Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-022-00500-8

Progress in Earth andPlanetary Science

Open Access

REVIEW

Geomorphological processes and theirconnectivity in hillslope, fluvial, and coastal
areas in Bangladesh: A review
B. M. Refat Faisal1,2 and Yuichi S. Hayakawa3*   

Abstract: Geomorphological knowledge is critical in understanding watershed scale surface processes, including
steep mountainous areas and flat lowlands, particularly if the mid- and downstream areas are densely populated andhazard assessments are highly required. However, our knowledge about such surface processes has relatively been
limited in some areas in South Asia due likely to the lack of comprehensive studies of geomorphology and related
fields. This article undertakes an overview of the geomorphological processes of the disaster-prone deltaic landscape of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM), particularly focusing on fluvial processes. The area locates in thedownstream of the watershed system including Himalayan Mountains and highly connected with the upper basinmorphodynamics, hydrology, and sediment flux. The previous studies are summarized at different geomorphic settings concerning hillslopes, fluvial plains, and coastal areas to provide clarity about the geomorphic processes linking
erosion-prone upstream source areas to deposition-dominated downstream areas. The review found that most of thegeomorphic researches in Bangladesh are exploring landslide inventory and susceptibility mapping in hilly areas; river
channel or riverbank shifting, riverbank erosion and accretion in fluvial environments; watershed morphometric analysis and geomorphic unit identification in plain land; and coastline shifting or coastal erosion and accretion in coastal
environments at a small scale. Then, we discuss the fluvial dynamics and sediment transport of the GBM river system
to address the knowledge gap in the context of deltaic plain land in Bangladesh, where upstream fluvial sedimentation processes impact the geomorphic connectivity from Himalayan to the Bay of Bengal. Although some studies
on the fluvial dynamics and sediment dispersal in the upstream GBM river basin are present, the fluvial processes inthe downstream domain of Bangladesh are not fully understood with a limited number of research with field-based
approaches. Some future perspectives of geomorphic research in Bangladesh are then mentioned to understandbetter the complex geomorphological settings in the entire GBM watershed and to strengthen the existing research
capacity. This review will also develop a holistic understanding of fluvial geomorphic processes of the GBM River tothe policymakers and may be helpful to improve the transboundary river basin management policies or strategies.
Keywords: Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM), Bangladesh, Satellite remote sensing, Fluvial processes, Sediment
dispersal, Landslides, Coastal erosion*Correspondence: hayakawa@eis.hokudai.ac.jp
3
Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Hokkaido 060‑0810, Japan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

1 Introduction
The Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna (GBM) river systemis the largest delta of the world, where the Brahmaputra
is known as Jamuna River, and the confluence of Ganges
and Jamuna River is known as Padma River (Sarker et al.
2014). The Meghna River (upper and lower Meghna) confluences with the Padma River at its upstream and downstream. The braided Jamuna, the meandering Ganges,© The Author(s) 2022. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to theoriginal author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images orother third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line
to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory
regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of thislicence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

the anastomosing upper Meghna, and the anabranching
lower Meghna make the river planform more diverseand complicated (Sarker et al. 2014). Geographically, themajor part of the GBM basin in Bangladesh is entirely
lowland, which is surrounded by India on the west, theMyanmar on the east, Shillong Plateau on the north,and Bay of Bengal on the south (Steckler et al. 2010)(Fig. 1). However, most of the rivers of Bangladesh (405rivers including 57 transboundary rivers) are originatedfrom the Himalayan and East Indian mountains and flow
through Bangladesh into the Bay of Bengal (BWDB 2014;
Dewan et al. 2017). In terms of mean annual discharge,
the GBM river system is second only to the Amazon,
and a major portion of this flow occurs in the summer
season with immense monsoon rainfall, which causes
widespread flooding in these drainage areas (Steckler
et al. 2010). Therefore, the geomorphological features
are changing very rapidly in downstream Bangladesh
despite its remarkably flat topography due to the complex
upstream fluvial process (Takagi et al. 2005). These fluvial

Page 2 of 22

dynamics are controlled by natural processes (discharge
flow, sediment transport, debris flow, channel migration and floodplain erosion, and accretion) (Langat et al.
2019) and anthropogenic processes (dam constructions,river bank engineering, and land-use changes) (Surian
and Rinaldi 2003; Wellmeyer et al. 2005; Ortega et al.
2014). The geomorphic research describes both thesenatural and anthropogenic factors to explain the surface
process, shape and dimension, spatiotemporal variability,and evolutionary characteristics of landscapes and landforms (Pareta and Pareta 2015).
However, apart from Himalayan tributaries, numbersof tributaries from upland source areas are joining theGanges–Brahmaputra (GB) river system and it also hostsa large number of floodplain wetland and lakes (Singhet al. 2021). Furthermore, the geomorphic diversity ofriver formation and processes in the Himalayan forelandand hinterland are demonstrated by the climatic diversity
along the strike of the Himalaya (Sinha 2004). Because
there is a close relationship among geomorphology, river

GJC

PMC

Fig. 1 Map of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna river basin representing major tributaries and sediment sources including Trans-Himalayanbatholiths (THB), Tethyan Sedimentary Series (TSS), High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence (HHC), Lesser Himalayas (LH), Indus-Tsangpo suture(ITS) (after Goodbred et al. 2014). The rectangle focuses on the Bengal basin that influences the river migration and sediment dispersal across theGanges–Brahmaputra–Meghna delta. GJC and PMC indicate the Ganges–Jamuna confluence and Padma–Meghna confluence, respectively (Gaziet al. 2020a)

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

engineering, hydrometeorology, and environment, thegeomorphological study of the large Ganges–Brahmaputra river system is highly important to understand theprocess–form relationship of fluvial systems and landscape diversity. Also, an understanding of large GB river
systems is critical as they support large human populations, where Ganges and Brahmaputra support a population of 400 million (Jain et al. 2012) and 83 million
people (about 41% residents in Bangladesh), respectively(Mahanta et al. 2014). However, despite the enormity of
the Ganges–Brahmaputra fluvial system and the generaladvancements in recent fluvial geomorphological studies(Oguchi et al. 2013, 2022), the hydro-geomorphic information in GBM is somewhat restricted (Ray et al. 2015;
Fischer et al. 2017) and research availability has been
fragmented at its downstream areas. On the other hand,significant research regarding the Ganges–Brahmaputra river hydrology, geomorphology, and sedimentology
had been carried out by several researchers in India (Jainet al. 2012), covering the upper part of the Ganges–Brahmaputra basin. However, the integration of geomorphic
and hydrological studies in the upstream and downstream reaches of the GBM basin has been limited.
Moreover, in the context of Bangladesh, which hosts
two most diverse Ganges–Brahmaputra basins, not manystudies on fluvial geomorphology and sediment dynamics have been conducted so for. Geomorphic researchis still in the nascent phase in Bangladesh and previously studied by only a few researchers (Coleman 1969;
Umitsu 1985, 1987, 1993; Best and Ashworth 1997; Allison et al. 1998; Ashworth et al. 2000; Islam et al. 2001;
Takagi et al. 2007; Goodbred et al. 2014; Brammer 2014;
Sarker et al. 2014; Dewan et al. 2017) focusing on channel diversion, erosion and accretion, sediment deposition, and few hydro-geomorphic systems. Earlier, Takagi
et al. (2005) reviewed the geomorphological and geological researches of Bangladesh and tried to reflect some of
the geomorphic research gap and realities and mentioned
the limited scientific researchers. However, as discussed
later, current geomorphic researches in downstream
Bangladesh are mostly conducted at a small scale within
the country. The insights obtained at small-scale studies
are not sufficient to understand the large-scale landscapeprocess (Baker 1988; Lane and Richards 1997; Jain et al.
2012). Moreover, the hydrological event that occurs in
the upper part of a river basin may have a direct influence on downstream from a few to many hundreds ofkilometers away (Nepal 2012; Nepal et al. 2014). Hence,
the understanding of upstream–downstream linkages
in hydrological processes of Ganges–Brahmaputra river
basin is essential for water resources management ofdownstream Bangladesh.

