Country of Origin Information
February 2023

Country of Origin
Information (COI) Reports
Writing and Referencing Guide

This document is a 2023 EUAA-rebranded edition of the European Asylum Support
Office (EASO) COI Report Writing and Referencing Guide, June 2019.
Neither the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) nor any person acting on
behalf of the EUAA is responsible for the use that might be made of the information
contained within this publication.
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, February 2023
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ISBN 978-92-9400-460-4 doi: 10.2847/078273 BZ-05-22-236-EN-N© European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), February 2023
Cover photo/illustration: Random letterpress block letters, Adam Katz ©iStock
185228264, 2012, url
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or
reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the EUAA copyright,
permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

Contents
Contents ................................................................................................................ 5
Preface to the 2023 edition.................................................................................... 9
Introduction ..........................................................................................................10
Part 1 - COI Writing guide ...................................................................................... 11
1. COI writing process............................................................................................ 11
2. COI writing strategies toolbox ........................................................................... 14
2.1 Quoting or direct citation...........................................................................................................142.1.1 Direct quotations and placement of quotation marks .............................................142.1.2 Short quotes less than four lines or single words ...................................................142.1.3 Long (block) quotes ............................................................................................................16
2.1.4 Quotes within quotes .........................................................................................................16
2.1.5 Omissions and additions within a quote .....................................................................16
2.1.6 Errors within the original quote ...................................................................................... 17
2.2 Paraphrasing/re-phrasing......................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Summarising..................................................................................................................................18
2.4 Synthesising..................................................................................................................................18
2.5 Avoiding distortion and ensuring accuracy ..................................................................... 20
3. COI writing style ................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Drafting language.........................................................................................................................21
3.2 Plain language writing ...............................................................................................................21
3.3 Impartial tone ...............................................................................................................................22
3.4 Legal terminology related to asylum and human rights ...............................................23
3.5 Gender and group-specific language.................................................................................23
3.6 Grammar and language mechanics.....................................................................................24
3.6.1 Verb tenses when introducing sources and information .....................................24
3.6.2 Active voice .........................................................................................................................26
3.6.3 Modifiers and time-relative adverbs ........................................................................... 27
3.6.4 Numbers: dates, figures, currency............................................................................... 27
3.6.5 Fonts...................................................................................................................................... 30
3.6.6 Capitalisation........................................................................................................................31
3.7 Introducing and describing sources ....................................................................................32
3.7.1 Naming expert sources by name ..................................................................................33
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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

3.8 Non-English and local language text, words and names.............................................33
3.8.1 Original/local language terms ........................................................................................33
3.8.2 Proper names of ethnic, religious, and community groups................................34
3.8.3 Government authors and titles in non-English languages..................................34
3.8.4 Using information from a non-English language source .....................................36
3.8.5 Languages with special characters/alphabets........................................................ 37
Part 2 - COI Referencing guide ............................................................................. 39
4. Referencing system.......................................................................................... 39
4.1 Use and placement of footnotes ...........................................................................................39
4.2 Content of footnotes .................................................................................................................39
4.3 Format and examples of footnotes ..................................................................................... 40
4.4 Other uses for footnotes......................................................................................................... 40
4.4.1 Providing clarification ....................................................................................................... 40
4.4.2 Providing further information about a source......................................................... 40
5. Common COI referencing challenges ................................................................ 41
5.1 Matching footnotes to the bibliography ...............................................................................41
5.2 Abbreviations of organisation names and glossary .......................................................41
5.3 Single and multiple authors of one document.................................................................42
5.4 Mid-sentence footnotes ...........................................................................................................43
5.5 Original information reproduced in a secondary source .............................................43
5.6 Original source no longer available online or at original link.....................................44
5.7 Information only available from a paid subscription source .......................................45
5.8 Citing a cached or archived version of a website ..........................................................45
5.9 Articles translated and reprinted by a news service .....................................................46
5.10 Original article based on primary source that is not accessible..............................46
6. Elements of a bibliography and entry format challenges................................... 47
6.1 Sub-divisions ................................................................................................................................. 47
6.2 Alphabetical order of entries in the bibliography ........................................................... 47
6.2.1 Sources or titles beginning with a number or symbol...........................................48
6.2.2 English sources whose official name begins with ‘The’ ......................................48
6.2.3 Non-English source names beginning with a definite article (Le, Al, etc.) ....49
6.7 Author(s).........................................................................................................................................49
6.8 Titles of documents .................................................................................................................. 50
6.9 Publication dates ....................................................................................................................... 50
6.9.1 General principles ............................................................................................................. 50
6.9.2 No date...................................................................................................................................51
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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

6.9.3 Presumed date ....................................................................................................................51
6.10 Hyperlink.......................................................................................................................................51
6.11 Page numbers .............................................................................................................................52
6.12 Access date ................................................................................................................................53
7. Examples of referencing sources ...................................................................... 54
7.1 Books ...............................................................................................................................................54
7.2 Chapter in a book or in an edited book/anthology ........................................................55
7.3 Newspapers, news websites and magazines ..................................................................55
7.4 News agencies ............................................................................................................................56
7.5 Independent/non-government organisation publications ...........................................58
7.5.1 Without a named individual author...............................................................................58
7.5.2 With a named individual author ....................................................................................59
7.5.3 Country chapter in an annual report ...........................................................................59
7.6 Governmental publications .................................................................................................... 60
7.6.1 General approach .............................................................................................................. 60
7.6.2 With a named individual author .....................................................................................61
7.6.3 Country chapter in an annual report by a government agency .........................61
7.7 Peer-reviewed and academic journals................................................................................62
7.8 Websites ........................................................................................................................................63
7.9 Expert commentary published in a newspaper, periodical or on a web platform………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….65
7.10 Fact-finding mission reports and COI reports by other COI units ...........................65
7.11 UN publications ..........................................................................................................................66
7.11.1 UN Authors ...........................................................................................................................66
7.11.2 Examples of UN citations................................................................................................ 67
7.11.3 UN reports with a named individual author .............................................................68
7.12 Laws, regulations and legal documents ...........................................................................68
7.12.1 National-level laws and legal documents.................................................................69
7.12.2 Regional-level laws and legal documents...............................................................69
7.12.3 Amended laws...................................................................................................................69
7.12.4 Laws translated into English by the official original source ..............................70
7.12.5 Translated copies of legislation ..................................................................................70
7.12.6 Copies or excerpts of legislation reproduced in secondary sources ........... 71
7.13 Published conference proceedings, papers, presentations ...................................... 71
7.14 Reference books and reference websites with no author......................................... 72
7.15 Dissertation or thesis ............................................................................................................... 73
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7.16 Databases .................................................................................................................................... 73
7.17 Television, film, and video broadcasts .............................................................................. 73
7.18 Radio broadcasts and podcasts .......................................................................................... 74
7.19 Blogs .............................................................................................................................................. 74
7.20 Social media .............................................................................................................................. 75
7.21 Maps, tables, and graphics.................................................................................................... 75
8. Examples of referencing oral sources ............................................................... 76
8.1 Interviews with oral sources by telephone, online, or in person ............................... 76
8.2 Email and correspondence with sources .......................................................................... 77
8.3 Oral source statements made at meetings and conferences .................................... 77
8.4 Anonymous oral sources ......................................................................................................... 78
9. Maintaining research records ........................................................................... 79
Annex A — Example bibliography......................................................................... 80
Annex B – Proofreading checklist......................................................................... 82

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

Preface to the 2023 edition
This document is a re-branded version of the European Union Asylum Support Office(EASO) 2019 COI Writing and Referencing Guide. The original version was published inJune 2019.
On 19 January 2022, the European Asylum Support Office (EASO) became theEuropean Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), which prompted the need to re-brand the2019 EASO COI Report Methodology and the 2019 EASO COI Writing and Referencing
Guide to align with the new EUAA visual identity. In this 2023 re-branded edition,references to ‘EASO’ have been changed to ‘EUAA’ where relevant.
The core content of the 2019 EASO COI Writing and Referencing Guide remains thesame in the 2023 rebranded edition except for a minor change in Section 8.1.
The EUAA COI Writing and Referencing Guide (2023) can be downloaded from the
EUAA COI Portal.

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Introduction
The European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) produces Country of Origin (COI)
information reports based on the EUAA COI Report Methodology. In the creation of
relevant, targeted, and methodologically robust COI reports, EUAA also requires aconsistent writing style and referencing system. Such a system should encompass all
the general standards and principles established by the EUAA COI Report
Methodology and provide maximal guarantees for transparency and traceability of
information, and for usability and readability. Style and referencing guidelines
themselves must be internally consistent, logical, comprehensive, and suited to C OI
needs.
The EUAA COI Writing and Referencing Guide is for COI researchers who (co-)draft
EUAA COI reports. The referencing guide accompanies the EUAA COI Report
Methodology. It is intended to be a clear, useable, and practical desk companion forresearchers/drafters. The purpose of this Guide is also to support a diverse
community of EU+ COI drafters, harmonise approaches to EUAA writing/referencing,
and work consistently across EUAA COI publications.
This Guide is for EUAA COI reports written in English. It was created after researching
best practices and elements of existing COI style guidelines belonging to EUAA,
Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Sweden, UNHCR, ACCORD, Canada, and others.
A wide range of professional referencing and citation systems were also consulted.
The European Commission English Style Guide and the EU Interinstitutional Style
Guide were also used in the development of this Guide, among others.
The Writing and Referencing Guide for COI was drafted by the then European Asylum
Support Office (EASO). In 2017 and 2018, a working group composed of COI experts
from seven EU+ countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Slovak
Republic, Sweden) discussed and provided input to the content of this Guide. It wasreviewed for internal consistency by a COI expert from Estonia. The EASO COI teamand management also provided feedback and it was published in June 2019. With thecreation of EUAA, this document has been rebranded in 2023. The EUAA COI Writing
and Referencing Guide accompanies the The EUAA COI Report Methodology (2023).
Some examples in this document have been created or modified to illustrate aprinciple and are not taken from existing documents. The terms ‘researcher’, ‘drafter’,‘writer’ may be used interchangeably throughout this document to refer to the COI
researcher producing COI.
To ensure its relevance, this document may be regularly updated. To report errors, orprovide suggestions for information to update/include, please send an email to:coi.network@euaa.europa.eu

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDEPart 1 - COI Writing guide
1. COI writing process
The research and writing of COI research reports is a non-linear process of gathering,assessing, analysing, organising, and synthesising large amounts of information fromsources assessed against COI quality criteria. Presenting the results of research inwriting requires reflection, rewriting, and revision throughout the whole process. The
end objective is to write a focused, clear, logical, well-sourced, fact-based COI reportthat is organised to direct the reader to relevant, pertinent information about country
conditions, in order to support the rendering of asylum decisions. COI reports aim toanswer the questions the target audience may have about a particular issue within the
country of origin. Reports must be written and organised with that focus as the key
outcome. Based on the ToR, drafters may wish to create a research plan to map out
the core issues to cover in their research, as this can be useful later to guide thewriting process.
Pre-writing and organising
Pre-writing is a valuable process whereby a drafter conceptualises and maps out the
topics and sub-topics from the information found in light of their research results andthe main relevant questions to be covered by the report. A mind-map or outline basedon the ToR and reasoning about what the target audience need to know about the
COI topic(s) and what was found in the research is useful for pre-writing. Brainstorm
how to organise and breakdown research into sub-topics, and reflect on what was
gathered about each sub-topic:

Sub-topic A

Sub-topic
Sub-topic
Sub-topic

Main topic

Sub-topic B

Sub-topic
Sub-topic

Sub-topic C

Sub-topic
Sub-topic

Composing, drafting and writing
In line with the ToR, drafters should ask what are the main questions that the target
audience needs to have answered by this COI report. Think about how to logicallyorganise each section with that aim in mind. What elements need to be covered to
explain one sub-topic? Can the section flow from broad to specific information? What

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

about from older to newer information? Think about other organising principles thatare useful for COI and for the topic(s), and apply them as appropriate to sub-topics:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Consider what elements are most relevant for the target audience/readers;Group together like-information, corroborate, compare, and contrast;
Organise by broad concepts/trends, then move toward specific incidents;
Move from older to newer information (taking care not to get stuck in the past) ;Group information by highly corroborated to least corroborated; pay attention
to variation/nuance and juxtapose corroboration and contradictions;
Organise sections of the report logically from broad to specific sub-topics (e.g.
legislation, societal/state attitudes, treatment by different actors, protectionand effectiveness, possibility of individual escape).

Write short sections and paragraphs relating to a particular topic or sub-topic. Support
and connect ideas. Build a picture of what the information gathered is providing. Start
with the strongest (e.g. highly corroborated) evidence first, followed by supporting
evidence (e.g. individual examples). Keep sentences short and clear; keep paragraphs
focused on one issue. Build and connect ideas from sentence, to paragraph, tosection, to chapter. Uncover the gaps and missing connections in your research (keepin mind it may not always be possible to bridge them).
Reflecting, reworking, revising
Have a COI colleague or supervisor read the draft section and give feedback onreadability and relevance of the information synthesised in the text. What does thereader conclude after reading a section that was written? Is there irrelevant
information, unimportant to the target audience? Are there significant gaps that leave
the reader with unanswered questions? Read the document from the perspective ofthe target audience and improve clarity, strengthen weak points or unclear
connections. Re-work the draft with additional research/ corroboration/sources, reorganise text where needed, and clarify as needed. Take the time to set aside thedraft and come back to it a few days later. Read it again carefully and address gaps inlogic, information, or sourcing. Once content and methodological issues are settled,
conduct a proofreading check for errors and inconsistencies in writing and referencing
style. For a proofreading checklist for EUAA COI reports, see Annex B.
Throughout the writing process, ‘relevance’ is the key point of reference for drafters
when deciding what issues and information to include, drop, focus on, develop, or
scale back:

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

Reflect on
information
relevant for key
issues and subtopics to cover

Receive, assess,incorporate external
feedback

Reflect, rework,
review draft; draw
connections andaddress gaps

Does theinformation I am
including help thetarget audience toassess protectionneeds?

Sort and organise
information foundinto sub-topics

Draft section bysection; reveal
patterns/contrasts& info gaps

Quality review and revisions
For jointly drafted EUAA COI reports that are written in sections by several national
COI authors, once each author’s draft is complete, they are assembled with the workof other drafters into one document. That draft is then sent for peer review by other
EU+ COI units and potentially, external subject matter experts. EUAA peer review
rules apply. After completion, the reviews are returned to the drafters. Drafters
consider each individual comment and implement changes where necessary andappropriate, or add more information. The EUAA COI methodology provides moredetail on the peer review process.
Finally, the report is internally reviewed by EUAA and sent for professional editing andproofreading. A final version is published on EUAA’s COI Portal.

