Traffic Safety Education andInformation Campaign Activities in
the UK

ReportDaryl Hibberd

University of Leeds, United Kingdom

1

Introduction

1.1

Population statistics
The population of the UK has grown over the past half a century and was recorded as
63,705,030 in 2013 (Figure 1)1-3.

Figure 1. UK population growth (1971-2012)
1.2

Vehicle population statistics
Alongside this growth in population number, there has been a rapid increase in thevolume of vehicles on the road network, with an 11.3% rise in road traffic in the past 10

years (Figure 2)4. This includes a growth of the passenger car fleet by 2.94 million vehicles(an 11.4% increase), a rise of 154,800 motorcycles (14.5% increase) and an extra 738,300
light goods vehicles (29.0% increase). In the same period, the numbers of heavy goods
vehicles, and buses and coaches decreased slightly by 5.1% and 3.9% respectively4.

2

Figure 2. Licensed motor vehicles in the UK (1926-2012)
1.3

Accident statistics
The number of deaths on UK roads fell by 49.7% in the decade leading up to the year

2012 (Figure 3), and the fatality rate in the population in 2012 (28 deaths per million) was
lower than a number of other countries in the same year (Japan, 41; Germany, 44; USA,107; Finland, 47)5-7. The number of serious injuries on UK roads in 2012 (23,039) also fell
substantially (17%) compared to the 2005-2009 average. However, in 2012, there werestill 1802 fatalities on UK roads. When considered alongside the total number of injuries
on UK roads in 2012 – 196,000 reported injuries in 146,000 incidents (Figure 3) – there

are still substantial improvements to be made in road safety, especially considering the
likelihood that numerous low severity injuries remain unreported.

Figure 3. Deaths and injuries on UK roads (1999-2012)
The following chapter describes a range of traffic safety education and information campaigns that are targeted at lowering the fatality and injury rates on UK roads.

3

2

General road safety

2.1

Road safety policy
The Department for Transport is a government department whose goal is to “work with(our) agencies and partners to support the transport network that helps the UK’s busi-

nesses and gets people and goods travelling around the country”. The department has aseries of diverse responsibilities, with those relating to road transport including:provision of policy, guidance and funding to local authorities to help run and maintain• theroad networks, improve passenger and freight travel, and develop new transport schemes;
investment in, and maintenance and operation of approximately 4,300 miles of the mo• torway
and trunk road network through the Highways Agency;
English bus services;• improving
reducing congestion and pollution through the promotion of eco-friendly modes of transport;• encouraging the uptake of new transport technologies; and,• maintaining high standards of safety in road transport, with a focus on continued im• provement.
The UK Government strategy for road safety is outlined in the ‘Strategic Framework forRoad Safety,’ published in 2011 (and updated in 2013)8. In this, the need to continue

the improvements made in road safety in the previous decade is identified. The strategy

follows on from the Department for Transport target of a 40% reduction in road casual-ties between 2000-2010, as described in the previous road safety strategy – ‘Tomorrow’s
Roads, Safer For Everyone’. This goal was successfully achieved9, however the current

strategy document highlights the high annual economic welfare cost that still remains(£16 billion), and notes that casualties are an avoidable not inevitable consequence ofroad travel. Furthermore, particular road users groups are identified and targeted for

future action, which did not see show such a significant positive change in casualty num-bers in the previous decade, such as cyclists and young pedestrians in deprived areas. The
UK government vision is for a further 37% reduction in road deaths by 2020, with a lessconservative estimate hoping for a decrease of up to 57%. A 70% decrease in the numberof killed or seriously injured (KSI) accidents is also considered to be possible. Unlike theprevious road safety strategy, these figures do not represent a specific target, instead

they act as an indication of what can be achieved with a dedicated and unified approach

to road safety by the government, local authorities, service providers and local communities.

The UK government approach to road safety for the period 2011-2020 focuses on anumber of key themes, including:road users to easily perform the correct behaviours, by designing to suit human• allowing
behaviour;
education and training for children, learner drivers and inexperienced drivers;• betterremedial education for individuals who make errors or for low level offences, as an alter• native to financial or legal penalties;
enforcement for those road users who deliberately disobey the laws of the road;• tougher
extending enforcement beyond excessive speed to include all dangerous and careless• driving offences;
based on cost-benefit analyses;• acting
decisions to a local community level, including providing the means to allow• moving
citizens to make decisions on road safety; and,and building capability by working with the road safety community on better• supporting
tools to support road safety professionals.

4
The road safety strategy also provides more specific plans of action for each of these
themes, for example:

Empowering local citizens and local service providers – Improving road safety
togetherfunding and removing targets and performance frameworks to allow more
• decentralizing
flexibility and innovation when implementing road safety initiatives; and• supporting the provision of information on road safety at a local level.
Education – Developing skills and attitudes

of a new vocational qualification to be administered to all newly-qualified• development
drivers;of more targeted and effective marketing based on behavioural science, to• development
convince the novice driver of the importance of prioritizing safety throughout their driving career;continued improvement of learner driver and rider training, in terms of both course con• tent
and driving instructor ability; andincreasing the availability of educational and remedial courses that can act as a more ef• fective
intervention than a fixed penalty notice.
Targeted enforcement and sanctions

a fixed penalty offence for careless driving to improve the ability of the police• introducing
to deal with problems efficiently;
the size of fixed penalty notices for traffic offences, including uninsured driving to• adjust
fit with other fixed penalty notices; and,drink and drug driving enforcement, including removing the opportunity for• improving
secondary blood or urine tests for drink drivers who fail a roadside breath test by a given
percentage, and increasing the availability of roadside drink and drug-driving testing ap-

paratus.

