US Dollars. 166 Iman Elman,
former Director of External Affairs at Somalia's Ministry of Internal Security and Head of Programs andSecurity for Committed to Good (CTG), a private company in international development, stated in
January 2019 that security checkpoints in Mogadishu were commonly located every one to two
kilometres, and that one should make sure to provide an ID card at checkpoints. 167 However, Bakonyi
stated in July 2021 that a majority of people in Mogadishu does neither possess IDs nor other identity
documents. Official fees are not levied at checkpoints, but bribes may be requested and especially so
if identity documents are missing. People without IDs are more likely to be body checked. Also, cars
are checked for explosives at checkpoints, which is among the reasons for the popularity of motorbike
taxis. Sometimes, people have to leave taxis behind at checkpoints, pass on foot and look foralternative means of transportation. 168
Bakonyi, as well as the Finnish report, stated that residents were often irritated by the restrictions of
movement through checkpoints in the city.169 For members of marginalised groups, passage was notalways possible even though they had the required identity certificates. People reported fear going
through checkpoints because of corrupt police officers or the risk of terrorist bomb attack s. Violent
incidents at checkpoints causing death included shootings at three -wheel mopeds and other vehicles
for not obeying security forces’ orders to stop, clashes between different units of security forces andterrorist attacks by armed groups (the majority of which perpetrated by Al-Shabaab).170 In addition,harassments by NISA or other security agents at checkpoints have been reported. 171 Yet terrorist
attacks happen not only at city checkpoints but in all kinds of infrastructure used by government
officials, politicians and security forces in Mogadishu, including restaurants, hotels and shopping
malls.172 This is why generally, ‘moving about in the city causes fear and anxiety among city
residents’.173

165 Canada, IRB, Somalia: Entry and exit requirements at land borders and airports, including documentation required;

whether there are checkpoints for domestic and international travel; whether there are travel agencies that facilitate
travel within and outside Somalia (2018-August 2020), 3 September 2020, url
166 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, pp. 22-23
167 CTG, Staying Safe in Somalia: 9 Top Security Tips For Humanitarian Aid Workers, 22 January 2019, url
168 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
169 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021; Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020,
Security situation and humanitarian conditions in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 24
170 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 24
171 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
172 AI, Amnesty International Report 2020/21: The State of the Worlds Human Rights, 7 April 2021, url, pp. 19, 323; Finland,
FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions in
Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 25; AA, Suicide bomber strikes near Somali mall, police station, 23 February 2021, url;
Reuters, At least 8 killed in Mogadishu by suicide bomb targeting government convoy, 10 July 2021, url
173 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 25

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

According to scholar Jutta Bakonyi, Mogadishu is an unsafe place for everyone living there. Particularchallenges of accessibility are faced by the wealthiest, by those working for the government and the
UN and by well-known businessmen who refuse to pay taxes to Al-Shabaab. These people often use
bulletproof cars and move around the town as little as possible. Private cars are used only by thewealthiest to go about the town, the rest relies on the chaotically functioning bus system, three-wheel
vehicles (bajaj) originally from India, motorbikes, motorbike taxis, taxi cars and a taxi app via mobile
application. The number of motorbike taxis has increased in the last years due to the proliferation ofcheckpoints and subsequent traffic jams in the city. 174 For additional details see section 6 of EASO’s
COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles (September 2021).
In Mogadishu, the ‘airport zone’, 175 which is also known as Halane, 176 is a high security zone hosting
the UN offices, most European and the Kenyan embassies. Access to the walled airport zone is only
provided through three gates with heavy security checks. Surrounding Mogadishu’s highly secured
airport zone is the ‘green zone’, where further international organisations and government officials
reside and where hotels are located which are used by international and national experts who are notable or willing to move into the segregated airport zone. The green zone has a high nu mber ofcheckpoints and is heavily patrolled by Somali security forces. Nonetheless attacks could not be
entirely prevented.177
COVID-19 related dusk-to-dawn curfews in Mogadishu between April and August 2020 restrictedpeople’s movements and the government banned assemblies and large gatherings, closed schools andacademic institutions. 178 Physical isolation and movement restrictions imposed by the government
sometimes caused limited access to food and medical supplies. 179 Two people who had violated thecurfew in April 2020 were shot dead by a police officer in Mogadishu. Later, the officer was sentenced
to death by a military court. 180 The government’s response to a consequent COVID-19 wave in 2021
was ‘more lax’ and, with markets, mosques and football stadiums remaining open, life ‘continued
relatively normally’. 181
For more information on mobility, please see section 3.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors (July2021).

1.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city
Yahya Amir, professor in Mogadishu, explained to the Finnish fact-finding mission that there was adivision of the city between zones controlled by the Abgaal and Habar Gidir from the Hawiye clan
during the civil war in the 1990s. Northern, some central and the southern Madina district were under
the control of the Abgaal, the remaining central and southern zones under the control of the Habar
Gidir. According to Yahya Amir, in March 2020 this clan setting still had an impact and the Abgaal and

174 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
175 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
176 GardaWorld, Somalia: Explosions reported in the vicinity of Halane compound, Mogadishu, March 9, 9 March 2021, url
177 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
178 TNH, Who’s afraid of COVID-19? Somalia’s battle with the virus, 5 May 2021, url; USDOS, 2020 Country Reports on

Human Rights Practices - Somalia, 30 March 2021, url, p. 19; FAO, Somalia: Agricultural livelihoods and food security in thecontext of COVID-19, January 2021, url, p. 7; Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19
and Public Health Responses to Conflict Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12June 2021, url, pp. 2-3, 9
179 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, pp. 9-10
180 AI, Amnesty International Report 2020/21: The State of the Worlds Human Rights, 7 April 2021, url, p. 323
181 TNH, Who’s afraid of COVID-19? Somalia’s battle with the virus, 5 May 2021, url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Habar Gidir clans held strong positions. 182 UN-Habitat and JPLG follow the same line when saying thatthe city’s ‘economy, politics and power structures are dominated by geographical clan groups’. 183 For
more information on the influence of clan affiliation on settlement patterns, please see section 1.1.1.3
Clan distribution.
But ‘in principle, people can move freely within the capital city regardless of their clan background,and there are no clan-based restrictions on movement’, local experts told the Finnish mission.184
UNHCR informed the mission that ‘People with means can buy a residence and settle in the best areasof the city, even if they are not members of the capital city’s powerful clans’. 185 Still, the clan
background often determines where people feel it is safest for an individual to live. When clan
conflicts turn violent, it seems safest to move into the districts where the own clan dominates or atleast more people from the same clan live. The clan can also provide a safety net in case of hardship.186
The rural-urban dynamic of movement of the internally displaced population in Somalia is a major
driver of cities’ growth in Somalia and in many cities IDPs are meanwhile a large percentage of urban
residents. But also returnees and refugees from neighbouring countries tend to settle in and around
Somalia’s urban centres, among which Mogadishu.187 A study by Charlotte Bonnet et al. indicated that,in the Somali context, the label IDP was not used in the same way as by the international community
but rather as a generic term for poor urban residents that had settled in the city in the past 20 years.
Therefore, the line between newly displaced and urban poor residents of Mogadishu was blurred. 188
Bakonyi explains in her study on displacement that in the common Somali understanding, someone isconsidered an IDP when he or she settles on land particularly designated for displaced people. ‘The
alignment of places of settlement to status as “displaced” was common in all Somali cities, excluding
those who join relatives or live in rented accommodations across the city.’ In Mogadishu, the majorityof residents at IDP sites do not belong to one of the clans that hold political power. 189 The perceptionof being an IDP depends particularly on the place where an individual settles (e.g. IDP camps,
relocation areas, squatter settlements) and on the clan affiliation. Bakonyi notes that urban poor
newcomers to the city are not generally considered IDPs. If they move in with relatives, for instance,
or if they are able to rent a place, they are not considered IDPs even if they technically are. 190 Likewise,
they are not represented in the IDP numbers. 191 Together with her co-authors, Peter Chonka and Kirsti
Stuvøy, she explains in their study on Mogadishu and Bosasso from August 2019 that ‘displaced people
without social networks and prior knowledge of the city often ended-up on the city’s streets where
they turned to begging for their survival’. 192 Newcomers would eventually find shelter in one of the

182 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 38
183 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 3
184 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 39
185 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 39
186 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
187 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 36; see also
UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges / Urban
Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 21
188 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, pp. 451-452
189 Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Precarious Mobility in Somali
Cities, 15 October 2020, url, p. 18
190 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
191 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
192 Bakonyi, J. et al., War and City-Making in Somalia: Property, Power and Disposable Lives, August 2019, url, p. 36

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

camps and erect a buul (makeshift hut) on goof (uninhabited, unused land), which belongs to a goofleh (owner of unused land). 193
Especially in Mogadishu, informal settlement managers (ISMs), also referred to as ‘gatekeepers’ play
an important role in the process. 194 They ‘preside over a lucrative industry providing space for shelterand protection for IDPs’, sometimes buying up land and then actively filling it up with IDPs. Such new
camps attract humanitarian aid, from which gatekeepers take a share.195 In this way, as the nationalor local state fails to provide shelter and security to the vulnerable, an informal industry has arisen in
Mogadishu that ‘negotiate[s] access to plots from local landlords’ and ‘facilitate[s] access to shelter,
principally for internally displaced persons (IDPs) but also for long-term urban poor residents, refugees
and returnees.’ 196 Meanwhile, one has to pay a fee to the gatekeeper for a place to settle in one of
the camps with good humanitarian support. 197 In 2017 a study suggested that approximately 140
gatekeepers operated in Mogadishu. 198 Most of them belong to the dominant Hawiye clan andsometimes to the Darood.199 Their number has most probably increased since 2018 and 2019 saw ahigher influx of IDPs, many of them settling in Kaxda district. 200 The International Institute forEnvironment and Development (IIED), Econvalue Consult, SDI Kenya, Social Development Direct(SDDirect) and Tana Copenhagen noticed that clan concentration diminished and the city developed
a greater diversity in some locations. Still, relatives’ support and clan networks remain important to
IDPs upon and after their arrival to the town. This is why they ‘usually move to areas where they haverelatives and networks’. 201 It is not uncommon that, if landowners wish to develop their land, theyclear it through forced evictions. 202 For mor information, please see sections 1.3.2.3 Informal
settlements and IDP sites and 1.3.2.4 Evictions.
IDPs from minority clans and ethnic groups, particularly those of Bantu origin from southern Somalia,
face stronger discrimination and a higher risk of evictions compared to members of majority clans or
to non-displaced clan members, who also reside in informal settlements in Mogadishu. 203 For more
information on minority clans and ethnic minorities, please see sections 4.2 and 4.3 of EASO’s COI
report Somalia: Targeted profiles (September 2021).

193 Bakonyi, J. et al., War and City-Making in Somalia: Property, Power and Disposable Lives, August 2019, url, pp. 85, 87
194 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5
195 Menkhaus, K., Non-State Security Providers and Political Formation in Somalia, in: CSG Papers, No. 5, April 2016, url, p.
32
196 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5
197 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
198 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5
199 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021a
200 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5, p. 5, footnote 3
201 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 8
202 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, pp. 28-29; IIED et al., Access to shelter andservices for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on the politics of informal settlements andshelter access, October 2019, url, p. 12
203 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, pp. 6, 8

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

1.3 Socio-economic indicators
1.3.1 Economic overview and food security
1.3.1.1 Economic overview
Somalia’s economy is dominated by subsistence agriculture and fishing. 204 According to data from
Statista, the agriculture sector produced 80.3 % of the country’s total GDP in 2019.205 The majority ofthe population lives at the subsistence level. People engage as petty traders or small-scale producersof livestock and other agricultural products. 206 Somalia is heavily dependent upon imports. In 2020,
household final consumption expenditure accounted for 144 % of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
imports of goods and services amounted to 84 % of the GDP. 207 According to 2020 data the GDP per
capita in Somalia was 309.4 US dollars. 208
Private consumption is the main driver of the Somali economy and, according to the Somali Ministryof Planning, Investment and Economic Development, relies to a large extent on remittance inflows, 209
which contribute up to 40 % to the Somali economy. 210 Transport, communication and construction
are major drivers of growth on the supply side, for which Mogadishu serves as a major hub. 211 Still,
the city’s economy remains largely informal and is not regulated by the government. 212 Domestic
revenues are mainly derived from customs duties collected at the Mogadishu sea- and airport,
amounting to 5.5 million to 8.5 million US dollars monthly. Furthermore, sales taxes on khat213 arecollected at the sea- and airport, and income tax is imposed on salaries and government wages.214
Apart from that, the country is dependent on international aid. 215 Somalia’s coastal areas, among
them Mogadishu, have access to one of the richest fishing grounds in the world. However, illegal,
unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing activities as well as piracy challenge the fishing sector,
contributing to the environmental destruction of Somalia’s marine resources and undermining theability of the state to generate legitimate revenue from fisheries. 216 The federal government issues
fishing licences beyond a 24 nautical mile limit from the shoreline and other permissions. The
management of fishing within this limit is in the responsibility of the federal member states. Yet, weak
204 IMF, IMF Survey : IMF to Help Somalia Rebuild Its Economy, 24 June 2013, url

205

Statista, Somalia: Distribution of employment by economic sector from 2009 to 2019, n.d., url

206 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, p. 25
207 Federal Republic of Somalia, National Bureau of Statistics, Somalia Gross Domestic Product Report, June 2021, 30 June

2021, url, pp. 3, 5
208 World Bank (The), GDP per capita (current US$) – Somalia, n.d., url
209 Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path to a Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia,[2019], url, p. 49
210 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 34; Boston Globe (The), Mogadishu is booming, 25 June 2021, url; see also Majid, N. etal., How Will Remittances Affect the Somali COVID-19 Response?, LSE COVID-19 [Blog], 7 April 2020, url
211 Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path to a Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia,[2019], url, p. 49
212 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 18; Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path toa Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia, [2019], url, pp. 29-31
213 Khat is a stimulant, popular in the region. Its leaves are usually chewed or brewed as a tea’, see Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa,
Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 25, footnote 7
214 Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path to a Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia,[2019], url, p. 297
215 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, pp. 24-25
216 Bahadur, J., Fishy Business, Illegal fishing in Somali and the capture of state institutions, June 2021, 2 July 2021, url, pp.
1, 40; see also EEAS, The European Union hands over 9 refrigerated trucks to Somali coastal communities as part of the EU
funded “No Piracy” fisheries project, 28 January 2021, url

27

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorsstate structures and corruption are the reasons for which different local Somali authorities do notrecognize each other’s licences and permissions. 217 Local fishers use small boats to catch fish along
the coast and supply the fish markets in Mogadishu. Fish is also being distributed to the hinterland.
Fishers can come from all major clans, while labourers who slaughter, distribute or carry the fish areoften from minority groups, such as Bantu or Madiban. In a recent bilateral initiative, Ethiopia andSomalia agreed on the exchange of khat with fish.218
On Mogadishu’s outskirts, pastoralists and farmers engage in agricultural production and animalhusbandry.219 Since January 2020, goat prices have declined and cereal prices risen. For instance, inJanuary 2021, the sale of a goat bought 158 kilogrammes of maize, which is 24 % less than in January
2020.220 In 2016, FSNAU reported that from Mogadishu’s Bakara market. locally produced cereals
were being traded to central Somalia. 221 In the past 10 to 15 years, agriculture saw an increase in cash
crops production. Lemon, bananas and sesame are produced in the south and along the Shebelle riverand then transported to Mogadishu for the local or the export markets. 222 Markets in Mogadishu are
the main destination for livestock, such as camel trade and other local agricultural products fromsurrounding regions. 223
Annual inflation has been in single digits between 2012 and 2019 based on inflation rates derived fromdata on consumer prices obtained in Mogadishu. 224 The World Bank projects a stagnation of private
consumption in 2021 and a steady international poverty rate of 71 % in 2022 and 2023 for Somalia.225
Recent gains in economic growth have been lost due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.226
Current information on average income in Mogadishu is not available, since many people engage inthe trade sector that is highly dependent on business success, such as import, export, wholesale, kiosk,
or otherwise handicraft trade. 227
Mogadishu is the country’s most vibrant commercial and the state’s administrative centre.228 Despite
its chronic insecurity, it is the main economic hub, where approximately a third of Somalia’s urban
population lives. 229 A report by the Bertelsmann Stiftung described an ongoing building boom and thereopening of restaurants, supermarkets and shops in Mogadishu as ‘signs of economic recovery’ inthe time between January 2017 and January 2019. Similarly, UN-Habitat reports that increased
stability between 2014 and 2019, remittance inflows and donor support have contributed to a boom

217 Bahadur, J., Fishy Business, Illegal fishing in Somali and the capture of state institutions, June 2021, 2 July 2021, url, pp.

1-2, 4-7
218 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
219 Independent (The), Locusts swarm into Mogadishu’s pasture land amid resurgence in Horn of Africa, 10 November
2020, url; Reuters, Outside Mogadishu, locusts turn farmland into desert, 13 November 2020, url
220 FEWS NET and FSNAU, Somalia Food Security Outlook: Consecutive seasons of below -average rainfall likely to lead towidespread Crisis (IPC Phase 3) outcomes, February 2021, url, p. 5
221 FSNAU, Somalia Livelihood Profiles - June 2016, 30 June 2016, url, p. 118
222 Majid, N. et al., Food and Power in Somalia: Business as Usual? – A scoping study on the political economy of food
following shifts in food assistance and in governance, 21 January 2020, url, pp. 23-27
223 FSNAU, Somalia Livelihood Profiles - June 2016, 30 June 2016, url, p. 118, 131-133; Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28
July 2021
224 Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path to a Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia,[2019], url, p. 47
225 World Bank (The), Somalia – Overview, 18 March 2021, url
226 UN, Country Results Report: Somalia 2020, March 2021, url, p. 13
227 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
228 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 18
229 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 52

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

in construction, telecommunication, trade and transport sectors in Mogadishu.230 Due to investmentsfrom the diaspora, also the real estate market expanded in the past 20 years. 231 Yet, spiking land andreal estate prices in Mogadishu result in large-scale evictions and manifest the growing inequality
between rich and poor. 232
Compared to other cities and rural areas, Mogadishu concentrates a larger number of tradable
services enterprises, which create employment opportunities, and have strong connections tomarkets in Galmudug, Hirshabelle, and the South West State. 233 However, the Finnish mission foundthat few business and employment opportunities existed in Mogadishu (see section 1.3.6 Means ofbasic subsistence and employment).234 Some Somalis, who have been raised and educated abroad
are returning to Mogadishu, investing and opening new businesses. 235 In Somalia, there are some
wealthy businessmen and international traders but the majority of the population lives at thesubsistence level. 236 Urban wage labour is less dependent on climate or seasonal conditions.
Therefore, the majority of urban households make their living on wage labour. In Mogadishu with
64 %, the proportion of households engaged in wage labour is the highest. 237
In June 2020, the Somali Public Agenda published an article on the impact of COVID-19 on the informal
economy on Mogadishu. The article states that due to COVID-19-related restrictions and a night
curfew in Mogadishu from April 2020, many businesses were closed. Informal businesses such as
roadside cafes, milk and tea vendors, hawkers, vegetable and fruit sellers, restaurants, teashops, shoeshiners, travel agencies, khat traders/sellers, remittances, bajaj drivers, school and university
teachers, clothes businesses and other imported goods businesses were heavily impacted by the
restrictions. To cushion the economic impact, the Somali government rolled out a 100 % tax
exemption for rice and dates and a 50 % tax waiver for wheat flour and cooking oil in April 2020. 238
Due to the COVID-19 crisis remittance flows were interrupted causing a decline of consumption in
local markets in Mogadishu. 239

1.3.1.2 Food security
The majority of the population in Mogadishu is affected by food insecurity with highest malnutrition
rates among IDPs (for more information on IDPs, please see section 1.1.2.3 Displacement andhumanitarian assistance).240 FEWS and FSNAU provide an outlook on the food security situation in
Mogadishu. They classify the second and third quarter of 2021 as phases of ‘crisis’ in IDP settlements

230 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 18
231 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 51;
Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, p. 25
232 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, pp. 25, 28
233 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 51
234 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 32
235 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 51; Boston
Globe (The), Mogadishu is booming, 25 June 2021, url
236 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, p. 25
237 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, pp. xix, 35, 51
238 Somali Public Agenda, The impact of Covid-19 on the informal economy of Mogadishu, 4 June 2020, url
239 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 6
240 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, pp. 30, 37

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

and as ‘stressed’ in urban settlements. 241 ‘Crisis’ means that households either ‘have foodconsumption gaps that are reflected by high or above-usual acute malnutrition’ or ‘are marginally able
to meet minimum food needs but only by depleting essential livelihood assets or through crisis-coping
strategies’; and ‘stressed’ means that ‘households have minimally adequate food consumption but
are unable to afford some essential non-food expenditures without engaging in stress-coping
strategies.’242 The CCCM Cluster recognised a rise in food related complaints in IDP sites where they
provide their services, e.g. within Daynile district. The cluster reported an all-time high with regard tofood security complaints and information requests in April 2021. This relates to the elevated numberof new displacements and coincides with increases of IDP numbers. 243 In March 2021, FSNAU reported
a monthly number of 125 000 recipients of food assistance in Mogadishu since July 2018. 244 FSNAU
stated in December 2020 that a persistently critical level of acute malnutrition prevailed among IDPs
in Mogadishu since 2019 deyr due to high morbidity and effects on household incomes.245 UNOCHA
reported a global acute malnutrition (GAM) rate of 16 % in some IDP sites in Mogadishu for the year
2019.246 Data collected in the course of the World Bank’s Somali High Frequency Survey Wave 2 inDecember 2017 shows that 72 % of the population in Mogadishu were poor and almost 50 % sufferedfrom food poverty. 247
As the local food production cannot sustain the city’s demands, Mogadishu relies mostly on foodimports from abroad. 248 Moreover, the city’s supply from local producers is vulnerable to climatechange, from which food security suffers in time of droughts. 249 According to UN-Habitat, ‘facilitationof trade is therefore of vital importance to increase food security’. 250 Somalia imports much of its basic
food items including rice, pasta, sugar, flour or cooking oil. 251 Markets fulfil central supply functions in
the town. Bakaara market in Mogadishu is the largest of such open markets in all Somalia and one of
the largest in East Africa. Another wholesale and supply market is the Zeybiano market in Hodan
district. From there, food stuffs are being traded to other districts via retailers, wh o, as well, form
wholesale markets within their districts like Suuq Bacad and Hamar Weyne or Medina markets. Suuq
Bacaad in Yaqshid district and Hamarweyne are Mogadishu’s second and third largest markets. 252 In
neighbourhoods and IDP camps in Weydow and Tabella smaller emerging markets serve the specificneeds of the urban poor and IDPs. Nevertheless, there are blank spots in the north -eastern and southwestern parts of the city, which are not served. 253 The terms of trade (ToT) between daily labour wage
241 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May

2021, url, p. 16
242 FEWS NET, Integrated Phase Classification, n.d., url
243 CCCM, Somalia, Complaints and Feedback Mechanism (CFM) - Monthly Summary Report for April 2021, 17 May 2021,
url
244 IPC, Somalia: IPC Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis, January - June 2021, March 2021, url, p. 3
245 FSNAU, Nutrition Update: December 2020, 23 December 2020, url, p. 3
246 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 22 December 2019, url, pp. 17, 53
247 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 37
248 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 30
249 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 30; UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses /Urban Development Challenges / Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 31
250 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 31
251 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, p. 25
252 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 19; World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors ofDevelopment, 2020, url, p. 52
253 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 1930

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

rate and cereals per kilogrammes amounted to nine kilogrammes for white maize in June 2021. Local
cereal prices, specifically white maize prices, increased in Benadir by 6 % between June 2021 and May
2021, and also wheat prices slightly increased between June 2020 and June 2021. 254

1.3.2 Housing and shelter
The different types of housing and shelter in Mogadishu include: huts ( buush), jingaad (a basic housing
structure of only metal sheet), bacweyne (iron sheet house, but better decorated than jingaad).
Bacweyne are often erected in a first phase by people owning a small plot of land before they canafford to build a brick or stone structure house for their families. All of these types of houses haveoutside toilets (pit-latrines). Brick or stone houses have several rooms, iron sheet roofing and indoor
bathrooms.255
In Mogadishu, informal housing is widespread. The federal government is unable to meet the shelter
needs of the most vulnerable residents. Therefore, an informal industry has arisen maintaining and,sometimes, exploiting IDP populations, urban poor, refugees and returnees. ‘Gatekeepers’ are theinformal power holders, who provide access to land or shelter and basic services against a fee. 256
Access to land enables people to build their own houses to live or to become landlords (even if only
petty landlords allowing other people to establish huts or metal sheet houses). If people can afford it,they can also rent land, rooms, apartments or houses. 257
UNHCR informants to the Finnish fact-finding mission stated in March 2020 that housing conditions in
Mogadishu were challenging. 258 The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) related thechallenges to ‘the informal nature of the housing sector in Somalia’ lacking ‘clear laws to regulatetransactions’.259 Similarly, in a 2017 fact sheet by the Global Shelter Cluster rental agreements were
described as being often informal. 260 The World Bank’s assessment of major socio-economic
parameters from 2019 showed that due to scarcity of land, access to land and housing was constrainedin urban areas and people’s chances of owning property were smaller than in rural areas. Mogadishu
had the highest proportion of renters (71 %) and the highest land values in Somalia. 261 The World Banksaw the need for ‘a proper land administration system’ together with ‘effective land use planning’ andaccompanied by ‘coordinated infrastructure investments’ in order to keep the growth of the city undercontrol and provide security of tenure to IDPs.262 The growing influx of IDPs as well as of returnees
from neighbouring countries (please see section 1.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city has further
constrained access to land in Mogadishu. 263 According to Bakonyi, an ongoing building boom could
trigger speculation with urban land and the expansion of rent economy. This would result in mass-

254 FSNAU, Market Update, June 2021, 15 July 2021, url, pp. 1, 2
255 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
256 IIED, et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5
257 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
258 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
259 IDMC, UnSettlement: Urban displacement in the 21st century - City of flight: New and secondary displacements in
Mogadishu, Somalia, November 2018, url, p. 2
260 Shelter Cluster, Somalia Fact Sheet, September 2017, 31 October 2017, url, p. 2
261 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 40
262 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 36
263 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 40

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

scale evictions of the urban poor and displaced people.264 The Shelter Cluster’s dashboard showed asof 30 April 2021 that in Benadir, 7 846 persons or 1 255 households out of a number of 2.5 million
targeted people were reached by in-kind emergency shelter programmes in January and March
2021.265 From June to November 2020, the organisation recorded 21 639 persons or 3 069 households
out of 1.4 million targeted people who were reached by in-kind of emergency shelter programmes.266

1.3.2.1 Costs
Some districts, including Waberi, Madina, Hodan and the airport area have become ‘extremely
expensive’. Prices in districts on the outskirts, such as Huriwaa and Suuqa Hoolahan, were ‘more
affordable’.267 A room of 25 square metres with no fittings or fixtures and a concrete floor in best
quality location could cost up to 100 US dollars per month. People, who could not afford rents in better
regions, were forced to live in less secure areas. 268
Apartments for rent in the different residential areas are available from monthly rates of about 100
US dollars for a one room apartment in less safe areas up to 400 Us dollars in the safe area (Green
Zone) around the airport, Maka Al-Mukarama Road that connects airport and statehouse. In recent
years, high rise buildings of up to 10 floors were being constructed in Mogadishu, where one can buy
apartments with three to four bedrooms and a bathroom for about 100 000 US dollars or more. A
maisonette house, if not located in the city centre, costs about 150 000 US dollars. A new suburb at
Mogadishu’s outskirts is under construction by the telecom company Hormuud. The project offers
gated maisonettes for sale at about 300 000 US dollars. 269 Markus Hoehne 270 said in an interview inMarch 2021 prices for housing varied significantly between safe and unsafe areas. On the outskirts,
where Al-Shabaab was still active and which were partly in their sphere of influence, housing wasmuch cheaper. The safer districts in the centre were secured by the African Union Mission in Somalia(AMISOM) and monthly costs for a studio in these areas were at minimum 150 US dollars. The sameamount applied on the outskirts of Mogadishu for villas with four or five rooms. 271 The Finnish report
remarked that it happened that people coming from outside were charged a higher rent than
Mogadishu locals. 272 The July 2020 study by Charlotte Bonnet and her colleagues contained a table on
housing types, costs and locations in Mogadishu: buul (pl. buush), self-built temporary shelters which
are mainly located at the periphery and inhabited by IDPs and other Mogadishu re sidents who arelocked out of the city’s formal housing market. If rent applied at all, it amounted on average to about
13 US dollars per month. Corrugated iron sheet housing accommodated usually low -income andlower-middle class households in central and peripheral areas. Average rent amounted to 140 US
dollars per month. IDPs belonging to one of the majority clans sometimes resided informally inabandoned government buildings, which were often close to informal settlements in and around the264 Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Precarious Mobility in Somali