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2. COI writing strategies toolbox
COI drafters will use a mixture of quotes, paraphrased, summarised and synthesisedmaterial, all in the process of coming to a succinct report about the research results on
a particular issue or topic. Each of these writing strategies is described below.

2.1 Quoting or direct citation
2.1.1 Direct quotations and placement of quotation marks
Direct quotations copy exactly what a source says, clearly and precisely enclosing theremarks in single quotation marks. Use quotations sparingly and work them into theflow of the main text. As with all other cases, quoted material must always bereferenced.
Legislation, regulations or policy documents which provide an official government
position or legal provision should be directly quoted.
Be selective about the use of direct quotes from sources to ensure relevance and to
avoid overly burdensome text for the reader; try to paraphrase instead and reserve
direct quotations for particularly significant or strong key phrases. There are moments
when direct quotations are appropriate and their use is a matter of judgment.
Precision is needed when quoting. Note the difference in the placement of thequotation marks below:
The quotation mark is put outside theperiod when quoting a complete
sentence as it `appears in the source:
The quotation mark is put before theperiod when only quoting a word or
extract:

He said that ‘the court process islengthy, complicated and requires
paying bribes. People often
complained.’13
A local NGO described the domestic
violence as ‘normalised’ and indicated it
is a crime that is ‘broadly unreported’.13

2.1.2 Short quotes less than four lines or single words
Short quotes are less than four lines and should be integrated into the surrounding
text.
Wherever possible, try to paraphrase and synthesise information to the greatest
extent possible. If short quotes are used, integrate them into the flow of the text.

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDEAs a guide, short quotes of less than four lines should be limited to situations when
direct quoting is necessary, such as, select cases when the COI drafter needs toclearly create objective distance from the source’s own words. This could occur inexamples such as when:
•
•
•
•
•

Short quotes from legislation;
A source uses strongly value-laden words, slang, or informal language;
A source expresses a strong opinion, or uses strongly worded assessmentsthat should be clearly attributed to them;
Displaying or highlighting an individual’s exact words, such as an official cited
within a newspaper article (where appropriate);
When a source explains something in a way that is particularly difficult torestate without losing the potency or crucial meaning of their ideas.

Short quotes are integrated in the text and set off using single quotation marks.
Points to check before using aquotation
This kind of quotation should generally
be avoided, but if one chooses to use it
there must be comments and context
describing the source. For example,
describe the NGO, theirpresence/involvement in the issues,basis of knowledge, and what leads thesource to such descriptions of theviolence. This will help the reader to put
the quote in context.

ExamplesAlways rely on fact-based informationfrom reliable sources. Avoid including
overly editorial or vague language, andif it is used, put it in proper context.

SIGAR's quarterly report describedcasualty rates as ‘shockingly high’ in the
period, noting also that rates rose by 35
percent in 2016.55

Be selective and strategic – what does
the slang tell the reader about the actor
in question? Is it useful to include or notin the context?

Use of slang or derogatory language:

Value-laden descriptions by sources:
A local NGO described the level ofviolence as ‘horrific’ and‘unprecedented’.13
The author explained that the group was‘terrorised’ by rebel raids on villages,
resulting in numerous killings thatmonth.5

The local council made a publicannouncement that the group were ‘idol
worshippers’.5

For instance, in some cases it could be
useful to quote the slang and include it
The insurgents warned residents thatto highlight attitudes displayed bythose working for the government werecertain agents/actors. In other cases it
US ‘stooges’ who would be killed.85
should not be used because it adds
nothing relevant for the target audience.

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Avoid overly editorial characterisations
generally. They lack clarity, objectivity,and specificity.
Always include the facts that lead themto the assessment/opinion, not only thedecontextualised opinion itself.
It is not always necessary to use direct
quotation for such cases, but it may be,if the wording is quite specific, or to add
objective distance.

Adding objective distance to a source’s
opinion:The source expressed the opinion that it
would be ‘nearly impossible’ for a woman
without a close family network to relocate
because of the lack of freedom of
movement for women in the country andneed for male guardianship. 77

2.1.3 Long (block) quotes
Long quotes are more than four lines long. Long quotes should be used sparingly andonly in specific situations. It may be appropriate to use quotes of more than four lines
in these situations:•••

When quoting lengthy excerpts from legislation;
When citing an official procedure that has a number of specific steps;
In rare instances, when a lengthy piece of specific or unique information isprovided by an oral source or interviewed expert (be very selective).

Such extended block quotes should be indented and separated from the main text by
a paragraph space before and after. Long quotes are never italicised and use single
quotation marks, as with any direct quote.

2.1.4 Quotes within quotes
When drafters quote a source and within the citation there is an additional quote, theinner quote is set in double quotation marks:
The Times reported that ‘a local official described the level of process as “lengthy”
and “complicated”.’13

Drafters should try to avoid quoting single words and provide quotes with some context;
though this is a matter of drafter judgment.

2.1.5 Omissions and additions within a quote
To make omissions from within direct quotations, replace the text removed with […].
The US Department of State’s 2016 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
states that, ‘both print and online independent media were active and expressed a
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wide variety of views; […] media outlets that criticized the government experienced
negative government pressure’.236

Use square brackets to add short clarifications based on information within the source[insert]. It is not necessary to use square brackets to signal a minor change such as
from lower to upper case, or a minor spelling correction. Example of an insertion forminor contextual clarification for the reader:
She indicated that ‘he [the district court judge] sentenced the accused to a two year
term’.15

However, if new information or significant facts are added from a different source, thisrequires a footnote inside the bracket:
According to the source, the clan ‘had settled in the area extending from Mount
Zorab and Turfi [a region east of Mamiash district1]’ which covers an area containing
13 villages.2

2.1.6 Errors within the original quote
For very minor spelling errors, simple corrections can be made without indicating so.
However, if there is uncertainty, drafters may signal an error in the quote by adding[sic] after the error. This is to indicate that it appeared in the original as is.
‘Given the challenges associated with obtaining information, and the fact that there
is no adequate overview of violence in Somalia, Landinfo nevertheless considers
that ACLED’s information provides an indication of the number of fatalities in
Mogadishu, who are [sic] responsible for violence and who are victims of violence.’12
12

Norway, Landinfo, Somalia: Violence, fatalities, perpetrators and victims in Mogadishu,
27 February 2017, url, p. 2

2.2 Paraphrasing/re-phrasing
Paraphrasing (also called rephrasing) is when a writer translates the same content into
their own words and style, keeping all the original elements of the source butchanging the sentence structure, for example. The paraphrased text is very close to
the original; more so than a summary. Paraphrased material is usually shorter than thesource materials. It is usually done at the sentence-level. It may also include somepieces of quoted text.

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMParaphrase:Marieke Van Houte’s study on Afghan returnees from Europe published in 2016
found that returning Afghans with weaker societal ‘embeddedness’ were more
likely to feel unprotected from ‘generalised violence’, and become dependent onfamily.1097 According to her study, those returnees who had lived in Europe but notreally participated in their European host countries had not ‘picked up many skills orideas’, which gave them a lower profile relating to their personal risk, and led them
to be more inclined to use conservatism and tradition as a means of ‘negotiating
belonging’ upon return to Afghanistan.1098
1097
1098

Van Houte, M., Return Migration to Afghanistan – Moving Back or Moving Forward?, 2016, p. 169
Van Houte, M., Return Migration to Afghanistan – Moving Back or Moving Forward?, 2016, p. 169

2.3 Summarising
Summarising is when writers succinctly present the main ideas from a source in theirown way, but also condense the key points (the ‘big picture’). Summarising is a more
broad approach than paraphrasing, and is usually shorter and more condensed than aparaphrased text. Summarising condenses the substance of a text, giving a short but
broad-based account of the core idea. This technique is especially useful when you
have found relevant information in a text that is far too long and detailed for you toquote or rephrase it (such as a thesis, book, or lengthy report). When making asummary, be sure that the result is a faithful account of the original source. Summary
may also include short quotes.
When drawing together numerous sources to corroborate similar information andhighlight crosschecking, this is a related summarising technique called synthesising.
Summary:
According to John J. Johnson’s 2016 study on Blaqvarian returnees from Vittlandia,
those returning to Blaqvaria who had fewer societal resources to rely on felt more
exposed to the ‘generalised violence’ while those who had integrated less while inVittlandia tended to participate in societal traditions as a reintegration strategy.109
109

Johnson, J., Return Migration to Blaqvarialand, 2015, p. 121

2.4 Synthesising
The approach used by EUAA refers to the whole process of COI research andpresentation of research results as explained in the EUAA COI Research
Methodology. Analysis in the COI context involves a thinking process and study of the18

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collected information by separating it and subdividing it; comparing and contrasting
information analytically. The synthesising of information is recombining informationfrom different sources, bringing together condensed information in a relevant manner
for the reader’s COI needs. The process involves organising the gathered information
logically, connecting ideas and structuring linkages between different topics/subtopics, in order to build a picture of an issue, showing all the elements of a topic andtheir interconnections.
The choice of the sequence in which the information is presented and of the
conjunctions used between the assertions enable the researcher to compile thegathered information, to weigh it appropriately, and to make corroboration, contrast
and cross-checking visible to the reader. Synthesis is therefore an intentional form of
written ‘summarising’ that structures information/concepts that are alike in order tosuccinctly and coherently display comparison, corroboration, contrasting andcontradiction of information. For instance, if numerous different sources are saying
similar things, the information can be grouped together to corroborate. Synthesising at
the written level can occur at the sentence, paragraph, or section level. However, it isuncommon for sources to use exactly the same words to explain a phenomenon or
issue; care must be taken by drafters not to overgeneralise or disregard subtleties in
how the same issue is explained differently by sources.
Example of synthesis within the text:
It is a widely held perception among Afghans that customary laws are in line withsharia; however, in practice the two contradict one another at times.63 These lawsalso contravene official state laws in some practices,64 and neglect and deny
women’s entitlements in particular.65
63

Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Blood feuds, traditional law (pashtunwali), 1 November 2011, url, p.5;
FRC, Pashtunwali: an analysis of the Pashtun way of life, 5 April 2017, url, pp. 45-46; Nojumi, N., email,22 September 2017. Neamat Nojumi is a scholar on Afghanistan who made this comment during thereview of this report
64
FRC, Pashtunwali: an analysis of the Pashtun way of life, 5 April 2017, url, pp. 45-46
65
Nojumi, N., email, 22 September 2017. Neamat Nojumi is a scholar on Afghanistan who made thiscomment during the review of this report.

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2.5 Avoiding distortion and ensuring accuracy
With each type of writing tool used topresent information, there is increasing
distance from the original source. As the
Direct quote/citation
distance from the original source increases,
so does the risk of distortion and lost
Paraphrasing/re-phrasing
accuracy. The most accurate presentation of
information is a direct quotation, while theSummarisingsynthesised text has a greater risk of
distortion but larger potential to explain
Synthesising
analysed information. This section will
present some strategies for ensuring
information is accurately processed andpresented from researched materials. These
are important facets as they may impact the weight that a piece of information
appears to have relative to another.

Source
s

•

•

•

•
•

Be thorough: Research systematically and read sources widely/deeply toensure a clear notion of the context/meaning is understood before
summarising/synthesising.
Give context: Present information with enough context to allow the reader tounderstand the relationships with the other information around it; ensure
information used is not taken out of context.
Be conscious of nuance, meaning and intent: Do not overgeneralise or gloss
over subtleties/variations/contrast; check understanding by asking a peer tocheck work.
Clear attribution: Ensure opinions are clearly attributed and not presented asfact.
Ensure proportionality: Do not purposely ignore or overemphasise certain
information or sources; do not overlook relevant information or focus too muchon details that are not important.

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3. COI writing style
3.1 Drafting language
EUAA COI reports are written in English according to British/Irish English spellingstandards. As a requirement, EUAA COI reports must be grammatically correct, useclear and appropriate vocabulary, and be free from spelling and punctuation errors.
Clear writing is critical to the quality of the EUAA COI reports and their subsequentusability for the target audience.
English spelling can be checked with the Oxford English Dictionary and the European
Commission English Style Guide.

3.2 Plain language writing
Drafters of COI reports must strive for plain and clear language in the construction ofsentences and phrasing. Write using clear and concise language. The average reader,including those whose first language is not English, should be able to understandwhat is written. Avoid using vague information, unclear or ambiguous language. Whennecessary or possible, ask for clarification or concrete examples from oral sources if
the information they give is too vaguely worded.
It is important for drafters to accurately capture patterns, potential exceptions, andimportant nuances within the information presented in COI reports. Strive to use clear
and precise language. If a source themselves is using unclear language, consider
whether to use that source, or, if the lack of clarity should be directly quoted. For
instance, sometimes sources are intentionally ambiguous about an issue and that
could be relevant in itself to show.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Structure the content logically and use headings and sub-sections.
Use short sentences of about 15-20 words and shorten long sentences.
A paragraph should be about 5-10 sentences in length.
Lead paragraphs with the key idea making the point, followed by supporting
information.
Use the active voice.
Use a professional, neutral tone.
Use language that is clear to a non-expert, non-academic audience.
Avoid using jargon, slang, metaphors, expressions, or figures of speech (e.g.
They treated them like animals; the situation was a nightmare for children).
Be concise: cut unnecessary words where possible.
Explain specialised terms and use them with consistency if repeated; always
include a glossary of terms at the beginning of each report.
Use a consistent style of writing and neutral tone throughout the text.
21EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

For general guidance on clear writing, also consult publications by the EU Commission
on How to Write Clearly and Clear Writing Tips.

3.3 Impartial tone
Language and writing style are central to the clear communication and accuratepresentation of COI research results. COI reports must be written in a neutral/impartial
tone that respects the EUAA COI Report Methodology. Using language that is free ofany personal interpretation or suggestion of bias is essential to ensuring that COI
documents are objective and retain reliability and integrity.
COI drafters must strive to respect the principle of impartiality in the manner in which
they write and use objective, fact-based language. Therefore, avoid using judgmental,
exaggerated, persuasive, emotive, or politically loaded words (‘horrific violence’,‘violent repression’, ‘strong man’, ‘gun ships’, ‘innocent civilians’, etc.) as a general
rule. Drafters must not express their own opinions or give value-laden judgments.
Drafters must ensure that opinions or assessment statements made by sources areclearly attributed to the source. COI drafters must not express any personal opinion
how the information should be applied or interpreted in a legal sense in the asylum
procedure. If such value-laden language must be used from a quoted source, ensure
they are directly cited and attributed and their use is kept to a minimum. COI drafters
should use objective language, for instance, here are two reports on the same event:
Subjective
In the brutal assault, masked menbesieged the town, murdering 33
villagers. It was made even worse when
the army showed up and violent clashes
happened until night. Countlessvillagers, at least a hundred, had theirlivelihoods and whole future destroyedwhen their farms were set torched by
the retreating raiders.