The THINK! Campaign is a coordinated series of road safety campaigns run by the UK

Department for Transport, covering diverse road safety topics such as: cycling, drink anddrug driving, fatigue, mobile phone use, motorcycling, speed, seatbelt use, young road

users, and animals on the roadway. The campaign uses various methods to disseminate
messages including media advertisements (television and radio), educational materi-als for school children (including lesson plans that are targeted towards a specific age

group), educational websites (including statistics, case studies, advice and informationon the the social, financial, criminal and employment consequences of failures to adhere
to the campaign guidance). The overall goal of this road safety campaign is to draw at-

tention to the key themes of the aforementioned road safety strategy and to encouragesafer behaviour and thus reduce the number of people killed and injured on UK roads.

This objective supports the vision for improving UK road safety, which was documented
in both Department for Transport publications – ‘Strategic Framework for Road Safety’and ‘A Safer Way’9. Furthermore, this campaign builds on the successful casualty reduc-tion achieved in response to – ‘Tomorrow’s Roads, Safer For Everyone’10. This chapter willreference a number of branches of the THINK! Campaign11.
2.2

The law
An Act of Parliament is a law that is created after a bill is approved by the UK Parliament
House of Commons and the House of Lords, and agreed by the monarch. The practicalimplementation of a law is performed by a government department such as the Depart-

ment for Transport. The Road Traffic Act (1988) therefore has a basis in law, and provides
guidance to all road users on a range of road safety topics including driving offences,5
drink and drug driving, protective measures (e.g. helmets and seatbelts), safe stopping,excessive speed, traffic signs, pedestrian safety. While the Road Traffic Act is accessible
to all road users, its format means that it is rarely delivered to its audience in this form.
However, the information is regularly disseminated via education and awareness campaigns, as is described in more detail below.
2.3

Organisations
RoadSafe12 is a road safety partnership (41 partners currently) launched in 2001, whichbrings together a collection of government representatives, road safety professionals andmembers of leading transport companies who develop campaigns in line with their aim of

reducing road deaths. The organisation itself is a partner of the Department for Transportand looks to achieve its targets through coordinated efforts of industry, traffic engineers,
public health authorities, police and road safety professionals. A series of campaigns
are accessible online that promote the safe design and use of vehicles and roads bysharing knowledge, promoting good practice and encouraging innovation. There are six
central themes for the campaigns: young drivers, driving for work, safer vehicles, safer

roads, speed management and alcohol and drugs. The RoadSafe website frequently uses
research to support its guidance messages, through leading or contributing to four vast
online resources for public access e.g.

Safety Observatory – access to independent road safety research for both members• Roadof the public and road safety professionals;
Transport Knowledge Partnership (gTKP)• Global
Safety Toolkit – research-led information on road accident causes and advice to aid• Roadin their prevention; and,
Safety Knowledge Centre – a forum in which casualty reduction professionals share• Roadtheir experience and expertise.
This organisation is also responsible for organising a series of road safety events on anarray of topics including conferences on driving while impaired, fleet driver training, mo-torcycling, cycling to work schemes, young drivers, and child transport safety.

Additional organisations are discussed later in this chapter (e.g. Road Safety GB, which is
directly partnered with the Department for Transport and the THINK! Campaign).

3Young road user safety
In 2012, young people (aged 0-17 years) accounted for approximately 13% of all casual-ties on UK roads, and therefore represent a substantial target group for schemes trying to
improve road safety. In fact, in recent years, the number of child deaths on UK roads has
shown a slight increase (55 in 2010, 60 in 2011, and 61 in 2012)5-7.

THINK! Education is a Department for Transport campaign that provides resources forteachers, parents and pupils to educate young children (from under 5 years to 16 years)
about road safety. The campaign is centred around an educational website including

information and advice (such as school lesson plans and opportunities for practical implementation of these lessons) on key safety-critical scenarios. The guidance is categorisedby the age group that it is most relevant to, or at the developmental stage where it ismost important to learn about the topic. For example, 7-11 year old children are taught
about issues such as roadside clothing (“Dress bright and be seen”), cycling safety, theuse of car seats and seatbelts, and crossing the road safely (‘The Green Cross Code’). A

related website entitled ‘Tales of the Road’13 has also been organised by the Department

6
for Transport, and is specifically targeted at teaching young children (6-11 years old)about the importance of good road safety, through demonstration of both good and bad

behaviours. The material is delivered by animated online characters in the form of educa-

tional videos, quizzes and games, fact sheets, and certificates to reward learning. There issome overlap with this method of delivery of the Highway Code to young road users andthe information provide via the THINK! Education websites, however, the delivery is moreengaging for the target audience in this case. The access to the THINK! Education cam-paigns is highly irregular and depends on the commitment of the child’s school or parents
to furthering the road safety education of the child. It is encouraging that the resources
are structured depending on the age-group and type of users, however there is there issubstantial room for improving the structure and frequency with which this information isdelivered.