Cities, 15 October 2020, url, p. 20
265 Shelter Cluster, Somalia: Shelter Cluster 5W (Who's doing What, Where, When and for Whom) – Banadir 2021, 30 April
2021, url
266 Shelter Cluster, Somalia: Shelter Cluster 5W (Who's doing What, Where, When and for Whom) – Banadir 2020, 30 April
2021, url
267 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
268 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, pp. 31-32
269 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
270 Markus Höhne [Hoehne] is a scholar at the Institute of Ethnology at the University of Leipzig. He has been working on
Somalia since 2001 and has spent several years in the country. He speeks Somali fluently
271 ACCORD, ecoi.net-Themendossier zu Somalia: Humanitäre Lage, 7 May 2021, url
272 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 32

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

city. In apartments one could find middle-class and upper middle-class households, who paid monthly
rents of about 350 to 500 US dollars on average. Many of those were located within the city close to
the city centre. As a last category, the table presented villas, which were detached houses with theirown compound located in the older parts of the town. Villas were accessible to upper-middle classand wealthy households as well as were rented out to foreign nationals and local and internationalorganisations.273 Especially in Mogadishu, Somalis from the diaspora and local elites purchased land,
despite the lack of a functioning land registry. 274

1.3.2.2 Discriminated groups
Tenants need a local male person to vouch for them before a new rental arrangement is made. Single
women encounter difficulties when renting their own apartment. Living alone is not customary andmight be criticised as westernised. Leaving the parental household is only acceptable for women upon
marriage.275 Moreover, single young men are particularly disadvantaged in accessing shelter due tostereotypical views of them as drug-takers, potential Al-Shabaab members, or people likely to cause
trouble. For people living with disabilities (PLWD) almost no provisions exist regarding housing.
Therefore, they are generally entirely reliant on family members for support. Ethnic minorities outsideof the clan system, such as so-called Bantu, experience significant discrimination and tensions
surrounding security of tenure or evictions 276

1.3.2.3 Informal settlements and IDP sites
Bakonyi states that displaced people were mainly living in self-established camps at the fringes of
Mogadishu.277 Numbers from 2017 counted 480 informal settlements across Mogadishu, most ofthem located in the north-western Hodan and Daynile districts.278 According to World Bank data from2017 as well as UN-Habitat and the Joint Programme on Local Governance and Decentralised Service
Delivery (JPLG), 55 % of IDPs in Mogadishu resided in peripheral settlements, namely in the outskirt
districts Daynile and Kahda. 279 In an analysis of their field work carried out in Mogadishu, Bonnet andher colleagues show that housing consisted predominantly of corrugated metal sheet shacks or
temporary shelters made of sticks, plastic and fabric (buuls) inhabited by IDPs. Newly establishedsettlements at the peripheries were disconnected from urban infrastructure. 280 It happened thatpoverty drove also non-IDP residents into informal settlements in Mogadishu because they could 'nolonger afford decent housing’.281 IDP and poor households in Mogadishu lack lasting tenure security
agreements and face increasing difficulties to find locations to settle that do not bear the risk ofeviction.282 In IDP camps, the central figure of the ‘camp leader’ or ‘gatekeeper’ (please see section
1.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city) decides ‘who is allowed to settle in the camp, register
273 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 454
274 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, p. 28
275 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 32
276 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, pp. 7-8
277 Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Precarious Mobility in Somali
Cities, 15 October 2020, url, p. 13
278 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 451
279 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, pp. 40-41; UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban
Development Challenges / Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 21
280 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, pp. 454-455; see also World Bank (The),
Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency Survey, April 2019, url,
p. 41
281 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 451
282 NRC et al., Back to Square One, 12 January 2018, url, p. 11

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

newcomers and identify the spots where they can set-up huts’.283 The CCCM Cluster surveyed 25 IDP
sites in Mogadishu’s district Daynile and found that 7 % of shelters were durable, 18 % transitional,
18 % temporary and 57 % make-shift.284 Residents were not satisfied (46 %) or not at all satisfied(12 %) with the public infrastructure in these sites. 285 In 2017, IDP settlements already occupied 16 %more space than in 2013. 286 For more information on IDPs, please see also sections 1.1.2.3
Displacement and humanitarian assistance and 1.4.2.2 Vulnerable groups.

1.3.2.4 Evictions
Without secure land tenure the risk of evictions rises. After their forced eviction many urban IDP
residents moved to the cities’ outskirts. 287 In May 2021, the NRC reported the eviction of 1 937
households – approximately 11 622 people – from 18 IDP settlements in Garasbaley in the Benadir
region. The evicted people relocated to settlements in Igadawage in Daynile district. 288 In early 2020,
an eviction moratorium was issued in response to the COVID-19 outbreak.289 And, in 2019, newpolicies regarding the protection of returnees and IDPs against displacement 290 as well as land
distribution for housing to returnees and IDPs, 291 social protection292 and national eviction
guidelines293 were adopted. 294 Nevertheless, evictions by security forces and private landowners
continued in 2020295 – e.g. in December a landlord forcibly evicted nearly 7 000 IDPs from sevensettlements in Benadir.296 In 2018, a majority of more than 200 000 people affected by forced evictions
in Somalia were from Mogadishu. The Bertelsmann Stiftung reported further that security forces
regularly demolished settlements in Mogadishu in 2018. 297 Similarly, the NRC found that in Mogadishu
153 682 persons were evicted in 2017, 143 510 in 2016 and 123 421 in 2015. More than 11 000 IDPs
were evicted each month between 2015 and 2017. 298 In Mogadishu, forced evictions by private actors
were mostly executed in order to have clear land that they can develop. 299 It happens that, if the valueof the land in the camp rises due to its better integration into the city’s networks, the owner mightwish to develop or sell the land. In this case the inhabitants will be evicted and have to move again. 300
Repeated evictions and little social upward mobility create a circle of displacement and push urban
283 Bakonyi, J. et al., War and City-Making in Somalia: Property, Power and Disposable Lives, August 2019, url, p. 87, seealso Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Preca rious Mobility in Somali
Cities, 15 October 2020, url, pp. 13-14
284 CCCM, Household Satisfaction Surveys - March 2021, 18 March 2021, url, pp. 1-2
285 CCCM, Household Satisfaction Surveys - March 2021, 18 March 2021, url, pp. 2, 9
286 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 40
287 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, pp. 40-41
288 NRC and Somalia Protection Cluster, Rapid Assessment Report – Garasbaley Evictions, 30 May 2021, url, pp. 2-3, 5
289 USAID, Somalia - Complex Emergency, 8 January 2021, url, p. 3
290 Somalia, Federal government of Somalia, National Policy on Refugee-Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs),
2019, url
291 Somalia, Federal government of Somalia, Interim Protocol on Land Distribution for Housing to Eligible RefugeeReturnees and Internally Displaced Persons, 2019, url
292 Somalia, MoLSA, Somalia Social Protection Policy – March 2019, 31 March 2019, url
293 Somalia, Federal Government of Somalia, National Eviction Guidelines, 2019, url
294 Somalia, MoPIED, The National Durable Solutions Strategy (2020-2024), 31 March 2021, url, p. 30
295 AI, Amnesty International Report 2020/21: The State of the Worlds Human Rights, 2021, 7 April 2021, url, p. 324; USAID,
Somalia - Complex Emergency, 8 January 2021, url, p. 3
296 USAID, Somalia - Complex Emergency, 8 January 2021, url, p. 3
297 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, p. 18
298 NRC et al., Back to Square One, 12 January 2018, url, p. 11
299 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, pp. 28-29; IIED et al., Access to shelter andservices for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on the politics of informal settlements andshelter access, October 2019, url, p. 12300 Bakonyi, J. et al., War and City-Making in Somalia: Property, Power and Disposable Lives, August 2019, url, p. 88

34

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorspoor and IDPs further and further to Mogadishu’s outskirts. 301 Bakonyi and her co-authors attest the‘extreme precarity of camp life’ as well as a ‘significant increase of such evictions’ since Mogadishu ischaracterised by a reconstruction boom after Al-Shabaab was forced to retreat and the (Transitional)
Federal Government expanded its control across the city. 302
Although, at times also political and military elites conducted land grabs and issued forced evictions.303
This generated ‘significant intra-city migration flows between three of the most densely IDPpopulated areas of Mogadishu (Kaxda, Hodan and Daynile) and the city centre (Dharkenley)’. 304

1.3.3 Hygiene, water and sanitation
In December 2017, the World Bank assessed deprivation of households considering dimensions ofeducation, water, sanitation, electricity and monetary poverty. 305 The study showed that 67 % ofhouseholds in Mogadishu had access to improved sanitation 306 . This number corresponds with otherurban areas in Somalia. 307
According to UNOCHA, the immediate access to the port of Mogadishu ensures regular supply ofhumanitarian WASH support. Therefore, Mogadishu experienced only minimum supply issues in
2020.308 ReDSS, DRC and NRC reported in 2017 that 126 boreholes in Mogadishu were privately
owned. There, water was sold at a price ranging from 0.8 to 1.5 US dollars per cubic metre.
Additionally, 12 privately run shallow wells existed. In the IDP settlements KM13-15 Sarkust, Tabelaha
Sheik Ibrahim, Jacadda Shabelle and Waydow, water was provided for free by humanitarianorganisations.309 Additionally, there were 600 water wells in Mogadishu, but no standards orregulatory bodies involved. 310
According to the WASH Cluster Somalia, the average price of water was 0.3 US dollars per barrel (200litres) as of 25 May 2021. In most districts in Benadir under their assessment there have not beensignificant price changes since February 2021. 311 In 2017, the World Bank assessed that only 2 % ofhouseholds lacked access to water and even 96 % of households had access to piped water at home.
The assessment concluded that Mogadishu was least deprived in access to improved drinking water,by comparison to other parts of the country. Where no water pipes were installed, alternative sources

301 UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban Development Challenges /Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 21; IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons fromHawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on the politics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 8302 Bakonyi, J. et al., War and City-Making in Somalia: Property, Power and Disposable Lives, August 2019, url, p. 88
303 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report — Somalia, 2020, url, pp. 28-29; IIED et al., Access to shelter andservices for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on the politics of informal settlements andshelter access, October 2019, url, p. 12
304 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 12
305 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, pp. 32-33
306 ‘Access to improved sanitation refers to those facilities that are not shared, and are likely to ensure hygienic separationof human excreta from human contact. They include flush/pour flush (to piped sewer system, septic tank, pit latrine),
ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine, pit latrine with slab, and composting toilet.’ Worl d Bank (The), Somali Poverty and
Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency Survey, April 2019, url, p. 28, footnote 51
307 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 38; see also Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path to a
Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia, [2019], url, p. 90
308 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 96
309 ReDSS et al., Durable Solutions Framework – Local Integration Focus: Benadir Region, Somalia, March 2017, url, p. 27
310 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 453
311 WASH Cluster Somalia, Somalia: Monthly Water Price Updates (as of 25 May 2021), 25 May 2021, url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorsfor drinking water were boreholes and water trucks. 312 Water trucking mainly serves outskirts and IDP
camps, but also in these places access to piped water is increasingly available through tanks from
where residents can buy water. 313
In July 2019, REACH inquired about coping strategies of people in case of water shortages during dry
season. Although relocating was stated in other cities, informants in Benadir, as well as people
belonging to ethnic minorities and people living with disabilities (PLWDs) , did not mention it. Amongthe instances which would cause water shortages were, according to the informants, aid shortages.
Aid shortages reportedly affected residents in Mogadishu in particular. 314
Regarding access to water in IDPs settlements, Bakonyi experienced a different picture of IDP sites in
Mogadishu lacking access to piped water. Rather, they rely on water kiosks, thus on tanks, wells or
pipes established in their neighbourhood, where they can buy water from the people owning or
managing the kiosks. 315 ReDSS pointed out that access to water, sanitation and level of hygiene was
not adequate in IDP settlements and that for IDPs it was difficult and expensive to access water. 316 In
Mogadishu, 50 % of the privately sold piped water supplied corrugated iron sheet houses, 40 % villas
and 10 % multi-storey concrete buildings. IDP settlements were served by water tankers. 317
IDPs and residents of informal settlements have greater difficulties accessing clean water and are lesslikely to have access to sanitary or latrine facilities, which are often lacking in informal settlements.
Besides, water is less affordable to IDPs. 318 Water transport to IDP settlements is provided bytankers.319 IOM reported in February 2021 the installation of a new solar powered water borehole in
the Heliwa IDP site in Mogadishu that will serve 4 200 people.320 In May 2021, a number of newly
evicted IDP households did not have access to clean water at their new location in Daynile and had tobuy water at a fee of 1 000 Somali shillings [1.7 US dollars] per 20 litre jerrycan. 321
An overview of the severity of WASH needs in IDP-hosting districts from September 2018 to January
2019 provided by REACH showed ‘critical’ needs in Mogadishu’s districts Abdulaziz, Hawl Wadaag,
Hodan, Waaberi and Wardhiigleey. In the 12 other districts the severity of WASH needs was ‘high’. 322
With regard to sanitation, the majority of IDPs used either ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP), pit
latrine with slab, or pit latrine without slab (91 %). In Mogadishu, 1 % of the population, probably IDPs,
had no access to toilets but used open defecation.323 In December 2020, shelters, latrines and water
distribution points in seven settlements in Benadir were reportedly destroyed by a landlord, who
forcibly evicted nearly 7 000 IDPs. According to USAID, this incident put the evicted IDPs in urgent
need of shelter and WASH support. 324 The 1 937 households reportedly evicted in May 2021 (see
312 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency

Survey, April 2019, url, pp. 33, 38-39
313 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
314 REACH, Somalia: Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Assessment, December 2019, March 2020 url, pp. 14-15
315 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
316 ReDSS et al., Durable Solutions Framework – Local Integration Focus: Benadir Region, Somalia, March 2017, url, p. 27;
ReDSS, Somalia: Solutions Analysis Update 2019, 2019, url, p. 53
317 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 453
318 ReDSS et al., Durable Solutions Framework – Local Integration Focus: Benadir Region, Somalia, March 2017, url, p. 30;
ReDSS, Somalia: Solutions Analysis Update 2019, 2019, url, p. 53; Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu,
28 July 2020, url, pp. 451, 458
319 Bonnet, C. et al., Inclusive Shelter Provision in Mogadishu, 28 July 2020, url, p. 453
320 IOM, IOM Somalia: External Updates January & February 2021, 19 April 2021, url, p. 9
321 NRC and Somalia Protection Cluster, Rapid Assessment Report – Garasbaley Evictions, 30 May 2021, url, p. 5
322 REACH, Severity of needs in IDP-hosting districts: Detailed Site Assessment Somalia, September 2018 – January 2019,
May 2019, url, p. 2
323 ReDSS et al., Durable Solutions Framework – Local Integration Focus: Benadir Region, Somalia, March 2017, url, p. 27
324 USAID, Somalia - Complex Emergency, 8 January 2021, url, p. 3

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

above, section 1.3.2.4 Evictions) from 18 IDP settlements in Garasbaley lacked any WASH facilities andlatrines at their new settlements in Igadawage in Daynile district. At the previous site, 79 latrines had
existed.325
Floods compromised sanitation and increased the number of cholera cases. 326 In times of droughts
less water for hygiene and sanitation was available and water contamination increased. 327 According
to the Regional Durable Solutions Secretariat (ReDSS), poor water management in Benadir wasanother reason for the outbreak of diseases in 2019 and before. 328 The WHO reported in May 2021
that a current cholera outbreak with active transmissions in the Benadir region started in December
2017 following floods. Flash floods in April 2020 led to the contamination of water sources, which
resulted in an increase in cholera cases. In 2021, the highest attack rate of cholera was reported fromthe districts of Danyile, Madina, and Dharkenly and the majority of deaths were reported in Benadir.329

1.3.4 Health care
According to a baseline survey of the Somali healthcare system published in May 2020, the essential
health workforce (medical doctors, nurses and midwives) per 1 000 population in Somalia in 2017 was
0.4, the health facility density per 10 000 population was 1.69. 330
While most of Somalia’s health facilities are located in larger cities including Mogadishu 331 , experts
have described the healthcare situation in the capital as ‘worrisome’ 332 or even absolutely
insufficient.333 Markus Hoehne estimated that the six largest hospitals in Mogadishu each have acapacity of between 25 and 200 beds, except for the public Benadir Hospital334, which has 500 beds. 335

325 NRC and Somalia Protection Cluster, Rapid Assessment Report – Garasbaley Evictions, 30 May 2021, url, pp. 2-3, 5
326 WHO, Epidemic and Pandemic-Prone Diseases: Outbreak Update – Cholera in Somalia, 7 March 2021, 23 March 2021,

url
327 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency

Survey, April 2019, url, p. xxii
328 ReDSS, Somalia: Solutions Analysis Update 2019, 2019, url, p. 53
329 WHO, Epidemic and Pandemic-Prone Diseases: Outbreak Update – Cholera in Somalia, 7 March 2021, 23 March 2021,
url
330 Heritage Institute and City University of Mogadishu, Somalia’s Healthcare System: A Baseline Study & Human Capital
Development Strategy, May 2020, url, p. 19
331 Denmark, DIS, Somalia - Health System, November 2020, url, p. 24
332 Heritage Institute and City University of Mogadishu, Somalia’s Healthcare System: A Baseline Study & Human Capital
Development Strategy, May 2020, url, p. 65
333 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi [source: Jutta Bakonyi]],
31 May 2021, url, p. 28
334 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the mental
ill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a-11559,
19 April 2021, url
335 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, p. 46

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

This signifies that there are no more than 1 000 to 1 200 beds336 for the city’s population estimated at
1.7 and 2.6 million.337 Many Mogadishu residents are therefore unable to access medical care. 338
According to findings from studies commissioned by the Danish Immigration Service (DIS) on four
Somali cities including Mogadishu 339 , hospitals are operated by ‘Somali health authorities,
international NGOs, UN or in collaboration with other national governments (e.g. Turkey).’ 340 A
director of an international organisation was quoted by the Finnish Immigration Service as saying that
medical services available in Mogadishu are of ‘poor quality’ both in the public and the private sectors.
Although basic drugs are available, their proper storage is difficult and people ‘keep dying’ fromnormally easily treatable diseases such as measles, malaria or cholera. Dialysis treatment andultrasound examinations, for example, are unavailable in the city. 341
According to a qualitative study conducted in Mogadishu and published in 2017 the ‘private healthcare system is the dominant health care system in Mogadishu’342 The DIS referred to the Federal
Ministry of Health, according to which ‘the private health care sector’s dominance is due to better
capacity, service delivery, diagnostic equipment and experience of staff.’ 343 According to the May 2020
baseline survey of the Somali healthcare system, there were 61 public health facilities in Benadir in2019 and 1 279 confirmed private health care facilities in south central Somalia in 2018. 344
According to UNHCR, public hospitals quite often have to send their patients to private facilities
because they lack necessary equipment and expertise. 345 The public Benadir Hospital, a facility
specialised in maternal medicine and paediatrics346, reportedly (according to its director) has goodequipment but it performs mostly only basic surgeries and no advanced treatments such as cancer
treatment.347 Its treatments, which also include HIV therapy, have been reported to be generally freeof charge.348 While healthcare in Somalia is generally not free of charge, Hoehne noted that services
in public hospitals are mostly cheaper than in the private healthcare sector. According to local
physicians he interviewed in January 2020 and April 2021, inpatient treatment in a public facility costs
at least 5 USD per bed and night. Additionally, patients have to pay for food. In large public hospitals

336 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the mental
ill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a-11559,
19 April 2021, url
337 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 74
338 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the mental
ill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a -11559,
19 April 2021, url
339 The other three cities covered in these substudies are Kismayo, Baardheere and Beled Weyne.
340 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, p. 24
341 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
342 Gele, A. A. et al., Beneficiaries of conflict: a qualitative study of people’s trust in the private health care system in
Mogadishu, Somalia, 2017, url, p. 127
343 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, p. 26
344 Heritage Institute and City University of Mogadishu, Somalia’s Healthcare System: A Baseline Study & Human Capital
Development Strategy, May 2020, url, pp. 41, 15
345 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
346 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, p. 46
347 Finland, FIS, Somalia, Fact-Finding Mission to Mogadishu and Nairobi, January 2018, 5 October 2018, url, p. 35
348 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, p. 46

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

like Mogadishu’s Madina Hospital, there are no extra charges for surgeries, but laboratory tests areoften charged. If drugs are available, they are distributed free of charge. 349
While private healthcare facilities provide specialised and, at times, advanced treatment, several
sources have emphasised that the health sector is highly unregulated and that the types of se rvices
and their quality are unknown. 350 A government source added that clinics are big business in
Mogadishu and people from Somalia and other countries open private clinics. The source added that
their qualification is not checked and they often lack equipment and are not able to do complicatedprocedures.351 According to UNHCR, patients in private healthcare centres are obliged to pay fortreatment.352 Hoehne noted that in private healthcare facilities, patients have to pay for theirsurgeries, quoting local doctors as saying that for a small outpatient surgery (such as removal of anulcer from the hand) the patient is charged approx. 50 USD, in addition to a 5-10 USD admission fee
and some 30 USD for post-treatment with medicines. 353 Bakonyi added that ‘pharmacies and private
practices charge for medication.’ 354 According to findings from a study published in 2017, the cost of
private healthcare was unaffordable for a large part of the population. 355
Funding for the healthcare sector (just like the delivery of healthcare) has been described as‘fragmented‘.356 The majority of funding comes from international donors and is ‘channelled directly
to healthcare providers through a patchwork of projects and instruments, rather than throughgovernment systems and budgets.’357 The assistance ‘is mostly managed and distributed according todonor priorities and does not necessarily match the needs of the Somali health authorities.’ The
spending of the Somali government on health in 2017, 2018 and 2019 ‘amounted to less than five
percent of the total health sector expenditure’. 358 A 2020 study for which representatives ofgovernment, UN agencies, NGOs, and health facility staff were interviewed noted that the ‘healthsystem was primarily funded through donors including the US government, the European Commission,and the governments of the UK, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Turkey and Qatar’. The respondents addedthat ‘these donors played an important role in determining what health services were provided’. 359
According to a government source, Turkey has invested in three hospitals. They are all privately
managed, have comparatively good standards but are very expensive, allegedly the most expensive
349 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the ment alill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a -11559,
19 April 2021, url
350 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, pp. 26-27
351 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
352 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
353 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the mental
ill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a -11559,
19 April 2021, url; see also Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-Finding Mission to Mogadishu and Nairobi, January 2018 [Director ofa hospital in Mogadishu], 5 October 2018 url, p. 35
354 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 7 July 2021
355 Gele, A. A. et al., Beneficiaries of conflict: a qualitative study of people’s trust in the private health care system in
Mogadishu, Somalia, 2017, url, p. 128; see also World Bank (The) and Federal Republic of Somalia: Systematic Country
Diagnostic, Report No. 123807-SO, 1 May 2018, url, p. 41
356 WHO, Somalia: building a stronger primary health care system, 15 September 2020, url
357 ODI, Beyond the pandemic: strengthening Somalia’s health system, 7 October 2020, url
358 Heritage Institute and City University of Mogadishu, Somalia’s Healthcare System: A Baseline Study & Human Capital
Development Strategy, May 2020, url, p. 15
359 Ahmed, Z. et al., Understanding the factors affecting the humanitarian health and nutrition response for women andchildren in Somalia since 2000: a case study, 27 May 2020, url, p. 8

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

hospitals in Mogadishu. The source believes that Qatar has invested in one hospital and knows that
Kuwait has invested in another hospital (which also treats COVID-19). Another donor are the Emirates.
Italy has not opened any hospitals, but the Italian government finances health programmes
throughout Somalia. Among the programmes are Mother and Child clinics, donating drugs/equipment
to hospitals, and supporting the Ministry of Health and general health institution building in
Mogadishu and the Federal Member States. 360
An assessment conducted in September 2020 found that ‘severe access barriers to basic healthservices’ contributed to high morbidity and death rates among some IDP populations in Mogadishu. 361
As for the treatment prospects for persons with mental disorders, it has been noted that there is a‘particularly acute’ shortage of mental health specialists. 362 According to estimates by local doctors,
there are only about 15 psychiatrists across the country. In a few larger cities including Mogadishu,
hospitals have psychiatric wards, although their capacity is very limited. 363 It has been noted that there
are no institutions authorised to verify the qualifications of hospital staff working in mental
healthcare.364
While it has been noted that minority groups such as the Bantu, Tumaal, Rerhamar/Benadiri andMadhibani suffer from exclusion, rights violations and lack of protection 365 (for further information,please sections 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles), the researchers of
local studies commissioned by the Danish Immigration Service reportedly ‘did not observe signs ofclan-based discrimination in any of waiting rooms’ of health facilities included in their researchsample. The DIS referred to several sources emphasising that there is no clan-based discrimination
with regard to access to healthcare. 366 Another report quoted the director of the Keysaney hospital, afacility run by the Somali Red Crescent (with the support of the International Committee of the Red
Cross - ICRC), as saying that the hospital ‘admits all patients regardless of their clan, religion or politicalaffiliations’.367
Displaced persons and humanitarian workers interviewed in IDP camps in three districts in the
Mogadishu area stated that IDP’s access to healthcare is limited. Moreover, healthcare services havebeen scaled down by nearly half as a result of night-time curfews and other restrictions linked to the
COVID-19 pandemic (including measures to limit crowding in clinics). 368 Mobile health services serve
some outskirt camps on weekly or bi-weekly basis, but neither these services nor diagnosis or
medication are regular. Many people interviewed by Bakonyi and her team in IDP camps had
underlying health issues, such as diabetes or kidney stones, but either did not receive treatment or
360 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
361 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 37
362 Heritage Institute and City University of Mogadishu, Somalia’s Healthcare System: A Baseline Study & Human Capital

Development Strategy, May 2020, url, p. 42
363 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the mental
ill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a -11559,
19 April 2021, url
364 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Umgang mit psychisch kranken Personen; Zugang zu Behandlung vonpsychischen Erkrankungen; Umgang mit alkoholabhängigen Personen und Gefährdung; Behandlungsmöglichkeiten vonAlkoholabusus [Query response on Somalia: Situation of persons with mental illness; access to treatments for the mental
ill; situation and risks facing persons addicted to alcohol; treatments for alcohol abuse [source: Markus Hoehne]], a -11559,
19 April 2021, url
365 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 4
366 Denmark, DIS, Somalia – Health System, November 2020, url, p. 31
367 ICRC, Somalia: 28 years of providing health care in Mogadishu, 17 February 2020, url
368 AI, Somalia: Internally displaced people surviving by “the grace of God” amidst COVID-19, 21 July 2020, url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

received medication only on an irregular basis, either because it was not available or people wereunable to pay for it. 369
Regarding the COVID-19 situation, in March 2020, the first wave of the pandemic reached Somalia.370
In the same month the Federal Ministry of Health (MoH) developed a ‘national contingency plan for
preparedness and response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)’ for Somalia with the supportof the WHO and other international organisations, which allocated an almost 5 million US Dollars-fund
for the development and rehabilitation of nationwide healthcare facilities. 371 Mogadishu was one of
only a few places were a COVID-19 response was rolled out. 372 UN agencies and cluster partners
provided additional funding as outlined in their ‘Somalia Country Preparedness and Response Plan
(CPRP) COVID-19’.373 The government established a national response committee and an incident
management system. Mogadishu accounted for over a third of all COVID-19 cases reported in Somalia
between March and November 2020. 374 It has been reported that in March 2021, the country received
a first batch of COVID-19 vaccines and launched the vaccination rollout in Mogadishu. 375 As Bakonyi
noted most recently with reference to a Somali government official, a total of 500 000 doses has beendelivered to Somalia from the United Kingdom and China. 376 By late April, ‘a total of 121,743 people
in Somalia [had] received their first doses of the Oxford Astra-Zeneca vaccine’. 377 There was a lack of
hospitals treating COVID-19 patients. A May 2020 report cited Mogadishu’s De Martino Hospital as
the only facility dedicated to the treatment of COVID-19 cases.378 In addition, a lack of medical
equipment prevails, as BBC News reported in June 2021. The article quoted Dr Ubah Farah Ahmed,
director of the family health department at Somalia's health ministry, saying that ‘no government-run
hospitals have oxygen plants. Only three private hospitals in the capital, Mogadishu, have them.’ 379 A
2021 report noted that according to some sources, free COVID-19 testing is offered by the De Martino
hospital in Mogadishu. Other sources complained about ‘a lack of testing facilities, or a refusal totest’.380 Displaced persons and humanitarian workers interviewed in IDP camps in three districts in the
Mogadishu area stated that there were no COVID-19 testing facilities within IDP camps.381