Objective
Unidentified attackers killed 33 villagers
during a raid on the town. In response,
the army arrived and fighting continued
through the day. The attackers were
pushed back, but while retreating,burned local farms which reportedly
affected at least 100 villagers.

Both pieces present similar accounts using different language. Objective language
does not imply or guarantee that the information is ‘the conclusive truth’; it merely
presents fact-based observations without seeking to evoke an emotive or judgmental
response from the reader. During research, COI drafters must be able to extract
objective information from a range of different sources, but also present it in an
impartial manner.

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

3.4 Legal terminology related to asylum and humanrightsAs explained in EUAA’s COI Report disclaimer, refugee and asylum terminology usedwithin COI reports are used in a generic sense and not as a legal interpretation. COI
drafters should avoid using terms that are asylum-related legal concepts orinterpretations (e.g. ‘torture’ ‘persecution’, ‘state protection’, ‘internal flight’,‘systematic’, etc.). If sources themselves use terms such as ‘persecution’, and thisinformation is included in the COI report, it should be directly quoted in quotation
marks. During the COI research process, researchers must unpack, analyse and break
down such legal concepts into fact-based information about a socio-politicalphenomenon using specific, concrete language. This is also the case whenapproaching oral sources; for instance, asking an oral source about ‘persecution of
Christians’ is a leading question, hence, a more appropriately neutral question would
be to ask about the ‘treatment of Christians’.
Terminology that appears frequently in human rights reporting (e.g. forced
recruitment, forced marriage, internally displaced, refugee) can have different
contextual meanings. Drafters must ensure that the implications and intended
meaning of the source is accurately represented and re-contextualised. If possible,
clarify such concepts at the outset in the Terms of Reference of the report. COI
researchers should ensure they are conscious of such terms/concepts during the
research and that sources may describe the same phenomenon using different words,
or that a term/concept may have multiple implications or meanings in practice.
Researchers should seek to uncover relevant nuance and present it where relevant.
Additionally, COI researchers should take care to be conscious of distinctions in themeaning of specific words related to a person’s legal status, such as ‘nationality’ or‘citizenship,’ for example. These words or terms may have very different connotations
under the law in the country of origin or have specific meanings in context.

3.5 Gender and group-specific language
Drafters should take care to be respectful in the language chosen to refer to groups orindividuals, while remaining accurate to the source/information. For instance, a phrase
such as ‘people living with disabilities’ is preferable to saying ‘the disabled’. In anothercase, local groups may use terminology such as ‘men who have sex with men’ to referto same-sex activity due to stigma around such activities in the country of origin.
Drafters need to be aware of the context in which they are using language and use
the most appropriate terms for that context, while taking care not to mask or distort
information.
Drafters should take care when writing and choosing language to present informationin light of gender and other factors. Care must be taken to accurately present source
information and not to overgeneralise. For instance, using the word ‘they’23EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

inappropriately could mask relevant differences in how males and females may
experience a phenomenon or how a law is applied differently to men and women . In
another example, a law against sodomy may specifically be geared toward men;
however, a broad provision against ‘moral crimes’ could implicate both men andwomen. Such specific variations in language/terms are important to research andpresent in context. The language and way of presenting such information are
therefore also critical.
For further information on specific terminology related to researching sexual
minorities, refer to EUAA’s Practical Guide, COI Research guide on LGBTIQ.

3.6 Grammar and language mechanics
EUAA refers to the European Commission English Style Guide and the EU
Interinstitutional Style Guide for issues not covered here.

3.6.1 Verb tenses when introducing sources and information
There are two aspects to verb tenses when COI researchers report information fromsources:•

The tense used by the COI drafter to introduce the source reporting theinformation;
The tense of the information itself in context.

•

Generally, COI drafters should use the past tense to introduce a source’s reporting(BBC News reported that; The expert said; UNHCR indicated).
However, drafters must take great care to ensure that the information provided by
the source is accurately situated in time (past/present) in the COI report. This may
require shifts in language and verb tenses. It is critical to avoid ambiguity that may
distort accuracy. In general, the older the material, the less likely it is that it can berelied on to reflect the present.
Drafters should use the past tense, but may sometimes use the present tense if
appropriate. For example, when:•••

A source is undated;
A law is presented and is presently in force (must always be checked);
Information is very recent.

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

Reporting what sources said
Below are some examples of introducing sources and their reported information:
Introduction of sources
The law states that …
The expert said in an interview
that …
BBC News reported that …
The researcher explained that …
The expert observed that …

Verb tense of the information reported inrelation to the current situation:… the act is illegal. (present/continuous)… the situation is improving.
(present/continuous)… the situation ended in 2016. (past)… children are given nationality.
(present/continuous)… the act resulted in arrests. (past)

Notice in this example how ambiguity can arise because of verb tenses:
Continuous situation:

Past situation:

In an interview with EUAA in 2018, thesource stated that IDPs were still
having difficulty accessing ID cards.

In an interview with EUAA, the expert
stated that IDPs had trouble accessing
ID cards.

(Appears to refer to the situation at thetime of asking, and which we assume isstill the case as there is no further
current information.)(When? In the past? Is it still the case?
This is why you need to specify a datewhen that happened in the past;otherwise the reader may understand it
is a continuous action and may interpret
it incorrectly.)

Clear

Unclear

What is important is that researchers determine if the information being reported by
the source is the most recent information reflecting a current/continuous situation.
Here is an example of using the present tense and past tense to introduce thesources and the information within the sources. It uses oral and published sources:
Note the use of present and past tenses here:
The law in force states (present tense) that there are no protection orders available
for domestic violence (present tense). A press release published in July 2017 said
that (past tense) the law was under review (past tense), while a local newspaper
reporting in October 2017 also stated (past tense) that the new revised law was not
yet implemented (past tense). More recent information could not be found.

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

A 2016 ABC article reported that (past tense) 27 judges were suspended (pasttense) in that year for accepting bribes. Oral sources interviewed in May 2018 (pasttense) for this report indicated that (past tense) the country respected the principleof fair, but in practice, corruption still remained a problem (past tense but can still
be read as current information due to the dates). They said that (past tense) there
is no mechanism for reporting corruption (present tense).

3.6.2 Active voice
Generally, write using the active voice rather than the passive voice. The active voice
is clearer and easier to write and understand. It also tends to use less words and be
more concise. Try to convert sentences into active voice wherever possible. The
difference between active and passive voice relates to sentence structure and theplacement of subject, verb, and object. Sentences can be converted by paying
attention to the order:
Active voice:A subject does something to an object.
Subject + action / verb + object
The soldier fired his weapon at
protesters.
The unit raids villages every night.
She went to court to pursue the case.
Research showed that urbanisation andlabour market pressure increased
unemployment.

Passive voice:
Something is done to an object by asubject.
Object + action / verb + subject
Protesters were fired upon by a weapon
used by a soldier.
Raids on the villages occur in villages
every night by the unit.
The case was pursued in court by her.
It was shown by a research study thatunemployment was being caused byurbanisation and increasing pressure on
the labour market.

The passive voice may be appropriate in some situations. For example, it could be
important for the COI drafter to:
Situation when passive voice isappropriate
Emphasise a certain action that
occurred, rather than who carried it out.

ExamplesDescribe a condition whereby the agent
is unknown or not important.

Every year, thousands of cases ofdomestic violence go unreported.
Kidnappings for ransom have reportedly
become more frequent since 2014.

According to the article, following
lengthy consultations and debate, ashelter was set up in the community.

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

3.6.3 Modifiers and time-relative adverbs
In English, a ‘modifier’ is a word that describes another word, phrase or sentence. COI
drafters should take care and be conscious of why and when a source uses words
such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

only;
always;just;almost;simply;completely;
ever;
never.

COI drafters must be aware that the use of these words can modify a reader’s
understanding about the scope of an issue and could give an oversimplified or
inaccurate meaning.
Also, modifiers can also sometimes be incorrectly placed in a sentence and cause
confusion.
The group changed the rules, leaving the Chief only with the power to intervene.
vs
The group changed the rules, leaving only the Chief with the power to intervene.

Adverbs for time such as ‘recently’ or ‘currently’ should be avoided because they rely
on a relative notion of time and can create inaccuracies or, cause the reader to haveto check source dates. COI drafters should be specific about dates in the sources,
wherever possible and avoid or limit the use of time averbs such as:
•
•
•
•
•

recently;
currently;
initially;
today;
now.

3.6.4 Numbers: dates, figures, currency
For further detail not covered here, refer to the EU Interinstitutional Style Guide.
In order to prevent elements that must stay together from being separated by the endof a line, use a hard space by pressing Ctrl + Shift + Space (specific examples below).

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Dates
Names of months are spelled out and not abbreviated. Avoid using ordinal
expressions (20 th, twentieth) where possible; the written form is preferred to thenumerical.
EUAA uses the following formats for dates:

5 January 2013
dates][used when referring to dates within text and for publication

January 2013

[when only the month is given]2017[when only the year is provided for publication date]n.d.

[no date, used when a source is undated]

Figures and numbers
EUAA uses figures in the following manner:
Situation using figures
Figures from 1 to 9 are spelled out
Figures from 10 and above use
digits
Notation of decimals uses a period
Notation of thousands and higher(use a hard space)
Pagination (use a hard space)

Percentages(use a hard space)
Votes
Ranges and ranges denoted by adash

Quantities (do not abbreviate)
DecadesForm
One, two, three, etc.
10, 11, 12, etc.
2.4
10 000 (with hard space Ctrl+Shift+Space)
p. 4
pp. 4-8
pp. 14, 65
Section 3.2
Footnote 63%
10 %12 delegations were in favour, 7 against, and 6
abstained
There are 20–30 million people
NB: write either ‘from 50 to 100’ or ’50–100’
but not ‘from 50–100’
7 metres; 11 kilometres
1990s
Do not use expressions like ‘the nineties’28

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

When using figures within the text, for numbers 1 to 9, write the numbers out (one,two, three, etc.) and above 9, use the written figures (10, 11, 12, etc.). Do not use bothforms in one sentence. Be consistent and choose one form where needed. For
example:The article said there were between 4 and 13 victims in the attack.
At the trial, 12 of the men were convicted, but 17 were found not guilty.
The seven victims complained to the court.
The children were between the ages of six and ten.

Currency and conversions
In COI reports, drafters sometimes need to make reference to currencies, for example,
when referring to the amount of a cost, fine or bribe. Drafters should determine when
to include a conversion to illustrate a point to the reader who may not know the local
currency. For instance, if a fine in the law is very low or very high, this may give an
indication of attitudes and practices about an issue, which could be relevant tohighlight. If the amount is not given in Euros or US dollars in the source, but issignificant to understanding the context, a conversion to EUR should be provided insquare brackets next to it. Round the numbers up or down, as appropriate and signal
the approximation in the brackets. If the figures are very large, it may be better to use
the text form of the figure. For example:
According to Article 12 of the State Law, the penalty for breaking a restraining orderis 100 000 Nairas [approximately EUR 277] or imprisonment for less than five years.
In accordance with Article 37(1) of the Proclamation on National Service of 1995, any
infringement of that proclamation (including desertion) is punishable by two years'
imprisonment and/or a fine of 3 000 Birr [about EUR 108].56

Writing out a very large figure may be easier to read; consider what is better for thereader:
The man was ordered to pay back 2 649 100 Euros.
or
The man was ordered to pay back about 2.6 million Euros.
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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

If a currency or conversion amount is already included in the source text, this can
simply be included as reported by the source.
Do not use currency symbols. Such symbols should be replaced and presented asabove using text using either the ISO code (EUR, USD, etc.) or written name (Euros, US
dollars, Naira, etc.). Be consistent throughout the text.
Obtain currency names, ISO codes, and conversion amounts from the INFOEURO
website of the European Commission.

3.6.5 Fonts
The main texts of EUAA COI reports are in ‘Aligned left’ alignment and written in
Proxima nova 11 while footnotes are ‘Aligned left’ and in Proxima nova 9.
When to use it
Font style
Italics

Bold and
underline

Examples

EUAA only uses italics fororiginal local language
words or terms within the
body text (wherever they
appear).

People often prefer the customary law
system of jirgas to resolve disputes.
Madrasas became popular in Pakistan
at that time. Members of the Taliban
have studied there.

Do not italicise the proper
names of groups in otherlanguages (i.e. Hazara,
Taliban, Al Shabaab,
Houthi).
Bold is used for headings
and sub-headings in EUAA
reports.

‘In an example text, sometimes it may
be necessary to keep the bold thatappears in an original quote in order todemonstrate the original source’s
emphasis’ [emphasis in the original].26

Generally, neither font isused within the main bodytext.
In rare cases, it may be
relevant to keep the bolded
font in a longer quote andadd [emphasis in theoriginal] at the end of thequote. It should be
explained when bold is
used.

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3.6.6 Capitalisation
Capitalisation generally follows the rule that proper nouns (e.g. when using names) are
capitalised and regular nouns are not. EUAA uses capitalisation for items such as:•••

Proper names, place names, organisation names, national/ethnic/religious
group names (Kabul City, Shia, Transparency International, etc.);
Geopolitical names if referring to a political body (South-West region of
Nigeria), but lowercase to refer to a geographic location (southwest Nigeria) ;Titles of some sources (see below).

Capitalise the proper names of individuals and authors that are organisations:
The New York Times reports that …
The article written by the New York Times indicates …
The Jamestown Foundation conducted a study about …
The study produced by the Jamestown Foundation indicates …

Capitalisation rules for government organisations:
government of China;
American government,
etc.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Ministry of Education,
Ministry of Defence, etc.
Minister of Defence, or
Minister Smith, etc.

The Parliament of Malta‘government … ’ is almost always lowercase; it is nevercapitalised unless it is used as part of an official name(Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica).
Capitalise the first letter for names of ministries oragencies when referring to their full official name. Do
not capitalise when using ‘ministry’ without its fullname (e.g. The ministry created a new division …)
Capitalise when it is an official title (not when it is used
to generically describe a noun); Capitalise when thetitle is followed by a specific person’s name (Minister
Smith). There is no need to capitalise when using‘minister(s)’ as a generic noun not referring to a specificperson, (e.g. The ministers attended the summit …)
Use the country’s own names for its parliamentary
institutions. When referring to a specific parliament,
use a capital P (e.g. UK Parliament, Parliament of
Malta). For generic use, no capital is needed (previous
parliaments were elected … )Capitalise a person’s title when it is used with a proper name:‘There were many mullahs who studied there, but Mullah Nasir did not.’‘There were many ministers who attended, but Minister Azur did not.’31EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Capitalise titles of documents in the same style used by the author/source. For
example, for the names of newspapers and their articles, journals, books, laws, reports
and the titles of journal articles or book chapters published within them:
Barfield, T., Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, 2012.

