June 2024
Country of Origin Information

Iran –Country Focus

Iran – Country Focus
Country of Origin Information Report

June 2024

Manuscript completed in June 2024
Neither the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) nor any person acting on behalf of the
EUAA is responsible for the use that might be made of the information contained within thispublication.
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2024
PDF

ISBN 978-92-9410-113-6

doi: 10.2847/565801 BZ-10.2847/565801© European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), 2024
Cover photo: Iran, Isfahan, Imam Square, Sheikh Lotfollah mosque, Tuul & Bruno Morandi,©gettyimages, 2016, url
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproductionof photos or other material that is not under the EUAA copyright, permission must be sought
directly from the copyright holders.

IRAN - COUNTRY FOCUS

Acknowledgements
This report was written by the Country of Origin Information (COI) sector of EUAA.
The following national COI departments reviewed the report:
Austria, Federal Office for Immigration and Asylum, Country of Origin
Information Department••

Denmark, Danish Immigration Service (DIS)France, Office for the Protection of Refugees and Stateless Persons (OFPRA),
Information, Documentation and Research Division (DIDR)•

Greece, Asylum Processes and Training Department, Greek Asylum Service,
Ministry of Migration and Asylum•

The Netherlands, Ministry of Justice and Security, Immigration andNaturalisation Service, Office for Country Information and Language Analysis(OCILA)•The review carried out by the mentioned departments contributes to the overall quality of thereport, but does not necessarily imply their formal endorsement of the final report, which is thefull responsibility of the EUAA.

3

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMContents
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ 3Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Disclaimer ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Glossary and abbreviations ........................................................................................................... 9
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 11
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Defining the terms of reference .................................................................................. 11
Collecting information .................................................................................................... 11
Quality control .................................................................................................................. 11
Sources ................................................................................................................................................. 12
Structure and use of the report ...................................................................................................... 12
Map ................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.

General overview ..............................................................................................................141.1. System of government and political situation in the country .........................................141.1.1. System of government .......................................................................................14
1.1.2. Assembly of Experts........................................................................................... 15
1.1.3. Parliament ............................................................................................................. 16
1.1.4. President ............................................................................................................... 16
1.1.5. Guardian Council ................................................................................................. 17
1.1.6. Expediency Council ............................................................................................. 17
1.1.7. Political situation ................................................................................................. 18
1.2. Iranian armed forces ................................................................................................................. 19
1.2.1. Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) ............................................... 20
1.2.2. Quds force ............................................................................................................ 21
1.2.3. Basij ........................................................................................................................ 21
1.2.4. Police force .......................................................................................................... 22
1.2.5. Morality police..................................................................................................... 23
1.2.6. Iran’s intelligence agencies............................................................................. 23
1.2.7. Military service and recruitment..................................................................... 25

2.

Security situation ............................................................................................................. 27

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

2.1. Baluch groups ........................................................................................................................... 28
2.2. Kurdish groups .......................................................................................................................... 29
2.3. Arab groups ............................................................................................................................... 30
2.4. Regional security issues ......................................................................................................... 30
3.

Legal system and the judiciary ........................................................................................ 31
3.1. Overview of the judicial system..............................................................................................31
3.2. Punishments under the law ....................................................................................................33
3.2.1. Hadd punishments .............................................................................................34
3.2.2. Qesas punishments ........................................................................................... 36
3.2.3. Diyeh punishments ............................................................................................ 38
3.2.4. Ta’zir punishments ............................................................................................ 38
3.3. Punishments related to violence against women ............................................................ 39
3.4. Criminal Courts .......................................................................................................................... 40
3.4.1. Criminal Courts One ............................................................................................41
3.4.2. Criminal Courts Two ............................................................................................41
3.4.3. Revolutionary Courts ........................................................................................ 42
3.4.4. Juvenile courts.....................................................................................................43
3.5. Appellate Courts.........................................................................................................................44
3.5.1. Courts of appeal ..................................................................................................44
3.5.2. The Supreme Court ........................................................................................... 45
3.6. Special Clerical Courts ............................................................................................................ 45
3.7. Due process ............................................................................................................................... 46
3.7.1. Access to legal representation ...................................................................... 48
3.7.1. SANA system ...................................................................................................... 50
3.8. Treatment in detention and prison conditions ................................................................. 50
3.9. Death penalty ............................................................................................................................ 53
3.9.1. Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal Code ...... 54
3.9.2. Implementation of the death penalty ........................................................... 55
3.9.3. Use of the death penalty against critics of the authorities ......................57

4.

Treatment of certain profiles and groups of population .............................................. 60
4.1. Political opposition and other dissenting groups ............................................................ 60
4.2. Protesters ................................................................................................................................... 63
4.3. Human rights defenders, activists, and lawyers .............................................................. 68

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.4. Journalists and media workers ..............................................................................................70
4.5. Education personnel.................................................................................................................72
4.6. Draft evaders and deserters................................................................................................... 74
4.7. Ethnic minorities ........................................................................................................................75
4.7.1. Overview ...............................................................................................................75
4.7.2. Kurds ......................................................................................................................76
4.7.3. Yarsan Kurdish community...............................................................................79
4.7.4. Faili Kurds..............................................................................................................79
4.7.5. Baluches ............................................................................................................... 80
4.8. Religious minorities ................................................................................................................... 81
4.8.1. Freedom of religion and belief ........................................................................ 81
4.8.2. Christians............................................................................................................... 81
4.8.3. Baha’is................................................................................................................... 83
4.8.4. Zoroastrians......................................................................................................... 84
4.9. Other ethnic and religious groups ....................................................................................... 84
4.10. Individuals transgressing religious and moral codes .................................................... 85
4.10.1. Conversion........................................................................................................... 85
4.10.2. Apostasy............................................................................................................. 86
4.10.3. Atheism ............................................................................................................... 86
4.10.4. Blasphemy .......................................................................................................... 87
4.10.5. Behaviour perceived as transgressing religious and moral codes ..... 87
4.11. Women and girls ....................................................................................................................... 88
4.11.1. Women’s rights ................................................................................................... 88
4.11.2. Dress-code ......................................................................................................... 89
4.11.3. Marriage and restrictions related to divorce ............................................. 92
4.11.4. Forced and child marriage ............................................................................. 92
4.11.5. Widows ................................................................................................................ 94
4.11.6. Violence against women and girls ............................................................... 94
4.11.7. Trafficking in women and girls ...................................................................... 96
4.11.8. Domestic and honour-related violence .......................................................97
4.11.9. Access to justice ............................................................................................... 98
4.12. LGBTIQ persons and activists for LBGTIQ rights ........................................................... 99
5.

Socio-economic situation in Tehran .............................................................................. 101

6

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

5.1. Mobility and admittance ......................................................................................................... 101
5.2. Socio-economic overview ..................................................................................................... 102
5.2.1. Economy.............................................................................................................. 102
5.2.2. Employment........................................................................................................ 103
5.2.3. Unemployment .................................................................................................. 104
5.2.4. Poverty ................................................................................................................. 104
5.2.5. Food security ..................................................................................................... 105
5.2.6. Housing ............................................................................................................... 105
5.2.7. Healthcare .......................................................................................................... 106
5.2.8. Education ............................................................................................................ 107
Annex 1: Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 109
Oral sources, including anonymous sources ........................................................................... 109
Public sources................................................................................................................................... 109
Annex 2: Terms of Reference .................................................................................................... 150

7EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Disclaimer
This report was written according to the EUAA COI Report Methodology (2023). The report isbased on carefully selected sources of information. All sources used are referenced.
The information contained in this report has been researched, evaluated and analysed withutmost care within a limited timeframe. However, this document does not claim to be
exhaustive. If a particular event, person or organisation is not mentioned in the report, thisdoes not mean that the event has not taken place or that the person or organisation does notexist. Any event taking place after the finalisation of this report is not included. Moreinformation on the reference period for this report can be found in the introduction.
Furthermore, this report is not conclusive as to the determination or merit of any particularapplication for international protection. Terminology used should not be regarded asindicative of a particular legal position.
‘Refugee’, ‘risk’ and similar terminology are used as generic terminology and not in the legal
sense as applied in the EU Asylum Acquis, the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967
Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees.
Neither EUAA nor any person acting on its behalf may be held responsible for the use which
may be made of the information contained in this report.
On 19 January 2022, the European Asylum Support Office (EASO) became the European
Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA). All references to EASO, EASO products and bodies should
be understood as references to the EUAA.
The drafting of this report was finalised on 17 April 2024. Some limited information has been
added during the finalisation of the report until 21 May 2024. More information on thereference period for this report can be found in the methodology section of the Introduction.

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Glossary and abbreviations
Term

Definition

ArteshRegular army

Basij

Mobilisation

Diyeh

Blood money paid to the victim or their closest relative

Efsad fil-arz

A crime of ‘corruption on earth’, punishable by death

FGM/C

Female genital mutilation/cutting

Hadd

Crimes ‘against the rights of God’ under Islamic religious law(plural hudud)

KolbarWorker who transports goods on his/her back across the Iran,Iraq, Syria and Türkiye borders (mainly referring to Kurds)

Moharebeh

A crime of ‘waging war against God’, punishable by death

Qesas

Retributive punishment for murder and other violent crimes

ShariaIslamic law

Sokhtbar

Fuel carrier (mainly referred to Baluches)

Ta’zirCrimes punished at the discretion of the judge

ASMLA

Arab Struggle for Movement for the Liberation of Ahwaz

IRGC

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps

IRGC-IO

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Intelligence Organisation

KDPI

Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran

KSZK

Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan

MOIS

Ministry of Intelligence and Security

PAK

Kurdistan Freedom Party

PJAK

Free Life Party of Kurdistan

9EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TermDefinition

UN FFM

United Nations Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on
the Islamic Republic of IranUN OHCHR

United Nations Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights

10IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Introduction
The purpose of this report is to provide contextual information of relevance to the assessmentof applications for international protection, including refugee status and subsidiary protection,and to the development of EUAA’s country guidance on Iran.
The report covers the period of 1 January 2023–17 April 2024. Events taking place after theend of the reference period have not been included, apart from some limited information
added during the finalisation of the report, until 21 May 2024.

Methodology
This report was drafted by EUAA and reviewed by EUAA and national COI departments in EU+
countries, as mentioned in the Acknowledgements section.
This report is produced in line with the EUAA COI Report Methodology (2023) 1 and the EUAA
COI Writing and Referencing Style Guide (2023).2

Defining the terms of reference
The terms of reference (ToR) of this report were defined by EUAA based on input received
from COI experts in the EUAA COI Specialist Network on Iran and policy experts in EU+
countries in the framework of a Country Guidance development on Iran. The ToR for thisreport can be found in Annex 2: Terms of Reference.

Collecting information
The information gathered is a result of research using public, specialised paper-based andelectronic sources until 17 April 2024. Some limited additional information was added during
the finalisation of this report in response to feedback received during the quality control
process, until 21 May 2024.

Quality control
To ensure that the authors respected the EUAA COI Report Methodology and that the Termsof Reference were comprehensively addressed, a review was carried out by COI specialists
from the countries listed as reviewers in the Acknowledgements section. All comments madeby the reviewers were taken into consideration and most of them were implemented in the
final draft of this report, which was finalised on 10 May 2024. EUAA also performed the final
quality review and editing of the text.

EUAA, EUAA Country of Origin Information (COI) Report Methodology, February 2023, url
EUAA, EUAA Writing and Referencing Guide for EUAA Country of Origin Information (COI) Reports, February
2023, url
12

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Sources
In accordance with EUAA COI Report Methodology, a range of different publisheddocumentary sources has been consulted on relevant topics for this report. These include:
COI reports by governments; information from civil society, advocacy groups, andhumanitarian organisations; reports from international human rights NGOs; reports producedby various bodies of the United Nations, in particular the Independent International FactFinding Mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran; Iranian and regionally-based media; academic
publications, think tank reports and specialised sources covering Iran. All information fromthese sources was consulted within time and research constraints posed by Iran’s challenging
information-gathering environment.
In addition to using publicly available documentary sources, several oral sources were
contacted for this report. Some sources who were interviewed chose to remain anonymousfor security reasons. Sources were assessed for their background, publication history,
reputability and current ground-level knowledge. All oral sources are described in Annex 1:
Bibliography.

Structure and use of the report
The report covers a general overview including the system of government, political situationand state authorities in chapter one, security situation in chapter two, the legal system and the
judiciary including detention and prison conditions in chapter three, treatment of certain
profiles and groups of population in chapter four and the key socio-economic situation in
Tehran in chapter five.

12

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Map

Map 1. Iran3

3

Administrative and political map of Iran, Lesniewski, @Adobe Stock, url

13

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

1.

General overview

1.1.

System of government and political situation in the
country

1.1.1.

System of government

In 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran was established4 based on the principle of Velayat-e
Faqih (‘guardianship of the Islamic Jurist’5). The new leaders have increasingly dominated preexisting institutions and brought them under a political structure governed by religious ruling,which is known as the nezâm (‘the system’).6 The clerics enforced ‘conservative values’,7 and‘Sharia law became the law of the land’.8 Shia clerics9 and Shia belief,10 as well as a Persiandominated central government11 came to control ‘every aspect of life’ in the country.12
The Iranian Constitution established ‘a hybrid governing system with theocratic authority andrepublican elements’.13 Under the Constitution, separation of power exists between theexecutive, legislative and judiciary bodies.14 However, the current Supreme Leader of Iran,
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei,15 stands as the highest authority with no fixed term in office,16
controlling all state institutions and holding religious power in the country.17 He is the Head ofState and commander in chief of the armed forces.18 Ayatollah Ali Khamenei is the Supreme
Leader of Iran since August 1989.19 The office of the Supreme Leader assists the Supreme
Leader on matters related to military political affairs and liaises with intelligence and internal
security agencies.20 Any threat to the survival of the Supreme Leader or the Iranian state isconsidered moharebeh (‘enmity against God’), which can be punished by death.21

CRS, Iran: background and U.S. policy, 23 March 2023, url, p. 2
Le Monde, 'Ayatollah Khamenei's blind paranoia explains the ferocity of repression in Iran', 15 January 2023, url
6
MEI, The road to war with Iran is paved with good intentions and serious miscalculations, 2 February 2024, url
7
Britannica, Iranian Revolution, [1976-1979)], 30 April 2024, url
8
Jerusalem Post (The), An encounter with Marziyeh Amirizadeh: Iranian Christian activist, 15 May 2023, url
9Freedom House, Iran, 28 February 2024, url
10
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, p. 4; JCPA, The
Forgotten Arabs of Al Ahwaz: A century-old struggle for liberation from Iran, 21 August 2023, url
11
USIP, Explainer: tactics of Iranian intelligence, 17 February 2023, url
12
JCPA, The Forgotten Arabs of Al Ahwaz: A century-old struggle for liberation from Iran, 21 August 2023, url
13
UANI, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei: Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 23 August 2023, url, p. 6
14
MEI, The road to war with Iran is paved with good intensions and serious miscalculations, 2 February 2024, url
15
MEI, Moving to a post-Khamenei are: the role of the Assembly of Experts, 31 July 2024, url
16
Freedom House, Iran, 28 February 2024, url
17
UANI, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei: Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 23 August 2023, url, p. 2
18
MEI, The road to war with Iran is paved with good intensions and serious miscalculations, 2 February 2024, url
19
MEI, Moving to a post-Khamenei are: the role of the Assembly of Experts, 31 July 2024, url
20
UANI, Office of the Supreme Leader, 22 May 2022, url
21
JCPA, The Forgotten Arabs of Al Ahwaz: A century-old struggle for liberation from Iran, 21 August 2023, url
4

5

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

The domestic agenda of the Iranian government conforms to a standard authoritarian model,
which involves maintaining complete control over every facet of public life.22 The office of theSupreme Leader and the Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) are at the centre of Iran’s
governmental system and lead ‘major foreign policy and security decision-making’.23 The
Supreme Leader restricts the powers of the elected president, and the unelected Guardian
Council limits the powers of the elected parliament.24
In Iran, there are elected institutions: the Assembly of Experts, the Parliament, the President,25
and the City Council.26 There are also appointed institutions: the Supreme National Security
Council, the Guardian Council, the Judiciary, the Expediency Council, the armed forces, andthe Cabinet of ministers.27

1.1.2.

Assembly of Experts

The Assembly of Experts (majles-e khobregân-e rahbari28) is mandated to elect the Supreme
Leader and to oversee his activities29 as stipulated in Article 107 of the Constitution.30 The
Assembly of Experts consists of 88 members,31 solely jurists,32 elected by popular vote for aneight-year term.33 The latest elections for the members of the Assembly of Experts took placeon 1 March 2024.34 On 21 May 2024, the 88 newly elected and re-elected members of theAssembly of experts including the newly elected chairman, Mohammad Ali Movahedi Kermani,a politician and cleric, held the first session.35
While former President Hassan Rouhani and 366 cleric candidates out of 510 were excludedby the Guardian Council to run for the elections, the outcome of the elections was reportedly
orchestrated in favour of candidates, who could be in line with the views of the Supreme
Leader.36

Fikra Forum, Navigating Cybersecurity and surveillance: Iran’s dual strategy for national security, 29 March 2024,
url
23
UANI, Organisational chart of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 8 February 2024, url
24
Freedom House, Iran, 8 March 2023, url
25
UANI, Organisational chart of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 8 February 2024, url
26
Mehr News Agency, Introduction to local councils of Iran, 29 February 2024, url
27
UANI, Organisational chart of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 8 February 2024, url
28
GSN, Iran: a question of succession, 4 May 2024, url
29
ParsToday, Polls boot Iran’s national power: IRGC, 28 February 2024, url
30
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
31France24, Campagne begins for Iran’s legislative elections, 22 February 2024, url
32International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
33
ParsToday, Polls boot Iran’s national power: IRGC, 28 February 2024, url
34International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
35
Tasnim News Agency, Iran’s new Assembly of Experts holds 1st meeting, 21 May 2024, url; Iran International,
Iran's Conservatives Bolstered as Assembly of Experts Head Elected, 21 May 2021, url
36
Iran International, Iran’s next ruler: Assembly of Expert’s prepares for succession, 7 March 2024, url; IranInternational, Iran's Conservatives Bolstered as Assembly of Experts Head Elected, 21 May 2021, url
22

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

1.1.3.

Parliament

The Iranian Parliament (Majlis37 or the Islamic Consultative Assembly according to theConstitution38), has 290 elected members.39 Members of the parliament are elected with adirect vote by the people of Iran across the country for a period of four years.40 Under theelection law, candidates for the parliamentary elections are required to be Iranian citizens,aged from 30 to 75 years old, having ‘demonstrated practical commitment to Islam,jurisprudence and the Constitution’, and be loyal to the Islamic Republic.41 The voter must be
18 years old at the time of voting.42 The latest parliamentary elections took place on 1 March
2024.43 For more information on the outcome of the latest parliamentary elections, pleaserefer to chapter 1.1.7 Political situation.
According to the law, the Parliament oversees the Executive branch. However, in practice,44
the power of the Parliament is overshadowed by the office of the Supreme Leader45 and theoverall power remains with the Supreme Leader.46

1.1.4.

President

According to Article 113 of the Constitution, ‘After the office of Leadership, the President is thehighest official in the country. His has the responsibility for implementing the Constitution andacting as the head of the executive, except in matters directly concerned with (the office of)the Leadership.’47 In practice, the Supreme Leader holds the ultimate state authority in the
country.48
On 19 May 2024, Iran’s President, Seyyed Ebrahim Raisi, died in a helicopter crash in a
mountainous area near Azerbaijan.49 In the crash the Iranian Foreign Minister Hossein
Amirabdollahian also died.50 Following Raisi’s death,51 on 20 May 2024, Iran’s Supreme
Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei reportedly announced the appointment of Mohammad

MEI, Khomeini’s Sham elections, 26 February 2024, urlIran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
39
UANI, Parliament, n.d., url
40
ParsToday, Polls boot Iran’s national power: IRGC, 28 February 2024, url
41
IranWire, Explainer: All you need to know about Iran’s upcoming elections, 28 February 2024, url
42Mehr News Agency, All Iran’s previous parliamentary elections, 27 February 2024, url
43International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
44
AP, Many in Iran are frustrated by unrest and poor economy. Parliament elections could see a low turnout, 28
February 2024, url
45
UANI, Parliament, n.d., url
46
AP, Many in Iran are frustrated by unrest and poor economy. Parliament elections could see a low turnout, 28
February 2024, url
47
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
48
UANI, Office of the President, n.d., url
49
Reuters, Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi killed in helicopter crash, 20 May 2024, url
50
Al Jazeera, Iran helicopter cash update: President Raisi, FM Amirabdollahian die, 19 May 2024, url; Reuters,
Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi killed in helicopter crash, 20 May 2024, url
51
Al Jazeera, Iran helicopter cash update: President Raisi, FM Amirabdollahian die, 19 May 2024, url
37

38

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Mokhber, as the acting President of Iran,52 based on Article 131 of the Constitution.53 Mokhber
was Raisi’s first Vice President.54

1.1.5.