1.3.5 Education for children
In principle, children’s education is free and compulsory. Although, school attendance is notenforced.382 Article 30 (1-2) of the Provisional Constitution grants free primary and secondary

369 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
370 UN Somalia, UN Country Results Report: Somalia 2020, March 2021, url, p. 5
371 Federal Republic of Somalia Somalia, MoH, National Contingency Plan for Preparedness and Response to theCoronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Somalia, March-June 2020, 5 March 2020, url, pp. 9-10; Braam, D. H. et al.,
Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict Affected Populations – a
Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, pp. 2-3
372 Ahmed, M. A. M. et al., COVID-19 in Somalia: Adherence to Preventive Measures and Evolution of the Disease Burden, 6
September 2020, url, p. 8
373 UNOCHA, Somalia Country Preparedness and Response Plan (CPRP) COVID-19: UN and Partners’ Support Towards the
Immediate Humanitarian and Socio-Economic Consequences of COVID-19, August 2020, 23 April 2020, url, pp. 7, 22
374 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview - Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 22
375 UNFPA, UNFPA Humanitarian Response in Somalia: Situation Report No. 3, 29 March 2021, url, p. 2
376 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
377 UNOCHA, Somalia - Humanitarian Bulletin, April 2021, 11 May 2021, url, p. 4378 Heritage Institute and City University of Mogadishu, Somalia’s Healthcare System: A Baseline Study & Human Capital
Development Strategy, May 2020, url, p. 67
379 BBC News, African Covid patients 'dying from lack of oxygen', 16 June 2021, url
380 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 5
381 AI, Somalia: Internally displaced people surviving by “the grace of God” amidst COVID-19, 21 July 2020, url
382 AACRAO, Somalia, n.d., url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

education as a basic right of all Somali citizens.383 Under Farmajo’s presidency, the Ministry of
Education has taken on and unified the development of school curricula and the administration of
exams.384 The (USDOS) reported that a new national curriculum framework was under developmentin 2020,385 which was still underway in March 2021. 386 Therein, the Federal Government of Somalia
highlighted the importance of ‘secular education with a focus on Islamic values and instruction in
Somali’ in order to ‘counter efforts by the terrorist group al-Shabaab to impose a strict version ofIslamic law’. The curriculum declared ‘Somali as the language of instruction for primary school, Islamic
religious instruction at all levels, and Arabic-language Islamic religion courses at the secondary
level.’387 Before, the educational system in Benadir was characterised by a ‘curriculum chaos’ and aninconsistent ‘language policy’ in formal basic schooling. 388

1.3.5.1 Public establishments
Primary education includes dugsi hoose (primary school), which covers the first four years of education
beginning at the age of six, followed by four years of dugsi dhexe (intermediate school). Secondary
education is differentiated between vocational secondary school (two years), dugsi sare (generalsecondary school) and technical secondary school (both four years).389 In interviews, Bakonyi reported
an amount of about 10 US dollars per month for public primary education in Mogadishu. 390 According
to informants to the Finnish fact-finding mission, the few public schools charged fees ranging from 15
to 25 US dollars for part-time to 40 to 50 US dollars for full-time per month. 391

1.3.5.2 Confessional or private school
Education in urban areas is primarily provided by various non-state actors.392 Most children accesseducation through confessional schools. Previously, the leading provider of private education was
FPENS (Formal Private Education Network in Somalia), an umbrella organization formed by Islamiccharities.393 Since the integration of the education into the ministry’s control, FPENS has lost
influence.394
In addition to the secular school system, many madrasas (Islamic schools) in Somali called dugsi
Quran395 (Quran school) exist in Mogadishu, and they play an important role. Most people try to send
their children to both secular and Islamic schools. Those, who cannot afford secular schools, rather
send their children to madrasas. For madrasas fees apply as well, but they are usually lower andteachers tend to be ‘more lenient’ and children will not be expelled immediately if the parents cannot
pay the amount. Generally, there is a lenient attitude to a varying degree in other schools as welldepending on the location and the teachers. 396

383 Federal Republic of Somalia, Provisional Constitution, 1 August 2012, url, Article 30 (1-2); World Bank (The), Somalia

Education for Human Capital Development Project (P172434), 10 March 2021, url, p. 4
384 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
385 USDOS, International Religious Freedom Report 2020 - Somalia, 12 May 2021, url, p. 5
386 World Bank (The), Somalia Education for Human Capital Development Project (P172434), 10 March 2021, url, p. 4
387 USDOS, International Religious Freedom Report 2020 - Somalia, 12 May 2021, url, p. 5
388 Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis, 27 November 2018, url, p. 76
389 AACRAO, Somalia, n.d., url
390 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
391 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
392 World Bank (The), Somalia Education for Human Capital Development Project (P172434), 10 March 2021, url, p. 5
393 Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis, 27 November 2018, url, p. 74
394 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
395 Some sources refer to the Somali madrasa or Quran school simply as dugsi.
396 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

In March 2021, the World Bank reported that in Benadir, more than 90 % of all enrolled students wereenrolled in non-state schools.397 In March 2020, UNHCR told the Finnish fact-finding mission that 220of the 250 schools and educational institutions in Mogadishu were private for which monthly fees
between 5 and 500 US dollars applied – uniforms and materials not included. 398

1.3.5.3 Role of local, community-led and international organisations
Since the decay of the state in 1991, education in Somalia is privatised and most educational initiatives
are supported by international organisations. 399 In Mogadishu, many primary schools have beenfounded and financed by international organisations. There, enrolment was free at first, but uniforms
and materials were not included. Later, private operators 400 or Islamic charities401 took over andcharged school attendance fees in order to maintain them. 402

1.3.5.4 Enrolment and attendance
In primary schools, the net attendance ratio (NAR) 403 was 19.7 % for boys and 17.2 % for girls; at thesecondary level, the NAR was 10.6 % for boys and 7.9 % for girls.404 The NAR, literacy and enrolment
rates were higher in urban than in rural areas but very low among nomadic households. 405 The grossattendance ration (GAR) 406 was 28.6 % for boys and 25.2 % for girls in primary education; at thesecondary level, it was 28.1 % for boys and 19.6 % for girls. These countrywide figures showed a small
gender imbalance at the primary level and a greater gender imbalance at the secondary level.407
Oxfam and SSWC (Save Somali Women and Children) in 2021 presented data on primary enrolment
in Benadir of 90.3 %, the highest rate in South Central Somalia, 408 Refugees International, however,claimed in December 2019 that only 30 % of IDP children attended school. 409 Such, numbers are often
contradicting each other if one assumes that 500 000 IDPs live in Mogadishu, and a large percentageof the population in Mogadishu is considered poor. 410 A development organisation operating in
Somalia told the Finnish fact-finding mission in March 2020 that many low-income families could notafford education for their children. 411 According to a document published by the Ministry of Planning,
Investment and Economic Development presumably in 2019, enrolment of children aged 6-13 ranked

397 World Bank (The), Somalia Education for Human Capital Development Project (P172434), 10 March 2021, url, p. 5
398 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 31
399 GPE, Somalia, 30 May 2021, url; Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis,
27 November 2018, url, p. 75
400 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
401 Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis, 27 November 2018, url, p. 74
402 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
403 NAR = the proportion of children at school age attending school (6-13 for primary school, 14-17 for secondary school),see Somalia and UNFPA, The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, p. 24
404 Somalia and UNFPA, The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, p. 25
405 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 38; Somalia and UNFPA, The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, p. 25
406 GAR = the total number of school students relative to the official school-age population, see Somalia and UNFPA, The
Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, p. 24
407 Somalia and UNFPA, The Somali Health and Demographic Survey 2020, April 2020, url, p. 25
408 Oxfam and SSWC, Gender Gap Assessment - South Central Somalia and Puntland, 11 January 2021, url, p. 41
409 Refugees International, Durable Solutions in Somalia: Moving from Policies to Practice for IDPs in Mogadishu, December
2019, url, p. 15
410 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
411 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 32

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

at 60 %412 and World Bank assessment from 2019 showed that satisfaction with primary education
was at 95 % in Mogadishu. 413
In 2018, out of a sample of 1 349 learners enrolled at the primary level in Benadir, 739 were boys and
610 were girls. The attendance rate in relation to the numbers of enrolments was particularly low in
Benadir with 61 % (70 % boys and 51 % girls). Computed numbers of enrolled learners with physicaldisabilities were 0.07 % of the total enrolment rate at primary level in Benadir. All of them were boys.
The same figures applied for hearing and visually impaired learners. 36 % of displaced boys and 30 %of displaced girls participated in an integration programme at primary level. In four surveyed primaryschools in Benadir, the number of children per classroom were 36 on average. In only one out of thefour schools, classroom furniture was adequate. 414
Benadir had the second highest secondary enrolment rate in South Central Somalia and Puntland.
When asked about the reasons why their children did not attend secondary school, 83.3 % of the
responding parents in Puntland and South Central Somalia told Oxfam and SSCW they had no money
to send them to school. 415 Despite the constitutional declaration, fees apply for all secondary schools,
and only few of them operate in Mogadishu. 416

1.3.5.5 Teaching quality
In September 2020, secondary schools in Mogadishu reported massive failure in the national
examination. In response, the Education Minister Goddah Barre spoke of poor quality of tutors. 417 TheWorld Bank noted in March 2021 that Benadir had among the lowest number of qualified primaryteachers. Results of an assessment of teachers in Benadir in 2019 showed that they lacked both
pedagogical skills and content knowledge. 418

1.3.5.6 School closures
Children’s education was disrupted by school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic from March
2020 with partial reopenings for examinations in July 2020. 419 Alternative learning platforms were
implemented in cooperation with the Ministry of Education at the Federal level and member states,and safe return to school campaigns were undertaken together with education stakeholders acrossthe country.420 A teacher in Mogadishu said that children had no access to online classes for primaryand secondary education during the time of the school closure. 421 In June 2021, Save the Children
reported that the number of enrolled children in Mogadishu had decreased by 17.3 % compared tothe time before the school closures. 422 The organisation conducted interviews with school children’s
412 Somalia, MoPIED, Somalia National Development Plan 2020 to 2024: The Path to a Just, Stable and Prosperous Somalia,[2019], url, p. 262
413 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 39
414 Wafula, C. and Mulongo, G., Are Children in South and Central Somalia Accessing Education, and Are They Learning?
Baseline Information, 2020, url, pp. 4-7
415 Oxfam and SSWC, Gender Gap Assessment - South Central Somalia and Puntland, 11 January 2021, url, pp. 42-43
416 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
417 East African (The), Mass exam failure stirs up a storm in Somalia, 9 September 2020, url
418 World Bank (The), Somalia Education for Human Capital Development Project (P172434), 10 March 2021, url, p. 7; seealso Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis, 27 November 2018, url, p. 76
419 Herring, E. et al., COVID-19 Responses and Education in Somalia/Somaliland, 20 October 2020, url, pp. 201, 208-209;
UNICEF, Humanitarian Action for Children: Somalia, 2021, December 2020, url, p. 2
420 Save the Children, Somalia: Coronavirus, conflict and climate crisis prevent children return to learning, Save the Children
warns, 1 June 2021, url
421 Herring, E. et al., COVID-19 Responses and Education in Somalia/Somaliland, 20 October 2020, url, p. 209
422 Save the Children, Schools Must be Open, Accessible and Safe from Attacks, Say African Children, 16 June 2021, url,
footnote ii

44Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorsparents. 71 % of the parents told them that they feared their children would catch the COVID-19-virus
at school and spread it to the family. 423 Social mobilisation activities by UNICEF in April 2021 resulted
in the enrolment of 176 school children in Galgaduud and Benadir.424
In a study co-authored by Eric Herring and others, participants in Mogadishu stated that thevulnerability among children had increased in the context of the school closures due to more timespent at home. Girls, in particular, faced a higher risk of violence and exploitation by their families aswell as of being forced into early marriage. 425 Similarly, Save the Children warned of children’s risk ofbeing forced into child marriage, child labour, or domestic chores when not continuing theireducation.426

1.3.6 Means of basic subsistence and employment
In Mogadishu, 64 % of households were engaged in wage labour in 2019, according to calculations
based on the 2nd Somali High Frequency Survey conducted in 2017. 427 Sources interviewed for areport on a Finnish fact-finding mission in March 2020 stated that employment opportunities in
Mogadishu were ‘limited’ and the best jobs among the few ones on offer were ‘usually taken’. 428
Reportedly, work opportunities were offered by building sites (wages can be approx. 100 USD per
month), the Port of Mogadishu, NGOs, the Somali government and by security forces such as thepolice and the military. 429 According to Bakonyi, all following salary data are estimates only. Local
sources indicated that people working with the United Nations or international NGOs are better paid
and can earn between 1 000 (starting salary) and 5 000 USD, which is why these jobs are in highdemand. A member of parliament currently earns 3 500 USD. The salaries of most skilled jobs such asuniversity lecturers, professors and civil servants were estimated to range between 400 and 700 USD(senior level), a teacher earns between 200 and 400 USD per month and a housemaid (full time)
between 50 and 70 USD per month. 430 There were no precise statistics on unemployment, but thefigure was estimated to be high. 431 Public health measures to contain the spread of COVID-19 haveseverely impacted people’s income and livelihoods. 432 Regarding the labour situation in the formal
sector, a World Bank/UNIDO survey of private businesses across five major cities in Somalia (including
Mogadishu) found that the rate of employment dropped by 30 % as a result of COVID measures. The
World Bank notes that while micro-enterprises (the most common type of formal-sector business inSomalia) were generally reported to be ‘less affected […] compared to large firms’, some 31 % of these423 Save the Children, Somalia: Coronavirus, conflict and climate crisis prevent children return to learning, Save the Children

warns, 1 June 2021, url
424 UNICEF, Somalia: Humanitarian Situation Report No. 4, April 2021, url, p. 3425 Herring, E. et al., COVID-19 Responses and Education in Somalia/Somaliland, 20 October 2020, url, p. 214
426 Save the Children, Somalia: Coronavirus, conflict and climate crisis prevent children return to learning, Save the Children
warns, 1 June 2021, url
427 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali H igh Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 51
428 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 32
429 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 33
430 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
431 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 33
432 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 2

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

enterprises in Mogadishu had to suspend their activities, and over 90 % reported shortfalls in
liquidity.433
According to UNOCHA, most poor households in urban centres like Mogadishu (these include IDP
households, the non-IDP urban poor and/or migrants from rural areas) have to rely on casual labour
to secure an income. 434 The Finnish fact-finding mission quoted an international organisation as sayingthat many in Mogadishu lived from small-scale sales at markets or worked at restaurants and tea
shops. UNHCR noted that women selling fruit at markets usually earn a maximum of 1-2 USD per
day.435 A 2020 study on Bajaj drivers in Mogadishu stated that more than 60 % of the 400 surveyed
respondents said their average income was about 15-20 USD a day.436 Vulnerable and uneducatedpersons are particularly affected by ‘severe lack of access to the labour market in urban settings’. 437
This situation is compounded by a steady influx of displaced people from the countryside that has
resulted in increased competition for urban livelihoods. 438 Concerning the impact of COVID measureson the informal sector, in a recent qualitative study conducted among IDPs and host population
members in Mogadishu (Daynile district) and Baidoa, respondents emphasised that it was the COVIDrelated lockdowns, curfews and restrictions on travel (rather than the disease itself) that had the mostsignificant impact on their daily lives, with the studied population described by the authors as being‘highly dependent on daily wage labour’. Nearly half of the respondents reported that they had losttheir incomes and/or their jobs as a result of these measures, although ‘the level to which people
were affected economically, depended on the type of livelihood or other daily activity such as
education or household responsibilities’. 439 For example, as reported by the Somalia Public Agenda,
small roadside businesses like small cafes or restaurants that used to operate both day and night wereaffected by the night-time curfews and have lost large numbers of customers. Some have been forced
to close. Similarly, curfews and reduced numbers of passengers have affected the city’s important
rickshaw (bajaj) business, and ‘many middle-sized hotels have either temporarily closed or reduced
their catering capacity’. 440 According to a 2020 study by IOM and the local research firm Raagsan
Consulting in Mogadishu, ‘woman-owned businesses have been especially hard-hit’. Nearly 60 % of
the female-led businesses surveyed said ‘they had been forced to shut down during the pandemic,
with about one third of that group closing permanently.’ 441
Strategies employed by residents to cope with the drop or loss of income included buying less, living
off savings or relying on one’s family network. 442 Remittances from family members and relatives(though not accessible for most IDPs) have been playing a significant role as a coping mechanism inSomalia.443 However, as family members (including those living abroad) were affected by job loss,
illness or inability to travel to Somalia during the pandemic, remittances decreased. 444 According to

433 World Bank (The), Coronavirus and fragility: The impact of COVID-19 on Somalia’s private sector, 13 January 2021, url
434 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 8
435 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, pp. 33-34
436 SRA, A Closer Look at Bajaj Drivers in Mogadishu-Somalia, 2020, url, p. 4
437 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 8
438 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 23
439 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 6
440 Somalia Public Agenda, The impact of Covid-19 on the informal economy of Mogadishu, 4 June 2020, url
441 IOM, IOM Empowers Women Business Owners in Somalia to Recover from COVID-19 Impact, 12 August 2020, url
442 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict
Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 6
443 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 36
444 Braam, D., COVID-19 impact on health and livelihoods in a complex emergency, n.d., url; see also UN-Habitat, EU cashtransfer supports unemployed father injured in Mogadishu blast, 3 June 2021, url

46

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorsconservative estimates, remittances sent to Somalia decreased by almost 50 %.445 A 2021 report notedthat remittances, ‘decreased by about 36 % in April [2020]. By September, at least half of people
surveyed nationwide reported receiving less remittances.’ 446

1.4 Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specificgroups
1.4.1 Clan-based protection
In Mogadishu, the Hawiye clan, and in particular their Abgaal and Habar Gidir subclans are reported
as constituting a majority influencing political processes and a significant part of the government
forces.447 Apart from these, most clans (or even all clans 448) are represented in Mogadishu. 449 The
majority of the city’s districts are heterogeneous in terms of clan affiliation,450 but according to a
World Bank report ‘the dominant clans of these districts invoke the right to govern and enjoy most ofwhatever “rents” accrue from control of the district, such as local taxes, jobs, and contracts’.451
The Hawiye clans have been campaigning for the creation of a clan-based Benadir Federal Member
State (with Mogadishu as its capital), arguing that Hawiye are the only clan family without politicalrepresentation, but the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) has so far rejected these demands
according to a 2021 World Bank report. The debate whether Mogadishu should be governed by locallydominant clans like other Federal Member States (FMS) or should be considered as capital belonging
to all clans, remains undecided at this point. 452 For more details, please see section 7.3.1 of EASO’s
COI report Somalia: Actors, published in July 2021.
A report by the Finnish Immigration Service states that while there are certain freedoms for people
outside the powerful lineages (e.g. regarding freedom of movement), clan networks play a very
important role in Mogadishu. 453 The UNHCR confirms this in its assessment that ‘people without
strong social networks and financially capable relatives will not be able to access financial support’ 454.
It has been noted that if someone wished to engage in business-related activities of any significant
scale, this would require the support of the dominant clan groups that wield economic and politicalpower.455
Indeed, most of Mogadishu’s districts are treated as the domains of their most numerically and‘politically dominant sub-clans’456, while only few administration heads belong to groups other than
445 Somalia Public Agenda, The impact of Covid-19 on the informal economy of Mogadishu, 4 June 2020, url
446 Braam, D. H. et al., Lockdowns, Lives and Livelihoods: the Impact of COVID-19 and Public Health Responses to Conflict

Affected Populations – a Remote Qualitative Study in Baidoa and Mogadishu, 12 June 2021, url, p. 8447 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021; Norway, Landinfo, Sikkerhetsmessige utfordringer i Mogadishu, 15 May 2018,
url, p. 13
448 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 4
449 Norway, Landinfo, Sikkerhetsmessige utfordringer i Mogadishu, 15 May 2018, url, pp. 13-14
450 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 4
451 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 90
452 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 24
453 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 4
454 UNHCR, UNHCR Somalia Interim Livelihoods Strategy 2021-2022, April 2021, url, p. 10455 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 4456 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 90

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

the Abgaal and Habar Gidir and display limited influence. 457 Clans and their social and political leaders
are also involved in the distribution of resources. This, according to a World Bank report, ‘works
against the transparent, merit-based, and equitable allocation of resources that serve moremarginalized groups’. 458
As outlined in EASO’s report Somalia: Actors from July 2021, the clan network provides protection andsolidarity among its members and members of other clans with whom an arrangement has beenconcluded, as well as towards closely affiliated individuals outside the clan context. 459 However, a factfinding report by the Norwegian Organisation for Asylum Seekers (NOAS) from 2014 stated that thescope of protection was only limited, particularly in Mogadishu, where many districts were generally
deemed unsafe. Furthermore, protection for members of minority clans was weaker than formembers of strong clans. 460 Minority groups like the Bantu, Tumaal, Reer Hamar/Benadiri, andMadhiban occupy a weak position in society, some are subjected to racist discriminations 461 or‘removed from the clan-based support system that gives others a safety net and protection.’ 462
Geographically, most IDPs live clustered in ‘peri-urban areas’, and belong to non-dominant clangroups. They are, therefore, both physically and socially excluded from network -reliant services.
Moreover, many IDPs come from rural areas in southern Somalia and lack the skills needed to secure
livelihoods in an urban environment, which confines them to low-paid day jobs463 or exhausting petty
entrepreneurial activities. 464 Returnees who have been absent for several years with little clan contact
may also lack clan support. 465 Thus, marginalised groups lack financial means and face difficulties whenit comes to acquiring land, defending land ownership rights or jobs. 466 Indeed, it has been reported
that people from minority groups have much lower chances ‘of getting a job, even if they are educatedand have a university degree’ and even when it comes to employment in ‘the Somali government orinternational organisations’. 467
Meanwhile, many people from minority groups enter ‘into an alliance with local powerful clans inorder to protect themselves against instability and legal infringements’ 468
Moreover, an expert noted that within the same clan, not every member is treated equally. People
may be favoured or disadvantaged based on their wealth, specific patrilineal lineage, gender (men are
advantaged in the patrilinear logic) or the morality of their behaviour. For instance, individuals who
have suffered rape, committed crimes, consumed drugs or otherwise display fragility may find lesssupport within their family networks or wider society. Thus, while kinship networks allow some people
457 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions

in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 40
458 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 90
459
Van Notten, M, The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic Development in the Horn of Africa, 2005, pp.
49-61
460
NOAS, Persecution and Protection in Somalia: A Fact-Finding Report by NOAS, 2014, url, pp. 40-41
461 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 4
462 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Developm ent, 2020, url, p. 11
463 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 23
464 Bakonyi, J. and Chonka, P., Precarious Labour – Precarious Lives: Photographic Glimpses from Displaced People inSomali Cities, January 2021, url, p. 205
465
NOAS, Persecution and Protection in Somalia: A Fact-Finding Report by NOAS, 2014, url, pp. 8, 40-42
466

Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, pp. 42-43
467 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 43
468 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Fact-finding mission to Mogadishu in March 2020, Security situation and humanitarian conditions
in Mogadishu, 7 August 2020, url, p. 44

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators(including returnees) to get support, such as borrowing money, finding accommodation and obtain
accessing the job market, others may not receive or receive only very little help. 469

1.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups
1.4.2.1 Returnees
The majority of returnees from neighbouring countries as well as from the diaspora settle in cities,
such as Mogadishu, Kismayo or Baidoa,470 with many opting ‘not to return to their areas of origin,preferring to settle in urban areas’. 471 DIS explained in their report from July 2020 that there were no
support structures in place regarding failed asylum seekers returning to Somalia from Europe withouta network.472 Large numbers of returnees who lack financial means end up in IDP camps where theliving conditions are no different than for those internally displaced, 473 thus with ‘limited access tobasic services.’ The urban system is ‘already overburdened due to a lack of funding to cover the needsof a rapidly growing urban population’, according to UNOCHA. 474 At the same time, some sources
outline that returnees educated and trained abroad may come back with a broader set of skills thatallows them to access better jobs compared to those who have remained in Somalia. Meanwhile,
Bakonyi emphasised that networks of families, neighbours, and friends are highly significant for
returnees. The support they may be able to muster depends, among others, on whether a person has
maintained social networks (including clan-based networks) and can upon return mobilise help fromit. In a similar vein, clan-based networks play a crucial role, which is why most returnees (though notall) settle in areas where they can find members of their own clan. 475

1.4.2.2 Vulnerable groups
Endemic insecurity, recurrent violence and climatic shocks have left a large segment of the population
vulnerable and with few coping mechanisms. According to a World Bank report, people withou t accessto social safety nets and those who are chronically poor often adopt coping mechanisms that further
increase their vulnerability, such as ‘selling or consuming productive assets, incurring debt, taking
children out of school, foregoing medical care or reducing the share of meals consumed’. 476
IDPs

469 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch

staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi] [source: Markus Hoehne],
31 May 2021, url, pp. 33-34
470 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi] [source: Jutta Bakonyi],
31 May 2021, url, p. 24; World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development,
2020, url, p. 36; see also UN-Habitat and JPLG, Towards Mogadishu: Spatial Strategic Plan, Urban Analyses / Urban
Development Challenges / Urban Strategic Planning, 2019, url, p. 21; Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2020 Country Report —Somalia, 2020, url, p. 28
471 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 44
472
Denmark, DIS, South and Central Somalia: Security situation, forced recruitment, and conditions for returnees, July
2020, url, para. 14
473 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi] [source: Jutta Bakonyi],
31 May 2021, url, pp. 24-25, 27
474 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 44
475 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi] [source: Jutta Bakonyi],
31 May 2021, url, p. 25
476 World Bank (The), Somali Poverty and Vulnerability Assessment: Findings from Wave 2 of the Somali High Frequency
Survey, April 2019, url, p. 105

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

According to UNOCHA, IDPs ‘have limited livelihood assets and options, and therefore often rely on
external humanitarian assistance’, adding that their situation ‘has worsened in the COVID-19
pandemic context with declined remittances, increased food prices, and declined employment andincome earning opportunities (particularly in urban areas).’ 477 Accordingly, ‘IDPs are the mostimpoverished demographic group in urban centres’, with IDP settlements often ‘governed bygatekeepers, and overcrowded’.478‘Gatekeepers‘ organise IDP camps and act as middlepersons between IDPs, humanitarianorganisations and landowners. 479 They play a pivotal role in the operation of IDP camps and also
provide basic services for a fee (including emergency medical care 480 ), albeit ‘usually of very poor
quality’481 , thus ‘fill[ing] a vacuum left by a weak government incapable of meeting those needs, anda humanitarian community limited in its operations by Mogadishu’s prevailing insecurity’. 482 According
to a 2019 report, gatekeepers have ‘established themselves as unavoidable actors in relation to aid
delivery to IDPs, positioning themselves as intermediaries between the displaced and external actors,
including the local government and the humanitarian community.’ 483 It has been reported that whenhumanitarian aid is delivered, gatekeepers and/or landowners reportedly keep a share of thisdelivery484, using them as rents for their land or services. 485 Gatekeepers have thus been criticised as
being criminal and abusive, preventing humanitarian organisations from directly accessing IDPs, butothers have also noted that gatekeepers may ‘care deeply about the well-being‘ of the campinhabitants486 or at least support the IDPs initial settlement and ability to navigate the city. 487
For more information on IDPs, please see sections 1.1.2.3 Displacement and humanitarian assistance,
1.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city and 1.3.2.3 Informal settlements and IDP sites.
Persons with disabilities
According to UNOCHA, ‘persons with disabilities are often excluded from humanitarian assistanceeither due to exploitation, pre-existing discrimination and stigma or due to a lack of adequate
consideration’. 488 A representative of an organisation for the rights of disabled persons in Somalia
stated that international aid does often not reach Somalia’s disabled community and that ‘the UN and
the international agencies don’t give much priority and attention’ to persons with disabilities. 489