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Besides, there is an imperative need among the scientific community to understand better the geomorphic consequences of ongoing global environmental
changes (Lane 2013; Knight and Harrison 2014; Harrison
et al. 2019), where the mountainous landscapes including the diverse fluvial system deserve particular attention (Cienciala 2021). These realizations highlighted theimportance of geomorphic analysis at the cross-country
scales because the fluvial system, including sedimentconnectivity and sediment dynamics, of downstream
Bangladesh is mostly influenced by the upper and middle Ganges–Brahmaputra system (Subramanian and
Ramanathan 1996; Sinha 2004; Singh 2007). Therefore,
there is a need to review the previous geomorphic studies with a holistic view of dealing with fluvial geomorphic
research in downstream the deposition zone (Bangladesh) connecting the upstream Ganges–Brahmaputrabasin. This sort of review study is required to find out thegeomorphic research gap, to improve the understandingof geomorphic processes in complex downstream areas,
and to unearth the flood-prone deltaic landscape connected with morphodynamics, hydrology, and sediment
flux in the upper basins. In addition, an understandingof upstream dominated processes or events or sedimenttransport dynamics that shape the particular landform
development of downstream areas is highly important ingeomorphic science (Howard 1994; Whipple and Tucker
1999; Stark and Stark 2001). Therefore, this study may
help us answer the questions in geomorphology, how themagnitude and frequency of upstream event plays a more
influential role in developing geomorphic characteristicsof the downstream (Wolman and Miller 1960; Rinaldo
et al. 1991; Pelletier 2003).
In such a context, a large part of this work focuses onreviewing the previous geomorphic research in downstream Bangladesh. Also, this article attempts to review
some of the major aspects of the Ganges–Brahmaputra
fluvial system that evaluates their relevance to understand the fluvial system of downstream Bangladesh taking
into consideration the geomorphological diversity of theupper Ganges–Brahmaputra river system. Some of thepotential implications for future geomorphic researches
concerning downstream flat alluvial Bangladesh are also
discussed here that can help minimize the multitude ofriver basin management problems. Therefore, we present
an inclusive review of the Ganges–Brahmaputra fluvial
system, starting from the mountainous catchments to thedeltaic plain concerning vast alluvial plain land in Bangladesh. In summary, the aim of this article is (a) to review
the previous geomorphological research in Bangladeshwith a focus on different geomorphic features, including landslides in hilly area, fluvial channel dynamics,
plain land features, and coastal dynamics; (b) to criticallyFaisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

analyze the fluvial dynamics and sediment pathways ofactive plain land Bangladesh that governs by the upper
Ganges–Brahmaputra river system; and (c) to highlightsome potential future geomorphic research for better
understanding of the downstream geomorphic processin Bangladesh considering the recent advancement andregional studies.

2 Main text
2.1 Major geomorphic features in Bangladesh

Regarding the major geomorphic characteristics in Bangladesh, here we review geomorphic researches previously performed in the area at different scales, focusing
on hillslopes, fluvial dynamics, plain land formation, andcoastal dynamics.
2.1.1 Hilly area

A large variety of erosional and depositional features may
be formed in mountainous and hillslope areas. The hilly
or mountainous terrain is mainly found in the north andsoutheastern part of Bangladesh (18% of the total countryarea) and is mostly covered with dense vegetation (Rabby
and Li 2018). The hilly regions of southeast Bangladesh(Chittagong Hill Tracts) are underlain by Surma andTipam rocks (Brammer 1996), and the soil formation iscomplex and unstable (Islam et al. 2017). The young rockformation contains feldspars vulnerable to weathering(Ahmed et al. 2014), which make these regions more susceptible to landslide risks during heavy rainfall (> 40 mm/day) in the monsoon (June to October) season withina short period (2–7 days) (Khan et al. 2012; Sarker andRashid 2013a, b). In Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT) region,
rainfall-induced landslides (Khan et al. 2012) are increasing and causing death and damage to property (Ahmedand Rubel 2013; Rabby and Li 2019; Rabby et al. 2020).
Furthermore, the southeastern hilly region of Bangladesh is regarded as a high-risk zone for flash floods andlandslide events associated with intense rainfalls (Ahmedand Dewan 2017; Rahman et al. 2017). Also, flash flood
vulnerability studies have been carried out by Rahman
and Salehin (2013) and Sarker and Rashid (2013a, b), but
detailed watershed morphometric analysis has not beenstudied. Meanwhile, Adnan et al. (2019) assessed the
flash flood susceptibility of the Karnaphuli and Sangu
river basins in the southwest region with DEM-derived
twenty-two morphometric parameters. The analysis
revealed that more than 80% of the total area is susceptible to flash floods with moderate to a very high level ofseverity. On the other hand, morphometric analysis ofmajor watersheds in the northwestern Bangladesh (Barind tract) has been carried out by Rahman et al. (2017).
They found a dendritic drainage pattern with ­1st to ­6th
stream order, moderate to a flat slope, moderate drainage

Page 4 of 22

density, semipermeable soil lithology, and homogenous
soil texture. Similarly, small-scale morphometric analysis
has been conducted by Jahan et al. (2018) in the Atrai–
Sib River Basin (northern part of Bangladesh).
Moreover, the landslide scenario of this hilly region isaggravated by increased population, rapid urbanization,indiscriminate hill cutting and deforestation, and inappropriate land-use practices (Sarker and Rashid 2013a,b; BUET-JIDPUS 2015). Rabby and Li (2020) identified 730 landslides in Chittagong hilly area from January 2001 to March 2017 based on Google Earth images,
field mapping, and literature search. The literature works
on landslide event were collected from local newspapers, Comprehensive Disaster Management Program(CDMP) phase II-2012, records of the disaster management department, and road and highway departmentof the people’s republic of Bangladesh. However, comprehensive identification and response to the landslide
occurrence in this remote hilly area are still difficult due
to its inaccessibility covered by dense forest, faster vegetation regrowth after landslide, cloudy Landsat imageries,
and unavailability of airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) images, aerial photographs, and unmanned
aerial system (UAS)-based images (Rabby and Li 2018).
Besides, Ahmed (2015) prepared landslide susceptibility mapping in one of the hilly areas of southeastern
Bangladesh (Cox’s Bazar) applying artificial hierarchy
process (AHP), weighted linear combination (WLC),
logistic regression, and multiple logistic regression techniques. Almost similar studies also have been carried out
by Ahmed and Dewan (2017) and Rahman et al. (2017)
in the Chittagong area of Bangladesh. Also, Rabby et al.
(2020) evaluated the performance of several digital elevation models (DEMs) including global digital elevation
models (GDEM) (30 m resolution), Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) (30–90 m), the Phased Arraytype L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR-DEM)(12.5 m) and Survey of Bangladesh (SoB) DEM (25 m)(generated from spot height) for landslide susceptibility
mapping in one of the CHT region (Rangamati district)of Bangladesh. The comparative usability study of different DEMs concludes that except SoB-DEM (only sourceof local DEM in Bangladesh), all other global DEMs are
suitable for the landslide suitability mapping in Bangladesh. The applicability of those landslide susceptibility
maps to local areas in both scientific and social contexts
is, however, still limited due partly to their coarse-resolution and the unavailability of field-based work on thelandslides.
2.1.2 Fluvial features

2.1.2.1 Channel dynamics In geomorphological studies,river channel formation and dynamics are the foremostFaisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

topics (Petts 1995). While the fluvial processes in Bangladesh connecting upstream areas are discussed in moredetail in Sect. 3.1, here we summarize the overview of fluvial geomorphological studies in Bangladesh. The mostcomprehensive remote-sensing-based geomorphologicalstudy in Bangladesh about the Brahmaputra River channel has been conducted by Takagi et al. (2007) over thetime period of 1967–2002. They separated the Brahmaputra River into four phases, namely: (a) the late 1960s
to early 1970s; (b) the mid-1970s to early 1980s; (c) the
mid-1980s to early 1990s; and d) the mid-1990s to early
2000s. Phase (a) and phase (b) have been regarded astransitional phases with more complex conditions, which
trigger frequent large floods and may significantly change
the river system. Also, a state of dynamic equilibrium has
been observed from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s due
to small spatial variations both in the braided belt widthand in the channel width. However, based on the studyof the historical evolution of the Brahmaputra–Jamuna
by Coleman (1969), Sarker et al. (2014) summarizedthat the rate of channel (Brahmaputra–Jamuna) widening (~ 152 m­ y−1) was high but the channel migration was
effectively zero in last four decades (1970–2010). On theother hand, the Ganges catchment (Ganges and Padma)in Bangladesh annually receives 1200 mm of average rainfall (Sulser et al. 2010), which is one of the factors of therecurring large magnitude of seasonal floods during themonsoon period (July–October) (Gupta 1995; Kale 2003;
Sharma 2005). The study of Dewan et al. (2017) concludes
that the Padma (Aricha–Chandpur) experienced a totalof 183 k­ m2 of erosion (left bank 155 k­ m2 and right bank
28 ­km2) which led to the occurrence of many extreme
floods since 1973. Furthermore, Islam (2016) analyzed theLandsat MSS 1977 (9 Feb), Landsat TM 1989 (11 Nov),
and Landsat ETM+ 2000 (17 Nov) data and assessed thefluvial channel dynamics of Padma River in Northwestern Bangladesh. This study showed a remarkable change
in the position of the riverbank, river channel, as wellas bars, along with the geometry and morphology over
23 years (1977 to 2000). Besides, the findings suggest thatthe bankline of Padma River is not stable and in recent
decades it can be migrated continuously toward westward(Shamsuzzaman et al. 2005; Talukder and Islam 2006).
The morphodynamics of two major confluences ofBangladesh Rivers, namely the Padma–Meghna confluence (PMC) and the Ganges–Jamuna confluence (GJC),
have been studied recently by Gazi et al. (2020a) (Fig. 1).
This study found that GJC moved to southwest direction and PMC moved to northwest direction over theperiod (1980–2019), but these directions of confluence
migration were reverse before 1980s. At the same time,
the width of PMC shows variation from 6.87 to 6.98 km,
whereas the GJC confluence shows a decreasing trend