Guardian Council

The Guardian Council55 (shora-e negahban-e qanun-e assassi,56also known as theConstitutional Council57) is tasked with overseeing elections, including the verification ofcandidates’ qualifications,58 interpreting the Constitution, and reviewing legislation.59
According to Article 99 of the Iranian Constitution, the Guardian Council ‘has the responsibilityof supervising the elections of the Assembly of Experts for Leadership, the President of the
Republic, the Islamic Consultative Assembly, and the direct recourse to popular opinion andreferenda.’60 The Guardian Council has 12 members61 consisting of six clerics appointed by theSupreme Leader and six jurists confirmed by the parliament from a list provided by the Headof the Judiciary, who is also appointed by the Supreme Leader.62 According to Article 92 of
the Constitution, ‘Members of the [Guardian] Council are elected to serve for a period of six
years, but during the first term, after three years have passed, half of the members of eachgroup will be changed by lot and new members will be elected in their place.’ 63

1.1.6.

Expediency Council

The Expediency Council (majma-e tashkhis-e maslahat-e nezam, also known as Expediency
Discernment Council of the System)64 is mandated to resolve disputes between the Parliament
and the Guardian Council related to legislation.65 It has been established between 1987 and1989 by the then Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Khomeini.66 The Expediency Council consists ofleading personalities of the state, ‘including former presidents, former cabinet ministers, andformer legislators, all of whom are directly appointed by the office of the Supreme Leader.’67

AP, Who is Iran’s first vice president, Mohammad Mokhber, appointed acting president after crash?, 20 May
2024, url
53
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url, p. 29
54
AP, Who is Iran’s first vice president, Mohammad Mokhber, appointed acting president after crash?, 20 May
2024, url
55
UANI, the Guardian Council, 8 February 2024, url
56
On Elections, national assemblies, 17 May 2023, url
57
Iran, The Constitutional Council, n.d., url
58
UANI, the Guardian Council, 8 February 2024, url
59
Iran International, Iran’s Guardian Council’s bars candidates to secure succession plans, 30 January 2024, url
60
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
61
UANI, the Guardian Council, 8 February 2024, url
62
Guardian (The), Iran bars Hassan Rouhani from seeking re-election to key body, 25 January 2024, url
63
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
64
Sweden, FOI, Swedish Defense Research Agency, Proliferation of Iranian missile technology in the Middle East,
23 November 2023, url, p. 2; Pars Times, State Structure, n.d., url
65
UANI, The Expediency Council, 23 February 2024, url
66
Maslahat, ‫‘[ تاریخچه تشکیل مجمع تشخیص مصلحت نظام‬History of the establishment of the expediency council’], n.d., url
67
UANI, The Expediency Council, 23 February 2024, url
52

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

1.1.7.

Political situation

In Iran, all branches of the government are dominated by conservatives.68 The Supreme
Leader69 and ‘the unelected institutions under his control’ hold ultimate political authority inthe country70 including the Guardian Council that can disqualify opposition candidates, notonly before the elections but also once they are elected.71 Additionally, the Islamic
Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) exert notable influence in the political and economic
setting of Iranian society.72 Meanwhile, women are widely underrepresented in political
positions in the country.73
Political parties and formations are not central to the political process and at times politics aredone amongst the Islamic Republic elites on inter-personal basis.74 During elections, qualified
candidates line up mainly with the political party that is regarded as loyal to the government.75
The Islamic Republic allows only political parties and factions that are loyal to the state and its
ideology to operate.76 The majority of civic and political organisations have either beenbanned in the country or restricted, including the legal reformist political parties (eslahtalab),which have been prohibited from participation in most elections since 2020.77
For the March 2024 parliamentary elections, 48 000 candidates preregistered, including 14 %women,78 and over 15 000 that passed the Guardian Council’s screening79 ran for elections.80
The Ministry of Interior reportedly counted 103 national and provincial parties for theparliamentary elections.81
Iran does not have an ‘independent election commission or monitoring body.’82 The 1 March2024 parliamentary elections results showed less participations from voters which was seen
as ‘a sign of widespread frustration with the system’.83 The results of the elections for the
Parliament and Assembly of Experts were in favour of ‘hardline conservatives’.84 According toInternational Crisis Group, the elections occurred during ‘severe economic, security, politicaland social challenges’ in the country.85 Iran International cited the leader of Iran’s Reform
Front stating that only 7 % of Iranians approved the current situation in the country.86 In 2023,
International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
US, CIA, The World Factbook, Iran, n.d., data observed on 17 January 2024, url
70
Freedom House, Iran, 28 February 2024, url
71International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
72
US, CIA, The World Factbook, Iran, n.d., data observed on 17 January 2024, url
73
Leila Alikarami, email communication 11 March 2024, 26 March 2024; UN Women, Iran (Islamic Republic of), n.d.,url
74
BTI, 2024 Country report, 19 March 2024, url, p. 14
75
IranWire, Explainer: All you need to know about Iran’s upcoming elections, 28 February 2024, url
76
Freedom House, Iran, 28 February 2024, url
77
Clingendael, Opposition politics of the Iranian diaspora: out of many, one – but not just yet, 27 October 2023, url
78
Carmi, O., The 2024 Election Cycle Starts in Iran, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 18 August 2023,
url
79
Reuters, Key facts about Iran’s elections on Friday, 29 February 2024, url
80
Mehr News Agency, All Iran’s previous parliamentary elections, 27 February 2024, url
81
Reuters, Key facts about Iran’s elections on Friday, 29 February 2024, url
82
IranWire, Explainer: All you need to know about Iran’s upcoming elections, 28 February 2024, url
83International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
84
Chatham House, Iran’s electoral facade, 4 March 2024, url
85International Crisis Group, Closing circles: Iran’s exclusionary 2024 elections, 12 March 2024, url
86
Iran International, Politicians pessimistic about possibility of reforms in Iran, 2 January 2024, url
68

69

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the Supreme Leader turned 84 year-old, and political groups reportedly started to prepare
themselves for his succession.87
By April 2023, observers noted a growing secular sentiment amongst some religious officials
and common Iranians in the country.88 In February 2024, media reported that an allegedly
leaked study by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance showed that around 73 % of
Iranians were in favour of a secular government and supported the separation of religion fromthe state.89
Within the region, the Islamic Republic uses proxy groups to collect intelligence on rival
movements, and ‘influence political orientation of neighbouring countries’.90 Further, it uses
actively ‘hostage diplomacy’, which consists of a policy ‘using foreign prisoners to extract
concessions from the West’.91

1.2.

Iranian armed forces

The Iranian armed forces are made up of three main branches:92 the Artesh, which is Iran’s
traditional or regular military force,93 Sepah-e pasdaran-e enqelab-e eslami94 known as theIslamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC),95 and the Law Enforcement Command of theIslamic Republic of Iran (FARAJA).96 The Army and the IRGC were created on the basis of ‘faithand ideology’, according to the country’s constitution.97 The Artesh is tasked to secure
territorial integrity, while the IRGC is mandated to preserve the Islamic Republic since its
establishment in 197998 by the former Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Khomeini.99 In 1988, Iranianauthorities created the Armed Forces General Staff (AFGS) to liaise between the Artesh
and IRGC. The AFGS is the highest military institution in Iran, ‘which implements policy andcoordinates and monitors activities across services.’100 The IRGC operates as a parallel army to
the Artesh.101 Both armies have their own land, air, and naval forces,102 however, the IRGC

USIP, Iran 2024: Political challenges, 17 November 2023, url
Amwaj, Inside story: how Iran’s religious classes are turning increasingly secular, 22 February 2023, url
89
Iran International, Government study shows Iranians are less religious than before, 24 February 2024, url
90
Fikra Forum, Navigating Cybersecurity and surveillance: Iran’s dual strategy for national security, 29 March 2024,
url
91
Le Monde, Iran’s domestic challenges offset by international success, 17 September 2023, url
92
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 4
93
Tehran Times, The illusion of IRGC group, 29 July 2023, url
94
Encyclopaedia Iranica, Constitution of the Islamic Republic, n.d., url
95
CRS, Iran: background and U.S. policy, 26 January 2024, url, p. 18
96
Tehran Times, 72 Police men martyred this year: police chief, 24 December 2023, url; IranWire, Explainer: The
Islamic Republic of Iran's Architecture of Suppression, 25 September 2022, url; UANI, Law Enforcement Forces(LEF), 8 February 2024, url
97
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
98
IISS, Watching Iran: the ISR Gulf, 8 May 2023, url, p. 3
99
UANI, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 24 January 2024, url
100
UANI, Armed Forces General Staff and Khatam Al-Anbiya Central Headquarters, 8 February 2024, url
101
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 4
102
CRS, Iran: background and U.S. policy, 26 January 2024, url, p. 18
87

88

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

overshadow the Artesh103 due to the IRGC’s close links with the Supreme Leader, and its
capacity as ‘a major military, political and economic force’.104
During the reporting period, the Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, was the chief of the Iranianarmed forces, Abdol Rahim Mousavi the chief of Artesh, Hossein Salami the chief of the IRGC,
and Ahmad Reza Radan the chief of Law Enforcement Command.105 Both the Artesh and the
IRGC report to the Supreme Leader through the AFGS and the Khatam Al-Anbiya Central
Headquarters (KACHQ). The KACHQ is responsible for the coordination of ‘military operations
and is responsible for operational command and control.’ 106
In 2019, Iran had 610 000 active military personnel and 1 060 000 military personnel, including
reservists. The Artesh had 420 000 personnel including107 350 000 ground force (withconscripts), 18 000 Navy, 37 000 Air Force, and 15 000 in Air Defence Force.108

1.2.1.

Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC)

The IRGC is the ‘most powerful military-security force and the largest economic cartel’ in
Iran109 and consists of ground forces, navy, aerospace force, Quds force, the Basij(‘mobilisation’110) and Intelligence Organisation.111 In 2019, the IRGC had an estimated 190 000
members including 150 000 ground forces, 20 000 navy personnel, 15 000 aerospace force,and 5 000 Quds Force. Additionally, under IRGC 450 000 Basij paramilitary forces
operate.112That number can rise up to 600 000 upon mobilisation.113 The IRGC ground forces
are divided into provincial corps; each provincial corps has a security unit that includes asecurity brigade, under which different security battalions operate.114
According to Article 150 of the Constitution, ‘The Islamic Revolution Guards Corps, organizedin the early days of the triumph of the Revolution, is to be maintained so that it may continue in
its role of guarding the Revolution and its achievements.’115 Since its establishment, following
the Islamic Revolution of 1979, the IRGC116 has been mandated to safeguard ‘the Islamic
Republic against internal and external threats’117 and to provide a counterbalance to theArtesh. 118 The IRGC plays a significant role in Iran’s foreign policy and supports armed groups

UANI, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 24 January 2024, url
BBC News, Profile: Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, 3 January 2020, url
105
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 6
106
UANI, Armed Forces General Staff and Khatam Al-Anbiya Central Headquarters, 8 February 2024, url
107
US DIA, Iran military power, ensuring regime survival and securing regional dominance, 24 November 2019, url,
p. 11; UANI, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 24 January 2024, url
108
CFR, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, 17 April 2024, url
109
MEI, Moving to a post-Khamenei are: the role of the Assembly of Experts, 31 July 2024, url
110
CEP, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 6 June 2023, url, p. 2
111
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 6
112
US DIA, Iran military power, ensuring regime survival and securing regional dominance, 24 November 2019, url,
p. 11; UANI, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 24 January 2024, url
113
CFR, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, 17 April 2024, url
114
Justice for Iran, Waging war on civilians: exposing Iran’s repressive units and crimes against humanity, 7 March
2024, url, pp. 64 and 65
115
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
116
VoA, Iran’s Revolutionary Guard Corps: powerful group with wide reginal reach, 3 February 2024, url
117
CFR, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, 17 April 2024, url
118
VoA, Iran’s Revolutionary Guard Corps: powerful group with wide reginal reach, 3 February 2024, url
103

104

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in the region including the Hezbollah in Lebanon.119 For more information on IRGC’s regional
influence, please refer to chapter 1.2.2 Quds force. The Supreme Leader appoints the IRGC
commander.120 The IRGC reports directly to the Supreme Leader and the IRGC ‘is also
influential in domestic politics’.121 Former IRGC officers hold important positions within the
Iranian state including within the government and the parliament.122 The IRGC controls Khatam
al-Anbiya, an ‘engineering firm that acts as the organization’s construction arm’ and is a major
business firm for the army.123 IRGC is listed as a terrorist group by the EU Parliament124 and by
the United States.125 For more information on recruitment by IRGC, please refer to chapter 1.2.7
Military service.
The IRGC reportedly ‘fired live ammunition at protesters in the Kurdish city of Mariwand’ on
the night of 14 September 2023.126 During the 2022 protests, the use of lethal weapons by the
security forces was reported in the capital Tehran, Kurdish regions in the north-west, andSistan-Baluchistan province in the south-east.127 For more information on main reported humanrights violations by IRGC, please refer to chapter 4. Treatment of certain profiles and groups of
population.

1.2.2.

Quds force

Iran’s Quds Force is a wing of IRGC, which is primarily responsible for IRGC’s foreign
operations128, which strongly ‘influences its allied militias across the Middle East, from Lebanon
to Iraq, Yemen and Syria’.129 It is mandated to support Iranian proxies or non-state actors inregional conflicts.130 Newly recruited members of Quds Force are provided with 9 to 12 monthsof training at the Mashhad centre in northeast Iran or at the Ben Ali barracks, and they receive
ideological training at Imam Hossein University in Babaei Hwy district of Tehran.131

1.2.3.

Basij

In 1979, the former Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini established from amongst his ‘pious
followers’132 the sazman-e basij-e mostaz’afin (The Organisation for the Mobilization of the
Oppressed133). Known as the Basij, the paramilitary religious militia is a volunteer force loyal to
the Islamic Republic.134 The Basij is ‘responsible for civil defence and social control'. It
infiltrates every part of Iranian society.135 It is tasked to target ‘domestic opposition to the
CFR, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, 17 April 2024, url
UANI, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 24 January 2024, url
121
CFR, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards, 17 April 2024, url
122
VoA, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards Corps: powerful group with wide regional reach, 3 February 2023, url
123
CEP, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 6 June 2023, url, p. 3
124
EP, Listing of the IRGC as a banned terrorist organisation, 27 September 2023, url
125
Reuters, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards: from military operations to business empire, 19 January 2023, url
126
The National, Iran's IRGC shoot at protesters as demonstrations reignite, 14 September 2024, url
127
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 6
128
Britannica, Quds Force, Iranian organisation, 15 April 2024, url
129
VoA, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards Corps: powerful group with wide regional reach, 3 February 2023, url
130
IISS, Watching Iran: the ISR Gulf, 8 May 2023, url, p. 3
131
Boussel, P., The Quds force in Syria: Combatants, units, and actions, CTC Sentinel, 16 (6), June 2023, url, p. 2
132
UANI, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 24 January 2024, url
133
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 12
134
VoA, Iran’s Revolutionary Guards Corps: powerful group with wide regional reach, 3 February 2023, url
135
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 5
119

120

21

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMIslamic Republic through street violence and intimidation’.136 Basij backs IRGC to maintainorder.137 It has a university-based student component as well that targets student
movements.138 Members of Basij have reportedly been ‘indoctrinated, vetted and often
deliberately deployed away from their hometowns’.139 For information on recruitment by Basij,
please refer to chapter 1.2.7. Military service and for more information on main reported
human rights violations by Basij, please refer to chapter 4. Treatment of certain profiles andgroups of population.

1.2.4.

Police force

The Iranian police force is made up of the urban police, the judicial police, Gendarmerie, andthe Islamic committee and it operates as a national armed force organisation.140 It is part of the
Law Enforcement Command of the Islamic Republic of Iran (FARAJA),141 which was previously
known as the Law Enforcement Force of the Islamic Republic of Iran (NAJA).142 Generally, IRGC
personnel or its former commanders get appointed as the commanders of the police force.143
The U.S. 144 and the EU sanctioned the FARAJA.145
A subdivision of the Iranian FARAJA is Iran’s Counter-Terror Special Forces (NOPO, niroo-ye
vizhe pasdar-e Velayat), which is also known as the Iranian Special Police Forces. The NOPO
was sanctioned by the EU on 23 January 2023.146
Additionally, there is the anti-riot police (yeganeh vizhe), which is the only force allowed ‘underthe Iranian law to respond to and to manage protests’. However, there were also plain-clothed
security agents, which were deployed in large numbers during the September 2022
protests.147
The Special Units of Iran's Law Enforcement Forces (LEF Special Units), including sub-units
such as the Iran’s Counter-Terror Special Forces (NOPO) reportedly ‘used excessive and lethal
force, firing upon unarmed protestors, including women and children, with automatic
weapons’ during the 2022 protests.148

CEP, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 6 June 2023, url, p. 3
CEP, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 6 June 2023, url, p. 3
138
HRA, Iran’s new hijab bill stirs controversy and concern, 7 September 2023, url
139
MEI, The road to war with Iran is paved with good intensions and serious miscalculations, 2 February 2024, url
140
IranWire, Iranian security forces sharpen blades as discontent rises, 20 December 2023, url141
Tehran Times, 72 Police men martyred this year: police chief, 24 December 2023, url; IranWire, Explainer: The
Islamic Republic of Iran's Architecture of Suppression, 25 September 2022, url; UANI, Law Enforcement Forces(LEF), 8 February 2024, url
142
IranWire, Explainer: The Islamic Republic of Iran's Architecture of Suppression, 25 September 2022, url
143
IranWire, Iranian security forces sharpen blades as discontent rises, 20 December 2023, url
144
UANI, Law Enforcement Forces (LEF), 8 February 2024, url
145
EU, Official Journal of the European Union, L 20 I/1, 23 January 2023, url, p. 4
146
EU, Official Journal of the European Union, L 20 I/1, 23 January 2023, url, p. 16
147
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 3
148
EU, Official Journal of the European Union, L 20 I/1, 23 January 2023, url, p. 16
136
137

22

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

1.2.5.

Morality police

The Iranian morality police is a law enforcement patrol149, which has been established in
2005.150 It is known as gasht-e amr-e be marouf and nahi az munkar (Promotion of Virtue andPrevention of Vice) or more formally known as the gasht-e ershad (Guidance Patrol)151. The
morality police is tasked to enforce152 and monitor compliance with the hijab rules in public.153
Following the death of Mahsa Amini in the custody of the morality police, it has reportedly‘suspended’ street patrols.154
On 3 November 2023, the United Nations Human Rights Committee called for the
disbandment of the morality police.155 However, the latter has continued to be active in several
cities156 discretely157 and resumed its street patrols as of 13 April 2024.158
The morality police has both male and female members, with female members dressed in‘black chadors’ (veil).159 Women morality police members are mainly deployed to arrest womenand intimidate them since male members are not ‘supposed to touch women’.160
The morality police has been mostly responsible for assaulting women verbally and harassing
them physically, as well as arresting them or closing their business for not observing the
mandatory hijab (veil).161 For further information on treatment of women and girls by themorality police, please refer to chapter 4.11.2 Dress-code.

1.2.6.

