CLIL Textbook(Content and Language Integrated Learning)

Cultural Studies
Brian J Birdsell

Natusko Tatsuta

Hirosaki University

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CLIL stands for “content and language integrated learning”.
The goal of a CLIL course is to teach a foreign language (e.g., English)
through academic content, in this case, Cultural Studies. Therefore, thisclass has a dual-focus – improving your English skills while learning more
about the field of Cultural Studies.
CLIL courses also focus on the following 4 C’s:

Content
Communication

CultureCognition

This book is divided into 3 sections (The evolution of human culture,
stories, and symbols; understanding culture; and dynamic culture).
In each section, there are 3 units, so we will cover a total of 9 units. We
will cover one unit each week. At the end of each section, you will do ashort group presentation on a topic related to that section.

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In each unit, there is a content module (the 1st C), which introduces theacademic material in a reading passage. You will build up yourknowledge on a specific topic related to Cultural Studies. In addition,
you will watch a video related to this topic and then have to summarize it
to show that you comprehend the material.
There is also a communication module (the 2nd C), which includes
both open discussion questions related to the content and a conversation
dialogue to practice talking about the content. You will compare andcontrast what you have learned in the content module to show that you
can analyze this new information. In addition, you will compose andproduce your own short group presentations on a topic related to thesection to show that you can synthesize what you have learned. Finally,
you will learn to evaluate and complete peer reviews of other students’presentations.
Knowledge

Comprehension

AnalysisLower Order
Thinking Skills

Synthesis

Evaluation

Higher Order
Thinking Skills

Therefore, the third pillar of a CLIL course is to develop your cognition(the 3rd C), as indicated in the above highlighted words. These are all partof the well-known taxonomy of thinking skills developed by Paul Bloom.
Lastly, the final pillar of CLIL is to develop your knowledge of culture(the 4th C), which means gaining a deeper understanding of ourselves andother cultures through learning and discussing the material in thistextbook.

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Throughout the textbook, there are dialogues related to the topic topractice your conversation. There are 3 individuals in these dialogues
studying Cultural Studies at an international university.
Ana is from Montevideo, Uruguay. She loves to watch soccer and playvideo games. She hopes to be a computer programmer in the future.
Jeong is from Busan, South Korea. She is studying English, Japanese, andChinese. She loves to learn different languages. In the future she plans towork in the hospitality business.
Hanif is from Malaysia. He is really into philosophy and religion and likes
to read the works of Nietzsche and Lao Tzu. He has no idea what he wants
to do in the future, but right now he is interested in learning English andhopes to travel around the world and see many world heritage sites.

Ana

Hanif
Jeong

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The outline of the textbook.
There are 3 sections based on a theme from the field of Cultural Studies and eachsection has 3 units connected to this theme.
The goal is for you to come to class prepared to talk about the topic, instead of theteacher standing and lecturing for the entire class. That means, each student needs
to actively complete the weekly homework assignments before class to become
familiar with the topic.
Each unit is divided into the following 4 Headings:
The “green headings” contain a reading passage on the topic.

Content: Background Reading

Section **Week **The “grey headings” contain your homework. Each individual in your group will
watch a video and write a short summary of the video and also do some vocabulary
exercises.

Homework

Section **Week **The “blue headings” are the communication activities. During class, we will do
activities to practice English communication. For example, each student will
describe to the other students in the group the video from the above homework. Thisis a jig-saw puzzle – each student helps the other students gain a deeper
understanding of the topic. In addition, there are discussion questions and practicedialogues.

Communication Activities

Section **Week **

Finally, at the end of the 3 weeks, each group will do a short group presentation on
a topic they found interesting in that section.

Group Project for Section **5

Section **Week **

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................7
SECTION 1: THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN CULTURE, STORIES, AND
SYMBOLS .............................................................................................................11
UNIT 1: THE RATCHET EFFECT AND HUMAN CUMULATIVE CULTURE ........... 12
UNIT 2: THE POWER OF STORIES ...................................................................... 20
UNIT 3: SIGNS, SYMBOLS, AND MEMES ............................................................. 34
GROUP PROJECT FOR SECTION 1 ...................................................................... 48
SECTION 2: UNDERSTANDING CULTURE ..................................................49
UNIT 4: KEY CONCEPTS..................................................................................... 50
UNIT 5: HUMOR, INSULTS, & TABOOS .............................................................. 62
UNIT 6: SUBCULTURES AND CULTURE CHANGE ............................................... 76
GROUP PROJECT FOR SECTION 2 ...................................................................... 87
SECTION 3 DYNAMIC CULTURE...................................................................88
UNIT 7: GLOBAL CULTURE, GLOBAL RELATIONSHIPS..................................... 89
UNIT 8: HYBRID CULTURES ............................................................................... 99
UNIT 9: SOFT POWER, CULTURE DIFFUSION & THE TOURISM BUSINESS OF
CULTURE .......................................................................................................... 108
GROUP PROJECT FOR SECTION 3 .................................................................... 118
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................119
VOCABULARY ANSWERS .............................................................................121
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................123(The dialogues were written in collaboration with openai’s ChatGPT - https://chat.openai.com)

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Introduction
Cultural Studies is a broad interdisciplinary field of study that includes fields such as Anthropology,
Sociology, Psychology, History, Political Science, and Women’s Studies.
The word culture is extremely complex and abstract. Think for a moment, if you had to write
your own definition for it, how would you define it?

Besides using a definition to capture this elusive word, it might be useful to draw a conceptual
mind map of it. I will start it for you, fill it in, and expand it with more circles and lines.

Culture7

In the Cross-Cultural Psychology literature, there are many definitions for culture, but let’s lookat a few of them to help us begin to understand this concept.
“A unique meaning and information system, shared by a group of people and transmitted acrossgenerations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, by coordinating social behavior
to achieve a viable existence, to transmit successful social behaviors, to pursue happiness and wellbeing, and to derive meaning from life.”(Matsumoto, 2009, p. 5)
This definition is probably a little difficult to understand, so let’s break it down and make it easierto grasp. Culture has something to do with a “system of knowledge” that is “transmitted” or passed
on from one generation to the next. It is something essential for survival or in other words, without
it, we would likely die since it provides us shelter, food, and knowledge to survive. It has
something to do with our social behavior or how we act in the world, and it allows us to findmeaning and purpose in life.
Another definition is as follows:“To begin, we define culture as networks of knowledge, consisting of learned routines of thinking,feeling, and interacting with other people, as well as a corpus of substantive assertions and ideas
about aspects of the world.”
They go on to say the following about culture:(1) Shared by a collection of interconnected individuals,(2) Externalized by rich symbols, artifacts, social constructions, and social institutions,(3) Used to form a common ground for communicating with each other,(4) Transmitted from one generation to the next, and(5) Undergoes continuous modifications.
(Hong, 2009, p. 4)
A Japanese translation:「まず始めに、私たちは文化を知識のネットワークと定義し、思考、感情、他の人々との相互作用の学習されたルーチンと、世界のさまざまな観点に関する実質的な主張と考えの集合体で構成される。」
Culture has sometimes been referred to as the “human cultural niche”. Humans have few survival
advantages in the wild. For example, we are not very strong, don’t have claws or big fangs, are notvery good at climbing trees and comparatively, we are not fast runners (though we are very goodat endurance running, but this is another topic). However, unlike other species, which often adapt
to their environments through genetic evolution, humans have evolved to adapt their environments
to suit their needs through cultural evolution.
Humans developed this cultural niche by way of language and complex communication skills likeshared stories that allow us to transmit knowledge, ideas, and beliefs across time and space.
Moreover, it allows us to collaborate with others. Humans have very complex social organizations– think of the UN or NATO! This facilitates cooperation. We have developed sophisticated tools
and these technological innovations have enabled us to overcome physical limitations andexpand our knowledge and capabilities. We have complex beliefs and ritual systems that help
explain the world, maintain cohesion, and organize social interaction. Humans are highly
adaptable and flexible allowing us to thrive in diverse environments and extreme conditions(from Finland to Patagonia to the Sub-Saharan desert)!
8What about your conceptual mind map of culture? Here is a possible conceptual map. Although,this still does not capture its full meaning and yours may be quite different. Take a look at yours
and this one, how similar or different are they? Why do you think you focused on the concepts andcategories you chose to include in your map?

SocialElements

•
•
•
•
•

Social Structures
Social Norms
Social Institutions
Social Hierarchies
Social Roles

CultureValues &
Norms
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Material
Elements

Cultural Values
Cultural Norms
Ethical Principles
Moral Codes
Ideologies
Cultural Identity
Gender Roles

•
•
•
•
•

Art
Architecture
Technology
Clothing
Tools

Language &Communication••••

Cultural Practices& Beliefs
•
•
•
•
•
•

Expressions (e.g.,
metaphors, idioms)
Stories
Communication Styles
Cultural Symbols

Rituals & Ceremonies
Traditions & Customs
Belief Systems
Worldviews
TaboosFigure 1. A conceptual mind map for the term “Culture”
Culture is something we share with others, it evolves and adapts over time, the creation of culture
is cumulative (e.g., an ongoing process), and the transmission of culture from one generation to
the next is something that separates us from other animals. Culture may include material culture(e.g., objects that can be seen, touched, heard, and/or used with our bodies such as art, books,
buildings, technology) and non-material culture (e.g., things that cannot be seen such as values,
beliefs, language, rules, norms) (Ballatine & Roberts, 2008).

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In this class, we will explore in greater depth many of the above topics. In the first section, we
will begin by looking at the evolution of human culture and the important role of imitation to learn,
maintain, and pass on cultural knowledge, values, norms, and beliefs. Then, we will look at thepower of stories and how they reflect key aspects of culture. We conclude this first section by
exploring signs and symbols used by cultures to convey meaning.
In the second section, we will learn some key terms that have been used in the study of culture
and cultural differences. Then, we will specifically look at how culture influences humor and theemotionality of insults. Humor from another culture can be one of the more difficult things tounderstand. We end this section by examining what is referred to as sub-cultures. The values,
beliefs, and norms of behavior of these sub-cultures differ widely from the larger culture.
In the final section, we consider how technology and human movement has created a global
culture and hybrid cultures around the world. We conclude this class by looking at commercial
culture and how culture is often used as a soft power to sell products or as a power construct forinternational relations.

10Section 1: The Evolution of Human Culture,
Stories, and Symbols

11Unit 1: The Ratchet Effect and Human Cumulative Culture
Key vocabulary

primateepoch (age)scavenging

imitation

霊⻑類の動物世 ・時代〈残飯など〉をあさる

⾒習うこと・ まねmigration

vehicle (2)intentional

abstract

移動・移住

伝達⼿段

意図的・計画的

抽象的・観念的Content: Background Reading 1

Section 1
Week 2

Our species, as in Homo sapiens, has gone from being inconsequential primates in the Africansavannahs to colonizing every corner of this planet over the last 60,000 years. Our population has
grown from hundreds of thousands to billions. Our technologies have evolved from spearheads
and cave paintings to rockets and artificial intelligent machines. Some scientists (see Lewis &Maslin, 2015) argue that humans (or “anthropos”, Greek for “human beings”, as in anthropology)
have transformed the planet so dramatically that we now live in the “Anthropocene,” a geologicalepoch defined by human activity (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 2. An alternative geological time scale (c) from Lewis and Maslin (2015)12

How did we get here? How did we go from living in caves and scavenging for food to mass
producing food in factories and living in skyscrapers? One possible answer is cultural learning.
According to Tomasello et al. (1993) many animals live in groups, but only humans live in cultures.
Cultures are unique because they create various things like objects, social systems, and traditions,and have languages. These cultural things change and improve over time, with each generation
adding modifications. This continuous improvement is called the "ratchet effect." In contrast, nonhuman creatures do not show this kind of cultural progress in their behaviors or creations.
This “ratcheting” effect involves high-fidelity (or a high degree of exactness in the imitation) of
cultural knowledge and at the same time modifying this knowledge in a beneficial way to generate
an increase level of technological complexity. This leads to the development of more complex
inventions that no single individual could ever invent. Some suggest that this ratcheting up incomplexity of cultural knowledge and traits across generations is the distinctive feature of humanculture or more specifically human cumulative culture (Dean et al., 2014; Richerson & Boyd,2005).
** ratchet | ˈraCHət | noun
1 a device consisting of a bar or wheel with a set of angled teeth in which a cog or toothengages, allowing motion in one direction only: [as modifier] : a ratchet screwdriver. • abar or wheel that forms part of a ratchet.
つめ⾞, ラチェット〘⼀⽅向へのみ回転する⻭⾞〙

2 a situation or process that is perceived to be changing in a series of irreversible steps: aone-way ratchet of expanding entitlements.
改善の⾒込みのない状況

Mesoudi (2016) points out that humans did not evolve any genetic adaptations to the diverse
environments to which they had spread during their migrations across the globe (from the cold
Artic tundra to the African deserts). Instead, they relied on technology, knowledge, and social
customs – skills that are all learned. To which, Mesoudi (2016) concludes, “Agriculture, city-states,
the industrial revolution and other major human-related activities all rely on learned knowledge”.

Notes:

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How humans acquire this “learned knowledge” is the heart of human culture. In cultures, the focus
is less on the individual and more on the cultural groups and specifically on the norms, values,
ideas, and practices of that group. Thus, individuals are vehicles for maintaining these dominantnorms and values and not “representative” of the culture itself. As a consequence, individuals areable to migrate from one group to another, as long as they adapt to the dominant norms and values.
Two important types of learning to acquire this cultural knowledge are:•

Imitative Learning - Imitative learning is a form of social learning where individuals
observe and mimic the behaviors of others in their social group. Through observing andreplicating the action of others, individuals acquire new skills and behaviors and thustransmit cultural practices from one generation to the next. Thus, this form of learning
contributes to the continuity of human culture. Tomasello (2019) emphasizes theimportance of what he calls “shared intentionality” in imitative learning. This is a uniquehuman ability to understand and share intentions with others, which again, builds acollaborative environment for cultural learning. Another key element of human social
learning is that it focuses more on copying the “process”, or the performance, rather thanthe “product”, or the result produced on the environment (Tennie et al., 2009).

•

Instructed Learning – Instructed learning is when the individual acquires knowledge andskills through explicit instruction, communication, and guidance from a more
knowledgeable person (e.g., parent, teacher, etc.). Again, this plays a crucial role intransmitting cultural knowledge (i.e., through language, images, demonstrations) that may
involve abstract or complex knowledge, beliefs, and values that may not be readily
observable. Instructed learning provides individuals a blueprint to understand cultural
norms and the broad conceptual framework for behaving, communicating, and thinking inthat specific culture. Thus, there are strong normative sanctions against non-conformity.
However, individuals build upon the collective knowledge of the culture and refine,develop, and contribute to its complexity.

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Homework

Section 1
Week 2

At home: Watch the short video and then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared
to come to class and share this summary with your group members.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrWPSP35gUk
BBC Radio 4 The Idea of Cultural Transmission

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Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
1) primate ____________a) 抽象的・観念的

2) epoch ____________b) 残飯などをあさる

3) scavenging ____________c) 霊⻑類の動物

4) imitation ____________d) 移動・移住

5) migration ____________e) 世 ・時代

6) vehicle ____________f) ⾒習うこと・まね7) intentional ____________g) 意図的・計画的

8) abstract ____________h) 伝達⼿段B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) The ______________________ exhibit at the zoo featured various species of monkeys andapes.
(2) The Renaissance was a significant _________________________ in European history.
(3) Vultures are known for their _________________________ behavior, feeding on carrion.
(4) Children learn through ________________________ , copying the actions of those aroundthem.
(5) The annual _________________________ of birds from colder regions to warmer climates is anatural phenomenon.
(6) Language is a powerful _________________________ for communication.
(7) The artist's work was highly _________________________ ,exploring complex concepts
through shapes and colors.
(8) The suspect's _________________________ actions raised suspicions among the investigators.
C. Circle True or False.
(1) Primate refers to any animal with four legs. (True / False)(2) An epoch is a short period of time. (True / False)(3) Scavenging is the act of hunting for prey. (True / False)(4) Imitation is the process of creating something original. (True / False)(5) Migration is the movement of animals from one place to another. (True/ False)(6) A vehicle is a means of transportation. (True/ False)(7) Intentional actions are often done without any planning. (True / False)(8) Abstract thinking deals with concrete ideas and objects. (True / False)
16Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)
1) Think about some important human innovations over the past several centuries, how doyou think these technologies have influenced cumulative cultural evolution?

2) How does imitative learning facilitate knowledge transfer and social cohesion withincommunities?

3) Reflect on your primary and secondary school days. What do you think are some of thevalues, beliefs, and norms you learned (through instructed or imitative learning) that may
be specific to Japanese culture?

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Communication Activities

Section 1
Week 2

In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries. Then consider similarities and differences.
Similarities

Differences

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

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Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 students are discussing human cumulative culture and theratchet effect.
Ana: Hey, Hanif and Jeong! Have you two come across Tomasello's work on human cumulative
culture and the ratchet effect? It's really fascinating stuff!
Hanif: Oh yeah, I've heard about it. It's all about how humans accumulate knowledge and skills
over generations, right?
Jeong: Yeah, that's it. It's like each generation builds upon the achievements of the previous
ones, creating this continuous upward trajectory of progress.
Ana: Exactly! And the ratchet effect is such an interesting concept within that framework. It's
the idea that once a cultural innovation occurs, it becomes almost impossible for it to be lost or
reversed.
Hanif: Right, because even if the originator of the innovation disappears, others in thecommunity carry it forward and improve upon it. It's like a one-way street of progress.
Jeong: Absolutely. Think about something as simple as language. Once certain words orgrammar structures are introduced, they tend to stick around and become foundational for future
generations.
Ana: Exactly! And Tomasello's work emphasizes the role of social learning and cooperation in
driving this cumulative cultural evolution. It's not just about individual brilliance; it's aboutsharing and collaborating within a community.
Hanif: Totally. Our ability to learn from one another and work together is what propels ourcultural advancement forward.
Jeong: And it's not just about looking backward; understanding these concepts helps us envisiona future where we continue to innovate and progress as a society.
Ana: It's exciting to think about where human culture might go in the future, especially when we
consider how far we've come from our earliest ancestors.
Hanif: Definitely. Tomasello's work really opens up our minds to the vastness of humanpotential and the power of collective intelligence.
Jeong: For sure. I'm eager to explore more about these concepts and see how they play out indifferent cultural contexts. There's so much we can learn from each other!
Ana: And having discussions like these helps us deepen our understanding and appreciation of
our shared human journey. It's what keeps the intellectual ratchet turning, as they say!
Hanif: Well said, Ana. Let's keep exploring and learning together!