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of 8.10 to 2.80 km over the period (1972–2019). Further,
Akhter et al. (2019) explore spatiotemporal changes ofTeesta River channel morphology and forecast midline
channel shifting in the reach over the period (1972–2017)
through multi-date Landsat imageries (MSS/TM/ETM+/
OLI) and SRTM-DEM (30 m) data and autoregressive
integrated moving average (ARIMA) model. This study
found that, like other river systems of Bangladesh, theTeesta River width is becoming narrow in recent times
than earlier decades (Takagi et al. 2007; Sarker et al. 2014;
Bhuiyan et al. 2015; Dewan et al. 2017). Besides, overthe period (1972 to 2010) and (2010 to 2017), the Teesta
channel is shifting toward the right side (0.34 km/year)
and left side (− 0.14 km/year), respectively. However,channel shifting rates of Teesta River are mostly affectedby the temporally changing amount of sedimentation, but
the spatial changes are more controlled by the differencesin riverbank conditions. Further, the ARIMA model
predicts the rightward direction of maximum midline
channel shifting for 2017 to 2024 and leftward midline channel shifting between 2024 and 2031 because of
reduced water flow at downstream of Teesta River, resulting from the construction of dams and embankments at
upstream, which restricted the water flow and increased
the number of bars (Ghosh 2014; Khan and Islam 2015).
2.1.2.2 Sediment dynamics The GBM river system of
Bangladesh is highly prone to channel shifting, erosion,accretion, and riverine island (locally Char) development
due to high sediment transport or movement process
in the monsoon season (Sarker et al. 2011). However,the sediment budget of the large braided river (Jamuna)largely depends on the river’s flow path along the floodplain, suspended sediment transport regime, and average sedimentation rates (Allison et al. 1998; Takagi et al.
2007). In the Ganges and Brahmaputra River, 78% of thetotal suspended load is from the Brahmaputra River (Islamet al. 2001), where the siltation rate has been increased
in recent years (Khalil et al. 1995). Like fluvial processes,
the nature of sediment dispersal in the GBM catchment
is also diverse but not fully understood or studied. The
sediment dispersal in GBM catchments connecting the
upstream catchments to the downstream reaches in
Bangladesh is further discussed based on the existing literature in Sect. 3.2.
Examples of studies of fluvial sediment transport include the work of Islam et al. (2001), who usedadvanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR)
images of 1996 and Landsat images of 1991. This work
was designed to understand the seasonal and spatial variations of suspended sediment in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers in Bangladesh for both high-discharge
periods (June to October) and low-discharge periods

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

(November to May). They found higher suspended sediment concentration (SSC) (1150 to 1375 mg/l) in theGanges than the Brahmaputra (1000 to 1275 mg/l) in
high-discharge period, whereas reverse scenario has been
observed for low-discharge period. The significant fluctuations in SSC and suspended sediment load along theGanges and Brahmaputra River courses have been attributed to riverbank erosion and accretion, as well as theaggradation of riverbeds.
Similarly, Islam et al. (2002) examined the distribution of suspended sediment through Landsat images of1989 and 1991 in the coastal sea around the Ganges–
Brahmaputra River mouth, showing that transportationand deposition of suspended sediments experience seasonal variations (SSC varies from 200 to 700 mg/l during
low-discharge period and 1300–1500 mg/l during highdischarge period). They also found that the suspended
sediments are accumulated on the shallow shelf (between
5 to 10 m water depths) in the low-discharge period, andon the mid-shelf (between 10 to 75 m water depths) inthe high-discharge period with an average rate of 2 cm/
year. However, an empirical (exponential) relationshiphas been found between the gradual settle down of suspended sediments in the coastal area and its lateral distance from the turbidity maximum. Moreover, annual
pluvial flooding during the monsoon period (Warner
et al. 2018) due to short or prolonged precipitation (Falconer et al. 2009) in the southwestern coastal region of
Bangladesh has become more intense and severe becauseof siltation in riverbeds and encroachment of drainage
channels. This southwestern coastal region mainly comprises Ganges River floodplains, Ganges tidal floodplain,and old floodplain basins (Brammer 2014). Consequently,
Adnan et al. (2020) developed a sediment deposition
model for southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh
using flood data from Bangladesh Water Development
Board (BWDB), precipitation data (1948–2012) from
Bangladesh Meteorological Department, and DEM datafrom Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS). Thismodel predicts that the increase in land elevation could
be up to 1.4 m in every 5 years, which would alleviate
land subsidence and modify several geomorphological factors such as curvature, slope, aspect, and Stream
Power Index (SPI). SPI is a measure of the erosive powerof surface runoff, which is considered as one of the factors that determine the river channel erosion, basinscale variability in channel processes, morphology, andsediment transport potentiality (Moore et al. 1991; Peiet al. 2010; Khosravi et al. 2016; Kaushal et al. 2020).
This study reveals that the implementation of tidal rivermanagement (TRM) in southwestern Bangladesh could
potentially improve the physical condition of the natural drainage basin by reducing the value of SPI, which

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reduces the erosion potential of the surface. Besides, thelimitations of the sediment deposition model have been
mentioned in this study with available experimental sedimentation data.
2.1.2.3 River bank management Generally, floods often
occur due to extreme condition of climatic triggers, andtheir effects are also conditioned by hydrological, geomorphological, and anthropogenic factors (Adnan et al.
2020). Bangladesh is prone to multiple flood hazards dueto the frequent attacks of cyclones and the physiographic
settings of large plain land (Rahman and Salehin 2013).
Consequently, riverbank erosion and accretion is a very
common and dynamic process in the fluvial system of
Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2014). A very recent study by
Rashid et al. (2021) revealed that due to the route change,
the Brahmaputra–Meghna in Bangladesh grabbed ~ 2817
­km2 of invaluable land resources and a newly developed∼ 4563 ­km2 from 1971 to 2014. The National Plan for
Disaster Management (NPDM) describes that the Padma
River is quite sensitive to erosion and accretion processes,
significantly affecting the society and economy to hinder
the further development along the riverbank areas (Islam
2000; NPDM 2006). Billah (2018) studied the Padma
River erosion and accretion scenario from 1975 to 2015,
finding that the total amount of riverbank erosion in the
40-year period was 49,951 ha of land (rate of 1249 ha ­y−1)
and accretion was 83,333 ha of land (rate of 2083 ha y­ −1),also causing the riverbank shift. Furthermore, Gazi et al.
(2020b) studied the erosion–accretion of Gorai–Madhumati River (a tributary of Ganges River), finding thatthe total river bank erosion of 80.84 k­ m2 and accretionof 82.9 k­m2 over the years (1972–2018). The analysis
also revealed that Gorai–Madhumati River experienced
extreme sedimentation due to reduction in water discharge which consequently causes numerous problems in
the river basin areas, and without attention and proper
river management it will no longer exist with the present
flowing condition. Also, the fluvial landform characterization studies of Biswas et al. (2021) depict that erosion
and accretion of Madhumati River Basin (source of freshwater in southwestern hydrological region of Bangladesh)have increased during the flooding period of 1988 and
1998, and the basin boundary shifted toward east, which
impacted negatively on floodplain resources, agricultural
resources, and biodiversity.
A large number of people live in floodplains of Bangladesh with vulnerability to floods and river erosion,and the number of causalities due to floods has become
higher than the other natural disasters (Tingsanchali and
Karim 2005). In this connection, Hoque et al. (2011) evaluated the RADARSAT images of 2004 (June 5, July 24,
and Sep 9) and Landsat images of 2000 (Feb 28 and Oct