Road Safety GB is a national road safety organisation, which works in partnership with

the Department for Transport THINK! Campaign to develop a range of educational initia-

tives to encourage national debate on road safety. The organisation performs many roles
including:to consultation on road safety policy and national safety targets;• contributing
identifying and publicising road safety issues and threats;• encouraging
cooperation and the adoption of common road safety policies amongst its• member authorities,
towards the goal of casualty reduction;members with information on road safety issues, through media engagement;• providing
providing a forum for knowledge exchange and promotion of best practise;• encouraging companies to address accident reduction through work-based policies and• initiatives for employees; and,• contributing to road accident research.
The most likely cause of death in young people in the UK is injury resulting from road use.
This is an illustration of a worldwide problem, and the reduction of road-related fatali-

ties has been recognised by the United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organisation(WHO), as both a priority and an achievable target. The importance of this target wasemphasised in the theme of the Second UN Global Road Safety Week (‘pedestrian safety’)
and was further supported by an online photography competition (‘FootPrints’) - anawareness campaign launched by Road Safety GB14. The campaign highlights to young

people (11-16 years old) the dangers of being a pedestrian. A competition was conducted
whereby the target group for the campaign were invited to submit a photograph to ‘help

us remind other young people of the dangers they face – and persuade them to take morecare while walking near roads’.

Road Safety Wales is an organisation that coordinates the activity of all partners attempting to reduce the road casualty rate in Wales. A seven day campaign organised by theNorth Wales Police used a portable driving simulator as an interactive, educational tool
to show students the dangers of distractions whilst driving (e.g. peer pressure, mobile

devices, in-vehicle entertainment, external distractions), the effects of drugs and alcohol,
the risks of driving without a seatbelt or with excessive speed, and the dangers of care-less and anti-social driving behaviour15. Road safety officers presented to the students onthese key themes in addition to individuals driving the simulator.

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4

Pedestrian safety
Between 2011 and 2012, the number of pedestrians killed and injured on UK roads

dropped by 7% and 4% respectively. However, there were still 420 deaths and 25,218

total pedestrian casualties on UK roads in the year5-7. Young people under 17 years old

accounted for approximately one third of the total number of casualties, thus identifying
this age group as one who would benefit from road safety training and guidance. Con-tributory factors reported for these statistics are pedestrian distraction and the tendencyof pedestrians to take the most convenient and direct route to their destination, perhaps
irrespective of safety concerns.

The Kerbcraft Programme16 is a pedestrian safety programme designed to teach young (5to 7 year old) children how to select safe places to cross the road, and how to cross safely
near junctions and parked cars. The course is delivered over 18 months and involves

practical training in the road environment to consolidate the learning of theories andgood practice in the classroom. The National Pilot Network of Child Pedestrian Train-ing Schemes involved the implementation and evaluation of the Kerbcraft Programmeby 64 local authorities in the UK (via 115 individual 3-year schemes) between 2002 to2007 with the intention of contributing towards the Government’s Road Safety Strategy,‘Tomorrow’s Roads: Safer for Everyone’. The provision of the scheme was biased towards
children in deprived areas or those with higher road casualty rates, with the evaluation

focusing on whether implementation of the Kerbcraft Programme more widely in the UK

was likely to be feasible and beneficial. The analysis of scheme success showed a positive

impact of the Kerbcraft Programme on young pedestrians’ behaviour16. Young pedestrians

who had experienced the training showed both immediate and long-lasting improvementsin their awareness of dangers when crossing the road (e.g. stopping at the road edge,

detecting movement in parked vehicles. The scheme was also proven to be cost-effective
due to its use of volunteers for the majority of its delivery – the maximum cost of thescheme was less than £100 per child. Overall, the scheme received favourable feedback
from the local authorities involved, with 90% continuing or planning to provide further

young pedestrian training within nine months after the scheme was completed. However,funding constraints had impeded the delivery of the full Kerbcraft Programme in the
majority of cases.

Safe Streets for London is a document produced by Transport for London (a local gov-

ernment body responsible for delivering the transport strategy and systems in London)as part of the Road Safety Action Plan for London 202017. The report outlines plans forcontinuing the improvements in road user safety achieved in London, reducing the per-sonal and financial cost of accidents on the capital’s roads, and future adaptation to thechanging travel patterns that result from development and encouragement to adopt moreenvironmentally-friendly modes of transport. The action plan is supported by a series ofTransport for London (TfL) awareness campaigns including one launched in 2013 entitled“Stop, Think, Live”. This campaign is targeted at pedestrians and aims to educate people
so as to reduce pedestrian casualties on the roads. It focuses on the dangers of crossing

busy roads and uses powerfully graphic images of pedestrians who have been involved ina collision with traffic. There are concurrent campaigns attempting to reduce motorcyclist
speed, improve motorcyclist behaviour at junctions, and encourage elderly pedestrians touse designated pedestrian crossings, all of which contribute to the TfL goal of reducing
deaths and serious injuries on the roads of London by 40% by 2020.

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5Cyclist safety
In recent years in the UK, the injury and fatality rates for most modes of transport havefallen steadily. Pedal cyclists are the single road user group whose casualty rate hascontinued to rise. For example, between 2011 to 2012, there was a 10% increase in thenumber of cyclists killed on UK roads, compared to a 7% drop in pedestrian deaths and a

9% drop in motorcyclist and car occupant deaths7 (Figure 4). In the same time period, thenumber of reported cyclists who were seriously injured increased by 4%, despite the total
number of cyclists increasing by only 1.2%. A particularly concerning statistic is the 117%rise in young child cyclist (0-15 years old) fatalities during this time.