Iran’s intelligence agencies

Following the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, several different intelligence agencies have beencreated to conduct domestic and foreign surveillance.162 According to Article 176 of theConstitution of Iran, ‘a Supreme Council for National Security presided over by the President
shall be constituted to fulfil […] coordination of activities in the areas relating to politics,

AI, Iran: authorities doubling down on punishments against women and girls defying discriminatory veiling laws,
26 July 2023, url, p. 5; USIP, Amnesty International: Iran’s hijab enforcement, 27 July 2023, url
150
CFR, Iran isn’t the only country with morality police, 11 January 2023, url
151
AI, Iran: authorities doubling down on punishments against women and girls defying discriminatory veiling laws,
26 July 2023, url, p. 5; Time, How Iran’s morality police enforces a strict interpretation of Islamic Law, 10 November
2022, url
152
Euronews, Explained: why the Islamic headscarf is crucial in Iranian society, 18 July 2023, url
153
UN OHCHR, UN Human Rights Committee publishes findings on Iran, Kuwait, Korea, Trinidad, United States ofAmerica and Venezuela, 3 November 2023, url
154
MEE, Iran: return of ‘morality police’ patrols met with shock and outrage, 17 July 2023, url
155
UN OHCHR, UN Human Rights Committee publishes findings on Iran, Kuwait, Korea, Trinidad, United States ofAmerica and Venezuela, 3 November 2023, url
156
CFR, Iran isn’t the only country with morality police, 11 January 2023, url
157
Le Monde, Iran’s morality police make a comeback, 3 May 2024, url
158
IranWire, Iran intensifies hijab enforcement amid regional tensions and civil disobedience, 13 April 2024, url; Le
Monde, Iran’s morality police make a comeback, 3 May 2024, url
159
RFE/RL, Return of ‘morality police’ to Iranian streets leaves women fearful but defiant, 20 July 2023, url
160
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
161
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 43
162
USIP, Profiles: Iran’s Intelligence Agencies, 5 April 2023, url
149

23

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

intelligence, social, cultural and economic fields in regard to general defense and security
policies’.163
The two most powerful intelligence organs in Iran are the Ministry of Intelligence and Security(MOIS) that operates under the executive branch, and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard CorpsIntelligence Organisation (IRGC-IO) that operates under the armed forces.164 The IRGC-IO wasestablished in 2009 and operates directly under the command of the Supreme Leader inparallel ‘as an ideological counterweight’ to the MOIS.165 The two organs’ missions overlap
significantly.166 Both the IRGC-IO and the MOIS ‘are highly active on foreign’ territory to carryout targeted activities, including ‘assassinations’.167
The head of IRGC-IO, Brigadier General Mohammad Kazemi168 reports directly to the head ofSupreme National Security Council Ali Shamkhani and above him to the Supreme Leader,
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei.169 The head of MOIS, Esmail Khatib170 reports directly to the President
and to the head of Supreme National Security Council. Ultimately, the Supreme Leader
remains at the top of formal and informal chains of command.171
According to the United States Institute of Peace (USIP), the MOIS had ‘agents based in
Iranian embassies across Europe.’ The source also noted that the Iranian intelligenceorganisations were ‘particularly concerned about Arab, Kurdish and Baloch separatistgroups’.172
Iranian Intelligence organisations173 reportedly collect information online and intercept
electronic messages as well as remove critical content against the Islamic Republic on social
media. In addition, they conduct interrogations, wiretap, and monitor people. At times,
intelligence agents interrogate family members, friends, and colleagues of their target.174 The
IRGC Intelligence Organisation monitors and targets internal political rivals, while also carryingout ‘clandestine activities abroad’.175
Iranian Intelligence organisations organise arrests of exiled dissidents from abroad throughneighbouring countries.176 For instance, Rohullah Zam, the Iranian journalist and dissident inexile in France, whose kidnapping was organised by IRGC to Iran via Iraq, was executed in
December 2020 in Iran.177 Similarly, Alireza Akbari, an Iranian-UK citizen, was reportedly

Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
USIP, Profiles: Iran’s Intelligence Agencies, 5 April 2023, url
165
CEP, IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps), 6 June 2023, url, p. 3
166
USIP, Explainer: tactics of Iranian intelligence, 17 February 2023, url
167
Khoshnood. A.M and Khoshnood, A., The Islamic Republic of Iran’s Use of Diplomats in Its Intelligence andTerrorist Operations against Dissidents: The Case of Assadollah Assadi, International Journal of Intelligence andCounterintelligence, 1 February 2024, url
168
ISW, Iran update, 20 June 2023, url
169
USIP, Profiles: Iran’s Intelligence Agencies, 5 April 2023, url
170
UANI, Esmail Khatib: Islamic Republic of Iran, Ministry of Intelligence, 1 August 2023, url
171
USIP, Profiles: Iran’s Intelligence Agencies, 5 April 2023, url
172
USIP, Explainer: tactics of Iranian intelligence, 17 February 2023, url
173
USIP, Profiles: Iran’s Intelligence Agencies, 5 April 2023, url
174
USIP, Explainer: tactics of Iranian intelligence, 17 February 2023, url
175
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 5
176
USIP, Explainer: tactics of Iranian intelligence, 17 February 2023, url
177
Jerusalem Post (The), Who betrayed Iranian journalist Rohullah Zam, 17 December 2020, url
163

164

24

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

executed in Iran in January 2023, after being allegedly lured to return to the country under analleged ‘Operation Deception’ used by Iranian intelligence agencies to lure dissidents fromabroad back to Iran.178
While the IRGC-IO uses military-related methods including the use of force, MOIS agents act
as civilians to infiltrate and trap individuals.179

1.2.7.

Military service and recruitment

In Iran, miliary service is mandatory for all Iranian men above 18 years old180 within Artesh 181 fora duration of 21 to 24 months182, which was reportedly planned in October 2023 to be reducedby three months.183 At the end of the military service, conscripts obtain a cart-e payan-ekhetmat (end of military service certificate). Previously, conscripts were ‘randomly’ assigned todifferent armed forces including the IRGC, but since 2010, 80 % of the IRGC enlisted
individuals join voluntarily.184
As noted by Barzoo Eliassi, associate Professor at department of social work, Linnaeus
University, Sweden, interviewed by EUAA, IRGC and Basij do not use force to recruit theirmembers.185 Recruitment by IRGC has been based on a ‘radicalised’ ideology. IRGC recruits
particularly from amongst the active members of Basij or individuals with more ideologicalbackground.186 More than 70 % of the IRGC members come from the Basij and some 30 % ofthem are postgraduate individuals who joined IRGC voluntarily to conduct office related
jobs.187 The IRGC188 and the Basij use financial incentives as a tool to attract and recruit
individuals.189
Basij is also known for recruiting child volunteers in Iranian schools, from elementary to highschools.190 The average age of its members is between 15 and 30-year old.191 Members of
Basij, who are over 15 years old receive two-month mandatory training by IRGC.192 Basij offers
technical training generally in underdeveloped regions.193 Members of Basij are allowed to
avoid mandatory conscription in the country.194 At times Basij regional and district sections

IranWire, Alireza Akbari: a bloody score is settled in the Islamic Republic, 15 January 2023, url
USIP, Explainer: tactics of Iranian intelligence, 17 February 2023, url
180
Iran International, Iran to shorten mandatory military service to 14 months, 17 March 2024, url
181
FP, Conscription is not an excuse for Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, 30 January 2023, url
182
Iran International, Conscript arrested after killing five in Kerman barracks 22 January 2024, url
183
IRNA, Iran cuts miliary service for all conscripts by three months, 22 October 2023, url; GSN, Iran cuts theduration of military service, 24 October 2023, url
184
Atlantic Council, Iran targeted human rights sanctions series: understanding ‘terrorist organizations’ designations
in relation to IRGC, 20 March 2024, url
185
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
186
IRPP, The terrorism of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, 8 Marc 2023, url
187
Atlantic Council, Iran targeted human rights sanctions series: understanding ‘terrorist organizations’ designations
in relation to IRGC, 20 March 2024, url
188
CEP, IRGC, 6 June 2023, url, p. 4
189
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
190
CEP, IRGC, 6 June 2023, url, p. 3
191
UANI, IRGC, 24 January 2024, url
192
FP, Conscription is not an excuse for Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, 30 January 2023, url
193
UANI, IRGC, 24 January 2024, url
194
UANI, IRGC, 24 January 2024, url
178

179

25

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

recruit members and then send them to different IRGC branches or agencies.195 Basij recruits
are supporters of the Islamic Republic196 including individuals from rural areas, as well as poor,
uneducated and young Persian people.197 The Basij largely depends on the cooperation of
local and regional mosques and targets schools for recruitment.198 Additionally, it uses paygah(clubs) located almost at every mosque throughout the country, where the Basij organises
religious studies, sport activities and field trips to attract new members for recruitment. 199 For
more information on Artesh, IRGC and Basij, please refer to chapter 1.2. Iranian armed forces.

FP, Conscription is not an excuse for Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, 30 January 2023, url
AEI, Pivot to offense, how Iran is adapting for modern conflict and warfare, 1 June 2023, url, p. 5
197
UANI, IRGC, 24 January 2024, url
198
CEP, IRGC, 6 June 2023, url, p. 5
199
UANI, IRGC, 24 January 2024, url
195

196

26

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

2.

Security situation

During the period between 1 January 2023 and 5 April 2024, ACLED recorded 78 battles in
Iran, including 51 in Sistan and Baluchistan and 6 in Kurdistan, and 33 explosions, including 11
in Kurdistan and 11 in Sistan and Baluchistan.200
Figure 1. Events by province, 1 January 2023–5 April 2024 (ACLED)

Source: EUAA chart based on ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Iran, data covering the period
from 1 January 2023 to 5 April 2024, as of 11 April 2024, url

Iran has ‘insecure borders with Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, the Iraqi Kurdistan Region, andPakistan’201. In the province of Sitan and Baluchistan (bordering Afghanistan and Pakistan),authorities encounter challenges to maintain security202 due to repeated ‘clashes between
Iranian security forces and Sunni militants as well as drug traffickers’.203 During the reporting
period, there were different anti state resistance groups in Iran including Baluch, Kurdish andArab groups204 that do not have territorial control.205 The Islamic Republic utilises its militarycapabilities to safeguard the country against internal threats including ‘from political andethnic opposition movements and terrorist groups’ and to defend it against foreign threats.206
For more information, please refer to chapter 1.2 Iranian armed forces.

EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Iran, data covering 1
January 2023 to 22 March 2024, as of 2 March 2024, url
201
ISW, Iran update, 23 August 2023, url
202
Iran International, Border Guard Killed In Confrontation With Armed Men In Iran's Sistan-Baluchistan, 25 March
2024, url
203
Reuters, Twenty-seven die in Militant attacks on Iran security forces, 4 April 2024, url
204
FDD, Were terrorists behind the explosions in Iran, 3 January 2024, url
205
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
206
US DIA, Iran military power, ensuring regime survival and securing regional dominance, 24 November 2019, url,
pp. 12, 13
200

27

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2.1.

Baluch groups

The Baluch group consists of the Jaish Al-Adl, an ‘extremist Sunni Muslim militant group' which
operates in southeastern Iran.207 Jaish Al-Adl is known as the Army of Justice, a Sunni group
established in 2012.208 It originated209 and is mostly made up of members related to theJundallah group, a Baluch210 Sunni separatist group,211 that carried out armed insurgency
against Iranian authorities for two decades.212 Jundallah group has disintegrated213 following
Iran’s crackdown on the group in 2010214 by arresting and killing its leader, Abdulmalik Rigi.215
Jaish Al-Adl is also linked to Ansar al-Furqan group (another Sunni Baluch militia group).216 The
group reportedly claimed responsibility for a ‘suspected mine’ explosion that targeted a police
vehicle in Zahedan.217 Iranian authorities consider Jaish Al-Adl218 and Ansar al-Furqan219 as
terrorist groups. In May 2023, there was a surge in violence at the Iranian borders withPakistan and Afghanistan220, with clashes between Iranian border forces and armed men in
Sistan-Baluchistan province, in which six Iranian border forces members were killed. 221
•
•
•

•

On 8 July 2023, Jaish Al-Adl fighters attacked a police station in Zahedan, during
which two police officers and four militants were killed.222
On 11 August 2023, the Ansar al-Furqan group killed two off duty IRGC members in
Sistan-Baluchistan.223
In December 2023, Ansar al-Furqan carried out numerous attacks against security
forces in Sistan and Baluchistan province. The group killed seven policemen in two
separate attacks.224
On 15 December 2023, over 11 Iranian security personnel were killed during an attack
on a police station in Sistan and Baluchistan province. The attack was claimed by the
Jaish Al-Adl.225 The UN Security Council condemned the attack.226

Reuters, The militant group in Pakistan targeted by Iranian strikes, 17 January 2024, url; Al Jazeera, Elevensecurity personnel killed in Iran police station attack, 15 December 2023, url
208
AP, Who is Jaish al-Adl, the Sunni group that Iran targeted in an airstrike on Pakistan soil, 17 January 2024, url
209
Reuters, The militant group in Pakistan targeted by Iranian strikes, 17 January 2024, url; Amwaj, Deadly Sunni
militancy in southeastern Iran puts spotlight on Pakistan, 19 December 2023, url
210
Atlantic Council, Experts react: what’s really going on with Pakistan and Iran exchanging attacks, 18 January2024, url
211
Iran International, Iran issues USD 2.6 billion verdict against US over alleged terrorist support, 15 January 2024,
url
212
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, May 2023, 8 June 2023, url
213
US DNI, CTG, Jaish al-Adl (former Jundallah), as of October 2022, n.d., url
214
AP, Who is Jaish al-Adl, the Sunni group that Iran targeted in an airstrike on Pakistan soil, 17 January 2024, url
215
IranWire, Jaish ul-Adl intensifies attacks against Iranian security forces, 5 April 2024, url
216
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, December 2023, 12 January 2024, url
217
IranWire, Blast hits police car in Iran’s Zahedan; casualties reported, 19 December 2023, url
218
Amwaj, Deadly Sunni militancy in southeastern Iran puts spotlight on Pakistan, 19 December 2023, url
219
Mehr News Agency, Chieftain of Ansar al-Furqan terror group captured in SE Iran, 6 April 2024, url
220
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, May 2023, 8 June 2023, url
221
AA, 6 Iranian border guards killed in clashes near Pakistan border, 21 May 2023, url
222
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, July 2023, 3 August 2023, url
223
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, August 2023, 7 September 2023, url
224
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, December 2023, 12 January 2024, url
225
Al Jazeera, Eleven security personnel killed in Iran police station attack, 15 December 2023, url
226
UN Security Council, Security Council Press Statement on Terrorist Attack in Rasak, Sistan and Baluchistan,
Islamic Republic of Iran, 16 December 2023, url
20728

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Many Iranian security forces have been deployed to Baluchistan, particularly in the city of
Zahedan following the 2022 and 2023 protests.227

2.2.

Kurdish groups

Several Iranian Kurdish armed groups have been engaged in conflict against the Iranian statefor decades, claiming cultural rights, autonomy, and at times independence.228 Numerous
Kurdish factions have camps and bases within the autonomous Kurdistan region of Iraq.229 The
Kurdish armed groups include the Kurdish forces, the Komala Party of Iranian
Kurdistan (KSZK), the Kurdistan Freedom Eagles for East Kurdistan (HAK-R), the Kurdistan
Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), Free Life Party of Kurdistan (PJAK) and the Eastern Kurdistan
Units (YRK).230 As noted by Barzoo Eliassi when interviewed by EUAA, Kurdish groups haverather chosen to conduct political activities rather than military confrontation including from
Iraq.231
Between September and October 2022, Iranian authorities carried out attacks inside Iraq withballistic missiles and suicide drones targeting ‘three Iranian Kurdish opposition parties’
including the KDPI in Erbil governorate, Komala in Sulaimani governorate and the PAK in Pirde(road between Erbil and Kirkuk)232 killing at least 21 members of the aforementioned parties.233
On 19 March 2023, Iranian and Iraqi authorities signed a border security agreement underwhich Iraqi authorities vowed that they ‘would not allow armed groups to use its territory in the
Iraqi Kurdish region to launch any border-crossing attacks’ on Iran.234 On 2 April 2023, Iranian
military forces reportedly killed one Kurdish civilian in Oshnavieh (West Azerbaijan province)
and another one on 10 April in Kermanshah province.235 In June 2023, the IRGC carried out
military operations against the PJAK and other Kurdish armed groups in Kurdish-majority
areas in the provinces of West Azerbaijan, Kurdistan and Kermanshah, bordering Türkiye andIraq.236 In September 2023, the IRGC deployed forces to the border with Iraq, three days
before a deadline set by Iran for Iraq to disarm Iranian separatist groups in Iraqi Kurdistan
areas.237 For information on targeting of Kurds at Iran and Iraq border areas by the Iranian
security forces including attacks on kolbars (workers who transport goods on their backacross the Iran, Iraq, Syria and Türkiye borders 238), please refer to chapter 4.7.2. Kurds.

BHRG, The ongoing situation marks a clear violence of human rights in the region, 16 November 2023, url
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, June 2023, 6 July 2023, url
229
Arab News, Iran, Iraq security officials protection agreement, 19 March 2023, url
230
ACLED, Kurdish forces in Iraq, Syria, and Iran, 29 November 2023, url
231
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
232
Wilgenburg, W., van, Iran’s Pressure Campaign on Iranian Kurds Continues, Fikra Forum, The Washington
Institute for Near East Policy, 13 September 2023, url
233
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Hengaw statistical report, 11 March 2023, url, p. 1
234
Al Jazeera, Iraq and Iran sign deal to tighten border security, 19 March 2023, url
235
KHRN, April 2023: Human Rights violations in Iran Kurdistan, 5 May 2023, url
236
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, June 2023, 6 July 2023, url
237
Asharq Al-Awsat, Iranian Revolutionary Guard amass on Iraqi’s Kurdistan border, 17 September 2023, url
238
Iran International, Deadly Toll Rises For Kolbars In Iran's Western Border Regions, 24 March 2024, url
227

228

29

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2.3.

Arab groups

Additionally, there are Arab militant groups in Iran, including the armed wing of the separatist
Arab Struggle for Movement for the Liberation of Ahwaz (ASMLA)239 (Harakat al-Nida in
Arabic240), which mainly operates in Khuzestan province or abroad and fights for ‘greater
autonomy and independence’.241 On 6 May 2023, the Iranian security forces kidnapped theformer ASMLA leader, Habib Chaab (Asyud) in Türkiye, brought him to Iran, where he was
executed by the authorities.242

2.4.

Regional security issues

On 3 January 2024, the Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISKP), which 'primarily operates in
Afghanistan.243 carried out a suicide attack in the city of Kerman killing over 93 civilians.244
Between the night of 13 and 14 April 2024, Iran launched massive missile and drone attacks on
the Israeli territory.245 Associated Press cited the Israeli army stating that 99 % of the drones
and missiles were intercepted.246 On 19 April 2024, Israel reportedly carried out an apparent
airstrike on Isfahan city near an air base and nuclear site247 in retaliation to Iran’s attack, whichescalated to a direct confrontation between to the two countries.248

International Crisis Group, Iran’s Khuzestan: Thirst and Turmoil, 21 August 2023, url, p. 21
Iran International, Iran hangs former leader of separatist group, a Swedish dual national, 6 May 2023, url
241International Crisis Group, Iran’s Khuzestan: Thirst and Turmoil, 21 August 2023, url, p. 21
242
Iran International, Iran hangs former leader of separatist group, a Swedish dual national, 6 May 2023, url
243
The New Arab, Why the Islamic State threat to Iran is growing?, 17 January 2024, url
244
ACLED, Regional overview, Middle East, January 2024, 8 February 2024, url
245
Al Jazeera, Iran attacks Israel with over 300 drones, missiles, what you need to know, 14 April 2024, url
246
AP, Israel’s military chief says that Israel will respond to Iran’s weekend missile attack, 16 April 2024, url
247
AP, Israel, Iran play down apparent Israeli strike. The muted responses could calm tensions — for now, 20 April
2024, url
248
IISS, Iran and Israel: everything short of war, 17 May 2024, url
239

240

30

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

3.

Legal system and the judiciary

3.1.