477 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan, Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, p. 22
478 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Needs Overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 23
479 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch

staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi] [source: Jutta Bakonyi],
31 May 2021, url, pp. 19-20; see also Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions andPrecarious Mobility in Somali Cities, 15 October 2020, url, pp. 13-14
480 TNH, Somalia’s displacement camp ‘gatekeepers’ – ‘parasites’ or aid partners?, 18 July 2019, url
481 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5
482 TNH, Somalia’s displacement camp ‘gatekeepers’ – ‘parasites’ or aid partners?, 18 July 2019, url
483 IIED et al., Access to shelter and services for low-income groups: lessons from Hawassa, Mogadishu and Nairobi on thepolitics of informal settlements and shelter access, October 2019, url, p. 5
484 ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi] [source: Jutta Bakonyi],
31 May 2021, url, pp. 19-20
485 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
486 TNH, Somalia’s displacement camp ‘gatekeepers’ – ‘parasites’ or aid partners?, 18 July 2019, url
487 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
488 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan, Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, p. 20
489 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Mogadischu: Informationen zu Repressalien, Diskriminierung oder sonstiger
Ausgrenzung gegenüber körperlich behinderten Personen; gesundheitliche Unterstützung für körperlich behinderte50Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Moreover, the source adds, ‘exclusion leads disabled to falls further into chronic poverty with little
opportunity of breaking out of the cycle. When the main family breadwinner becomes disabled thewhole households risks sliding more deeply into poverty.’ 490 The COVID-19 pandemic, with its impact
on an ‘already fragile’ healthcare system and socio-economic welfare mechanisms has further
exacerbated the pre-existing dire situation of vulnerable groups. 491
Women and girls
While women are not per se vulnerable, they are generally disadvantaged in the patriarchal social set
up of Somalia and thus, they are more likely to become vulnerable than men. Gender disparities in
education, the social obligation towards unpaid care-work, the increased risk of women to become
victims of gender-based and domestic violence and their exclusion from (political) decision making
contribute to their overall increased vulnerability. 492 The gendered division of labour can force womenfrom poor urban households to take on jobs or to engage in entrepreneurial activities that bear a highrisk of exploitation and even violence. It limits participation of women in better paid socio -economic
activities and, in case of divorce or death of male partners, makes women more prone to poverty andprecarity. The unequal access to inheritance and land ownership additionally increases theirdependence on male family members and partners. 493 DIS and DRC in a report on a fact-finding
mission conducted in December 2017 cite an anonymous source as saying that ‘the situation isparticularly dire for single women without a clan network and women who are internally displaced.
The existence of a clan network can offer an individual, including a single woman, a level ofprotection.’494 The same source adds that in Mogadishu, single women without a network areparticularly vulnerable to violence and that the situation in IDP camps makes them even more
vulnerable to SGBV (Sexual and Gender Based Violence).495 According to a 2019 report by the Ministryof Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, the lack of protection in combination with the patriarchal system
results in discrimination and exclusion of single women. 496 According to Bakonyi, the position of
women who are divorced or widowed depends on their social and economic situation, and to someextend on them and their children’s’ clan affiliation (children belong to the clan of the father) and the
support network they can mobilise. Male family members (fathers, brothers of the father) are often
favoured when it comes to custody of children and inheritance (here brother of the women). Single
women (unmarried, not divorced, without children) usually live with their families or, if they shift

Personen seitens staatlicher oder privater Einrichtungen sowie seitens NGOs [Query response on reprisals, discriminationor other marginalization against physically disabled people; Health support for physically handicapped people from state or
private institutions as well as from NGOs], a-11388-2 (11389) , 16 October 2020, url
490 ACCORD, Anfragebeantwortung zu Somalia: Mogadischu: Informationen zu Repressalien, Diskriminierung oder sonstiger
Ausgrenzung gegenüber körperlich behinderten Personen; gesundheitliche Unterstützung für körperlich behinderte
Personen seitens staatlicher oder privater Einrichtungen sowie seitens NGOs [Query response on reprisals, discriminationor other marginalization against physically disabled people; Health support for physically handicapped people from state or
private institutions as well as from NGOs], a-11388-2 (11389), 16 October 2020, url
491 UNOCHA, Somalia Humanitarian Response Plan 2020: HRP Revision – COVID-19 (July 2020), 26 July 2020, url, p. 24
492
Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021; USDOS, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Somalia, 30 March
2021, url, p. 32
493 Bakonyi, J., communication, 7 July 2021
494 Denmark, DIS and DRC, South and Central Somalia - Security Situation, al-Shabaab Presence, and Target Groups, 8
March 2017, url, p. 54; see also Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Lifos Report, Somalia: the position of women in theclan system, 27 April 2018, url, p. 13
495 Denmark, DIS and DRC, South and Central Somalia - Security Situation, al-Shabaab Presence, and Target Groups, 8
March 2017, url, p. 55; see also USDOS, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - Somalia, 30 March 2021, url, pp.
30-31
496 The Netherlands, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Country of Origin Information Report on South and Central Somalia, March
2019, url, p. 44

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

towns, with other relatives. Their social position and vulnerability depends on their families social andeconomic standing, and on their education and occupation. 497
For more information on women without a support network in Somalia, please see section 2.5. of
EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles (September 2021).

2. Garowe
2.1 Garowe’s overview
Garowe city (sometimes written ‘Garoowe’) is located in the Garowe district, one of the four districtsof the Nugaal region, which lies in the Nugaaleed Valley (sometimes referred to as Nogal or Nugal
Valley), in Puntland, a federal member state of Somalia situated to the north-east of the country.
Puntland borders Ethiopia to the southwest, the Indian Ocean to the east, the Gulf of Ad en to theNorth, Somaliland to the northwest (disputed border area) and the Galmudug state of Somalia to thesouth (disputed border). 498
Garowe city is located between two riverbeds which are dry except for the rainy seasons (Deyr from
October to November and Gu from April to June). Garowe’s climate is arid. 499
After Bosasso and Galkacyo (also Galkayo), Garowe is the third-largest city in Puntland and theadministrative capital of the self-declared autonomous state (since 1998) of Puntland. 500 The
executive, parliamentary and judiciary branches of the state are based in Garowe. 501
In January 2019, Said Abdullahi Deni and Ahmed Elmi Karash were elected respectively as President
and Vice-President of Puntland. 502 Since the end of August 2018, Ahmed Said Muse holds the positionof mayor of Garowe. 503

2.1.1 Demographics and clan composition
2.1.1.1 Puntland
Since the establishment of Puntland as an autonomous region in 1998, Garowe’s population
significantly increased. 504 In 2012, Puntland became the first federal member state of Somalia. 505

497 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
498 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 6; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Nugaaleed Valley, last updated 20 July

1998, url; KAALO and OXFAM, Gender Analysis of the Impact of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, andBoys in Puntland State in Somalia, April 2021, url, p. 10; Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory
And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 8
499 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 10; BBC News, Puntland profile, 11 March 2019, url; Jama, A. A.
and Mourad, K. A., Water Services Sustainability: Institutional Arrangements and Shared Responsibilities, 11 February
2019, url, p. 6
500 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 6; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Puntland, n.d., url; KAALO and OXFAM,
Gender Analysis of the Impact of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, and Boys in Puntland State inSomalia, April 2021, url, p. 10; BBC News, Puntland profile, 11 March 2019, url; Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of
The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 3
501 UN Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 6; see also Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State:
Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 3
502 UNSOM, UNSOM Congratulates Said Abdullahi Deni on Election as President of Puntland, 9 January 2019, url; VOA,
Somalia’s Puntland Region Elects New President, 8 January 2019, url
503 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 66
504 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 3
505 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2018 Country Report - Somalia, 2018, url, p. 1252

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

The Puntland government estimated its population at 2.4 million in 2003 506 and at 4.3 million in
2016507. Puntland’s population is the densest in urban areas such as Bosasso, Galkacyo, and thecapital, Garowe.508 However, in a 2017 research paper, social scientist Strøh Varming cautions that in
the Somali territories, census ‘ have been scarce and highly disputed since the 1980s, and the refore
reliable figures are hard to come by’.509
According to Strøh Varming, Puntland’s growth in the last decades is due in part to people from theDarood- Majeerteen clans returning ‘from Mogadishu and other urban areas in south Somalia to their“original” clan territories in Puntland’ attracted by the relative peace and stability in Puntland.510
Puntland’s population growth is also attributed to the influx of IDPs from the other regions andrefugees from Ethiopia and Yemen, many of Somali descent. 511 The towns of Galkacyo, Bosasso,
Garden, Goldogob, Burtinle, and Garowe hosted an estimated number of 270 000 IDPs based on datafrom the Economic Commission for Africa from 2013. 512 A more current number for the estimatedtotal number of IDPs in Puntland by UNHCR is 388 500.513
For further general information on Puntland, please see section 7.6 of EASO’s COI report Somalia:
Actors, published in July 2021.

2.1.1.2 Garowe district and Garowe City
The urban population of Garowe district, which is by and large identical with Garowe city 514, increased
steadily in the past decades. UN-Habitat compared data by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) from 2005 with an estimate by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) from2014 counting an urban population of almost 100 000 in Garowe district, indicating that ‘thepopulation has more than doubled in less than 10 years’. The same source noted that these figuresdiffer in the summer and the winter due to the influx of inhabitants from the coastal region who leave
hot summer temperatures and high humidity behind. 515 Garowe experienced rapid urban growth after
the central government’s collapse in 1991 and partly also due to its status as political andadministrative capital of Puntland. IDPs and returnees fleeing conflict in other parts of the country, as
well as Ethiopian and Yemeni refugees, contributed to the growth. 516

2.1.1.3 Clans
The Majeerteen – who belong to the Harti branch of the Darood clan-family517 – constitute the vast
majority of the population of Puntland, including Garowe. 518 They are the dominant group in Puntland.
506 Puntland State of Somalia, Puntland Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Puntland facts and figures

2003, 2003, url, p. 11
507 Puntland State of Somalia, Puntland Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, Department of Statistics,
Puntland facts and figures 2012-2017, url, p. 3
508 KAALO and OXFAM, Gender Analysis of the Impact of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, and Boys in
Puntland State in Somalia, April 2021, url, p. 10509 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 31,
endnote 6; see also US, CIA, The World Factbook Somalia, last updated 27 July 2021, url
510 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 10
511 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 8; Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory
And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 10; see also Jama, A. A. and Mourad, K. A. Water Services Sustainability:
Institutional Arrangements and Shared Responsibilities, 11 February 2019, url, p. 5
512 Mohamud, A. A. et al., Benefits, Mechanisms and Challenges of Integration of Internal Displaced People into Local
Community-The Case of Garowe, 14 May 2018, url, p. 429
513 UNHCR, Operational Data Portal, Estimated IDPs in Somalia, last updated 1 January 2021, url
514 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
515 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 88
516 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 8517 Hoehne, M. V., Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in northern Somalia. Africa 79(2),2009, pp. 261-262
518 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, pp. 8-9;53

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

The three main sub-clans of the Majeerteen are the Osman Mahamoud (also Osman Mahmud, settled
in and around Qardho and Bosasso), the Omar Mahmoud (also Omar Mahmud, settled in and around
Galkacyo) and the Isse Mahmoud (also Issa Mahmud, settled in and around Garowe). Garowe District
and Garowe city were established on the territory of the Isse Mahmoud. Therefore, they are thetraditional inhabitants of the Garowe district, Garowe city included. Since Garowe City is the capitalof Puntland, people of the other Majeerteen sub-clans have come to settle in the city, as well as people
from other clans. 519
In 2017, Kristine Strøh Varming who conducted fieldwork in Garowe city wrote about clan identity:‘Particularly in major towns like Boosaaso and Garoowe, […] clan diversity – although still primarily
within Darood, but also with the presence of other Harti clans (Dhulbahante, Warsangeli andMarehan, Isaaq from Somaliland and Rahanweyn from Baydhabo) – is becoming more prevalent due
to rapid urbanization and internal migration.’ 520

2.1.2 Humanitarian situation overview
2.1.2.1 General information
Puntland regularly faces droughts and floods, locusts, which tend to render its population vulnerable
and impede its access to food, income, education, and health. According to KAALO and Oxfam
Puntlanders’ livelihoods, livestock, and land are ‘decimated’ by climatic shocks (general inconsistentand drastic climate variability as well as less common meteorological events like Cyclone Gati in
November 2020) and recent locust infestations.521 Puntland is notably threatened by water shortages.
Pre-drought conditions have been found by local authorities, UNOCHA, and partners in Puntland andother regions of Somalia in December 2020 and January 2021. The assessment noted ‘widely depleted
berkeds522 and shallow wells, loss of livestock, as well as extensive critical loss of pasture ’.523
Puntland has been affected by a desert locust infestation, which showed signs of decline in March
2021. However, in the plateaus of Garowe, among other locations, newly formed immature swarms
were observed.524 The Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU) in Somalia points to the risk
for Gu season crop production as well as pasture availability (already impacted by previous drought
conditions) posed by desert locust hatching and band formation. 525
21 settlements are home to close to 5 400 IDP households in and around Garowe, according to Shelter
Cluster as of 2016. 526 Parts of this large IDP population was relocated to sites at the city’s southeastern outskirts which lack a proper integration within the city’s urban fabric. 527 Sites assessments
conducted by the Global Camp Coordination and Camp Management (CCCM) Cluste r from December
2020 to March 2021 classified IDPs’ needs in terms of protection, health and water, sanitation and

ACCORD, Clans in Somalia - Report on a Lecture by Joakim Gundel, COI Workshop Vienna, 15 May 2009 (Revised Edition),
15 December 2009, url, p. 12; UNOCHA, Somalia: Clan Distribution Map, 15 February 2013, url
519 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
520 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 1414
521 KAALO and Oxfam, Gender Analysis Of The Impact Of Recent Humanitarian Crises On Women, Men, Girls, And Boys In
Puntland State In Somalia, April 2021, url, pp. 5, 105, 10
522 Often written ‘berkad’, it designates a water reservoir used in arid areas to collect water during the wet season for use
in the dry season, see Mercy Corps, Improved Berkad Designs By Mercy Corps - Somalia, 11 October 2017, url
523 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan – Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, pp. 11-1211-12
524 UNOCHA, Somalia - Situation Report, 19 April 2021, url
525 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May
2021, url, p. 5
526 Shelter Cluster, Mapping Exercise: Garowe, May 2016, url, pp. 4-6
527 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 854

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

hygiene as ‘extreme’ and the food, security & livelihoods, nutrition and education needs as ‘severe’.528
For more information on IDPs, please see section 2.2.3.2 IDPs and 2.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups.

2.1.2.2 COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic has further strained the fragile situation in Puntland, as restrictions greatly
affected livelihoods and impeded unpaid and underpaid care work. 529 The Ministry of Planning,
Economic Development and International Development (MoPEDIC) stated, at the end of 2020, thatthe implementation of lockdown measures had placed the food value -chains under major distress,
pointing especially to the international trade remittances from the diaspora and Small and MicroEnterprise Sector (SMEs) which constitute the main source of income for a large part of the Somali
population.530
As of 5 July 2021, Somalia’s Ministry of Health reported 3 377 confirmed cases of COVID-19 inPuntland, with 74 % of cases affecting men and 26 % women. 80 cases resulted in death. 531 But
according to Mohamed Mohamud Ali Fuje, chief medical adviser to the government’s COVID-19
National Task Force, Somalia’s figures are only ‘the tip of the iceberg’, because of poor testing rates.
The World Health Organization has set up three molecular COVID-19 testing laboratories that arelocated in Mogadishu, Garowe and Hargeisa. As of May 2021, no new lockdown had been decided. 532
According to a local source, as of July 2021 no lockdown is implemented in Somalia. 533

2.2 Mobility and accessibility
2.2.1 Garowe’s airport and flight connections
Garowe Airport, also called Garowe International Airport, is the third largest airport in Somalia, locatedabout 12 kilometres from Garowe’s city centre. 534 It is operated by the Puntland Ministry for Civil
Aviation and Airports. 535 Based on online flight schedules accessed through tracking sites, thefollowing connections were available from Garowe’s airport as of 27 July 2021.536
Internationally:•

These destinations are served from/to Garowe:- Addis Ababa (Ethiopian Airlines) – 5 flights/week- Nairobi (Freedom Airline Express; Jubba Airways) – 2 flights/week

Domestically:•

These destinations are served from/to Garowe:- Mogadishu (Freedom Airline Express; Jubba Airways) - 5 flights/week

528 CCCM and REACH, Detailed Site Assessment (DSA): Garowe district, Nugaal region, Somalia (March 2021), 20 June 2021,

url, p. 1
529 KAALO and Oxfam, Gender Analysis of the Impact Of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, and Boys in
Puntland State in Somalia, April 2021, url, p. 55
530 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, December 2020, url, p. IVIV
531 Federal Republic of Somalia, MoH, COVID-19 Dashboard, Somalia, 5 July 2021, url
532 TNH, Who’s afraid of COVID-19? Somalia’s battle with the virus, 5 May 2021, url
533 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
534 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 17
535 CAPA, Garowe International Airport, n.d., url
536 FlightConnections, Direct flights from Garowe (GGR), n.d., url; Flightradar24, Garowe Airport, n.d., url

55

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators- Galkacyo (Jubba Airways) – 1 flight/week- Hargeisa (Jubba Airways) – 2 flights/week- Bosasso (Ethiopian Airlines; Jubba Airways) – 2 flights/week
Garowe Airport was closed from 2013 to 2018 to undergo renovations and was officially reopened by
the President of Puntland in January 2018. 537 The modernisation of the airport was financially
supported by the diaspora, by Kuwait 538 , by the EU Trust Fund for Africa and the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. The (IOM) was charged to equip the new airport
with the Migration Information and Data Analysis System (MIDAS), IOM’s border management
information system, to allow Garowe International Airport to collect passenger information. 539
Somalia federal authorities banned international flights on 5 March 2020, with the e xception ofhumanitarian flights. Among others, Somali diaspora’s seasonal return to Puntland in the summer was
thus disrupted. 540 As of July 2021, flights appeared to be landing in Garowe airport again. 541

2.2.2 Internal mobility, including checkpoints
2.2.2.1 Circulation within the city
Garowe city is located at the crossroad of three main commercial roads: Garowe-Laascanood, GaroweGalkacyo and Garowe-Bosasso.542 Garowe city is cut in two by the paved National Road, which became
the principal town road as the city grew and is nowadays prone to congestions affecting the transportof goods and people. UN-Habitat reported that as of May 2019 existed only a few tarmac roads inside
the town. The same source reported that in the absence of walkways or parking spaces, ‘vehicles sharethe streets with small vendors and pedestrians’. Transportation within the city and from Garowe city
to other towns is carried out by private taxis or other privately-owned means of transportation; there
is no government-owned public transport system in the city.543 The ever-growing number of private
vehicles in Garowe city led to the opening of numerous gas stations throughout the town. 544
Several restrictions were put in place by Puntland’s government to manage the spread of COVID-19,
including a night-time curfew in Bosasso, Galkacyo and Garowe, restricting movements at night andordering shops to close at 7pm. 545 Researchers noted in May 2020 that the enforcement of the curfew
was less strict since the start of Ramadan and that restrictions on circulation within Puntland had been
eased with the seasonal exodus from the coast to cooler inland areas. 546

2.2.2.2 Safety within the city
Truck drivers coming from the port of Bosasso and driving to the market in Garowe are stopped at
checkpoints manned by security forces, district officials or police officers from the local municipality
who collect fees as well as bribes. According to a 2017 study by social scientist Kirstine Strøh Varming,
537 IOM, Renovated International Airport Opens in Garowe, Somalia with IOM Support, 1 December 2018, url; UN-Habitat,

Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1717
538 Chatham House, Solidifying the Somali State: Puntland’s Position and Key Priorities, 24 October 2014, url, p. 44
539 IOM, Renovated International Airport Opens in Garowe, Somalia with IOM Support, 1 December 2018, url
540 Majid, N. et al., Puntland and COVID-19: Local Responses and Economic Impact, 5 May 2020, url
541 Flightradar24, Airport – GGR – Arrivals, n.d., url
542 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, pp. 6, 176, 17
543 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1717
544 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 16
545 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, p. V; Majid,
N. et al., Puntland and COVID-19: Local Responses and Economic Impact, 5 May 2020, url
546 Majid, N. et al., Puntland and COVID-19: Local Responses and Economic Impact, 5 May 2020, url

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

there were three to seven checkpoints between Bosasso and Garowe. 547 The World Bank reports 20checkpoints based on a 2018 source. 548 According to Markus Hoehne, checkpoints are still frequent in
Puntland in response to the tense security situation. According to a local source there are checkpoints
between Garowe and Lasanod to the east, between Garowe and Galkacyo to the south and between
Garowe and Bosasso to the north. At these checkpoints, cars importing or exporting goods arecontrolled. Taxes have to be paid mainly for goods coming from or exported via Galkacyo (in thesouth), Bosasso (in the north) or Lasanod (in the east; Lasanod is currently controlled by Somaliland).
Security checks are implemented strictly around Galkacyo and Bosasso. Near Bosasso Al-Shabaab has
a base and thus, vehicles in the area are checked carefully at checkpoints. Galkacyo being the ‘gate’to the south, where Al-Shabaab is very active, ordinary passengers are checked to prevent thecirculation of suspected terrorists. Finally, at all checkpoints, youngsters are controlled to prevent
illegal migration (Somali: tahriib).549
According to Bakonyi, controls of people are regular, they don’t necessarily check IDs but ask
questions to determine from where one comes. Rahanweyn who often came as IDPs speak a very
distinct dialect (some call it language) and can therefore easily be identified (For more details, pleasesee sections 1 and 3.1.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors as well as section 4.2 of EASO’s COI
report Somalia: Targeted profiles). Mistrust against IDPs especially from the Digil and Mirifle(Rahenweyne) Clans is still high in Puntland, as they are perceived as clan groups with highest support
for Al-Shabaab and are, therefore, often particularly targeted by security forces. 550
According to a town hall meeting organised in Garowe City by UN-Habitat in 2017, safety is a common
concern among the population. The city is fairly secure in comparison to the rest of the country. Police
patrols have contributed to a decrease of crime and violence. However, especially women’s perceptionof safety in Garowe city is low. UN-Habitat linked this low perception to the poor illumination of thestreets (even if streetlights were installed in town in 2016 551) and the lack of space for pedestrians. 552
For more information on mobility, please see section 4 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles(September 2021), section 3.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors (July 2021) as well as EASO’s COI
report Somalia: Security situation (September 2021).

2.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city
2.2.3.1 Accessing land and urban properties
Garowe city’s rapid growth (please see section 2.1.1.2 Garowe district and Garowe City) has made land
tenure highly valuable. UN-Habitat states that ‘land grabbing, lack of official documentation,
displacement and returnees of diaspora have contributed to mismanagement and lack of tenure
security’. Conflicts around land ownership and use are not uncommon and Garowe city has
experienced a high rate of land disputes due to unauthorised occupation of public lands in parts of

547 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, pp. 16-

17548 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 85
549 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021.
550 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
551 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 17
552 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 14, 1714, 17

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

the town and its outskirts. 553 The diaspora’s investment in real estate has resulted in land banking andspeculation.554

2.2.3.2 IDPs
While Puntland hosts an estimated 388 500 IDPs,555 more than a third of the population of Garowe
consists of IDPs (close to 5 400 IDP households according to data produced by Shelter Cluster from2016).556 According to the German Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) most of these
IDPs want to integrate locally, but are confronted with a growing competition for rare land, income
opportunities, employment opportunities and access to basic services. 557 UN-Habitat and the WorldBank reported that IDP’s have in recent times been relocated from the city to its periphery on theSouth-West of Garowe, in settlements supported by international aid, warning for risks of exacerbatedsegregation and poverty. 558 For more information on IDPs, please see sections 2.1.2 Humanitariansituation overview and 2.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups.

2.2.3.3 Impact of clan-identity
In Puntland, the presidency rotates, according to an unwritten power-sharing agreement, between
the Osman Mohamoud, the Isse Mohamoud and the Omar Mohamoud lineages of the Majeerteen.559
Besides the dominant Majeerteen, the Dhulbahante, Warsangeli and Deshishe are also influential
clans. Power is on the one hand divided between clans, sub-clans and lineages. On the other hand,
there is competition before presidential elections. Once a new Puntland president starts his term, hebrings along with him people he trusts as well as his own guard, all of whom are from the same lineage.
Ministers also choose their secretaries and their security guards among their close patrilineal relatives.
This indicates that trust is less rooted in state institution than in kinship ties; however, institutions andkinship can complement each other. Therefore, once a new president and new ministers take office,a large part of the civil service apparatus is replaced. Access to good jobs in the government and otherpositions linked to public services will thus be dependent on belonging to the president’s clan or thedescent group of influential ministers. 560
It is different when it comes to positions within Garowe city that are not linked to the government,
because the city is traditionally dominated by members of the Isse Mahmoud sub-clan. The mayor
and the religious elites, and partly the intellectual elites in Garowe are from Isse Mahmoud sub-clan,
regardless of who is the president of Puntland. Yet, businesspeople, traders and professionals from allother groups prevalent in Puntland can settle down in Garowe and go about their jobs. Garoowe isgenerally not a ‘clannish‘ city.561
Although people can settle in all parts of the town, they tend to settle according to clan affiliation.
Clan-based settlement patterns prevail throughout Somalia, since the clan network promises physicaland social security. 562
553 Puntland Post, Puntland President Sends Stern Warning Against Landgrabbing, 8 June 2021, url; UN-Habitat, Garowe

Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 20; see also Germany, GIZ, Promoting the economic and social participation of extremely
poor households, April 2021, url
554 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 13
555 UNHCR, Operational Data Portal, Estimated IDPs in Somalia, last updated 1 January 2021, url
556 Germany, GIZ, Promoting the economic and social participation of extremely poor households, April 2021, url; Shelter
Cluster, Mapping Exercise: Garowe, May 2016, url, pp. 4-6
557 Germany, GIZ, Promoting the economic and social participation of extremely poor households, April 2021, url
558 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 23; World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering
Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 7474
559 Majid, N., Sarkar, A., Elder, C., Abdirahman, K., Detzner, S., Miller, J. and de Waal, A., Somalia’s Politics: The UsualBusiness?, LSE Conflict Research Programme, 2021, url, p. 42
560 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
561 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
562 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021

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2.3 Socio-economic indicators
2.3.1 Economic overview and food security
2.3.1.1 Puntland
Puntland’s arid and semi-arid environment contributes to the very difficult and fragile conditions inwhich pastoralists survive. 563 That being said, livestock exports constitute the pillar of the economy of
Puntland564 and ‘contribute approximately 80 % of foreign exchange earnings, 40 % of the GDP and
60 % of employment opportunities ’ according to the Puntland State and based on World Bank datafrom 2017. Remittance from the diaspora (mainly located in the USA) accounts for a major part of theeconomy of Puntland. 565 The Northern regions including Puntland received strong support fromdiaspora communities, also in the form of individual remittances, particularly in times of crises. 566 A
2013 report on remittances and livelihoods support in Puntland and Somaliland, which provides acomprehensive household survey on this subject, found that ‘in Puntland, 39 percent [of respondents]
received between $ 1000 and $ 6000 [in the twelve months preceding the study]; the remainder 61
per cent of Puntland respondents received less than $1000 [in the last twelve months]. ’ Remittances
are used for basic household expenses, and the degree of secondary distribution of remittances toother poorer households is high. 567 As detailed below, Puntland households’ great economic
dependence on remittances was highlighted by the decline in money transfers from the diaspora
amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.568
Between August and September 2020 the Somali shilling lost more than 30 % of its value, reaching
46 000 Somali Shilling per USD. The poor, i.e. low-income families and IDPs, as well as ruralcommunities, are those who suffered the most from the ‘dollarization’ and deprecation of the Somali
Shilling as they do not necessarily have access to e-money services and still rely on local currency for
their everyday consumption and trade activities in a general context of ‘dollarization’. 569