Figure 4. Number of cyclist KSI casualties on UK roads (2004-2012)
The reason for this worrying increase has been explained in terms of the overall rise in thenumber of cyclists on UK roads, in addition to the absence of appropriate safety infra-

structure, especially at intersections (i.e. a lack of separation between cyclists and othertransport modes). For example, Figure 5 shows a common scenario in which cyclists areforced to share the roadway with large high-sided vehicles with considerable driver blind
spots. The inappropriate behaviour of cyclists and the inconsiderate behaviour of motorists are other common factors thought to be involved in a large proportion of incidents
involving a cyclist.

Figure 5. Shared bus and cycle lane

9
Bikeability is a cycling proficiency scheme administered by the Department for Transport,
whose objective is to provide young cyclists with the necessary skills and confidence toride on the roads18. The scheme is divided into three levels addressing vehicle control,road knowledge and traffic handling, and journey planning. The scheme is designed tobe completed by cyclists who know how to ride a bike, and while not being compulsory,schools are encouraged to provide access to the scheme for all of their pupils. The motivation for the participant is that they have the chance to earn badges and certificates as

they progress. The Department of Transport aims to reach more than 1.5 million children
with this training by March 2015.

The Department for Transport THINK! Campaign includes a poster-based awareness campaign designed to reduce the incidence of cyclist casualties when riding in busy, urban

areas. The campaign was implemented for four weeks in 2013, in five major UK cities thatwere identified for their high rate of accidents involving cyclists. The campaign website

also provides links to resources providing additional safety tips for cyclists and guidanceon route planning and how to improve their visibility through the use of lights and high-visibility clothing. An additional awareness campaign highlights the need for drivers andcyclists to be considerate of each other on the roads (‘Let’s Look Out For Each Other’).

The statistics show that 92% of incidents involving a cyclist also involve another vehicle,

hence the focus on the relationship between cyclists and other road users. The campaign
in conjunction with Transport for London advises drivers to look out for cyclists whenturning or alighting their vehicle, and advises cyclists to ride centrally on narrow roads

and to pass stationary cars while allowing room for car occupants to open their doors19.

6

Motorcyclist safety
Motorcyclists are approximately 35 times more likely to be killed in an accident than car

occupants, per mile travelled. A worrying statistic shows that 30 motorcyclists are injured
or killed on UK roads each day at junctions, with 328 reported fatalities in 201220. The

number of motorcycles on UK roads rose steadily from 1996-2006 (Figure 6). Following
a concerning rise in the number of motorcyclist fatalities on UK roads between 1996-

2003, peaking at 693 deaths per year (Figure 7)5, an investigation was conducted into theincreasing number of accidents involving motorcyclists over 30 years old 21.

Figure 6. Number of motorcycles on UK roads

10

	
  
1200
1200	
  
1100
1100	
  
Motorcyclist  Fatali-es  Motorcyclist
Fatalities

1000
1000	
  
900
900	
  
800
800	
  
700
700	
  
600
600	
  
500
500	
  
400
400	
  
300
300	
  

2009	
  
2009

2004	
  
2004

1999	
  
1999

1994	
  
1994

1989	
  
1989

1984	
  
1984

0
0	
  

1979	
  
1979

200
200	
  
100
100	
  

	
  

Figure 7. UK motorcyclist fatalities (1979-2012)
It was found that novice or returning motorcyclists (i.e. those motorcyclists using thismode of transport after a prolonged break during adulthood, e.g. hobby riders) were aparticular problem, especially when combined with the risk-taking behaviours often associated with motorcyclists who tend to use their vehicle for leisure. The recommendationsof the report included campaigns to discourage inappropriate speed and to reduce theappeal of dangerous and risky behaviours. The Rider Intervention and Developing Experience (RIDE) course is an intervention scheme similar to those provided by the Associationof Chief Police Officers (ACPO) for offending car drivers22. This course is an educational
alternative to prosecution for those motorcyclists whose dangerous riding has been

detected by the police. The course is focused on discouraging the use of motorcycles forthrill or sensation-seeking, and thus aims to tackle anti-social or careless driving behaviours. The Department for Transport also offers a rider enhancement scheme, whereby

riders are provided with a skills assessment and training before being certified as competence for riding on UK roads.

The report listed above21 also identified the need for drivers of other vehicles to be madeaware of the presence of motorcyclists and the potentially fatal consequences of a colli-sion between a motorcycle and a larger vehicle. The Department for Transport campaign(‘Think Bike, Think Biker’) encourages drivers to be more vigilant about the possibility of
motorcyclists, focusing on the need to check their surroundings (including blind spots)
more frequently and carefully, especially at junctions, during lane changes and whileparking. The campaign has an emotive tone, with drivers asked to consider their actions
upon the rider of the motorcycle, rather than simply the vehicle itself. This campaign isparticularly prominent during the summer months when the number of motorcyclists on
the roads increases.