BBC News, Berta Caceras: Report throws light on Honduras activist murder,
2 November 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-41840369,
accessed 2 November 2017

3.7 Introducing and describing sources
All sources must be traceable from the text to the footnote and bibliography. When
relevant, sources and their methodologies (in the case of a study, for example) should
be briefly introduced and explained at their first use in the body text; further detail canbe found in the bibliography.
In the case of oral sources, it is not necessary to repeat the full description every
single time in the footnote, but sufficient detail should be provided to the reader in the
text and bibliography to assess source reliability, in line with the EUAA COI
methodology. Once a detailed description has been provided in the reportintroduction and at first use in the text, the source’s title/surname can be usedthroughout the text. For more information on referencing oral sources, see Section 8
on Examples of referencing oral sources.
Neutral language should be used to introduce what the sources are saying (he/shereported, indicated, stated, explained, observed, gave the opinion that, gave the view
that, based on his/her information, etc.).
Oral source example:
Described in the introduction or at first use in text:
Dr Smith is a Research Associate at the University of Westermoria. Dr Smith’s
doctoral research at the University of Westmoria, which involved field research
conducted in Abkovia in 2017, explored the security and political dynamics ofcounter-insurgency operations in southern provinces.
He commented that alliances and recruitment within the insurgent group arecomplex …1
Footnote (and used throughout the rest of the report):
1
Smith, J., Telephone interview, 21 April 201732

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

Bibliography:
Smith, J., Telephone interview, 21 April 2017. Research Associate at the University ofWestermoria. Dr Smith’s doctoral research at the University of Westmoria, which
involved field research conducted in Abkovia in 2017, explored the security andpolitical dynamics of counter-insurgency operations in southern provinces.

3.7.1 Naming expert sources by name
As explained in 3.7, oral sources should be described in order to provide information
to assess their knowledge base/expertise. Writing and synthesising information in the
text for readability requires flexibility in using different writing techniques. Specificallyusing the name of individual source or expert may be done at times, but it is notalways necessary (e.g. Dr Jones said that …). There is no specific rule about when it
may be appropriate to include an individual expert’s name. However, take care not togive more weight to a source by always naming it, or by trying to impress the reader . It
is a matter of judgment and style about when it may be appropriate, for example, it
may be worth including when:• a source has been specifically interviewed for the report. It may be appropriate
to include their name when introducing the information (according to scholar X
who was interviewed for this report…);• the information is relevant but not corroborated;• the source provides their own analytical perspective or a unique opinion;• the source provides controversial or contradictory information;• the specific comment came from an external expert during their review of thereport.
It is not necessary to include the name of the source in other situations, for instance:• When writing that multiple sources report the same information;• When the source provides information that is common knowledge;• When it is a bulleted list of incidents.
Drafters must use their judgment about when it is appropriate to employ different
stylistic choices or writing techniques to communicate with the reader.

3.8 Non-English and local language text, words andnames
3.8.1 Original/local language terms
Local language terms or terminology from the country of origin used in the report arelisted and defined in a glossary at the front of the report with the most common
spelling and any spelling variations. It is not necessary to repeat the list of variations in
the text. Spelling variations are important to include so they may be picked up whenbeing searched.
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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Within the body of the text, terms in an original local language should always beitalicised wherever they appear (e.g. Pashtunwali, Quran) and include appropriate
accents (e.g. länder). Select the most common spelling after consulting a range of
specialist sources. Use one consistent spelling throughout the COI report and withother EUAA reports. Local language proper names for groups do not require italics(for example: Shia, Taliban, Al Shabaab, Tajiks, etc.).
Often militias fighting alongside the government against insurgents are calledarbakai (plural arbaki). Originally, the institution of arbakai is based on thecustomary tribal code of the Pashtuns, the Pashtunwali.222

3.8.2 Proper names of ethnic, religious, and community groups
As with special terms, the same standards apply. The spelling of names for certain
groups can vary widely. Consult a range of specialised sources - the UN, international
and local press - to determine the most well-known and accurate spelling, and the one
in preferred use by the group itself. List variations in the glossary and use one
consistent spelling throughout the COI report. Variations of name spellings may be
important if a reader is searching for an alternate spelling.
Proper names of groups do not need to be italicised. Proper names are capitalised in
English.
Glossary
Fula
Mandinka

Also called Peul, Peuhl, Fulani, Fulbe. A large West African ethnic
group comprising the second largest ethnicity in Guinea.
Also called Mandenka, Mandingo, Malinké. A West African ethnic
group living mainly in Guinea; the largest ethnic group in that country.

3.8.3 Government authors and titles in non-English languages
In the bibliography, names of government authors that are not in English should begiven in their common English name with the original language name of theorganisation in brackets afterwards.
Report titles are given in the language in which they were written in the bibliography
and footnote. In the bibliography, a translated English title is added in brackets.

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

Government:
English short country name, English ministry/department (original language
ministry/department), original language title [English translated titled], publication
date, url, access date

In text:
The German Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF, Bundesamt für
Migration und Flüchtlinge) reports that …
Footnote:
Germany, BAMF, Die Situation afghanischer Flüchtlinge in Iran, Pakistan und Türkei
– Auswirkungen auf die Migration in Richtung Europa, 22 December 2015, url
Bibliography:
Germany, BAMF (Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, Federal Office forMigration and Refugees), Die Situation afghanischer Flüchtlinge in Iran, Pakistan
und Türkei – Auswirkungen auf die Migration in Richtung Europa [The situation of
Afghan refugees in Iran, Pakistan and Turkey—effects on migration towards
Europe], 22 December 2015,
https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/5250_1485332482_deutschland-bundesamt-fuermigration-und-fluechtlinge-die-situation-afghanischer-fluechtlinge-in-iran-pakistanund-tuerkei-15-02-2016.pdf, accessed 2 November 2017

Non-governmental authors and titles in non-English languages
Names of non-government authors that are not in English should be given by their
original language, unless they have a common usual English equivalent that they use
officially.
Report titles are given in the language in which they were written in the bibliography
and footnote. In the bibliography, the translated English title is added in brackets.
Non-English source name:Footnote:
MSF, Set to Explode, April 2017, url, p. 18
Bibliography:
MSF (Médecins sans Frontières), Set to Explode: Impact of Mines, Booby Traps andExplosive Remnants of War on Civilians in Syria, April 2017,
http://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/msf-syria-settoexplode.pdf, accessed
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Non-English document title:
Footnote:
ACCORD, Afghanistan: Dokumentation des Expertengespräches mit Thomas Ruttig
und Michael Daxner vom 4 Mai 2016, June 2016, url, pp. 8-9
Bibliography:
ACCORD (Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research andDocumentation), Afghanistan: Dokumentation des Expertengespräches mit Thomas
Ruttig und Michael Daxner vom 4 Mai 2016 [Seminar with experts Thomas Ruttig
and Michael Daxner], June 2016,
https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/90_1466684031_dokumentation-coi-seminar-afg20160623.pdf, accessed 17 October 2017

3.8.4 Using information from a non-English language source
COI drafters who read multiple languages may wish to use sources that are in other
EU+ languages, from outside the EU, or from the country of origin. They may then wish
to paraphrase or summarise information from these sources into an English EUAA COI
report. The best practice for doing so is to use an officially translated version;
however, this is not always possible due to time and budgetary constraints. A COI
drafter who is able to read in that language and wishes to paraphrase/summarise
some portions can do so. As a quality assurance check, a different colleague who also
reads that language should, if possible, re-check the paraphrased text against theoriginal language. Add the citation to reference the information to the original
language text. Where needed, add a description of the source to indicate it is not inEnglish but in another original language.
Summarised by a COI researcher from the German original and included in the text:
An increasing number of Afghans convert to Christianity, often through evangelicalgroups but also by some educated Afghans who deliberately choose to leave
Islam.24
Footnote:
24
ACCORD, Afghanistan: Dokumentation des Expertengespräches mit Thomas
Ruttig und Michael Daxner vom 4 Mai 2016 [Seminar with experts Thomas Ruttig
and Michael Daxner], June 2016, url, pp. 8-9
Bibliography:
ACCORD (Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research andDocumentation), Afghanistan: Dokumentation des Expertengespräches mit Thomas
Ruttig und Michael Daxner vom 4 Mai 2016 [Seminar with experts Thomas Ruttig
and Michael Daxner], June 2016,
https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/90_1466684031_dokumentation-coi-seminar-afg20160623.pdf, accessed 17 October 201736

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

If a COI researcher competent in the relevant language makes their own informaltranslation of a short quote into English, this must be signalled to the reader by noting
it in the text with square brackets [informal translation]. The translated text should be
rechecked by a colleague competent in the same language for peer review/accuracy
wherever possible.
The footnote and bibliography are not affected.
A short direct translation by a native Swedish speaker:
According a 2017 report by Lifos [informal translation] ‘it is difficult to draw general
conclusions on what kind of reaction or punishment an individual who is suspectedof apostasy would receive’.63

3.8.5 Languages with special characters/alphabets
When presenting, citing, and referencing articles/sources written in original languages
which use special characters such as Arabic or Russian, always write the original
language source name or title followed by an English translation in square brackets.
Include the English translation of the title in square brackets next to it and refer to it by
the English name throughout the text. Take care that the special characters of thelanguage do not get reversed or formatted incorrectly by the word processor (withArabic, for example).
Where relevant, the original language of the source/information should be mentioned
in the text when introducing the source (i.e. The Arabic language article published by
Al Monitor states that …).
Examples of citations:
Footnote:
Lapitsky, Yu. A., Организационно-Правовые Основы Деятельности
Следственного Комитета Российской Федерации [Legal and organisational basis
for the activities of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation], 2010, url
Bibliography:
Lapitsky, Yu. A., Организационно-Правовые Основы Деятельности
Следственного Комитета Российской Федерации [Legal and organisational basis
for the activities of the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation], in:Bulletin of the Ryazan State University No 3, 2010,
http://vestnik.rsu.edu.ru/pdf/11_(28).pdf, accessed 28 November 2016

Footnote:
Etilaatroz, ‫[ طالبان سه کارمند یک شرکت راه سازی را تیرباران کردند‬The Taliban shot three
employees of a road company], 11 July 2017, url
Bibliography:
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Etilaatroz, ‫[ طالبان سه کارمند یک شرکت راه سازی را تیرباران کردند‬The Taliban shot three
employees of a road company], 11 July 2017, http://www.etilaatroz.com/49699,
accessed 11 October 201738

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDEPart 2 - COI Referencing guide
4. Referencing system
Every piece of information in an EUAA COI report requires a footnoted reference
which can be traced to the bibliography. EUAA’s referencing system uses shortenedfootnotes with a bibliography. For information on preparing the bibliography see
Section 6, and for examples of how to cite different types of sources, see Section 7.

4.1 Use and placement of footnotes
EUAA uses footnotes for referencing sources and every piece of information. In the
body of the report, footnotes are placed at the end of the sentence, outside theperiod. The footnotes should then appear at the bottom of the same page as the text
they refer to. For footnotes within the sentence, see Section 5.4.

4.2 Content of footnotes
Footnotes are a shortened version of the full bibliographic reference that appears inthe bibliography. The basic elements/order of a shortened footnote are:
•
•
•
•
•
•

author’s surname, initial; or, organisational author/acronym;
when a document has more than one author, only list two maximum; if there
are more than two authors, list the first one and add ‘et al.’;shortened title, if necessary;
publication date (1 January 2018);
shortened active hyperlink given as: url;
page number(s), if applicable (p. 173 or pp. 173-178 or pp. 17, 24, 29).

EUAA does not use ibid., ibidem, idem. Footnotes are repeated as necessary in order
to allow readers clearer and faster access to original sources.
It is a good practice to draft the report with full references in the footnotes and only
shorten the footnotes once the draft is finished and ready to be sent for review.
When shortening a document title for a footnote, do so only for very long titles thathave a natural break in the title. The most important point is to be consistent in using
the same short form throughout the whole report and match it to the bibliography.
However, try to avoid shortening titles too frequently and only do it if absolutely
necessary to save page space.

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4.3 Format and examples of footnotes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Within the body text, footnotes appear at the end of the sentence, outside theperiod.
Footnotes are in Proxima nova 9 font.
Footnotes are formatted as ‘Aligned left’.
There is no need to italicise anything or use quotation marks within footnotes.
Multiple sources within a single footnote are separated with a semi-colon.
Footnotes may appear in mid-sentence as needed fortraceability/transparency: see Section 5.4.
Footnotes for references normally do not end with a period.
Footnotes containing explanations do end in a period as explained in 4.4.

Example:According to IWPR, both government and insurgent groups are involved in abuses
against civilians.28 Armed groups carried out extra-judicial killings throughout
2016.29
28

IWPR, Afghanistan: All sides violating human rights, 27 July 2017, url
HRW, World Report 2017 – Afghanistan, 12 January 2017, url; AI, Amnesty International Report
2016/2017–Afghanistan, 22 February 2017, url
29

4.4 Other uses for footnotes
Footnotes are used for citation and referencing of sources. Exceptionally, they may be
used for other purposes.

4.4.1 Providing clarification
Footnotes may sometimes be used to provide further information; however, if theinformation is important enough for a footnote, it should perhaps be integrated into
the main text instead. Information within a footnote that is additional will likely alsoneed to be referenced. Drafters should try to avoid this situation and keep informationthat is relevant in the main text.

4.4.2 Providing further information about a source
For providing added details about the source background or methodology used for aparticular study, use footnotes. More information can be provided here to help assess
reliability of the source, such as their expertise, depth of experience, presence in the
country of origin, and authority about a subject.

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5. Common COI referencing challenges
5.1 Matching footnotes to the bibliography
This section should be read in conjunction with Section 5.2 on abbreviations oforganisation names. In order for readers to easily trace information, COI drafters
should ensure that the way sources appear in the footnotes matches their listings inthe bibliography.
Sources that use an abbreviation should be presented in the text for the first time by
the full spelling, followed by the acronym in brackets. The official abbreviation for asource name is used in footnotes. The manner in which sources are presented infootnotes must match with the specific references in the bibliography so that readers
can easily trace information. For example:
Matching for traceability
In the body, at the first
instance within the text …

Amnesty International (AI) reports that …

Footnote

12

Bibliography

AI, Amnesty International Report 2017/2018 –Cambodia, 22 February 2018, url
AI (Amnesty International), Amnesty International
Report 2017/2018 – Cambodia, 22 February 2018,https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/asia-and-thepacific/cambodia/report-cambodia/, accessed
12 March 2018

Within the bibliography, sources are listed by acronym first, alphabetically.