2.3.1.2 Garowe
Garowe constitutes a business hub as it profits economically from its location at the ‘trunk road’connecting Galkacyo and Mogadishu to the south and the port city Bosasso to the north. 570 Garowe’s
industry is mainly composed of ‘recently established, small-scale, privately owned manufacturing andconstruction enterprises’ according to UN-Habitat.571 The same source named hospitality, import anddistribution of petrol, the khat market and remittances from the diaspora as other economic activities
in Garowe. Most economic activities are conducted informally and the informal market is estimatedto employ over 69 % of the residents. 572
A study conducted by the MoPEDIC in 2020 found that 26 % of households in Garowe reported that563 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, p. 13
564 KAALO and OXFAM, Gender Analysis of the Impact of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, and Boys in

Puntland State in Somalia, April 2021, url, p. 10; BBC News, Puntland profile, 23 May 2013, url; UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban
Profile, May 2019, url, p. 12565 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, p. 13;
Majid, N., et al., Puntland and COVID-19 : Local Responses and Economic Impact, 5 May 2020, url
566
DRC and DEMAC, Diaspora organizations and their humanitarian response in Somalia, 20 July 2021, url, pp. 27, 48
567 Hammond, L., Family Ties: Remittances and Livelihoods Support in Puntland and Somaliland, FSNAU, 5 June 2013, url,
p. 2
568 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, p. 15
569 SIDRA Institute, The death knell for the mighty Somali Shilling, December 2020, url, p. 1; Garowe Online, Puntland inpath of rescuing Somali Shillings against dollar, 17 January 2021, url; FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia Food Security Outlook,
16 March 2021, url, p. 4
570 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. vii, p. 4
571 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1313
572 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1313

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

the highest percentage of their income came from business, while another 26 % depended on paid
jobs as their main source of income (based on data collected from a representative household’s
sample).573 However, according to the 2019 UN-Habitat report referring to sources from 2012, 2015
and 2017, lack of access to capital and lack of business skills among business creators, lead to a shortlife span of businesses and related jobs. According to the same source, unemployment stood at
39 %.574
Garowe city is the centre of many Government and Non-Government Organisations and UN agencies
in Puntland which also generate employment opportunities. Livestock trade and distribution areimportant economic activities in Garowe, taking place mainly in Suuqa Xoolaha (the older market,
outside of town) for camel and cattle trading and in Suuqa Injiga market (in the centre of town) forsmall ruminants.575 Most commodities, including vegetables and eggs, are brought to Garowe city bytruck, with the exceptions of unbottled drinking water and meat, which are produced locally according
to Strøh Varming. 576 A FSNAU study from 2012 highlighted that many food items came from thesouthern parts of the countries among them ‘cereal, pulses, fruit, vege tables and livestock
products’.577 The poor state of roads affects transportation of goods to the markets. 578

2.3.1.3 Impact of COVID-19 on Puntland’s economy
Puntland’s revenues from trade taxes on goods imported through its port have declined following
lockdowns and reduced imports due to the COVID-19 pandemic.579 A study conducted by the MoPEDIC
on the impact of COVID-19 in Galkacyo, Qardho and Garowe found that ‘domestic revenue declinedby 55 percent in this [2020] fiscal year’, with a reven ue loss of 28.4 % in the 1st quarter of 2020. The
same source indicated that in the three towns where the survey was conducted, about one-third of
the households’ sources of income were vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic. After business andpaid jobs, remittances were the most vulnerable primary sources of income. Livestock farming wasmore resilient as a source of income, according to the study. 580 Scholar Mohamed Said Samantar wrote
in a study that the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have been unevenly distributed across Somalia’s
economy. In Puntland, where prices were twice as high as those in Jubaland and South West State,
the food inflation rate rose from 0.5 % to 2.0 % from February to March 2020. Before the COVID-19
pandemic, Puntland’s economy was forecasted to grow by 4.6 % but Puntland’s Ministry of Financeestimated a 17.8 % decline during the first half of 2020 according to Samantar. 581

2.3.1.4 Food security
Somali livelihoods rely predominantly on the livestock sector, 60 % of the population are
pastoralists.582 Livestock exports constitute the largest traded commodity for the country. Agropastoralists of Puntland, especially poor households, rely not only on meat and milk generated bylivestock breading but also on income generated by livestock and milk trading for the purchase of

573 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, pp. 5, 9
574 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 12575 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, pp. 12-1312-13
576 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, pp. 9, 16
577 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. vii
578 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 17; WFP, Joint Market and Supply Chain Update - 28th February,

2021-07th March, 2021, 5 March 2021, url, p. 1
579 World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, Impact of COVID-19 : Policies to Manage the
Crisis and Strengthen Economic Recovery, June 2020, url, p. 16
580 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, pp. 13, 14,43581 Samantar, M. S., The economic impact of COVID-19 on Somalia – A special focus on business impact, November 2020,
url, pp. 5, 8; see also World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, Impact of COVID-19:
Policies to Manage the Crisis and Strengthen Economic Recovery, June 2020, url, p. 8
582 UNOCHA, Humanitarian needs overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, pp. 16, 29

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food.583
The livelihoods of agro-pastoral and riverine households rely heavily on pasture and grass land andare thus largely dependent on climatic conditions. Puntland has been affected by climatic shocks inrecent years, alternating drought and floods, as well as the Gati cyclone in Bari in November 2020. 584
Puntland is among the parts of Somalia facing critical water shortages, where pre-drought conditions
were recorded in January 2021, characterised by ‘widely depleted berkeds and shallow wells, loss of
livestock, as well as extensive critical loss of pasture’. 585 The Desert Locust infestation which affected
Puntland (among other regions of Somalia) over the course of the year 2020 showed signs of decline
in March 2021, due in part to control operations and poor rain falls which are less conducive tohatching. However, FSNAU and FEWS NET reported the presence of Desert Locust swarms and adultgroups in April 2021 in Puntland (among other regions). 586
The depreciation of the Puntland Somali Shilling had an impact on food prices. Notably sorghum andmaize market prices in January 2021 were 11 to 28 % higher than the previous year (2020) and theaverage over the five previous years. In January 2021 costs of imported rice were reported to be 29
to 53 % above the five-year average.587
A nationwide survey of urban and displaced populations in November 2020 found that 3 of the 19
population groups surveyed were affected by acute malnutrition at a ‘critical’ level. The Global Acute
Malnutrition indicator (GAM) was used for measuring, for which the critical level starts at 15 %. Of thethree affected populations (IDPs and urban population) two were in Puntland with IDPs in Garowe andin Bosasso classified at a ‘critical’ level. An alert level of GAM was seen among the urban populationof Garowe city with 5.2 %.588 In January 2021 the IDP population in Garowe was still in a ‘critical’ (IPC
Phase 4) state of acute malnutrition while Garowe’s urban population was still classified as in ‘alert’(IPC Phase 2). 589 Concerning acute food insecurity, IPC in March 2021 classified most displaced
populations in the three largest cities of Puntland as in ‘crisis’ (phase 3 of the Acute Food Insecurity
Phase Classification), while most urban populations were classified as ‘stressed’ (IPC phase 2). 590

2.3.2 Housing and shelter
Generally, in urban areas houses tend to be made out of stone, brick or cement blocks with corrugatediron sheet roofs. 591 In an interview, Bakonyi lists the housing types in Garowe: huts (buush), jingaad (abasic housing structure of only metal sheet, which can cost from 2 000 to 4 000 USD in Garowe),bacweyne (iron sheet house, but better decorated than jingaad). Bacweyne are often erected in a firstphase by people owning a small plot of land before they can afford to build a brick or stone structure
house for their families. Most privately owned brick or stone houses have several rooms, iron sheet
roofing and indoor bathrooms. The other types of houses have outside toilets (pit-latrines). Like in
583 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia Food Security Outlook, 16 March 2021, url, p. 12; see also Nori, M., Along the Milky

Way: Marketing Camel Milk in Puntland, Somalia, 11 November 2011, url
584 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, p. 37;
KAALO and OXFAM, Gender Analysis of the Impact of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, and Boys in
Puntland State in Somalia, April 2021, url, p. 5; CARE, Somalia Food Insecurity Crisis, April 2021, url; UNOCHA, Somalia,
Cyclone Gari, 13 December 2020, url
585 UNOCHA, Somalia – Humanitarian Bulletin, January 2021, 14 February 2021, url, p. 1
586 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May
2021, url, p. 5; UNOCHA, Somalia – Humanitarian Bulletin, January 2021, 14 February 2021, url, p. 1; FAO, Desert Locust
Emergency in Somalia – Update 5, 9 June 2020, url, p. 1; FAO, Desert Locust Emergency in Somalia - Update 9, 19
November 2020, url, p. 1
587 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia Food Security Outlook, 16 March 2021, url, pp. 5, 12
588 FSNAU, Nutrition Update – December 2020, 23 December 2020, url, pp. 1-2
589 IPC, Somalia: IPC Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis; January - June 2021, 1 March 2021, url, p. 7
590 IPC, Somalia: IPC Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis; January - June 2021, 1 March 2021, url, pp. 4, 7
591 Hammond, L., Family Ties: Remittances and Livelihoods Support in Puntland and Somaliland, FSNAU, 5 June 2013, url,
p. 6

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Mogadishu, most people in Garowe live in stone/brick houses on a land of 20 metres by 10 metres or
30 metres by 30 metres. A house with four to five bedrooms costs around 30 000 USD and can berented for 300 to 700 USD per month, depending on the location, security of the area and size. The
few (approximately 10) high-rise buildings and buildings out of concrete in Garowe are offices. The
telecommunication company Dhabshiil is currently building a 10 storey-building.592
In rural areas mud houses, aqal, buush, stone houses surrounded by land (in villages), iron-sheet
houses can be found but no apartment blocks neither high-rise buildings. 593
CCCM Cluster and REACH indicated in a detailed site assessment of March 2021 that in IDPs sites in
Garowe district, the types of shelters were either buul (88 %), out of mud and stick walls with roofs
out of corrugated iron sheets (64 %), or shelters constructed using shelter kits (60 %). 594
Major Somali cities currently experience a building boom conducive to economic development.
Bakonyi warned against the violent consequences of this urban reconstruction: investors and politicalelites seeking new economic opportunities speculate with urban land and contribute to the expansionof rent economy, thereby precipitating mass-scale evictions of the urban poor and displaced people.595
There is a direct link between access to land and access to housing and shelter, as people with land
can build their own houses to reside in or can become landlords (even if only ‘petty landlords’),
allowing other people to establish huts or iron-sheet houses. 596
In Garowe city specifically, UN-Habitat reported that land tenure has become highly insecure and that‘due to the rapid urbanization and weak institutional control over land matters, disputes and conflicts
around land ownership and use are not uncommon […]’. 597
In a report on taxation and budgeting in Puntland for Diakonia, analyst Abdulkad ir S. M. Salah
explained that after the collapse of the Somali state in the 1990s, many residents of Puntland urban
centres used the absence of police and formal justice system to ‘ demarcate or illegally occupy unowned or publicly-owned land at the peripheries of these centres’. When the local government wasestablished, it did not have the capacity to evict those who annexed land and accepted - against bribes
and/or kinship privileges 598 - to regularise annexations by awarding land titles. 599 According to Salah’sreport, claimants who want to see their grabbed land regularised rather seek the authorisation fromthe Islamic court, as the procedure is less complicated than the municipality’s and does not involvethe obligation to retroactively pay taxes on the land for the years of occupation. 600 For more
information on access to justice through formal and informal systems in Somalia, please see section
2.3 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors (July 2021).).
Since 2013 the municipality started collecting a property tax. UN-Habitat reported that property taxes
covered close to 15 % of the total district revenue in 2016. 601 In 2019 property tax revenue

592 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
593 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
594 CCCM and REACH, Detailed Site Assessment (DSA): Garowe District, Nugaal region, Somalia (March 2021), 20 June 2021,

url, p. 3595 Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Precarious Mobility in Somali
Cities, 15 October 2020, url, p. 20
596 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
597 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 20
598 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
599 Salah, A. S. M., Equity and Taxes in Puntland and Jubaland, October 2014, url, p. 24; Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview,
6 July 2021
600 Salah, A. S. M., Equity and Taxes in Puntland and Jubaland, October 2014, url, p. 24
601 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 202062

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

represented 126 454 USD in Puntland’s state revenue, according to its Ministry of Planning, Economic
Development and International Cooperation (MoPEDIC).602
The municipality tried to establish boundaries for the urban area of the city, to define areas for housingdevelopment and to protect grazing lands. 603 But urban developments have occurred moreorganically, ‘especially the new governmental zone north of Togga Garowe, and the South -West new
constructions in Halgan and Israac’, according to UN-Habitat. The same source indicated that most of
the IDPs have settled in the east of town in the Wabari district and in the south-east part of the city,which is not well connected to the city centre. 604 In a 2017 paper based on a study conducted in an
IDP settlement in Garowe, Mohamed S. Mohamed reported that illegal land expropriations werewidespread in Puntland’s major cities and that land grabbers present themselves as legitimate
landowners to IDPs from whom they demand rent, using ‘coercive force’. 605

2.3.3 Hygiene, water and sanitation
Social scientist Strøh Varming stated that in Puntland state budgets grew and tax collection increased,
but basic services remained in the hands of private and international actors. 606 Her analysis confirmed
Salah’s which stated that public funds are disproportionally spent on security and the military rather
than on basic services. 607
In Puntland, drinking water is provided by public private partnerships. Scholars A. A. Jama and K. A.
Mourad presumably in 2018 conducted a study of this partnerships for water distribution in Puntland
and found that roles and responsibilities were unclear between governmental and private bodies,‘leading to poor and over-priced domestic water quality’. As a result ‘most consumers cannot afford
a drinking water supply to their homes, so they are forced to walk long distances and queue for a longtime in order to access water’. 608
UN-Habitat reported in 2019 that in Garowe city, Togga Garowe and Lan Alifirin seasonal streams
provided water for domestic use after receiving water during the rainy season. Nugal Water Company(NUWACO) manages the piped water system (public private partnership), which covers around 90 %of the urban area. UN-Habitat additionally reported that residents ‘also rely on hand dug shallow wells
and berkads’, although the water is generally saline and does not meet World Health Organisation’s
standards.609
In April 2021 UNOCHA reported that most water points across Puntland had dried due to persistent
dry conditions, Garowe counting among the worst affected districts. The same source further reported
that ‘the water prices across most rural areas in Puntland are the highest across Somalia with the costof water almost doubled in many parts since January 2020, with a 200-litre barrel of water now sellingat US$ 7 to 9 up from an average of $ 3 in normal time’. 610 This trend is consistent with price inflations
observed on markets in this period. 611 Water shortages had led to populations displacements in

602 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, Puntland Facts and Figures, Edition 2020, December 2020, url, p. 3
603 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 66
604 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 88
605 Mohamed, M. S., Factors affecting to local integration for internally displaced persons in Garowe, Somalia, November

2017, url, pp. 456-457
606 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 25
607 Strøh Varming, K., The Experiential Limits Of The State: Territory And taxation In Garoowe, Puntland, 2017, url, p. 25;
Salah, A.S.M., Equity and Taxes in Puntland and Jubaland, October 2014, url, pp. 18-19
608 Jama, A. A. and Mourad, K. A., Water Services Sustainability: Institutional Arrangements and Shared Responsibilities, 11
February 2019, url, p. 1
609 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1616
610 UNOCHA, Somalia: Drought Conditions Situation Update (As of 14 April 2021), 14 April 2021, url, p. 1
611 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia Food Security Outlook, 16 March 2021, url, pp. 5, 12

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Puntland at the beginning of 2021. 612 In May 2021 water prices were normal again, thanks to therecent Gu rains, according to the World Food Programme. 613
UN-Habitat underlined the lack of reliable sewage or biomedical management system, reporting that
‘toilets either discharge to a septic tank and absorption field or directly to the drainage network,
allowing contamination of berkads, shallow wells and ground water, therefore a likely predisposing
source of water related diseases’. 614
Another threat to hygiene is posed by littering of waste at the outskirt of Garowe city. 615 UN-Habitat
stated in 2019 that the lack of an adequate sewage system in Garowe city as well as the insufficientcollection of waste and the mislocation of dumping sites ‘further threaten[ed] water resources, healthand hygiene within the population’. 616 Indeed the proximity of the waste collection sites to theriverbeds posed risks of contamination of water resources and agricultural land when the seasonalrivers are full.617
KAALO and Oxfam reported that in Puntland state generally, women and girls can be put at risk by
WASH activities, ‘ such as fetching water, using the toilet and bathing , especially for the IDP
communities, where toilets are some distance from many of the camp inhabitants and there are nolights’. Proper menstrual hygiene supplies were ha rdly available, and too costly when they were. The
organisation noted that ‘private spaces for proper cleaning practices do not exist and the locations oflavatories and water sources are inconvenient. Women and girls do not have basic hygiene supplies
such as soap, and resort to the use of ash and clay to clean and wash’. 618

2.3.4 Health care
UN-Habitat mentioned in 2019 that the condition of health services in Garowe city was insufficientand found that ‘the WHO minimum standard for health care services (20 physicians per 100 000
people) is not met, and numerous clinics are forced to close.’ The growing margins of the city wereeven more underserviced regarding health care. In the nearby countryside, health services werepoorer. People in the rural hinterland of Garowe ‘rely on the urban centre, aggravating the load on
the existing facilities.’ 619
Garowe General Hospital620 (GGH) is the central and public facility regarding healthcare in Garowe.
Besides Garowe, there are general public hospitals in Bosasso, Qardho, and Galkacyo within
Puntland.621 GGH is supported by the Ministry of Health and an Italian NGO, it offers ‘general andspecialized medical, surgical, paediatric and maternity services.’ In 2012, it had around 80 beds for
inpatient care and also served outpatients, offered an emergency unit, a pharmacy, a medical store,
a laboratory, an X-Ray room and an operation theatre.622 A local trader and civil society activist living
in Garowe since a decade or more mentioned that GGH has existed since the 1970s. It is considered
to be a public hospital. The normal admission fee is 5 USD. Admission for treatment by a certain
specialist can be higher, up to 10 USD. Garowe Hospital has many wardens and offers treatment from612 UNOCHA, Somalia – Humanitarian Bulletin, January 2021, 14 February 2021, url, p. 2
613 WFP, Joint Market and Supply Chain Update, 23rd May, 2021 – 30th May, 2021, 28 May 2021, url, p. 2
614 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 16
615 Isse, M. A. and Said, A. D., Key Strategies In Efficient And Effective Solid Wastes Management In Garowe City, Puntland

State of Somalia, October 2019, url, p. 2
616 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 22
617 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 14
618 KAALO and OXFAM, Gender Analysis of the Impact of Recent Humanitarian Crises on Women, Men, Girls, and Boys in
Puntland State in Somalia, April 2021, url, p. 66
619 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 19
620 Garowe General Hospital, Facebook Profile, n.d., url
621 Abdi Yusuf Isee, M., Identifying Patient Safety and The Healthcare Environment in Puntland, Somalia, 2018, url, p. 5
622 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. 1264

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

mother and child care to reconstructive surgery. Laboratory tests have to be paid privately. Standard
blood tests cost between 1 and 4 USD. Normal beds are free of charge. Single beds cost 10 USD pernight. Care and normal services and medicine stored by the hospital are free of charge. Operations,however, have to be paid. A caesarean section, for instance, costs around 350 USD.623
A 2012 FSNAU report also mentioned private hospitals in Garowe. Among these, Akram Hospital
mainly provides orthopaedic and surgical services. 624 A local trader and a local midwife mentionedthat the largest private hospital in Garowe is called Qaran Hospital 625, and that another one is Arafat
Hospital626 They added that generally, in private hospitals, admission fees are slightly higher than in
GGH. All services and overnight stays have to be paid, operations costs are similar to the costs in the
public hospital. There is a psychiatry located at the outskirts of Garowe; the stay there, including foodand treatment, costs 100 USD/month.627 FSAU stressed that there are about 30 small private clinics
and pharmacies including Qaran, Somali, Kismayo and Altowba, which are found in or nearby Garowe.
As of 2012, ‘consultation fees in most of the private clinics range between USD 3-5 (Sosh [Somali
Shilling] 100,000-150,000)’.628
As elsewhere in Somalia, healthcare is not free in Garowe. However, the costs in the public hospital in
Garowe are lower than, for instance, in Hargeisa Group Hospital, which is also considered public, butwhere every service has to be paid (please see section 3.3.4 Health care below).
A researcher working in Puntland mentioned that some people seek treatment abroad, e.g. in India,
Malaysia or Pakistan. But this involves considerable costs (around 15.000 USD). People having thesemeans can use their Somali passport to travel or they hold a passport from another country (e.g.,
Ethiopia or some country in Europe, if they lived there in the past). 629
A local source stressed that the private pharmacies in Garowe function like normal businesses. The
owner and staff running them frequently do not have any specialised education. Drugs can beimported from various countries. However, many of the medications on the market in Garowe andelsewhere in Puntland have been imported from Europe. An office controlling the quality of the
medications coming to Puntland has been established, albeit it is not yet fully operational. 630

2.3.5 Education for children
2.3.5.1 Puntland
The out-of-school population in Somalia is one of the world’s most significant. Populations’movements (60 % of the population pursues pastoralist activities) and displacements due to violent
conflicts or climatic shocks are the main impediments to children’s access to formal education. 631
Education provision is of low quality in Somalia due to poor education infrastructure, multiple
curricula and a high number of untrained or unqualified teachers. Education at primary and secondary

623 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021. Muse Abdirisaq Mire is a local businessman in Garowe and a former civilsociety activist (in the Puntland youth organisation).
624 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. 12
625 Qaran Hospital, Homepage, n.d., url
626 Arafat Hospital, Facebook Profile, n.d., url
627 Husein, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021; Husein, M. Y., telephone interview, 11 July 2021. Marian Yasin Husein
works as a midwife in Garowe.
628 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. 12
629 Said, F. O., telephone interview, 29 July 2021. Faysal Omar Said is a researcher in Puntland
630 Husein, M. Y., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
631 USAID, Somalia - Education, 19 March 2021, url

65Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorslevel is predominantly confessional, with school establishments being mostly under the managementof private-sector umbrellas, community-owned or run by Islamic charities. The formal public
education sector is supported by international organisations. 632
Compared to the rest of the country, Somaliland and Puntland enjoyed a greater political stability,
security and administrative development, contributing to an improvement of student enrolmentsoverthe past two decades. 633 For more general information in Somalia, please see section 1.3.5 Education
for children. In a report on taxation and budgeting in Puntland, Salah noted that only a small portionof Puntland’s state budget (30.7 million USD in 2014) was allocated to public services, with 3.46 %allocated to education that same year. 634 In 2019 the Puntland Ministry of Education and Higher
Studies (MoEHS) allocated 7.5 % of its budget to education, which represented 76.2 million USD. 635
Puntland, like Somaliland, does not participate in government-administered exams. In 2020 thefederal administration refused to recognise the school certificates of high school leavers from
Puntland unless they sat the matriculation exam prepared by the federal government. In December
2020 the federal government and Puntland’s administration reached an agreement and the students
were eventually granted federal high school certificates. The underlying dispute remains: Puntland
demands a federalized education system (until the end of the secondary school level) while
Mogadishu is in favour of one unitary education system. According to a source in the government, an
initiative aiming at convincing Puntland to join the national curriculum is under way, led by the
Ministry of Education. 636
According to the MoEHS, in the scholastic year 2016-2017, the total enrolment in primary education(with Integrated Quranic Schools) in Puntland stood at 143 546 students, with a gross enrolment rateof 58.2 %.637 The World Bank compared in 2019 the primary school survival rates to grade 5 acrossSomalia and noted that those of Puntland were comparatively 'at the bottom' at 56 % (57.4 % male,54.2 % female).638 Puntland’s Ministry of Planning, Economic Development and International
Cooperation (MoPEDIC) reported a primary school survival rate of 62.7 % for the scholastic year 20182019 and a primary school gross enrolment rate of 63.7 % for the same year. 639
In a 2020 paper based on education statistics by Puntland’s MoEHS, scholar Farah Abdiqani indicatedthat, as of 2019, 32 766 students were enrolled in secondary education. 640 According to the MoPEDIC,in the scholastic year 2018-2019, the gross enrolment ratio for secondary school was 19.5 % of theconcerned population in Puntland. 641

632 GPE, Somalia, 30 May 2021, url; Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis,

27 November 2018, url, p. 74
633 GPE, Somalia, 30 May 2021, url
634 Salah, A. S. M., Equity and Taxes in Puntland and Jubaland, October 2014, url, pp. 18-19
635 Puntland State of Somalia, MoEHS, Education Sector Programme Implementation Grant (ESPIG) Program document, 22
August 2019, url, p. 27
636 World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, p. 25; see also Hussein, A. Y.
et al., The influence of the Community Involvement on Academic Performance of Secondary Schools: Case of Garowe
District, url, August 2018, p. 89; Garowe Online, Somalia: Godah renews war against Puntland education system, 14 July
2020, url; Radio Dalsan, Somalia: Puntland Students to Receive Somalia’s Secondary School Certificates, 14 December 2020,
url; Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
637 Puntland State of Somalia, MoEHS, Education Sector Programme Implementation Grant (ESPIG) Program document, 22
August 2019, url, p. 22
638 World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, p. 2020
639 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, Puntland Facts and Figures, Edition 2020, December 2020, url, p. 1919
640 Abdiqani, F., Five Reasons for Student Dropout in Puntland Secondary Schools, October 2020, url, p. 3
641 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, Puntland Facts and Figures, Edition 2020, December 2020, url, p. 20

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2.3.5.2 Garowe
According to the MoEHS, the district of Garowe counts 30 primary schools 642, while UN-Habitat
reported the figure of 37, also referring to the MoEHS. 643
Based on data from 2018 , the World Bank noted that in Garowe district, 29 schools were managed
by the government, 35 were independent and 35 had a mixed management. 644
Based on data by Puntland’s MoEHS, UN-Habitat counted 11 primary schools and 5 secondary schools
in Garowe’s city centre in 2019 and further noted that ‘ the peripheral districts of Wadair 2, Halgan,
Israaac and Wabari appear to be under-serviced’ in terms of education facilities. 645

2.3.5.3 Impact of COVID-19 on education
Puntland’s MoPEDIC produced a report on the socio-economic impact of COVID-19 in Puntland,
indicating that, after the relax of containment measures such as lockdown, education institutions had
resumed normal operations. However, a significant percentage of children have not reported back toschool, the main reasons advanced by the report being ‘financial constraints, fear of contracting theCorona virus and children being engaged as casual workers’ as well as early marriages during the
COVID-19 pandemic (45 % of households in Garowe reported ‘an increase in early marriages in theirneighbourhoods during this period’). 646

2.3.6 Means of basic subsistence and employment
UN-Habitat mentioned in 2019 that Garowe has an urban population of 99 581.647 According to an
earlier study by FSNAU, poor, middle and well-off are the three wealth groups in Garowe: around 2535 %of the urban population are poor; around 45-55 % are middle-class; and around 15-25 % are welloff.648 The average income of a poor household is between 1 500 and 2 550 USD a year. A middle-classfamily has per year 2 265 to 6 410 USD. A better-off family lives on 6 565 to 15 630 USD a year.649
A local source working in and around Garowe mentioned that food and housing in Garowe are
expensive, compared to other cities in Puntland such as Bosasso or Galkacyo. One room costs around
50 USD monthly. A whole house with four to five rooms costs between 200 and 300 USD monthly,
depending on the exact location. Additionally, one needs between 20 and 50 USD for electricity andwater (depending on the number of persons in the household) and another 10 USD for waste disposal
costs monthly. Eating in ordinary restaurants costs around 2 to 3 USD for a breakfast, 4 to 8 USD for alunch and around 2 USD for dinner. An adult single person needs minimum around 10 USD for eating
and drinking per day, if he/she does not cook at home. Cooking at home is cheaper, but one needs
additionally charcoal for the oven and water for the dishes. 650 Monthly school fees at a private school
are around 20 USD per child, at a public school the costs are around 10 USD. In general, a poor
household consisting of six persons (including 4 children) would survive, in a shanty without access toclean water and sanitation, on roughly 200 to 250 USD per month. A middle-class household of the642 Puntland State of Somalia, MoEHS, Primary, n.d., url
643 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1919
644 World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, p. 18
645 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 1919
646 Puntland State of Somalia, MoPEDIC, COVID-19 Socio-Economic Impact Assessment, 30 December 2020, url, p. VV
647 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 8
648 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. 24
649 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. viii
650 Nur, S. H., telephone interview, 11 July 2021. Said Haji Nur is an engineer who has been working for around ten years inand around Garowe, but originates from another region.