The THINK! campaign also has a parallel strand which focuses on the motorcyclistgroup20. Again, educational videos, advice and statistics are provided to educate the motorcyclist on how to ride in a safe manner, with particular focus on the need to wear theappropriate safety clothing (e.g. a helmet and high-visibility clothing) and the importanceof expecting the unexpected including unpredictable driver behaviour or road conditions(‘Look, react, stay in control’)11

7

Newly-qualified drivers
The over-representation of young, novice drivers in road accidents is a frequently citedproblem that imposes a huge human and financial cost on the road transport system. A

number of factors contribute to the higher accident rate in novice drivers, notably a lackof experience of challenging traffic situations, a higher incidence of driving whilst im-

paired (i.e. through alcohol, drugs, fatigue or distraction), and neuropsychological immaturity in younger drivers. An assessment of the effectiveness of various countermeasuressuggested three methods for ameliorating the issue: education and training, GraduatedDriver Licensing (GDL), and the Road Traffic (New Drivers) Act (1995)23.

An example of an educational approach to improving novice driver accident rates is the
Pass Plus scheme24; an optional programme of driving lessons that is available to all

qualified drivers, targeted specifically at those drivers who have recently passed theirtest. The course involves six hours of learning, in which drivers are given practical andtheoretical training to develop their skills relating to urban and rural driving, driving

in difficult weather conditions, night-time driving and driving on motorways and dual-

carriageways. The intention of the organising body (the Driving Standards Agency, DSA)

is to educate drivers further about challenging driving situations, thus achieving improvements in driver safety through enhanced knowledge, alertness and anticipation of traffic

situations. The course can cost between £100-160, which can be a barrier to participation
immediately after the completion of driver licensing. As a result, in addition to improving
their driving ability and therefore their safety, drivers can be offered incentives to takepart. In certain regions, local councils offer incentives for taking part in the course, while
car insurance providers take a favourable view of participation when setting insurance
premiums, with cost savings of up to £400 reported. The successful completion of thecourse requires drivers to reach a pre-defined standard. A survey of previous participants
found that nine out of ten drivers rated the course positively and would recommend it,with eight out of ten drivers experiencing an improvement in their safety, confidence anddriving ability.

Graduated Driver Licensing Schemes have been implemented and shown to be effective

in a number of countries (e.g. Australia). However, attempts to implement such a scheme
in the UK have proven unsuccessful, in spite of the specific reference to such a post-test
vocational qualification in the ‘Strategic Framework for Road Safety’ document. In this,the need for an accredited scheme, developed with the assistance of driver trainers,

insurers and young drivers was identified as a means to provide drivers with the ‘neces-sary attitudes and experience to be safe and responsible road users’, such as promoting
a safety-focussed driving style, learning to anticipate driving events, being considerateof other road users, and driving in a variety of different contexts (e.g. variable road types
and conditions). This shares a lot of similarity to the content of the optional Pass Plus
course, but in this case, the lessons would be mandatory.

The Graduated Driving Licence Scheme Bill (HC Bill 22) proposed an amendment to theRoad Traffic Act 1988. It was suggested that newly-qualified drivers should be placed ona one-year probation period after passing the driving test, in which time they must notcarry more than one passenger, nor exceed a blood alcohol level greater than 5 milli-grams per 100 millilitres of breath, nor accumulate more than six penalties points on theirlicence. A failure to follow these restrictions would result in withdrawal of their licenceand the need to pass the driving test again. The bill also proposed mandatory training

courses in relation to motorway driving and night driving (similar to those optional Pass
Plus courses). It has been reported that this strategic targeting of risk factors that arecommon to novice driver accidents has the potential to produce savings in terms of roadaccidents (up to 230 fewer fatalities and 4,471 fewer road casualties amongst 17-19

12year olds each year) and costs (up to a £224 million saving). However, there is currently
no planned second reading of this bill in the UK Parliament, House of Commons. This isperhaps a concern, given that 20% of killed and serious injury accidents on UK roads in2012 involved a young driver, with 17-19 year olds having the highest death rate of any

driver age group despite driving only 3-5% of all car miles. This over-representation in thecasualty statistics requires further attention from both a research and policy perspective.

8

Driver improvement schemes

8.1

All drivers
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (ROSPA) is a road safety charity thatprovides a suite of driver training courses, from beginner to advanced level, with thefocus on reducing accident rates, saving money and improving driver performance. The

themes of the courses include driver development, familiarisation with UK roads, vehicle
familiarisation, post-accident training, eco-driving, speed awareness, fleet driver training, young driver training, and road safety engineering.

Road Safety Wales also promotes a driver improvement workshop that is specifically tar-geted towards the older driver (over 60 years old)25. Drivers are provided with informationthat can help them improve both their driving ability and confidence, and they are thenprovided with a complementary assessment of their driving by a qualified instructor.
8.2

Fleet drivers
Driver improvement schemes fall into three broad categories: initial training (e.g. Pass
Plus), ongoing training, and remedial training. In the UK, commercial and passenger

service vehicle drivers are required to hold a Driver Certificate of Professional Compe-

tence (CPC) to be able to perform their job. In response to a European Union Directive, theDriving Standards Agency has introduced a requirement for drivers who carry passengers
or have high mileage to complete periodic training (35 hours every five years) to enhanceand refresh their initial training. The drivers are provided with an online resource tomonitor their progress. Since its inception in September 2008, drivers have completed thefollowing amounts of additional training (Table 1):

Table 1. Driver uptake of periodic CPC training (Sept 2008 -July 2012):# Hours# Drivers