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Unit 2: The Power of Stories
Key vocabulary

anthropocentricalienation

fertility (fertile)

adversity

⼈間中⼼(主義)の疎外(感)肥沃[豊か]・繁殖⼒の強い

逆境

arrogance

grapple withirrefutable

intrinsic

傲慢さ

取り組む

否定[反証]できない

本質的なContent: Background Reading

Section 1
Week 3The evolutionary biologist E. O. Wilson wrote that “the mind is a narrative machine” and thenarratives that “prove most innately satisfying spread and become culture” (2005, ix). As language
evolved, so too did culture. Language provided the tool for telling complex and elaborate stories.
Stories allow information and knowledge to be transferred across people, places, and time.
Traditional stories are often referred to as myths and collections of myths are the mythologies ofa particular religious or cultural tradition.
myth | miTH | nouna traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or
explaining some natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving
supernatural beings or events
mythology | məˈTHäləjē | noun (plural mythologies)
a collection of myths, especially one belonging to a particular religious or cultural
tradition • a set of stories or beliefs about a particular person, institution, or
situation
The best place to begin to examine these myths is with stories that tell about the creation of theuniverse and the people in it. These creation stories explain what could not be explained at thetime (e.g., evolution). They try to answer the questions, “Who are we?” and “Where did we comefrom?” Most people are familiar with the Bible and the stories from the first chapter of Genesis:
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth wasformless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of
God was hovering over the waters.
And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light
was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God called the light“day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there wasmorning—the first day.

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After the creation of the universe, then typically in many of these stories, a deity, a god, a supreme
being creates humans. In Genesis, this comes later in the first chapter (verses 26-28):
Then God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. And let them
have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and overthe livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on
the earth.” So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he createdhim; male and female he created them. And God blessed them. And God said tothem, “Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it, and have dominion
over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living
thing that moves on the earth.”
One can quickly see how this simple story played a significant role in shaping Western cultural
attitudes towards nature and animals. (1) The idea of humans having “dominion” over nature
has often been interpreted as a directive (or endorsement) for humans to exploit and control
the natural world leading to an anthropocentric view that prioritize human interests over
the well-being of other species and ecosystems. (It should be noted that some interpret thisnot as a “directive”, but as a responsibility, or in other words, humans are the caretakers of
the earth); (2) A perception that humans are separate from nature, distinct from it, superior
to other animals. This creates a dualistic view of the world (humans as spiritual beings, madein the image of God, and all other creatures). This has led to a sense of detachment andalienation from the natural world; and (3) A perspective that justifies the exploitation ofboth animals and natural resources (e.g., forests, water, earth) for human gain.
Think about the Japanese creation story. What does it say about the creation of the universe? Where
did people come from? In these stories, is Japan at the center of the universe? Let’s take a look at
another creation story from an indigenous group called the Hopi in southwestern United States(often called the four corners, where the borders of four states come together – New Mexico,
Arizona, Utah, and Colorado). Their land is inside the borders of the Navajo reservation, so they
are one of the more isolated groups of people from European influence.
Creation Stories: The Hopi People(It should be noted that there are variations to these stories).
The world began with Tawa, the Sun Spirit, who created Sotuknang, the deity of the underworld.
Together, they crafted the framework of the universe and called upon other deities to assist in thecreation process.
One key aspect of the Hopi creation story is the emergence of beings from different worlds. These
beings, known as Kachinas, are divine spirits who embody various aspects of the natural worldand serve as intermediaries between humans and the spiritual realm. As the story goes, theKachinas played a crucial role in shaping the Earth and teaching the Hopi people how to live inharmony with nature.
Another important element of the Hopi creation story is the emergence of the Hopi themselves.
According to the stories, the Hopi people emerged into the world through a series of undergroundpassages known as Sipapuni (a symbolic portal from which the first humans emerged). As they
emerged, they were greeted by the caretaker deity, Maasaw, who gave them guidance on how tolive in balance with the Earth and each other.

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Central to the Hopi creation story is the concept of balance and harmony. The Hopi believe thatthe world is interconnected, and that all living beings have a responsibility to maintain harmony
with the natural world and with each other. Through their ceremonies, rituals, and traditional
practices, the Hopi seek to uphold this balance. Comparing this story to the story of Genesis, there
are many differences, but most notably, is its emphasis on harmony with the natural world.
Like many cultures, symbols emerge from these early stories. For the Hopi, figure 3 shows someof these symbols. The first one is a black ring, divided (north-south and east-west) into 4 quarters
by a black cross and a black dot in each of the quarters. It is a very important symbol to the people
and is in their tribal flag. The second image is Kokopelli, who is a fertility deity in the shape of ahunchbacked flute player with feathers. So, this deity presides over childbirth and agriculture, but
is also a trickster god and symbol for the spirit of music. In Japan, there are also many fertility
symbols and festivals, as agriculture for cultures throughout the world played a significant role inits survival and longevity. Finally, the third image can be found among many indigenous tribes inNorth America, this is a medicine wheel and is a sacred symbol that represents spiritual knowledge
and a connection to everything in the universe.

Tuuwaqatsi(symbol of earth)

Kokopelli

The Medicine Wheel

Figure 3. Important symbols in Hopi culture
The medicine wheel for the Hopi people represents various aspects of life, spirituality, and thenatural world. It symbolizes a holistic understanding of the universe, including theinterconnectedness of all things. It consists of a circle divided into four quadrants, each
representing different aspects of existence. The colors and symbols associated with each quadrant
may vary slightly depending on the specific teachings of different Hopi communities (see Figure
4, the colors and directions may vary between people). For example, yellow is the east, as the sun
rises and represents the spiritual side of life. It contains the element of fire and is connected tospring. The number four is an important number since it represents the circle of life, the 4 sacreddirections, the 4 seasons, and the 4 elements (earth, wind/air, fire, and water).
To understand more about the circularity of life embodied in a hoop dance (seehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=niRs_VIqzYU).

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Figure 4. The medicine wheel divided into 4 quarters and a center
Hero Stories: The Odyssey
Other important stories are hero stories like the story of Odysseus, as depicted in Homer’s epic
poem “The Odyssey”. This story plays an important role in shaping Western culture. Odysseus is
the legendary king of Ithaca who sets off on a long journey home (10 years) following the Trojan
War. He encounters numerous obstacles on this journey and mythical creatures such as Cyclops(monstrous looking one-eyed creatures), Circe and Calypso (divine nymphs), and Sirens (partbird/part-woman winged creatures whose singing lured sailors onto the path of dangerous rocks).
This idea of a “journey” reflects the idea of exploration, perseverance, and overcoming adversity.
Odysseus has both positive traits such as intelligence and strategic thinking skills, but also has
negative traits like pride and arrogance, which at times caused him problems on his journey.
Odysseus is a story of courage and loyalty to his family and crew.
Joseph Campbell (2023), an American mythologist, writer, and lecturer, is famous for his work on
comparative mythology and his concept of the "hero's journey" or monomyth. He described thisjourney as a common narrative pattern found in myths and stories from various cultures aroundthe world.
The pattern of the hero’s journey is as follows. (1) The individual lives a normal, ordinary life. (2)The individual receives a “call” to adventure where he/she is presented with a challenge. (3) The
individual refuses this call due to fear or self-doubt. (4) A supernatural mentor assists him/her by
providing wisdom, magical tools, and encouragement. (5) Then, the hero begins the journey andcrosses the threshold into the unknown. This marks the beginning of the adventure. (6) Along theway, the hero is tested with obstacles, hardships, and enemies, which in turn, serve to strengthen
23the hero’s character. (7) At one stage, the hero approaches a central conflict of the story and falls
into the innermost cave, an abyss, facing his/her greatest fears. He/she experience the depths ofpain and loneliness, a near-death experience. This is a point of tension and anticipation – as it tests
the courage, determination, and inner strength of the hero. (8) The hero, in the end, overcomes thisadversity (ordeal). (9) Having overcome this conflict, the hero receives an award (e.g., knowledge,
power, an object of significance, recognition, etc.). (10) Now, the hero begins the road back to thefamiliar world. (11) The hero experiences a rebirth from this journey and is not the same person
as before. (12) The hero returns with the rewards and lessons learned from the journey as a new
person (see Figure 5 for a visual image of these phases).
For Campbell, this “hero’s journey” represents a universal archetype and can be found acrosscultures of the world. This storytelling provides insight into how individuals can understand andcome to grips with their own life journeys and obstacles they face. The influence of the hero’s
journey can easily be found across the world of literature and film as well as having an effect on
our own lives and experiences. For example, this can easily be applied to Japanese students
studying abroad. The students set off on this journey, at first, they might hesitate – fearful andhaving self-doubt. Then, they might get help from a senpai, a teacher, a friend, or a parent –providing them encouragement, perhaps some financial support, etc. Now, the students set off on
this journey into the unknown and meet some difficulties – language barriers, cultural differences,loneliness, financial struggles, etc. The students need to face these challenges and overcome themand doing so this strengthens their character. As they return home with the reward (knowledge,
confidence, overseas experience, and souvenirs), they now feel they can have a stronger impact onsociety and have grown as an individual.

Notes:

24

The Hero’s Journey
OrdinaryLife

1Return with
Reward2

12RebirthThe Road
Back

Call toAdventure3

Refuse the
Call

11

4

Meet theMentor10

5

Cross theThreshold

6
9Reward78OrdealTest, Challenges,
Enemies

The Innermost
Cave (Abyss)

Figure 5. The Hero’s Journey** It should be noted that this story of the “hero” in Western culture went through a shift in the20th century with the rise of the “anti-hero” story. This story can be found in many famous worksof literature such as Franz Kafka’s the Metamorphosis and James Joyce’s Ulysses. Joyce’s Ulysses,a very long and difficult to read book, is about one day in the life of an ordinary Dubliner named
Leopold Bloom. Bloom is the Everyman figure, and represents the struggles and simple aspirationsof a common person. He is flawed and imperfect, and grapples with feelings of alienation andloss, yet maintains his sense of humanity.
The anti-hero arose from many societal changes such as the disillusionment with authority andinstitutions (e.g., religious and social authorities, as in, the pope, priests, aristocrats, andmonarchies); a growing skepticism towards traditional values; and a desire for authenticity andrealism. Most of us do not embark on heroic stories, but live ordinary lives working in convenient
stores or factories. This anti-hero framework reflects the complexities, contradictions, and nuancesof real life. If you listen to Japanese pop music, consider Sekai no Owari’s song “Anti-hero” andhow this song fits into this framework. For these musicians, it seems like they are disillusioned
with some of the traditional values and conventions in Japanese culture – “stand in the lines, don’t
make a scene” (e.g., conform to the rules of society and do not cause trouble for others).

25Modern Stories: Freedom
These older stories are often referred to as myths, however in our modern world, there are also
hidden stories that maintain the fabric of society and affect how we behave, perceive the world,
and think. For example, humans living in democratic societies strongly believe in the story of
freedom. It is a story because freedom does not exist in nature, it is not biological, it is not a partof our genes (e.g., a “freedom gene”)! Instead, the whole concept of it is a story made by humanculture. A modern conceptual framework of freedom often explains it through a 3-freedom
approach; the “freedom from” (liberated from external constraints and limitations); “freedom tobe” (ability to develop and express one’s true self); and the “freedom to” (have choice, pursue
one’s passions and interests) (see May, 2009).
Freedom encompasses various dimensions, including political freedoms such as the right to freespeech and the right to participate in democratic processes. It also extends to personal freedoms,
such as freedom of religion and the right to pursue one's own goals and aspirations. This idea of
freedom is written into constitutions and laws, and seems like a natural and irrefutable reality. Insuch societies, there is a collective commitment to protecting and promoting individual liberties.
Freedom is connected to human rights and the struggles against oppression and tyranny, andhistorically rises from revolutions and social movements (e.g., French and American Revolutions,
Civil Rights Movement, Women’s Suffrage Movement, etc.).
Movies and novels tell stories of freedom. For example, Mel Gibson in 1995 played William
Wallace in the movie Braveheart, which is about a Scottish warrior who leads a rebellion against
the oppressive rule of King Edward I of England during the late 13th century. We sympathize with
William Wallace and when he kills someone, it seems justified because it is in the name of freedom.
In 2000, Russel Crowe played a character named Maximus in the movie Gladiator. Again, thisstory is all about a fight for freedom, in this case, Maximus became a symbol of hope and resistancefor the oppressed citizens of Rome.

26

Modern Stories: Money
Think about money for a moment. You probably have some Japanese Yen in your wallet, pocket,
or purse. We all know that 10,000 yen has value for it can buy a nice sushi dinner or provide us
the opportunity to go shopping for some new shoes. However, we also know that this piece of
paper is simply paper and has no “true” or intrinsic value (e.g., compared to food, shelter,
medicine, etc.). The value arises from our shared belief that it has value. Yuval Noah Harari in his
book "Sapiens" traces the history of money from its origins as a system of barter. Barter means asystem of exchange of goods or services without using currency. For example, I am a potter andyou are a pig farmer. You provide some pork meat in exchange for some bowls or plates of pottery.
Early forms of money include “commodity money” such as livestock, salt, or grain. Feathers werealso used in many indigenous cultures based on their beauty, symbolism, and ceremonial use.
Metal coins began to be used in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and China such as silver and goldand stamped with political symbols for authenticity. Fiat money began to be used, which means
the value of the currency comes from government decree or legal tender laws. As money evolved,
the intrinsic value of it decreased and now most money is simply a number on a computer screen.
Harari emphasizes that money derives its worth from the collective belief and trust of individuals
within a society. The use of money has enabled humans to engage in complex economic activities
and trade on a global scale, but it is still based on a story, a collective story that we all believe(even terrorists – who many have very different values, still believe in money). Nowadays, money
has even evolved to be independent from any government in the form of bitcoins.

THEORY CLOUD 1
Social Constructivism
Social constructivism is a theory within the field of cultural studies
that suggests that reality is not objective or predetermined, butrather constructed by individuals or groups through social
interactions and cultural contexts.
According to this theory, meanings, beliefs, and understandings are
not inherent properties of objects or concepts but are rather createdand shaped by social processes. Therefore, in regards to the conceptof money, social constructivism suggests that the value andsignificance of money are not intrinsic but are socially constructed.
Money itself is just paper, metal, or digital data, but its value andmeaning are derived from the collective agreement within asociety.

27

Modern Stories: The Pursuit of Happiness & Wellbeing
Happiness is something that most people pursue. We want to be happy. Happiness reflects a good
life, a life worth living, a life that should be sought. Therefore, countries measure the happiness ofthe people using a wide range of instruments. Some are simple like “Are you happy?” on a scalefrom 1 to 10. Others questionnaires go into more detail about the individuals’ health, income,relationships, and work-life balance. Some surveys might look at objective measurements likeincome, availability of health care and education, the quality of the environment (e.g., pollution,national parks, etc.), social support networks, and levels of personal freedoms. The point here isthat this is a story. We are told, we should pursue happiness and this is a good and positive pursuitand therefore happiness is valued in that culture.
Take for example, the World Happiness Report1. This report reflects the importance of happinessfor modern societies. What is interesting is that many of the Top 10 countries on this list comefrom Scandinavia. Are people there actually happier than people in different parts of the world?
And if yes, why would this be? In this report, the researchers also looked at age groups.
Interestingly for countries like Canada, USA, and Japan, the younger age group (under 30 years
old) reported much lower levels of happiness than the older generations. Why do you think theresearchers found these results in their data? Wouldn’t it more likely be the opposite – when you
get closer to death (as in, getting older), you probably experience less happy compared to when
you are young and healthy?
In summary, stories play an important role in shaping human culture. They pass information (e.g.,these networks of knowledge), beliefs, and values through language from one generation to thenext. These stories evolve, change, and take on new forms, but this reflects the dynamic nature ofculture – despite these changes, there will always be stories when we talk about culture.

Notes:

1https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/happiness-of-the-younger-the-older-and-those-inbetween/#ranking-of-happiness-2021-2023

28

Homework

Section 1
Week 3

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

12
3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D53yGnJwjT0
Hopi Origin Story | Native America | Sacred Stories | PBS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mehs-RxArM8What is Freedom | People from Around the World
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hhk4N9A0oCA
TED | What makes a hero? | Mathew Winkler

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

29

Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) Anthropocentric ________a) 肥沃[豊か](2) Alienation ________b) 傲慢さ(3) Adversity ________c) ⼈間中⼼(主義)の(4) Arrogance ________d) 取り組む(5) Irrefutable ________e) 本質的な(6) Fertile ________

f) 疎外(感)(7) Grapple with ________g) 逆境(8) Intrinsic ________h) 否定[反証]できない

B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) Some argue that the _________________________ view of the universe neglects theimportance of other species and ecosystems.
(2) The protagonist experienced a profound sense of _________________________ fromsociety after moving to a new city.
(3) The Nile Delta's _________________________ soil has supported agriculture formillennia.
(4) The team's ability to overcome _________________________ was a testament to theirresilience and determination.
(5) His _________________________ led to his downfall as he underestimated his
opponents.
(6) Many countries are currently _________________________ the ethical implications ofadvanced artificial intelligence.
(7) The evidence presented by the prosecution was _________________________ leaving
no doubt about the defendant's guilt.
(8) The artist believed that creativity was an _________________________ part of humannature.