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorssame size, in a stone house with proper access to clean water and sanitation, would need around
700 USD per month.651
Income sources and types of income can be quite variable. Many people work in employment,
business and irregular casual labour and petty trades. 652 Employment for many is instable. Due to theoversupply of labour, wage levels are depressed. Additionally, IDPs from southern Somalia who live in
Garowe or nearby, as well as natural factors like droughts, burden the local economy. Simultaneously,
Garowe is the seat of the government of Puntland and this means that many relatively well-paid jobs
can be found in government and administration. Also NGOs and UN agencies have offices in town, andGarowe is home to a number of universities and higher learning facilities. This has a positive effect on
the local employment situation. 653 However, one source, a local trader and civil society activist,
mentioned that when the president changes and new ministers are appointed, which happens
normally every four years, the staff working at government offices, at least those directly working inministries and in the presidential palace, is replaced (see also section 2.2.3.3 Impact of clan-identity).
He added that the number of NGOs in Garowe has been decreasing recently. Many people work in
the private sector, have little shops, work as cleaners or watchmen or in the security forces. 654
Industry is little developed in Garowe. UN-Habitat found that ‘it is mainly composed of recently
established, small-scale, privately owned manufacturing and construction enterprises.’ The diaspora
is investing in town, which produced a real-estate boom. There is much new construction going on,which creates jobs at least temporarily. Like in most other Somali towns, the service sector is offering
considerable employment opportunities. In particular the telecommunications and financial sectors
are thriving. Also, ‘hospitality is a sector in continuous expansion, with more than twenty hotels
throughout the city.’ Finally, many households in Garowe receive remittances that cover parts of theessential costs. Generally, the informal sector remains ‘the major driver’ of Garowe’s economy, witha share of over 69% of the district’s residents. 655
The salary of a watchman is between 200 and 250 USD a month, a policeman and a soldier earn
240 USD, a qualified nurse would earn around 350 USD, an established medical doctor around1000 USD and a lower-level government employee around 300 to 400 USD.656
Youth unemployment is very high. Young people often find only temporary or low -level jobs ascleaners or waiters. Many search for better options elsewhe re, e.g. in Mogadishu, where life is
generally cheaper and the job market is larger. 657

2.4 Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specificgroups
As capital of Puntland State, Garowe has been targeted by Al-Shabaab. Hoehne noted already in 2014
that the militant Islamists had been fighting against Puntland since a decade. 658 Initially they
threatened to conquer Puntland. After several attempts, they settled on occasional terror attacks,

651 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
652 FSNAU, Garowe Urban Baseline Report, 15 May 2012, url, p. 24
653 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 12654 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
655 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 13
656 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
657 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
658 Hoehne, M. V., Resource conflict and militant Islamism in the Golis Mountains in northern Somalia (2006-2013). Reviewof African Political Economy 41(141), 2014, pp. 366-371

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mainly in Bosasso, but occasionally also in Garowe. 659 Despite this, UN-Habitat found in 2019 that
‘Garowe has a fairly stable security in comparison to other parts of the country.’ The formal security
apparatus works effectively in town. The relevant government institutions in cooperation withtraditional authorities maintain the peace. The police has a visible presence in the city, which has
contributed to the reduction of crime and violence; however, women are still vulnerable toharassment and attacks especially at night, due to missing street illumination and the structure ofarchitecture in certain neighbourhoods.660 Land conflicts are another source of insecurity. Garowe istraditionally dominated by members of the Isse Mahamud sub-clan of the Majeerteen clan (seebelow). A local source stressed that if someone from another patrilineal descent group buys land froma member of the Isse Mahamud sub-clan, it happens sometimes that conflicts arise after the value ofthe land had gone up. The current government of Puntland under President Deni issued an urban land
management law in August 2020 that aims at tackling recurrent land conflicts. 661 In recent years, land
conflicts erupted most frequently in Garowe, compared to other places in Puntland. 662

2.4.1 Clan-based protection
The dominant patrilineal descent groups in Garowe are Majeerteen and Dhulbahante. Both clans
belong to the Harti branch of the Darood clan family which is dominating in Puntland. 663 Within
Majeerteen, the sub-clan Isse Mahamud claims the area of Garowe and surroundings as their ‘clanhomeland’ (Somali: degaan, for further details see sections 3.1.1 and 7.6.1 of EASO’s COI report
Somalia: Actors, published in July 2021). Members of this sub-clan dominate the traditional power
positions within the city, like the office of the major and the position of the sheikh of the biggest
mosque. However, also members of the Omar Mahamoud sub-clan of Majeerteen have a strong
presence in Garowe. Dhulbahante have many businesses in the city and also hold important positionsin the government of Puntland, therefore having a sizable presence in the capital city. Besides thenamed groups, other Majeerteen sub-clans and lineages as well as other clans belonging to the
Darood/Harti clan-collective (e.g. Warsangeli and Deshiishe), which forms the backbone of Puntland
State, reside in Garowe. A local source working in Garowe since many years (but originating from theneighbouring Sool region) emphasised that the inhabitants of Garowe are more tolerant towards
people from other clans. IDPs, however, who do not belong to Puntland by patrilineal descent, havea difficult stand. There is little humanitarian aid offered to them in Garowe and surroundings. 664
According to a local source interviewed for this report, there are few members of minority groups intown. Members of two occupational groups, Madhibaan and Tumal, are prevalent. They are
structurally marginalised and have limited access to economic resources. In politics, they have no
substantial political representation. Madhibaan have one seat in parliament of Puntland (out of 66
seats distributed between various clans, sub-clans and lineages). Only regarding social segregation,
the situation is less rigid in Garowe and Puntland in general than in some other places (e.g. in Hargeisa,
Somaliland). There is no specific neighbourhood for Madhibaan or Tumal; they live among othermembers of society, including majority group members. Moreover, Tumal and Majeerteen marry eachother, not very often, but sometimes, and without resistance from the families. Also, in case of conflict
659 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
660 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 14
661 Puntland State of Somalia, Sharciga Maareynta Dhulka Magaalooyinka Dowladda Puntland [Urban Land Management

Law of the Government of Puntland], 25 August 2020, url
662 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021; see also UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 20
663 Hoehne, M. V., Mimesis and mimicry in dynamics of state and identity formation in northern Somalia. Africa 79(2),2009, pp. 261-262
664 Nur, S. H., telephone interview, 11 July 2021

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorswith members of majority groups, the minority group members are in a slightly weaker position, but
still can get their right (e.g. compensation). Madhibaan, however, are facing considerable social
exclusion and intermarriage with Majeerteen is not accepted. 665

2.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups
According to data produced by Shelter Cluster from 2016, close to 5 400 IDP households are residing
in 21 settlements in and around Garowe. ‘On average, 15 % of the households were reported to befrom the host community [i.e., from Majeerteen or other clans predominantly residing in Puntland].’More than half of these households are organised and have their own committees, which also address
security issues. Shelter Cluster found that more than 70 %of the interviewed IDPs perceived theirsecurity situation as good or very good. 666 Also a local source confirmed that IDPs can have access toprotection and safety. The most important source for the justice of vulnerable people is the office ofthe human rights defender, 667 an institution created by the government of Puntland in 2014. This
office is effective and operational and defends the rights of vulnerable persons. 668
IDPs work predominantly in low-status or casual jobs, as construction workers, cleaners of offices,private homes or hotels, or shoe shiners. They also run small kiosks at IDP camps. Many come fromthe regions of Bay and Bakool in the south. Some are also non-Somali, e.g., Oromo from Ethiopia.669
UN-Habitat and The World Bank noted in 2019 and 2021 respectively that IDPs in Garowe have been
relocated from the city to its periphery exacerbating segregation and poverty. 670 However, the local
businessmen and civil society activists emphasised that IDPs are part of the local community and they
are not threatened. In the past, between 2009 and 2014, IDPs were sometimes evicted and randomly
deported, e.g. to southern Somalia. This happened against the backdrop of the intensification of thefight between Puntland state and Al-Shabaab, particularly in 2010 and 2011. In the past years, sincearound 2015, the rights and positions of IDPs in Garowe and other places in Puntland have beenstrengthened.671 For more information on IDPS, please see sections 2.1.2 Humanitarian situation
overview and 2.2.3.2 IDPs.
Women are, as everywhere in Somalia, particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence. FGM is
widespread in Puntland, including in Garowe.672 Yet, in June 2021, the President of Puntland, Said
Abdullahi Deni, and his cabinet approved an anti-FGM-bill to be submitted to parliament. If it comes
into force, it will criminalise FGM. 673 Mohamed Ahmed Mohamed, a lecturer at Puntland State
University, mentioned that in Puntland ‘impunity for rape and other forms of sexual violence ispervasive’. In November 2016, the government launched the first ever Sexual Offences Law
criminalizing all sexual offences in the region. ‘Despite the low numbers of rape prosecutions, it is acommon perception that incidents of rape are increasing in the state.’ The lecturer continued that in
the first quarter of 2019, over 15 cases of rape were documented across Garowe, Galkacyo, Bosassoand Qardho. Officials confirmed ‘that cases of rape have been on the rise in Puntland .’ Some cases
were shockingly brutal, with a twelve-year-old girl raped and filmed and with footage then posted
665 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
666 Shelter Cluster, Mapping Exercise: Garowe, May 2016, url, pp. 4-6
667 Office of Puntland Human Rights Defender, n.d., url
668 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
669 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
670 UN-Habitat, Garowe Urban Profile, May 2019, url, p. 23 ; World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering

Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 74
671 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
672 Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021
673 VOA, Somalia's Puntland Moves to Ban Female Genital Mutilation, 11 June 2021, url

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online, or a nine-month pregnant woman raped and then killed. In 2019, there was a brutal rape andmurder of a two-year-old girl in Garowe. 674 The Sexual Offences Act (SOA) provides investigators witha set of partly advanced tools to collect evidence and persecute perpetrators. 675 Yet, more generally,societal values and norms are still often grounded in patriarchal views that habitually subject women(not just in Garowe but all over Somalia) to male rule and make them vulnerable to (sexualised)attacks.676 For further details please see section 2 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles(September 2021).

3. Hargeisa
3.1 Hargeisa’s overview
Hargeisa (sometimes spelled Hargeysa) is a city of the Woqooyi Galbeed region in the territory ofSomaliland, in north-western Somalia. The city is located in a valley of the Galdodon (also called Ogo)
mountains677 , 850 kilometres north of Mogadishu. 678 The region Woqooyi Galbeed borders Ethiopia
to the South, the region of Awdal to the West and Togdheer to the East. 679 A new administrative
partition adopted by Somaliland (and Puntland) places Hargeisa in the new administrative region of
Marodi Jeh.680
In May 1988 at least 70 % of the city of Hargeisa was destroyed as the result of the use of artillery
and aerial shelling by Siad Barre’s military government, leading to the displacement of a large part ofits population, the majority of which was hailing from the Isaaq clan. 681
Over 20 years later, Hargeisa has become the biggest urban setting in Somaliland, has been almost
entirely rebuilt,682 and has expanded rapidly in both size and density. 683 Estimates of the size of thecity vary from 33 square kilometres to 65 square kilometres of built-up land area.684

674 Mohamed, M. A., The determinants of violence against women and access to human rights in Puntland, March 2020,

url, pp. 62-63
675 Mohamed, M. A., The determinants of violence against women and access to human rights in Puntland, March 2020,
url, p. 76
676 Ingiriis, M. H. and Hoehne, M. V., The impact of civil war and state collapse on the roles of Somali women: a blessing in
disguise, 2013, url, p. 327
677 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Hargeysa, last updated 23 October 2006, url
678 Massoud, M., Shari ‘a, Inshallah - Finding God in Somali Legal Politics, 2021, p. xvi
679 Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia: Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, p. 55,
Figure 1
680 Republic of Somaliland, Xeerka Ismaamulka Gobolada Iyo Degmooyinka Jsl XEER LR 23/2002 [The Law of self administration of regions and districts of the Republic of Somaliland Law Nr. 23/2002], 22 June 2016, url; Kilcullen, D.,
Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 6
681 US, GAO, Somalia - Observations Regarding the Northern Conflict and Resulting Conditions, 4 May 1989, url, pp. 2, 5, 6;
Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 5; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Hargeysa, 23 October 2006, url;
see also Massoud, M., Shari ‘a, Inshallah - Finding God in Somali Legal Politics, 2021, pp. 153, 253; Stuvøy, K. et al.,Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url, p. 160; UNHCR, New
issues in Refugee Research – Working Paper N°65 – Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in
Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988-2000, url, p. 9
682 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 5; Global Shelter Cluster, Somaliland - Overview, n.d., url
683 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
pp. 154-156
684 Demographia, World Urban Areas, 17th Annual Edition, June 2021, url, p. 31; Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland –Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 6

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Hargeisa serves as the capital of the self-declared but largely internationally unrecognised Republic ofSomaliland (despite a recent increase in the number of states with diplomatic relationships ; for this
aspect please see section 7.7 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors, published in July 2021) 685. It is also
among the most populated areas of Somalia.686 According to Global Shelter Cluster, the city attracts alarge number of refugees, returnees and IDPs. 687 Analysts write that Hargeisa’s economy benefits
greatly from remittances sent by Somalilanders living abroad. 688
Since mid-June 2021 the mayor of Hargeisa is Abdikarim Ahmed Moge 689 , who succeeded Abdirahman
Mohamoud Aideed, also referred to as ‘Mayor Soltelco’ (elected in 2013). 690
For further general information on Somaliland, please see section 7.7 of EASO’s COI report Somalia:
Actors, published in July 2021.

3.1.1 Demographics and clan composition
According to the CIA’s World Factbook, Hargeisa is the second largest urban area of Somalia with apopulation of 1.033 million as of 2021. 691 US-based companies specialised in demographics estimatethat Hargeisa’s population in the last three years ranges from 477 876692 to 923 000693. UNOCHA
featured the figure of 959 081 for the total population of Hargeisa in a 2021 report 694 while politicalscientist David Kilcullen wrote that state officials in Hargeisa referred to a population of 1.2 million,
which would represent around a quarter of the total population of Somaliland. 695 According to
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1.2 million was an estimation by the city government of Hargeisa from theyear 2000.696 The World Bank reported in 2021 that Hargeisa grew at an annual urban growth rate
between 5 and 6.7 %, with urban expansion data collected via remote sensing based on satellite
images over the past decade. 697
Based on data from UNHCR-led Protection and Return Monitoring Network (PRMN), the World Bank
reported in 2021 that between 10 000 and 25 730 IDPs arrived in Hargeisa and its wider region from2016 to 2019.698

685 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Hargeysa, last updated 23 October 2006, url; World (The), Self-declared state of Somaliland

celebrates 30 years of independence, 18 May 2021, url; Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia:
Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, p. 53; Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects:
experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url, p. 153
686 US, CIA, The World Factbook, Somalia, last updated 3 May 2021, url
687 Global Shelter Cluster, Somaliland - Overview, n.d., url
688 Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia: Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, p. 61;
Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 11; Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site
effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url, p. 160
689 Somaliland Chronicle, Mayor Solteco concedes to Mayor-Elect Mr. Abdikarim Ahmed Moge, 13 June 2021, url;
Somaliland Standard, Ex-Mayor, Soltelco gives up his mayoral re-election bid after 9 years in office, 13 June 2021, url
690 Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia: Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, p. 61;
AMISOM, Somaliland: Hargeisa Councillors elect new Mayor [sources: Somaliland Informer, Universal TV/ and Horn Cable
TV], 15 April 2013, url
691 US, CIA, The World Factbook, Somalia, last updated 3 May 2021, url
692 World Population Review, Somalia Population 2021, n.d., url
693 Demographia, World Urban Areas, 17th Annual Edition, June 2021, url, p. 31
694 UNOCHA, Humanitarian needs overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 50
695 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 5
696 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Hargeysa, last updated 23 October 2006, url
697 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 77
698 World Bank (The), Somalia Urbanization Review: Fostering Cities as Anchors of Development, 2020, url, p. 77

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In Hargeisa and generally in the heartlands of Somaliland, the Isaaq clan and its sub-clans constitute amajority and dominate the political landscape. 699 The scholar Abdifatah Ismael Tahir in April 2021
published an academic paper on clan composition over time in Hargeisa, based on archival materials,
oral narratives and ethnographic field research in Hargeisa from 2013 to 2015 and 2020. 700 He argues
that the city of Hargeisa is organised according to a unique form of clan-based segregation:‘At present, each of Hargeisa's five administrative districts - Axmed Dhagax, Maxamuud
Haybe, Gacan Libaax, 26 June, and Ibraahim Koodbuur - is predominantly populated by adistinctive clan(s). For instance, the Arab and Ayub clans populate Axmed Dhagax, while
the Garhajis (Eidagale and Habar Yonis) clans populate Maxamuud Haybe District andparts of Gacan Libaax District, such as the New Hargeisa sub-district. Moreover, the Awal
clans (Sa'ad Muse and Isse Muse) predominantly populate Ibraahim Koodbuur, as well as
the 26th June district and parts of Gacan Libaax, such as Sheikh Madar, and the Gaboyeclan is found in the Daami neighbourhood of Gacan Libaax.’701
Individuals of the Gabooye minority clan (for more information on the Gabooye, please see section
4.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles) were reported to reside mainly in Dami, aneighbourhood of Hargeisa, since 2 000 returnees from this minority clan returned from refugee
camps in Ethiopia (Teferi Ber and Darwanaji) at the end of the 1990s. 702

3.1.2 Humanitarian situation overview
UNOCHA, which has a sub-office in Hargeisa703, stated in its humanitarian needs overview for the year
2021 that the district of Hargeisa counts 959 081 people, of which 685 335 are in need ofhumanitarian assistance (84 553 IDPs, 600 782 non-displaced, 14 745 refugees).704 The most pressing
humanitarian issues since 2020 related to food insecurity amidst the COVID -19 pandemic in theregion.705 After the loss of livestock and pasture due to water shortages in December 2020 andJanuary 2021706, the region is affected by a wave of desert locusts damaging staple crops andrangelands.707
In November 2017 the IOM stated that two of the three most populated IDPs sites in Somaliland(Stadium with 34 000 inhabitants and Statehouse with over 25 000 inhabitants) were located inHargeisa.708 Daami, Ayaha, and Mohamed Mooge are further sites located in Hargeisa’s city centre. 709
These settlements, often referred to as camps, have been established in Hargeisa since the 1990s
699 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,

p. 163; Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
700 Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia: Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, p. 54
701 Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia: Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, p. 54;
All clans referred to in this quote are Isaaq sub-clans except the Gabooye: see also International Crisis Group, Somaliland:
The Strains of Success, 5 October 2015, url, pp. 4, 20
702 UNHCR, New issues in Refugee Research – Working Paper N°65 – Pastoral society and transnational refugees:
population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988-2000, August 2002, url, p. 30
703 UNOCHA, Somalia Staff Contact List, January 2020, url, p. 3
704 UNOCHA, Humanitarian needs overview – Somalia, 9 March 2021, url, p. 50
705 IPC, Somalia: Acute Food Insecurity Situation July - September 2020 and Projection for October - December 2020, 30
September 2020, url; IPC, Somalia: Acute Food Insecurity Situation January - March 2021 and Projection for April - June
2021, 4 February 2021, url; UNOCHA, Somalia: COVID-19 Impact Update No. 15, 26 January 2021, url, p. 1
706 UNOCHA, Humanitarian Response Plan – Somalia, 15 February 2021, url, pp. 11-1211-12
707 FAO, Desert Locust briefs 2021, n.d., url; Fews net, 3.5 million people are expected to be in Crisis (IPC Phase 3) from
June to September 2020, url, May 2020
708 IOM, Displacement Situation Report - Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Sanaag, Sool And Togdheer Regions(Somaliland), November 2017, url, p. 1
709 UNOCHA, Woqooyi Galbeed – Situation Analysis, October 2012, url, p. 1

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when they were mainly composed of returnees from refugee camps in Ethiopia joined ove r time byin-migrants from Somaliland, Somalia, Ethiopia and, more recently, Yemen.710 For more information
on IDPs, please see sections 3.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city, 3.3.2 Housing and shelter and 3.4.2
Returnees, vulnerable groups.
Somaliland confirmed the first COVID-19 case in March 2020 and from April 2020 until July 2020 thegovernment of Hargeisa ‘implemented a full lockdown’. As of January 2021, most of the registeredcases in Somaliland were in Hargeisa711 and as of 25 June 2021 the WHO counted 3 301 confirmed
cases in Somaliland, 1 787 of which in the district of Hargeisa, and 275 deaths. 712

3.2 Mobility and accessibility
3.2.1 Hargeisa’s airport and flight connections
Hargeisa’s airport is located 6 km from the city centre. 713 Scholars place the construction date of the
airport in the 1950s 714 , after which it was used mainly as a military base. 715 After the civil war, theairport was renamed after Mohammed Haji Ibrahim Egal, president of Somaliland at the time.716 In the
1990s and 2000s the airport ‘remained in poor condition’ and was used primarily for humanitarian
flights and small commercial flights. 717 Since the mid-2000s, Hargeisa Egal International Airport (HEIA)
saw an increase in the number of passengers and cargo flights departing and arriving. 718 The airport
was rehabilitated from 2012 to 2015, including the expansion of the runway and the implementationof security practices and new technologies 719 , funded by the Kingdom of Kuwait, the United Kingdom,
UNDP, USAID, the government of Somaliland, local businesses and private companies. 720 Based on

710 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,

p. 154; Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
711 UN-Habitat and UNCDF, Global Compendium of Practices on Local Economic and Financial Recovery, 3 March 2021, url,
p. 41
712 WHO Somalia, COVID-19 DASHBOARD, Somalia, 25 June 2021, url
713 Fly Dubai, Hargeisa Airport, n.d., url; Idealo, Flughafen Hargeisa South (HGA), n.d., url; Louis Berger S.A. and Afro-Consult
P.l.c, Pre-Feasibility Study of the Regional Transport Sector in Berbera Corridor, September 2003, url, p. 7
714 Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 7;
Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 162
715 Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 7;
Louis Berger S.A. and Afro-Consult P.l.c, Pre-Feasability Study of the Regional Transport Sector in Berbera Corridor,
September 2003, url, p. 7; see also Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland:
Historical Perspectives And Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 162-163
716 Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 11
11717 Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 12 ;see also TNH, Haregisa airport averts closure, 26 September 2003, url
718 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 165; Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at
Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 12
719 Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 12;
Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargei sa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 160; Republic of Somaliland, Government of Republic ofSomaliland, Hargeisa’s Egal airport reopens, powered by wind, 20 August 2013, url
720 Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal International Airport, 2016, url, p. 12 ;Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Pe rspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, pp. 160, 167, 187; Republic of Somaliland, Government of
Republic of Somaliland, Hargeisa’s Egal airport reopens, powered by wind, 20 August 2013, url

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online flight schedules accessed through a tracking site, the following connections were available fromHargeisa’s airport as of 27 July 2021. 721
Internationally:•

These destinations are served from/to Hargeisa:- Addis Ababa (Ethiopian Airlines) – 14 flights/week- Dubai (Daallo Airlines; Flydubai) – 2 flights/week- Nairobi (Kenya Airways; Daallo Airlines; Jubba Airways) – 2 flights/week- Djibouti (Jubba Airways) – 1 flight/week

Domestically:•

These destinations are served from/to Hargeisa:- Mogadishu (African Express; Daallo Airlines; Taquan Air; Jubba Airways) - 13 flights/week- Galkacyo (Jubba Airways) – 3 flights/week- Garowe (Jubba Airways) – 1 flight/week- Bosasso (Jubba Airways) – 1 flight/week

The Department of Somaliland Immigration (SIBC) on its website lists travellers who, thanks to their
type of passport or nationality, can apply for an ‘on arrival’ visa directly at HEIA, while other applicantsmust apply for visas in advance. 722 According to the German foreign office, ‘on arrival’ visas areawarded for stays of up to 30 days. 723 As a rule, an invitation is required as proof of the purpose ofstay, without which entry can be refused. Visa fees (60 USD) must be paid locally in US dollars incash.724 A Finnish resident born in Southern Somalia who was interviewed by the Finnish Immigration
Service in 2019 stated that Somaliland authorities require anyone entering the country to have aproper travel document and may require a fee. 725

3.2.2 Internal mobility
3.2.2.1 Circulation within the city
A 2020 research report by the Canadian Immigration and Refugee Board (IRB) quotes the UNHCR officein Mogadishu on the presence of entry and exit checkpoints at each district within Somaliland,
indicating that checkpoint authorities consistently verify travel documents, driver’s licenses,
destination and origin of the trip, record plate numbers of vehicles and contact numbers of travellers.
The UN agency noted, however, that borders with Ethiopia ‘are relatively porous and migrants might

721 FlightConnections, Direct flights from Hargeisa (HGA), n.d., url; Flightradar24, Hargeisa Airport, n.d., url
722 Republic of Somaliland, SIBC, Visa Section, n.d. url
723 Germany, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Somalia: Reise und Sicherheitshinweise, as of 7 June 2021, url
724 Germany, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Somalia: Reise und Sicherheitshinweise, as of 7 June 2021, url; Somaliland Travel,

Somaliland Visa, n.d., url; see also Gandrup, T., Enter and exit: everyday state practices at Somaliland’s Hargeisa Egal
International Airport, 2016, url, p. 16
725 Finland, FIS, Somalia: Keski- ja Etelä-Somaliasta kotoisin olevien henkilöiden laillinen pääsy Somalimaahan, Ashrafvähemmistöryhmän asema Somalimaassa [Somalia: Legal access to Somaliland for persons from South-Central Somalia,
situation of Ashraf minority group], 24 October 2019, url, p.2

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enter Somaliland without documentation’. 726 Scholar Abdifatah Tahir, who was interviewed for thisreport, stated that ‘There are no permanent checkpoints within the city but security forces maintaina random presence at all the major intersections in the city. There are also checkpoints on all the roads
leading in and out of the city. I don’t believe this negatively impacts accessibility or mobility ofresidents.’727
Circulation within Hargeisa is reported to be difficult due to the bad quality of the roads as well as theorganisation of the circulation. Sources report increasing traffic on the road connecting Hargeisa to
the port of Berbera as well as in Hargeisa itself 728 Frequent congestions occur as a result of theinteraction of traffic with ‘pedestrians, donkey drawn carts, street markets, parked vehicles’ as well
as khat delivering trucks, in the absence of traffic signs. 729 Other paved streets in the city centre arereported to be potholed while many roads outside the business district are not paved. On occasional
heavy rains, large areas of the city are reported to be flooded and roads to be ‘impassable due tomud’.730
The construction of a highway linking Hargeisa to the port city of Berbera has begun in 2018 and isscheduled to be completed in 2022, promising to turn Hargeisa ‘into a major transport hub for traffic
from across the Horn of Africa to Berbera’.731

2.3.2.2 Safety within the city
Hargeisa is not considered to be particularly insecure by scholars conducting research in the city, whencompared to other urban areas in the region. 732 According to the scholar and specialist of Hargeisa
Abdifatah Tahir, Somaliland’s prioritisation of security is however jeopardised in urban contexts bystate-involved land conflicts. 733 Basing his analysis on an in-depth study of Hargeisa, the author argues
that such conflicts ‘induce a significant level of violence, pitting authorities against local land-owners
or claimers’.734
For more information on mobility, please see section 3.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Actors,
published in July 2021.