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

25) as well as ground data for flood monitoring and mapping in the northeastern part of Bangladesh, concludingthat this region is more prone to floods than the otherparts of Bangladesh. They also concluded that RADARSAT data can clarify questions related to the mapping ofinundation areas more clearly and quickly than the Landsat imageries, where Landsat is often unavailable due tothe cloudiness in monsoon season over Bangladesh.
2.1.3 Plain land features

The northwestern part of Bangladesh has been divided
geomorphologically into a) uplifted blocks of terraced
land called as Barind Tract, b) Himalayan piedmont
plains, c) alluvial lowland along the Brahmaputra–
Jamuna River, and d) alluvial lowland along the Ganges
River (Kubo 1993). On the other hand, the southwestern
portion of the basin is formed by the deposition of themainstream Ganges River and its numerous tributaries
and distributaries (Alam et al. 2003; Ravenscroft 2003).
Therefore, for understanding the landscape development, a comprehensive geomorphic mapping is requiredin plain land, which is still missing mostly for Bangladesh(Oya 1979; Mahmud et al. 2017). Nevertheless, Mahmud
et al. (2017) identified major geomorphic units of thewestern Ganges delta and divided the geomorphic features into fluvial deltaic plain (FDP) and fluvio-tidal deltaic plain (FTDP). Also, this study depicts that elevatedconcentration of arsenic (As) occurs mainly in deeper
FDP due to the absence of permeable layer between shallow and deep aquifer, whereas chloride concentrationshows an increasing trend in groundwater from FDP to
FTDP (north to south). Furthermore, geomorphologicalmaps of Dhaka city have been prepared by Kamal andMidorikawa (2004) and Karim et al. (2019). In the northern district (Pabna) of Bangladesh, Islam et al. (2015a, b)
also identified the different geomorphic units, including active channels, abandoned channels, natural levees,
flood plains, flood basins, and lateral channel bars.
However, morphometric analyses are a prerequisite fordelineation of potential watershed (Aher et al. 2014) andwater management aspects (Malik et al. 2019) where thehydrological information is unavailable. In this regard,
Arefin and Alam (2020) focused on morphometric analysis for water resource management in the Dhaka city area.
Their study suggests that surface water can be extracted
from a fifth-order stream and can be supplied to thedomestic area after water quality treatment. Furthermore, Arefin (2020a) identified the groundwater potential zones at the drought-prone Plio-Pleistocene highland
in the northern part of Bangladesh using WLC and GISbased multi-criteria evaluations for class normalization
using Saaty’s AHP (Saaty 1977). This study determinesclay soil regions with high slopes and roughness as low

Page 7 of 22

groundwater potential zones in this area. Similarly,
groundwater potentiality identification and prediction
studies have been conducted in two metropolitan cities
of Dhaka and Chittagong by Arefin (2020b) and Akter
et al. (2020), respectively.
2.1.4 Coastal features

As a transitional zone between land and water, thecoastal zone is one of the most dynamic and unstable geomorphic units in Bangladesh (Minar et al. 2013;
Brammer 2014). The coastal environment is governed byterrestrial and marine forces (Kabir et al. 2020), and thecoastal vulnerability of Bangladesh is largely controlled
by the geomorphic processes of the GBM river basins(Islam et al. 2015a, b). Also, the external forces, including
water-logging, soil erosion, salinity intrusions, sea levelrise, cyclone, storm surge, and tsunami, adversely affectthe morphological settings of the coastal environment
and negatively impact coastal area development activities (CZPo 2005; Barua et al. 2010). Ahmed et al. (2018)
focused on land dynamics of the entire coastal zone
(western, central, and eastern) and determined a net gainof 237 ­km2 (annual average of 7.9 k­ m2) of land from 1985
to 2015. This study also revealed that both erosion andaccretion rates are higher in the central zone comparedto the western and the eastern zones of the coastal area.
Shibly and Takewaka (2012) studied the morphologicalchanges along the western–central coast in 1989–2010,
which obtains a large volume of discharge from the GBM
river system through Sibsha, Pasur, and Baleswar River(Allison et al. 2003; Iftekhar and Islam 2004). They foundthat the western–central shoreline in 2000–2010 was
more stable than its previous decade (1989–2000). They
also found that the mangrove-covered area is changing more significantly compared to the flat sandy beach,in contrast to the thought that mangrove stabilizes theland. Also, Alam and Uddin (2013) mentioned that, overthe last 34 years (1977–2010), the coastal areas and theoffshore Island of Bangladesh gained 139 ­km2 of land
from continuous erosion and accretion process. However, based on the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI)
methods (Thieler and Hammar-Klose 1999; Doukakis
2005; Diez et al. 2007): Islam et al. (2015a, b) showed thatthe western coast of Char Fasson and the northern andsouthwestern coast of Bhola Island (Bhola Sadar) are themost vulnerable coastal regions of Bangladesh. Likewise,
Miah et al. (2020) also applied CVI (Szlafsztein and Sterr
2007, 2010; Mahapatra et al. 2014) by combining boththe Physical Vulnerability Index and Social Vulnerability
Index for the southeastern coast (Chittagong district) of
Bangladesh. This study revealed 43% of the total southeastern coastal area as highly vulnerable to flooding,Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

storm surges, and cyclones, and the rural area is more
prone to disaster impacts than the urban area.
2.2 Fluvial processes of GBM from upstream
to downstream

As reviewed above, among various geomorphic features,
fluvial processes are the major factor forming the landscape of Bangladesh. Here, we review the studies on fluvial processes in further details. For the understandingof the downstream fluvial processes, fluvio-sediment
dynamics of the upstream of GBM catchments are crucial and we first summarize river hydrology, river system,
sediment transport, and discharge therein. Then, we discuss geomorphic knowledge gap regarding the connectivity between the upstream and downstream domains
and motivate larger-scale (beyond country scale) fluvial
geomorphic studies.
2.2.1 Fluvial processes of Bangladesh in response
to upstream GB

2.2.1.1 River hydrology The annual flow pattern of large
Himalayan (Ganges and Brahmaputra) and peninsularriver (Mahanadi, Tapi, Kaveri, etc.) system suggests thatthese rivers are mostly characterized by non-monsoonal
low or no flow (7–8 months), common monsoon flow
(4–5 months), and occasional large magnitude flow during monsoon (Kale 2005). Except for the catchment of
the Brahmaputra in Tibet, all other drainage basins of
the GBM River falls within the monsoonal regime ofSouth and Southeast Asia, where rainfall pattern var-

Page 8 of 22

ies significantly, for example 743 mm/y in Tibetan Plateau, 1349 mm/y in Himalayan belt, and 2354 mm/y infloodplain (Immerzeel 2008). Consequently, 80–95% ofwater discharge is observed in the Ganges and Brahmaputra during southwest monsoon (June to November)(Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996), which led to a
concurrent increase in sediment discharge (Mukherjee
et al. 2009). For instance, the Ganges, Brahmaputra, andMeghna discharges 70,792,116 kg/s, over 70,792,116 kg/s
and 14,158,423 kg/s, respectively, at lower reaches during
monsoon flood season (Coleman 1969). The monsoonal
dominancy of annual discharge at the GB basin has also
been mentioned in earlier studies of Kale (2005) andMahanta et al. (2014). The monsoon-dominated rainfall
and melting of the Himalayan snow from the upper GB
river system cause a large magnitude of floods in downstream Bangladesh and therefore impact fluvial dynamics,
but this process remains unclear or not studied (Fig. 2).
2.2.1.2 GBM River system dynamics The drainage
network map of Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna River(Fig. 3) shows that several tributaries of the Ganges(Yamuna, Ghagra, Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Son, etc.) andthe Brahmaputra are draining toward the Bay of Bengal(BoB) forming the major delta in the Bengal basin (Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996; Sinha 2004). The drainage development of the Ganges–Brahmaputra is generally derived from several factors such as tectonics andclimatic patterns in the lowland area (Gupta 1997; Friend
et al.1999). The longitudinal profile of the Ganges shows