30

Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) What common themes or motifs can be found across various creation stories? How dothese similarities contribute to our understanding of human nature and the universe?

(2) What defines a hero in modern storytelling? Think of some examples from movies, TVshows, or books.

(3) To what extent do societal norms and expectations shape our pursuit of money andstatus?

(4) In the pursuit of happiness story, what will make us happy? What will make us unhappy?

(5) How does Japanese culture value freedom? How might this be similar, but also differ
from how American culture values freedom?

31

Communication Activities

Section 1
Week 3

In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

32

Conversation PracticeAna, Hanif, and Jeong are gathered in the university library, discussing the lecture they justattended.
Ana: That lecture on the creation stories of the Hopi was absolutely captivating, wasn't it?
Hanif: Absolutely. Learning about the Hopi creation story and how it's intricately tied to theirculture and beliefs was truly enlightening.
Jeong: I agree. It's fascinating to see how different cultures have their own unique explanations
for the origins of the world and humanity.
Ana: You know, learning about the hero's journey, too, I can't help but see parallels to our own
experiences as international exchange students.
Hanif: Yeah, just like the hero embarks on a journey into the unknown, we've all stepped out of
our comfort zones and into a new country, a new culture, and a new way of life.
Jeong: And just like the hero faces challenges and obstacles along the way, we've encountered
our fair share of struggles and difficulties as we navigate language barriers, cultural differences,and homesickness.
Ana: But despite the challenges, we've also experienced moments of growth, learning, andtransformation. We've formed new friendships, gained a deeper understanding of different
cultures, and expanded our horizons in ways we never imagined.
Hanif: Exactly. And much like the hero's journey, our own journey as international students has
been a quest for self-discovery and personal development. We've had to confront our fears,
overcome obstacles, and embrace the unknown in order to grow and thrive in this newenvironment.
Jeong: It's true. And just like the hero returns home with newfound wisdom and experiences,
we'll return to our home countries with a broader perspective, a deeper appreciation for cultural
diversity, and a wealth of memories that will stay with us for a lifetime.
Ana: By the way, talking about heroes, I recently watched on YouTube a band called sekai noowari. Have you ever heard of them? They go this song called "Anti-Hero"?
Hanif: Yeah, I started to listen to them recently. I like those lyrics, "Stay in the lines, don't makea scene.” Those lines really stuck with me. It's like society's way of telling us to conform, tofollow the rules and not rock the boat.
Jeong: You know, it's like a reflection of the pressure to fit into predefined roles andexpectations, even if it means sacrificing our individuality and authenticity.
Ana: Absolutely. And in a world that often values conformity and obedience, the idea of being
an anti-hero can be empowering for those who refuse to conform to the status quo.
Hanif: Well said, Ana. It's moments like these that remind us of the importance of staying true toourselves and not letting society dictate who we should be.
Jeong: Agreed. It's about embracing our own uniqueness and authenticity, even if it meansstraying from the lines and making a scene.

33

Unit 3: Signs, Symbols, and Memes
Key vocabulary
philosopher

semiotics

bark

cuddle記号論[学]

吠える

抱きしめるContent: Background Reading 1

Section 1
Week 4

哲学者

Charles Sanders Peirce, an American philosopher developed a comprehensive theory of signs,
often referred to as semiotics (another important contributor to this field is Ferdinand de Saussure).
Central to semiotic theory are three key components: the sign, the signifier, and the signified.
A sign is anything that stands for something else and thus conveys meaning. This “somethingelse” can be an object (e.g., a car), a concept (e.g., danger), or an idea. Signs are everywherein human communication and cultures. The signifier is the physical form of the sign such asa word, an image, a sound (e.g., bark), or some other sensory experience. It is the material
thing, the perceptible aspect of the sign. The signified is the conceptual or mental content
associated with the sign. It is the meaning or idea that the sign evokes. So, when we see asign, an icon of a cat 🐈, this icon evokes a mental representation of cats – small cutedomesticated pets that purr and like to cuddle with the owner.
For Peirce signs have a relational nature – the signifier and signified are interconnected andtheir relationship forms the sign. Thus, there are three things connected in the functioning of asign (so, its referred to as the “triadic model”: the Sign itself, its Object, and its Interpretant (theperson interpreting the sign). The following diagram (Figure 6) shows this connection.

SIGN(representamen)

OBJECT(subject matter)

INTERPRETANT(mental concept, meaning)

Figure 6. Peirce’s triadic model

34

Let’s consider this in more detail. Signs are an important way that people communicate. Somesigns are closely related to the thing it represents. For example, it looks like the thing it represents.
These are called icons. Icons are easy to understand and are not culturally dependent on learning.
If we see an icon for a guitar, we know it represents a real, physical guitar (see Figure 7). Iconic
signs represent reality.
Another form of a sign is an index. An index is related to the thing it represents, but not directly
in a concrete way like an icon. It may have a causal relationship with the concept. For example, aknock on the door is an index for someone arriving at your house. Facial expressions are indexes– a smile is an index for happiness. It is not an icon because we cannot physically represent ouremotions. Therefore, indexes are often used to represent abstract concepts or ideas. The sign of askull is an index for danger.
Symbols are signs that have no link or connection to the thing it represents. They must be learned
through conventional associations. In other words, we only know its meaning by having learned
its meaning. Some examples are the symbols used to represent different world currencies such as¥ or $. Language also relies on symbols (e.g., dog, 犬, chien). In contrast, this is an icon forthis concept 🐕. So, symbols are deeply connected to the culture. See Figure 8 for more examples.
Icon

Index

SymbolPhysical resemblance
between the signifier andsignified

The signifier has a direct
correlation with the signified.
Other examples are smoke(fire), footsteps (human), etc.

An arbitrary connection
between the signifier andsignified (e.g., language) –must be learned throughsocial convention

Figure 7. An example of an icon, index, and symbol

Icon

Index

Figure 8. A second example of an icon, index, and symbol

35

SymbolLet’s return for a moment to the Triadic model and then show how this works with icons, indexes,
and symbols. So, we have an “object”, a real physical fire. We can represent this object with an
icon. We can also represent this object with an index (e.g., smoke). We can also represent thisobject with a symbol such language (e.g., fire, 火事,fuoco) (see Figure 9). The “interpretant”
represents the understanding or interpretation that is generated in the mind of the interpreter upon
encountering the sign. The interpretant is influenced by the sign and the object, but it is also shapedby the interpretive frameworks, cultural context, and personal experiences of the interpreter.

SIGN(representamen)

Fire: Symbol
Index
Icon
INTERPRETANTOBJECT(mental concept, meaning)(subject matter)

Figure 9. The Triadic model with examples of different signs

36

THEORY CLOUD 2
Semiotics
Semiotics is a theoretical framework used to analyze the meanings
and structures of symbols, signs, and cultural texts. It explores how
signs function as a system of communication and representation,
conveying meaning through various signifiers (e.g., words, images,
gestures) and signifieds (the concepts or ideas represented).
Symbols like the peace sign or the anarchy sign can be analyzed
using semiotics to understand their cultural meanings and the social
contexts in which they are produced. For example, using semiotic
analysis, one might examine the peace sign or anarchy sign ascultural symbols, exploring their visual forms, historical origins,
and the associations and meanings attached to them within specificcultural contexts. This analysis would consider how these symbols
function as signs, representing broader concepts or ideologies (e.g.,peace, anti-authoritarianism), and how they are interpreted andused by different groups or communities.

Notes:

37

Now, consider the following symbols in Japan (see Figure 10). These are culturally learned andhave become conventionalized for Japanese. Imagine for a moment, you are trying to explain their
meaning to someone who knows nothing about Japanese culture. How would you explain it?

🙆Figure 10. Signs found in Japanese culture
Some symbols have extended beyond cultural boundaries and have become global symbols,
though definitely not universal (see Figure 11). Think of the object, idea, or thing that they
symbolize. For the middle one, imagine seeing it in a computer context.

Figure 11. Widely used signs across many cultures
In conclusion, the study of signs offers insight into the relationship between language,
communication, and culture. Symbols are culturally constructed and transmitted from one person
to another. They are learned such as a language. Some have become conventionalized across alarger global community like the “reduce, reuse, recycle” symbol, which indicates a growinginterest and awareness in protecting the environment among many cultures around the world. Thissymbol also indicates a dynamic change in values for many cultures around the world – from
exploiting the environment for economic gain to protecting the environment for improved living
conditions.

38

Key vocabulary
heritable

replicateambiguous

遺伝性

自己複製する・再現する

あいまいな

empirical

digestible

nutritional

実験に基づいた

消化しやすい栄養Content: Background Reading 2

Section 1
Week 4

Memes
Most people are familiar with genes (not jeans! ). These are units of heritable information
passed on from parent to child and can determine some characteristics of that child such as haircolor, blood type, and some genetic disorders. Using this as an analogy, the evolution of culture
and cultural knowledge can be modelled like the basic principles of variation and selection foundin biological evolution (Boyd & Richerson, 1985). However, the difference is instead of “genes”,
as the replicating unit, for cultural information, Dawkins (1976) coined the term “memes”. The
word “meme” comes the Greek mimēma, meaning that which is imitated.
These memes are information patterns held within one’s memory and is capable of then being
copied (i.e., replicated) to another individual’s memory system. More specifically, these memes
are ideas, behaviors, symbols, and practices found within a group of people that have been spreadthrough imitation and cultural learning.
We need to remind ourselves that in the wild, a vast majority of humans have a very small chanceof survival, if we are deprived of technology and the achievements of human culture. Our ability
to survive is not based on individual abilities, but instead because we are a social, cultural species(Henrich, 2016). How many of us can grow our own food? Or know how a car works? Or canbuild a house from raw materials (e.g., a tree)? We thrive as a species because of the cumulative
effect of culture and the transfer of this knowledge and skills to the next generation.
Think for a moment all of the cultural information that is passed from one generation to the next.
As a consequence, each subsequent generation does not have to “reinvent the wheel.” We transfer
information to the next generation such as ink and paper, the printing press, auditory information,
designs, pictures, farming techniques, technology, fashion, and so on. Yet, this also includes more
abstract things like traditions, beliefs, ideas, and values.
Memes are cultural inheritance and are transmitted from one person to another, not so differently
than a cold or a virus. However, these memes instead of carrying a virus carry ideas, behaviors, or
language from one person to another. For example, Black Friday is a new cultural phenomenon in
Japan. I saw a convenient store with the marketing campaign “Black Fried (Friday) Chicken Day”,
such commercializing an idea from the USA for profit is quite common. In the US, Black Friday
is also a meme, but with different historical roots, as the day after Thanksgiving (always aThursday) to maximize the start of the spending season before Christmas. Another example are
gestures. Think about the Japanese gesture for “money” (the thumb and index finger touching likea sideways “ok” sign). Again, using the hand to create this sign started somewhere in Japan,
replicated, spread, and now is a normal and established gesture in Japan (but not in the USA).
39

Consider the idea of SDGs, this is a cultural meme that has gone viral in Japan. It is widely
discussed, taught at schools, and viewed as key goals for society. It started somewhere among asmall group of people, quickly spread, and has become integrated into our understanding of howsociety should move in the future (i.e., achieving these goals). In other words, successfultransmission of a meme across a large group of people results in it becoming stable and evenwidespread such as the custom of bowing, the use of smartphones, human rights, and attending
university.
Cultural traits, thus, should have genetic interest to improve human survival. How could religion,
music, or humor improve our survival as a species? If we consider this from a cultural, social, andemotional perspective, we could suggest these activities provide emotional and physical health(e.g., laughter, dance), group cooperation, mental simulation (e.g., challenge), sense of purpose(e.g., provide meaning in life and therefore increase productivity, cooperation, and desire for selfand societal improvement), shared knowledge, and the advancement of technology (e.g., theconnection between the writing system and religion). Thus, cultural traits like religion, dance, andmusic might on the surface seem unnecessary for survival (compared to agriculture or hunting),
but do benefit our survival through building cooperation, knowledge, and well-being.
Nowadays, most people think of a meme in the narrow sense, as a cultural element that uses
different visual techniques (e.g., image, video, or words) and spreads quickly across the Internet(see Figure 12). However, Dawkins came up with this word long before the world wide web!

Figure 12. Two famous Internet memes related to work40

Dual-inheritance Theory and Becoming Human
Many researchers have criticized memes because they are ambiguous and thus difficult to research,
inadequately explain the complexity of cultural evolution, and lack empirical support. One theory
that has grown in popularity to explain this interaction between biology and culture is called dualinheritance theory. Dual-inheritance theory emphasized the importance of interaction between
biological and cultural factors, suggesting that the two co-evolve, each having an influence on theother. For example, learning to control fire and inventing the concept of cooking likely emerged
as a response to environmental challenges and opportunities. This is a cultural technologicalchange that occurred along the line of human evolution. In turn, this changed our biology. Cooking
made food more digestible and nutrient-rich. This resulted in requiring less energy to digest thefood, and as a consequence selective pressure among humans for smaller guts. The smaller guts,
which are more energy-efficient, allowed more energy to be diverted to support brain growth andas a consequence larger brain size.
Another example is the development of agriculture, this led to the selection of genes related tolactose tolerance. Populations that practiced pastoralism (farmers who kept sheep or cattle) andrelied on milk as a food source tended to have a higher prevalence of lactase persistence (the ability
to digest lactose into adulthood). (** Mammals produce lactase as infants allowing them to drink
milk, but stop producing it when they become adults). This is because the ability to digest lactose
provided a significant nutritional advantage in these populations. In contrast, populations withlimited or no history of dairy farming often have higher rates of lactose intolerance. In short, both
genetic and cultural factors interact dynamically, influencing each other’s trajectories over time.
For Muthukrishna (2024), dual-inheritance theory describes how humans have two lines ofinheritance, biology (our genes) and culture. We are able to become more intelligent and live in a
way that our short life spans should not allow because we have accumulated cultural informationfrom our societies – beliefs, technologies, language, and mental tools (e.g., analogical thinking,critical thinking, etc.). In other words, “culture makes us a new kind of animal.” Or in other words,
culture provides humans a niche within the environment for optimal survival (see Figure 13 for adiagram of this interaction).

41

GENETIC Inheritance

CULTURAL InheritanceSocialLearning

DNA

Genetic
Mother & Father

Eye Color

Human
Society

Literacy
Some Genetic
Disorders

Food

Blood Type
Skin &
Hair Color

Technologies

Mathematics

鳥

Mental Tools

Language

Beliefs

Traditions

Figure 13. A dual-inheritance theory of being human, based on Muthukrishna (2024)
Notes (e.g., for new vocabulary):42

Homework

Section 1
Week 4

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

12
3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1IVwX-JNII
UCTV | Joe Henrich: Cultural Evolution and Dual Inheritancehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7VA95JdbMQ
Occam’s Answers | What is Semiotics?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4VS9cWmmu2k
BBC Ideas | A brief history of memes

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

43

Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) heritable ___________a) あいまいな(2) nutritional ___________b) 消化しやすい(3) ambiguous ___________c) 記号論[学](4) replicate ___________d) 遺伝性(5) digestible ___________e) 抱きしめる(6) empirical ___________f) 哲学者(7) semiotics ___________g) ⾃⼰複製する・再現する(8) philosopher ___________h) 吠える(9) bark ___________i) 栄養(10) cuddle ___________j) 実験に基づいた

B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) Genetic traits that are ___________________________ can be passed down from one
generation to the next.
(2) Scientists aim to _______________________ the results of their experiments to ensure
their validity.
(3) The instructions were so _______________________________ that I couldn't determine
what was expected of me.
(4) The scientist conducted ___________________________ research to gather data anddraw conclusions based on observation and experimentation.
(5) This type of food is easily ____________________________ and gentle on the stomach.
(6) Consuming a balanced diet ensures that you receive all the ________________________
elements necessary for good health.
(7) Socrates is one of the most influential _______________________________ in Westernthought, known for his profound insights into ethics and morality.
(8) ____________________________ is the study of signs, symbols, and their meanings inlanguage and communication.
(9) The dog began to ______________________________ loudly when he sensed a stranger
approaching the house.
(10) After a long day, there's nothing better than relaxing on the couch and_______________________________ with a loved one.

44

Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) How has the digital age influenced the proliferation and evolution of signs and symbols,
particularly in online communication and social media platforms?

(2) Can signs and symbols be universal, or are they always culturally specific? How do wenavigate the complexities of meaning-making in a globalized world? How can signs leadto cultural misunderstanding? (Think about the pictograms used in the Olympics todescribe the different sports. See:
https://www.theolympicdesign.com/olympic-games/pictograms/paris-2024/
https://www.theolympicdesign.com/olympic-games/pictograms/tokyo-2020/ - The Tokyo
ones are very iconic and easy to understand, while the Paris ones are a bit abstract).

(3) How do memes serve as vehicles for humor, satire, and social commentary? What role dothey play in challenging or reinforcing societal norms and values?

(4) How does dual-inheritance theory challenge traditional views of nature versus nurtureand the dichotomy between biology and culture?

45

Communication Activities

Section 1
Week 4In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

46

Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, Ana, Hanif, and Jeong are sitting in the common room of their
dormitory, enjoying some snacks after a long day of classes.
Ana: So, what did you guys think about today's lecture on Peirce's signs, memes, and dualinheritance theory?
Hanif: Oh man, it was quite mind-bending, wasn't it? But also really fascinating. I never thought
about cultural evolution in terms of memes before.
Jeong: Yeah, totally! I mean, the idea that ideas and behaviors can spread like genes through a
population, shaping our culture and society, it's just so intriguing.
Ana: Exactly! And I found Peirce's semiotic theory quite intriguing too. The way he describedsigns as having three components – the sign itself, the object it represents, and the interpretant –it really helps understand how meaning is constructed.
Hanif: Yeah, it's like breaking down the layers of communication, isn't it? Like peeling an onion.
Jeong: [laughs] That's one way to put it! But seriously, I think understanding these theories canreally give us a deeper insight into human behavior and cultural dynamics.
Ana: For sure. And the whole concept of dual-inheritance theory, how both genetic and cultural
factors influence our behavior and shape our evolution, it's just mind-blowing.
Hanif: It really is. It makes you realize how interconnected everything is – biology, culture,society – they all influence each other in this complex web.
Jeong: Definitely. And being international exchange students, I think we're in a unique position
to see these theories in action, experiencing different cultures firsthand.
Ana: That's a good point. I mean, just being here in the USA, we're already encountering somany new ideas and perspectives.
Hanif: Exactly. It's like we're constantly adding new memes to our cultural repertoire.
Jeong: [laughs] I guess you could say we're meme collectors!
[They all laugh and continue discussing the lecture, sharing their thoughts and insights into thefascinating world of Peirce's signs, memes, and dual-inheritance theory.]