726 Canada, IRB, Somalia: Entry and exit requirements at land borders and airports, including documentation required;

whether there are checkpoints for domestic and international travel; whether there are travel agencies that facilitate
travel within and outside Somalia (2018–August 2020), 3 September 2020, url
727 Tahir, A., email, 23 June 2021. Abdifatah Tahir is a specialist of Hargeisa who obtained his PhD from the University of
Sussex and currently (as of June 2021) serves as a member of Parliament in Somalia.
728 Somaliland Sun, Somaliland: Traffic Problems in Hargeisa City, 14 April 2013, url; Somaliland Chronicle, President Bihi
Attends the Groundbreaking of Hargeisa Bypass Road, 4 May 2021, url; Louis Berger S.A. and Afro-Consult P.l.c, Pre-Feasibility
Study of the Regional Transport Sector in Berbera Corridor, September 2003, url, p. 16
729 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, pp. 5, 15 ; Somaliland Sun, Somaliland: Traffic Problems inHargeisa City, 14 April 2013, url; Louis Berger S.A. and Afro-Consult P.l.c, Pre-Feasibility Study of the Regional Transport
Sector in Berbera Corridor, September 2003, url, p. 3
730 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 15 ; see also Somaliland Sun, Somaliland: Traffic Problems
in Hargeisa City, 14 April 2013, url
731 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 21; see also GCR, Berbera–Ethiopia highway set to turn
Somaliland into “major regional trading hub”, 1 March 2019, url; Somaliland Chronicle, President Bihi Attends theGroundbreaking of Hargeisa Bypass Road, 4 May 2021, url
732 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 154; ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz
durch staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi], 31 May 2021, url,
pp. 20-21
733 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 193193
734 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 193193

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3.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city
Abdifatah Tahir stated that Hargeisa’s population has a history of settling in the city according to aclan-based segregation (please see section 3.1.1 Demographics and clan composition). Newcomers
settled where members of their clan lived, because they knew this network would facilitate theiraccess to a range of institutions and services which the state failed to provide: '[…] segregation inHargeisa can be understood as a response to historical political, economic, and security problems in
the city, persisting because of the state's incompetence in managing public services as well as the key
roles the customary institutions continue to play in mediating access to services, conflict resolution,and political participation.’ 735
Hargeisa’s urban landscape has however experienced rapid changes with the return in the late 1990sof people who had resided in refugee camps in neighbouring countries (please see section 3.1.2
Humanitarian situation overview). In Hargeisa they settled in buush736 aside and in ruins and/or
government-owned vacant land. These settlements (often referred to as camps, for example
Statehouse and Stadium) 737 have nowadays become more densely populated, often overlapping withother areas of the city, even if they are separated from districts ‘with more affluent housing andbusiness.’ 738 Kirsti Stuvøy et al., a group of researchers who conducted a research proje ct in these
settlements from 2017 to 2019 pointed to the higher level of social diversity among their inhabitants,
complicating the settlement patterns described by Abdifatah Tahir 739 : ‘“original” returnees, later
displaced people, rural to urban migrants from Somaliland or Somalia, other low-income residents ofHargeisa, who were pushed out of other neighbourhoods in the city by rising rents, and non -Somali
migrants, particularly ethnic Oromo from Ethiopia.’ 740 These researchers reported that interviewees
admitted to follow clan-based settlement practices (preferring to settle where relatives lived) but‘rejected practices of clan-based exclusion.’ 741 Both Stuvøy et al. and Abdifatah Tahir converge in theiranalysis of an increasing competition over access to land in Hargeisa, 742 whose ‘current mechanism ofaccess to land in urban areas marginalises the poor.’ 743 Land disputes are on the rise, opposing lowincome land claimants and the state who threatens to evict them.744
The scholar Tahir, who was consulted for this report on the subject of accessibility and settlement inHargeisa stated:

735 Tahir, A., The production of clan segregation in urban Somalia: Historical Geographies of Hargeisa, April 2021, url, pp. 61-

62
736 Buush (singular buul) are makeshift huts, see UNHCR, Somalia Settlement Typologies, 2017, url, p. 10
737 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021
738 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,

p. 154739 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 163740 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 161741 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 163742 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Harg eisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 164743 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 1818
744 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, pp. 18, 17518, 175

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Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators‘Yes, the settlement in the city is organised along clan lines. But this does not mean
people cannot reside in a neighbourhood populated by a clan different than theirs. One
way in which this may have a negative implication is when conflict over land arise. In suchcases, returnees and displaced people may feel insecure and unsafe in areas populated
by clans other than theirs. Gatekeepers or camp managers may exist in somecircumstances i.e when a displaced camp is initiated on private land, speculators or by aclosely knit group.’ 745
In Hargeisa, many of the people who squat today on governmental land or reside in informal
settlements across the town are returnees from refugee camps in Ethiopia. Over the years they have
improved their living conditions, huts (buush) were replaced by houses made of corrugated ironsheets, lands were fenced off and an informal property and housing marke t developed. The squattershave started to rent out land to newcomers, people who were displaced in other parts of the country,
fled from Ethiopia or could not afford rising rents in Hargeisa. 746

3.3 Socio-economic indicators
3.3.1 Economic overview and food security
3.3.1.1 General information
Animal husbandry and livestock export constitute the cornerstone of Somaliland’s economy and aconsequent tax income for Somaliland authorities. 747 This sector contributes to 85 % of export
earnings and 30 % of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs 70 % of the population. 748 A
2012 World Bank survey estimated that the wholesale and retail trade in the formal and informal
sector represented 20 % of GDP, while 8 % was derived from crops and 6 % from real estate
activities.749 Remittances from the diaspora are considered to be the largest contributor to
Somaliland’s GDP. 750 The 2012 estimated GDP per capita of 347 USD would have placed Somaliland in
the fourth lowest place in the world ranking, with urban poverty estimated at 29 % and rural poverty
at 38 %.751
Still according to the World Bank, the deficit between the value of goods imported to Somaliland andthe value of goods exported from Somaliland amounted to approximately 496 million USD in 2012.752

745 Tahir, A., email, 23 June 2021. Abdifatah Tahir is a specialist of Hargeisa who obtained his PhD from the University of

Sussex and currently (as of June 2021) serves as a member of Parliament in Somalia.
746 Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Precarious Mobility in Somali
Cities, 15 October 2020, url, pp. 16-17
747 Mills, G. et al., Somaliland – New ways of doing things in a tough neighbourhood, 2019, url, p. 6; Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa,
Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 8; Louis Berger S.A. and Afro-Consult P.l.c, Pre-Feasibility Study of the Regional
Transport Sector in Berbera Corridor, September 2003, url, p. 9; World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012,2012, url, p. 1; Musa, A. M. et al., Revenues on the hoof: livestock trade, taxation and state-making in the Somali territories,
23 October 2020, url, p. 12
748 Musa, A. M. et al., Factors influencing livestock export in Somaliland’s terminal markets, 9 January 2020, url, p. 1; WorldBank (The), New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, 29 January 2014, url;
749 World Bank (The), New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, 29 January 2014, url
750 openDemocracy, COVID-19 has transformed Somaliland’s remittance lifeline, 19 April 2021, url; Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa,
Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 11; UN-OHRLLS, The Role of Remittance in the Economic Development of Somaliland,[source: SomalilandPress], [2013], url; see also Hammond, L., Family Ties: Remittances and Livelihoods Support in Puntland
and Somaliland, FSNAU, 5 June 2013, url, p. 1
751 World Bank (The), New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, 29 January 2014, url
752 World Bank (The), New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, 29 January 2014, url; see also Kilcullen,D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 88

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Remittances to Somaliland dropped in 2020 due to Covid-19 before picking up again at the end of theyear.753
Hargeisa is the largest economic centre of Somaliland.754 UN-Habitat reported that the city revenue
dropped from March 2020 onwards (a decrease of 11 % in 2020 as compared to the previous year)
due to the closure of businesses during the lockdown. Moreover, the intergovernmental fiscal transfer
that Hargeisa receives from Somalia’s central government has decreased by 53 % in 2020 as comparedto the previous year. 755 Kilcullen wrote in 2019 based on an interview with Somaliland‘s Ministry of
Finance that much of the 700 million USD worth of remittances sent by Somalilanders in the diaspora
flew through Hargeisa. 756 The COVID-19 pandemic led to a fall in the level of remittances sent toSomaliland, ‘a concern to local people in Hargeisa’ according to UN-Habitat.757 In a context of decline
in remittances, the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU) and the Famine Early Warning
Systems Network (FEWS NET) reported that, between April and June 2020, 28 % of urban and IDP
households in Hargeisa received external remittances. 758
Somaliland imports most of its foodstuffs, as David Kilcullen noted in 2019, adding that:‘less than 13 per cent of land is suitable for agriculture, only half of this is cultivated for
local consumption and the national market, and only 10 per cent of arable land isirrigated, while the rest is rain-fed. Most farm production is subsistence - based, with thesole (and recent) exception of watermelons, now a successful export to Djib outi. Most
farmers grow sorghum or maize for household consumption on small farms of two to 30
hectares, while fruits and vegetables are grown in market gardens for sale to cities.’759
Although no large industries developed, the private sector has thrived thanks to relative peace andsecurity.760 The government lacks the resources to invest in public goods, notably urban
infrastructure.761 It is the private sector which in Hargeisa ‘delivers basic services such as health,education, electricity, domestic water supply and urban waste disposal’.762 The high price of basic
infrastructures such as electricity is considered to have a negative impact on businesses in Hargeisa.763

753 openDemocracy, COVID-19 has transformed Somaliland’s remittance lifeline, 19 April 2021, url; see also FSNAU, Somalia

2020 Post Gu Food Security and Nutrition Outcomes and Projections, 30 September 2020, url, p. 12
754 UN-Habitat and UNCDF, Global Compendium of Practices on Local Economic and Financial Recovery, 3 March 2021, url,
p. 42; World Bank (The), New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, 29 January 2014, url; World Bank
(The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 1
755 UN-Habitat and UNCDF, Global Compendium of Practices on Local Economic and Financial Recovery, 3 March 2021, url,
p. 42
756 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 7
757 UN-Habitat and UNCDF, Global Compendium of Practices on Local Economic and Financial Recovery, 3 March 2021, url,
p. 42
758 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia - Food Security Outlook - Weather shocks, desert locust, and COVID-19 economic
contraction lead to Crisis (IPC Phase 3) outcomes – October 2020 to May 2021, 15 November 2020, url; p. 7
759 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 1111
760 Republic of Somaliland, MoERD, Strategic Plan (2017-2021), 1 July 2017, url, p. 20; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Hargeysa,
last updated 23 October 2006, url; World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 1
761 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 14
762 World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 1; ICED Facility, Case Studies: Delivering
Inclusive Growth Through Infrastructure Programming in FCAS. Consolidated findings, August 2019, url, p. 9
763 Republic of Somaliland, Country Profile 2021, June 2021, url, p. 53; Massoud, M., Shari ‘a, Inshallah - Finding God in
Somali Legal Politics, 2021, p. 249; see also World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, pp. 2-3

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3.3.1.2 Food security
FEWS NET published a map on food insecurity in Somalia which classified the city of Hargeisa in a‘crisis’ phase (phase 3 on the Acute Food Insecurity Phase ladder) in January 2021. 764 Water and foodinsecurity are reported to pose the most significant challenge for Hargeisa. 765
Scholar Hamda Abdullah conducted a study on food insecurity in households in Hargeisa andpublished the results in 2018, notably showing that 53.2 % of the total households were below thefood insecurity line.766 Moreover he argued that the rapid increase in the population of Somaliland led
to ‘easier access to food of low nutritional quality at reduced prices & seemingly less health qu ality’.767
According to the FSNAU and FEWS NET, erratic rainfall distribution in agropastoral areas and a desert
locust infestation in north-central Somalia led, among other factors, to significant crop losses in 2020and livestock prices were ‘high across the country, reflecting persistently low supply in north-central
Somalia’.768 A May 2021 quarterly brief on food security and nutrition in Somalia reported that thedesert locust upsurge had ‘significantly declined in March’ 769 2021 due to ongoing control operations
and poor rainfall, but forecasted a below average Gu season cereal production in agro-pastoral areasof the North.770
According to a 2020 report by the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) on the impact of
COVID-19 on food security in the East & Horn of Africa, the measures taken to limit the spread of
COVID-19 such as restricting access to markets were particularly detrimental to ‘poor households’
ability to cover daily food needs’. 771 The Food Security Outlook by covering the period between
October 2020 and May 2021 stated, mostly in relation to urban areas and internally displaced person
settlements, that ‘most poor households typically spend a high proportion of their income on foodexpenditures, and the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on theirability to purchase food.’ 772

3.3.2 Housing and shelter
According to the director of the Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies in Hargeisa who wasinterviewed for this report, the housing types in Hargeisa are: huts (buul) which can be rented for
20 USD per month, jingaad (a basic housing structure of only metal sheet, which can be rented
35 USD/month for a one-bedroom, 70 or 100 USD for a two- or three-bedroom, more if they are
centrally located), bacweyne (iron sheet house, but better decorated than jingaad). Bacweyne are
764 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia - Food Security Outlook - Weather shocks, desert locust, and COVID-19 economic

contraction lead to Crisis (IPC Phase 3) outcomes – October 2020 to May 2021, 15 November 2020, url, p. 2
765 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 11
766 Abdullah, H., Determinants and Dimensions of Household Food Insecurity Risks in Hargeisa City, Somaliland, October
2018, url, p. 1216
767 Abdullah, H., Determinants and Dimensions of Household Food Insecurity Risks in Hargeisa City, Somaliland, October
2018, url, p. 1217
768 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia - Food Security Outlook - Weather shocks, desert locust, and COVID-19 economic
contraction lead to Crisis (IPC Phase 3) outcomes – October 2020 to May 2021, 15 November 2020, url, p. 4
769 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May
2021, url, p. 5
770 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May
2021, url, p. 13
771 IPC, East & Horn Of Africa: IPC Food Security Phase Classification, Desert Locusts & COVID-19, 19 May 2020, url, p. 1; seealso FSNAU and FEWS NET, Quarterly Brief with a Focus on the 2021 Jiaal Impact and Gu Season Early Warning, 17 May
2021, url, p. 9772 FSNAU and FEWS NET, Somalia - Food Security Outlook - Weather shocks, desert locust, and COVID-19 economic
contraction lead to Crisis (IPC Phase 3) outcomes – October 2020 to May 2021, 15 November 2020, url, p. 7

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often erected in a first phase by people owning a small plot of land before they can afford to build abrick or stone structure house for their families. All of these types of houses have outside toilets (pitlatrines). Most privately owned brick or stone houses have several rooms and iron sheet roofing, theirprice varies with their location and size (a house with four bedrooms, kitchen, inside toilet can berented for 180 to 200 USD/month; a house with five bedrooms, kitchen, one toilet inside, one toilet
outside, garage for one car can be rented for 200 to 250 USD/month; a ‘bangalo’ i.e. a house withseven bedrooms, a kitchen, two toilets inside, one outside, a garage for two cars can be rented 250 to
350 USD/month). Houses out of concrete (fooq) are 2- or 3-storey-houses which can be rented or
800 USD to 2 500 USD depending on the location. This type of house is often rented by government
agencies, international NGOS or UN agencies. 773
Returnees and IDPs settled on large patches of uninhabited private or public land since the late
1990s.774 Their so-called camps or settlements are nowadays located at the outskirts of the city but
also within the city centre. 775 They attracted large numbers of people over the years, not only forcedly
displaced people but also residents of Hargeisa who could not afford rising rents. 776 Settlements
named Statehouse, Cakaaro, Daami, Mohamed Mooge, and Digaale are neighbourhoods commonly
associated with a population of displaced people, but they inhabited in reality by people with quite
different socio-economic profiles.777
The Migrants on the Margins project carried out between 2016 and 2019 in Hargeisa (among other
cities) compared three urban settlements, showing the diversity of housing types and living
conditions.778 Camp A is two hours walk away from the city centre and the land is privately owned,
with some residents paying rent to the landlord and some others not. Houses are constructed in the
traditional aqal-style 779, which the inhabitants are reluctant to modernise, fearing an imminenteviction from the lan d. Digaale however is a settlement planned by the government with support
from the European Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO) and the Norwegian Refugee Council(NRC). Residents own the land they were settled on and houses feature corrugated iron sheets . The
camp is equipped with latrines and communal water tanks. The settlement referred to as State houseis the oldest of Hargeisa’s settlements, located in the city centre on ruins of public buildings. 780
According to another study on State House in Hargeis a, ‘less than 15 % live in brick/masonryhouses’.781 Stuvøy et al.’s research participants who resided in State House mentioned regularincidents of fire due to insecure cooking conditions and ‘dense packing of housing structures’, causing

773 Ali, N. M., mail interview, 29 July 2021
774 Mohamed, S. I., Challenges Of Urban Land Conflicts In Somaliland: The Case Of Hargeisa, October 2018, url, p. 24;

ACCORD, Somalia: Al -Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz durch
staatliche und nichtstaatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi], 31 May 2021, url, p. 17;
see also Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021,
url, p. 159
775 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 155 ; ACCORD, Somalia: Al-Schabaab und Sicherheitslage; Lage von Binnenvertriebenen und Rückkehrer·innen; Schutz
durch staatliche und nicht-staatliche Akteure [Seminar with experts Markus Hoehne and Jutta Bakonyi], url, p. 17
776 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 155777 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
p. 160778 Hammond, L. and Ibrahim, M., 2019. Migrants on the Margins: Tackling Urban Displacement in Hargeisa, Somaliland,
July 2019, url, pp. 1-2
779 aqal is a dome-shaped nomadic hut, see Hamilton, J., Somalia in Pictures, 2007, url, p. 46
780 Hammond, L. and Ibrahim, M., 2019. Migrants on the Margins: Tackling Urban Displacement in Hargeisa, Somaliland,
July 2019, url, pp. 1-2
781 Osman, A. M., Urban Poverty In Somaliland: The Case Of State House Area In Hargeisa, October 2018, url, p. 57

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several deaths because the settlement’s narrow roads prevent fire trucks from intervening. 782
Inhabitants hope that the city will reclaim the land on which they settled and relocate them to a newplot of land.783 Digaale, Jimcale, Ayah 1, 2, 3 and 4 are examples of neighbourhoods newly demarcatedby the city on the outskirts of Hargeisa. 784 For more information on IDPs, please see section 3.1.2
Humanitarian situation overview, 3.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city and 3.4.2 Returnees,
vulnerable groups..
Major Somali cities currently experience a building boom conducive to economic development.
Bakonyi warned against the violent consequences of this urban reconstruction: Investors and politicalelites seeking new economic opportunities speculate with urban land and contribute to the expansionof rent economy, thereby precipitating mass-scale evictions of the urban poor and displaced people.785
There is a direct link between access to land and access to housing and shelter, as people with land
can build their own houses to reside in or can become landlords (even if only ‘petty landlords’, allowing
other people to establish huts or iron-sheet houses. 786 Hargeisa experienced a rapid urbanisation 787 in
the past decades and saw land prices increase as well as the competition for access to land andhousing.788 A plot of land of approximately 12m2 (large enough for a four-bedroom house) can bebought for approximately 15 000 USD, while a slightly larger plot (for a five-bedroom house with agarage) can be bought for 22 000 to 30 000 USD depending on the location, and a plot on which aseven-bedroom ‘bangalo’ can be built would cost between 40 000 to 50 000 USD.789
In an article published in the Somaliland Peace and Development Journal in October 2018, Suleiman
Ismail Mohamed listed different ways of acquiring land in Hargeisa: purchase from a private owner,from the government, inheritance of land after a close relative’s death, but also illegal grabbing. He
described the latter as the process through which ‘individuals claim ownership of a large area of landas their own farms’. Land-grabbers can subsequently obtain a title deeds for their land, with thesupport of local government authorities via bribes or kinship networks. 790 Tahir referred to thisphenomenon as a malpractice resulting is some cases in the ‘multiple allocation and issuance of title
deeds for the same pieces of lands’. According to his analysis, such malpractice resulted in a lack offaith in the land management system, leading people to build on land without permit. 791 The absenceof strong government and governing laws contributed to the problem. 792

782 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,

p. 167783 Hammond, L., Ibrahim, M., 2019. Migrants on the Margins: Tackling Urban Displacement in Hargeisa, Somaliland, July
2019, url, p. 1
784Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,
pp. 168-169
785 Bakonyi, J., The Political Economy of Displacement: Rent Seeking, Dispossessions and Precarious Mobility in Somali
Cities, 15 October 2020, url, p. 20
786 Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
787 Ali, N. M., mail interview, 29 July 2021; Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa,
Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 18; Mohamed, S. I.,
Challenges Of Urban Land Conflicts In Somaliland: The Case Of Hargeisa, October 2018, url, p. 23
788 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 18; Mohamed, S. I., Challenges Of Urban Land Conflicts In
Somaliland: The Case Of Hargeisa, October 2018, url, pp. 21, 23
789 Ali, N. M., mail interview, 29 July 2021
790 Mohamed, S. I., Challenges Of Urban Land Conflicts In Somaliland: The Case Of Hargeisa, October 2018, url, pp. 24, 28;
see also Hiiraan Online, The Cost of Cooruption [source: Somaliland Times], 11 February 2007, url
791 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 122122
792 Mohamed, S. I., Challenges Of Urban Land Conflicts In Somaliland: The Case Of Hargeisa, October 2018, url, p. 24

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According to Stuvøy et al.’s estimate, several thousand people from squatter settlements in the city
centre have already been relocated by the Somaliland government, an approach which is supported
by international governmental and non-governmental organisations. 793 Taking the example of aconflict over the land surrounding the Hargeysa Egal International airport (HEIA ), Tahir analysed thatpublic officials have a ‘dual strategy’, seeking to negotiate relocation of land claimants, while doubting
the legitimacy of local people’s land ownership by threatening with forceful evictions. 794 In April 2020
the House Land and Property Working Group (HLPWG) in Somaliland reported that 61 refugee
households had been evicted by the Hargeisa municipality and received shelter grants through local
NGOs.795

3.3.3 Hygiene, water and sanitation
According to the Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JIMMI) which conducted interviews in February
2021 with vendors in Hargeisa and other locations in Somalia, 50 % of vendors interviewed in Hargeisa
reported having difficulties to stock trucked water in the three months prior to data collection. 796 One
result of the data collection conducted by JIMMI in November 2020 was that in Hargeisa 100 % of thevendors who participated in the study reported having difficulties to stock menstrual hygiene
management (MHM) items in the three months prior to data collection. It was also the case for plastic
gloves for 50 % of vendors and of water for 33 % of them.797
In its 2019 working paper, Kilcullen described the water supply system in Hargeisa as follows:‘Fewer than one in 100 households in Hargeisa has acces s to running water, with access
dropping off sharply as one mov es out from the city centre. Most middle -classhouseholds purchase plastic or metal water tanks which they place on the roadside andreplenish by purchasing water from donkey -driven carts that roam the streets at mosthours of the day. One thousand litres of water costs roughly USD$6 as of late 2018, andlasts a family of four about 10 days. The carts are regulated by government, and theirwater comes from state -owned rigs and pipes in the city, but the water itself often
originates from reservoirs and wells many miles from the city. Frequently, landowners
commercialise public water pipelines on their properties, selling public water directly to
consumers, and the government is paid by calculatin g the amount of water used – like aprivate household, though with far higher usage’798
In a 2019 report written by the team of the Infrastructure and Cities for Economic Development (ICED)
Facility, the authors stated that ‘70% of the city’s population rely largely on water from tanker trucks
and hand carts, paying at least four times the price of piped water per unit, creating an excessive costburden that falls most heavily on the poorest.’ 799

793 Stuvøy, K. et al., Precarious spaces and violent site effects: experiences from Hargeisa’s urban margins, May 2021, url,

p. 169794 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 175175
795 UNOCHA, Somalia: Update 5 – Overview of Covid-19 directives, 1 June 2020, url, p. 1; see also UNOCHA, Humanitarianneeds Overview – Somalia, 22 December 2019, url, p. 58
796 REACH, Somalia Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JIMMI), 20 April 2021, url, p. 12
797 REACH, Somalia Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JIMMI), 21 January 2021, url, p. 7
798 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 15
799 ICED Facility, Case Studies: Delivering Inclusive Growth Through Infrastructure Programming in FCAS. Consolidated
findings, August 2019, url, p. 983

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

Kilcullen referred to water as a ‘critical commodity’ for Hargeisa, as droughts in the hinterland due touncertain rain-fall drive farmers to the city, increasing the demand on ‘already stressed water supply
systems’.800
The World Bank and the International Finance Corporation noted in 2012 that the ‘limited water andelectricity networks and lack of sewage’ in Hargeisa lead to high costs of access to such utilities. 801

3.3.4 Health care
Medical doctor Djibril Ibrahim Moussa mentioned that in Hargeisa around 200 medical doctors areoffering services for a population of roughly one million people or more which amounts to an
estimated ratio of one medical doctor per 5 000 inhabitants or more. 802 The desirable doctorpopulation ratio, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), is 1:1 000.803 A study of Fatumo
Abdi Abdillahi et al. mentioned that in Somaliland, the ‘healthcare system has never developed
beyond providing the most basic functions, which leave it ill-equipped to deal with any significant
challenges’.804
Moussa added that health care in Hargeisa is essentially private. 805 Although the largest hospital, theHargeisa Group Hospital (HGH) 806, which is the national referral hospital in Somaliland 807, is called‘public’ or ‘state’ hospital due to partly public funding, patients have to pay there for services. 808 Thereis an admission fee of around 10 USD, a single bed costs around 20 USD/night, a bed in a shared room
is around 10 USD/night.809 Operations cost, depending on the type and kind of operation, between
350 and more than 1 000 USD. A caesarean, which is a frequently performed operation, costs around
400 USD, an appendix operation slightly less; orthopaedical surgery or neuro-surgery are more
expensive. Additionally, patients have to cover the costs for medication and other services. 810 HGH
consists of six main departments and has nearly 700 employees including specialised personnel,
administrative support staff and auxiliaries. It serves over 260 patients daily in average 811 and has acapacity of around 500-600 beds812 . Medication costs may vary, depending on type and quantity,
between 5 and 50 USD for a monthly dose. The smaller manual services cost between 2 and 5 USD
per service. In the other (‘private’) hospitals in Hargeisa, costs for admission and beds are around 30
percent higher than in HGH, costs for operations and other services are roughly the same. 813

800 Kilcullen, D., Hargeisa, Somaliland – Invisible City, 2019, url, p. 17
801 World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 3
802 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021. Djibril Ibrahim Moussa is a medical doctor who worked many years in

Borama and in Hargeisa in Somaliland; he is among the staff of the public health faculty, Amoud University, near Borama.
803 Kumar, R. and Pal, R., India achieves WHO recommended doctor population ratio: A call for paradigm shift in public
2018, url, p. 841
804 Abdi Abdillahi, F., Ismail, E. and Singh, S., Mental Health in Somaliland: a critical situation, 2020, url, p. 11
805 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
806 Somaliland Chronicle, Dangerously unregulated: The dire conditions at Hargeisa Group Hospital, 30 June 2019, url
807 THET and LSTM, UKPHS Scoping Assessment Report Somaliland, November 2020, url, p. 25; Hargeisa Group Hospital,
About us, n.d., url
808 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021; Somaliland Chronicle, Dangerously unregulated: The dire conditions at
Hargeisa Group Hospital, 30 June 2019, url
809 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021; compare also the prices given by Somaliland Chronicle, Dangerously
unregulated: The dire conditions at Hargeisa Group Hospital, 30 June 2019, url
810 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
811 Hargeisa Group Hospital, About us, n.d., url
812 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
813 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021

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The other hospitals in Hargeisa, which are all private, are Edna Adan Hospital, 814 Hargeisa International
Hospital815, Gargaar Hospital, 816 Haldoor Multispeciality & Teaching Hospital, 817 Amal Grand
Hospital818 and the Arab Medical Union Hospital, 819 each of which has between 50 and 100 beds andseveral departments. The admission fees and bed-costs in these private hospitals are around 30 per
cent higher than in HGH; the costs for operations are roughly the same. Costs for laboratory tests canbe higher, depending on the available equipment. 820
Furthermore, there exist numerous smaller clinics focussing on a special field, such as maternal healthor internal medicine, and doctors have private offices all over town. Some have a degree from abroad,others, particularly the younger generation, has been educated in medicine at Hargeisa University orat Amuud University near Borama in the past 15 years. 821
A study based on interviews found that during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, treating patients inHargeisa was a problem, with a lack of trust in the health care offered. An interviewee stressed that
health care was poor, especially in HGH. Reported death tolls were due to negligence of nurses andlack of ventilators822 Structural problems with health care in hospitals in Hargeisa and elsewhere in
Somaliland were addressed in discussions at Edna Adan University, a leading institution for training
health professionals in Hargeisa. Among the central problems of the health system in Somaliland thatwere identified in the discussion were: the low preparedness for emergency, the lack of personal
protective equipment and life-saving equipment, the lack of proper training and experience of healthworkers and the lack of standard operation procedures and guidelines. 823
Pharmacies are private businesses often run by people without medical or pharmacological training.
The medication is imported from Asia (India and Pakistan) and, more recently, predominantly fromTurkey, but also occasionally from the UK and Germany. 824 Until recently, no state institution
regulated the import of drugs to Somaliland. In 2019, the National Medicines Regulatory Authority 825
was established to oversee drug imports. However, it is not yet fully functional as of July 2021.826 The
medical fields which exhibit the biggest gaps respectively, in which no health services are offered, areoncology, dermatology and various specialised forms of surgery (e.g., paediatric surgery, spine
surgery, heart surgery). Those who can afford it can obtain a visa, sometimes seek medical treatmentin these medical fields abroad, e.g. in Turkey, India, or on the Arab Peninsula. 827
The field of mental health care is underdeveloped in Somaliland. However, in Hargeisa there are some
services. HGH has 100 beds in the psychiatric warden. ‘All public psychiatric care is free of charge, andall departments offer limited in-patient (approximately 250 beds nationally) and out-patient
services.’828 The main problem is the lack of qualified staff. There are only around five trained

814 Edna Adan Hospital, Profile of Ena Hospital, n.d., url
815 Hargeisa International Hospital [Facebook], About, n.d., url
816 Gargaar Multispeciality Hospital, Institutional Background, n.d., url
817 Haldoor Hospital, Homepage, n.d., url
818 Amal Grand Hospital, Facebook Profile, n.d., url
819 Arab Medical Union Hospital, Facebook Profile, n.d., url
820 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
821 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
822 Herring, E. et al., COVID-19 and sustainable development in Somalia/Somaliland, 2020, url, p. 105
823 THET and LSTM, UKPHS Scoping Assessment Report Somaliland, November 2020, url, p. 27
824 Osman, A. A., telephone interview, 12 July 2021. Abdishakur Abdullahi Osman is an intellectual from Hargeisa.
825 Somaliland, National Medicines Regulatory Authority, Facebook Profile, n.d., url
826 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
827 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
828 Abdi Abdillahi, F. et al., Mental Health in Somaliland: a critical situation, 2020, url, pp. 11-1285

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicators

psychiatrists in Somaliland; two are practicing in Hargeisa. 829 The high relapse rates (between 30 and
50 %) ‘were attributed to the lack of available medication and poor treatment compliance due tosocial stigma.’830
Payments for healthcare have to be managed privately. Normally, family members support each otherregarding these costs. Typically, more substantial costs are paid by family members in the diaspora. If
someone is completely destitute, he or she can turn to a mosque and ask the community of believers
for help. Sometimes, as an exception, they can ask some better off businesspeople belonging to thecommunity to help out.831 Hardly anyone in Somaliland has health insurance. According to theSomaliland Central Statistics Department there is less than 1 % of households that have at least one
member with health insurance. For urban settings like Hargeisa it is 1 %, while in the countryside it iseven less.832

3.3.5 Education for children
The out-of-school population in Somalia is one of the world’s most significant. Populations’movements (60 % of the population pursues pastoralist activities) and displacements due to violent
conflicts or climatic shocks are the main impediments to children’s access to formal education. 833
Education provision is of low quality in Somalia due to poor education infrastructure, multiple
curricula and a high number of untrained or unqualified teachers. Education at primary and secondary
level is predominantly confessional, with school establishments being mostly under the managementof private-sector umbrellas, community-owned or run by Islamic charities. The formal public
education sector is supported by international organisations. 834
Compared to the rest of the country, Somaliland and Puntland enjoyed a greater political stability,
security and administrative development, contributing to an improvement of student enrolmentsoverthe past two decades. 835 For more general information in Somalia, please see section 1.3.5 Education
for children.
The Republic of Somaliland’s ministry of education and higher studies (MoEHS) reported in 2017 thatthe budget for its Education Sector Strategic Plan for the period between 2017 and 2021 would be
275 million USD.836 In its 2019 Somalia Economic Update, the World Bank reported that the
government of Somaliland allocated 7 % of its total spending to education, commenting that it wouldbe ‘insufficient to support core functions of an effective public education system that include payment
for teachers and school construction’. 837 Somaliland has its own Education Sector Strategic Plans anddoes not take part in the Somalian government-administered exams. 838
According to the director of the Institute for Peace and Conflict Studies in Hargeisa, several education
systems coexist in Somaliland. Public and private schools (from primary level to university) are
829 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
830 Abdi Abdillahi, F. et al., Mental Health in Somaliland: a critical situation, 2020, url, p. 12
831 Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
832 Somaliland, Central Statistics Department, The Somaliland Health and Demographic Survey 2020, October 2020, url, p.