5.2 Abbreviations of organisation names andglossary
COI drafters should take care to check the official usage and official names oforganisations carefully by examining their website, publications, and copyrightinformation to check how they refer to themselves. Generally, abbreviations fororganisation names such as acronyms or initialisms should only be used when they
are officially used by the organisation itself.
Always spell out abbreviations/acronyms in their full appearance at first use in the text,
followed by the acronym in brackets. In the rest of the report, use the abbreviation torefer to that source in the text, footnote, and bibliography. Common examples include:
IWPR, IOM, USDOS, UNHCR, etc.
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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMGlossary:
Note that special acronyms/abbreviations that are necessary for understanding thereport content should be listed in a glossary (e.g. ANSF – Afghan National Security
Forces, VBIED – Vehicle-borne improvised explosive device, etc.). However,acronyms/abbreviations for source names that are listed in the bibliography do notneed to be included in the glossary (e.g., UN, IOM, IWPR etc.).
Special note:
Human Rights Watch should always be written out in full in the text. The
abbreviation HRW may be used for footnotes and for matching the bibliography to
HRW (Human Rights Watch).
International Crisis Group should be always cited as such and not shortened to
ICG.

5.3 Single and multiple authors of one document
When there are multiple authors for one document, provide a full description of thesource in the written text when introducing it. In the footnote, include a maximum or
two author names. If there are more than two authors, use the author’s name and ‘etal.’ followed by the usual footnote reference. In the bibliography, cite authors in full.
For examples:Single author:
Footnote:
Barfield, T., Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History, 2012, p. 212
Bibliography:
Barfield, T., Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, 2012

Two authors:
Footnote:
Gopal, A. and Strick van Linschoten, A., Ideology in the Afghan Taleban, AAN, June
2017, url, p. 33
Bibliography:
Gopal, A. and Strick van Linschoten, A., Ideology in the Afghan Taleban,
Afghanistan Analysts Network (AAN), June 2017, https://www.afghanistan42

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/201705-AGopal-ASvLinschoten-TBIdeology.pdf, accessed 2 November 2017

More than two authors:
Footnote:
Nojumi, N. et al., After the Taliban: Life and Security in Rural Afghanistan, 2009, pp.
35-36
Bibliography:
Nojumi, N., Mazurana, D., and Stites, E., After the Taliban: Life and Security in
Afghanistan, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009

5.4 Mid-sentence footnotes
COI drafters can use footnotes throughout a sentence to enhance the traceability ofdifferent pieces of information and more efficiently combine sources. Drafters shouldtake care to ensure information is clearly footnoted to the correct source when using
mid-sentence citations and to avoid attributing information to the wrong source. Also,
avoid overuse of mid-sentence citations and rely on summarising wherever possible.
In some instances, it may be appropriate such as when slight variations are given on avery specific fact. For example:
Estimates on the number of women’s shelters across Afghanistan vary between 14,1
20,2 283 and 29,4 with 6 reportedly in Kabul,5 the capital.

5.5 Original information reproduced in a secondary
sourceWhen excerpted information from an original source is reproduced or cited by anothersource and is only available within that second source, it should be cited under theoriginal source, making mention of where it was located. This rule is similar to
Section 5.6 about information that is no longer available online.
Footnote and bibliography:
Footnote:
UK, Correspondence from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in Afghanistanwith the UK Country Policy and Information Team, 10 January 2017, url, p. 22
Bibliography:
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UK, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Correspondence with the UK Country
Policy and Information Team, 10 January 2017, cited in: UK, Home Office, Country
and Policy Information Note – Afghanistan: Sexual orientation and gender identity,
January 2017,https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/584
025/Afghanistan_-_SOGI_-_CPIN_-__January_2017_.pdf, accessed 19 June 2019

Footnote:
Australia, DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report – Afghanistan,
18 September 2015, p.21, url, p. 31
Bibliography:
Australia, DFAT, DFAT Country Information Report – Afghanistan,
18 September 2015, p.21, cited in: UK, Home Office, Country and Policy Information
Note – Afghanistan: Fear of anti-government elements (AGEs), December 2016,
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/576
895/CPIN-Afghanistan-Fear-of-AGEs-v2-December-2016.pdf, accessed 19 June2019

5.6 Original source no longer available online or at
original link
When information was found in a source which refers to another (original) source
which is not otherwise accessible to the reader, for instance, the website ceased toexist or the article was removed, it should be pointed out which source is the original
and which is the secondary source. This explanation can be given in the bibliographic
entry.
For example:
In text:
L’Osservatore Romano republished an article by the website Voice of Martyrs which
gives an example of treatment of Christians in Libya. The article states that ...
Footnote:
Voice of Martyrs, Christians in Libya, 9 February 2007, url, accessed
20 February 2007
Bibliography:
Voice of Martyrs, Christians in Libya, 9 February 2007, available at: L`Osservatore
Romano, http://www.osservatoreromano.com/, accessed 20 February 2017. The
original source website, Voice of Martyrs, is no longer accessible.

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

5.7 Information only available from a paid
subscription source
When information is used from a subscription source, this should be indicated in the
bibliography by adding ‘available by subscription at:’ to the citation.
Footnote:
WSJ, Iraqi forces clash with Kurdish fighters near Kirkuk, 16 October 2017, url

Bibliographic reference:
WSJ (The Wall Street Journal), Iraqi forces clash with Kurdish fighters near Kirkuk,
16 October 2017, available by subscription at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/iraqiforces-clash-with-kurdish-fighters-near-kirkuk-1508123617, accessed
17 October 2017

5.8 Citing a cached or archived version of a website
The standard footnote format is used. However, for the bibliography, when citing anarchived or cached page, note the date the archived page was captured, link to the url
preceded by ‘available at’, and note the access date it was retrieved.
An archived page:
Footnote:
Afghanistan, KCP, About 119 police, n.d., archived page from 3 January 2015, url
Bibliography:
Afghanistan, KCP (Kabul City Police), About 119 police, n.d., archived page from
3 January 2015, available at: http://archive.is/1iuY4, accessed 17 October 2017

A cached page:
Footnote:
Nigeria, NPF, Nigeria police force, n.d., cached page from 15 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
Nigeria, NPF (Nigeria Police Force), Nigeria police force, n.d., cached page from15 October 2017, available at:
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:ttPchrYJKMJ:npf.gov.ng/&num=1&hl=en&gl=mt&strip=1&vwsrc=0, accessed 17 October 201745

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

5.9 Articles translated and reprinted by a news
service
When a news service translates and reprints the full text of an article in anotherlanguage, this can be cited as follows:
Footnote:
Kahmenei.ir, Leader says USA angry with Iranian forces for fighting ISIS,
18 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
Kahmenei.ir, Leader says USA angry with Iranian forces for fighting ISIS,
18 October 2017, translated by: BBC Monitoring, available by subscription at:https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/, accessed 18 October 20175.10 Original article based on primary source that is
not accessible
Sometimes newspapers will publish original content/articles which are written basedon information from other original sources (e.g. AFP), which are not accessible in their
original form.
The insurgent group reportedly took over numerous towns east of the capital. 13
Footnote:
13
The Newspaper, The insurgents return to area X [sources: DPA and AFP],
17 July 2016, url
Bibliography:
The Newspaper, The article title [sources: DPA and AFP], 17 July 2016, url, accessed
1 March 2018

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6. Elements of a bibliography and entry
format challenges
The bibliography lists all sources cited in the COI report. It appears at the end of thereport in an Annex. The elements included in the bibliographic reference are
explained in this section.

6.1 Sub-divisions
The bibliography has two headings: one for oral sources and one for written sources.
For each source listed in the bibliography it should be clear for readers whether it ispublic, non-public, or anonymous, either by providing a link or a description where
relevant.
Oral sources
This first heading is a list of all oral sources who were cited in the report and how they
were contacted. This includes written correspondence, emails, interviews, etc.
Written sources
The second heading lists of all other written, documentary or published sources usedin the report (that were not obtained from oral sources).
See Annex A for an example bibliography that shows these subdivisions.

6.2 Alphabetical order of entries in the bibliography
EUAA organises entries in the bibliography in letter by letter alphabetical orderbecause of the co-drafting process, which requires a fast system for organising a lot of
entries from multiple authors.
Bibliographic entries are listed alphabetically by the author last name or organisational
abbreviation.
For multiple entries by the same author, entries are organised in alphabetical order bytitle of the document. This kind of sorting can be done by selecting all the items
written by one source and clicking on the ‘Sort’ function in MS Word.

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6.2.1 Sources or titles beginning with a number or symbol
In the bibliography, sources or titles that begin with numbers or symbols are placed at
the beginning and precede listings in alphabetical order. This applies for authors andfor titles of documents. They should be placed or sorted at the top of the alphabeticallist.
Source name:
28 Too Many, About us, n.d., https://www.28toomany.org/about-us/, accessed
13 October 2017

Article title:
Pajhwok Afghan News, 5 police killed, 8 wounded in Taliban attack on checkpoint,
23 September 2017, https://www.pajhwok.com/en/2017/09/23/5-police-killed-8wounded-taliban-attack-checkpoint, accessed 13 October 2017

6.2.2 English sources whose official name begins with ‘The’
In English, many names of sources could be described beginning with the article ‘the’.
Therefore, COI drafters should examine the source’s copyright information todetermine the official name, or if the official name or abbreviation uses ‘The’.
In English, when ‘The’ is part of the official name of a source:••

Within the text, respect capitalisation rules for ‘the’ if it appears at the
beginning of a sentence (The Guardian reports that …), or in the middle of asentence (According to the Guardian …);
Include ‘The’ in the footnote and bibliography in brackets after the substantive
title.

LocationIn the beginning of asentence
In the middle of a sentence
In the footnote (drop ‘The’)In the bibliography

Form and placement
The Guardian reports that …
According to the Guardian, the car went …
59 Guardian (The), An article title, url,
2 November 2017
Guardian (The), An article title, url, 2 November 2017,
accessed 2 November 2017

These examples are of sources with official names that include ‘The’:48

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDEMediaThe Bureau (The Bureau of
Investigative Journalism)
The Diplomat
The Economist
The Guardian
The Independent
The New York Times
The Washington Post
WSJ (The Wall Street Journal)

Organisations
The Asia Foundation
TBC (The Border Consortium)
The Jamestown Foundation

6.2.3 Non-English source names beginning with a definite article(Le, Al, etc.)
Non-English sources that begin with a definite article are written in the same way thefootnote and should be listed alphabetically by the first letter of the article in the
bibliography. There is no need to split the article from the substantive name. Also
maintain and follow the capitalisation conventions in the names themselves. Here aresome examples:
Al Jazeera, Venezuela opposition rejects election results, 16 October 2017,
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/venezuela-opposition-rejects-electionresults-171016042501995.html, accessed 16 October 2017
Le Monde, Syrie: Damas exige le retrait des forces turques à Idlib, 16 October 2017,
http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2017/10/16/damas-exige-le-retrait-desforces-turques-a-idlib_5201488_3218.html, accessed 16 October 2017

Other examples: Al-Monitor, Der Spiegel, Die Welt, Die Zeit, La Presse, Le Monde.

6.7 Author(s)Authors are listed in the bibliography by their last name, followed by their full firstname (or initial if not available); footnotes only require an initial). Organisational
authors known by an official acronym or abbreviation are listed by the abbreviation
first with the full organisation name in brackets afterwards. See the section on
Abbreviations for more information.
Sort by numbers, then by letters: Organisational authors whose title begins with anumber appear at the beginning of the bibliography. Sources whose titles begin with anumber appear at the beginning of the alphabetised list.
If there are multiple documents written by the same author, repeat the author’s namein the bibliography with each entry.
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For specific guidance on authors, see the examples section of this document.

6.8 Titles of documents
Titles of documents are written in regular Proxima Nova font and do not use any
formatting. Capitalise each main first letter of the words in the same style it is writtenby the source itself. This applies for a title for laws, major reports, books, newspapers
and journal titles; also capitalise the titles of book chapters and journal articles.
The rule is simple: reproduce the title the way it is written by thesource/publisher/author.
However, if a source puts quotation marks in the title of a document, follow theconvention used by the source (AYBA, “I had to escape”: Justice for prisoners, 2014,url). Note that it is not necessary to include quotation marks in the footnotes in suchcases (e.g. AYBA, I had to escape, 2014, url, p. 14). Always include them in the
bibliographic entry.
If a document title is in all uppercase letters (e.g. Newsday, PRESIDENT RESIGNS!,
12 June 2017, url), begin the title with a capital and change the rest to lower case. Use
the same format consistently throughout the document/footnotes and bibliography.

6.9 Publication dates
6.9.1 General principles
Publication dates should be as exact as possible and include the day, month, year
wherever they appear. Try to locate and triangulate the exact publication date.
Sometimes it may be necessary to cross check in other ways to find it. For example,
US Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices does not print
the exact date onto the document itself, but if you locate the ‘basic text’ webpage inthe official DOS webpage for Country Reports, or search for it on Refworld, one canfind the exact day, month, and year of publication. Strive to do this at all times toensure exactness. Refworld and Ecoi.net are useful tools for locating exact publication
dates. Sometimes the copyright date is the same as the publication date. Other times,
it is not, and the exact publication date needs to be found and given.
Examples of publication date formats are provided below for different scenarios:

When the exact day, month, year of publication are provided on the document:
Author, title, 12 August 2016, url, access date

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When only the month and year are given:
Author, title, January 2011, url, access date
When only the year is given:
Author, title, 2017, url, access date

6.9.2 No date
When the publication date of a source cannot be found or is not listed, it can be citedwith ‘n.d.’ placed in the location in the entry where the publication date goes:
Footnote:
RFE/RL, Mission statement, n.d., url
Bibliography:
RFE/RL, Mission statement, n.d., https://pressroom.rferl.org/p/6110.html, accessed
2 November 2017

6.9.3 Presumed date
At times, publications may not have the exact publication date printed on the
document itself, however, it may be possible for the COI drafter to presume thepublication date from the title or from cross-checking other sources; for example,
press releases announcing a report. Drafters should take care to be certain of thedate when choosing this option. The presumed date is placed in square brackets todenote that it has been added by the drafter.
Footnote:
AIHRC, Annual Report 1391 (20 March 2012 - 21 March 2013), [2013], url, p. 13
Bibliography:
AIHRC (Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission), Annual Report 1391
(20 March 2012 - 21 March 2013), [2013],
http://www.aihrc.org.af/media/files/Reports/Annual%20Reports/Annual%20Report%
20English.pdf, accessed 15 October 20176.10 Hyperlink
In the bibliography, the full url to the source is provided as an active hyperlink. In
footnotes, the hyperlink is shortened. When the url is found elsewhere than theoriginal author’s website, citations may require the inclusion of expressions such asthese:• Cited in:51

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM•••

Available at:
Posted on: (only for social media)
Available by subscription at:

Always strive to find/use the url from the original source/author (for instance, using theoriginal USDOS link to the PDF version for a USDOS report). This is the firstpreference. When information is accessed from a portal such as Refworld, Ecoi.net, or
the EUAA COI Portal, use ‘available at:’.