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of love.

47

Group Project for Section 1

Section 1
Week 5

Group Project for Section 1
Use this page to brainstorm some ideas that you would like to explore for your 1st group project.
Draw a mind map to help you organize your ideas.

In our next class, you will present this topic to the class. So, assign roles for each person in yourgroup. Everyone has to participate!

48

Section 2: Understanding Culture49Unit 4: Key Concepts
Key vocabulary
iceberg
氷⼭

obscenity

assumptions

卑猥想定

Content: Background Reading

Section 2
Week 6

When talking about culture, many people think of what is commonly known as the 5 Fs of culture:
fashion, food, festivals, famous people, and flags. We all probably know that these concepts are
not really representative of culture. Yes, the kimono, sushi, Neputa, Matsuo Basho, and hinomaru
are important material aspects of Japanese culture, but these things do not likely shape youreveryday behavior, values, personality, or what you consider to be normal.
According to Clifford Geertz, culture can be understood as an inherited system of meaning whichconveys identity and orientation in life. Where does this meaning come from and how does it orient
us in life? To understand, people often refer to something called “iceberg model” of culture
developed Edward Hall (1976). In this model, the upper small part is the visible part of the iceberg
and corresponds roughly to the 5 Fs above. However, like an iceberg, most aspects of culture areburied beneath the water, not visible to sight, hidden, but provide the meaning and structure of theculture. These include such things as manners, personal space, values, and religious beliefs. Still
deeper down, there is what we refer to as “deep culture”, which has emotional power. This includes
such things as thought processes, notions of cleanliness, concepts of time, how to raise a child, andpersonality styles (see Figure 14 on the next page).

50

Figure 14. Culture as an iceberg image
Notes:

51

Key vocabulary
benevolence

hedonism

conformity

imply

慈悲⼼

快楽主義

服従

暗⽰する

upholddichotomy

consciousness

contradict

⽀持する

⼤きな相違

意識

⽭盾する

Content: Background Reading 2

Section 2
Week 6

Basic Human Values
Schwartz's theory of basic human values proposes that individuals across cultures prioritize a setof ten universal values that guide their attitudes and behaviors. These values are organized into
four higher-order groups: self-transcendence (universalism and benevolence), self-enhancement(achievement and power), openness to change (hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction), andconservation (security, conformity, and tradition) (see Figure 15 for a detailed image of thesevalues and how they are organized).
According to Schwartz, the prioritization and interplay of these values shape individuals' decisionmaking processes and societal dynamics. Understanding these basic human values offers insights
into cultural differences, individual motivations, and societal developments, providing aframework for comprehending human behavior across various contexts.
Think for a moment about some of these values, which ones does Japanese culture put emphasison and which ones are deemphasized? For example, the USA emphasized self-direction such as
independent thought, curiosity, creativity, and choosing your own goals in life. This is deeply
ingrained in the fabric of the culture and is reinforced in the school systems where being able to“express your own opinion” is important and exploratory behavior is encouraged. On the other
hand, values in the higher-order group conservation are less emphasized in American culture.
These values shape behavior by influencing individuals' priorities, attitudes, and actions indifferent contexts. For instance, someone who prioritizes self-transcendence values such asuniversalism and benevolence may exhibit behaviors oriented towards helping others, promoting
equality, and considering the welfare of all individuals. You also have to remember that perhaps
the person is not aware of these values, but views them as simply being the “normal” way to behave.
Conversely, those who prioritize self-enhancement values like achievement and power may focus
on personal success, competition, and asserting dominance. Values related to openness to change,such as hedonism and self-direction, might lead individuals to seek out new experiences, explore
the world, and look for ways to personally grow.

52

Figure 15. Basic human values

Notes:

53

High/Low Context Cultures
Edward Hall developed what is called high and low context cultures in regards to how people
communicate with each other. In high-context cultures, the message is often implied and people
rely on implicit communication and shared understanding within their social groups. In thesecultures, much of the meaning is embedded in the context, including non-verbal cues, relationships,
and shared history. Communication tends to be indirect, relying on subtle cues and gestures, andthere is a strong emphasis on maintaining harmony and preserving social hierarchies. It is similar
to having a「 以心伝心」sense of communication.
In contrast, low-context cultures, the message is conveyed directly and explicitly. In such cultures,information is spelled out clearly, and individuals value clarity, precision, and efficiency incommunication.
Differences between high and low-context cultures can impact various aspects of interaction,
including negotiation styles, decision-making processes, and approaches to conflict resolution.
Understanding these cultural dimensions is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication andcollaboration.
Do you think Japanese culture leans more towards high context communication or low context
communication. Why?
Hofstede’s Famous Individualism and Collectivism
When comparing cultures, stereotypes naturally arise. They often then become part of the
consciousness of the people and can actually influence the way people perceive themselves,
therefore unconsciously upholding the stereotype. Probably the most notable one is thedichotomous notion of individualism and collectivism. This goes back many years, but reallyculminated with the work of Hofstede (1984) who examined IBM employees and differences intheir work-related values and behaviors. Below is a shortened list of the countries in Hostede’s
study for “Individualism Index Values” (see Table 1).
Rank
Country
1
USA
2
Australia
3
Great Britain
4
Canada6
New Zealand
7
Italy
12
Ireland15
Germany
Table 1. Individualism index values

Rank
20
21
22/23
22/23
30
36
43
56

Country
Spain
India
Japan
Argentina
GreeceMalaysia
South Korea
Ecuador

As you can see, many countries that scored high on individualism are Western European and North
American countries. Yet, there are some exceptions such as southern European countries (e.g.,
Spain and Greece) scored similarly to many Asian countries such as Japan, India, and Malaysia.
You might be saying to yourself, “What does individualism actually mean?” Table 2 provides
some comparisons between cultures that measure low on individualism and those that measurehigh on it.

54

Low Individualism
High Individualism
People live with or close to relatives or clan
People live in nuclear or one-parent
membersfamilies
Others are classified as “in-group” or “out-group” Others are classified as individuals
Strong family ties
Weaker family ties
Nobody lives alone
Privacy is normal
Harmony should be maintained
Speak one’s mind (be honest)
Financial and ritual obligations to relatives
Financial independence of relatives
Togetherness does not demand speaking
Visits are filled with talking
Marriages are often arranged
Marriages are usually based on love
Attitudes towards others based on group
Attitudes towards others independent ofmembershipgroup membership
More conformity
Less conformity
Confrontation is avoided
Confrontations are normal
Students’ individual initiative is discouraged
Students’ individual initiative encouraged
Students tend not to speak up in class or large
Students are expected to speak up in classgroupsor in large groups
Table 2. Examples of low and high individualism characteristics
What do you think, does Japan lean more towards low or high individualism. Remember, that
this is not black and white, think of this more as a continuum. Some countries lean more towards
collectivism while other countries lean more towards individualism.
Another interesting question to consider is, “Does culture influence the grammatical norms oflanguage?” Kashima and Kashima (1998) published an analysis of the relationship between culture
and language by looking at how different languages use pronouns (e.g., I, 私). They based theirresearch on 39 languages spoken in 71 different countries and found that languages that require
speakers to use the 1st person pronoun (e.g., I) when referring to oneself were found in culturesthat scored high on measure of individualism. Many languages are so-called “pronoun-drop”
languages. This means that the language does not require the speakers to us a pronoun such as asJapanese, Spanish and Italian. Germanic languages like English require it. They concluded that
language reflects this cultural dimension of individualism. This might reflect the importance of theindividual in these language and cultures when communicating with others.
Challenges to this Dichotomy
This dichotomy between individualistic cultures (primarily in Western Europe and North
America) and collectivistic cultures (primarily in Asia) got into the collective consciousness of
mainstream education, media, and thinking. However, as I mentioned above this is not black andwhite. Recently, Takano and Sogon (2008) have challenged this notion that Japanese are morecollectivistic than Americans.
They cite a number of studies that empirically contradict this assumption. For example, they claimthat a number of studies show the opposite. In a study with American and Japanese university
students, the researchers found that the American students showed more cooperation in a small
group game than their Japanese counterparts in some conditions. Additionally, using the famous
Asch’s conformity test, they found the mean conformity rate of Japanese students (22.5%) to beconsiderably lower than the 36.5% obtained by Asch with American students.

55

At the end of their paper, they state “taken together, the currently available behavioral data
concerning both cooperation and conformity are clearly inconsistent with the common view thatJapanese are more collectivistic than Americans are. In conclusion, the belief that Japanese are
more conformant and cooperative than Americans does not reflect the reality as found in theempirical behavioral studies” (p. 247).
What do you think?
It is important to remember the following when thinking about culture: (1) Culture is complex; (2)Culture is dynamic; and (3) Culture does not mean university students (a large body of social
science research uses university students as participants, since they are most available to theresearchers). We will look more on the complexity and dynamic nature of culture in the last unitof this section.

56

Homework

Section 2
Week 6

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

12
3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9Z83I_g4Hw
Intercultural English: The Cultural Iceberg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=78haKZhEqcg
Knovva Academy: Me or We? Cultural Difference between East and Westhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jx-1EthJeIg
Practical Psychology: How Culture affects your Personality
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjwiX6KNAHE
Organizational Communication: High-Context and Low-Context Cultures

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

57

Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) obscenity __________a) 氷⼭(2) hedonism __________b) 卑猥(3) benevolence __________c) 想定(4) conformity __________d) ⽀持する(5) assumptions __________e) 服従(6) iceberg __________f) 快楽主義(7) uphold __________g) ⽭盾する(8) imply __________h) 意識(9) dichotomy __________

i) 暗⽰する(10) consciousness __________j) ⼤きな相違(11) contradict __________k) 慈悲⼼B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) The Titanic sank after hitting an _____________________________.
(2) The use of ________________________ in public spaces is considered inappropriate.
(3) Many scientific theories are based on certain ___________________________ about thenatural world.
(4) Acts of kindness and generosity showcase _________________________________.
(5) __________________________________ suggests that pleasure is the highest good.
(6) Social pressure often leads to _______________________________ with societal norms.
(7) When you say "I'm tired," you may _________________________ that you want to rest.
(8) It's important to __________________________ human rights principles in all situations.
(9) The concept of mind and body presents a philosophical __________________________.
(10) Meditation helps in expanding one's _________________________________________.
(11) His words seem to ________________________________ his actions.

58

Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) How important is hierarchy in Japan? How would you explain 先輩 and 後輩 culture to aforeigner?

(2) How is success measured in Japanese culture?

(3) How would you describe the relationship between humans and nature in Japan?

59Communication Activities

Section 2
Week 6

In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

60

Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 students are talking about culture and some key concepts related
to it.
Ana: Hey guys, I've been reading about cultural differences lately, and I came across thisinteresting concept called the iceberg model. Have you heard of it?
Hanif: Yeah, I have! It's about how there are visible aspects of culture, like food and clothing,
but beneath the surface, there are deeper layers like values, beliefs, and norms, right?
Jeong: Exactly! It's fascinating how much lies beneath what we can immediately see. Speakingof values, have you guys heard about Schwartz's values of culture?
Ana: Oh yeah, Schwartz's cultural values framework! He categorizes values into ten different
types, like self-direction, tradition, and universalism. It's a great way to understand what
motivates people in different cultures.
Hanif: Definitely! And it's interesting to see how these values manifest in different societies. For
example, individualism and collectivism are key concepts. The USA is often seen as
individualistic, while Japan is often seen as collectivistic.
Jeong: Right. In individualistic cultures like the USA, there's an emphasis on personal
achievement and independence. People are encouraged to pursue their own goals and express
their individuality.
Ana: Yeah, and in collectivistic cultures like Japan, there's more focus on harmony within thegroup and fulfilling societal roles. People prioritize the needs of the group over their own
individual desires.
Hanif: It's interesting how these cultural values can shape so many aspects of life, from social
interactions to workplace dynamics. And being international exchange students, we get toexperience and learn from these cultural differences firsthand.
Jeong: You know, speaking of collectivism in Japan, there's actually some interesting researchthat challenges that stereotype. Have you guys heard of the paper by Takano and Sogon?
Hanif: Oh, you mean the one where they argue that Japan might not be as collectivistic ascommonly believed?
Ana: Yeah, I've heard about it. They analyzed data from surveys and found that individualistic
values are becoming more prominent in Japanese society, especially among younger generations.
Jeong: Exactly! It's fascinating how cultures can evolve and change over time. So, while Japanmight have been traditionally seen as collectivistic, it's important to recognize that culturalvalues can be dynamic and multifaceted.
Hanif: That's a really good point. It shows that we shouldn't rely solely on stereotypes whentrying to understand different cultures. There's always more to the story than meets the eye.

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of visual perception.
61

Unit 5: Humor, Insults, & Taboos
Key vocabularysatire⾵刺・⽪⾁

hypocrisy

pun

incongruity

偽善・⾒せかけだじゃれ

不調和

bounce back fromgibberish

belittle

ingrain

回復する・⽴ち直る

ちんぷんかんぷん〈⼈･物〉を軽ん
じる・⾒くびる

深く染み込ませる・〈習慣など〉を根付かせる

Content: Background Reading

Section 2
Week 7

Humor: LOL
Humor often evokes laughter, thought, amusement, and enjoyment, and is natural part of humancommunication and interaction. It has several social, psychological, and cultural functions.
Socially, humor builds deeper bonds between people and can also be used to express affection(e.g., friendship). Psychologically, humor enhances creativity, reduces stress and tension, andenables individuals to bounce back from setbacks. Culturally, humor can be used as a form ofsocial critique and satire. It is often used as a political commentary, challenging authority and may
expose hypocrisies, injustices, or absurdities within society, and thus fostering critical thinking
and social awareness. It also reflects and reinforces cultural identity by drawing on sharedexperiences, knowledge, values, and traditions of a group of people. Thus, humor is an importantpart of culture.
Some types of humor include verbal humor such as jokes, puns, wordplay, and metaphor; physicalhumor such as slapstick, facial expressions, and bodily gestures often done in exaggeration (e.g.,
Tonikaku Yasumura and his “pants” performance); situational humor such as absurd situations,misunderstandings, or incongruities in life (e.g., Friends TV show); and satirical humor such as
irony, sarcasm, and ridiculing societal norms, institutions, or people (often political).
Some theories of humor examine it from different perspectives. For example, incongruity theory
looks at humor that arises from the perception of incongruities, contradictions, or violations of
expectations in a situation or statement. Another example is superiority theory, which looks athumor that involves feelings of superiority or at the expense of others’ mistakes, shortcomings,
appearances, or misfortunes.
Humor, being an important part of culture, is also widely recognized as being extremely difficult
to translate between languages. Consider the following cartoon in English (see Figure 16). Does itmake sense to you? Is it funny?

62

Figure 16. An example of verbal/image humor in a cartoon (Source: Leo Cullum, New Yorker
7/26/1999)
The humor comes from the incongruity of the situation and the knowledge of a common metaphor
in English (e.g., stab someone in the back > literally means, 背中を刺された, but metaphoricallymeans を裏切る・〈感情など〉を傷つける). In the visual interpretation, the person is likely
to interpret it literally, as the individual in the cartoon has gone to a medical doctor for treatment.
However, the doctor overturns this interpretation and provides the diagnosis, “it’s a metaphor” andtherefore, the patient is not literally dying, but has simply been betrayed by someone close, suchas a friend, family member or colleague.
Read the joke below. It is a play on words and also requires some cultural knowledge about “giftedchildren”. In the US, children who are viewed as being exceptional at a young age (e.g., good withlanguage or math beyond their natural age) may then be enrolled in a special school for “giftedchildren”. The child asks his father if he was “gifted”, but the father interprets this in anincongruous way, not as being special, but as an actual “gift”. Therefore, he responds “we wouldn’t
have paid for you”, which also belittles the child in a jokingly way.
“I asked if I was a gifted child and dad said we wouldn’t have paid for you.”
Humor often relies on the power of surprise. For example, a joke may lead you down one path ofinterpretation of a sentence, but at the end, it fails to make sense and requires you to return to thestart and re-interpret it. There, you are surprised by your re-interpretation and find meaning in it.
Consider the following verbal joke:“Sometimes I wake up grumpy but most times I let him sleep.”
The interpreter first understands “grumpy” here as an adjective referring to the speaker (e.g., “I”).
However, by the end of the sentence, one has to reinterpret the meaning of grumpy as a person
because the object “him” in the second part of the sentence. This is possible because one of thedwarfs in Snow White is called “Grumpy”).
63Consider the following verbal joke, how would you interpret it?
“I taught my dog to beg and last night he came home with a few dollars.”
Satire is very common in the United States. Cartoon satire is one medium used to express humor,
especially as social critique or political commentary. To understand these cartoons, one needs tohave some cultural background such as knowledge about Thanksgiving Day and the historical
relationship between the first American settlers and the indigenous populations. Take for example
the cartoon below (see Figure 17).