8.3

0 -7

129,149

7-14

142,606

14 -21

141,20721-28

64,4682 8 -35

57,06235+

8,806

Offending drivers
A penalty points framework exists, whereby drivers accumulate ‘points’ on their license

when they are observed to drive badly by police officers or their driving behaviour leads

to prosecution. The points can be gained for a wide variety of offences, with some of themost common listed below:

driving (3-11 pts)
• Dangerous
a pedestrian crossing (3 pts)
• Disobeying• Exceeding the speed limit (3-6 pts)

13whilst disqualified (6 pts)
• Driving
without due care and attention or without reasonable consideration for other• Drivingroad users (3-9 pts)with an alcohol level above the limit (3-11 points)• Driving
Using a vehicle with defective tyres, brakes or steering (3 pts)•
The points are valid for a period between 4 to 11 years depending on the offence. If adriver accumulates 12 or more points in a three year period then they can be disqualified

from driving. This threshold is stricter for young drivers, so as to enforce the need for safe
driver behaviour from the outset of their driving career. In this case, an individual can bedisqualified from driving if they accumulate 6 or more points in their first two years. They
are also required to re-take the practical and theory tests before resuming driving.

There are alternative remedial measures in place, in addition to the use of the penalty

points framework. The National Driver Improvement Scheme was introduced in the 1990s
to provide habitual driving offenders with an opportunity to learn how to improve theirperformance, rather than being punished22. In instances where drivers were found to haveviolated Section 3 of the Road Traffic Act (1988) (‘Driving without due care and attention
or reasonable consideration to other road users’), the offending individual could avoid
receiving penalty points on their license by attending an educational course. It is com-monly reported that drivers select this option to avoid the need to go to court (16 out of

36 participants in one scheme). There is also the impression that the scheme can improvedriving skills (6 out of 36 participants), while some believed that they had no option but
to take part (7 out of 36 participants). Initial assessments revealed that while there wassome evidence that drivers’ impression of their own driving performance improved – withfewer self-reported accidents and violations – the evidence was less convincing about anactual and sustained change to their driving performance26-27. Indeed, a critique of thescheme assessment could be that there is little formal assessment of changes in driver

behaviour that result from the scheme, and that subjective feedback is relied upon. Fur-thermore, many drivers report that they would like the courses to include more practicallessons, despite positive feedback on the course utility and enjoyment In almost all cases,

drivers felt that the course had provided the education that it promised. In addition, there
is some tentative evidence that re-offending rates are low after completion of a relevant
educational course.

Subsequently, the National Speed Awareness Scheme has been born out of the National
Driver Improvement Scheme. A 2010 study found that of the two million motoring offences on UK roads in 2006, 15.5% of these were speed offences28. These speeding

offences resulted in the issuing of a fine in 91% of cases. It was argued that potentiallylonger term benefits could be achieved by offering offending drivers a comprehensive

educational programme instead of a simple financial punishment. The Association of Chief
Police Officers National Driver Offender Retraining Scheme (ACPO NDORS) is an educa-

tional alternative to prosecution in which drivers who have committed a speeding offence
can choose to take part in a speed awareness course (unless the offence occurred in a 20
miles per hour speed limit zone), at their own expense. The course started in 2006 andis organised by the National Association of Driver Intervention Providers (NADIP), withlocal policing authorities appointing local road safety departments or private companies
to administer the courses. The aim of the course is to educate drivers about the dangers

of excessive or inappropriate speed, increase their confidence and moral responsibility toadhere to speed limits, and decrease their sense of immunity from punishment for over-speeding. It is hoped that this will reduce the likelihood of re-offending and creating positive effects on their driving safety and the driving environment. The individual history ofthe driver does not feature in the decision about whether a driver can take part; however,14
the course cannot be used as an alternative to prosecution on multiple occasions withina three year period. The content of the course varies between local authorities, but it

focuses primarily on developing speed awareness through the delivery of a theory-based
modular course which is accessible to all drivers (some courses also include a practical
driving component). ACPO has reported positive feedback from drivers attending thiscourse. There are similar courses available which aim to improve driver alertness. There
are also organisations that provide these courses for drivers who have not committed adriving offence and voluntarily choose to improve their driving education.

9

Speed
Excessive speed is a contributory factor in a large proportion of fatal accidents, with

3,267 fatalities or serious injuries resulting from speed-related incidents in 2011. The

THINK! Campaign uses its consistent format of educational messages, advice, and legal
consequences of speeding offences to inform drivers of the dangers of disobeying the

speed limit29. There are distinct branches of the campaign targeting different types ofdriving behaviours, such as speeding in rural areas (i.e. do not assume low traffic means
it is safe to break the speed limit), urban areas, and where young pedestrians are likely

to enter the roadway (‘It’s 30 (mph) for a reason’). The message is also delivered throughemotive videos in which a driver who has killed someone whilst speeding is shown having
difficulty dealing with the consequences of their actions throughout their life.

A novel approach to the communication of speed limits has been used in some 20 mph

zones, with children’s drawings added to the signage to enhance the impact of the mes-

sage. A range of colourful cartoons have been used to advise drivers to ‘Take Care’ and‘Slow Down’, simultaneously alerting drivers to the action required and the road usergroup that their actions will be likely to impact upon.

Additional detail about remedial education measures for drivers who commit speeding
offences is discussed in the section ‘Driver improvement schemes’.