6.11 Page numbers
Page numbers to trace the information used must be included in the footnotes of the
COI report. If a document uses numbered paragraphs, such as some UN reports,
those should be given instead of page numbers. In the case of documents where
there is both an online HTML version and a PDF version with numbered pages, COI
drafters should usually use the PDF version (and hyperlink to the PDF) and cite theexact page numbers where the information is located. If there are no page numbers,
drafters can use the page number indicated by the program (e.g. Adobe, MS Word).
If more than one page is cited, use ‘pp.’ and commas or dashes, as necessary.
There is a single space between the page (p.) and number: p. 3
Footnote examples:
USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2016 – Afghanistan,
3 March 2017, url, p. 3
USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2016 – Afghanistan,
3 March 2017, url, pp. 25—26
USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2016 – Afghanistan,
3 March 2017, url, pp. 19, 32, 33

There is no need to include page numbers in the bibliographic references, unless it isfor an article in a peer-reviewed journal or a book chapter. For example:
Bibliography:
Ahsan, S., When Muslims Become Feminists: Khana-yi Aman, Islam, andPashtunwali, in: Green, N. (ed.), Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban,
University of California Press, Oakland, 2016,
https://www.luminosoa.org/site/books/10.1525/luminos.23/, pp. 225-241, accessed
17 October 201752

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6.12 Access date
It is not necessary to include access dates in the footnotes. Access dates arenecessary to include in the bibliography to indicate when an online source was used,in case information used changes from the time the COI report is published.
Access dates appear as follows in bibliographic references:

AIHRC (Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission), Annual Report 1391
(20 March 2012 - 21 March 2013), [2013],
http://www.aihrc.org.af/media/files/Reports/Annual%20Reports/Annual%20Report%
20English.pdf, accessed 15 October 201753EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

7. Examples of referencing sources
7.1 Books
Many books are printed both in hardcopy and/or are available in electronic/digitalformats. There is no need to differentiate how they are cited, except to include a link if
the electronic version is accessible. Footnotes do not include publishing information.
On citing multiple authors, see Section 5.3.
Surname, Initial., Title Capitalised, Publisher, Location, Year of Publication
Book:
Footnote:
Butcher, J., Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook, 1975, p. 27
Bibliography:
Butcher, J., Copy-editing: The Cambridge Handbook, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1975

Book available online / electronic book:
Footnote:
Wimpelmann, T., The Pitfalls of Protection, 2017, url, pp. 108-110
Bibliography:
Wimpelmann, T., The Pitfalls of Protection: Gender, Violence, and Power in
Afghanistan, University of California Press, Oakland, 2017,https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=fulltext&uiLanguage=en&rid=23018,
accessed 16 October 2017

An edited book:
Footnote:
Green, N. (ed.), Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban, 2016, url
Bibliography:
Green, N. (ed.), Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban, University ofCalifornia Press, Oakland, 2016,
https://www.luminosoa.org/site/books/10.1525/luminos.23/, accessed
17 October 2017

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7.2 Chapter in a book or in an edited
book/anthology
To reference part of a work, or a chapter in a book, periodical or series, include thefollowing:• Author surname and initial(s);• Title of the contribution or article in single quotation marks;• Include the word ‘in:’ followed by the title of the larger work that it is part ofand where appropriate, the number of the edition;• The publisher or editor, or the organisation for which the report was written;• Place of publication;• Year of publication;• Relevant page numbers;• URL, if accessible online.
One chapter within a book by the same author:
Barfield, T., Chapter 5: Afghanistan Enters the Twenty-first Century, in: Afghanistan:
A Cultural and Political History, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2012

One chapter within an anthology or edited book:
Footnote:
Ahsan, S., When Muslims Become Feminists: Khana-yi Aman, Islam, andPashtunwali, 2016, url, pp. 227-228
Bibliography:
Ahsan, S., When Muslims Become Feminists: Khana-yi Aman, Islam, andPashtunwali, in: Green, N. (ed.), Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban,
University of California Press, Oakland, 2016,
https://www.luminosoa.org/site/books/10.1525/luminos.23/, pp. 225-241, accessed
17 October 2017

See also the section on peer-reviewed and scholarly journals; the format is similar.

7.3 Newspapers, news websites and magazines
Sources such as newspapers, news websites, and magazines often provide content inboth electronic and hardcopy. They are cited in the same way, regardless of platform.
Newspaper articles are cited under the newspaper name, not the individual reporter.
For information on citing authors who are experts or scholars who publish an
opinion/editorial piece on a newspaper/magazine’s blog, see Section 7.9.
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The following format can be used for standard newspaper articles. For example:
Newsmedia Name, Article title, publication date, url, access date

Footnote:
New York Times (The), The Islamic State: From insurgency to rogue state and back,22 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
New York Times (The), The Islamic State: From Insurgency to Rogue State andBack, 22 October 2017,https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/10/22/world/middleeast/isis-the-islamicstate-from-insurgency-to-rogue-state-and-back.html, accessed 3 November 2017
Footnote:
FP, US to pull out of UNESCO, again, 11 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
FP (Foreign Policy), US to pull out of UNESCO, again, 11 October 2017,
http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/10/11/u-s-to-pull-out-of-unesco-again/, accessed
17 October 2017

Footnote:
RFE/RL, Another Russian regional governor replaced, 12 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Another Russian Regional Governor
Replaced, 12 October 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-pskov-governor-replacedregional-reshuffle-continues/28789764.html, accessed 17 October 2017

7.4 News agencies
News agencies (e.g. AFP, Reuters, Bloomberg, AP, etc.) are cited by the full name of
the agency at first use in the text, followed by the acronym, as appropriate. Do not cite
individual reporters by name Footnotes can use abbreviations.
When news agencies publish their content on their own website, it can be cited asfollows:
Footnote:
AFP, Iraq PM denies attack plan as tensions rise with Kurds, 12 October 2017, url
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Bibliography:
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Iraq PM denies attack plan as tensions rise with Kurds,
12 October 2017, https://www.afp.com/en/news/15/iraq-pm-denies-attack-plantensions-rise-kurds, accessed 15 October 2017

When news agency content is republished in other places, cite it as follows:
Footnote:
AP, Pakistan arrests cleric over involvement in murder of model, 18 October 2017,
url
Bibliography:
AP (Associated Press), Pakistan arrests cleric over involvement in murder of model,
18 October 2017, available at: https://nyti.ms/2zhSuGJ, accessed 21 March 2018

In some cases, news agencies might collaborate on an article. In such a case, cite thearticle by the first author listed as they appear in the article:

Footnote:
Le Monde and AFP, Paradis fiscaux: huits pays dont le Panama retires de la list
noire de l’UE, 23 January 2018, url, accessed 3 May 2018
Bibliography:
Le Monde and AFP, Paradis fiscaux: huits pays don’t le Panama retires de la list
noire de l’UE, 23 January 2018,
http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2018/01/23/paradis-fiscaux-huit-pays-dontle-panama-retires-de-la-liste-noire-de-l-ue_5245697_3234.html, accessed
3 May 2018

Governments often have their own state-run news agencies, such as China’s Xinhua
News Agency or the TASS Russian News Agency. Other news agencies may befunded by or have government partnerships, such as Voice of America (VOA), or
ANSAmed, a media partner of the European Commission. As with any other source,
independent or not, it may be warranted to introduce in the description the source’s
relationship to a government in the text. For example:
In the text:
The Russian government-owned news agency, TASS, reports that trade between
Russia and Germany increased in 2017.

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Footnote:
TASS, Trade between Russia and Germany up 25% in 2017, 12 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
TASS Russian News Agency, Trade between Russia and Germany up 25% in 2017,12 October 2017, http://tass.com/economy/970260, accessed 15 October 2017

7.5 Independent/non-government organisation
publications
7.5.1 Without a named individual author
Organisations may produce documents both with and without specific authors named.
When there is no specific author named, or it is written by the organisation’s
staff/analysts, COI drafters should cite the document under the organisation name as
the author. In some cases, this will also signal to the reader that it is from a relevant,well-known institutional source, more quickly than if citing under a staff writer’s name.
Example of a document written by staff writers:
Footnote:
USIP, When Reforms Meant to Ease Violence Backfire Instead, 8 August 2017, url
Bibliography:
USIP (United States Institute for Peace), When Reforms Meant to Ease Violence
Backfire Instead, 8 August 2017, https://www.usip.org/publications/2017/08/whenreforms-meant-ease-violence-backfire-instead, accessed 7 October 2017

Example of a document written by staff writers:
Footnote:
AAN, Thematic Dossier XVI: Afghanistan’s War Crimes Amnesty and theInternational Criminal Court, 7 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), Thematic Dossier XVI: Afghanistan’s War
Crimes Amnesty and the International Criminal Court, 7 October 2017,https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/publication/aan-thematic-dossier/thematicdossier-xvi-afghanistans-war-crimes-amnesty-and-the-international-criminal-court/,
accessed 15 October 201758

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7.5.2 With a named individual author
There are instances where an individual author has been engaged or commissioned
to prepare a report on behalf of an organisation. Take care to look at the disclaimer
and copyright information on such publications to determine how to cite them. When
there is a specific individual named as the author, COI drafters will need to judge
whether it makes sense to cite the author as that person’s name, or under theorganisation as the primary author, or jointly. Cite works under the individual author’sname when that person has written a report as an external author engaged as anexpert, for example. The individual author’s credentials should also be assessed andpresented by the COI researcher.
Also, if the organisation states in a disclaimer that the document reflects only theviews of the author, cite it under the individual author, making reference also to theorganisation.
Individual author of an organisational publication/report/series or chapter:
Footnote:
Carling, J., Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking from Nigeria to Europe,
IOM, 2006, url, p. 25
Bibliography:
Carling, J., Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking from Nigeria to Europe,
IOM Migration Research Series No 23, 2006, IOM (International Organisation for
Migration), http://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mrs23.pdf, accessed
17 October 2017

Individual author published in affiliation with an organisation on their website:
Footnote:
Gopal, A. and Strick van Linschoten, A., Ideology of the Afghan Taliban, AAN, June
2017, url
Bibliography:
Gopal, A. and Strick van Linschoten, A., Ideology of the Afghan Taliban, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), June 2017, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/201705-AGopal-ASvLinschoten-TBIdeology.pdf, accessed 7 October 2017

7.5.3 Country chapter in an annual report
This format can apply to reports that provide an annual country chapter by a nongovernmental organisation or think tank, for example: Freedom House, Amnesty
International, Human Rights Watch.
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Footnote:
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2016 – Somalia, 27 January 2016, url
Bibliography:
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2016 – Somalia, 27 January 2016,
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2016/somalia, accessed
17 October 2017

7.6 Governmental publications
7.6.1 General approach
Governmental publications should be cited under the governmental authority that
authored them, by the country’s official ‘short name’. After the country, if there is asecondary author, such as a ministry or department, that name is also given. Takecare to ensure that only official acronyms are used in the citation by checking the
publication itself and the official website. If there is any doubt, do not use an acronym.
For regional or municipal publications, co-drafters should take care and use their
judgment about how best to logically cite the author of the document. For instance, if
the municipality publishes a guide to local domestic violence services in one city, it
would not be accurate to cite the national or provincial government as the author. Also
take care to determine the author carefully – for instance, if a police force is anational/federal police department, it should be cited under the national
government/authority (e.g. Nigeria, Nigeria Police Force).
Press releases and media articles published on government websites are cited thesame way as other governmental documents like reports or websites.
There is no need to cite any particular Ministry or Department when citing legislation.
For information on citing legislation – refer to Section 7.12.
News item/press release/web page of a national/federal government department
Footnote:
Afghanistan, MoWA, Press release (October 05, 2017), 4 September 2017, url
Bibliography:
Afghanistan, MoWA (Ministry of Women’s Affairs), Press release (October 05, 2017),
4 September 2017, http://mowa.gov.af/en/news/i3485yrw, accessed
15 October 201760

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Report by a government agency:
Footnote:
Afghanistan, MoE, Afghanistan National Education for All (EFA) Review Report 2015,
June 2014, url, p. 31
Bibliography:
Afghanistan, MoE (Ministry of Education), Afghanistan National Education for All(EFA) Review Report 2015, June 2014, http://moe.gov.af/Content/files/FINALEFA%202015%20Review%20Afghanistan-June%202015%20(1).pdf, accessed
3 November 2017

7.6.2 With a named individual author
Governmental publications sometimes list individual authors who work as civil
servants for the governmental organisation. Given that they publications are endorsed
and owned by the government that produced them, the individual author is of lesssignificance, unless specifically commissioned as an external subject matter expert.
Cite publications that are written by staff writers under the government and do not cite
the individual author’s name.
Congressional Research Service (CRS) reports are produced by the US government
and frequently cite an individual staff author who is the CRS regional specialist.
There is no need to cite the author. Cite such documents as follows:
Footnote:
US, CRS, Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy,
2 October 2017, url, pp. 13-15
Bibliography:
US, CRS (Congressional Research Service), Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance,
Security, and U.S. Policy, 2 October 2017, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30588.pdf,
accessed 10 October 2017

7.6.3 Country chapter in an annual report by a government
agencySome governmental organisations produce annual reports with country chapters, forexample, the US Department of State and US Commission on International Religious
Freedom and have their own official acronyms that include the US. They can be citedunder that acronym. Since they are so commonly used in COI, the decision was madeto cite them uniformly as such:

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Footnote:
USCIRF, Annual Report 2017 – Afghanistan, 26 April 2017, url
Bibliography:
USCIRF (US Commission on International Religious Freedom), Annual Report 2017 –Afghanistan, 26 April 2017,
http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Afghanistan.2017.pdf, accessed
12 October 2017

Documents by the US Department of State such as annual Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices reports should be cited under the USDOS official acronym in thealphabetical author listing in the bibliography.
Footnote:
USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2016 – Afghanistan,
3 March 2017, url, p. 3
Bibliography:
USDOS (US Department of State), Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for2016 – Afghanistan, 3 March 2017,https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/265742.pdf, accessed
23 March 2018

7.7 Peer-reviewed and academic journals
Articles published in peer-reviewed and academic journals are cited under theindividual author(s), followed by the journal in which the article appears. The elements
to be included require the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

surname and initial of the author or authors;
article title (capitalised);journal title, in which the article appears (capitalised);issue data: Volume (Vol.), Series, Number (No);publication date;
hyperlink (if available online);
page range or number;access date.