Figure 17. An American cartoon (Source: Bob Englehart, date unknown)

THEORY CLOUD 3
Incongruity Theory
Incongruity theory explains humor as arising from unexpected inconsistencies
within situations or statements. When these contradictions disrupt our
expectations, they trigger laughter.
Incongruity theory suggests that humor often involves a deviation from our
expectations. When we encounter a joke or humorous situation, we anticipate
a certain outcome or punchline based on our understanding of social norms,
linguistic conventions, and cultural context. Verbal jokes often rely on
incongruity by playing with language, semantics, and double meanings. Puns,
for example, create humor by exploiting the multiple meanings or phonetic
similarities of words, leading to a moment of incongruity when the listenerrealizes the dual interpretation. Cultural context heavily influences theinterpretation of humor, as what is funny in one culture may not be in another.
Incongruity theory recognizes the impact of cultural knowledge on shaping ourperception of humor.

64Some cartoons comment about the current political situation in the USA (see Figure 18). These
require knowledge about symbols and political ideologies. For example, in American politics there
are two symbols – the “elephant” for Republicans and the “donkey” for Democrats. Then, the word“base” refers to both the bottom part of something and an entity which something depends on (e.g.,the Republican party depends on a specific group of people to vote for them, so it depends on themfor power and these people are their “base”). This cartoon is a satire about the Republican Party
and how the politicians have moved in a different direction from the voters, as the parts of theelephant move in opposite directions.

Figure 18. An American political satire cartoon (Source: Matt Wuerker, Politico
https://www.politico.com/news/matt-wuerker)
Humor is a powerful tool humans use for communication. It binds people together and at times it
separates people (e.g., if the person does not find it funny). Humans use many tools to convey
humor such as language, images, bodily movements, sounds, and facial expressions. Some humor
is deeply rooted in the culture, especially those that use language or make cultural, historical, or
political references. However, sometimes humor can transcend boundaries as Tonikaku Yasumura
did with his performances … however, if you saw his performance, the humor came from theabsurdities of his body movements (not from language) and had no cultural or historical nuances
and therefore succeeded on a global stage.

65

Insults: What the heck!
Insults are found throughout all of the languages and cultures of the world. In ancient times, theGreeks called non-Greeks "barbaros" (βάρβαρος). This was used to describe people who did not
speak Greek. The Greeks associated the speech of non-Greek-speaking people with the sound "barbar," which they perceived as unintelligible or gibberish. Over time, the meaning of "barbarian"
expanded beyond language to encompass cultural and social connotations. Greeks often viewed
non-Greek-speaking peoples as uncivilized or inferior, reinforcing the idea of the "barbarian" assomeone outside of Greek civilization. Now, the word refers to an uncultured or brutish person, so
in essence, an insult. Insults universally have a tone that is harsh and rude and it’s a form of
aggression. However, insults are also very culturally specific in their use and interpretations.
Insults are probably the last thing an English teacher would ever teach you. They are messy,
emotionally powerful, and culturally grounded. However, it is important for language learners tolearn how verbal and nonverbal insults are used to demean, offend, or assert dominance over others.
Insults are a way of asserting power dynamics and reinforcing social hierarchies within aculture. They can target various aspects of identity such as gender, race, ethnicity, age,religion, or social status, reflecting and perpetuating prejudices and stereotypes. They canalso cause damage to the self-worth of the individual (e.g., skills, intelligence, appearances)and their image in a social context.
Insults vary significantly across cultures due to differences in languages, norms, and social values.
What may be considered harmless fun in one culture could be deeply offensive in another. As aresult, to become a globally minded person, it is important to be aware of these differences.
Cultural context heavily influences the content, delivery, and interpretation of insults. For example,
some cultures may prioritize indirect communication and use subtle sarcasm or irony to insult,while others may employ direct and confrontational language.
Gestures like the middle finger can be quite strong and emotionally powerful. In English we callthis “giving someone the finger” or “flip someone the bird”. Using this gesture with a stranger
might result in a very awkward situation or even a fight. In other words, doing that gesture has thepower of evoking the emotion of anger and rage (depending on the context).
What might be a non-verbal insult in one country might not be rude in another country. Take forexample, the “thumbs up”. In English this means “good” and the “thumbs down”
simply means the opposite, as in, “bad” or “not good”. However, in Japan, the thumbs down refers
to the verbal insult of “go to hell”.
Notes:

66

An insult might come in the form of criticism. For example, you might ask someone a simple
question:
1. What are you doing? (a simple question)
Among friends, this would be a friendly and polite inquiry into the other person’s current activities.
However, consider the following question:
2. What the heck are you doing? (a question plus criticism)
This, again is a question, but the nuance is that it is accompanied with a mark of criticism,
especially one of disapproval. This disapproval can then be emotionally charged in the following
two examples:
3. What the hell are you doing? (a question plus criticism, emotionally more charged)
4. What the f@!?k are you doing? (confrontational criticism, emotionally charged)
In the last couple examples, the speaker is showing disrespect and almost scorn to the other person.
In short, the person is belittling the other person or making the other person appear incompetentor foolish.
There are many different types of verbal abuse. These can be categorized into different verbal
insults such as using an animal (e.g., pig, monkey, rat), diseases, anal references and excrements(e.g., asshole, shit), family/relations, genitals, social inadequacy (e.g., stupid, clueless), mental
abnormality (e.g., idiot), outer characteristics, and sexuality. Researchers (De Raad et al., 2005)
have shown that different cultures use these categories differently. For example, Spanish
participants in their study used terms related to family/relations more frequently than otherparticipants (e.g., from Germany and the Netherlands). The researchers suggest that these findings
are based on the collective orientation of the Spanish culture compared to the other two cultures.
In other words, family/relations evoke stronger emotions when used as an insult.
Think for a moment in Japanese. How do people insult others? Do they use direct or indirect
language? Do they use terms from the above categories? Are some expressions more emotionallycharged than others? Does hierarchy matter in these insults? For example, what if someone aboveyou (e.g., parent, teacher, 先輩) gives you an insult compared to someone your equal in society –are these insults interpreted the same? How do you feel when you receive an insult; shame, angry,
or indifferent?
Notes:

67

Taboos: Danger, a Slippery Subject"Taboo" refers to something that is forbidden or prohibited by social or cultural norms. Norms as
we have talked about previously, are standard or patterned ways of behaving, thinking, or acting
and expected by the members of the group.
Some taboos are widely universal and found in most human cultures such as murder, incest, andcannibalism. These are taboos, but also viewed as being unlawful and immoral in many societies.
Some taboos have religious origins (e.g., eating beef in India) while others are based on scientificevidence (e.g., smoking around a pregnant woman).
Taboo, as a word, now has a very broad sense and is often used to refer to things you should not
do or talk about in another culture. Figure 19 shows how taboo is commonly used in the English
language. It illustrates how the word, taboo, is commonly connected with topics like sex, food,religion, politics, and culture. Thus, taboo and culture are often interlinked as taboos may vary
greatly between cultures. This may include behaviors, actions, or topics that are consideredinappropriate, offensive, or morally unacceptable.

Figure 19. A corpus example of collocations for the word “taboo”
Taboos develop from deeply ingrained cultural beliefs, values, and traditions and serve to regulatesocial behavior and maintain societal norms and standards. Many taboos are simply inappropriate
behavior or bad etiquette and foreigners who are unfamiliar with the culture might unintentionally
do something inappropriate while traveling abroad. In English, we call this a cultural faux-pas「エチケット違反をする 」.This means the individual breaks some hidden or unsaid culturalrule. For example, in Japan, it is rather taboo to walk into a house with your shoes on or to pass
food from one person to another using chopsticks. Right? However, generally speaking, thesebehaviors probably would not be seen as taboo in the USA. Morally unacceptable behaviors are
more connected to religious rules. For example, many religions prohibit the followers from eating
certain foods, having certain sexual relationships, using certain images, and wearing certain
clothes inside a holy place (e.g., church, synagogue, mosque, shrine, temple).
Notes:

68

Let’s connect these topics to the emotional system. Humor is connected to the emotion ofhappiness (joy), interest, and surprise. Insults are connected to the emotion of anger. Taboos range
in their emotional connection. For example, taboos that violate a moral rule might be connected tothe emotion of disgust. This is because morality is deeply connected to this gustatory sense. The
word disgust literally means an emotional reaction to something within one’s environment that isseen as being dangerous (e.g., toxic, disease) to one’s physical health (e.g., moldy food, dirty
restrooms, a bloody wound, a dead carcass). The facial expression of disgust involves the mouthpuckering and closing tight and the nostrils are made smaller and the person likely stands back to
avoid this danger. Disgust metaphorically also means “moral disgust”, so thisphysiological/emotional reaction to something in one’s environment is now projected onto
complex social rules viewed as improper forms of human behavior or action. In other words, moraltransgressions elicit the emotion of disgust (Chapman & Anderson, 2013). For example, reading astory about the violation of a taboo such as child brides will elicit the emotion of disgust. We findsuch behavior as morally wrong and if someone violates this, we feel disgust.
However, taboos that break a cultural norm will likely not activate the emotion of disgust, but
possibly contempt, displeasure, confusion, or anger, or simply we might view the person as being
rude and inconsiderate (e.g., someone walking in your house with their shoes on). The point hereis that taboos vary along a continuum (see Figure 20). Some taboos break the law and one might
be arrested from committing such behavior (e.g., openly drinking alcohol in public in the USA,smoking marijuana in Japan) to violating some moral behavior to breaking a cultural norm.

Taboos(Violate a moral rule)

TABOOS
Taboos(Break the law)

Taboos(Break a cultural norm)

Figure 20. Different types of taboos

Notes:

69

In summary, think about the following activities. Do you think they are taboo in Japan? Why or
why not? Would they be viewed as violating a moral rule, breaking the law, or simply breaking acultural norm? Write M (for violating a moral rule), L (for breaking a law), C (for breaking acultural norm), or NP (for no problem) next to each one.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Public displays of affection, such as kissing or hugging;
Talking loudly in public places or using a smartphone on public transportation;
Discussing personal finances;
Smoking marijuana;
Touching other people;
Doing certain bodily functions such as sneezing, blowing your nose, or farting in public;
Having bodily odor;
Eating certain foods such as beef, pork, or shellfish;
Public nudity;
Females exposing their legs, shoulders, and head;
Talking about the dead;
Eating or drinking while walking;Defacing an image of important people (e.g., religious figure or king);
Practice polygamy;
Tipping your waiter;
Drinking alcohol in public places;
Making noise while eating;Touching another person’s head;
Getting a tattoo of a religious symbol (e.g., Buddha);
Having sex before marriage.

The point here is each culture views various forms of activities and behaviors differently. In some
cultures, women should cover their heads, shoulders, and legs, but in other cultures women canpublicly sunbathe topless. One culture is not right or wrong, they simply have different values andthese values can be seen in the taboos, compared to what is considered “norm”. Touching, making
noises, smells, alcohol consumption, and sex – what is considered acceptable behavior is culturally
grounded in the culture’s values and beliefs.

70Homework

Section 2
Week 7

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FaOJ71czAGQ
2
3

Everything you always wanted to know about culture | Saba Safdar | TEDxGuelphU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MB6NXzGKMKg
Humor and culture in international business | Chris Smit | TEDxLeuven
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nxUpRM78Lc&t=64s
DO'S and DON'TS in Thailand

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

71

Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) satire ________a) だじゃれ(2) incongruity ________b) 〈習慣など〉を根付かせる(3) pun ________c) 回復する・⽴ち直る(4) ingrain ________d) ちんぷんかんぷん(5) belittle ________e) 偽善・⾒せかけ(6) gibberish ________f) 〈⼈･物･事〉を軽んじる(7) bounce back from ________g) 不調和(8) hypocrisy ________h) ⾵刺・⽪⾁

B. Fill in the blanks (one is used twice).
(1) It's important to learn how to ____________________ failure and keep moving forward.
(2) The advertisement relied on the ______________________ of a clown selling insurance
to grab attention.
(3) The comedian's clever ___________________ had the audience laughing uncontrollably.
(4) It's not okay to ______________________________ someone just because they havedifferent opinions.
(5) Despite the setback, she managed to ___________________________ and achieve evengreater success.
(6) The politician's blatant _________________________________ was exposed when his
private emails contradicted his public statements.
(7) The comedian's _________________________ often targets politicians and their absurd
behaviors.
(8) The values they taught us as children were deeply ______________________________
in our upbringing.
(9) The document was full of technical terms that seemed like ________________________
to those unfamiliar with the subject.

72

Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) Think about Japanese comedy (例：漫才), describe it to a foreigner and think about how
it would be difficult for someone who does not know much about Japanese culture to findhumor in it.

(2) Think of some situations that someone might insult another person. Also, think of theemotions that might arise from this interaction among the participants (both the one doing
the insulting and the once receiving it).

(3) If you were to give some advice to a young person traveling in Japan, what would youtell this person of the Dos and Don’ts of Japan? (this means the do – good etiquette andthe don’t – bad etiquette).

73

Communication Activities

Section 2
Week 7

In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

74

Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 students are discussing the topic of taboos at a café.
Ana: That lecture on cultural taboos really got me thinking. It's crazy how different things can beseen as taboo depending on where you are.
Hanif: Like the example the lecturer gave about eating habits. In some cultures, it's perfectly
acceptable to eat with your hands, but here in the U.S., using utensils is the norm.
Jeong: Yeah, I come from a country where it's customary to take off your shoes before enteringsomeone's home. But here, it seems like people don't really mind if you keep your shoes on.
Ana: That's interesting. I never really thought about that before. It just goes to show how
ingrained these cultural norms are.
Hanif: Definitely. And it's not just about actions; it's also about topics of conversation. Like, insome cultures, discussing topics like mental health, age, or religion is taboo, whereas in othercultures, it's often considered fair game.
Jeong: Yeah, I remember feeling a bit uncomfortable when someone asked me about my religion
shortly after I arrived here. Back home, that would be seen as really rude.
Ana: That makes sense. It's so important to be aware of these differences, especially when you'reinteracting with people from diverse backgrounds.
Hanif: Yeah, it helps prevent misunderstandings and ensures that we're respectful of each other'scultures.
Jeong: Definitely. And it also gives us a chance to learn from each other and broaden ourperspectives.
Ana: Agreed. Well, I don't know about you two, but all this talk about food has made me
hungry. Shall we grab a bite to eat?
Hanif: Sounds good to me. Let's continue our conversation over some food.

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of memory.

75

Unit 6: Subcultures and Culture Change
Key vocabulary
marginalize

rebellion

ideology〈⼈〉を主流からはずす

反乱・反抗

観念形態・イデオロギー

nomadliteracy

cross-fertilization

遊牧⽣活

読み書きの能⼒

sedentary

disillusioned (by)

定住している・
移動をしない幻滅した

異なる⽂化や異なる考え⽅の間の交換
lag
進⾏が遅い
＊jet lag 時差ボケ

Content: Background Reading

Section 2
Week 8

Subcultures exist within a dominant culture. They have distinct beliefs, values, practices, andinterests that categorize the people into a group, thus differentiating them from the larger society.
Subcultures often emerge among marginalized people (e.g., hikkikomori) or among individuals
who identify with specific social identities, lifestyles, or affiliations (e.g., otaku, Hanshin baseballfan). They may form around a shared interest in music, fashion, sports, hobbies, or ideologies.
They often have their own norms, discourse style or language, symbols, activities (e.g., 立ち読み), beliefs, and rituals that distinguish them from mainstream culture.
Youth often form subcultures as a means of self-expression, rebellion, and building a group
identity with others. Consider the punk sub-culture for a moment. This subculture emerged in USA,UK, and Japan in the 1970s as a rebellious and anti-establishment movement. They had their own
fashion – black leather, white t-shirt, tattoos, mohawks, piercings, and so on. They were unified
by punk music (e.g., Sex Pistols, The Stooges, The Clash, etc.). Symbols may include the anarchy
sign (see Figure 21). They were influenced by counterculture movements like the Beat Generation.
Their music often critiqued authority, consumer culture, and social inequality and advocated for
freedom and resistance. The above description is a simplification of this subculture, but provides
a glimpse into some key aspects of what a subculture is and how members identify with it.

A

The symbol of anarchy, the “circle-A” where theletter “A” is inside a circle. The “A” stands foranarchy while the circle signifies unity or solidarity.
So, the meaning is not “chaos” or “disorder”. It
means advocating for the end of hierarchicalsystems of government, authority, and coercion infavor of cooperation and mutual assistance.

Figure 21. The symbol for anarchy76

Look at the below four images (see Figure 22). I asked an AI Generator to “draw an image that
represents the _______________ subculture”. What kind of subcultures do you think I asked foreach image? Why did you come to this conclusion?
A: __________________________________ B: __________________________________
C: __________________________________ D: __________________________________
A.

B.

C.

D.

Figure 22. Images from AI using a subculture word as a prompt77Cultural Change
Cultures are always changing. If you had a time machine and could go back to 1950s Japan, you
would definitely experience culture shock. There are a number of ways that cultures change, below
are three examples that might force this change.
(1) Counterculture is a social phenomenon that emerges as a response to dominant cultural
norms and values. It represents a form of cultural change by challenging or rejecting
mainstream beliefs, practices, and institutions of power. It seeks alternative ideologies andvalues often connected to politics, fashion, music, lifestyles, and so on. The individuals in
the counterculture often feel alienated, marginalized, or disillusioned by mainstream
society. Some examples of this were the “Anti-war Activists” in the 1960s, a group young
people who opposed the Vietnam War.
Some modern forms of counterculture may involve a rejection of a sedentary lifestyle (e.g., themainstream behavior) and all the responsibility and restraints of living this lifestyle such as having
to pay home loans, utility bills, and having to maintain the home. Digital nomadism is acontemporary countercultural movement characterized by individuals who use technology to work
remotely while traveling the world. Digital nomads reject traditional notions of employment,
opting for location independence, flexibility, and a focus on experiences over material possessions.
They often prioritize work-life balance, personal freedom, and exploration, challenging theconventional career trajectory and societal expectations regarding work and lifestyle.
Another form of counterculture, called Farm-to-Table Movement, reject the mainstream way weeat. Modern cultures have adapted a highly processed-based factory-made food model (e.g., chips,
cup noodles, etc.). This modern food culture alienates the consumer from where the food comes
from, and often has a negative impact on the environment (e.g., carbon footprint). The farm-totable movement in Japan promotes sustainable agriculture, local food production, and communitysupported agriculture (CSA). Farmers, consumers, and activists collaborate to create a more
resilient and environmentally friendly food system, emphasizing the importance of supporting
small-scale farmers, preserving traditional farming practices, and reducing reliance on industrial
agriculture and processed foods. Satoyama refers to traditional rural landscapes in Japan that arecharacterized by a harmonious coexistence between human communities and natural ecosystems,
including forests, fields, and waterways. Satoyama dining (e.g., "Yasaiya Mei" located in
Kamakura, Japan) celebrates local and seasonal ingredients sourced directly from these landscapes,
promoting sustainable agriculture, environmental conservation, and community resilience.
Notes:

78

THEORY CLOUD 4
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory is a perspective that focuses on the power dynamics
and inequalities present within societies. It views culture as abattleground where different groups struggle for control overresources, influence, and representation. Conflict theorists argue
that cultural norms, values, and institutions are not neutral but areshaped by dominant groups to maintain their power and privilege,
often at the expense of marginalized or subordinate groups.
In regards to counterculture, conflict theory suggests thatcountercultural movements emerge as a response to the perceived
injustices, inequalities, and oppressions perpetuated by dominantcultural norms and institutions.