Fig. 2 Gains and losses of land on the Brahmaputra–Ganges–Meghna delta front in 1984–2007 (after Brammer 2014)

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

Page 9 of 22

Fig. 3 GBM river basin elevation and drainage network. The elevation is prepared based on NASA-DEM (30 m resolution). The yellow, red, and green
circles denote the in situ gauging stations for discharge estimationsa sharp change in a gradient from steeper mountains to
the gentler downstream plains (Fig. 4). The Brahmaputra
River profile shows relatively low gradient in the upstream
reach but drastically drops to the Assam plains (Gupta
2007; Mahanta et al. 2014; Ray et al. 2015), resulting inabundant sediment deposition and formation of braided
channels in the downstream reach (Pangare et al. 2021).
Overall, the deviations of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Riverlongitudinal profile are related to the Himalayan tectonics, water discharges, and sediment load characteristicsof these basins (Seeber and Gornitz 1983; Goswami 1985;
Gupta 2007).
In the southeastern center of the Tibetan Plateau,glaciers feed the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra River, and theincreased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely toincrease summer flows in the downstream Brahmaputra (Immerzeel 2008; Bolch et al. 2010). Remarkably, thebehavior of the Himalayan rivers (intense slope failure,
landslide, and debris flow resulting from earthquake orintense rainfall) changes as they enter into the Indus–
Ganga–Brahmaputra plain by shifting river course andchanging morphology and bedforms due to heavy discharge and sediment load (Goswami 1985; Sinha andFriend 1994; Kale 2005). For instance, the 1897 and 1950
earthquakes impacted Brahmaputra River sedimentsupply (bed load increases) and channel morphology in
Assam, India (Coleman 1969). An integrated drainage
network has been formed at Brahmaputra River in India(Assam), where braided channels composed of mainly
fine sand with various dimensions of rivers are developed, including straight, sinuous, meandering, tortuous,
braided, anastomosing, anabranching, and reticulatefeatures (Sarma 2005). After crossing India (Assam), theBrahmaputra enters Bangladesh (about 47,000 ­km2 of2
total 580,000 ­km drainage basin) after traveling 220 km
from the Indian border along the northern area (Kurigram) through Himalayan flows (Sarma 2005; Sarker
et al. 2014) and started to avulse linearly into the southward passage from the beginning of the eighteenth
century (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2021). The bed scours
depths of up to 40 m with a combined channel pattern of
braided and anastomosing makes the Jamuna extremelyFaisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

Page 10 of 22

Fig. 4 Longitudinal profiles of Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna showing the entire flow path. Compiled from several sources (JICA report 2005;
Quamruzzaman et al. 2008)

dynamic and critical in devising engineering strategies,
which implies the necessity of proper interpretation ofancient sediments and sea level changes (Bristow 1987;
Best and Ashworth 1997; Thorne et al. 1993; Peters 1993;
Ashworth et al. 2000). In addition, the Jamuna is continually changing due to rapid rates of bar migration, bankerosion (up to 1 km per year), and shifting of braid belts(usually up to 5 km wide) (Klaassen and Masselink 1992;
Hossain 1993; Ashworth and Lewin 2012). Apart fromnatural processes, the Brahmaputra–Jamuna river is continuously facing various anthropogenic stressors like frequent land-use change, channelization, and regulations ofnormal river flow (Gupta et al. 2019) (i.e., Teesta barrage
at its upstream, Jamuna multipurpose bridge, etc.), whichemphasizes the implementation of sustainable solutions(Pradhan et al. 2021). For instance, the present site of the
Jamuna multipurpose bridge was selected based on thegeomorphological study conducted by Oya (1979).
On the other hand, draining from southern Tibetan
uplift, the Ganges main channel had major movementsin the historical period (after 1857), which caused highly
irregular shapes of valley (Hedge et al. 1989). The Ganges
in India traverses through rugged mountains to flat alluvial plains, crossing various climatic zones with extensive
erosional processes (Sinha 2004; Jain et al. 2012). Nevertheless, regarding the source area (mountains catchments), alluvial plains, and deltaic plain, the Ganges river
system shows unique fluvial processes where upstream
flows control the landform development (Sinha 2004).
From two major branches of the Ganges (Bhagirathi andPadma in India), the Padma flows southeastward along
the India–Bangladesh border and then takes eastward
flow through Bangladesh (about 34,188 ­km2 of total
2
980,000 ­km drainage basin) to join with the Brahmaputra or Jamuna, forming the largest Ganges–Brahmaputra delta in the world (Islam et al. 1999). The bankline
migration of the Ganges/Padma in Bangladesh showsthat both the left and right banks do not follow the same
direction (rightward) and are highly dependent on thelocalized factors and sedimentary features. Moreover,the Ganges is affected by human intervention, including
the construction of Farakka Barrage by India in 1975 at
18 km upstream from the India–Bangladesh border, andis responsible for erosion both in India and in Bangladesh(Sarker 2004; Rahman and Rahaman 2018).
At the downstream GB basin, the Meghna has combined flow of Ganges–Brahmaputra/Jamuna into the Bayof Bengal, forming lower Bengal delta near Bangladesh
coast. Hence, Bangladesh’s coastal area has become morediverse and dynamic than it generally appears whererapid geomorphological changes are occurring in the
Meghna estuary (Allison 1998a, b; Brammer 2014). The
Meghna catchments experienced a net gain of 451 ­km2
with a growth rate of 19.6 k­ m2/y over 1984–2007. Noticeably, despite gaining land in Meghna estuary, it showed
considerable land losses along the east of Sandwip Island,
north of Hatia, and northeast of Bhola Island, whereas
erosion is gradually increasing eastward in the southwestern coast along the Hooghly estuary in India (Fig. 2)(Allison 1998a, b; Brammer 2014).

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

Fluvial studies of the upper Ganges in India had beenthoroughly reviewed and updated by Sinha (2004) andJain et al. (2012), respectively, whereas the fluvial researchof the lower GBM (Bangladesh) regarding the causes ofanomalous channel behavior, riverbank migration, erosion and accretion, sedimentation in tidal floodplainsand coastal process is not fully investigated or conductedat small scale or has spare literature (as mentioned in
Sect. 4).
2.2.2 Fluvial sediment dynamics of Bangladesh in response
to upstream GB

2.2.2.1 GBM sediment production The Trans-Himalayan batholiths, Tethyan Sedimentary Series, High
Himalayan Crystalline Sequence, Lesser Himalayas, theDeccan Traps, the Shillong Massif, and Tripura fold belt
are the source areas of GBM basin sediment, where theIndus-Tsangpo suture is connecting the sediment sources
between Asia and India (Galy et al. 2010; Goodbred et al.
2014) (Fig. 1). Through the Indus-Tsangpo suture, theBrahmaputra traverse via Namcha Barwa syntaxis which
encompasses only 4% of Brahmaputra’s catchment but
contributes about 45 ± 15% of sediment load (Singh andFrance-Lanord 2002; Garzanti et al. 2004; Stewart et al.
2008; Goodbred et al. 2014). Beneath the syntaxis (dropsfor 2 km elevation), the Brahmaputra flows into low-lying
Assam Valley and Himalayan foreland, where the restof the load is supplied from the Himalayan tributaries(Goodbred et al. 2014).
On the other hand, after originating along the Tibetan
border in north India, the Ganges headwater drainedlarge areas of Himalayan front slope and its entry point
to Bengal basin, the Ganges derived 90 ± 5% sedimentload from the high Himalayan areas (Wasson 2003;
Singh et al. 2008; Lupker et al. 2012; Goodbred et al.
2014). Furthermore, the erosion intensity and sedimentsources of upstream Himalayan Ganges catchments had
been mapped in several studies (Narayan et al. 1983;
Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996; Sinha et al. 2002;
Vaidyanathan et al. 2002). The different estimates of suspended sediment load from the GB river system havebeen documented in various studies and are summarizedin Table 1. The sedimentation in the downstream reachesof the GB is related to the lowland fluvial processes andaggradation/degradational behavior of midstream alluvial reaches, which may create such variability of sediment load estimations among the researchers (Goswami
1985; Islam et al. 1999; Jain et al. 2012). Nevertheless, thesediment load values comprise significant uncertainties,
and exact values cannot be determined despite continuous decadal observations due to wide diurnal, seasonal,
and annual variations in the sediment transport capacityof the GB Rivers (Subramanian and Ramanathan 1996;