Overview of the judicial system

Iran’s judicial system is based on Sharia (Islamic law).249 The principles governing the judicial
system are stipulated by the provisions of Articles 156 – 174 of the Iranian Constitution.250 As
per the Constitution, the country’s laws and regulations, encompassing civil, criminal, financial,economic, administrative, cultural, military, and political domains, are required to adhere to
Islamic principles.251 The judiciary in Iran consists of a Supreme Court, a Supreme Judicial
Council, and lower courts.252
The Iranian Constitution defines judiciary as an independent power.253 However, theindependence of the judiciary is constrained by the role of the Supreme Leader, who isgranted the authority to supervise executive, legislative, and judicial branches.254 The
Supreme Leader has the authority to directly appoint the Head of the Judiciary.255 The Head of
the Judiciary has a renewable five-year mandate256 to organise the structure of the judicial
system and to appoint key officials, such as the Chief Public Prosecutor, the Head of State
Chief Inspectorate, the Head of the Administrative High Court, and the Head of Military Courts
as well as to hire, promote, and assign judges. Additionally, he has authority to shape thecomposition of the Supreme Court and to draft judiciary bills, which typically cannot berejected by the Parliament, and to recommend candidates for the position of a Minister ofJustice, who is then selected by the country’s president.257
In July 2021, Supreme Leader Khamenei appointed Gholamhossein Mohseni Ejei to theposition of the Head of Judiciary after his predecessor, Ebrahim Raisi, was elected Iran’spresident. Formerly, Ejei held the positions of the deputy judiciary chief, minister ofBritannica, Justice of Iran, n.d., urlIran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url; Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An
Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url
251
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
252
Britannica, Justice of Iran, n.d., url
253
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
254
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 1; Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran,n.d., url
255
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url; USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March
2023, url, p. 18; FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url
256
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 1; Middle East Eye, Iran names hardline cleric as top
judge amid calls for probe into the 1980s executions, 2 July 2021, url
257
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 49
249

250

31

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

intelligence, and prosecutor.258 Human rights violations have been attributed to both former
President Raisi259 and Ejei260.
The key judicial officials – the Head of the Judiciary, the Prosecutor General, the judges of theSupreme Court261 and its President262 – are required to be Shia jurists. Next to the positions
mentioned above, the head of state Chief Inspectorate, head of Administrative High Court,
and head of Military Courts are also members of the clergy.263 Apart from the regular courts
which handle criminal and civil cases, the government has established Clerical Courts,
Revolutionary Courts, and the Highest Court of Administrative Justice, which addresscomplaints regarding government officials and institutions.264 Judges are required to haveknowledge in Shia jurisprudence and meet other qualifications set by the Head of the
Judiciary.265
In its 2023 reports, Freedom House noted that although Iranian courts possessed ‘a degree of
autonomy within the ruling establishment,’266 they overall lacked independence.267
Furthermore, the judicial system was frequently a tool to suppress members of the oppositionand critics of the authorities, leading to arbitrary judgements against political dissidents andhuman rights advocates.268 Sources noted that security apparatus gained more influence overthe courts in recent years.269 The lack of judicial impartiality was further compounded bysystematic violations of fair trial in cases involving protesters and critics of the authorities.270
For information on access to fair trial, please refer to chapter 3.7. Due process.
In an interview with EUAA, the director of the International Institute for the Study of Kurdish
Societies (IISKS), Behrooz Chamanara, noted that the judiciary system was closely intertwinedwith security agencies. Chamanara noted that ‘the Ministry of Intelligence not only collects
information but also fabricates unreal data to be used as “credible evidence” against
individuals.’ According to the source, the ministry’s employees participated in the interrogationof detainees. Furthermore, it was virtually impossible to challenge the charges brought incollaboration with the Ministry of Intelligence in court, with lawyers being unable to offer
assistance in such cases.271
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url; Freedom House, Freedom on the Net 2023, Iran,n.d., url
259
AI, Iran: Ebrahim Raisi must be investigated for crimes against humanity, 19 June 2021, url; Middle East Eye, Irannames hardline cleric as top judge amid calls for probe into the 1980s executions, 2 July 2021, url; Al Jazeera, Iranhelicopter cash update: President Raisi, FM Amirabdollahian die, 19 May 2024, url
260
AP, Iran’s supreme appoints new hard-line judiciary chief, 2 July 2021, url; NIAC Action, Iran’s new Judiciary
Chief Has a History of Human Rights Abuses, 8 July 2021, url
261
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023 url, p. 18
262
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 1
263
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 48
264
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 49; FIDH andLDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 2
265
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 49
266
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
267
Freedom House, Freedom on the Net 2023, Iran, n.d., url
268
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
269
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url; Chamanara, B, interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
270
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 55
271
Chamanara, B, interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
258

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

In November 2023, the UN Human Rights Committee noted the lack of accountability
regarding human rights violations.272 As noted by AI, in 2022 and in the previous years, nopublic official faced investigation or accountability for ‘extrajudicial executions and otherunlawful killings, torture, enforced disappearances, and other grave human rights violations. 273
The death in custody of Mahsa Amini in September 2022 received no proper investigation.274
Other examples where no proper investigation was conducted include, but are not limited to
the reprisals, which followed the 2019 protests,275 and the use of excessive force against
prisoners as well as the deaths of at least eight inmates in Evin prison in October 2022.
Furthermore, AI noted continuing impunity related to the mass extrajudicial executions inprison and enforced disappearances of 1988, with many implicated individuals still currently
holding prominent positions within the government. In July 2022, a court in Sweden
sentenced a former Iranian official to life in prison over crimes committed during the 1988
prison massacres.276
In July 2023, Ali Khamenei reportedly addressed the issues of malpractice and corruption in
the judicial system during a meeting with judiciary officials.277

3.2.

Punishments under the law

Iran is a state party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), Article 7of which prohibits torture and considers inhumane punishments, such as amputation, a crime
under international law.278 As noted by UN OHCHR, in the latest periodic report regarding
ICCPR, Iran noted that the Covenant was ‘an integral part of the domestic legal system’ andwas treated as domestic law. However, as found by the Human Rights Committee, ‘in cases ofdisparity, the domestic law took precedence over the Covenant.’279
The current Penal Code of Iran consists of Books One to Five.280 The 1991 Islamic Penal Codeof Iran was amended in 2013: known as New Islamic Penal Code, the Penal Code comprised
five books: Book One – Generalities, Book Two – Hudud (Crimes against “rights of God”),
Book Two – Qesas (Retaliation), Book Three – Diyat (Financial compensation), and Book Five

UN Human Rights Committee, Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of the Islamic Republic in
Iran, CCPR/C/IRN/CO/4, 3 November 2023, url
273
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200
274
EP, European Parliament resolution of 6 October 2022 on the death of Mahsa Jina Amini and the repression of
women’s rights protesters in Iran, 6 October 2022, url; AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url,
p. 200275
UN Human Rights Committee, Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of the Islamic Republic in
Iran, CCPR/C/IRN/CO/4, 3 November 2023, url
276
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200
277
NPR, Iran’s supreme leader lashes out at his own judiciary for corruption, 1 July 2023, url
278
Devi, S., Iranian cases throw spotlight on use of punitive amputation, The Lancet, World Report, vol. 400, 20
August 2022, url, p. 553
279
UN Human Rights Committee, Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of the Islamic Republic in
Iran, CCPR/C/IRN/CO/4, 3 November 2023, url, para 5
280
Ecoi.net, Iran, Islamic Republic – Law guide (as of May 2023), n.d., url
272

33

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM– Ta’zirat (Discretionary punishments),281 corresponding to the categories of crimes282 underthe Islamic criminal law.283 In March 2021, the amended version of the Penal Code (Books One
to Five) entered into force.284 As noted by Leila Alikarami in the correspondence with EUAA,‘some amendments were made to the Ta’zir section in June 2020,’ in the result of which someta’zir punishments were reduced.285 It was not possible to obtain the English translation of theamended Penal Code within the time constraints of this report.
The Iranian Penal Code encompasses traditional Sharia punishments and stipulates corporalpunishments, including the death penalty, for a wide range of offences.286 As noted by
USDOS, in 2023, flogging could be used as a punishment for at least 148 offences, while thepunishment of amputation was used for 20 offenses.287 For some crimes, flogging has beenused alongside a prison sentence or fines.288 For more information, please refer to 4.10.5.
Behaviour perceived as transgressing religious and moral codes

3.2.1.

Hadd punishments

Hadd (plural hudud, fixed corporal punishments289) is ‘a punishment fixed in the Quran andhadith for crimes considered to be against the rights of God’290 The ‘measure, degree, andmethod’ of hadd punishments are fixed in Sharia.291 Hadd punishments imply death penalty
and other severe punishments,292 such as limb amputation for theft and robbery, flogging for
drinking alcohol, stoning for adultery, and death for murder.293 As the nature of hadd crimes isdetermined by Sharia, these offences cannot be commuted or pardoned.294 Hadd
punishments require strict application of evidence, including testimonies by eyewitnesses. 295
Hadd crimes are covered in the Book Two of the Penal Code.296

Tavana, M. H., Three Decades of Islamic Criminal Law Legislation in Iran: A Legislative History Analysis with
Emphasis on the Amendments of the 2013 Islamic Penal Code, EJIMEL (Electronic Journal of Islamic and Middle
Eastern Law, Vol. 2, 2014, url, pp. 25, 29282
IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url
283
Tavana, M. H., Three Decades of Islamic Criminal Law Legislation in Iran: A Legislative History Analysis with
Emphasis on the Amendments of the 2013 Islamic Penal Code, EJIMEL (Electronic Journal of Islamic and Middle
Eastern Law, Vol. 2, 2014, url, p. 24
284
Ecoi.net, Iran, Islamic Republic – Law guide (as of May 2023), n.d., url
285
Alikarami, L, email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
286
Britannica, Justice of Iran, n.d., url
287
USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, pp. 8-9
288
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
289
Iran, Islamic Penal Code, The Islamic Republic of Iran, Translated into English by: Mohsen Mir Mohamad
Sadeghi, PhD. Certified English Translator to the Judiciary, n.d., url
290
Oxford Reference, Ḥadd, n.d., url
291
ECPM and Iran Human Rights, The Death Penalty in Law and In Practice – Iran, July 2023, url, p. 6292
IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url; BAMF, Länderreport
35 – Iran, May 2021, url, p. 10
293
Devi, S., Iranian cases throw spotlight on use of punitive amputation, The Lancet, World Report, vol. 400, 20
August 2022, url, p. 553
294
FIDH, Iran/death penalty. A state terror policy, April 2009, url, p. 10295
Oxford Reference, Ḥadd, n.d., url
296
IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url; US Library ofCongress – Blogs, FALQs: Execution by Stoning and Privacy Laws Related to Sexual Crimes in Iran and
Afghanistan, 30 April 2021, url.
281

34

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

As noted by Leila Alikarami, hadd punishments included sexual intercourse outside
marriage/adultery (zena, zina), sodomy and homosexual acts between men (levat, livat),lesbian relationship (mosaheqeh, mosahaqa), procuring of prostitution (qavadi), false
accusation of fornication/sodomy (qazf), defamation of the Prophet (sabb-e nabi), consumptionof alcohol/intoxicant (shorb-e-khamr), robbery/theft, waging war against God (moharebeh ba
khoda), corruption on earth (efsad fil-arz), and rebellion (baghy).297 For information on hadd
crimes punishable by death, please refer to chapter 3.9. Death penalty.
As noted by Leila Alikarami, some Iranian activists and dissidents, particularly those belonging
to ethnic or religious minorities, were at risk of being charged with offences that could result insevere hadd punishments, including for offences such as moharebeh and efsad fil-arz.298
As noted in the joint report by the Norwegian, Belgian, and Swiss migration authorities(Landinfo, CGRS, and SEM) in 2021, the crime of moharebeh is defined in Article 279 of thePenal Code as ‘taking up arms against the life, assets or honour of the people or with theintent to intimidate them in a way that causes insecurity.’299 For the cases charged under thecrime of moharebeh, the judge has the discretion of opting for one of the four punishments:
the death penalty (by hanging), crucifixion, amputation of the right hand and the left foot, orbanishment.300
The crime of efsad fil-arz is defined in Article 286 of the Penal Code as follows:‘Any person, who extensively commits felony against the bodily entity of people,
offenses against domestic or international security of the state, spreads lies,
disrupts the economic system of the state, commits arson and destruction ofproperties, distribution of poisonous and bacterial and dangerous materials, andestablishment of, or aiding and abetting in, places of corruption and prostitution, [ona scale] that causes severe disruption in the public order of the state and insecurity,
or causes harsh damage to the bodily entity of people or public or private
properties, or causes distribution of corruption and prostitution on a large scale,shall be considered as mofsed-e-fel-arz [corrupt on earth] and shall be sentenced
to death.’301

In its 2023 report, USDOS noted that adultery remained punishable by stoning, although theHead of the Judiciary ‘instructed judges to impose a moratorium on stoning in 2002.’302 There
have been no reported instances on implemented stoning punishments since 2010, 303 largely

Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
299
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 32
300
IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url, Art. 182, 183;
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 32
301
IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url, Art. 286
302
USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 7
303
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 2024, url, p. 44; USDOS, Iran 2023
Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 7
297

298

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

due to international pressure, notably after the campaign to save a women sentenced tostoning for adultery in 2010.304

3.2.2.

Qesas punishments

Crimes punished by qesas (qisas, retribution-in-kind) are covered in the Book Three of thePenal Code.305 Qesas are retributive ‘eye for an eye’ punishments306 for murder and otherviolent crimes, which gives the closest relative of a murder victim the right to seek retribution
by taking the life of the perpetrator with the court’s approval.307 Since murder is specificallyaddressed and punished within qesas laws, the Iranian Penal Code does not explicitly statethat convicted murderers are subject to the death penalty but stipulates that they are subject
to qesas as retribution to be demanded by the victims’ family or closest relatives.308 The death
penalty can also be handed down to juvenile offenders, as Sharia sets the age of criminal
responsibility at 9 years for girls and 15 years for boys.309
Norway based NGO Iran Human Rights (IHRNGO)310 reported that at least 282 persons,
including 15 women and 2 juvenile offenders who were under 18 at the time of the offence,
were executed based on qesas in 2023,311 compared to 288 in 2022, 183 in 2021 and 211 in
2020. According to the source, in the period between 2010 and 2023, there were at least
2 431 executions carried out as a qesas punishment.312 According to IHRNGO, due to theunderstanding of qesas as ‘the right of the victim’s family, the family members were‘encouraged […] to carry out the executions themselves.’ In 2023, IHRNGO reported on two
such instances. In the first, a man ‘was executed by his parents in Ilam Central Prison for thehonour killing of his sister. In the second case, a man was hanged by his maternal uncle in
Rasht Central Prison for killing his cousin.313
As noted by IHRNGO, the Penal Code outlines that qesas is not applicable in certain cases: tothe father and paternal grandfather of the victim (Article 301); a man who kills his wife and herlover in the act of adultery (Article 302); Muslims and adherents of recognised religions(‘protected persons’) who kill adherents of unrecognised religions (‘unprotected persons’)(Article 310); a person who kills someone who has committed a hadd offence punishable bydeath (Article 302); and a person who kills a rapist (Article 302).314 For the information on

IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 2024, url, p. 44
IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url; Iran Best Lawyer, The
Islamic Penal Code of Iran, n.d., url
306
FIDH, Iran/death penalty. A state terror policy, April 2009, url, p. 10
307
Britannica, Justice of Iran, n.d., url
308
IHRNGO, Qisas/Murder Executions and Forgiveness in 2022, 8 June 2023, url; IHRNGO, Executions for Murder
Charges in 2023, 15 March 2024, url309
IHRNGO, Qisas/Murder Executions and Forgiveness in 2022, 8 June 2023, url; IHRNGO, Executions for Murder
Charges in 2023, 15 March 2024, url
310
NGO Iran Human Rights (IHRNGO) is a Norway-based human rights NGO, which monitors the death penalty andother human rights issues in Iran. See, IHRNGO, We aim to create an abolitionist movement in Iran by increasingawareness about the death penalty, n.d., url
311
IHRNGO, Executions for Murder Charges in 2023, 15 March 2024, url
312
IHRNGO, Qisas/Murder Executions and Forgiveness in 2022, 8 June 2023, url
313
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 2024, url, pp. 43-44, 83
314
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 2024, url, p. 31
304

305

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

qesas regarding honour killings, please refer to chapter 3.3. Punishments related to violenceagainst women and chapter 4.11.8. Domestic and honour-related violence.
According to the Penal Code, relatives of a homicide victim have the option to give
forgiveness to the perpetrator by choosing financial compensation, diyeh (blood money), as aretribution, which allows the perpetrator to be released, or pardoning the perpetrator andrelinquishing diyeh claims.315 In cases where the crime is deemed to disrupt public order andendanger societal safety, the state reserves the authority to impose a further penalty even if
the blood avengers chose to forgo their claim for retaliation.316
The annual suggested diyeh amounts are established by the Head of the Judiciary based on
inflation and other considerations, yet the victim’s family retains the autonomy to choose theirown preferred sum. They may request an amount lower or higher than the indicative figure,without any defined upper limit. As reported by IHRNGO, in March 2023, the diyeh was fixedat 900 million tomans (18 000 euros) in case of a murder of a Muslim man and 450 million
tomans (9 000 euros) of a Muslim woman.317 IHRNGO noted that the amount of diyeh set byfamilies was often higher than the figure determined by the head of judiciary, which itself wasoften beyond the financial reach of most families and there were cases, in which persons had
been executed because they could not pay the requested diyeh.318
As noted by IHRNGO, which has been compiling forgiveness reports since 2015, families ofmurder victims who opted for forgiveness or diyeh exceeded those who insisted on the death
penalty. For 2023, IHRNGO recorded 857 forgiveness cases, based on media reports and its
network in Iran, which was the highest number since 2015.319
The frequency of retribution sentences in cases related to bodily harm has reportedly
increased since 2015.320 In August 2022, the Tehran Criminal Prosecutor’s Office wasreportedly instructed to carry out the sentences of blinding as a retaliation in three separatecases, involving two men and one woman,321 whose actions led to victims’ losing their eyesightin 2018, 2017, and 2011 respectively.322 Information on other instances of the application of
retribution in cases of bodily harm could not be found among the sources consulted by EUAA
within time constraints.

IHRNGO, Qisas/Murder Executions and Forgiveness in 2022, 8 June 2023, url
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 33
317
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 57
318
IHRNGO, Qisas/Murder Executions and Forgiveness in 2022, 8 June 2023, url
319
IHRNGO, Executions for Murder Charges in 2023, 15 March 2024, url
320
RFE/RL, Iran Prepares To Blind Three People In ‘Eye-For-An-Eye’ Judicial Punishment, 3 August 2022, url
321
RFE/RL, Iran Prepares To Blind Three People In ‘Eye-For-An-Eye’ Judicial Punishment, 3 August 2022, url; IranInternational, Iran Sentences Three To Be Blinded in ‘Eye-For-An-Eye’ Move, 3 August 2022, url
322
Iran International, Iran Sentences Three To Be Blinded in ‘Eye-For-An-Eye’ Move, 3 August 2022, url
315

316

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

3.2.3.

Diyeh punishments

Crimes punished under diyeh (diya, plural diyat, blood money) are covered in Book Four of the
Iranian Penal Code.323 Diyeh punishments are determined by Sharia324 and, similarly to hadd
punishments, they are pre-determined and unchangeable.325 According to Article 448 of thePenal Code, diyeh is mandated by Sharia326 as compensation for unintentional homicide orbodily harm, intentional homicide and bodily harm in cases where the claim to retribution(qesas) is waived, and intentional harm in situation where retribution is not applicable. 327 Diyehis paid to the victim or their closest relative,328 excluding the spouse.329
In adherence to Article 549 of the Penal Code, the amount for diyeh is set yearly by the Headof the Judiciary.330 For information on the amount of diyeh and its application for qesas crimes,
please refer to chapter 3.2.2. Qesas punishments.

3.2.4.

Ta’zir punishments

Crimes punished under ta’zir (plural ta’zirat) are covered in Book Five of the Penal Code.331
Ta’zir punishments are not determined by Sharia332 and a specific punishment for a ta’zir
crime is at the discretion of the judge.333 As summarised by Landinfo, CGRD, and SEM, crimes
punishable by ta’zir can be divided into the following categories:

Crimes against the internal and external security of the state (Articles 498-512 andArticles 610-611), including:•Establishing a group to disrupt national security (Article 498),•

Membership in a group with the purpose of disrupting national security, or insulting
Iranian ethnicities, divine religions or Islamic schools of thought recognised under
the Constitution with the intent to cause violence or tensions, or with theknowledge that such consequences will follow (Article 499),•

Spreading propaganda against the system, or conducting any deviant educationalor proselytising activity that contradicts or interferes with the sacred law of Islam(Article 500),•

Colluding and conspiring to commit crimes against national or foreign security(Article 610).

IHRDC, English Translation of Books I & II of the New Islamic Penal Code, 4 April 2014, url; Iran Best Lawyer, The
Islamic Penal Code of Iran, n.d., url
324
FIDH, Iran/death penalty, A state terror policy, April 2009, url, p. 10
325
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
326
Karimi Law Firm, Personal injury in Iran, n.d., url
327
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 33
328
FIDH, Iran/death penalty, A state terror policy, April 2009, url, p. 10329
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 33
330
IHRNGO, Qisas/Murder Executions and Forgiveness in 2022, 8 June 2023, url
331
IHRDC, Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book Five, 15 July 2013, url
332
FIDH, Iran/death penalty, A state terror policy, April 2009, url, p. 10333
ECPM and Iran Human Rights, The Death Penalty in Law and In Practice – Iran, July 2023, url, p. 6323

38

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS



Insulting sacred religious values and attempts on the life of authorities (Articles 513515), such as:•

Insulting Islamic sanctities, (Article 513)•

Insulting the Supreme Leader, (Article 514)Forgery and falsification’ (Articles 523-542)

Offences against public morals and decency (Articles 637-641), for instance:•

Illicit relationship between a man and a woman such as touching and kissing’(Article 627)•

Un-Islamic dress code (bad hejab) (Article 638)•

Encouraging people to depravity and immorality (Article 639)

Theft and stealing of others’ property (Articles 651-667)

Public consumption of alcoholic drinks, gambling, and vagrancy (Articles 701-713).334

Ta’zir punishments include imprisonment, flogging, fines, and other penalties. 335 The offences
and the punishments are classified into eight degrees, with the severity decreasing from theharshest in the first degree to the mildest in the eighth.336 As reported in 2023, ta’zir
punishments were also applied in cases of drug-related offences.337

3.3.