For two authors, list both authors in both the footnote and bibliography. For more than
two authors, use one author and ‘et al.’ within footnotes; list them all in the
bibliography.
Add the notation in: to show that the article appears within a journal.

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Footnotes may be shortened by excluding the journal data:
Footnote:
Duarte, A. and Hancock, J., An Exploration on HIV/AIDS Funding in South Africa,
July-September 2017, url, p. 3
Bibliography:
Duarte, A. and Hancock, J., An Exploration on HIV/AIDS Funding in South Africa, in:
SAGE Open, Vol. 7, Issue 3, July-September 2017,
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2158244017718235, accessed
2 November 2017

Footnote:
Hamza, M. et al., Disaster-induced Displacement in the Caribbean and the Pacific,
url, p. 63
Bibliography:
Hamza, M., Koch, I., Malte, P., Disaster-induced Displacement in the Caribbean and
the Pacific, in: Forced Migration Review, Latin America and the Caribbean – Building
on a Tradition of Protection, Issue 56, October 2017,
http://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/en/latinamericacaribbean.pdf, pp. 62-64, accessed 13 October 2017

Footnote:
Kanemasu, Y. and Molnar, G., Private Military and Security Labour Migration: The
Case of Fiji, August 2017, url, p. 156
Bibliography:
Kanemasu, Y. and Molnar, G., Private Military and Security Labour Migration: The
Case of Fiji, in: International Migration, Vol. 55, Issue 4, August 2017, available bysubscription at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/imig.12321/epdf, pp. 154-170,
accessed 2 October 2017

7.8 Websites
Much of the information used in COI reports is available online. Websites usually havea name or are owned by an ‘author’ who produced the content. Generally, websitesthat produce their own content can be sited in footnotes and the bibliography with thesame basic data:• Author of the website;• Title;63EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM•••

Publication date;
Url;
Access date (only in bibliography).

Footnote:
ILGA, ILGA meets…Olya P., human rights defender, 12 September 2017, url
Bibliography:
ILGA (International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association), ILGA
meets…Olya P., human rights defender, 12 September 2017, http://ilga.org/ilgameets-olya-human-rights-defender/, accessed 16 October 2017

However, sometimes websites do not have a name and are cited by their web
address (url) as the ‘author’. Before choosing this option, attempt to determine theproper author. For instance:
Footnote:
Kahmenei.ir, Leader says USA angry with Iranian forces for fighting ISIS,
18 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
Kahmenei.ir, Leader says USA angry with Iranian forces for fighting ISIS,
18 October 2017, translated by: BBC Monitoring, available by subscription at:https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/, accessed 18 October 2017

Wherever possible, use the original link to an article or belonging to the original
source. If not otherwise available from the original website and the document isavailable at an alternative location such as Ecoi.net, Refworld, or the EUAA COI portal,
use that link. Note the retrieved location using ‘available at’ in the bibliography:
Footnote:
Afghanistan, Constitution of Afghanistan, 4 January 2004, url
Bibliography:
Afghanistan, Constitution of Afghanistan, 4 January 2004, English translation by
UNHCR, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/pserkowits12_Constitution_of_Afghanistan.pdf,
accessed 16 October 201764

EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDE

7.9 Expert commentary published in a newspaper,
periodical or on a web platform
In situations where an expert provides his/her analysis about an issue within anotherperiodical, such as an analysis piece posted on a website or in a newspaper, cite theinformation under the individual author’s name. Recall that such articles should beassessed carefully against the quality standards found in the COI methodology toassess the reliability of the individual author, the website on which it is posted, and thequality of the information within the source (how was it obtained, etc.). COI drafters
should include additional information about the author and website within a footnote if
necessary. For example:
Within the text:
In an article published by African Arguments, a pan-African news and analysis
platform run by the Royal African Society, analyst Jordan Anderson explains that the
Popular Forces of Burundi, a militant group formerly called the Republican Forces of
Burundi, relaunched itself in August 2017 and called upon anti-government rebels torise up against the President.1
Footnote:
1
Anderson, J., Burundi’s newest, biggest rebel group, 3 October 2017, url. Jordan
Anderson is an Africa Analyst at the information and intelligence company IHS
Markit.
Bibliography:
Anderson, J. Burundi’s newest, biggest rebel group, 3 October 2017, African
Arguments, http://africanarguments.org/2017/10/03/burundi-newest-biggest-rebelgroup/, accessed 17 October 20177.10 Fact-finding mission reports and COI reports byother COI units
FFM reports and COI reports by other COI units are generally cited in the bibliography
under the country that produced them, followed by the ministry/department/unit
responsible, the title, publication date, and url, and access date. For example:
Footnote:
Denmark, DIS, Report from the Danish Immigration Service’s fact finding mission to
Nairobi, Kenya and Mogadishu, Somalia: 2-12 May 2015, September 2015, url, p. 7
Bibliography:
Denmark, DIS (Danish Immigration Service), Report from the Danish Immigration
Service’s fact finding mission to Nairobi, Kenya and Mogadishu, Somalia: 265

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

12 May 2015, September 2015, https://www.nyidanmark.dk/NR/rdonlyres/E7BE98113CA0-4F86-BD27-749FB153B73A/0/Somalia_FFM_report_2015.pdf, accessed
16 October 2017

When quoting specific information from a source used within an FFM report, theprimary source of the information may need to be mentioned in the footnote,
especially when there are several anonymous sources. This specificity is for the sakeof transparency, traceability and to avoid round-tripping. For example:
Al Shabaab reportedly makes quick judicial decisions according to a source
interviewed by the Danish Immigration Service. 13
Footnote:
13

Denmark, DIS, Report from the Danish Immigration Service’s fact finding mission to Nairobi, Kenya
and Mogadishu, Somalia: 2-12 May 2015 [source: Representative of an international organisation],
September 2015, url, p. 17

However, if the source is introduced in the text, it is not necessary to repeat it in thefootnote (e.g. ‘A representative of an international organisation stated that …’ would
not require the source to be mentioned in the footnote).
The bibliographic reference is cited under Denmark and not as the individual source.

7.11 UN publications
Generally, UN publications should be cited in line with Refworld, listing the main UN
author, title, document number, publication date, url, and paragraph or page numbers.
Generally, if a UN document is using numbered paragraphs within the text, drafters
should cite information that way in the footnote to enhance traceability of information.
If there are page numbers instead of numbered paragraphs, use the page numbers.

7.11.1 UN Authors
EUAA follows the UNHCR Refworld convention of listing all UN documents under the
UN and the appropriate sub-agency.
Commonly used examples and their abbreviations are below:
United Nations (UN) organisations –UNAMI (United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq)
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission for Afghanistan)
UNCAT (United Nations Committee Against Torture)
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees)
UN Human Rights Committee (no abbreviation)
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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDEUN Human Rights Council (no abbreviation)
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs)
UNSC (United Nations Security Council)
UNSG (United Nations Secretary-General)
United Nations (UN) Security Council (no abbreviation)
UNWOMEN (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of
Women)For a full list of UN examples, see Refworld.

EUAA cites some UN organisations under their agency/branch names, not the UN:
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization)
ILO (International Labour Organization)
WFP (World Food Programme)
WHO (World Health Organization)

Documents that are submitted to the UN that are authored by ‘States Parties’ (andpublished by the UN) should be cited under the country submitting the document, not
the UN.
Also, submissions made to the UN by civil society, such as ‘shadow reports’ should becited under the appropriate NGO author, not under the UN.

7.11.2 Examples of UN citations
UN citations can be lengthy, and sometimes it is not possible to shorten them for thefootnote without compromising transparency about the source for the reader.
Generally the footnote can exclude the document number but this must be in the
bibliographic entry.
Footnote:
UNCAT, Concluding observations on the second periodic report of Afghanistan,
12 June 2017, url, para. 39
Bibliography:
UNCAT (United Nations Committee Against Torture), Concluding observations on
the second periodic report of Afghanistan, CAT/C/AFG/CO/2, 12 June 2017,
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=C
AT/C/AFG/CO/2&Lang=En, accessed 12 October 201767

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Footnote:
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Human Rights on the human rights situation in Ukraine (16 May to
15 August 2017), 25 September 2017, url, para. 70
Bibliography:
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Human Rights on the human rights situation in Ukraine (16 May to
15 August 2017), A/HRC/36/CRP.2, 25 September 2017,
http://www.refworld.org/docid/59c8ed184.html, accessed 13 October 20177.11.3 UN reports with a named individual author
Sometimes the UN will commission or hire an expert to draft a report on its behalf, or,on the basis of a project carried out for the organisation.
See 7.5.2 on these kinds of citations.

7.12 Laws, regulations and legal documents
EUAA generally follows UNHCR Refworld conventions on referencing legislation. The
following elements are included in the bibliographic citation:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Name of the national or regional government authoring/passing the law (short
official country or region name);
Title of the law with appropriate capitalisation as it appears in the law;
If it is translated by a party other than the government itself and by whom(‘Translated by UNHCR’);
Year the law went into force/passed (not the day/month);
URL, or ‘available at’ and the URL if it appears on a non-official website(Refworld);
Access date.

Researchers should take note of whether legislation or regulations are applicable andauthored by the national levelgovernments or by a sub-national, regional, or municipal administrations. Determine how best
to cite the legislation based on who is the author and where the legislation or
regulations apply. Cite national level legislation under the short official country name.
Cite regional/municipal legislation/regulations under the respective region namewhere the law passed/applies. Do not include ministry names, parliamentary or
legislative bodies in the citation. Do not include publication information such when the
document appeared in a national gazette. If a law has been translated, indicate this.
The basic formulation is:

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EUAA COI WRITING AND REFERENCING GUIDECountry, Title of Law, Translated by: (if applicable), Year passed, url, access date

7.12.1 National-level laws and legal documents
Footnote:
Iraq, Law No (188) of the year 1959 : Personal Status Law and Amendments, 1959,
url
Bibliography:
Iraq, Law No (188) of the year 1959 : Personal Status Law and Amendments,
Translated by the American Bar Association Iraq Legal Development Project, 1959,
available at: http://refworld.org/docid/469cdf3011.html, accessed 16 October 20177.12.2 Regional-level laws and legal documents
Cite the law/regulation under the country, followed by the regional authority thatpassed the legislation. This is the political author where the legislation is applied:
Footnote:
Iraq, Kurdistan Region, Act No 15 of 2008, The Act to Amend the Amended Law(188) of the year 1959; Personal Status Law in the Iraq Kurdistan Region, 2008, url
Bibliography:
Iraq, Kurdistan Region, Act No 15 of 2008, The Act to Amend the Amended Law(188) of the year 1959; Personal Status Law in the Iraq Kurdistan Region, 2008,
http://ekrg.org/files/pdf/personal_status_law.pdf, accessed 17 October 20177.12.3 Amended laws
For amendments to laws, it depends how the law is titled how it will be presented. The
year of the amendment is given as the year. EUAA usually follows the UNHCR
Refworld conventions used for citing such documents. However, it may depend on thetitle of the law.
For example, note the differences in how each amended law is titled:
Footnote:
Sri Lanka, Citizenship (Amendment) Act, No 16 of 2003, 2003, url
Bibliography:
Sri Lanka, Citizenship (Amendment) Act, No 16 of 2003, 2003, available at:
http://www.refworld.org/docid/4e6625b92.html, accessed 15 January 2018

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Footnote:
Libya, Law No 2/2004 Amending Certain Provisions of Law No 6 of 1987 on
Organizing the Entry and Residence of Foreigners in Libya, 2004, url, p. 12
Bibliography:
Libya, Law No 2/2004 Amending Certain Provisions of Law No 6 of 1987 on
Organizing the Entry and Residence of Foreigners in Libya, 2004, cited in: Sweden,
Lifos, Thematic Report: Palestinians and Syrians in Libya, 23 February 2016,
https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1788_1461175197_lifos.pdf, accessed
15 January 20187.12.4 Laws translated into English by the official original source
Researchers should always try to locate an official version or official translation oflegislation by the government who created the law. If a law is available on an official
government website, such as the legislature, the official information portal, theMinistry of Justice, etc., it is not necessary to indicate that in the citation. An official
version or official translation is one that has been produced/endorsed by or isavailable from the government who wrote the law. It is not necessary to indicate that it
has been translated if it is an official version issued or approved by the country who
passed the legislation.
This is an official English version of a Kurdish (Iraq) regional law, available on the
Kurdish Regional Government’s website:
Footnote:
Kurdistan Region (Iraq), Act No 15 of 2008, The Act to Amend the Amended Law(188) of the year 1959; Personal Status Law in the Iraq Kurdistan Region, 2008, url
Bibliography:
Kurdistan Region (Iraq), Act No 15 of 2008, The Act to Amend the Amended Law(188) of the year 1959; Personal Status Law in the Iraq Kurdistan Region, 2008,
http://ekrg.org/files/pdf/personal_status_law.pdf, accessed 17 October 20177.12.5 Translated copies of legislation
Researchers should always try to locate an official source for legislation on agovernmental website or source. However, it may not always be possible to locate oraccess the primary legislation from the original source and researchers may have torely on a secondary source reproducing a version of the law, or producing atranslation of a law. Indicate the location where the law was found and who translatedit.

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Footnote:
Afghanistan, Constitution of Afghanistan, 2004, url
Bibliography:
Afghanistan, Constitution of Afghanistan, 2004, Translated by UNHCR, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/pserkowits12_Constitution_of_Afghanistan.pdf,
accessed 16 October 20177.12.6 Copies or excerpts of legislation reproduced in secondary
sources
Researchers should always try to locate an official source for legislation on agovernmental website or source. However, it may not always be possible to locate oraccess the primary legislation from the original source, either because it is not
published widely, or it may be only available in local languages. Researchers may
have to rely on a secondary source reproducing a version or excerpt of the law. For
example:Footnote:
Libya, Law No 2/2004 Amending Certain Provisions of Law No 6 of 1987 on
Organizing the Entry and Residence of Foreigners in Libya, url, p. 12
Bibliography:
Libya, Law No 2/2004 Amending Certain Provisions of Law No 6 of 1987 on
Organizing the Entry and Residence of Foreigners in Libya, cited in: Sweden, Lifos,
Thematic Report: Palestinians and Syrians in Libya, 23 February 2016,
https://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1788_1461175197_lifos.pdf, accessed
15 January 20187.13 Published conference proceedings, papers,
presentations
The following elements should be included in the bibliographic reference for a
conference or meeting presentation or proceedings:••••

Name of the organising body;
Title of the meeting report;
Title of the meeting, date held, location;
Publication date of the proceedings, if published.