Page 11 of 22

Table 1 Estimates of suspended sediment load (million tons/
year) of the Ganges–Brahmaputra River from different studies(updated after Islam et al. 1999)
Suspended sediment of Ganges
River

Suspended sediment ofBrahmaputra River(Mt/y) (Reference)(Mt/y) (Reference)

375

NEDECO (1967)

750

NEDECO (1967)

1600

Holeman (1968)

800

Holeman (1968)

485

Coleman (1969)

617

Coleman (1969)520

BWDB (1972)

541

BWDB (1972)

680

Milliman and Meade(1983)

1157

Milliman and Meade (1983)

328*

Abbas and Subramanian(1984)

402*

Goswami (1985)

729*

Abbas and Subramanian(1984)

710*

Subramanian (1987)

403

Singh (1988)

650

Hossain (1992)

316

Islam et al. (1999)

721

Islam et al. (1999)

550

CEGIS (2010)

590

CEGIS (2010)

NEDECO The Netherlands Engineering Consultants Ltd., CEGIS The Center for
Environmental and Geographic Information Services*Estimated at Indian reach and rest of the estimate stands for Bangladesh

Islam et al. 1999). The Brahmaputra has higher suspended load than the Ganges (Coleman 1969; Milliman
and Meade 1983; Islam et al. 1999), because the eastern
Himalayan range has higher precipitation and higher
erosion rates than the western part (Galy and FranceLenord 2001). Nevertheless, according to various estimates of sediment transport in several studies, it can be
mentioned that the aggradation or degradation processes
in the mid-downstream alluvial reaches are quite complicated, causing significant variability of deposition rates inthe downstream reaches (Jain et al. 2012).
2.2.2.2 Sediment discharge The GBM river system incombination discharges 1 × ­1012 ­m3 of water and 1 × ­109
t of sediment per year to the Bay of Bengal (Goodbred
and Kuehl 1999; Wasson 2003; Akter et al. 2016), of which
440 × ­106 t/y and 540 × ­106 t/y is contributed by Ganges
and Brahmaputra, respectively (Milliman and Syvitski1992). According to Islam et al. (1999), the Ganges andthe Brahmaputra in combination carried 1037 million
tons/y of sediment into Bangladesh, of which about 525
million tons/y (51%) reaches the sea, 289 million tons/y(28%) deposited on land to balance the basin subsidence,and the remaining 223 million tons/y (21%) is depositedon the river beds. In turn, about 49% of the total sediment budget is trapped or deposited before the coastal
region (Islam et al. 1999). This contributes to the intensemonsoon flooding that facilitates the longer overbank
flow (Ashworth and Lewin 2012). The suspended sedi-Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

ment load estimation of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, andcombined GB River was derived from the gauging datafrom the Hardinge Bridge, Bahadurabad, and Mawa stations (160 km downstream of Hardinge Bridge), respectively (Fig. 3). The aggradation of the Brahmaputra River(> 14.7 mm/year) suggests that around 30–40% of GB
sediment flux is estimated to be deposited in Bangladeshdeltaic region before being transferred into the ocean(Goodbred and Kuehl 1999; Jain et al. 2012). Moreover,the Ganges River beds are aggrading about 3.9 ­cmy−1, 2.5
times higher than the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh (Islamet al. 1999).
Recently, Dietrich et al. (2020) provides a first-order
estimate of the yearly discharge of elements in the suspended sediment load to the BoB by the Ganges–Brahmaputra based on the dataset of Garzanti et al. (2011)that includes grain size, suspended sediment concentration, mineralogy, and element concentrations for
suspended load samples collected at 0 to 24 m depths
from locations in the Ganges (downstream of Hardinge
Bridge), Brahmaputra (Sirajganj to Jamuna Bridge), andPadma (near Mawa) rivers during the monsoon season. This study shows that, on average, the GBM systemtransport 0.7 × ­109 tons/y sediments to the BoB, contributing ~ 5% of the global riverine discharge of solidphase elements. These elements are relatively enriched in
Hf (hafnium), Zr (zirconium), Th (thorium), REEs (rareearth elements), Sn (tin), and Bi (bismuth), largely reflecting the nature of Himalayan source material. Moreover, it
should be mentioned that future anthropogenic changes
such as large-scale damming projects could significantly
alter the delivery of sediment into the BoB, i.e., completion of the proposed National River Linking Project(NRLP) in India may reduce the annual suspended sediment load in the Ganges and Brahmaputra by 39–75%
and 9–25%, respectively (Higgins et al. 2018). Also, futureclimate change scenarios projected the increase in sediment discharge by 34–37% in the Ganges and 52–60% in
the Brahmaputra by the end of the twenty-first century(Darby et al. 2015).
Unfortunately, the quantitative sediment budget studies of Islam et al. (1999) and Dietrich et al. (2020) do
not consider the sedimentation at lower Meghna (after
Padma River between Mawa and the mouth of theserivers), which is naturally dynamic and also altered byvarious anthropogenic stressors. Also, the mechanism orprocess of sediment dispersal including sediment connectivity pattern from the erosion-dominated upper GB
to the lower Meghna (tide and wave dominated) has notbeen fully mentioned or understood. At the lower GB,
the main channel of the Meghna River, which is composed of braided and meandering channel sedimentsfrom the Brahmaputra/Jamuna and Ganges (Mukherjee

Page 12 of 22

et al. 2009), contributes significantly to the stratigraphyof main delta downstream (Goodbred et al. 2014). Furthermore, the downstream delta is also dominated bytidal wave rather than runoff where Meghna–Surma(both fluvial and tidal) sediments contribute considerably (Islam et al. 2002). The sediment load of GBM delta
is geochemically distinct, which makes this a potential
location to unravel the dynamics of multiple fluvial systems interacting within a tectonically active basin (Goodbred et al. 2014; Li et al. 2020). Thus, the suspended loaddata, aggradation scenario, and projected sediment load
estimation suggest disconnected or partially connected
Himalayan foreland, where the eroded sediments from
Himalayan could not reach the downstream sink area.
Therefore, the geomorphic connectivity from the Himalayan to the BoB might be affected by sediment trapping before the mouth of these GBM rivers. Hence, thebasin-wide integrated investigation from source to themouth focusing on the lower Meghna reach may provide
insights into quantifying annual sediment released by the
GBM river system into the BoB. A conceptual diagramthat shows the geomorphic connectivity impeded by sediment trapping within the GBM basin from the existingstudies is presented in Fig. 5.
As noted, the GBM river supports over 150 million
people at downstream reaches (Bangladesh), which arevulnerable to the impacts of relative sea level rise, climate changes, annual floods, shifts in land use, and water
management (Brammer 2014; Goodbred et al. 2014).
Accordingly, based on the findings by Miah (1988) andBrammer (1990a, b a, b), it was reported that more than
56.9% of total areas of Bangladesh are flooded annually
due to monsoon rainfalls and increased water discharge
from the upstream Himalayan area (BGS/DPHE 2001).
Also, Coleman (1969) estimated that during flood events,
sand bars migrated at a rate of 300–450 m/day or evenup to 600 m/day, and channel area increased about 300%in the Brahmaputra. Besides, Singh et al. (2007) reported
that floods in the Ganges are also strongly influenced byhigh sediment discharge and water volume, and this has
also been mentioned by the other studies (Wallick et al.
2007; Ahmed and Fawzi 2011; Yao et al. 2011; Rozo et al.
2014). It is obvious that sustainable river management isdemanded and challenged in the large GBM river, whichtends to flow in international basins (Gupta 2007; Rasul2014). However, the lack of publicly available long-termand spatially distributed hydrological data (discharge
and river characteristics) at a basin-wide scale limits
the understanding of hydrological and geomorphological processes of the GBM river basin (Kibler et al. 2014),
which is a prerequisite for sustainable water resource
management in this downstream region (Fischer et al.
2017). Being a downstream country, Bangladesh faces