Punishments related to violence against women

The Islamic Penal Code does not explicitly criminalise violence against women.338 In 2021, the‘Bill to Protect the Dignity and Security of Women Against Violence’ was formally introduced in
the Iranian Parliament but, due to significant opposition, its enactment did not proceed.339 In
April 2023, local media reported that the Parliament approved the ‘general outlines’ of thebill340 to toughen punishments for perpetrators of violence against women, including byincreasing prison sentences for murder.341 While the effectiveness of the proposed legal
changes has been questioned,342 information regarding the progress of its adoption was notavailable within the time constraints of this report.
As noted by Human Rights Watch in December 2023, Iranian law was lacking means toprovide adequate protection for victims of domestic violence: all intentional homicide cases
were punishable under qesas punishments and, in case of forgiveness by the next of kin,were ending up with a prison sentence of less than 10 years.343 In January 2023 a court
sentenced a man who had beheaded his 17-year-old wife to 8 years and 2 months in prison,following the forgiveness by her family.344
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, pp. 34-35
ECPM and Iran Human Rights, The Death Penalty in Law and In Practice – Iran, July 2023, url, p. 6
336
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 35
337
ECPM and Iran Human Rights, The Death Penalty in Law and In Practice – Iran, July 2023, url, p. 6
338
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
339
Rezaei Zadeh, M., Iran Under Fire Amid New Restrictions on Women’s Rights, Stimson, 27 September 2023, url
340
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “Protect” Women with New Bill, 14 April 2023, url
341
VoA, Iran Plans to Toughen Penalties for Violence Against Women, 10 April 2023, url
342
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “Protect” Women with New Bill, 14 April 2023, url
343
HRW, Iranian Society Under Crackdown, Execution of a Victim of Child Marriage in Iran, 21 December 2023, url
344
CNN, He beheaded his wife in Iran. His prison sentence? Eight years and two months, 18 January 2023, url
334

335

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In email correspondence with EUAA, Leila Alikarami noted that physical abuse might bepunishable under the provisions of the Penal Code, with blood money being required in somecases.’ The expert noted that ‘Article 614 of the Penal Code amended in 2020 identified
punishment for physical injury which can also be used in domestic violence cases.’ As per this
Article, the punishment of ‘sixth degree imprisonment’ and payment of the blood money, if
requested by the victim would apply.345 Killings related to the protection of honour are
addressed according to Sharia and often entail reduced sentences for the perpetrators.346
According to the Penal Code, rape is punishable by the death penalty as a hadd punishment
for sexual intercourse outside marriage (zena). In case of repentance, a perpetrator can avoid
the hadd punishment and be punished by a ta’zir punishment of the sixth degree, which can
result in up to 2 years imprisonment, flogging with up to 99 lashes, fines up to 80 million IRR[approximately 1 750 euros347], and other penalties.348 Conviction under rape charges requires
a testimony from a group of witnesses, consisting of either four Muslim men or a combinationof three men and two women, or two men and four women.349 July 2023, media reported on
the execution of three men in Hormozgan province on charges of drugging and raping
women, after setting up an ‘illegal beauty institute’.350

3.4.

Criminal Courts

The criminal courts in Iran are divided into Criminal Courts One, Criminal Courts Two,
Revolutionary Courts, Juvenile Courts, and Military Courts.351 In cases involving the death
penalty, crimes with security-related charges (moharebeh, efsad fil-arz, and baghy) and drugrelated offences fall under the jurisdiction of the Revolutionary Courts. Other criminal charges
punishable by the death penalty, such as murder and rape (as well as, for instance, adultery 352
and LGBTIQ-related cases353) are tried by Criminal Courts.354 Political and press crimes areoften classified as security offences, resulting in their jurisdiction falling under Revolutionary
Courts.355

Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
USCIRF, Country Update: Iran, September 2023, url, p. 2
347
The calculation was made based on the European Commission’s official monthly accounting rates for the eurofor Iranian rial (IRR) for April 2024, EC, Exchange rate (InforEuro), n.d., url, accessed 17 April 2024
348
Kanhaiya, Case Study of Rape Laws of Iran, Journal of Legal Research and Juridical Sciences, vol. 2, issue 3, 23
April 2023, url, pp. 117-119
349
Kanhaiya, Case Study of Rape Laws of Iran, Journal of Legal Research and Juridical Sciences, vol. 2, issue 3, 23
April 2023, url, pp. 118
350
Iran International, Three Men Hanged In Iran For Rape At Fake Beauty Clinic, 4 July 2023, url
351
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url352
IHRNGO, Leila Kholghi and Abolfazl Barat Vakili Sentenced to Death for Adultery, 2 November 2023, url
353
AI, Iranian LGBTI defender sentenced to death, n.d., url354
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 57
355
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 39
345

346

40

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

3.4.1.

Criminal Courts One

Criminal Courts One (dadgah-e keifari I) are established in the capital cities of the provinces356
and, upon the decision of the Head of the Judiciary, may be also established in counties.357
Dealing with more serious crimes than the Criminal Courts Two,358 these courts havejurisdiction to hear the cases related to:•

Crimes punishable by death penalty,•

Crimes punishable by life imprisonment,•

Crimes punishable by limb amputation or crimes related to causing a bodily harm,
punishable by more than a half of diyeh,359•

Crimes punishable by ta’zir punishments of I-IV360•

Political crimes and press crimes.361

3.4.2.

Criminal Courts Two

Criminal Courts Two are established at the county level362 and have a general jurisdiction to
adjudicate all cases that are outside the jurisdiction of other courts,363 such as Criminal Courts
One, Juvenile Courts, and Revolutionary Courts, including the cases falling under ta’zir
punishments of degrees V to VIII.364 As noted by Leila Alikarami, the jurisdiction of Criminal
Courts Two includes but is not limited to such crimes and offences as:
All moral offences (except adultery committed by married couples, punishable by thedeath penalty), including:•violations of dress code, including improper wearing or lack of the hijab (‘badhijab’), inappropriate tattoos, hairstyles, clothing, etc.;•

sexual offences falling below the threshold of adultery or rape;•charges related to homosexual acts of non-penetrative character;Assaults and battery that do not result in death or severe injury;Defamation, excluding the hadd crime of defamation of the Prophet;Ta’zir crimes such as theft, breach of trust, fraud and misrepresentation, forgery, andcrimes against public order that are beyond the jurisdiction of the Criminal Courts
One.365

Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 39
Iran Best Lawyer, A comprehensive analysis of the Iranian legal system – Part 2, n.d., url
358
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 39
359
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url; IranBest Lawyer, A comprehensive analysis of the Iranian legal system – Part 2, n.d., url
360
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 39
361
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url; IranBest Lawyer, A comprehensive analysis of the Iranian legal system – Part 2, n.d., url
362
Iran Best Lawyer, A comprehensive analysis of the Iranian legal system – Part 2, n.d., url
363
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url364
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
365
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
356
357

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

As noted by Leila Alikarami, as defined in Article 299 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, theHead of the Judiciary could decide to establish general county courts (sg. dadgah-e ‘omumiye bakhsh) instead of Criminal Courts Two in some regions. These courts are less specialised
and hear cases related to various smaller offences and are composed in some instances of
only one judge and one secretary. In these situation, more serious cases are sent to larger
cities.366

3.4.3.

Revolutionary Courts

Revolutionary Courts are located in provincial capitals and, at the discretion of the Head of the
Judiciary, are also established in sub-provincial judicial districts (shahrestan). In instanceswhere a city lacks a branch of the Revolutionary Court, typically in smaller towns, criminalcases are referred to the nearest city’s Revolutionary Court.367
Revolutionary Courts (dadgah-e enqelab) were established following the 1979 revolution as atemporary measure to prosecute high-ranking officials of the former monarchy. Despite theabsence of a constitutional provision for their establishment, Revolutionary Courts havebecome institutionalised and continuously function in parallel to the regular criminal justicesystem.368 Revolutionary Courts were integrated into the judicial system through Article 297 of
the Code of Criminal Procedure, while Article 303 of the same code granted them theauthority to prosecute certain offences involving political opponents, including:•

procuring weapons and explosives to overthrow the Islamic Republic of Iran (Article
187 of the Penal Code),•

waging war against God (moharebeh, Article 279),•

corruption on earth (efsad fil-arz, Article 286),•

rebellion (baghy, Article 287),•

espionage on behalf of foreigners (Article 502),•

insulting the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Supreme Leader (Article
514),

•

gathering and collusion against the Islamic Republic of Iran (Article 610).369

Having the jurisdiction to prosecute all cases related to national security, Revolutionary Courts
also address crimes which involve drugs and psychotropic substances.370 Moreover, under
Article 303 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, Revolutionary Courts also handle cases
involving financial crimes endangering the stability and economy of the country (such as
forging currency), trafficking or counterfeiting of goods, economic offences disrupting thecountry’s production system through unauthorised sale of goods or arms, smuggling of
cultural heritage or national assets abroad, illegal reproduction of audio-visual works, crimes
related to Iran’s public and private health institutions,371 and confiscation of assets gained
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
368
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 19
369
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 3
370
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url371
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
366
367

42

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

through activities deemed illegal under Article 49 of the Constitution, such as bribery,embezzlement, fraud, and gambling among others.372
In September 2023, the International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) and the League forthe Defence of Human Rights in Iran (LDDHI) noted that cases tried at Revolutionary Courts
were adjudicated by one judge, who, in most cases, acted as both judge and prosecutor,
while a prosecutor would be present only to give an appearance of a proper court in instancesof international attention or when certain parts of the hearing were broadcasted.373
Sources noted that Revolutionary Courts and judges employed at them lacked impartiality374
and were implicated in fair trial violations,375 including denial of access to legal aid in cases
involving ‘extensive interrogations under severe conditions.’376 For more information pleaserefer to chapter 3.7. Due process and chapter 3.9. Death penalty.
As noted by FIDH and LDDHI, the Office of the Revolutionary Courts formally assigned cases
to be heard in particular branches of the Revolutionary Courts. The cases potentially involving
death penalty were generally assigned ‘to a few hand-picked branches’ whose judges
followed ‘the wishes of the security and intelligence agencies.’ According to FIDH and LDDHI,
in three decades of observation, the biggest number of cases in which defendants faced
death sentences and lengthy prison terms were sent to branches 15, 26, 28, and 29 of
Revolutionary Courts in Tehran, and branch 1 of the Revolutionary Courts in other cities.377

3.4.4.

Juvenile Courts

Juvenile Courts (dadgah-e atfal va noujavanan) are situated in sub-provinces (shahrestan),
with the number of branches varying among them.378 According to Article 298 of the Code of
Criminal Procedure, each sub-province is required to have at least one Juvenile Court; if sucha court has not been yet established, cases within its jurisdiction are to be addressed by aCriminal Court Two. As per Article 315 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, in instances where aminor commits an offence falling under the jurisdiction of the Criminal Court Two or the
Revolutionary Court, in cases in which multiple judges are involved, a specialised division
within the Criminal Court One is to handle the case; the defendant in these cases should‘benefit from all privileges pertaining to Juvenile Courts.’379 As noted by an expert interviewed
by Landinfo, CGRS, and SEM in 2021, in cases related to national security and perceived aspolitical (and particularly in cases where the offender had ‘an ethnic minority background, e.g.
Kurdish’) it was likely that s/he would still be tried by the Revolutionary Court, despite being aminor and in violation of the legal requirements.380
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url;
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
373
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 3
374
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 3; AI, “Don’t Let Them Kill Us, Iran’s Relentless
Execution Crisis Since the 2022 Uprising, April 2024, url
375
AI, “Don’t Let Them Kill Us, Iran’s Relentless Execution Crisis Since the 2022 Uprising, April 2024, url, pp. 15, 19376
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 57
377
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 3
378
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url379
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
380
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 43372

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In cases where a crime is committed by several persons, comprising both minors and adults, aJuvenile court also handles the case of the adult(s), provided that each person’s involvementin the crime is equally significant. However, if the persons have distinct roles and levels of
involvement in the crime, the Juvenile court will try only persons under 18.381 If the defendantreaches 18 before the start of the trial, the proceeding will be continued by a Juvenile Court. In
case the defendant turns 18 before the beginning of the trial, the case is to be transferred to a
Criminal Court with appropriate jurisdiction; in these cases, ‘the defendant will still benefit fromthe privileges of trials in Juvenile courts.’382

3.5.

Appellate Courts

3.5.1.

Courts of appeal

Courts of appeal (singular: dadgah-e tajdid-e nazar) are located in the capital city of every
province and hold authority to review all appeals except for those falling within the jurisdictionof the Supreme Court, such as criminal cases punishable with more severe penalties.383 The
law also specifies that as per Article 427 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, sentences fallingunder degree VIII of ta‘zir punishments and sentences where diyeh amounts to or is less than
1/10 of the full diyeh are exceptions and cannot be appealed.384
After receiving a court’s decision, the person has a period of 20 days to lodge an appeal to arelevant appellate body.385 As noted by Leila Alikarami, in order to file an appeal, a person
must provide valid legal grounds, which are specified in Article 434 of the Code of Criminal
Procedure. These grounds encompass situations where the judgement contradicts the law,significant evidence was overlooked by the court, the documentation or testimonies used in
the judgement were incorrect or falsified, the court had no jurisdiction to handle the case, orthe judge was not eligible to hear the trial on legal grounds.386 In criminal cases, theProsecutor also has the authority to appeal verdicts.387
In an interview with EUAA, an expert on the Kurdish population and regions in Iran noted thatmost people tried on political and security charges would appeal in an appeal court and theSupreme Court. However, the source pointed out that the authorities ‘do not follow the regularprocedures when dealing with some people,’ particularly those seen as ‘security concerns’.388

Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url383
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
384
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 45
385
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url;Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 45
386
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
387
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 46
388
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview with EUAA, 20 March 2023
381

382

44

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

3.5.2.

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court (divan-e ‘ali-ye keshvar), headquartered in Tehran, serves as the highest
appellate authority for both civil and criminal cases.389 The establishment of the Supreme
Court is mandated by Article 161 of the Constitution, which assigns it the responsibility of‘supervising the correct implementation of the laws by the courts’ to maintain consistency injudicial procedures.390 The Head of the Supreme Court is required to have expertise in Islamic
law and is nominated for a term of five years by the Head of the Judiciary.391

The Supreme Court has branches across different parts of the country, each staffed with has
three judges: a chief justice and two associate justices.392 As reported is September 2023, theSupreme Court had 52 branches, 45 of which were in Tehran.393
The Supreme Court ‘does not issue a substantive decision’ and reviews cases solely on
matters of ‘the application and interpretation of law’, sending cases to the lower court for asecond review upon a defendant’s appeal. If a lower court upholds its initial decision, the caseis sent to the Supreme Court General Council, provided that the Supreme Court still maintains
its previous ruling.394
In January 2024, the Supreme Court reportedly overturned the death sentence of a police
officer convicted of fatally shooting a protester in November 2022, resulting in the case being
returned to a court for a new trial.395 In May 2024, a Kurdish political prisoner was executedon charges of moharebeh and efsad fil-arz through ‘armed action and membership in a Salafi
jihadi group’ as one of persons396 detained in 2009. In 2017, the Supreme Court reportedly
overturned his death sentence, referring the case back to the Revolutionary court in Tehran.
After the Revolutionary Court reissued the death sentence in December 2018, the Supreme
Court confirmed it in February 2020.397

3.6.

Special Clerical Courts

Special Clerical Courts operate independently from the judiciary and are overseen directly by
the Supreme Leader in their function to investigate clerical dissent,398 coming from both Shia
and Sunni clerics. The rulings of these courts are final and cannot be appealed.399
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, urlIran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
391
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
392
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url
393
FIDH and LDDHI, The Iran Notes, September 2023, url, p. 4
394
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url, seealso Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 48
395
IranWire, Iranian Police Official Has Death Sentence Overturned, 16 January 2024, url
396
IRHNGO, Kurdish Political Prisoner Anwar Kherzi Executed After 14+ Years on Death Row, 1 May 2024, url
397
Iran International, Kurdish Prisoner Executed After 14 Years’ Incarceration, 2 May 2024, url
398
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 49; USDOS,
Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 19-20
399
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 49
389

390

45

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMSpecial Clerical Courts were used to prosecute Shia clerics for expressing ‘controversial ideas’
and taking part in activities unrelated to religious matters, such as journalism or ‘reformist
political activities.’400 Following the outbreak of the protests in September 2022, there werereports on trials of Sunni clerics,401 particularly those in Sistan and Baluchistan province andthe Kurdish provinces.402 For example, as reported by Kurdistan Human Rights Network,403
between March and June 2023, the Special Clerical Court of Hamadan in north-western Iransentenced at least six Sunni Kurdish clerics to suspended prison sentences, flogging, and therevocation of their clerical status for supporting demands of the protesters in Sanandaj,
Saqqez, Dehgolan, and Sarvabad.404

3.7.

Due process

The right to a fair trial is emphasised in the ICCPR, including the right to ‘the presence of an
impartial judge, interrogator, investigator, and the presence of chosen competent andindependent counsel.’405
Despite the existence of legal safeguards, sources reported widespread violations of due
process406 within the country’s judicial system, which was impacted by ‘a structural lack of
independence and impartiality.’407 Iranian courts were criticised for failing to ensure ‘theminimum guarantees’408 of fair trial409 before an independent and impartial court.410
In Iranian domestic legislation, rights to fair trial and due process are established by several
constitutional provisions. According to Article 32 of the Constitution, no person can bearrested without lawful orders and procedures. Upon arrest, the accused must receive a
written notification of the charges, and a provisional dossier must be submitted to acompetent court within 24 hours.411 Article 37 of the Constitution upholds the presumption of
innocence and requires a competent court to provide proof of guilt. As per Article 165 of theConstitution, trials should be open to the public, except when the court determines that thiswould compromise ‘public morality or discipline’ or in case of private disputes between two
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 19-20
USCIRF, Country Update: Iran, September 2023, url, p. 3
402
CHRI, Special Report: Sunni Clerics in the Crosshairs of Islamic Republic Repression, 15 August 2023, url
403
Kurdistan Human Rights Network is a France-based NGO which documents human rights violations in Iran, see
Kurdistan Human Rights Network, About us, n.d., url
404
Kurdistan Human Rights Network, Iran clergy tries two Sunni Kurdish clerics for backing protests, 8 June 2023,
url
405
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url
406
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, url, p. 4; UN OHCHR, Respect lives, voices of Iranians and listen togrievances, pleads UN Human Rights Chief, 10 January 2023, url
407
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 55, see also para. 63
408
UN OHCHR, Respect lives, voices of Iranians and listen to grievances, pleads UN Human Rights Chief, 10
January 2023, url
409
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, n.d., url; USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 18
410
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran,
A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 40
411
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
400
401

46

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

parties if they request not to have a public trial. Article 168 of the Constitution stipulates thatpolitical and press offences must be tried in open court sessions with a jury present.412
According to Article 305 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, cases involving political and press
crimes should be held in open hearings413 and require the presence of a jury.414
Reporting on trials related to the 2022 protests, which resulted in prison sentences, death
sentences, and flogging punishments,415 sources noted that these trials were conductedbehind closed doors416 and/or in secrecy417 and in a summary manner.418 Moreover, sources
noted the use of torture during pre-trial interrogations419 to extract confessions to be used incourts as evidence,420 and the airing of coerced confessions on state and state-affiliatedmedia421 prior to conviction.422 As noted by the UN Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission (UN FFM) on Iran, the protests-related cases were heard in only one court session,
which sometimes lasted mere minutes and lacked exculpatory witnesses.423 In most cases, theaccused persons did not have access to the materials of their cases during investigations,which impeded their ability to prepare a defence. Furthermore, some protesters faced two
separate trials for the same offence, organised in parallel: one in a Criminal Court and one in a
Revolutionary Court.424
Sources reported on significant violations of the rights to a fair trial and due process, in which
persons were sentenced to death.425 The legal proceedings resulting in death sentenceswere conducted ‘in a summary fashion amid repeated calls by the State authorities to
expedite the trials and carry out executions’, in the result of which the executions of several

Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 39
414
Soltani, M. and Shooshinasab, N., Update: An Overview of the Iranian Legal System, July/August 2022, url
415
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, url, p.198
416
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 59
417
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, url, p.198
418
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, paras. 55, 59
419
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran,
A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 56
420
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url; AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p.198;
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 5-6, 19; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the
independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url,para. 56
421
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p.198; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the
independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url,para. 56; USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 19
422
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 56
423
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 59
424
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 58
425
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url; AI, Amnesty
International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200; IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran
– 2023, n.d., url, p. 12
412
413

47

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

protesters took place just weeks after their arrest and/or the conviction date,426 reportedly to‘instil fear and put an end’ to the protests.427
Judges employed at Criminal and Revolutionary Courts reportedly exhibited bias against
protesters and persons perceived as political opposition, often relied on confessions obtained
through torture and ill-treatment to convict protesters, and disregarded complaints about
torture and ill-treatment.428 Practices violating due process were carried out particularly by
Revolutionary Courts,429 which generally handled cases of political prisoners and overall
issued the biggest number of death sentences.430 Violations of due process occurred at every
stage of criminal proceedings organised by Revolutionary Courts, including procedures atinitial prosecution and pretrial investigation, trials at the first instance courts, and review
procedures by higher courts.431 Including in cases resulting in death sentences, judges ofRevolutionary Courts ignored claims of torture and ill-treatment.432
As noted by expert Behrooz Chamanara, interviewed by EUAA, the severity of court
sentences revealed geographical disparities. According to the expert, ‘while a particularoffence might warrant a 10-year sentence in Tehran, it could result in a death penalty in areas
like Kurdistan and Sistan and Baluchistan.’ The source also noted that persons who
participated in demonstrations in these regions often faced more severe consequences. In
numerous cases, Kurdish and Baluchi defendants faced harsher sentences when they weredetained in cities such as Tehran, Urmia, or Isfahan.433
The UN FFM on Iran found that the authorities did not investigate cases where defendants
retracted their self-incriminating confessions in court, as well as cases where claims of
coerced confessions were raised, including publicly by the defendants, their lawyers, andfamily members. Moreover, the authorities proceeded with executions despite claims ofconfessions obtained under torture.434 For more information, please refer to chapter 3.8.
Treatment in detention and prison conditions and chapter 3.9. Death penalty.