The footnote can be shortened to include essential information: author, title,
publication date, url, page numbers.
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Footnote:
EUAA, COI Meeting Report: Iraq, July 2017, url, p. 14
Bibliography:
EUAA (European Union Agency for Asylum), COI Meeting Report: Iraq, PracticalCooperation Meeting on 25-25 April 2017 in Brussels, Belgium, July 2017, coi-iraqmeeting-report.pdf (europa.eu), accessed 17 October 2017

Note that for EUAA meeting notes and presentations, only information in publishedproceedings can be cited publicly. Participants at EUAA meetings should always
check with the experts individually and obtain explicit permission before using any
information from the meeting. For information on oral sources and expert statements
made at meetings, see Section 8.3.

7.14 Reference books and reference websites with
no author
Reference books without an author:
Footnote:
The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism, 2004, p. 70
Bibliography:
The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 2004

Dictionary entries:
Footnote:
Oxford Dictionaries, Definition: Detail, n.d., url
Bibliography:
Oxford Dictionaries, Definition: Detail, Oxford University Press, n.d.,
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/detail, accessed 18 October 201772

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7.15 Dissertation or thesis
Footnote:
Gaasbeek, T., Bridging Troubled Waters? Everyday inter-ethnic interaction in acontext of violent conflict in Kottiyar Pattu, Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, PhD Thesis,
26 May 2010, url, p. 398
Bibliography:
Gaasbeek, T., Bridging Troubled Waters? Everyday inter-ethnic interaction in acontext of violent conflict in Kottiyar Pattu, Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, Wageningen
University (Netherlands), PhD Thesis, 26 May 2010, http://edepot.wur.nl/138278,
accessed 4 January 20187.16 Databases
Free access database:Footnote:
START, Incidents between 2015 and 2016, GTD, n.d., url
Bibliography:
START (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to
Terrorism), Incidents between 2015 and 2016, Global Terrorism Database (GTD),
n.d., available at: https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd, accessed 15 January 2018

Subscription database:Footnote:
Reuters, Update 2 – Gridlock as Bangladesh Opposition Spurns Talks,
29 April 2006
Bibliography:
Reuters, Update 2 – Gridlock as Bangladesh Opposition Spurns Talks,
29 April 2006, Available by subscription at: Factiva

7.17 Television, film, and video broadcasts
Cite documentaries from television, feature length film, and online video in the samemanner, noting [TV], [film], or [online video] after the title, respectively. Cite them under
the producer as an individual or by the organisation that produced them, as
appropriate. Use an official link to the producer’s content where available.
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Footnote:
CIR, To kill a sparrow [Online video], 19 October 2014, url
Bibliography:
CIR (Centre for Investigative Reporting), To kill a sparrow [Online video],
19 October 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwfC3WWYNIc, accessed
25 June 20177.18 Radio broadcasts and podcasts
Footnote:
Verma, S., AAN’s Sari Kouvo discusses the ICC intervention in Afghanistan –November 2017 [Podcast], AAN, 30 November 2017, url
Bibliography:
Verma, S., AAN’s Sari Kouvo discusses the ICC intervention in Afghanistan –November 2017 [Podcast], Afghanistan Analysts Network (AAN), 30 November 2017,https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/Podcasts/aans-sari-kouvo-discusses-the-iccintervention-in-afghanistan-november-2017/, accessed 4 January 20187.19 Blogs
Similarly to social media, sources such as blogs must be carefully assessed anddescribed as per the EUAA COI Report methodology. When citing blogs in thefootnotes/bibliography, include the author of the blog, title of the specific article/page,
title of the author’s blog, the URL and access date.
Footnote:
Wing, J., Security in Iraq: Dec 22-28, 2017, Musings on Iraq [Blog],
30 December 2017 url
Bibliography:
Wing, J., Security in Iraq: Dec 22-28, 2017, Musings on Iraq [Blog],
30 December 2017, http://musingsoniraq.blogspot.com.mt/2017/12/security-in-iraqdec-22-28-2017.html, accessed 17 January 2018

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7.20 Social media
Social media entries indicate the name of the user / account holder, the platform usedin square brackets, the date of the post (posted on:), url, and access date.
Footnote:
EUinAfghanistan, [Twitter], posted on: 25 October 2017, url
Bibliography:
EUinAfghanistan, [Twitter], posted on: 25 October 2017,https://twitter.com/euinafghanistan, accessed 2 November 2017

Footnote:
Afghan Atheists Organization [Facebook], posted on: 7 September 2017, url
Bibliography:
Afghan Atheists Organization [Facebook], posted on: 7 September 2017,https://www.facebook.com/atheists.af/, accessed 16 August 20177.21 Maps, tables, and graphics
Citations follow the same basic form as any other source and include the format
between square brackets: [map], [table] [graphic]. If using information from such
sources within the text or when introducing them in-text, indicate this to the reader(e.g. UNHCR provides a map of the locations of border crossings from 2019).
Footnote:
ISW, Iraq Control of Terrain [Map], 15 December 2016, url
Bibliography:
ISW (Institute for the Study of War), Iraq Control of Terrain [Map], 15 December 2016,
http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/Iraq%20Blobby%20map%2015%
20DEC%202016%20PDF.pdf, accessed 22 February 201775

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8. Examples of referencing oral sources
When referencing contact with oral sources through e-mail, face-to-face meetings,
online interviews, or telephone interviews, the following information should be
included in the bibliographic reference:
•
•
•
•
•

source surname and initial/first name (unless anonymous, as in Section 8.4);
source description of their operational presence, expertise and title (seeSection 3.7);
communication channel (telephone interview, online interview; email
correspondence; fact finding mission interview);
place of interview, if applicable;date of contact.

Below are specific examples of how to cite different oral source interactions.

8.1 Interviews with oral sources by telephone, online,
or in person
For further details on introducing and describing sources, refer to Section 3.7.
Examples for the citation in the bibliography are given below:
Telephone or online interview:
Avoid using brand names like Skype, or MS Teams. If the interview was run throughan internet meeting application, simply write: ‘online interview’.
Burton, R., telephone interview, 22 January 2012. Richard Burton is a Professor of
history at the University of Kinshasa, specialised in Somalia.

Marifat, H., online interview, 16 September 2012. Hadi Marifat is Director of the civilsociety organisation Afghanistan Human Rights and Democracy Organisation(AHRDO) (http://ahrdo.org), and one of its co-founders.

In-person interview during a fact-finding mission (FFM) or in-person:
Kouvo, S., interview, Brussels, 13 April 2012. Sari Kouvo has a PhD in internationallaw and is the co-director of the Afghanistan Analysts Network (AAN).

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8.2 Email and correspondence with sources
Correspondence between a COI researcher and external sources such as email
exchanges about a topic should be cited as such with the appropriate date. Emailed
information can also include comments from an expert reviewer made during their
quality review of an EUAA COI report, and which are deemed useful by the drafter toinclude in the text. Include additional information about the source to assess reliabilityof information.
Footnote and bibliographic examples:
Email:
Footnote and bibliography:
Kaiser, F., email correspondence with EUAA, 23 March 2012. Mr Kaiser is the
Minister of Education in Swaziland.
Ruttig, T., email correspondence with EUAA, 2 October 2017. Thomas Ruttig is a
specialist on Afghanistan and co-Director of the Afghanistan Analysts Network(AAN).
Subsequent footnotes can be shortened.

Expert reviewer comments made during the review process which were added to
the report:
Footnote and bibliography:
Smith, J., email correspondence with EUAA, 22 September 2017. Dr J. Smith is ascholar on Central America with 20 years of research experience in conflict analysis
in the region made this comment during his review of this report.
Subsequent footnotes can be shortened.

8.3 Oral source statements made at meetings andconferences
Oral source information gathered at EUAA workshops, meetings, and conferencesthat are not published publicly cannot be referenced in public reports unless the
explicit approval of individual sources is obtained. If approval from the oral source isgiven, the information can be cited as follows.

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Footnote:
Expert surname, Initial., Presentation title, Meeting organiser, Meeting title, Meeting
dates, Meeting location
Bibliography:
Expert surname, Initial., Presentation title, Meeting organiser, Meeting title, Meeting
dates, Meeting location

For information on how to cite publicly available published meeting proceedings see
Section 7.13.

8.4 Anonymous oral sources
All anonymous sources are put in a separate list with the bibliography. The list should
begin with an introduction such as the one below. There is no need to repeat thereason for anonymity elsewhere in the report:
In the text:
EUAA interviewed a programme officer for this report, who works on return issues
in Afghanistan; the source stated that …
Footnote:
Programme officer, online interview, 7 August 2017
Bibliography:
Programme officer, online interview, 7 August 2017. The programme officer works
on return migration issues, was based in Kabul for several years up to 2015, andfrequently returns to the country. The contact has worked with returnees for several
international NGOs in Afghanistan in the course of the past several years.

More examples of bibliography entries for anonymous sources:
Expert from Sandline International, email, 2 February 2012. The contact person is anexpert on NGO security management, working for Sandline International in London.
The person wishes to remain anonymous for security reasons.
Political analyst, online interview, 18 October 2012. The contact person is a politicalanalyst based in Kabul who wishes to remain anonymous for security reasons.
Local contact, email correspondence with EUAA, 12 April 2012. The local contact has along experience in monitoring and reporting on events in the province for aninternational organisation. The person wishes to remain anonymous for security
reasons.
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Local contact, telephone interview, 23 April 2012. The local contact is a press
correspondent based in the province of Ghazni. The person wishes to remain
anonymous for security reasons.
Security Analysis Department, South/Central Somalia—Areas of Influence [Map], email,2 April 2014. This department is working on and in Somalia since more than twenty
years. One of the tasks of this department is the monitoring and analysis of the
security situation in Somalia. The organisation of the department does not publish its
security analysis because its intended use is to guarantee the security of its own staff.
The organisation wishes to remain anonymous for security reasons.
If the information was obtained from the source by a third agent, that agent has tobe described. This can be after the description of the communication channel.
Representative of an IO (International Organisation), interview during fact-finding
mission conducted by CGRS/CEDOCA Belgium, 12 October 2014. The contact person
is a representative of an IO that is active in the province, but wishes to remain
anonymous for security reasons.
Staff member of an IO, interview and follow-up emails by a COI specialist of
Staatendokumentation, the COI unit of the Austrian Federal Asylum Office,
3-5 October 2012.

9. Maintaining research records
It is a good practice for COI researchers to keep digital copies of all sources cited in
the COI report. Digital copies should be provided to EUAA at the completion of thedrafting phase. This includes transcripts/correspondence of oral source interviews
conducted for use in the EUAA report (anonymous sources do not need to be
identified), scans of book pages and paper-based sources that are not available
digitally, web pages cited, and PDFs/digital copies of reports used in the report.

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Annex A — Example bibliography
The entries in this bibliography are arranged alphabetically, first by the name of theauthor, and secondly, according to the title.
Oral sources
The following sources wished to remain partly anonymous and be quoted only by
their profession or by the type of their organisation due to security reasons.
NRC, online interview with a legal advisor, 29 August 2017. A legal advisor for the
Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), who is based in Afghanistan and works on issuesof land disputes (housing, land, property rights) with displaced populations andreturnees to Afghanistan. NRC is an independent humanitarian organisation thatdelivers aid, and monitors and reports on displaced populations in Afghanistan.
WAW (Women for Afghan Women), online interview with a senior representative,
21 August 2017 and email, 22 November 2017. A senior representative of the Women
for Afghan Women (WAW), a non-governmental organization operating in 13 provinces
which provides services, counselling, and support to women in situations of genderbased violence. The contact requested to remain anonymous for security reasons .
Written sources
Afghanistan, Penal Code, 22 September 1976, available at:
http://www.refworld.org/docid/4c58395a2.html, accessed 15 October 2017
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Kabul bombing is a war crime, 24 July 2017,https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/07/afghanistan-bombing-is-a-warcrime/, accessed 15 October 2017
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban show contempt for civilian life,
10 January 2017, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/01/afghanistan-talibanshow-contempt-for-civilian-life/, accessed 15 October 2017
Barfield, T., Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History, Princeton University Press,
Princeton, 2012
Denmark, DIS (Danish Immigration Service), Report from the Danish Immigration
Service’s fact finding mission to Nairobi, Kenya and Mogadishu, Somalia: 212 May 2015, September 2015, https://www.nyidanmark.dk/NR/rdonlyres/E7BE98113CA0-4F86-BD27-749FB153B73A/0/Somalia_FFM_report_2015.pdf, accessed
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HRW (Human Rights Watch), “I had to run away”: The Imprisonment of Women andGirls for “Moral Crimes” in Afghanistan, 4 March 2012,https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/afghanistan0312webwcover_0.pdf,
accessed 6 November 2017
International Crisis Group, Afghanistan: The Future of the National Unity Government,
Report No 285, 10 April 2017, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/southasia/afghanistan/285-afghanistan-future-national-unity-government, accessed
4 October 2017
UNCAT (UN Committee Against Torture), Concluding Observations on the Second
Periodic Report of Afghanistan, CAT/C/AFG/CO/2, 12 June 2017,
http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CA
T/C/AFG/CO/2&Lang=En, accessed 12 October 2017
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Human Rights on the Human Rights Situation in Ukraine (16 May to
15 August 2017), A/HRC/36/CRP.2, 25 September 2017,
http://www.refworld.org/docid/59c8ed184.html, accessed 13 October 2017
USCIRF (US Commission on International Religious Freedom), Annual Report 2017 –Afghanistan, 26 April 2017,
http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Afghanistan.2017.pdf, accessed
12 October 2017
USDOS (US Department of State), Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for2015 – Afghanistan, 13 April 2016,
https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/253169.pdf, accessed 15 October 2017
USDOS (US Department of State), International Religious Freedom Report 2016 –Afghanistan, 15 August 2017,https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/269168.pdf, accessed 14 October 201781EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Annex B – Proofreading checklist
Drafters are responsible for the content and citations in their drafts. Prior to sending toexternal experts for review, it is advisable to conduct a final proofreading of one’s
work. Below is a brief checklist to follow in order to check the writing style andreferencing requirements are correct.
o Check numbering of sections and sub-sections is correct.
o Check and update the Table of Contents; check page numbers are correct.
o Check that all necessary sections/headings/disclaimers are present in thereport.
o Run grammar and spell-checks in the word processor.
o Check for typos and punctuation errors.
o Check the glossary includes all relevant terms in the document.
o Scan through the document to ensure terms are spelled consistently
throughout.
o Ensure all footnotes are correctly appearing after the period.
o Ensure all footnotes are automatically numbering correctly.
o Ensure all hyperlinks in footnotes are active, correct and functional.
o Check the bibliographic references are properly ordered and correct.
o Ensure the links in the bibliography are active, correct and functional.
o Ensure all internal cross-links between sections are active, correct andfunctional.
o Hover over images, maps, tables to check for and remove any hidden
text/hyperlink.
o Check that optimal quality is used for images, maps, tables.
o Check accessibility issues are addressed.

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