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

Page 13 of 22

Fig. 5 A conceptual diagram showing the geomorphic connectivity from the Himalayan upstream to the BoB based on the existing literature(Goodbred and Kuehl 1999; Islam et al. 1999, 2001; Wasson 2003; Garzanti et al. 2011; Jain et al. 2012; Dietrich et al. 2020). On the right side,
sediment contribution from upstream two major basins is shown. On the left side, the connected (1) and partially connected (2) or disconnected(3) geomorphic systems are visualized from source to sink areas. The fluvial sedimentation processes (i.e., excessive sediment sequestering, riverbed
aggradation) and anthropogenic stressors (i.e., river engineering, barrage, and dam construction) may change the geomorphic connectivity in the
GBM river system. The altering geomorphic connectivity from connected to partially connected or disconnected, impeded by sediment trapping,
may significantly impact the GBM river’s hydro-geomorphic system. Mt/y denotes the million tons per year

many challenges in coping with altering geomorphic
characteristics of the large GBM river basin and is often
dictated by decisions taken outside its border. Hence, therelevant case studies of geomorphic research in Bangladesh and subsequent discussion on large-scale fluvial
sedimentation on the GBM river system will enhance ourunderstanding, which may be helpful to improve the government policies or strategies regarding integrated river
basin management more sustainably. Technical challenges related to river management may arise from a lackof scientific understanding of river basins or imperfectengineering skills to manage according to that understanding (Stanley and Boulton 2000). The existing policies, plans, guidelines, and laws related to the integrated
water resources management (IWRM) in Bangladesh
also emphasize the understanding of the geomorphic
process in GBM for sustainable development (Alam andQuevauviller 2014). Hence, the understandings of thefluvial geomorphic processes of upstream dominatedlarge GBM river basins at a regional scale is essential toenhance the transboundary cooperation among the basin
sharing countries like China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India.
However, the different case studies of fluvial geomorphic research at the downstream Ganges–Brahmaputra(Bangladesh) presented here do not involve a full potentiality of remote sensing techniques or tools in fluvial geomorphology. Therefore, applying the advanced remotesensing techniques and field-based approaches to fluvial research (e.g., Oguchi et al. 2022) in the future may
provide a new dimension of fluvial geomorphic researchin the hazard-prone deltaic landscape of Bangladesh.
Also, our study is limited by collecting the estimates ofsuspended load at the different reaches of the Ganges–
Brahmaputra river basin, which does not describe thesampling procedure and methods of suspended load
calculation of each study mentioned in Table 1. Therefore, clarifying different methodologies of suspended
load estimation may be necessary to understand better the large variations of suspended load estimations
among the researchers and the sediment budget of theFaisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

Ganges–Brahmaputra river basin from the Himalayan to
the Bay of Bengal.
2.3 Future perspective of geomorphic researchin Bangladesh

Modern quantitative geomorphological researches onhillslope, glacial, fluvial, and coastal processes have beensignificantly benefited from the availability of mediumto-high-resolution (10‒90 m cell size) DEMs (e.g., SRTM,
ASTER G-DEM, TanDEM-X) and satellite images (e.g.,Landsat, MODIS, and Sentinel 1–3) at regional andglobal scales for free or at a low cost (Oguchi and Wasklewicz 2011; Bishop 2013; Hackney and Clayton 2015; Otto
et al. 2018; Oguchi et al. 2022). Although it is beyond thescope of this article to give a full overview of potential
applications and improvements of geomorphic research
considering the availability of remote sensing techniques
and tools, here we explore some research gaps between
recent advancement of geomorphological researches andearlier geomorphic studies of Bangladesh and provide
future perspectives on the better understandings of thegeomorphic processes in the context of the upper Ganges–Brahmaputra dominated Bangladesh.
2.3.1 Mountain areas

Notably, there has been an exponential growth of scientific research on mountain and hillslope environments
in recent decades (Stoffel and Marston 2013; Slaymakerand Embleton-Hamann 2018; Carrión-Mero et al. 2021).
Landslide susceptibility mapping is one of the major topics frequently assessed in mountainous and hilly areas.
Hence, the landslide susceptibility mapping based on
quantum particle swamp optimization (QPSO)–alternating decision tree (ADTree) algorithm can be a promising
tool for managing landslide disaster in complex mountainous terrain, successfully applied in Sikkim Himalayan(Islam et al. 2021). Although some studies on landslide
susceptibility mapping or modeling have been carried out
in hilly (CHT) areas of Bangladesh (Ahmed et al. 2014;
Ahmed and Dewan 2017; Rahman et al. 2017; Rabby and
Li 2020; Abedin et al. 2020), those approaches based onairborne LiDAR, Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), andUAS data are mostly missing. The use of such advanced
remote sensing datasets with a high resolution or accuracy should benefit the improved assessments of mountain hazards at a local scale. Therefore, it is anticipated toperform remote sensing-based geomorphic research on
hilly region and steep slopes. The development of open
access database of such remote-sensing datasets will contribute to establish a landslide early-warning system toprotect the landslide vulnerable community of the CHTregion.

Page 14 of 22

2.3.2 Fluvial environments

After analyzing the fluvial processes of the Indian partof the Ganges–Brahmaputra delta, Subramanian and
Ramanathan (1996) and Rudra (2014) mentioned theunavailability of time-series data in the upper GBM
catchments and had some limitations. For instance, thework of Rudra (2014) was criticized and rectified by Bandyopadhyay et al. (2015) regarding the delineation of theBengal basin, deltaic evolution, and discharge data for
a better understanding of the fluvial geomorphic processes. However, the studies about the fluvial channel
dynamics concerning Bangladesh have been started after
1990s and most of the geospatial studies have been dealing with river channel shifting (Sarker et al. 2014; Islam
2016; Dewan et al. 2017; Akhter et al. 2019; Gazi et al.
2020a), riverbank line shifting, riverbank erosion, andaccretion (Billah 2018; Gazi et al. 2020b; Biswas et al.
2021). Accordingly, the research on the formation of an
alluvial channel, causes of channel migration, anthropogenic impacts on fluvial system, and processes of anomalous channel variations at the downstream GBM Riveris still sparse or even missing. Further extensive studies
are therefore required to understand better the fluvial
settings considering the upstream to downstream hydrogeomorphic connectivity. Besides, the encouragement for
fluvial geomorphic research in this understudied region
can be taken from fluvial research advancement mentioned by Stott (2013), Wohl (2014), Piégay et al. (2015),
and Oguchi et al. (2022). Hence, it is necessary to extend
the geospatial research on the fluvial channel dynamics
and connectivity, especially with a detailed river basinmorphometric analysis at various spatiotemporal scales
for predicting the morphological changes along the GBM
basin. For example, hotspot zonation of riverbank erosion could be assessed with advanced techniques in thedownstream Bangladesh.
On the other hand, the advancement in the applicationof remote sensing and GIS for riverbank management,
including flood monitoring and risk assessment, has significantly facilitated in the last two decades (Sanyal andLu 2004). Also, the use of satellite data for flood forecasting and monitoring is more frequent in developed
countries than in the developing country like Bangladesh,
where the geospatial data usability largely depends on theavailability of cloud-free open access data. Nevertheless,in Bangladesh, most of the riverbank management studies are confined to post-flood monitoring (Hoque et al.
2011), flood susceptibility mapping (Rahman and Salehin 2013; Sarker and Rashid 2013a, b; Adnan et al. 2019;
Sarkar et al. 2022), flood inundation mapping, and somesmall-scale watershed morphometric studies (Rahaman
et al. 2017; Jahan et al. 2018). Consequently, a detailedhydro-geomorphological study of the major watershedFaisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

floodplain at different spatial and temporal scales isrequired to make some meaningful flood hazard maps,
prediction of extreme flood effects, flood forecasting, andwarning based on watershed morphometric analysis anddamage assessment in Bangladesh.
Furthermore, the large discharge and heavy sedimentload affect the unstable conditions of the Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna Rivers, where channels are constantly
migrating. However, despite the high possibilities ofsediment disasters, only a few studies have been conducted considering the mechanisms of fluvial sedimenttransport and dynamics in the active downstream GBM
basins. Some of the studies are linked to the distributionof suspended sediment concentration at a small scale in
Bangladesh (Islam et al. 1999, 2001, 2002; Adnan et al.
2020). It should be noted that fluvial sediments are transported to Bangladesh from upstream source areas, andtherefore studies on sediment dynamics need to describe
the sediment connectivity and transportation pathways
at a watershed scale. Researches on sediment connectivity and hydrological connectivity are growing rapidly
in different hydro-geomorphic setting across the world
at various spatial and temporal scales, which includes
26 different countries including the Ganges basin in
India (Cavalli et al. 2013; Najafi et al. 2021; Mishra et al.
2019; Swarnkar et al. 2020). However, such studies havenot been carried out yet in the downstream basins in
Bangladesh, which is a sink area connected to the large
upstream basins of the Ganges–Brahmaputra river system and highly prone to repeated sediment disasters.
Despite the significance of the entire Ganges–Brahmaputra river system, modeling of the basin-scale sediment
dynamics based on climate change scenarios, connecting
the upper (China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India) and lower(Bangladesh) Ganges–Brahmaputra basins, has been
limited (Khan et al. 2018). Therefore, it is obligatory toextend the geomorphic studies, specifically on sedimentyield estimation, sediment budgeting, rainfall–runoff
relationship, sediment connectivity, and sediment transport mechanisms connecting upstream erosion zone tothe downstream deposition zone in Bangladesh. Geospatial modeling of sediment dynamics for the downstream
GBM river basin based on the rapidly changing rivermorphology is also necessary to facilitate the researchfindings for disaster countermeasures.
2.3.3 Plain land and coastal areas