3.7.1.

Access to legal representation

Article 35 of the Constitution guarantees defendants the right to choose a lawyer in all typesof court proceedings. In cases, where a defendant cannot do it, they should be provided withlegal aid.435 Additionally, Article 314 of the Code of Civil Procedure allows persons accused incriminal cases to have up to three lawyers of their own choice. According to the Law on

UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 62
427
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url
428
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 55, see also para. 63
429
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url; USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url,
pp. 5-6430
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 5-6, 19
431
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 19
432
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
433
Chamanara, B., interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
434
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 63
435
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
426

48IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Criminal Courts and Decision of the Supreme Court on Uniformity of Procedure, defendantsfacing charges punishable by death or life imprisonment must have a lawyer present, withjudgements issued without legal representation being subject to annulment by the Supreme
Court. The Single Article Act on Choosing of Counsel by Litigants, mandates courts to accept
lawyers chosen by the defendants, with rejection invalidating court decisions and holding
judges accountable for disciplinary action.436
Sources noted that access to a lawyer was frequently denied during the investigation period437
at pre-trial interrogations.438 In court procedures involving protesters, access to lawyers was
also denied during the trial and the appeal stage. 439 In some instances, defendants weredenied access to independently chosen lawyers,440 including during the trial,441 and forced
instead to engage lawyers from the list endorsed by the Head of Judiciary. As noted by theCenter for Human Rights in Iran (CHRI),442 this list comprises lawyers who either cooperatewith the state security establishment or lack the resources to adequately defend theirclients.443 Furthermore, in the cases related to the 2022 protests, lawyers appointed by the
court did not ‘provide adequate legal representation’, with the result of protesters having been‘denied all due process and fair rights.’ The fees of these lawyers were reportedly also beyond
the means the families could afford.444
The UN FFM on Iran noted that there was a ‘limited number of lawyers on the approved list of
the head of the judiciary’ in some provinces. Moreover, these lawyers had ‘close links tojudicial authority’ and were often biased against protesters. Some defendants were able tochoose a lawyer of their choice only at the appeal stage, after the verdict had been issued. 445
In the interview with EUAA, an expert noted that ethnic minorities, including Kurds, mostly did
not have access to lawyers, including in cases where executions were carried out.446 Anotherexpert interviewed by EUAA noted that ‘in Kurdish regions, intelligence services wieldsignificant influence over the judiciary’, resulting in constraints on lawyers' activities. As notedby the same source, only a few selected lawyers were appointed as trustees of the court,
greatly restricting the options for activists seeking legal representation. The selection processstrongly favoured lawyers with ties to the authorities, leaving persons facing charges with only

Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 52
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independentinternational fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, paras. 40, 57,
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 5-6, 19438
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 56
439
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2023, url, p. 50
440
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 59
441
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 57
442
The Centre for Human Rights in Iran (CHRI) is an US-based NGO which reports on human rights situation in Iran.
See, CHRI, Who We Are, n.d., url
443
CHRI, Iran Protests: At Least 44 Defense Attorneys Arrested Since September, 10 January 2023, url
444
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2023, url, p. 50
445
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 57
446
Eliassi, B., interview with EUAA, 14 March 2024
436
437

49

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

one or two choices in some Kurdish cities. Consequently, political activists were effectively
deprived of the chance to be defended by an independent legal representative.447

3.7.1.

SANA system

The SANA system is used to get access to judicial documents,448 including by Iranians living
abroad. 449 In correspondence with EUAA, Iranian lawyer and human rights advocate Leila
Alikarami noted that the SANA system was designed to facilitate judicial affairs. To access thesystem, users must register and verify their identity, after which they receive the SANA code.
Upon that, the users can access judicial notifications, case notifications and appointment
scheduling and view details of complaints and petitions. The services of the SANA system
consist of the following: viewing electronic summonses/notifications, receiving electronic
appointments, obtaining a certificate of having no criminal record, and viewing case details.450

3.8.

Treatment in detention and prison conditions

Treatment in detention
Article 39 of the Constitution prohibits ‘all affronts to the dignity and repute’ of arrested,detained, and imprisoned persons, while Article 38 prohibits any form of torture to coerce
confessions or obtain information.451 According to Article 169 of the Penal Code, a confession
obtained under any mental or physical mistreatment is deemed invalid.452 Furthermore, Article
578 of the Penal Code stipulates a prison term ranging from six months to three years, inaddition to qesas punishment and blood money, for judicial personnel found guilty of the useof ill-treatment and torture to extract confessions. In cases where ill-treatment and torture arecarried out under an order, only the person issuing such order is to be punished. However, all
the involved persons are to face punishment if the torture leads to death:453 in such cases, thepersonnel involved must be charged with homicide, while those who issued the orders areheld accountable for ordering homicide.454
Despite the abovementioned legal safeguards, sources reported on ill-treatment and torture in
detention,455 including sexual assault456 and rape,457 as well as denial of medical care.458
Torture and ill-treatment were particularly reported in relation to treatment of persons involved

Charmanara, B., interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
Landinfo, CGRS and SEM, Iran – Criminal procedures and documents, December 2021, url, p. 89
449
ITSaaz, Judicial Electronic Service System for Iranians Abroad, n.d., url
450
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
451
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
452
ABC, IHRDC, Impact Iran, and HRA, Alternative Report to Human Rights Committee, For the periodic review of
the Islamic Republic of Iran, Right to Fair Trial and Due Process, 9 October – 3 November 2023, url, para. 18
453
ABC, IHRDC, Impact Iran, and HRA, Alternative Report to Human Rights Committee, For the periodic review of
the Islamic Republic of Iran, Right to Fair Trial and Due Process, 9 October – 3 November 2023, url, para. 18454
Rahmani, T. and Koohshahi, N.M., Introduction to Iran’s Judicial System, JLPG, Vol. 45, 2016, url, p. 53
455
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 198; Iran Wire, Exclusive: IranWire Investigations
Confirm Torture and Overcrowding in Prison System, 26 February 2024, url
456
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
457
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 5, 10
458
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 198
447

448

50

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

in the ‘Women, Life, Freedom’ protests,459 with security forces frequently using torture and illtreatment during arrests and interrogations.460 As noted by the UN FFM on Iran, Iranian public
officials purposely used torture to obtain a confession or information or as a means ofpunishments and intimidation of protesters, including to prevent participation in protests. 461
Human Rights Watch highlighted the lack of proper investigation into numerous allegations of
torture against detainees.462
The UN FFM on Iran noted that persons detained during the protests, including children, faced
torture and ill-treatment upon their arrests and transfer to various detention facilities: police
stations, detention facilities of IRGC and Ministry of Intelligence, and prisons operated by Iran’sprison organisation (State Organisation for Prisons and Correctional and Educative Measures).
Detainees faced ‘various forms of physical and psychological abuse amounting to torture’,during prolonged and repeated interrogation and prolonged solitary confinement, and weredenied access to medical care. Verbal abuse included ‘insults of a sexual nature or based on
ethnicity and religion’ and ‘threats of death, rape and harm to family members.’ 463 Minors werereportedly detained in official and unofficial detention facilities for extended periods, without
knowing the reason for their detention and without having contact with their families, oraccess to legal aid, and were ‘subjected to severe physical, psychological and sexual torture,including rape.’464
AI noted a ‘pattern’ of sexual violence to which persons detained in relation to the 2022
protests were subjected to in detention.465 Sexual and gender-based violence was usedagainst women, men, and children, including LGBTIQ persons. The most severe forms ofviolence, including sexual and gender-based violence, took place in unofficial places ofdetention run by the IRGC and the Ministry of Intelligence.466
AI reported that dozens of detainees died while in custody under ‘suspicious circumstances,’with reports of physical torture and/or denial of medical healthcare.467 Similarly, the UN FFM
on Iran reported on ‘several cases of deaths in custody as a result of torture,’ noting that
‘injured survivors were denied medical care or did not report the torture when they werereleased, owing to a fear of reprisals.’468 In August 2023, a 31-year old protester arrested
during the Women, Life, Freedom protests,469 who had received three death sentences, all of
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report 20 March 2023, url, p. 10; HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, n.d., url; EP,
European Parliament resolution of 19 January 2023 on the EU response to the protests and executions in Iran, 19
January 2023, url
460
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
461
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 42
462
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
463
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 43
464
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 44
465
AI, Iran: Child detainees subjected to flogging, electric shocks and sexual violence in brutal protest crackdown,
16 March 2023, url
466
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 43, 46
467
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p.198
468
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 45
469
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
459

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

which were overturned,470 died in Nowshahr prison in Mazandaran province in northern Iranafter reportedly being subjected to severe torture.471 In February 2024, a political prisoner,
sentenced in 2020 on national security charges, reportedly committed suicide in Urmia
Prison.472
AI reported on at least 72 deaths in prisons and detention centres in the period between 2010
and 2021, including 46 deaths resulting ‘from physical torture or other ill-treatment on thehands of intelligence and security agents or prison officials’ and 11 deaths ‘in suspicious
circumstances’ with no information about the cause of the death available. 15 deaths
reportedly occurred in March 2021, when prison guards used lethal firearms to supress
protests over Covid-19 safety.473 In October 2022, under unclear circumstances, some
sections of Evin prison were destroyed by fires, resulting in the deaths of at least eight people.
Prisoners trying to escape the fire were reportedly attacked by security forces.474 In 2021,
following the emergence of footage showing assaults and mistreatment of inmates in Evinprison, six prison guards faced criminal charges.475 In recent years, repeated hunger strikes bypolitical prisoners against ill-treatment in detention were reported.476
Prisons' conditions
Sources noted that prisons in Iran are overcrowded,477 lack sanitation and ventilation,adequate provision of food and water, are short of beds, and suffer from insect infestation.478
In February 2024, IranWire reported that Shiban prison close to Masjed Soleyman city insouthwestern Iran, which was notorious for poor health standards and cruel treatment ofinmates, housed over 5 000 inmates despite its intended capacity of 3 500. ‘[D]uring times ofprotests and heightened arrests,’ the prison ward 5, known ‘as the “security” ward’ and usedmostly for political prisoners, reportedly housed up to 250 detainees while being intended for
150 inmates. Prison cells housed an average 35-40 prisoners in a cell, who reported sufferingfrom hunger and receiving insufficient medical help.479
The UN FFM on Iran noted that the conditions of detention of persons arrested in connection
with the 2022 protests, including women and children, were ‘appalling in both official andnon-official detention centres,’ so that detention there amounted ‘to inhuman, cruel, or
degrading treatment, and in certain instances, constituted torture.’480 UN further described that
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 61
471
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
472
Iran International, Political Prisoner ‘Commits Suicide’ in Iranian Prison, 26 February 2024, url
473
AI, Iran: Details of 72 deaths in custody since 2010, 15 September 2021, url
474
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
475
Guardian (The), Iran investigates Evin prison guards after abuse video leak, 31 August 2021, url
476
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
477
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 198; Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023,
Iran, n.d., url
478
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 198; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the
independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url,para. 51
479
Iran Wire, Exclusive: IranWire Investigations Confirm Torture and Overcrowding in Prison System, 26 February
2024, url
480
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 50
47052

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

cells were small, overcrowded, and unsanitary, had no bedding, ‘with the lights on 24 hours aday, or in total darkness’, with most of the people detained in relation to the protests receiving‘insufficient and poor quality food and water.’ Moreover, they were denied medical care or
given only basic medication, even in cases of serious medical conditions.481
As noted by USDOS, the political crimes law has several provisions on the detention ofpolitical criminals, including their separation from ordinary criminals, and permission of regularfamily visits and correspondence. However, the segregation of political prisoners from thegeneral inmate population was disregarded and political prisoners were threatened by theauthorities to be transferred to criminal wards, where assaults by fellow prisoners ‘were more
likely.’ This was consistent with the previous reports on ‘a deliberate practice’ when politicalprisoners were held in wards with ‘allegedly violent and dangerous criminals, with the goal of“breaking” the political prisoners’ will.’482 Access to political prisoners by UN representativesof international humanitarian NGOs has been denied.483

3.9.

Death penalty

Iran is among the leading practitioners of the death penalty globally.484 Sources reported thatsome offences for which people were sentenced to death in Iran did not meet theclassification of the ‘most serious crimes’485 as defined by ICCPR486 ratified by Iran.487 These
offences included crimes such as drug trafficking, financial corruption, vandalism, and actions
safeguarded by international human rights law, such as the peaceful exercise of freedom of
expression.488 Cruel and inhumane methods were reportedly among the methods employed in
executions, such as hanging by cranes.489 In 2023, seven executions were carried out inpublic.490
As noted by AI, the death penalty was wielded as a tool of political repression against
protesters, political dissidents, and ethnic minorities.491

UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 51
482
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 20-21
483
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, pp. 21-22; USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights
Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 22
484
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
485
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the
independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url,para. 61486
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024,url, p. 22
487
HRW, Iranian Society Under Crackdown, Alarming Rise of Executions in Iran, 14 December 2023, url
488
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, url, p. 200
489
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 7; USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22
April 2024, url, pp. 6-7
490
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 44
491
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200
481

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

3.9.1.

Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal
Code

Under the Penal Code, crimes punishable with the death penalty comprise offences
punishable under hadd, qesas, and ta’zir. As reported by IHRNGO and Together Against
Death Penalty (ECPM),492 death penalty under hadd punishments is applicable for thefollowing offences:•

sexual offences, such as incest, rape, adultery (zena), sodomy or consensual
homosexual penetrative sex (levat), and intercrural sex where the ‘active party’ is a
non-Muslim and the ‘passive party’ is a Muslim (tafkhiz); for more information, pleaserefer to chapter 4.12 LGBTIQ persons and activists for LBGTIQ rights;•

offences against the state, such as waging war against God (moharebeh), corruption
on earth (efsad fil-arz) and rebellion (baghy), and offences against the religion, such as
insulting the prophet (sabol-nabi) and apostasy (ertedad);•repeat offences on the fourth occasion, including theft, adultery, sodomy, lesbian sex(mosahegheh), intercrural sex, pimping, insulting the prophet, alcohol consumption,false accusation of sodomy or adultery (qadf) and the crimes of moharebeh, efsad-filarz and baghy.493 for more information, please refer to chapter 4.12 LGBTIQ persons
and activists for LBGTIQ rights.

Crimes punishable by the death penalty under ta’zir punishments comprise drug-related
offence, while qesas punishments are applied for intentional and unintentional homicide.494
For more information, please refer to chapter 3.2.2 Qesas punishments.
The legal accountability which can lead to the death penalty in Iran extends to crimes
committed when younger than 18 years old.495 As noted by USDOS, in adherence with Sharia
as interpreted by Iran’s judiciary, execution of minors is permissible beginning at 9 years old
for girls and 13 for boys, which are the legal ages of maturity.496 As noted by IHRNGO andECPM, almost all juvenile offenders executed since 2013 received the death penalty based
either on hadd or qesas punishments.497 In 2023, out of the two confirmed cases ofexecutions of juvenile offenders, one was executed at the age of 17, while the other remained
incarcerated until turning 18 before facing execution.498 Both were convicted of murder.
Additionally, three other persons executed in 2023 were suspected to have been juvenile
offenders.499 As noted by AI, in 2022, several persons were executed for crimes committed at
below 18 years of age, while many others were on death row.500

Together against death penalty (ECPM) is an international association advocating against the death penalty, see,
ECPM, History, n.d., url493
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 27
494
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, pp. 27, 31
495
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200
496
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 7497
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 32
498
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 13499
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 83
500
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200
492

54

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3.9.2.

Implementation of the death penalty

The number of executions in Iran significantly increased in recent years,501 and particularly
since the beginning of 2023.502 In March 2024, IHRNGO and ECPM reported that at least 834
persons, including 22 women and 2 minors, were executed in Iran in 2023, which was a 43 %increase from the figures of 2022.503 In previous years, 582 persons were reportedly executedin 2022,504 compared to 333 in 2021505 and 267 in 2020.506 In April 2024, AI reported on atleast 853 persons executed in Iran during 2023, including 481 for drug-related offences.507
The actual number of executions was believed to be higher that the figures revealed.508
Furthermore, 85 % of the total number of executions were carried out without an official
announcement, with only 5 % of the executions on drug-related charges being announced by
the authorities.509
The rise in executions was partially attributed to an increase in executions for drug-related
offences:510 in 2023, at least 471 executions were carried out on drug-related charges,
compared to 256 in 2022, 126 in 2023, and an average of 24 per year between 2018 and2020.511 According to Global Organised Crime Index, in 2023, heroin and methamphetamine
were the main illicit drugs as part of organised crime in the country, mainly originated ‘fromAfghanistan and destined for Turkey, EU, the Gulf region and beyond’.512
According to IHRNGO and ECPM, 282 of the executions carried out in 2023 were related tomurder charges and 20 to charges of rape or sexual assault. In 19 cases, the charges leading
to the execution were unknown.513
IHRNGO and ECPM noted on a rise of executions based on the national security charges: in
2023, at least 39 persons were executed on charges related to the offences of moharebeh,
efsad fil-arz, and baghy,514 compared to 15 persons executed for these offences in 2022.515 As
reported by AI, in 2023, seven persons were executed in connection with their participation in

HRW, Iranian Society Under Crackdown, Alarming Rise of Executions in Iran, 14 December 2023, url; AI, Amnesty
International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 200
502
HRW, Iranian Society Under Crackdown, Execution of a Victim of Child Marriage in Iran, 21 December 2023, url503
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, pp. 11, 13504
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2022, 5 March 2024, url, p. 12505
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 14
506
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
507
AI, Iran executes 853 people in eight-year high amid relentless repression and renewed ‘war on drugs’, 4 April
2024, url508
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 77; AI, Iranexecutes 853 people in eight-year high amid relentless repression and renewed ‘war on drugs’, 4 April 2024, url509
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 11
510
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 14; AI, Iranexecutes 853 people in eight-year high amid relentless repression and renewed ‘war on drugs’, 4 April 2024, url
511
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 11
512
GOCI, Iran, 27 September 2023, url, p. 4513
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 45
514
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, pp. 11, 46
515
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 14
501

55

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

the protests: six in connection with the Women, Life, Freedom protests and one in connection
with the nationwide protests of November 2019.516
A substantial number of executions involved ‘members of marginalised ethnic groups’,
particularly the Baluch. According to the Abdorrahman Boroumand Center, as quoted by
USDOS, members of ethnic minority groups made up 28 % of the total executions during2023, with 21 % of the executed persons (172 persons) constituted by Baluch, who constituteonly 5 % of the total population in Iran.517 In 2023, IHRNGO and ECPM documented theexecution of at least 167 Baluch, including 3 women. Of these, 22 persons were executed on
murder charges (qesas) and 7 on security-related charges. As noted by the source, the largest
number of Baluch, 138 persons, were executed on drug-related offences,518 where they wereoverrepresented.519
Moreover, in 2023, two men were executed on charges of blasphemy and one for adultery,520
which were the first executions on these charges in 10 years.521 As reported by IranWire, in
May 2023, in ‘an extremely opaque judicial process’, two men were reportedly executed on
charges of ‘insulting the Prophet’ and ‘insulting Islamic sanctities,’ which constitute a hadd
punishment, for administrating Telegram channels where they reportedly expressed this typeof insults.522 For more information, please refer to chapter 4.10.4. Blasphemy.
Furthermore, Iranian authorities executed two dual nationals and two Afghan nationals.523 The
persons with dual nationalities executed were an Iranian-British national and former senior
employee of the Ministry of Defence, sentenced to death on efsad fil-arz charges forespionage,524 and an Iranian-Swedish national of Arab minority background kidnapped in
Türkiye in 2019 and sentenced to death on efsad fil-arz charges for forming a terrorist groupand planning and implementing terrorist operations.525 Among foreign nationals, Afghan, Iraqi,
and Pakistani nationals were reportedly most frequently sentenced to death in Iran.526
In 2023, at least 512 executions were reportedly carried out based on death sentences issued
by Revolutionary courts,527 which was nearly double the 273 executions in 2022.528 In April
2024, AI noted that 520 executions were conducted in accordance with death sentences
issued by Revolutionary Courts.529 Overall, since 2010, sentences by Revolutionary Courts

AI, Iran executes 853 people in eight-year high amid relentless repression and renewed ‘war on drugs’, 4 April
2024, url
517
USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 5518
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 89
519
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 89
520
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 45
521
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 12
522
IranWire, Iran’s Unjust Executions for “Insulting the Prophet”, 15 May 2023, url
523
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 46
524
IHRNGO, Former Senior Official Alireza Akbari Executed for Espionage Charges, 14 January 2023, url
525
IHRNGO, IHR: Extradition of Habib Asyoud to Iran Must be Condemned, 1 November 2020, url
526
Egan, B., The politics of capital punishment for foreign nationals in Iran, University of Oxford, Death Penalty
Research Unit (DPRU) Research Papers, DPRU Research Paper No. 3, December 2023, url
527
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 11
528
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 14
529
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 77; AI, Iranexecutes 853 people in eight-year high amid relentless repression and renewed ‘war on drugs’, 4 April 2024, url
516

56

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

have resulted in at least 4 541 executions. As reported by IHRNGO and ECPM, executions
took place in 30 out of 31 provinces in 2023, with Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province being
the only one with no executions reported. The highest number of executions were carried out
in Tehran/Alborz (173), followed by Sistan and Baluchistan (68), Kerman (67), Fars (54), andIsfahan (48 executions).530
In January 2024, Iran executed four persons for alleged plans to conduct an attack over an
Isfahan based factory producing equipment for Iran’s Ministry of Defence. The appeal of theconvicted was rejected by the Supreme Court.531

3.9.3.