265
833 USAID, Somalia - Education, 19 March 2021, url
834 GPE, Somalia, 30 May 2021, url; Gonnelli, M., The Italophone Somali Diaspora and Social Change in Somalia, PhD Thesis,
27 November 2018, url, p. 74
835 GPE, Somalia, 30 May 2021, url
836 Republic of Somaliland, MoEHS, Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP 2017-2021), October 2017, url, p. xvi
837 World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, p. 2626
838 World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, pp. 25-26

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regulated by the MoEHS and the Higher Education Commission. The numerous Madrasas or Quranic
schools are regulated by the Somaliland Ministry of Religious Affairs and Islamic Endowment as well
as by the Department of Informal Education within the MoEHS. Private schools, private universities
and Madrasas are also owned by local people and/or by members of the Somaliland diaspora. The
source analysed that ‘because of this plurality of school systems, multiple rival curricula haveemerged, promoting competing views of history and identity, often promoting competing
perspectives and different languages of instruction depending on their funders and administrators’. 839
The school enrolment rate in Somaliland in 2014/15 was 48 %840 , with a 53.4 % enrolment rate among
boys and 44.2 % among girls.841 Based on data from the Ministry of Education and Higher Educationof the Republic of Somaliland from 2014/2015, Gandrup reported that 44.3 % of the total number ofschool age population was enrolled in school in this period. 842 The same source added that the numberof enrolled students in private schools increased between 2013 and 2014 while it stagnated in public
primary schools. 843 The Republic of Somaliland indicated that 50 % of children of both sexes wereenrolled as primary students in the scholastic year 2015/2016. 844 Quantitative data about school
enrolment in Somaliland should be taken with caution as different sources present different figures.
Gandrup wrote that it could be in part due to some schools slipping through data collection due tothe difficulty to classify them as either public or private and to the difficulty to account for private
schools which do not take part in government-led testing.845
Based on a survey he conducted in Hargeisa in 2016, the scholar Abdirizak Mohamoud Osman
reported that 45 % of children who had access to education dropped out from schools before
intermediate or secondary school level. He added that ‘primary and intermediate school children also
attend at least one formal or informal Quranic school known as Madarasa’.846 The vast majority of allchildren in Somaliland gets at least a basic Islamic education, learning parts of the Koran by heart andgetting some additional religious education. For many ordinary people in Somaliland, Islamic
education clearly precedes learning in schools. 847
Children living in households receiving remittances in Hargeisa had relatively good school attendance
rates, because families could pay school fees but also because members of the diaspora encouraged
families in Hargeisa to send their children to school. 848 Members of the diaspora who returned toHargeisa with financial means tended to favour private education, ‘encouraging providers to offer
smaller class sizes and English or Arabic medium teaching’. 849 Gandrup reported that the private sector
was rapidly expanding and that in Hargeisa ‘there were 53 public primary schools and 75 private

839 Ali, N. M., mail interview, 29 July 2021
840 Somalia, MOECHE, Education Sector Analysis, 2012-2016, September 2017, url, p. 120; see also World Bank (The),

Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, pp. 26-27
841 Somalia, MOECHE, Education Sector Analysis, 2012-2016, September 2017, url, p. 120
842 Gandrup, T., Making Schools: Primary Education, Governance And The State In Somaliland, PhD Thesis, 21 September
2020, url, pp. 32-33
843 Gandrup, T., Making Schools: Primary Education, Governance And The State In Somaliland, PhD Thesis, 21 September
2020, url, p. 33
844 Republic of Somaliland, MoPND, Somaliland in Figures – Edition 14 ; Data 2016, December 2018, url, p. 6
845 Gandrup, T., Making Schools: Primary Education, Governance And The State In Somaliland, PhD Thesis, 21 September
2020, url, p. 33; see also World Bank (The), Federal Republic of Somalia, Somalia Economic Update, August 2019, url, p. 25
846 Osman, A. M., Urban Poverty In Somaliland: The Case Of State House Area In Hargeisa, October 2018, url, p. 55
847 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
848 Maimbo, S. M., Remittances and Economic Development in Somalia – An Overview, November 2006, url, p. 2
849 Maimbo, S. M., Remittances and Economic Development in Somalia – An Overview, November 2006, url, p. 12; see also
Gandrup, T., Making Schools: Primary Education, Governance And The State In Somaliland, PhD Thesis, 21 September
2020, url, p. 32

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primary schools registered for the national exams in 2017’. 850 Even after the government tried to
implement a free public primary education policy in 2011, gross enrolment rate numbers in primaryschools stagnated from the school year 2011/2012 to 2014/2015 and contributions from parents still
continued.851 Those who can afford it prefer to send their children to one of the numerous private
schools, which offer education from primary to university level for about 10 USD per month. Stateschools in Somaliland are often worse than private schools, and the teachers in state schools are also
paid much less. 852
Children from minority clans (Gabooye – Madhibaan and Muse Diriye - as well as Yibir and Tumal)
have limited access to education in Somaliland. 853 For more information on these groups, please see
section 4.1 of EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles (September 2021). A 2017 report by the
Swiss State Secretariat for Migration (SEM) indicated that access to education for children o f minority
clans was difficult because their places of residence often lacked schools. The report took the exampleof the Daami district in Hargeisa, where the only primary school was overcrowded. In schools
attended both by children from majority and minority clans, the latter were sometimes bullied and/or
discriminated against by teachers and other students. 854

3.3.6 Means of basic subsistence and employment
The government of Somaliland found in a survey from 2012, that still constitutes the most recent
government-produced available information on the matter, that in Hargeisa employment-topopulation ratios were at 23.4 % for males and 14.8 % for females.855 A more recent blogpost by Oxfam
reported that unemployment rates hovered around 65 % among Somaliland’s youth, which itself
represents 70 % of Somaliland’s population. 856 UN-Habitat reported in a 2021 analysis of the impactsof COVID-19 on Hargeisa’s economy (among other cities) that local employment had decreased bymore than 50 % in Somaliland. The source further reported that the local lockdown, lockdowns inother countries and ‘disruptions in international supply chains’ affected diverse sectors of Somaliland’s
economy, particularly hurting small businesses. 857
In Hargeisa, the private sector is providing for health, education, electricity, domestic water supply
and urban waste disposal. 858 Generally, doing business in Hargeisa is rather expensive, in global
comparison. Particularly business licenses are expensive. This contributes to a boom of the informal
sector. Taxes are often a matter of negotiation, this benefits particularly larger businesses. Legal
security for businesses is often guaranteed through customary legal mechanisms. One central
problem for start-ups and also for established businesses is getting credit; no international banks areoperating in Hargeisa and ‘there is no public or private credit registry or bureau.’ 859 A researcher from
850 Gandrup, T., Making Schools: Primary Education, Governance And The State In Somaliland, PhD Thesis, 21 September

2020, url, p. 33
851 Gandrup, T., Making Schools: Primary Education, Governance And The State In Somaliland, PhD Thesis, 21 September
2020, url, p. 35; Osman, A. M., Urban Poverty In Somaliland: The Case Of State House Area In Hargeisa, October 2018, url,
pp. 55, 159; Radio Ergo, Thousands of children drop out of school in Somaliland due to teacher salary ‘buffer’ fees, 23 March
2018, url; Republic of Somaliland, MoEHS, Education Sector Analysis 2012-2016, December 2016, url, p. 125
852 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
853 MRG, No redress: Somalia’s forgotten minorities, 31 January 2010, url, p. 17
854 Switzerland, SEM, Focus Somalia, Clans und Minderheiten, 31 May 2017, url, p. 48; MRG, No redress: Somalia’s
forgotten minorities, 31 January 2010, url, pp. 17-18
855 Republic of Somaliland, Labour force survey 2012. Report on Boroma, Hargeisa and Burao, [2013], url, p. 35
856 Oxfam, Getting Somaliland’s youth back to work through skills training, 4 OCtober 2019, url
857 UN-Habitat and UNCDF, Global Compendium of Practices on Local Economic and Financial Recovery, 3 March 2021, url,
p. 41
858 World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 1
859 World Bank (The) and IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 3

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Burao University found in 2020 that the reasons for small business failure in Somaliland were: ‘1. Poor
economic conditions 2. High operating expenses like rents and wages 3. Competition’. 860
In 2017 a group of scholars found that the informal economy continued to be a key source of
livelihoods in Somaliland 861 and that a ‘laissez faire approach from government and lack of restrictive
regulation has helped growth’. 862 Some religious leaders held the view that women should stay athome to take care of household responsibilities. The view of religious leaders is generally respectedin Somali society. Therefore, women engaging in businesses might enter unsafe spaces and encounter
structural barriers. 863 Women are more often confined to the informal sector than men. On the one
hand, they enjoy relative freedom in Somaliland, including Hargeisa, to trade in the market, open smallor also bigger businesses, travel and, e.g. import goods for resale. On the other hand, Somali womenin general (also in Hargeisa) frequently have less education than men. 864 Additionally, they aresupposed to marry early (as teenagers already), deliver many children and take care of them and of
the household. 865 In order to support each other, women traders engage in savings and credit
associations. In Hargeisa, some NGOs have been working with groups, particularly women, ‘toassociate, organise and accumulate capital together which alleviates to some degree, the economic
variables of business and the lack of access to credit of IE [informal economy] workers.’ 866
The government of Somaliland found in a survey from 2012, that still constitutes the most recent
available information on the matter, that Hargeisa’s unemployment rate was 22.3 % in total, with theyouth unemployment rate being 37.6 %.867 The report also found that the main occupations inHargeisa for men were in service and sales (28 %), followed by elementary occupations (17 %) andprofessionals (16 %). Almost half of women were employed in services and sales (42 %) followed byclerical workers (11 %) and technicians (10 %).868
Abdifatah Tahir emphasised the crucial role that clan identity plays in the social and economic life ofresidents in Hargeisa:‘For instance, employment opportunities are to a significant degree influenced bykinship. Justifications for this include that there are social expectations which bindbusiness owners, shareholders and or senior officials to take part in their clan’s economic
empowerment in order to benefit from its protection. Others point out that businesses
require prospective employees to have some sort of a guarantor who could be held
responsible in case of a theft and other forms of misappropriation. This makes theemployment of people from one’s kinship networks much easier to trace and settle
cases.’869
A local source provided information on monthly incomes. Accordingly, a cleaner earns around 7080 USD per month, a watchman around 80-100 USD, a policeman or a soldier earns 110 USD, a midlevel military or police officer around 300 USD and a teacher in a public school earns 110 USD. A

860 Farah-Kunle, M. A., Causes of Small Business Failure in Somaliland: A case Study of Burao Small Businesses, October

2020, url, p. 23
861 Mackie, P. et al., Informal economies, conflict recovery and absent aid, 2017, url, p. 375
862 Mackie, P. et al., Informal economies, conflict recovery and absent aid, 2017, url, p. 376
863
SomReP and Oxfam, Women Business' Access to Finance in Somaliland: Research Report, 3 June 2021, url, p. 40
864 Mackie, P. et al., Informal economies, conflict recovery and absent aid, 2017, url, pp. 377-78
865 Mohamoud, B. A., To end child marriage, Somali mindsets must change, 25 June 2020, url
866 Cardiff University, The Informal Economy in Civil War: Hargeisa – Somaliland, 2017, url, p. 18
867 Republic of Somaliland, Labour force survey 2012. Report on Boroma, Hargeisa and Burao, [2013], url, p. 49
868 Republic of Somaliland, Labour force survey 2012. Report on Boroma, Hargeisa and Burao, [2013], url, p. 38
869 Tahir, A., Urban Governance, Land Conflicts And Segregation In Hargeisa, Somaliland: Historical Perspectives And
Contemporary dynamics, PhD Thesis, 1 October 2016, url, p. 1212

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teacher in a private school gets 100 USD per class and can earn around 300-400 USD per month,depending on the number of classes. A nurse earns 150-200 USD per month, a worker in a government
office 200-300 USD, depending on the educational level. A general or a minister earns 1 5002 000 USD per month. 870
With regard to costs for living, the same source reports that a house ( four rooms) in Hargeisa costs
200-250 USD per month. Additionally, a household of six persons needs around 35 USD for electricity
and around 30 USD for water and 5 USD for waste disposal monthly. Monthly school fees in publicschool are 5 USD and in private schools between 15 and 70 USD, including bus fair and depending on
the school. A poor family (parents plus 4 to 6 children) in Hargeisa would need between 300 and
350 USD monthly; a middle-class family of the same site would need some 500-600 USD monthly. The
normal income of the family head (e.g. the salary of the father who is a teacher or soldier on
government payroll) is often not enough to cover the family expenses; poorer families need regularcontributions from relatives (either those having a good job in Harge isa or elsewhere nearby, or thoseliving in the diaspora). 871
Another local source living for the past ten years in Hargeisa, but originating from Sanaag region,
mentioned that someone without relatives or family in Hargeisa would have to spend around 3 USD
per night for a cheap hotel room, 2 USD for breakfast, 3 USD for lunch and 2 USD for dinner. The
minimum expenses would be 10 USD daily, which means this person would need 300 USD a month tosurvive in Hargeisa without having a local family connection. This does not include any extra-costs,
e.g., for health care 872
As mentioned above, it is estimated that in 2012 remittances constituted 40 % of urban households’
income in Hargeisa and that remittances constituted the main source of income for one -quarter ofthese households.873 A study published by the Cardiff University in 2017 also found that the economy
remained highly dependent on diaspora remittances. 874 In April 2021, the Guardian found that,
according to Somaliland’s central bank, between early 2020 and early 2021, ‘remittances increased
from $1.1bn to $1.3bn’. 875

3.4 Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specificgroupsHoehne, who lived several years in the region, including Hargeisa, mentioned that generally, society
in Hargeisa is clan-based. The dominant groups all belong to the Isaaq clan-family. The dominantgroups in Hargeisa are Habar Awal towards the north and the west of the city, Habar Jeclo to thenortheast, Habar Yonis towards the west and Idagalle (also Aidagalle) and Arab towards the south andsouth-east of the city. Some neighbourhoods of Hargeisa are dominated by one clan or sub -clan;
others are ‘mixed’ (particularly the centre and neighbourhoods close to it, like ‘Statehouse’). Certainly,
also non-Isaaq live, work and have property in Hargeisa (please see also section 3.1.1 Demographics
and clan composition). Since the city is the capital of Somaliland, members from all groups
represented in government have a residence in the city. Businessmen from all over Somaliland are
870 Osman, A. A., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
871 Osman, A. A., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
872 Yusuf, A. S., telephone interview, 12 July 2021. Abdullahi Said Yusuf is a driver from outside of Hargeisa.
873 World Bank (The), New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, 29 January 2014, ; World Bank (The) and

IFC, Doing Business in Hargeisa 2012, 2012, url, p. 1; see also Hammond, L., Family Ties: Remittances and Livelihoods Support
in Puntland and Somaliland, FSNAU, 5 June 2013, url, p. 12
874 Cardiff University, The Informal Economy in Civil War: Hargeisa – Somaliland, 2017, url, p. 4
875 Guardian (The), Aid agencies can be harmful, says Somaliland tycoon,9 April 2021, url

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active in Hargeisa. Also IDPs from the region and from southern Somalia reside in Hargeisa. However,the strongest and most influential group are Isaaq. 876

3.4.1 Clan-based protection
A local source in Hargeisa mentioned that the city has become peaceful over the past 20 years.
Government institution are firmly established, the police is working effectively, and also the court
system is well-established.877 If a person has a conflict or a problem in Hargeisa, he or she can go to
the police. If there are credible allegations that a crime has happened, the police start investigations
and if evidence was found, the matter is handed over to the courts. Simultaneously, family elders stillplay a role. In case of theft, injury or even a killing, they can step in and start negotiations abo ut
compensation. If an agreement is reached between the elders of the perpetrator and the ones of thevictim, the case is normally dropped by the police and/or the court and a compensation is paid to thefamily of the victim, which is notified officially by the local government (at least if the parties involved
wish that). If a killing was intentional, the state does usually not accept to drop the case. In case of
murder, normally a mandatory prison sentence of around 10 years is issued. The source added that
inside Hargeisa, clan protection is not necessary, unless a person is involved in an active conflict andthus is a potential target in a revenge attack. Members of different patrilineal descent groups can go
about their business, own property, buy land etc. without disturbance by others on clan basis. 878
Another local source emphasised that generally, security in the city was stable. Even those from nonIsaaq groups feel secure in everyday life in Hargeisa. However, in conflict situations, clan-belonging
usually becomes important. If a member from a group whose ‘clan-homeland’ (Somali: degaan) is inHargeisa, clashes with a person who is an incomer originating from, e.g., the far east or far west ofSomaliland, the local person has an advantage. He or she may have acquaintances and relatives in thepolice, in court or in other relevant positions. The source added that government institutions inHargeisa do often not work effectively and they are also not neutral. Particularly courts were
frequently prone to bribery and corruption. Additionally, and as a second way to defend one’s position
in a conflict situation, a member of a subaltern group would have to mobilise his/her elders to support
him/her. Yet, also in regulation procedures under customary law (Somali: xeer), the local groups inHargeisa would still have an advantage over others. 879 This is in accordance with the findings of Schlee,
who mentioned in his discussion of conflict settlement among Somalis under customary law that ‘theoutcome is largely determined by the differential in bargaining power.’ 880

3.4.2 Returnees, vulnerable groups
Regarding IDPs in Hargeisa, a local source mentioned that they live in several locations, one camp is
in ‘Statehouse’ area. Many IDPs are from the region (Somaliland). Many are impoverished countryside dwellers/nomads who are Isaaq or from another dominant group in Somaliland. They get freespace or housing; their survival is guaranteed by relatives who pay for food etc. or through donations
from international or local NGOs. Some IDPs are from southern Somalia. They are dependent on
humanitarian aid. Some also can work as construction workers, as watchmen or cleaners. In case of876 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 12. July 2021
877 Osman, A. A., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
878 Osman, A. A., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
879 Yusuf, A. S., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
880 Schlee, G., Customary law and the joys of statelessness:idealised traditions versus Somali realities, 2013, url, p. 263

91

Country of origin information report | Somalia: Key socio-economic indicatorsconflict, also these vulnerable groups form ‘defence units’ (Somali: gashambuur). They try to mobilise
their own elders to negotiate with the elders of the other conflict party.881
The same source adds that IDPs in Hargeisa are sometimes accused by the majority population to bebehind crimes. 882 A recent example is reported with regard to refugees in Hargeisa who belong to the
Oromo group. In July 2021, they demonstrated in the city, ‘saying that they were afraid to be deported[back to Ethiopia] because of rumours accusing Oromo to have abducted children from houses [inHargeisa].’883 For more information on IDPs in Hargeisa, please see sections 3.1.2 Humanitariansituation overview, 3.2.3 Accessing and settling in the city and 3.3.2 Housing and shelter.
Returnees from the diaspora generally connect with their local relatives (predominantly from the
Isaaq clan-family) to get re-integrated into the local society. Hoehne observed that also diaspora
Somalis who have been away for decades, e.g. in Europe or North America, normally retain ties totheir patrilineal descent groups and some (distanced) relatives on the ground. Upon return toHargeisa, these relatives would prepare the ground and assist the returnee in the first weeks or evenmonths to establish herself/himself. However, if a returnee would be problem-loaden, e.g. mentallyill, a drug addict or ‘penniless’, kinship solidarity could be short-lived. Some relatives might offer aplace to stay and some food, but eventually, it is expected that returnees fend for themselves. Those
returnees persistently violating basic cultural or religious norms are not tolerated; they have to reformthemselves, otherwise they are excluded from family solidarity. Furthermore, those who have lived
abroad, especially in the ‘global north’, for a longer time are expected to bring back economic andother resources and invest back home. Those who cannot do so are looked down upon and mocked
by local relatives and others.884
Vulnerable groups in Hargeisa are, besides IDPs, minority groups. Minorities residing in Hargeisa aremainly occupational minorities belonging to the Gabooye collective (consisting of Madhibaan andMuse Diriye) and also Yibir and Tumal (for more information on this groups, please see section 4.1 of
EASO’s COI report Somalia: Targeted profiles). They are marginalised regarding access to educationand political and economic resources. 885

881 Yusuf, A. S., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
882 Yusuf, A. S., telephone interview, 12 July 2021
883 VOA Somali, Itoobiyaanka ku nool Hargeysa oo maanta dibad-bax dhigay [Ethiopians living in Hargeysa made ademonstration today], 11 July 2021, url
884 Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 12. July 2021
885 Vitturini, E., The Gaboye of Somaliland: transformations and historical continuities of the labour exploitation andmarginalisation of hereditary groups of occupational specialists, 2020, p. 474; Switzerland, SEM, Focus Somalia: Clans und
Minderheiten, 31 May 2017, url, pp. 14-17

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Annex 1: Bibliography
Oral sources, including anonymous sources
Ali, N. M., mail interview, 29 July 2021. Dr. Nasir M. Ali is the director of the Institute for Peace andConflict Studies, Hargeisa.
Bakonyi, J., communication via Microsoft Teams, 7 July 2021. Jutta Bakonyi is Professor of Conflictand Development from Durham University, specialised in Somalia.
Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 13 July 2021.
Bakonyi, J., telephone interview, 28 July 2021
Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 12 July 2021. Dr. Markus V. Höhne [Hoehne] is a scholar at theInstitute of Ethnology at the University of Leipzig. He has been working on Somalia since 2001 andhas spent several years in the country. He speaks Somali fluently.
Hoehne, M. V., telephone interview, 6 July 2021
Husein, M. Y., telephone interview, 11 July 2021. Marian Yasin Husein works as a midwife in Garowe.
Mire, M. A., telephone interview, 11 July 2021. Muse Abdirisaq Mire is a local businessman in
Garowe and a former civil society activist (in the Puntland youth organisation).
Moussa, D. I., telephone interview, 6 July 2021. Djibril Ibrahim Moussa is a medical doctor who
worked many years in Borama and in Hargeisa in Somaliland. He is currently pursuing a PhD in
psychiatry at Addis Ababa university.
Nur, S. H., telephone interview, 11 July 2021. Said Haji Nur is an engineer who has been working foraround ten years in and around Garowe, but originates from another region.
Osman, A. A., telephone interview, 12 July 2021. Abdishakur Abdullahi Osman is an intellectual fromHargeisa.
Said, F. O., telephone interview, 29 July 2021. Faysal Omar Said is a researcher in Puntland.
Tahir, A., email, 23 June 2021. Abdifatah Tahir is a specialist of Hargeisa who obtained his PhD fromthe University of Sussex and currently (as of June 2021) serves as a member of Parliament in
Somalia.
Yusuf, A. S., telephone interview, 12 July 2021. Abdullahi Said Yusuf is a driver from outside ofHargeisa.
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2021

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Annex 2: Terms of Reference
Mogadishu
1. Mogadishu’s overview
1.1. Demographics and clan composition/distribution
1.2. Humanitarian situation overview
2. Mobility and accessibility
2.1. Mogadishu airport and flight connections
2.2. Internal mobility, including checkpoints
2.3. Accessing and settling in the city
3. Socio-economic indicators
3.1. Economic overview and food security
3.2. Housing and shelter
3.3. Hygiene, water and sanitation
3.4. Health care
3.5. Education for children
3.6. Means of basic subsistence and employment
4. Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specific groups
4.1. Clan based protection
4.2. Returnees, vulnerable groups
Garowe1. Garowe’s overview
1.1. Demographics and clan composition
1.2. Humanitarian situation overview
2. Mobility and accessibility
2.1. Garowe’s airport and flight connections
2.2. Internal mobility, including checkpoints
2.3. Accessing and settling in the city
3. Socio-economic indicators
3.1. Economic overview and food security
3.2. Housing and shelter
3.3. Hygiene, water and sanitation
3.4. Health care
3.5. Education for children
3.6. Means of basic subsistence and employment
4. Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specific groups
4.1. Clan based protection
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4.2. Returnees, vulnerable groups
Hargeisa
1. Hargeisa’s overview
1.1. Demographics and clan composition
1.2. Humanitarian situation overview
2. Mobility and accessibility
2.1. Hargeisa’s airport and flight connections
2.2. Internal mobility
2.3. Accessing and settling in the city
3. Socio-economic indicators
3.1. Economic overview and food security
3.2. Housing and shelter
3.3. Hygiene, water and sanitation
3.4. Health care
3.5. Education for children
3.6. Means of basic subsistence and employment
4. Social protection networks and (lack of) support to specific groups
4.1. Clan based protection
4.2. Returnees, vulnerable groups

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Doi: 10.2847/497133

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