Although comprehensive geomorphic mapping is essential for landscape development and urban development,
this important section is mostly ignored for the national
development program of Bangladesh. Most of the plain
land geomorphic studies in Bangladesh have been related
to geomorphic mapping or identification of geomorphic

Page 15 of 22

units (Kamal and Midorikawa 2004; Islam et al. 2015a, b;
Mahmud et al. 2017; Karim et al. 2019; Arefin and Alam
2020) and identification of groundwater potential zones(Arefin 2020a, 2020b; Akter et al. 2020), but their accuracy and precision have been somewhat limited. Therefore, comprehensive geomorphic studies of active plain
land are required for proper landscape assessment andmanagement in the densely populated areas in Bangladesh, where the framework of Thorne (2002) can beconsidered as a blueprint for geomorphic studies of large
rivers like the Ganges and Brahmaputra.
The ununiformed sea level rise along the coast due
to high sediment dispersal from the GBM river system makes the delta system more complex and vulnerable (Islam 2011; Rashid et al. 2013; Sarwar 2013; Karan
2015). Nevertheless, the coastal geomorphology of Bangladesh is poorly understood, where most of the coastal
geomorphic studies are restricted to shoreline shifting (Shibly and Takewaka 2012; Islam et al. 2013; Kabiret al. 2020), coastal erosion and accretion (Rahman 2012;
Alam and Uddin 2013; Sarker et al. 2013; Sarwar andWoodroffe 2013; Hussain et al. 2014), and morphologicalstudies (Islam et al. 2015a, b; Miah et al. 2020) at small
scale. Hereafter, further research is obligatory considering the long-term changes in the sediment supply fromthe GBM basin, associating the coastal morphologicalchanges and relative sea level rise throughout the Bangladesh coast, which is critical to protect about 35 million
people therein (Ahmad 2019). For this purpose, somecoastal geomorphological research trends and challenges
mentioned in French and Burningham (2009) can be considered as well for further improvement in coastal geomorphic research in Bangladesh.
2.3.4 General plain land

The above-mentioned earlier geomorphic researches
provide some understandings of the evolution pattern oflandforms, channel diversion, discharge variability, andsediment estimation at a country scale, but geomorphic
studies at larger spatiotemporal scales have been limitedin Bangladesh. Also, the causes of discharge (water andsediment) variability patterns, aggradation, deposition,
upstream to downstream sediment connectivity patterns,
and human-induced perturbation on river geomorphology have not been mentioned or studied clearly. Furthermore, the projection of future behavior of river formation
at different spatiotemporal scales based on fluvial geomorphology, hydrology, and meteorology does not exist
in these areas, but these are important for understanding
the watershed-scale landscape development and the sustainability of the river basin management.

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

3 Conclusions
Although the review of earlier geomorphic studies provided here generally focuses on some significant knowledge and research gaps in one country (Bangladesh), we
propose the necessity of exploring the wider area studies
on fluvio-geomorphic and sedimentation processes inthe entire GBM basin, from the upstream erosion pronezone (China, Nepal, Bhutan, and India) to downstream
deposition zone (Bangladesh). The bankline migration,
human interventions, and tidal processes in the Ganges;
avulsion, sedimentation, erosion and accretion, and river
channel dimensions in the Brahmaputra; shoreline shifting, erosion, and migration of the Ganges–Brahmaputra
confluence have often been investigated at a small scale(country scale). However, the aggradation in the Ganges
floodplain and retention of suspended sediment within
the Brahmaputra channel are impacted by the upstream
fluvio-sedimentation processes of the GBM river system,
where the geomorphic connectivity from Himalayan to
the Bay of Bengal is affected by sediment trapping before
the mouth of the GBM rivers. Therefore, integrated
regional research or basin-wide studies are required forcomprehensive understanding of the fluvial processes
and sediment dispersal mechanisms from upstream todownstream GBM concerning Bangladesh. In particular,
the advanced remote sensing techniques (such as UAS
imagery, LiDAR) for geomorphological research, which
are encouragingly used in neighboring countries like
China (Le Heron et al. 2019), India (Ramsankaran et al.
2020; Dhote et al. 2022), Bhutan (Dunning et al. 2009;
Tempa et al. 2021), Nepal (Immerzeel et al. 2014; Kraaijenbrink et al. 2016; Van Woerkom et al. 2019), Pakistan(Khan et al. 2021), and in other parts of the worlds (Śledź
et al. 2021), will improve the understandings of landscapeevolution and fluvial dynamics not only in the upper
Ganges–Brahmaputra but also the entire watershed scale
including the downstream reaches in Bangladesh.
In summary, the literature review and discussion
presented here provide very first step toward developing a detailed and documented understanding of thefluvio-geomorphic dynamics in the GBM River. We
conclude that the fluvial geomorphic research at different spatial and temporal scales is a prerequisite fora large-scale basin management which is still missing
here, for which the advancement from the present geomorphic research aptitude is necessary to solve a wide
range of problems related to sustainable river basin
management and disaster risk reduction. Also, thegovernment policymaker can get a comprehensive ideafrom the subsequent discussion on the fluvial geomorphic research scale (borderless or basin-wide scale)and improve their policies or strategies accordingly toPage 16 of 22

focus more on transboundary bilateral and multilateralcollaboration (i.e., in situ gauging data sharing) with
upstream countries like China, Nepal, Bhutan, andIndia.
Abbreviations
ADTree: Alternating decision tree; AHP: Artificial hierarchy process; ALOS:
Advanced Land Observing Satellite; ARIMA: Autoregressive integrated moving
average; AVHRR: Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer; BoB: Bay of Bengal; BWDB: Bangladesh Water Development Board; CHT: Chittagong Hill Tracts;
CDMP: Comprehensive Disaster Management Program; CVI: Coastal Vulnerability Index; DEM: Digital elevation model; FDP: Fluvial deltaic plain; FTDP:
Fluvio-tidal deltaic plain; GB: Ganges–Brahmaputra; GBM: Ganges–Brahmaputra–Meghna; GDEM: Global digital elevation models; GJC: Ganges–Jamuna
confluence; HHC: High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence; ITS: Indus–Tsangpo
suture; IWRM: Integrated Water Resources Management; LH: Lesser Himalayas;
LiDAR: Light detection and ranging; NPDM: National Plan for Disaster Management; PALSAR: Phased array-type L-band synthetic aperture radar; PMC:
Padma–Meghna confluence; QPSO: Quantum particle swamp optimization;
REEs: Rare earth elements; SAR: Synthetic aperture radar; SoB: Survey of Bangladesh; SPI: Stream Power Index; SSC: Suspended sediment concentration;
SRTM: Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission; TRM: Tidal river management; THB:Trans-Himalayan batholiths; TSS: Tethyan Sedimentary Series; UAS: Unmanned
aerial system; WLC: Weighted linear combination.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) scholarship. This work is partially supported by
JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP16KK0012, JP17H02031, and JP21H00625. We
are grateful to the editors Hiroya Yamano, Yoshihiro Iijima, and Eiji Ohtani, andtwo anonymous reviewers whose critical but warmful comments significantly
improved our paper.
Author contributions
RF proposed the topic, collected the references, and drafted the manuscript.
YH drafted the manuscript as the corresponding author. All authors read andapproved the final manuscript.
Funding
RF is funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) scholarship. YH is funded by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
JP16KK0012, JP17H02031, and JP21H00625.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Author details
1
Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Hokkaido 060‑0810, Japan. 2 Bangladesh Space Research and Remote Sensing
Organization (SPARRSO), Agargaon, Sher‑e‑Bangla Nagar, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh. 3 Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo,
Hokkaido 060‑0810, Japan.
Received: 21 December 2021 Accepted: 5 July 2022

Faisal and Hayakawa ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2022) 9:41

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