Use of the death penalty against critics of the authorities

After the onset of the nation-wide protests in September 2022, the authorities repeatedly
declared their intentions to conduct rapid trials and executions, including in public, for persons
accused of capital offences committed during the protests. On 6 December 2022, thejudiciary announced that death sentences against persons found guilty of moharebeh andefsad fil-arz would be carried out imminently. The announcement followed the conviction ofseveral persons on capital charges related to the protests.532
Executions of people involved in the 2022 protests started in December 2022, when 22-yearold Mohsen Shekari was executed less than two weeks after being convicted on charges ofmoharebeh for injuring a Basij officer during the protests.533 The same month, 23-year-old
Majid-Reza Rahnavard was publicly executed in Mashhad, Khorasan-e Razavi province, after
being convicted by a Revolutionary Court on charges of moharebeh for killing two Basij
officers in November 2022.534 Both were reportedly tortured and made confessions whichwere broadcasted by state media.535 In 2023, eight other protesters were reportedly executed
either on national security-related and/or murder charges.536 The trials were conducted withgrave violations of due process, with the accused being subjected to torture to produce selfincriminating confessions, while families were pressured to remain silent.537
Iranian authorities do not provide information about the number of death sentences imposed
particularly on protesters. However, as found by the UN FFM on Iran, at least 28 persons werereportedly sentenced to capital punishment in connection with the 2022 protests as ofIHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2024, url, p. 77
Reuters, Iran executes four people it says are linked to Israeli intelligence -state media, 29 January 2024, url
532
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url
533
BBC News, Mohsen Shekari: Iran carries out first execution over protests, 8 December 2022, url; IHRNGO,
Protester Mohsen Shekari’s Execution Must be Met with Serious Consequences, December 2022, url
534
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url
535
BBC News, Mohsen Shekari: Iran carries out first execution over protests, 8 December 2022, url Article19, Iran:Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url; USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights
Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 4536
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2023, url, p. 50
537
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url; IHRNGO andECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2023, url, p. 50
530
531

57

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMJanuary 2024.538 Human Rights Watch reported that 11 out of 25 death sentences were
overturned by the Supreme Court as of September 2023.539
As noted by IHRNGO and ECPM, protesters were charged with security-related crimes ormurder, sometimes facing double jeopardy. Since 2020, the charges of moharebeh and efsad
fil-arz have led to the highest number of executions of protesters and in all these cases,
except of the case of Mohsen Shekari, the killing of armed forces members was used ‘to incite
support’ for the execution. As suggested by IHRNGO and ECPM, due to the increasing
domestic and international pressure, the Iranian authorities would likely use qesas charges ‘toevade accountability and shift responsibility to the victims’ families’.540•••

In January 2024, Mohammad Ghobadlu was executed following his conviction forkilling a policeman and injuring five others by running them over with his car during aprotest in the town of Parand, near Tehran.541 Ghobadlu was reportedly given two
death sentences: one on the charges of efsad fil-arz and another for murder. His
execution was carried out despite the suspension of efsad fil-arz charges for further
investigations. It was reported that Ghobadlu had suffered from bipolar disorder since
the age of 15 and was coerced to confess his guilt under torture.542
In October 2022, Saman Yassin, a Kurdish musician was arrested on in October 2022
for his support of the protest, including in several posts on Instagram. Yassin was
charged with the crime of moharebeh and sentenced to death, while being subjectedto ‘severe physical and psychological torture’ in detention.543 The death sentence was
eventually overturned by the Supreme Court and the Revolutionary Court sentenced
Yassin to five years of exile in Kerman province.544
Iranian rapper545 Toumaj Salehi was arrested in October 2022,546 likely due to hismusic and online activities. Accused of efsad fil-arz 547 and charged with‘propagandistic activity against the government, cooperation with hostile governments,and forming illegal groups with the intention of creating insecurity in the country’,548
Salehi reportedly endured torture in detention549 and spent 252 days in solitaryconfinement before being moved to the general prison ward. In July 2023, Salehi wassentenced to six years and three months imprisonment.550 In January 2024, theUN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 61
539
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url540
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, 5 March 2023, url, p. 50
541
AP, Iran executes another prisoner detained during nationwide protests that erupted in 2022, 23 January 2024,
url
542
Article19, Iran: The ‘state-sanctioned murder’ of protester Mohammad Ghobadlu, 23 January 2024, url
543
Article19, Tightening the Net: Iran one year on from the Mahsa Jhina Amini uprising, 15 September 2023, rl
544
IranWire, Iran Court Sentences Kurdish Rapper Saman Yasin to 5 Years in Exile, 24 April 2024, url
545
AI, Iran: 14 People Sentenced to Death in Relation to Protests, n.d., url
546
Article19, Tightening the Net: Iran one year on from the Mahsa Jhina Amini uprising, 15 September 2023, url
547
AI, Iran: 14 People Sentenced to Death in Relation to Protests, n.d., url
548
Article19, Tightening the Net: Iran one year on from the Mahsa Jhina Amini uprising, 15 September 2023, url
549
AI, Iran: 14 People Sentenced to Death in Relation to Protests, n.d., url; Article19, Tightening the Net: Iran one
year on from the Mahsa Jhina Amini uprising, 15 September 2023, url
550
Article19, Tightening the Net: Iran one year on from the Mahsa Jhina Amini uprising, 15 September 2023, url
538

58

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Revolutionary Court in Isfahan added new charges against Salehi, sentencing him todeath at the end of April 2024.551

551

BBC News, Iranian rapper sentenced to death, says lawyer, 24 April 2024, url

59EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.

Treatment of certain profiles andgroups of population

4.1.

Political opposition and other dissenting groups

The Iranian Constitution permits the establishment of political parties and associations bypolitical, professional, and religious (Islamic and recognised religious minorities) groups on thecondition that they ‘do not violate the principles of freedom, sovereignty, national unity, orIslamic criteria, or question Islam as the basis of the country’s system of government.’552 In
practical terms, this allows only political entities that are in alignment with the stateideology.553 While compliant political organisations operated relatively freely, they tended tobe small and lacking widespread membership. Independent parties, opposition groups, civilsociety organisation, and trade unions were banned.554
Reformist groups in Iran have come under increased repression since 2009, when the socalled Green Movement protests against the results of the 2009 presidential elections werebrutally supressed. Leaders of the Green Movement – Mir Hossein Mousavi, Zahra Rahnavard,
and Mehdi Karroubi – have remained under house arrest despite the absence of formal
charges since 2011.555 Monarchists, who support Reza Pahlavi, the son of the last Shah, do nothave any institutional or organisational base inside Iran.556 In March 2024, a former deputy
interior minister, Mostafa Tajzadeh, faced additional charges557 while serving a prison
sentence in Evin prison.558 Tajzadeh was arrested by agents of the IRGC's Intelligence
Organisation on charges of ‘acting against national security’ and ‘spreading falsehoods with
the intent to disrupt public order’ in July 2022559 after he criticised of the authorities on social
media560 and was sentenced to five years in prison in October 2022.561
Iranian Kurdish opposition groups exiled in the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI) include theKurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), the Komala (Komeleh) Party, Free Life Party of
Kurdistan (PJAK), and the Kurdistan Freedom Party (PAK). Following the outbreak of thenationwide protests in September 2022, the Iraq-based Iranian Kurdish opposition groups
were accused of inciting the protests.562 Most of the Iranian Kurdish parties are located in Iraq,
in the areas under the control of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). The exception is

USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 40
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
554
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 197
555
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
556
MEMRI, Iranian Monarchists Are to Be Blamed For the Failure of The Opposition, 20 May 2023, url
557
IranWire, Iranian Reformist Tajzadeh Faces New Charges Amid Ongoing Jail Time, 7 March 2024, url
558
RFE/RL, Prominent Iranian Reformist Tajzadeh Sentenced To Five Years In Prison, 12 October 2022, url
559
Human Rights Watch, Iran: Arrest of High-Profile Critics, 12 July 2022, url
560
USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 42
561
RFE/RL, Prominent Iranian Reformist Tajzadeh Sentenced To Five Years In Prison, 12 October 2022, url
562
Rudaw, Kurdish Iranian groups protest planned wall around Koya camp, 23 February 2024, url
552
553

60

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

PJAK, whose fighters are in the Qandil mountains on the Iran-Iraq border, which is the area
under the control of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK).563
The political crimes law, enacted in January 2016, defines ‘a political crime’ as actions‘committed against the administration, political bodies, and domestic and foreign policies withthe aim of reforming the country’s affairs.564 Actions such as ‘insulting and defaming
government officials as well as visiting heads of state or political representatives’ are classified
as political crimes if they are conducted without an intention of ‘damaging the foundation of
the ruling establishments’. However, the intention ‘to damage the foundation of the rulingestablishment’ bring these actions under charges related to national security crimes, insteadof the scope of political crimes. The determination of whether an act constitutes a politicalcrime lies with the courts and the Public Prosecutor’s Office.565 As noted by the expert
Behrooz Chamanara, with the absence of a [clear] definition of which actions constitute a
political crime, ‘the authorities often denied the existence of political prisoners, despite theincarceration of numerous political activists.’566
As noted by the UN FFM on Iran, following the outbreak of the ‘Women, Life, Freedom’protests in September 2022, ‘both real and perceived dissent, opposition, and protest
activities’ were harshly suppressed with the use of ‘vaguely defined’ criminal charges thatallow for ‘broad interpretation.’ The criminal charges which opponents of the Iranianauthorities faced in Criminal and Revolutionary Courts included the following: ‘spreading
propaganda against the system,’ ‘gathering and colluding to commit crimes against security,’‘disrupting the public order,’ ‘forming of and membership in a group or association with theintent to undermine the country’s security,’ ‘spreading lies with intent to disturb the public
opinion,’ ‘insulting the Supreme Leader’ and ‘insulting the sanctities of Islam’.567 For more
information on the ‘Women, Life, Freedom’ protests in September 2022, please refer tochapter 4.2. Protesters.
Prosecutors reportedly frequently imposed ‘strict penalties’ for minor violations by people
expressing dissent.568 Critics of the government frequently faced charges carrying the death
penalty, such as moharebeh, efsad fil-arz, ‘anti-revolutionary behaviour,’ ‘siding with global
arrogance,’ and ‘crimes against Islam.’ The official data on the number of persons imprisoned
for their political convictions is unavailable. Citing NGO United for Iran, USDOS reported thatat least 1 074 persons were considered as ‘prisoners of conscience’ in 2023.569
In relation to the protests, a surge in the number of flogging sentences imposed on politicaland civil society activists, particularly on charges of ‘disturbing public order and publishing

Wilgenburg, W., van, Iran’s Pressure Campaign on Iranian Kurds Continues, Fikra Forum, The Washington
Institute for Near East Policy, 13 September 2023, url
564
US, Library of Congress, Iran: Political Offenses Defined, 9 February 2016, url
565
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 20; USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report,
22 April 2024, url, p. 20
566
Chamanara, B., interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
567
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, paras. 53, 54
568
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 20
569
USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, pp. 19-20
563

61

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

falsehoods with the intention of disturbing the public opinion’, was reported. 570 Reporting on
criminal charges and convictions imposed on people expressing political dissent andoppositions, the UN FFM on Iran noted:‘Such convictions were rendered possible, inter alia due to vague and undefined
exception clauses to constitutionally recognised rights and provisions in the Islamic
Penal Code, including those related to “insulting” Islam, religious figures or theauthorities. Such provisions are open to broad interpretation, contravening theprinciple of legality. They have been commonly used with respect to protected speech,
to repress real or perceived dissent and opposition, including in the context of theprotests [Islamic Penal Code, Articles 262, 513, 514 and 609.] Some of those offences
are punishable by death, lengthy prison sentences or sentences that amount to tortureand ill-treatment, such as flogging.’571
Government critics ‘in the ethnic regions’ were frequently labelled as ‘separatists.’ As noted by
IHRNGO and ECPM, the presence of armed groups in these regions gave the authorities apretext to justify death sentences by framing them as part of counterterrorism and counterseparatism efforts. According to the data of IHRNGO, at least 154 persons were executed
between 2010 and 2023 for their association with prohibited political and armed groups. Of
those, 76 (49 %) were Kurdish, 45 (29%) Baluch and 24 (16 %) Arabs, the majority of whomwere Sunni Muslims.572 In 2023, a Kurdish political prisoner, arrested by IRCG forces while
trying to cross to Türkiye and sentenced to death on charges of moharebeh because of his
membership in the Komala party and murdering a traffic officer, was secretly executed in
Kermanshah Central Prison.573
Persons perceived as opponents to the Islamic Republic, including activists and journalists,
faced restrictions on their freedom of movement, including obstacles to leave the country.574 In
addition, former political prisoners were subjected to travel bans, bans on returning to theirprofessions for years after their release, or, in some case, ‘imposed internal exile.’ Somepolitical prisoners were granted suspended sentences and released on bail, with the condition
that any involvement in further political activities would result in their re-incarceration.575
In January 2024, a Revolutionary Court in Karaj reportedly sentenced two women activists to
six years in prison and two years in exile on charges related to their political activities.576 In
February 2024, a revolutionary court in Orumiyeh, Western Azerbaijan province, sentenced aSunni Kurdish cleric to death and 16 years in prison on charges of efsad fil-arz as well of‘harming the territorial integrity or independence of the country’ and ‘propaganda against thestate.’ As reported by media, he was arrested following a critical speech at a memorial

Iran International, Iran Sharply Increases Lashing Sentences Against Activists, 8 May 2023, url
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 54
572
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 88
573
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 47
574
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
575
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 21
576
HRA, Maryam Jalal Hosseini and Fatemeh Tadrisi Receive Lengthy Prison Sentences and exile, 16 January 2024,
url; IranWire, Iranian Women Activists Handed Long-Term Sentences, 16 January 2024, url
570
571

62

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

ceremony of a killed protester and was sentenced solely based on a report by the Ministry ofIntelligence.577
In an interview with EUAA, Barzoo Eliassi noted the presence of ‘a cyber army’ both within andoutside Iran, tasked to monitor opinions shared online. Additionally, as noted by Eliassi, if
complaints against someone outside Iran would be lodged with the Iranian authorities, thisperson would be summoned by the authorities upon their return to Iran.578
At the end of January 2023, a group of parliament members reportedly proposed
amendments to Article 512 of the Book Five of the Penal Code,579 which deals with incitementof others with the aim to disrupt national security. The proposed changes would extend thescope of this Article by including punishments to ‘anyone with a good job or with a goodsocial standing or anyone who is a cultural, scientific, or military figure, even those with a highstanding in their family’580 in case they disseminate information contrary to the official
position.581 A conviction in this case would lead to imprisonment for up to 15 years,582
potentially including also the death penalty if combined with the charge of ifsad-fil-arz.583
Information about the enforcement of the bill was not found within the time constraints of thereport. For more information, see chapter 3.9.3. Use of the death penalty against critics of theauthorities.

4.2.

Protesters

In mid-September 2022, nationwide and unprecedented protests erupted following the deathof Mahsa (Zhina) Amini, an Iranian-Kurdish woman, in the custody of the ‘morality police’, whoarrested Amini at a train station in Tehran for violating the mandatory hijab law.584 Fuelled by
the authorities’ denial about the violence which led to her death, protests broke out during
Amini’s funeral in her hometown Saqqez in Kurdistan province585 and spread to all 31
provinces of the country.586 The protests took the slogan ‘Woman, Life, Freedom’ (Zan,
Zendegi, Azadi),587 originally coming from ‘the Kurdish freedom movement.’588 The protests
continued for several months589 and were particularly intense in regions inhabited by ethnic

Kurdish Human Rights Network, Sunni Kurdish cleric sentenced to death for ‘spreading corruption on earth’, 12
February 2024, url
578
Eliassi, B., interview with EUAA, 14 March 2024
579
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 15 June 2023, A/HRC/53/23, url, para. 38
580
MEMO, Iran may criminalise social media comments, 1 February 2023, url
581
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 15 June 2023, A/HRC/53/23, url, para. 38;
MEMO, Iran may criminalise social media comments, 1 February 2023, url
582
MEMO, Iran may criminalise social media comments, 1 February 2023, url
583
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 15 June 2023, A/HRC/53/23, url, para. 38
584
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, paras. 13, 16; HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url; AI,
Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p.197
585
Reuters, What has changed in Iran one year since Mahsa Amini protests erupted?, 12 September 2023, url
586
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 4
587
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 39
588
Kurdish Institute Brussels, “Jin – Jiyan – Azadi” (“Women, Life, Freedom”) – The Kurdish slogan that rings loudly
in the Iranian streets today, n.d., url
589
Reuters, Sporadic protests continue in Iran as Mahsa Amini anniversary passes, 17 September 2023, url
577

63EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

minorities, who have long been subjected to state discrimination, such as Kurds in thenorthwest of the country and Baluches in the southeast.590 ‘Woman, Life, Freedom’ protests
posed one of the most significant challenges against the country’s Shia clerical rule since the1979 Revolution.591 The protests spotlighted widespread grievances of the population,
including discrimination against women and ethnic minorities.592 Led by women and youth, theprotests were unprecedented in their duration and reach as well as in the severity of theauthorities’ violent reaction.593
In 2023, media reported on several protests. In February 2023, to commemorate 40 days
since the execution of two men under protest-related charges,594 demonstrations werereported in several neighbourhoods of Tehran,595 the cities of Karaj, Isfahan, Qazvin, Rasht,
Arak, Mashhad, Sanandaj, Qorveh, and Izeh in Khuzestan province, Zahedan, the capital of
Sistan and Baluchistan province,596 and Sanandaj, capital of Kurdistan province.597 On 15
March 2023, videos circulating online depicted alleged anti-government protests in different
cities during the celebrations of Chaharshanbe Soori, an annual fire festival deemed unIslamic by hard-liners.598 At the anniversary of Mahsa Amini’s death, alleged ‘sporadic protests’
were showed on social media, particularly in Hamadan.599 In anticipation of potential unrests,
security forces were reportedly deployed to Amini’s hometown, and, according to social
media posts, to several cities within Kurdistan.600
State response to the protests
The Constitution allows for public demonstrations if they adhere to Islamic principles,601
effectively restricting the right to peaceful assembly.602 Demonstrations require government
authorisation,603 and public gatherings deemed critical are outlawed.604 Security forces havefrequently dispersed unauthorised gatherings, resorting to detention of protesters and use of
lethal force against them.605

Reuters, What has changed in Iran one year since Mahsa Amini protests erupted?, 12 September 2023, url
AP, Iran executes first known prisoner arrested in protests, 9 December 2022, url; AP, Iran says 22,000 arrested
in protests pardoned by top leader, 13 March 2023, url; Reuters, Sporadic protests continue in Iran as Mahsa Aminianniversary passes, 17 September 2023, url
592
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 4593
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 13
594
AP, Protests hit multiple Iran cities for first time in weeks, 17 February 2023, url; Reuters, Overnight protests rock
Tehran, other Iranian cities, videos show, 17 February 2023, url
595
Reuters, Overnight protests rock Tehran, other Iranian cities, videos show, 17 February 2023, url; AP, Protests hit
multiple Iran cities for first time in weeks, 17 February 2023, url
596
Reuters, Overnight protests rock Tehran, other Iranian cities, videos show, 17 February 2023, url
597
AP, Protests hit multiple Iran cities for first time in weeks, 17 February 2023, url
598
AP, Videos show scattered protests during Iran’s fire festival, 15 March 2023, url
599
Reuters, Sporadic protests continue in Iran as Mahsa Amini anniversary passes, 17 September 2023, url
600
Reuters, Mahsa Amini death anniversary sees heavy security in Iran, 15 September 2023, url
601
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url602
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 21
603
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url604
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 21
605
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
590
591