10

Mobile phone use
There can be up to a four-fold increase in the likelihood of being involved in a collision

while driving and using a mobile phone30. There is substantial evidence showing a decline
in a driver’s ability to detect events in their surroundings and a slowing of their reaction

time31-32. The Department for Transport THINK! Campaign includes a website and educational campaign aimed at informing drivers about the dangers of using a mobile phonewhen driving33. Drivers are presented with facts about the risks of using a phone, withthe difficulty in detecting impairments in the driver’s own performance being highlighted.
This is emphasised by the use of a ‘multi-tasking challenge’ whereby drivers are pre-sented with a road safety video task whilst listening to a mobile phone conversation. The
intention is to test the limits of drivers’ multi-tasking ability, so as to highlight the risksof engaging with a mobile phone conversation whilst driving. The law on mobile phoneuse – it is illegal to use a hand-held mobile phone when driving, which is punishable bya fine and driving licence points – is stated clearly as well as giving advice on how tosafely use a mobile phone inside a vehicle (e.g. park safely before use). The focal point of
the campaign is a series of emotive video adverts in which a driver crashes whilst on thephone to a family member or friend. These dramatizations are effective in placing some of

15
the responsibility for preventing a driver from using their phone on the individual that is
calling the driver.

Road Safety Week is coordinated by Brake, a road safety charity, and is the biggest

road safety event in the UK 34. The seven day event involves schools, organisations andcommunity groups and is supported by commercial sponsors, with substantial national

media coverage. The focus is on the provision of local informational campaigns to raiseawareness about how road safety can be improved, and how tragedies on the road can

be avoided. The event is viewed as an opportunity for road safety professionals to boost
awareness and increase engagement in their work, with a website provided with full

information on the event, road safety facts and event packs, and fund-raising ideas. Eachyear the charity selects a theme for the week (e.g. 2012: ‘Slower speeds = happy people’and 2011: ‘2 Young 2 Die’). In 2013, the theme was ‘Tune in to road safety and turn off
your phone’, whereby drivers were encouraged not to use their phone in the car, evenwhen interacting with it in a hands-free manner. Local authorities also staged re-enact-ments of the consequences of a road accident for members of the public, for example theemergency services using cutting equipment to free a driver from a vehicle wreckage. The
topic of Road Safety Week often has the potential to polarise opinion amongst policy-

makers, research professionals and members of the public and thus stimulates discus-sion, debate and awareness of the topic. The objective of Road Safety Week is to trigger

road users to consider their own actions in relation to the central theme. The charity alsoorganisers educational events and provides support for victims of road accidents andtheir families. Road Safety Week also aims to generate interest in the charity to encourage
volunteers to take part in these roles and further disseminate the road safety message.

There is a large amount of UK road safety education surrounding other forms of in-vehicle
distraction, such as the wider functions available on modern smartphones e.g. internet

browsing, social media etc. The campaigns attempt to target all users of these technologies rather than vehicle drivers only. This attempts to reduce the distraction amongst

pedestrians, cyclists and vehicle drivers, such that the overall effect is to improve theawareness amongst all road users of the dangers of removing their focus from the roadenvironment. A longitudinal assessment is required to calculate the magnitude of the

impact of smartphones and associated technologies on road safety. As it stands, the UK
road accident database only allows for the recording of generic distraction data withlittle detail on the source and duration. Furthermore, this information is heavily underreported, and thus it is difficult to assess the role that distraction plays in many roadsafety-related events.

11

Drink driving
The legal alcohol limit for drivers in the UK is 35 micrograms per 100 millilitres of breathor 80 milligrams per 100 millilitres of blood. This is higher than many other European

countries. Although the number of alcohol-related injuries on UK roads has decreased in
the past 30 years, with fatalities showing a six-fold reduction (Figure 8), there were still
9920 drink-driving relating casualties (230 fatalities) in 201136. In fact, this figure evenincreased to 280 fatalities in 2012 (a 17% increase), with drink driving fatalities account-ing for 16% of all road deaths in the statistics for that year. It has also been reported that55,300 people were convicted of a drink-driving offence in England and Wales in 2012.
Evidently, there is still improvement to be made in reducing the number of people whodrive a vehicle when intoxicated.

16

Figure 8. Casualties from accidents involving illegal blood alcohol levels
This issue is typically addressed through both enforcement and educational campaigns.

An example of the former is the Summer Drink and Drug Drive Enforcement Campaign, anawareness campaign organised by the Association of Chief Police Officers. This bi-annual
event uses on-road policing to find and punish those individuals (especially younger

drivers) who choose to drink at a daytime event before driving their vehicle. The aim is

to identify individuals who require both warning about the dangers and repercussions ofdrink-driving and punishment for breaking the law. There is evidence that campaigns suchas this are having a positive impact – there was a 0.7% decrease in the number of drivers
failing roadside breath tests and a reduction in the number of drivers failing the Field

Impairment Test for drug use in 2013 relative to 2012. However, these improvements fall
below the targets for the campaign.

There are a number of educational campaigns regarding the dangers of drink-driving,with one prominent organisation being the independent UK charity – Drinkaware. This

organisation promotes responsible drinking and ways to challenge the prevailing drinking
culture, to minimise alcohol misuse and related harm. A series of media publications andan educational website encourage drivers to be more aware of their alcohol consumption
and its impacts on their driving performance by raising awareness of the alcohol content
of drinks and the potentially life-altering consequences of an alcohol-related road ac-

cident. The work of this charity receives greater attention around the times of year where
drivers are more likely to consider drink-driving e.g. national holidays.