Think for a moment about the following songs by the Beatles:••“Give Peace a Chance”“Working Class Hero”

What counterculture do they fit into and how can these songs be explained using Conflict
Theory?

Notes:

79

(2) Inventions and New Ideas also have the power to profoundly influence culture by shaping
beliefs, behaviors, and social norms, as well as by redefining the ways in which individuals
interact with their environment and with each other. For example, technologicalinnovations and advancements have a significant impact on culture by revolutionizing how
people communicate, work, travel, and entertain themselves. The invention of the internet
and social media platforms has transformed the way individuals access information,connect with others, and express themselves, leading to the emergence of new forms ofdigital culture and online communities.
Another example from history is the printing press, and the invention of it is commonly credited
to Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century. This invention like the internet had a profound
impact on culture. First, the press enabled the mass production of texts and thus democratizing
information and making knowledge more accessible to a wider audience. Second, the press
contributed to the standardization of language and spelling. Third, the press facilitated the rapid
spread of news, but also ideas such as religious teachings, political ideologies, and scientificdiscoveries. All of this contributed to the advancement of human thought and as a result had an
influence on The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, an important cultural
movement that emerged in Europe during the 17th and 18th (e.g., advancements of science,philosophy, literacy, and education, and challenged established authority).
Notes:

80

(3) Culture Diffusion occurs when cultural elements (e.g., ideas, beliefs, customs,
technologies, language, and practices) spread across different societies or regions. This
happens rapidly today, as the world is shrinking, through channels of communication,
Internet, global trade, migration, and interaction between people. Cultural diffusion
introduces new influences, perspective, and innovations into societies from the outside
reshaping existing cultural norms, values, and practices. This results in cross-fertilizationof cultures and hybridization.
While cultural diffusion often leads to cultural change, it can also provoke resistance and efforts
to preserve traditional cultural practices and identities. Some communities may resist outside
influences or attempt to maintain cultural purity in the face of globalization and cultural
homogenization. For example, France limits the number of borrowed English words andHollywood films. Cultural preservation efforts may involve revitalizing traditional languages,
crafts, rituals, and arts, as well as promoting cultural heritage tourism and education.
A final point about cultural change is that te material world around us changes rapidly. For example,
computers, self-driving cars, drones, AI, and smartphones have all made large technologicaladvancements over the past two to three decades. This change is at a much faster rate that thechanges of non-material culture (e.g., norms, values, beliefs, rules, laws, etc.) resulting insomething referred to as cultural lag. In other words, technological change occurs at a faster rate
than the culture can process these changes.
Education is a good example of cultural lag. The education model is still based on an industrial
model that was developed to prepare students for menial factory jobs, so students learn to follow
rules and instructions, obey the teacher, do rote drills to condition students’ behavior, and tests tomeasure performance. However, most students are unlikely to work in a factory in the future, butrather doing service jobs, or working for an international company, or creative enterprise.
Therefore, skills such as creative thinking, communication skills, and collaboration skills areparamount. Yet, the culture of education is very slow to change. Consider the school year modelin the USA where students have 3 months of summer vacation. This was designed around farming,so the students could help the families during the peak season, but farming is no longer a common
occupation. Nonetheless, the education model still follows this schedule.

Notes:

81

Homework

Section 1
Week 8

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

12
3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rm4pzNYDHAIKhan Academy | Culture lag and culture shock | Society and Culture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8bMLcCxxAA&t=17s
New York Times | Inside Japan’s Chicano Subculture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vuqI2v2IRs
VOX | Where the 1960s "psychedelic" look came from

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

82Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) marginalize _________

a) 反乱・反抗(2) nomad _________b) 観念形態・イデオロギー(3) cross-fertilization _________

c) 時差ボケ(4) rebellion _________d) 定住している・移動をしない(5)disillusioned (by) _________e) (⼈)を主流からはずす(6) sedentary _________f) 読み書きの能⼒(7) literacy_________g) 進⾏が遅い(8) ideology _________h) 異なる⽂化や異なる考え⽅の間の交換(9) lag _________

i) 幻滅した(10) jet lag _________j) 遊牧⽣活

B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) The ________________________ roamed the desert in search of water and pasture for
their animals.
(2) After the long flight, he experienced severe ________________________ and struggled
to adjust to the new time zone.
(3) The peasants staged a ________________________ against the oppressive regime.
(4) There is a noticeable ________________________ between the implementation of newtechnology in urban and rural areas.
(5) The conference aimed to encourage ________________________ between different
academic disciplines.
(6) She became ________________________ with politics after witnessing widespread
corruption.
(7) A ________________________ lifestyle can lead to various health problems.
(8) The government launched a campaign to improve ________________________ rates inrural areas.
(9) His ________________________ shaped his beliefs about society and government.
(10) The company's policies tended to ________________________ employees who didn't
conform to traditional working hours.

83Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) In this section, you learned about some different types of subcultures, what are someother types of subcultures in Japan that this book did not mention. What are they and how
would you describe them?

(2) What are some counterculture movements happening right now?

(3) Think about education, why do you think there is such a strong culture lag in this area ofsociety?

(4) In #2 of Cultural Change, “New Inventions and Ideas”, how do you think AI technology
will impact human culture?

84

Communication Activities

Section 2
Week 8In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

85

Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 international exchange students are discussing subcultures andcountercultures in Japan.
Ana: Hey guys, have you ever thought about subcultures and countercultures here in Japan?
Hanif: Yeah, Japan is such a fascinating place when it comes to subcultures and countercultures.
Jeong: I was in Osaka Japan back in 2023 when the Hanshin Tigers won the Japanese baseballchampionship and I definteily noticed a Hanshin Tigers subculture. It's incredible how devoted
fans are to their baseball team, dressing with all their tiger designs, and creating their own cheers
and traditions.
Ana: That's a great example! It shows how subcultures can emerge around shared interests andpassions, influencing social dynamics and behaviors.
Hanif: And let's not forget about punk culture in Japan. Bands like The Blue Hearts have had asignificant impact on music and fashion, challenging mainstream norms with their rebellious
attitude.
Jeong: Definitely. Punk in Japan wasn't just about music; it was a form of cultural resistance,
pushing back against societal expectations and norms.
Ana: It's interesting how these countercultural movements can spark broader cultural changeover time. Like, how punk's influence can still be felt in contemporary Japanese society.
Hanif: Absolutely. And speaking of contemporary counterculture movements, have you guys
heard about the rise of anti-consumerism and minimalism in Japan?
Jeong: Yeah, it's fascinating how younger generations are rejecting the materialism of
mainstream culture, opting for a simpler, more sustainable lifestyle.
Ana: That's such an important movement, especially in today's consumer-driven society. Itshows how countercultural ideas can challenge the status quo and promote social andenvironmental change.
Hanif: Exactly. Japan has this unique ability to blend tradition with innovation, creating a
dynamic cultural landscape where subcultures and countercultures can thrive.
Jeong: Definitely. It's one of the reasons why studying here is so exciting—you get to witness
firsthand how these cultural movements shape society and inspire change.
Ana: Well, here's to embracing the diversity of subcultures, countercultures, and cultural change
in Japan and beyond!

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of creativity.

86Group Project for Section 2

Section 2
Week 9Group Project for Section 2
Use this page to brainstorm some ideas that you would like to explore for your 1st group project.
Draw a mind map to help you organize your ideas.

In our next class, you will present this topic to the class. So, assign roles for each person in yourgroup. Everyone has to participate!

87Section 3 Dynamic Culture88Unit 7: Global Culture, Global Relationships
Vocabulary list
Silk Road

gunpowderlanguage (cultural) barriers

シルクロード・ 絹の道

⽕薬

⾔葉の壁「⽂化的障壁」

persecution

noveltywear off迫害

⽬新しさ・新奇さ(徐々に)弱まる・⽌まる・薄れる

disorientation

acclimateintermarriage

⽅向感覚の喪失・頭の混乱慣れさせる・順応させる

異なる⼈種[⺠族, 宗派, 階級]間の結婚

Content: Background Reading 1

Section 3
Week 10Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries andpeoples around the world, facilitated by advancements in technology, communication,transportation, and trade. It encompasses the exchange of goods, services, ideas, cultures, andtechnologies on a global scale. Globalization has led to the integration of economies, cultures, andsocieties, resulting in a more interconnected world where events in one part of the globe can havesignificant impacts on others. However, do not think that this is a new phenomenon. Theinterconnectedness of trade between countries has been around for ages. Consider the Silk Road,
which connected Asia and the Middle East and Western Europe. Besides silk, as in the name, othergood were traded like tea, perfumes, spices, paper, and gunpowder. The difference now is the
rapidness of trade due to technological inventions such as airplanes, ships, trains, but also
computers and the Internet and this interconnectedness between cultures and nation states has
never been as deep and significant for the people and economies.
YouTube is a prime example of how globalization has fostered the emergence of a global culture.
YouTube, as a platform, allows individuals from diverse backgrounds and regions to create andshare content with a worldwide audience. Users can upload videos ranging from music
performances and academic tutorials to vlogs and comedy sketches, reflecting various cultural
perspectives and experiences. This content is accessible to people around the globe, breaking down
geographical barriers and facilitating cross-cultural exchange. As a result, trends, ideas, andinfluences spread rapidly across borders, contributing to the formation of a shared global culture.
Global culture refers to the emergence of shared values, beliefs, practices, and norms that transcend
national boundaries, influenced by the interactions and exchanges fostered by globalization. It
includes elements such as popular culture, language, cuisine, fashion, and entertainment that are
increasingly recognized and appreciated worldwide, contributing to a sense of global identity andcommunity. As technology improves, language barriers disappear. Now, you can interact with
DeepL or Google Translate and quickly translate text from Japanese to English or English to
Japanese with a high degree of accuracy. YouTube videos have automatically generated subtitles.
You can also interact with generative AI chatbots like ChatGPT or Bard and this can be done
through the medium of text or voice and in English or Japanese.
89

Globalization has also led to the migration of people across national borders. There are numerous
reasons why someone might leave their native culture and home country such as work
opportunities, educational pursuits, personal exploration, embracing the experience of living in
unfamiliar environments, desire to learn a new language, or simply dissatisfied with their native
culture. For others, it might not be a choice, but they are forced to leave their home due to problems
such as war, poverty, persecution, unstable government, and/or famine. This trend has contributed
to a growing multicultural fabric of societies worldwide, fostering cross-cultural understanding,and collaboration on a global scale.
Culture shock, does this still exist?
When I was in my 20s, I moved to Czechoslovakia right after the Velvet Revolution. This was
before the Internet and smartphones and thus my knowledge of this country before arriving there
was limited to some travel books, TV news, and novels. Imagine going to a place without being
able to view it on Google maps beforehand, or to research restaurants and hotels, or to learn about
the culture or language (besides through books). It was like walking into the unknown and thus
many people experienced something called “culture shock”. Figure 23 shows what is commonly
called the “culture shock curve”. The initial stage of arriving in a new country is called the“honeymoon” phase and is full of excitement and fascination by being in a new culturalenvironment. The individual is curious to learn about the local customs, cuisine, language, andtraditions and has a desire to explore the new sights, sounds, and experience new things. The
honeymoon phase is characterized by a sense of adventure and novelty, and individuals may
initially overlook or minimize cultural differences. For example, when an exchange student firstarrives in Hirosaki, she will likely explore Hirosaki Park, local izakayas and sushi restaurants,
grocery stores, and sightseeing areas. Everything is new, different, and exciting.
However, this phase is typically temporary and may eventually give way to the challenges ofculture shock as individuals encounter difficulties adjusting to the unfamiliar cultural context. The
novelty of the situation also begins to wear off and the individual might start to experience anxiety.
This can then lead to culture shock, or a feeling of disorientation and discomfort. Symptoms
of culture shock may include feelings of frustration, anxiety, loneliness, confusion, andhomesickness. Individuals may also struggle to communicate effectively, navigate social
interactions, or adapt to new routines and lifestyles. Culture shock is a natural response tocultural differences and can vary in intensity depending on factors such as the level ofcultural dissimilarity, personal resilience, and support networks available. Again, think
about the exchange student in Hirosaki. She might struggle making friends with local
students due to linguistic and cultural challenges. She might also struggle doing simple tasks
like going to the post office or bank, or visiting a dentist.
The stage that follows culture shock is called the adjustment phase, when the individuals begin toacclimate to their new cultural environment. They develop coping strategies, acquire new skills,
and gain a better understanding of the customs and social norms of the host culture. Emotions suchas frustration and anxiety may start to diminish as individuals become more familiar with theirsurroundings and feel more confident in their ability to navigate daily life. As for the exchange
student in Hirosaki, she might acquire new skills to adapt to life here, learn how to use gesture,
anticipate behavior, or find local friends or a host family who can help.

90

The final stage is the acceptance stage, when individuals fully integrate into the new culture anddevelop a sense of belonging. They embrace cultural differences, appreciate the unique aspects of
the host culture, and may even adopt certain customs or traditions as their own. Emotions such as
contentment, satisfaction, and a sense of fulfillment are common during this stage. Individuals feelat ease in their new environment and may develop meaningful relationships with members of thehost community. Overall, the adjustment and acceptance stages represent the successful adaptation
and assimilation of individuals into their new cultural surroundings. This stage would likely only
occur if the exchange student decides to study in Hirosaki for four years (this stage probably does
not happen with short-term exchange students – they likely stay in the honeymoon stage or theculture shock stage).
The reality today is that this culture shock curve is likely not as relevant as it was in the past. Thisis mainly due to the global interconnectedness of everything. If a Japanese person moves to theUS, that person can still interact with friends and family in real time through Zoom or FaceTime.
They can still watch their favorite Japanese TV shows. They can still get access to Japanese food,as supermarkets also have become global markets. The point here is that a young Japanese person
might feel more culture shock moving to rural Hokkaido where there is no WIFI than moving to aforeign country like the US, France, NZ, or Taiwan!

Acceptance

EMOTIONAL STATE

Honeymoon

Adjustment
Anxiety
Culture ShockMONTHS IN NEW COUNTRY
Figure 23. Culture shock

Notes (e.g., for new vocabulary):91

Romance in a Global WorldAs people migrate and move to foreign countries, love might find them on their journeys. In thepast, people tended to marry someone within their community such as in an arranged marriage or
through a through a network of friends (e.g., religious organizations, clubs, etc.). Therefore, in thepast people tended to marry others who were “like” them (e.g., same nation, same race, same caste,same religion, etc.).
In fact, prior to 1967 there were many states in the US that had an anti-miscegenation law(miscegenation refers to the “miscere” (to mix) + “genus” (race)) that prohibited interracial
marriages and sexual relations. According to Pew Research “In 1967, when miscegenation laws
were overturned in the United States, 3% of all newlyweds were married to someone of a different
race or ethnicity. Since then, intermarriage rates have steadily climbed. By 1980, the share ofintermarried newlyweds had about doubled to 7%. And by 2015 the number had risen to 17%”2(and 19% more recently in 2019).
Japan has experienced a rise in international marriages (although the number has fallen slightly
recently). For example, in 2021 there were 501,138 total marriages in the country and of these
16,496 were between one Japanese national and one foreign national, so 3.3% of all marriages
were international marriages. Dividing this number in more detail, 9,814 marriages were between
a Japanese husband and a foreign wife with a large majority coming from China, the Philippines,
and Korea (see Figure 24).. In contrast, 6,682 marriages were between a Japanese wife and aforeign husband with a majority coming from the Korea, USA, and China3 (see Figure 25).

Figure 24. International marriages (Japanese husband, foreign wife)2

3

Data from https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2017/05/18/1-trends-and-patterns-in-intermarriage/
Data from https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/database/db-hh/1-2.html

92Figure 25. International marriages (Japanese wife, foreign husband)
The Drawbacks of Globalization
Globalization should not only be viewed in a positive light, but it is also to important to consider
the darker side of it. First, globalization creates economic inequality, as it benefits wealthier
individuals and wealthier countries. For example, Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon, has a net
worth around $200 billion dollars. Second, globalization leads to job displacement. This meansthat in some industries, factories may close where labor costs are high and move to regions withlower labor costs. Third, a less understood disadvantage of globalization is its effect on indigenous
cultures and the erosion of cultural and linguistic diversity around the world, as many of the smaller
cultures assimilate into this dominant global culture. Fourth, globalization can have a negative
impact on the environment due to global trade (e.g., as in, the carbon footprint) and consumerism.
This has caused deforestation, pollution, and possibly climate change. Fifth, as we all experienced
over the past 5 years, globalization can increase the rapid spread of infectious diseases andpandemics, as increased travel and trade make it easier for pathogens to cross borders. Finally,
globalization, which is based on interconnectedness, could lead to an over dependency on foreign
products and thus make the country vulnerable to global issues like economic problems overseas
and war (e.g., Ukraine). For example, Japan’s food self-sufficiency stands at 38%, which makes
the country’s food supply vulnerable to external events4.
In conclusion, globalization has had a major impact on our lives. Nowadays, we are able to travel
abroad, work in a foreign country, eat Thai food in rural Japan, listen to K-Pop, buy products fromaround the world on Amazon, watch Turkish dramas on Netflix, and fall in love with someone
from across the globe. Despite these positives, globalization also has several disadvantages.

4

https://www.jircas.go.jp/en/program/proc/blog/20240131

93Homework

Section 3
Week 10

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l9pthhpd7So
2
3

CNBC | Why McDonald’s Flopped In Vietnam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLNp3kgBuuQ
World101 CFR | What Is Globalization? Understand Our Interconnected World
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzvLYhbBlYo
GLOBAL RELATIONSHIPS: Intercultural couples talk about dating

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

94

Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) novelty ________a) ⽕薬(2) persecution ________b) 絹の道(3) acclimate ________c) 異なる⼈種[⺠族, 宗派, 階級]間の結婚(4) gunpowder ________d) 迫害(5) wear off ________e) ⽬新しさ・新奇さ(6) Silk Road ________

f) 慣れさせる・順応させる(7) language (cultural) barriers _______g) (徐々に)弱まる, ⽌まる・薄れる(8) disorientation ________h) ⾔葉の壁「⽂化的障壁」(9) intermarriage ________i) ⽅向感覚の喪失・ 頭の混乱

B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) Religious __________________________ led to the migration of many people seeking
freedom of worship.
(2) The invention of _________________________ revolutionized warfare and hadsignificant historical implications.
(3) The ______________________________ facilitated trade and cultural exchange between
East and West.
(4) It took some time for the new students to ___________________________ to theschool's academic expectations.
(5) The community celebrated the _________________________ of different cultures
through festivals and events.
(6) When traveling in a foreign country, overcoming ______________________________
can be a challenge for tourists.
(7) After moving to the bustling city, the small-town girl experienced feelings of______________________________ as she adjusted to the fast-paced lifestyle.
(8) Over time, the effects of the pain medication began to __________________________,and the patient's discomfort returned.
(9) The ______________________________ of the new smartphone impressed everyone
with its innovative features.
95

Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of globalization?

(2) What impact does globalization have on culture?

(3) What are some of the benefits of being in an international marriage? What might be someof the drawbacks? Think for a moment about Ai Fukuhara and what happens when theinternational marriage ends in a divorce and there.

96

Communication Activities

Section 3
Week 10

In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefuly tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

97

Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 students are discussing the impact of globalization on culture
and the increasing number of international marriages.
Ana: Um, hey guys, have you, noticed how globalization is, like, affecting our lives more andmore every day?
Hanif: Oh, totally, Ana. It's, like, incredible how interconnected the world has become, thanks
to, you know, advances in technology, transportation, and communication.
Jeong: Mhm, definitely. But, like, along with the benefits of globalization come, like,challenges, you know? Like culture shock, especially for those of us living in countries far fromour own.
Ana: Yeah, I experienced, um, culture shock when I first moved here. Everything from the foodto the customs was, like, so different from what I was used to back home.
Hanif: Yeah, I can totally relate. Even though I've been here for a while now, there are still
moments when I feel like I'm, you know, navigating a completely different world.
Jeong: It's, like, a common experience for international students and immigrants. But, you know,
I think globalization also brings opportunities for, like, cultural exchange and understanding, likethe increasing number of international marriages we see today.
Ana: Yeah, and, you know, speaking of international marriages, it's interesting how the numberof them is, like, rising. But along with the benefits, there are also, um, challenges that couples
face, right?
Hanif: Absolutely, Ana. International marriages can be incredibly enriching, allowing couples tolearn from each other's traditions, languages, and perspectives. But they also require a lot of
patience, understanding, and compromise to navigate differences in upbringing, values, andcultural expectations.
Jeong: Yeah, I've heard stories of couples having to, like, overcome language barriers, deal withdisapproving families, or adjust to different societal norms. It's, um, definitely not always easy.
Ana: Right, but despite the challenges, many couples find that their differences, um, strengthen
their relationship and create a unique bond that transcends cultural boundaries.
Hanif: Absolutely. And in a world where globalization continues to bring people closer together,inter-cultural marriages serve as a powerful symbol of unity and understanding across borders.
Jeong: Yeah, it's, like, a beautiful thing to see love and connection flourish despite, you know,
cultural differences. So, um, here's to celebrating the diversity and richness that these
relationships bring to our global community.

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of personality.

98Unit 8: Hybrid Cultures
Key vocabulary
uncontaminatedcolonialism

dilutionsubversive

汚染されていない植⺠地主義

希釈する[薄める]こと

反政府[反体制]的な

deviation

contradictions

missionary

foreign service

逸脱(⾏為)

⽭盾

宣教師

外交部

Content: Background Reading

Section 3
Week 11

Globalization, the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among countries,
has influenced cultural hybridity by facilitating the exchange of ideas, values, and movement ofpeople across borders. As people, goods, ideas, and information flow freely around the world,
cultures come into contact and interact with each other in an increasing number of ways. However,it should be noted that before the term “globalization”, cultures still came into contact with othercultures through explorations, imperial powers, and migrations of people. At the same time, people
often think of culture as something “pure” and uncontaminated such as a pure Japanese culture
or Italian culture. The problem with this view is that it essentializes a complex thing like culture
as something “fixed” and “stable”, but this is an illusion, as no culture is isolated not even culturesin the deep Amazon.
Let’s take an example from language. So, the English language is a Germanic language, but isheavily influenced by Latin, mainly because of religion, but also the Norman Conquest of 1066.
One word from Latin “anima” means “spirit, mind, breath” and this word is the root of words likeanimal, but also animation. In the 1590s, the word animation meant the “action of imparting life”
and with time and new technologies like film, the word developed to mean "production of moving
cartoon pictures". Then in roughly the 1970s, the Japanese abbreviated this sound to anime anddeveloped this widely known genre of film. Then, English borrowed back this word, anime, into
the English language to refer to this specific genre of film5. This example of a single word reflects
on a larger scale how cultures are constantly in this state of flux, of being influenced by andinfluencing other cultures.
All cultures are characterized by this mixedness or what Homi K. Bhabha (2012) calls cultural
hybridity. This refers to the mixing and blending of cultural elements from different societies orcultural backgrounds. According to Bhabha, cultural hybridity challenges traditional notions ofpurity and authenticity by highlighting the fluidity and complexity of cultural identities. Bhabha
argues that cultural hybridity emerges as a result of colonial encounters and processes ofglobalization, where diverse cultures come into contact and interact with one another. Rather thanseeing cultural hybridity as a form of cultural dilution or loss, Bhabha suggests that it represents
a site of creative transformation and resistance. In Bhabha's view, cultural hybridity disrupts binary
oppositions (self/other, us/them, east/west) and hierarchical structures (superior/inferior), offering
alternative ways of understanding identity and belonging. It allows for the emergence of new formsof cultural expression and subjectivities that transcend fixed categories and boundaries.
5

https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=animation

99

Bhabha suggests that identities are formed in the interstitial spaces, or "third spaces," where
cultures intersect, overlap, and negotiate meaning.The "third space" is not a physical location but
rather a metaphorical and conceptual space where cultures come into contact and interact. It is asite of cultural translation, negotiation, and transformation, where new meanings and identities
emerge through the process of hybridity. In this sense, the "third space" represents a space ofpossibility and potentiality, where alternative narratives and identities can be constructed beyond
fixed categories and binaries.
Bhabha emphasizes the role of language and discourse in shaping identities within the "third
space." He introduces the concept of "mimicry" to describe how colonized subjects imitate andmimic the cultural practices of the colonizer, often as a form of strategic resistance or adaptation.
However, this mimicry is never a perfect replication but involves a subversive twist or deviationthat disrupts the authority and stability of the colonial discourse. However, this idea of mimicry
can be extended beyond postcolonial contexts, to the simple of idea of copying, but deviatingslightly. So, when Japanese mimicked the writing of Chinese (kanji), they also adapted it andpurposely deviated from it to create kana.
In contemporary contexts, the idea of the "third space" has been applied beyond colonial
encounters to various forms of cultural hybridity and diaspora experiences. It has been used toanalyze processes of globalization, migration, and multiculturalism, where diverse cultures andidentities intersect and interact in complex ways. It provides a framework for understanding the
dynamic and fluid nature of identity formation in multicultural and postcolonial contexts. It
encourages us to embrace the complexities and contradictions of cultural hybridity and recognize
the transformative potential of intercultural dialogue and exchange.

THEORY CLOUD 5
Postcolonial Theory
Postcolonial theory is a multidisciplinary field of study thatemerged in the late 20th century, focusing on the cultural, political,
and social implications of colonialism and its aftermath.
Postcolonial theorists examine the legacies of colonialism,
imperialism, and neocolonialism, as well as the experiences ofcolonized peoples and the effects of decolonization processes.
At its core, postcolonial theory seeks to challenge and deconstruct
Eurocentric narratives and power structures, while also giving
voice to marginalized and subaltern (social groups that are
subordinate to the ruling class and lack their own autonomous
political voice) perspectives. It explores issues of identity,
representation, nationalism, globalization, and resistance within thecontext of colonial and postcolonial societies.

100Third Culture Model
The Third Culture Modes is a term coined by sociologist Ruth Hill Useem in the 1950s. This
describes a unique identity that emerges in people who spend a large part of their youth in a culture
different from their parents. This individual develops a “third culture”, which is neither fully theculture of their parents nor that of the host country, but rather a blend of both. These individuals
develop an identity belonging to a global community beyond national borders or ethnic boundaries.
One might wonder, why would a child be living in a foreign culture? There are several reasons for
this, but the effect of globalization is one of them. See Figure 26 for possible reasons how thesecommunities might develop.

Corporate(Parents’ job –Overseas transfer)

Military

Educators(English teachersin Japan)

3rd Culture
Communities(Overseas
assignment)

NGOs/
NPOs/
Missionaries

Foreign
Service

Figure 26. How 3rd culture communities develop

Notes (e.g., for new vocabulary):101

Third Culture Kids
Another key part of 3rd Culture Communities are the children who are often referred to as “Third
Culture Kids or TCKs”. These kids have spent a large part of their childhood living in a culture
different from their parents’ culture. As seen in the above figure, this is usually the result of parents
getting corporate employment overseas, government jobs, teachers, or missionary work. TCKs
have to navigate multiple cultural identities often develop skills such as adaptability, cross-culturalcompetence, and openness to diversity from this experience. Specifically, TCKs are influenced bytheir parents’ culture, usually at home; the host culture, usually outside the home; and a mix ofother cultures, especially if the TCK goes to an international school.
Let’s consider an example. In this situation, Japanese parents work for an international company
like UNIQLO or Toyota. They are transferred to Los Angeles and instead of doing a traditional 単身赴任 (live without one’s family) lifestyle there, they decide to move the entire family. Let’s
imagine they have two kids, a 5-year-old son and an 8-year-old daughter. Their children would
likely attend an American (or international) primary school. The children would be considered
TCKs. At home, they would likely speak Japanese and live with many Japanese customs andbehaviors, but at school the children would learn and speak English. Let’s say the family lives
there for 7 years. Then, when the family returns to Japan, and the children are now 12 and 15 years
old. People in Japan would identify them as 帰国子女 (returnees).

Notes:

102

Homework

Section 3
Week 11

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

12
3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RCmgMKJRy8
TEDxAndrewsUniversity | Building Identity as a Third Culture Kid | Erik Vyhmeister
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Vc6nEgZOs8
TEDxUofL | Being a Rootless Third Culture Kid | Benjamin Self
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJIVqrqfZjU
TEDxYouth@ISBangkok | Food: A Third Culture Kid’s Sense of Identity. | Eric Pak

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

103

Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) dilution ________a) 反政府[反体制]的な(2) contradictions ________b) 外交部(3) subversive ________c) 宣教師(4) colonialism ________d) 植⺠地主義(5) deviation ________e) ⽭盾(6) missionary ________

f) 逸脱(⾏為)(7) uncontaminated ________g) 希釈する[薄める]こと(8) foreign service ________h) 汚染されていない

B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) The artist's unique style was characterized by deliberate _________________________
from traditional artistic conventions.
(2) The ____________________________________ of the paint with water resulted in alighter shade than intended.
(3) After graduating from university, he joined the ________________________________
to serve his country abroad.
(4) _______________________________________ was a historical phenomenon in which
European powers established control over distant territories for economic exploitationand political dominance.
(5) The ____________________________ worked tirelessly to spread their religious beliefs
to indigenous communities.
(6) The speaker's argument was riddled with __________________________________,
making it difficult to discern their main point.
(7) The laboratory ensured that the samples remained _______________________________
to avoid contamination during the experiment.
(8) The novel's plot contained ________________________________________ elements
challenging societal norms and expectations.

104Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) Where are you from? … maybe for most of you this is an easy question, but what do you
think are 3-4 things that shape your identity?

(2) In what ways do you think cultural hybridity contributes to innovation and creativity insociety?

(3) What strategies do you use to adapt to new cultural contexts and navigate cultural
misunderstandings?

(4) Imagine being a TCK, what do you think are some benefits and drawbacks of this life?

(5) How do you think educators and parents can support the unique needs and experiences ofthird culture kids in educational settings?

105

Communication Activities

Section 3
Week 11

In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

106

Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 students are sitting at a café discussing the third culture modeland third culture kids.
Ana: So, I've been reading about this interesting concept called the "third culture model." Have
you guys heard of it?
Hanif: Yeah, I've come across it before. It's about the cultural identity of people who grow up ina different culture than their parents', right?
Jeong: That's correct. The third culture model suggests that individuals who spend theirformative years in a culture different from their parents' or their passport country's culture
develop a unique "third culture" identity.
Ana: Exactly. It's this blending of different cultural influences that shapes their worldview andidentity.
Hanif: Hmm, sounds fascinating. But how does it relate to the concept of "third culture kids"?
Ana: Well, "third culture kids," or TCKs, are individuals who have experienced this third culture
upbringing. They often grow up in expatriate or multicultural environments due to their parents'
work or other circumstances.
Jeong: I can relate to that. I'm actually a TCK myself. My parents are Korean, but I was bornand raised in the United States. Growing up, I was immersed in both Korean and American
cultures, but I never fully identified with either one.
Ana: That must have been quite an experience, navigating between two different cultural worlds.
Jeong: It definitely had its challenges, but it also gave me a unique perspective on the world. I
feel like I can easily connect with people from different backgrounds and adapt to newenvironments.
Hanif: It sounds like being a TCK can be both enriching and complex. I can see how this third
culture model provides a framework for understanding the experiences of individuals likeyourself, Jeong.
Ana: Absolutely. It emphasizes the importance of embracing cultural diversity and recognizing
the value of cross-cultural experiences in shaping our identities.
Jeong: Definitely. And it's always interesting to meet fellow TCKs and share our stories ofnavigating the complexities of cultural identity.

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of social psychology.

107

Unit 9: Soft Power, Culture Diffusion & The Tourism
Business of Culture
Key vocabulary
coerciondiffusion

consumerism

cater totranquil

強制・抑圧

拡散

⼤量消費主義要求を満たす・向け

穏やかなauthentic

integrity

confinecommodify (commodity)

真正の・本物の

誠実さ

閉じ込める

商品化する (産物)

Content: Background Reading

Section 3
Week 12

Soft Power
Soft power refers to the ability of a country to influence others through its culture, values, andideals, rather than through coercion or force (e.g., a military). It encompasses elements such as
cultural exports, including music, film, fashion, cuisine, and lifestyle, that appeal to international
audiences and shape global perceptions of the country.
Japan is well known throughout the world for its soft power. Think for a moment, what this means.
In what ways does Japan influence others through its culture, values, and ideas?
Journalist Douglas McGray in 2002 coined the phrase “Japan’s gross national cool” referring to
the popularity of manga and anime and other Japanese youth culture around the world. This
includes iconic characters like Hello Kitty, and the whole concept of kawaii, to which Yano (2009)
has called, “pink globalization” or the “widespread distribution and consumption of Japanese cute
goods and aesthetics to other parts of the industrial world” (p. 683).
Prompt:Draw a picture of Japanese anime and manga culture
Imagescreatedwith
OpenAI
Dalle2(https://labs.openai.com)

Figure 27. AI generated image of Japanese manga and anime culture108

Japan's cool culture and kawaii culture are prime examples of soft power in action. Japan's coolculture encompasses various aspects of contemporary Japanese pop culture, including anime,
manga, video games, and street fashion, which have gained widespread popularity worldwide. It
also includes Japan’s traditional culture such as paper making, kimono, sado, ikebana, and shodo.
Similarly, Japan's kawaii culture, characterized by its emphasis on cuteness and innocence, as seenin characters like Hello Kitty and Pokémon, has captivated audiences across the globe. Throughthe spread of these cultural exports, Japan has been able to exert significant soft power influence,enhancing its global image and fostering cultural exchange and understanding. There even has
been a long running TV show about this cool culture called “Cool Japan” on NHK (seehttps://www.nhk.jp/p/cooljapan/ts/P2RMMPW5JM/).
This is not limited to Japan, over the past several decades South Korea has flexed its soft poweraround the world. South Korea's cultural exports include K-pop music, Korean dramas, films, andbeauty products. These have all experienced immense popularity worldwide, contributing to thephenomenon known as the "Hallyu" or Korean Wave. Artists like BTS, Blackpink, and actors suchas Lee Min-ho and Song Hye-kyo have amassed large international fanbases, showcasing South
Korea's soft power influence.
Culture Diffusion + Cultural Adaptation
Cultural diffusion refers to the spread of cultural elements—such as ideas, beliefs, customs,
products, or practices—across different societies or regions. An example of cultural diffusion is
the sport sumo. We all know that sumo is a traditional Japanese sport over 1500 years old, but it
has more recently spread around the world, and most notably in Mongolia where many of the past
Yokozuna have come from (e.g., Asashoryu, Terunofuji). On the other hand, cultural adaptation iswhen the cultural element changes due to pressures of the local culture. Take for example sushi.
Sushi has spread around the world, but it has also changed in unexpected ways. For example, theCalifornia roll, which includes avocado, cucumber, and crab meat. Avocado is a rare fruit in Japan,
but in California it is widely available, so it is just natural to explore using this local ingredient in
the imported Japanese sushi roll. Thus, the US has adapted sushi by using local ingredients, butalso to the taste preferences of the local people.
Let’s examine this from a different perspective. Disney is something most people are familiar with.
Disney's success in Japan reflects the global reach and influence of American popular culture,facilitated by the media, technology, and consumerism. However, the widespread popularity ofDisney in Japan can also be attributed to the process of cultural adaptation or localization. Disney
has tailored its content, merchandise, and experiences to resonate with Japanese audiences,incorporating elements of Japanese culture, language, and preferences. This approach has allowed
Disney to connect with Japanese consumers on a deeper level, fostering a sense of cultural
relevance and connection. This demonstrates the dynamic interplay between global and local
cultural forces in the contemporary world.
What are some other examples of this? Well, think about karaoke. This has diffused or spread to
the USA. However, it had to adapt to the local culture. Sitting in a private box to sing is not partof American culture, so they simply included karaoke into a bar where the person sings on a stage.