There is also a branch of the THINK! Campaign that announces the dangers of drink-driv-

ing, including a strong focus on the legal reasons not to drink and drive, and the financial
and criminal outcomes for those who do. The website and related radio advertisements

use case studies of offending individuals to present their story about the costs of drink-

driving37. Two recent campaigns have highlighted the dangers of driving the morning after
drinking heavily and the importance of planning how to get home after drinking i.e. usinga ‘designated driver’.

17

12

Drug driving
The issue of drug driving has received increased attention in recent years and now benefits from a similar awareness campaign to drink driving. The Department for Transport
THINK! Campaign advises drivers of the impairment that drugs can cause to their driv-

ing, in addition to information about police abilities to detect the offence and the likely

punishments38. The campaign centres on the use of the driver’s eyes to detect the use ofdrugs (‘Your eyes will give you away’).

13

Fatigue
The Department for Transport launched the THINK! Driver Tiredness campaign as partof a wider series targeted at individuals who drive for work 39. A large proportion of thecampaign focuses on radio advertising, so as to reach the target audience whilst they are
driving, and possibly experiencing fatigue. The campaign alerts drivers to the dangers ofdriving when tired (‘Tiredness Kills’), how to notice the onset of tiredness, and the im-portance of taking a break from driving every two hours. The campaign is supported via

material displayed in motorway service stations and through advice delivered on variable
message signs on the motorway network.

14

Seatbelt use
In 1983, compulsory seatbelt use for drivers was introduced as a law in the UK. The rateof use of seatbelts in the front seats of vehicles immediately increased after the introduc-tion of the law, and has remained in excess of 90% since that time. The law was revised toinclude all adults in the rear seats in 1991, again leading to an immediate improvement in

observed seat belt use in the rear of the vehicle from 10% to 40%. A more recent estimateshows that approximately 79% of rear seat passengers wear a seatbelt. The THINK!

Campaign continues to reinforce the importance of wearing a seatbelt in the vehicle

through online information and videos conveying the dangers of not wearing a seatbelt40.
Young drivers feature prominently in the video campaigns because 17-34 year old drivers
and passengers have been identified as those with the lowest rate of seatbelt use. The

website also includes a crash simulator, whereby drivers can visualise the graphic consequences of an accident that occurs if the vehicle occupants are not wearing seatbelts.

There is also remedial education (Your Belt – Your Life) available for those individuals who
have been caught driving a vehicle without a seatbelt, or with unrestrained passengers.

The intervention is delivered online or by workbook in England, Wales and Scotland, andvia a classroom-based course in Northern Ireland.

Child passenger safety requires additional publicity due to the legal requirement forchildren to use a child seat – a specially designed addition to a typical car seat that issuitable for the child’s weight and size, and thus provides a properly-fitted restraint41.

This minimises the risk of the child being ejected from their seat if the vehicle were to be
involved in a collision. The financial punishment for a driver who fails to provide a childwith a suitable child seat is the same as that for an adult failing to use a seatbelt restraint(£500). The Department for Transport and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Ac-

cidents (ROSPA) provide an educational website to communicate to parents the need fora child seat, how to select and fit an appropriate seat, and how to identify a seat which

adheres to the legal safety standards. RoadSafe provides similar guidance for educatorsand club leaders via their ‘Fit and sit right’ webinars.

18

15

Vehicle maintenanceRegular and effective vehicle maintenance can help to reduce the likelihood of vehicle

accidents or the damaging effects when an incident occurs. The UK Government provides

advice on vehicle maintenance via a website, which focuses on the legal requirements fora well-maintained vehicle (e.g. well-inflated tyres with sufficient tread depth, clean andunobstructed lights, indicators, number plates and windows, accurately adjusted lights,
and safe storage of luggage). There are various awareness campaigns which are run todraw attention to specific parts of this guidance. For example, TyreSafe (a non-profit

organisation) organise an annual campaign (‘Tyre Safety Month’) to improve road safety

by encouraging drivers to pay more attention to the care of the tyres on their vehicle. The
campaign incorporates local garages, tyre dealers and many other organisations, anduses free promotional materials including posters, leaflets, and web banners to highlightdriver responsibilities for tyre maintenance and the potential legal and financial repercussions of failure to adhere to this advice.

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References
Daryl Hibberd
Research Fellow, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds
Dr Hibberd is a graduate of the University of Cambridge, where hestudied Biological Natural Sciences (2004-2007), specialising in experimental psychology. He received his PhD, entitled ‘Driver distraction:

managing the timing of in-vehicle tasks to improve driver safety’, fromthe University of Leeds in 2012. He now works as a Research Fellow at
the Institute for Transport Studies at the University of Leeds, having
broadened his focus beyond vehicle driver psychology, the central

theme of his PhD thesis. His current research focuses on improving thesafety of road users, involving work on topics such as driver distraction, pedestrian safety and accessibility, road signage assessment
and design, eco-driving (the ecoDriver project), and naturalistic

driving data collection and analysis (the UDRIVE project). This work

has involved national and international collaboration with policymakers (Highways Agency, European Commission), research institutions,and industrial partners. Daryl has published his work in the fields oftraffic safety and human factors, and has presented at a number ofinternational conferences. He is currently supervising students in theareas of eco-driving and vehicle safety, and is a reviewer for a numberof international academic journals.