109

Another example is yoga, an ancient practice originating from India, spread to Western countries
and has undergone cultural adaptation. In Western contexts, yoga has evolved beyond its spiritualroots to include various forms such as power yoga, hot yoga, and aerial yoga, catering to different
fitness and wellness preferences while still retaining some of its traditional elements.
Another interesting example is the word, zen. In Japanese, this is a rather uncommon word.
However, in American English, this has become a popular word to describe a tranquil andpeaceful state. Thus, is can be used to describe a relaxed and harmonious attitude or approach tolife, work, or any activity. For example, someone might say they feel "zen" after a yoga session or
describe a minimalist and clutter-free living space as having a "zen" vibe. Cultural elements areconstantly being borrowed between cultures, and after the borrowing these elements do not
maintain their original shape, but get reshaped by the adapting culture in new and often unexpected
ways!

Notes:

110

The Tourism Business of Culture (Cultural Tourism & Authenticity)
Think for a moment about the city Kyoto. Millions of foreign tourists visit this city every year andmany of them rent a kimono to wear as they go sightseeing around the old streets. If the tourist is
lucky, she might get a glimpse of a passing maiko on her way down a back alley. Kyoto (alongwith many other cities like Florence) is a perfect example of globalization and the tourism businessof culture. The product is culture. People visit the city to experience “Japanese culture” from theshrines to the green tea cafes to souvenirs shops that sell hachimaki with the kanji 「侍」on it.
Are these “authentic” experiences of Japanese culture?

Prompt: A painting of a maiko walking down
the back streets of Kyoto (two examples)
Images created with OpenAI Dalle2(https://labs.openai.com)

Prompt: A drawing of a souvenir shop in
Kyoto (two examples)
Images created with OpenAI Dalle2(https://labs.openai.com)

Figure 28. AI generated image of Kyoto
111

Authenticity refers to the genuineness, integrity, and truthfulness of an experience, place, or
cultural representation. What would authentic Japanese culture look like? Would it be visiting arice farmer in Akita and learning about harvesting rice and making mochi? Would it be biking
across the country staying at local pensions and trying to communicate with the local people? How
could a tourist experience authentic Japanese culture? Or in contrast, how could you experience
authentic American culture? These days, many travellers, especially young ones, want to go “offthe beaten path” and experience authenticity when travelling rather than being confined to the“touristy” areas of a country or what some call, “tourist traps”. They believe going off the main
path, and connecting with the cultures and traditions of the local people is a more meaningfulexperience when travelling than visiting the popular sightseeing spots and eating at popular
restaurtants.
In many areas in the world where, a large percentage of the GDP (gross domestic product) isdependent on tourism. As a result, some traditional dance performances may be staged for tourists,featuring exaggerated costumes and choreography designed to cater to the foreigners’ expectationsof “otherness” or the exotic. The tourists come, pay a fee, and take photos of these “exotic” people
and performances and upload the images to Instagram, resulting in a meme of this performancethat likely encourages others then to attend.
While these experiences can positively impact an area by providing revenue for the local economy,
they may also perpetuate shallow and reductive representations of cultural diversity. Cultural
tourism also raises other concerns. First, there is an unequal power dynamic between the wealthier
tourists and the host community. This is especially apparent in indigenous communities such as
the Hopi tribe and the hill tribes of Thailand (e.g., Akha, Karen, Hmong). Cultural tourism thencan commodify traditional cultures by turning them into tourist attractions or spectacles forentertainment purposes. This can lead to the objectification of indigenous peoples or ethnic
minorities, who may be portrayed as exotic or primitive for the amusement of tourists, thus
maintaing harmful stereotypes and inequalities. This is something referred to as commodificationor the commercialization of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts into marketablecommodities designed to cater to tourist preferences and expectations. This can lead to the
distortion or simplification of cultural heritage for mass consumption, undermining its authenticity
and integrity.
Summary
Culture connects all humans, as all humans have culture, it is our survival niche that allows us tosurvive and thrive in the world. It provides us these networks of knowledge that each generation
can then continually build upon and develop. Culture provides the people norms of behavior thatallow for easy communication and interaction. Breaking these norms can be viewed as a taboo. As
the world gets more connected, a global culture emerges, blending various cultural elements fromdifferent parts of the world. While it fosters understanding and cooperation on a global scale, italso raises questions about the preservation of local traditions and identities. Nonetheless, theemergence of a global culture signifies humanity's ability to adapt and evolve in an increasinglyinterconnected world, transcending geographical boundaries, fostering a sense of unity amidst
diversity, and giving rise to a set of new stories.

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Homework

Section 3
Week 12

At home: Watch the short video that you were assigned.

12
3

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SSQdmrgWnLo
Mark Weins | Taiwan Night Market STREET FOOD TOUR!! 🇹🇼 Visit This Market
When You’re in Taiwan!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBRkqYOSsCQ
Al Jazeera | What Does “Authentic” Tourism Really Mean?
(Final video summary of the class)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GhA9eypocE0
Julien S. Bourrelle | Learn a new culture | TEDxArendal

Then, write a 100-word summary of the video. Be prepared to come to class and share thissummary with your group members.

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Vocabulary Exercises
A. Connect the English to the Japanese.
(1) coercion _______a) 真正の・本物の(2) integrity _______b) 閉じ込める(3) cater to _______c) 誠実さ(4) diffusion _______d) ⼤量消費主義(5) consumerism _______e) 要求を満たす・向け(6) confine _______f) 穏やかな(7) tranquil _______g) 商品化する (産物)(8) authentic _______h) 拡散・電番(9) commodify (commodity) _______i) 強制・抑圧

B. Fill in the blanks.
(1) Maintaining one's _________________________________ is essential for building trustand credibility.
(2) The zookeepers had to _________________________________ the injured animal to a
separate enclosure for treatment.
(3) It's rare to find a(n)____________________________ vintage piece of furniture like this.
(4) The fashion industry often seeks to _________________________________ trends into
saleable goods.
(5) The government banned the use of ________________________________________ ininterrogations to obtain confessions.
(6) The sound of gentle waves against the shore created a_________________________________ atmosphere.
(7) The _________________________________ of innovations like smartphones has
revolutionized communication.
(8) _________________________________ tends to prioritize material possessions overexperiences.
(9) The hotel aims to _________________________________ the needs of both businesstravelers and vacationing families.

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Open-ended questions to think about before class (Use as discussion topics)(1) How can governments balance the desire to attract tourists for economic benefit with theneed to preserve and protect their cultural heritage?

(2) To what extent does the commercialization of cultural experiences for tourism purposes(e.g., tea ceremony, wearing a kimono, a dance, etc.) impact the integrity and authenticityof those experiences?

(3) How can sustainable tourism practices be implemented to ensure that cultural sites andtraditions are preserved for future generations while still meeting the demands of
tourists?

(4) How did Japan use its soft power during the Summer Olympics in Tokyo 2021?

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Communication Activities

Section 3
Week 12In class: Go around in a circle and have each student share his/her summary. Listen carefully tothe other students’ summaries and take notes below.
Summary 1

Summary 2

Discuss your thoughts on the open-ended questions in the homework section.

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Conversation PracticeIn the following conversation, 3 students are sitting in a park watching the cherry blossoms anddiscussing soft power and “Cool Japan”.
Ana: Wow, the cherry blossoms are absolutely beautiful this time of year, aren't they?
Hanif: They sure are. It's amazing how something as simple as cherry blossoms can hold somuch cultural significance.
Jeong: Definitely. Speaking of cultural significance, have you guys heard about the concept of"Cool Japan"?
Ana: Oh yes, isn't that about Japan's soft power and how it influences global perceptions throughits cultural exports?
Hanif: Exactly. Japan has really capitalized on its cultural products like anime, manga, and video
games to project its influence worldwide.
Jeong: And it's not just limited to entertainment. Japanese cuisine, fashion, and even traditionalarts like tea ceremonies contribute to this soft power.
Ana: Right. It's fascinating how these elements collectively contribute to shaping Japan's image
and influence beyond its borders.
Hanif: Absolutely. I mean, just look at how popular Japanese pop culture has become around theworld. It's like everyone wants a piece of "Cool Japan".
Jeong: True. But do you think there are any drawbacks to this phenomenon? Like, does it risk
oversimplifying or stereotyping Japanese culture?
Ana: That's a valid point. While "Cool Japan" promotes Japanese culture globally, there's a riskof it being misunderstood or misrepresented.
Hanif: Yeah, and there's also the concern of cultural appropriation, especially when certain
aspects of Japanese culture are commercialized without proper understanding or respect.
Jeong: So, while "Cool Japan" is undoubtedly a powerful tool for soft power, it's important toapproach it with sensitivity and understanding.
Ana: Agreed. It's all about striking a balance between celebrating Japan's cultural richness andensuring that it's represented authentically and respectfully.
Hanif: Well said, Ana. And what better place to have this conversation than under thebreathtaking cherry blossoms of Japan?
Jeong: It's moments like these that truly make you appreciate the depth and beauty of cultural
exchange and understanding.

Now try to produce your own dialogue about the topic of social psychology.

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Group Project for Section 3

Section 3
Week 13

Group Project for Section 3
Use this page to brainstorm some ideas that you would like to explore for your 1st group project.
Draw a mind map to help you organize your ideas.

In our next class, you will present this topic to the class. So, assign roles for each person in yourgroup. Everyone has to participate!

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References
Introduction
Ballantine, J. H., & Roberts, K. A. (Eds.). (2008). Our social world: Introduction to sociology.
Pine Forge Press.
Hong, Y. Y. (2013). A dynamic constructivist approach to culture: Moving from describing
culture to explaining culture. In Understanding culture (pp. 3-23). Psychology Press.
Matsumoto, D. (2009). Teaching about culture. In Getting culture (pp. 3-10). Routledge.
Unit 1
Dean, L. G., Vale, G. L., Laland, K. N., Flynn, E., & Kendal, R. L. (2014). Human cumulative
culture: a comparative perspective. Biological Reviews, 89(2), 284-301.
https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12053
Lewis, S., & Maslin, M. (2015). Defining the Anthropocene. Nature 519, 171-180.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14258
Mesoudi, A. (2016). Cultural evolution: Integrating psychology, evolution and culture. Current
Opinion in Psychology, 7, 17-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.07.001
Richerson, P. & Boyd, R. (2005). Not by genes alone: How culture transformed human
evolution. University of Chicago Press.
Tennie, C., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Ratcheting up the ratchet: On the evolution of
cumulative culture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences, 364(1528), 2405-2415. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0052
Tomasello, M. (2019). Becoming human: A theory of ontogeny. Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and Brain
Sciences, 16(3), 495-511.
Unit 2
Campbell, J. (2003). The hero's journey: Joseph Campbell on his life and work (Vol. 7). New
World Library.
May, R. (2009). Man's search for himself. WW Norton & Company.
Other Important References
Boyd, B. (2009). On the origin of stories: Evolution, cognition, and fiction. Harvard University
Press.
Boyd, R. (2018). A different kind of animal: How culture transformed our species. Princeton
University Press.
Unit 3
Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene.
Henrich, J., & McElreath, R. (2007). Dual-inheritance theory: the evolution of human cultural
capacities and cultural evolution.In L. Barrett & R. Dunbar (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of
Evolutionary Psychology (pp. 555-570). Oxford Press.
Henrich, J. (2016). The secret of our success: How culture is driving human evolution,
domesticating our species, and making us smarter. Princeton University Press.
Hookway, C.J., 1985. Peirce. Routledge.
Muthukrishna, M. (2023). A theory of everyone: The new science of who we are, how we got
here, and where we’re going. MIT Press.
Unit 4
Hall, E. T. (1973). The silent language. Anchor.
Hall, E. T. (1973). Beyond Culture. Anchor.
Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related
values (Vol. 5). Sage.

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Kashima, E. S., & Kashima, Y. (1998). Culture and language: The case of culturaldimensionsand personal pronoun use. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 29(3), 461-486.
Link to PDF
Takano, Y., & Sogon, S. (2008). Are Japanese more collectivistic than Americans? Examining
conformity in in-groups and the reference-group effect. Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology, 39(3), 237-250. Link to PDF
Unit 5
Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2013). Things rank and gross in nature: A review andsynthesis of moral disgust. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 300–
327. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030964
De Raad, B., Van Oudenhoven, J. P., & Hofstede, M. (2005). Personality terms of abuse in threecultures: Type nouns between description and insult. European Journal of
Personality, 19(2), 153-165.
Koestler, Arthur, 1964. The Act of Creation. MacMillan.
Unit 6
Other important references
Hebdige, D. (2013). Subculture. Routledge.
Unit 7
Other important references
Appadurai, A. (Ed.). (2001). Globalization (Vol. 2). Duke University Press.
Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2020). Psychology culture shock. Routledge.
Unit 8Bhabha, H. K. (2012). The location of culture. Routledge.
Unit 9McGray, D. (2002). Japan’s gross national cool. Foreign Policy. May/June 44-54.
Yano, C. (2009). Wink on pink: Interpreting Japanese cute as it grabs the global headlines. The
Journal of Asian Studies, 68(3), 681-688.

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Vocabulary Answers
UNIT 1
A.
(1) C
(2) E
(3) B
(4) F
(5) D
(6) H
(7) G
(8) A
UNIT 2
A.
(1) C
(2) F
(3) G
(4) B
(5) H
(6) A
(7) D
(8) E
UNIT 3
A.
(1) D
(2) I
(3) A
(4) G
(5) B
(6) J
(7) C
(8) F
(9) H
(10) EUNIT 4
A.
(1) B
(2) F
(3) K
(4) E
(5) C
(6) A
(7) D
(8) I
(9) J
(10) H(11) GB.

C.
(1) Primate(2) Epoch(3) Scavenging(4) Imitation(5) Migration(6) Vehicle(7) Abstract(8) Intentional(1) FALSE(2) FALSE(3) FALSE(4) FASLE(5) TRUE(6) TRUE(7) FALSE(8) FALSE

B.
(1) Anthropocentric(2) Alienation(3) Fertile(4) Adversity(5) Arrogance(6) Grappling with
(7) Irrefutable(8) Intrinsic
B.
(1) Heritable(2) Replicate(3) Ambiguous(4) Empirical(5) Digestible(6) Nutritional(7) Philosophers(8) Semiotics(9) Bark(10) CuddlingB.
(1) Iceberg(2) Obscenity(3) Assumptions(4) Benevolence(5) Hedonism(6) Conformity(7) Imply(8) Uphold(9) Dichotomy(10) Consciousness(11) Contradict
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UNIT 5
A.
(1) H
(2) G
(3) A
(4) B
(5) F
(6) D
(7) C
(8) E
UNIT 6
A.
(1) E
(2) J
(3) H
(4) A
(5) I
(6) D
(7) F
(8) B
(9) G
(10) CUNIT 7
A.
(1) E
(2) D
(3) F
(4) A
(5) G
(6) B
(7) H
(8) I
(9) C
UNIT 8
A.
(1) G
(2) E
(3) A
(4) D
(5) F
(6) C
(7) H
(8) B

B.
(1) Bounce back(2) Incongruity(3) Pun(4) Belittle(5) Bounce back(6) Hypocrisy(7) Satire(8) Ingrained(9) GibberishB.
(1) Nomads(2) Jet lag(3) Rebellion(4) Lag(5) Cross-fertilization(6) Disillusioned(7) Sedentary(8) Literacy(9) Ideology(10) MarginalizeB.
(1) Persecution(2) Gunpowder(3) Silk road(4) Acclimate(5) Intermarriage(6) Language barriers(7) Disorientation(8) Wear off(9) Novelty
B.
(1) Deviation(2) Dilution(3) Foreign service(4) Colonialism(5) Missionaries(6) Contradictions(7) Uncontaminated(8) Subversive

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UNIT 9
A.
(1) I
(2) C
(3) E
(4) H
(5) D
(6) B
(7) F
(8) A
(9) G

B.
(1) Integrity(2) Confine(3) Authentic(4) Commodify(5) Coercion(6) Tranquil(7) Diffusion(8) Consumerism(9) Cater to

Acknowledgements
All the figures and images in the textbook were made by Brian Birdsell.
The three sketches of the students on page 4 were made by the following AI image generator(https://www.craiyon.com).
The cover image was generated using the AI image generator DALLE-4 by OpenAI(https://labs.openai.com).
The unit on Humor (Unit 5) includes three comics (Figure 16, 17, and 18). The sources of thesecomics were included in the description and if any acknowledgement has not been properly
made, we invite the copyright holders to inform the main author Brian Birdsell (brian (at)hirosaki-u.ac.jp) of the oversight.

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