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

The protests were violently suppressed by the authorities,606 with sources reporting on massarrests,607 killings of protesters and bystanders, and beatings.608 Security forces reportedlyused excessive force, such as unlawful use of live ammunition,609 including handguns, andautomatic weapons.610 The UN FFM on Iran reported that ‘security forces targeted vital bodyparts of the protesters and bystanders,’ caused ocular injuries, and used multiple metal pellets,
which amounted to indiscriminate use due to the risk of causing serious injuries to protesters
and bystanders. It also noted a pattern according to which the security forces targeted‘specific protesters, based on discriminatory grounds, such as gender and ethnicity.’611
In November 2021, reportedly peaceful protests of farmers and residents of Isfahan over water
shortages were dispersed by security forces, resulting in 120 arrests.612 In May 2022, protests
sparked in Khuzestan province and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province over surging foodprices and a fatal building collapse in Abadan, Khuzestan province.613 These protests, which
spread to over 20 cities in 6 provinces and lasted around 2 weeks,614 were suppressed by
security forces with live ammunition, birdshot guns, tear gas, and water cannons against theprotesters.615
Besides the anti-riot police (yegan-e vizhe), which is the sole authorised entity under Iranianlaw to handle protests with less-lethal means, heavy deployments of other security forces,
including the Basij paramilitary militia and ‘plain-clothed security agents’ in some areas werereported. The disproportionate use of force was particularly prevalent in areas with more
extensive and long-lasting protests, including the capital Tehran, Kurdish regions in thenorthwest of the country, and Sistan and Baluchistan province in the southeast, including thecities of Divandareh, Garmsar, Hamedan, Kerman, Marivan, Mashhad, Mehrshahr, Rasht,
Saghez, Sanandaj, and Shiraz.616
As of September 2023, 551 people, including 49 women and 68 children, were reportedly
killed in protests, with deaths documented across at least 26 provinces. The highest numberof deaths were reported in areas inhabited by ethnic minorities: Sistan and Baluchistan
province, provinces of Kurdistan and Kermanshah, and parts of Western Azerbaijan.617 The
highest single-day death toll was recorded on 30 September 2022, when 104 persons were

HRW, Iran: Security Forces Kill, Torture, Abuse Children, 25 April 2023, url
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 16
608
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 197
609
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 197; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the
independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url,para. 32
610
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 24
611
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of
Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, paras. 24, 26, 26, 30
612
Zamaneh media, Isfahan Fatal Crackdown: Water Protests and the Iranian Regime’s new Dilemma, 8 December
2021, url
613
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 197
614
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 40
615
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 197
616
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, paras. 6, 10
617
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 22; see also AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, url, p.
197 and HRW, Iran: Security Forces Kill, Torture, Abuse Children, 25 April 2023, url
606
607

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

killed after Friday prayers in Zahedan city, Sistan and Baluchistan province.618 Moreover, as
reported by AI, thousands of protesters refrained from seeking medical treatment out of fearof being arrested.619 The UN FFM on Iran noted that the Ministry of Health issued official
instructions for medical personnel to report persons seeking medical assistance for injuries. 620
Facilities in which the protesters were held included police stations, prisons, and ‘unidentified
or unofficial secret detention sites’, such as military barracks, sports venues, private
residences, ruined buildings, and underground rooms owned by the Ministry of Interior or theintelligence branch of IRGC. Detainees were often unregistered or registered with delay ‘andsometimes only after being coerced into making confession.’621 Hundreds of children, some as
young as 10, were reportedly arrested and detained together with adults, with some of themtaken to juvenile detention centres or mental health facilities.622 In April 2023, Human Rights
Watch reported that minors detained during the 2022 protests were killed, tortured, sexuallyassaulted, and disappeared by Iran’s security forces and denied access to due process by
Iranian judiciary.623 For more information, see chapter 3.8 Treatment in detention and prison
conditions.
Aftermath of the protests
After the start of the ‘Woman, Life, Freedom’ protests, the IRCG urged the judiciary toprosecute persons spreading ‘false news and rumours.’624 The authorities targeted various
groups with arrests and detentions, including protesters’ family members seeking justice, 625
journalists, human rights defenders and lawyers offering protesters legal aid, healthcare
professionals, and others expressing solidarity with the protests: teachers, artists, athletes,and social media influences.626 Protests-related arrests, summonses for questioning, threats,
and job dismissals reportedly continued throughout 2023.627
As reported by the UN FFM on Iran, Iranian authorities stated that the average age of persons
arrested was 15.628 Among the reasons for arrests were ‘dancing, chanting or writing slogans
on walls and honking car horns’629 and, in case of women, posting photos without wearing

UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 22
619
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p. 197
620
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 31
621
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 38
622
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 39
623
HRW, Iran: Security Forces Kill, Torture, Abuse Children, 25 April 2023, url
624
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
625
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independentinternational fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 33
626
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, paras. 31, 33
627
Reuters, What has changed in Iran one year since Mahsa Amini protests erupted?, 12 September 2023, url
628
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 34
629
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 33
618

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

hijab.630 As noted by the UN FFM on Iran, some of the women were arrested at their home,indicating the use of surveillance to identify them.631 The arrested protesters were frequently
subjected to incommunicado and prolonged solitary confinement.632 T The UN FFM on Irannoted that in most cases, the detainees were released after their families paid exorbitant bailamounts.633
On 6 November 2022, the Iranian Parliament passed a resolution urging the judiciary to
impose severe punishments, including the execution of ‘rioters’, arguing that this would serveas an effective deterrent to others.634 Many protesters were charged under such crimes as‘propaganda against the state,’ ‘assembly and collusion to act against national security,’‘insulting the Supreme Leader,’ ‘establishing or being a member of a group to disrupt national
security,’ and ‘destroying public facilities and equipment to disrupt public order’, as well as
efsad fil-arz and moharebeh carrying the death penalty.635 For information on death
sentences, please refer to chapter 3.9. Death penalty.
On 5 February 2023, marking the 44th anniversary of the Islamic Republic of Iran,636 theauthorities declared a general amnesty supposedly encompassing persons arrested, charged,
or detained amid the ‘Woman, Life, Freedom’ protests.637 Persons convicted of theft,638
moharebeh, as well as those convicted of ‘spying, armed action, committing murder or
causing injury, membership in certain groups, having contact with agents of foreign
intelligence services or destroying public property’ were excluded from the amnesty.639
Human Rights Watch noted that the amnesty excluded human rights defenders serving or
charged with lengthy sentences and protesters facing the death penalty.640
The preconditions for a state pardon included ‘admission of guilt and expression of remorse,’
even for persons not convicted of any offence, which, as noted by the UN FFM on Iran,violated their right to presumption of innocence.641 On 1 March 2023, as reported by AP, theHead of the Judiciary announced that the Supreme Leader had pardoned 22 628 persons
detained amid the protests, out of a total of 82 656 prisoners and persons facing charges.642
Some persons who had been released under the amnesty were subsequently re-arrested,
sentenced, or summoned,643 including on new charges.644 In its 2023 human rights report,
Article19, Tightening the Net: Iran one year on from the Mahsa Jhina Amini uprising, 15 September 2023, url
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 37
632
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023, url, p.198; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the
independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url,para. 41633
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 41
634
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 25
635
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 23
636
Reuters, Iran marks revolution anniversary, hackers interrupt state TV coverage, 13 February 2023, url
637
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
638
AP, Iran says 22,000 arrested in protests pardoned by top leader, 13 March 2023, url
639
The New York Times, Iran Announces Amnesty, but It May Not Spare Many Protesters, 5 February 2023, url
640
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
641
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 60
642
AP, Iran says 22,000 arrested in protests pardoned by top leader, 13 March 2023, url
643
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
644
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview with EUAA, 20 March 2024
630
631

67

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUSDOS noted that many of the prisoners released under the general amnesty had alreadyspent years in prison, with some resorting ‘to hunger strikes to protest their prolonged
imprisonment and poor conditions.’645
The authorities have not provided any information on the number of persons killed by security
forces during the protests,646 and frequently attributed deaths to ‘rioters’ or claiming deaths bysuicides or accidents.647 According to official information, 75 law enforcement officers diedand another 7 000 were injured in the protests.648
Overall, the investigation into the protests focused on the actions of protesters, without
addressing the conduct of security forces and judiciary members.649 In March 2024, a police
chief of Bandar Anzali in the north of the country was sentenced to death for killing a protester
in November 2022650 reportedly following international attention to unlawfulness of Iranian
security forces. As noted by Iran Focus, the authorities used a qesas punishment while using
moharebeh and efsad fil-arz punishments for protesters, which showed that ‘unlawful killings
by security forces and protest actions leading to injury or death are considered categoricallydifferent by Iran’s judiciary.’651
In August 2023, AI reported that relatives of protesters and bystanders killed by security
forces were subjected to targeting by the authorities in the attempts to silence them, including
by means of arrests and detention, prosecution on national security charges (whichsometimes resulted in prison and flogging sentences) as well as interrogations, surveillance,
and threats.652 Mahsa Amini’s uncle was reportedly arrested days before the anniversary ofher death,653 while her father was briefly arrested and cautioned against commemorating it;
therefore, the family could not hold the planned vigil at her grave.654 In April 2024, the fatherof one of the protesters killed during the ‘Women, Life, Freedom’ protests in Dehgolan,
Kurdistan province, was reportedly arrested for the second time, after being temporarily
released on bail in July 2023.655

4.3.

Human rights defenders, activists, and lawyers

Human rights defenders and activists

USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 24
Reuters, What has changed in Iran one year since Mahsa Amini protests erupted?, 12 September 2023, url
647
AI, Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023 url, p. 200; Reuters, What has changed in Iran one year since
Mahsa Amini protests erupted?, 12 September 2023, url
648
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 22
649
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 4
650
VoA, Iran sentences police officer to death for killing protester, 27 March 2024, url
651
Iran Focus, Questionable Motives behind Iran’s Death Sentence for Police Officer who killed Protester, 2 April
2024, url
652
AI, Iran: Harassment of families of victims unlawfully killed during protests must end, 21 August 2023, url, p. 2
653
Reuters, Iran detains Mahsa Amini’s uncle as anniversary of her death, protests loom, 6 September 2023, url
654
Reuters, Sporadic protests continue in Iran as Mahsa Amini anniversary passes, 17 September 2023, url
655
Kurdistan Human Rights network, Father of slain protester arrested again in Dehgolan, 10 April 2024, url
645

646

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

NGOs addressing human rights or political issues face restrictions and pressure.656 As notedby Iran International on 30 April 2024, Iranian authorities continued crackdown on charity
NGOs.657
Following the ‘Women, Life, Freedom’ protests,658 human rights defenders, who had openly
expressed solidarity with the protesters and defence lawyers representing persons implicatedin protest-related cases, faced various reprisals.659 Sources reported that human rights
defenders faced harassment, arbitrary arrests,660 detentions,661 and criminal prosecution,662
including on charges of committing crimes against the country’s national security,663 andtorture and ill-treatment in detention.664 Moreover, human rights defenders and lawyers werereportedly summoned and interrogated by intelligence services,665 threatened withsuspension and suspended from legal practice.666 Furthermore, in 2023, the authorities
reportedly increased pressure on human rights activists advocating for the abolishment of thedeath penalty, including by imposing criminal charges on them.667 During the same period,
security agencies reportedly arrested at least 325 women activists in various cities of thecountry.668
In the period between 16 September 2022 and 30 November 2022, at least 218 human rights
defenders were either arrested or convicted, marking a doubling of the figure for 2018.669 As
part of the general amnesty declared by the Supreme Leader in February 2023, 29 humanrights defenders were reportedly released from detention.670 In April 2023, Golrokh Ebrahimi
Iraee, a human rights defender advocating against ill-treatment and torture in prison, wassentenced by a revolutionary court in Tehran to six years in prison for ‘gathering and colluding
against national security’ and a one-year prison sentence for producing ‘propaganda against
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
Iran International, Iran’s government continues crackdown on charity NGOs, 30 April 2024, url
658
CHRI, Iran Protests: At Least 44 Defense Attorneys Arrested Since September, 10 January 2023, url; UNSG,
Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 51
659
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 80
660
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 51
661
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 80; Frontline Defenders, Iran should unconditionally release alldetained human rights defenders, 17 February 2023, url
662
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 15 June 2023, A/HRC/53/23, url, para. 51; UN
Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran,
A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 80
663
Frontline Defenders, Iran should unconditionally release all detained human rights defenders, 17 February 2023,
url; Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
664
Article19, Iran: Families forced to remain silent as second man executed, 16 December 2022, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran,
A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 80
665
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 51; UN
Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran,
A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 80
666
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 80
667
IHRNGO and ECPM, Annual Report on the Death Penalty in Iran – 2023, n.d., url, p. 104
668
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Statistics report on wide-spread violations of women’s rights in Iranduring 2023, 7 March 2024, url
669
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 51
670
Frontline Defenders, Iran should unconditionally release all detained human rights defenders, 17 February 2023,
url
656
657

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

the state.’ She also received additional penalties, including a two-year travel ban, a prohibition
on residing in Tehran, and a two-year ban on joining political and social groups.671
Lawyers
In January 2023, CHRI reported that at least 44 defence lawyers had been arrested since
September 2022, with 27 of them being subsequently released.672 According to the UN FFM
on Iran, 157 defence lawyers faced different forms of judicial harassment, with 57 of them
being arrested. The UN FFM on Iran noted that lawyers were targeted for their professional
activities, including providing legal assistance to protesters and their families, advocating
against torture and ill-treatment of their clients, as well as for expressing solidarity with theprotests and speaking to the media, which led to pressure on bar associations to takedisciplinary actions against many lawyers and restrictions of lawyers’ practice rights by
Criminal and Revolutionary Courts.673 Two women lawyers reportedly died shortly after being
detained ‘in connection with their work on the protest.’674
In July 2023, the Prosecutor’s Office in Bukan, Kurdistan province, accused 55 lawyers of
supporting Mahsa Amini’s family ‘by signing a statement offering legal assistance.’ In August
2023, Saleh Nikbakht, the lawyer representing Amini’s family, appeared before a
Revolutionary Court in Tehran, charged with ‘propaganda against the state’ because of media
interviews,675 in which he had contested the official forensic report of Amini’s death. Several
days after receiving the 2023 Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought on behalf of Mahsa
Amini in December 2023, Saleh Nikbakht was sentenced to one year in prison.676
Three out of more than 30 lawyers detained in September 2022 had in their practice cases ofdefending converts to Christianity, who were convicted to various prison terms. 677 In January2024, a lawyer who had defended converts to Christianity was summoned to the prosecutor’s
office in his hometown of Bandar-e Mahshahr.678 Female lawyers in Iran face more challenges
including enforced hijab and harassment in court rooms.679

4.4.

Journalists and media workers

Press freedom is guaranteed by Article 24 of the Constitution ‘except when it is detrimental to
the fundamental principles of Islam or the rights of the public.’680 The 1986 press law, amended
in 2000 and 2009, enables the authorities to impose control over journalists to make sure that
Frontline Defenders, Golrokh Iraee Refused to Ask for Pardon or Appear Before Court of Appeal, n.d., url
CHRI, Iran Protests: At Least 44 Defense Attorneys Arrested Since September, 10 January 2023, url
673
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 81
674
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 82
675
HRW, Iran – Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
676
Iran International, Lawyer for Mahsa Amini’s Family Receives Harsh Sentence, 16 December 2023, url
677
Asia News, Iran jailing lawyers, even those defending Christian converts, 11 September 2022, url; Article18,
Defenders of Christians among over 30 lawyers arrested, 8 November 2022, url
678
Article18, Lawyer who defended Christians summoned to prosecutor’s office, 12 January 2024, url
679
OMCT, Iran: lawyers increasingly criminalised for defending imprisoned protestors, 24 January 2024, url
680
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
671

672

70

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

they do not ‘endanger the Islamic Republic,’ ‘do not offend the clergy and the Supreme
Leader,’ and do not ‘spread false information.’ The Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has
accused independent media of being manipulated by foreign forces.681 Censorship is imposedon newspapers, magazines, and online platforms.682
Foreign-based websites, including news and major social media sites, are reportedly subject
to filtering. Satellite dishes (TV antennas that provide access to international channels) areprohibited and Persian-language broadcasting from abroad is frequently jammed. Access tothousands of websites, especially those related to international news, political opposition, andhuman rights, is heavily restricted. In recent years, authorities have targeted journalists who
have exposed corruption cases involving officials convicting them on charges of defamationand disseminating false news.683
In its 2024 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders (RSF) ranked Iran 176th out of 180
countries, one place up from 2023. RFS noted that Iran has solidified its position as one of themost repressive countries in terms of press freedom, with journalists facing arbitrary arrests,
interrogations, imprisonment, surveillance, intimidation, and unfair trials conducted by
Revolutionary Courts.684 The situation deteriorated notably after the 2022 protests,685 withover 100 journalists and media workers being arrested, detained, prosecuted, and convicted
in relation to their work, such as conducting investigations, publishing opinions, and writing
about victims of the protests and their families.686 Since the start of the protests, an increase indetentions of female journalists was reported.687 According to NGOs, as mentioned by the
UN FFM on Iran, 31 women journalists, which is a record figure, were arrested during theprotests.688 Moreover, female journalists and activists were put under greater pressure with
the increased monitoring of online platforms by the authorities.689
Journalists who were arrested in protest-related cases were given severe prison sentences,
ranging from 12 months to 18 years, along with travel bans and the suspension of their work
permits. For instance, in January 2023, journalist Nazila Maroufian received a two-year prison
sentence, a five-year travel ban and a fine, after being charged with ‘propaganda against thestate’ and ‘spreading false news’690 because of her interview with Mahsa Amini’s father, who
contested claims about her health issues causing her death in custody.691 In July 2023,
following a complaint from the IRGC, a court in Tehran banned Behrooz Behzadi, the editor-inchief of Etemad newspaper, from engaging in journalistic activities for one year, after finding

RSF, Iran, n.d., url, assessed 7 May 2024
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
683
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
684
RSF, Iran, n.d., url
685
RSF, Iran, n.d., url; UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023,
url, para. 32
686
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 83
687
RSF, An unprecedented number of women journalists are now detained in Iran, 8 November 2022, url
688
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 83
689
Freedom House, Freedom on the Net 2023, Iran, n.d., url
690
HRANA, Journalist Nazila Maroufian Sentenced to One Year in Prison, 4 September 2023, url; UNSG, Situationof human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 33
691
RSF, An unprecedented number of women journalists are now detained in Iran, 8 November 2022, url
681

682

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

him guilty of ‘publishing false content’, including coverage of arrests of cinematographers andartists expressing solidarity with the protests.692
In January 2024, journalists Niloufar Hamedi, who initially reported on Mahsa Amini’s
hospitalisation, and Elaheh Mohammadi, who tried to cover Amini’s funeral,693 were
temporarily released on bail pending their appeal verdict,694 after spending 15 months inprison.695 Both were detained in October 2022696 and sentenced to 13 and 12 years in prison
respectively697 on various charges, including collaborating with the U.S. government.698
Following the circulation of a photo showing the journalists outside the prison without hijabs,
the judicial authorities made a statement on their intention to prosecute Hamedi andMohammadi for breaching the mandatory hijab law.699 As noted by RSF, their release was partof the government’s attempt to reconcile with the media ahead of the legislative elections ofMarch 2024.700
According to RSF, 24 journalists were in detention as of 7 May 2024.701 Media noted that,based on a report by an NGO defending freedom of information, at least 91 journalists andmedia activists were subjected to prosecution by the judiciary and security apparatus in the
period from 1 January 2024 to 30 March 2024, with at least 12 journalists and media activists
being detained.702 In February 2024, media reported that, based on a document accessed bya hacker activist group, a revolutionary court in Tehran convicted in absentia 44 foreign-basedjournalists and media activists (including journalists working for Persian-language media
outlets abroad such as Iran International, BBC Farsi, Manoto, Radio Farda, GEM TV, and Voiceof America) on charges of ‘propaganda against the government’.703

4.5.

Education personnel

In its Freedom in the World report for 2023, Freedom House noted that academic freedom in
Iran was limited. The source reported that the Supreme Leader Khamenei had warned that
universities should not become involved in political activities, while students reportedly notedtighter restrictions at universities, including stricter implementation of mandatory hijab
Iran International, Editor-in-Chief of Iranian Reformist Daily Received One-Year Ban, 29 July 2023, urlFreedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
694
Reuters, Two Iranian journalists jailed on protest charges temporarily releases – state media, 14 January 2024,
url; AP, 2 Iranian journalists jailed for their reporting on Mahsa Amini’s death are released on bail, 14 January 2024,
url
695
RFS, RSF fears that two newly freed Iranian women journalists could be jailed again, 16 January 2024, url
696
RSF, An unprecedented number of women journalists are now detained in Iran, 8 November 2022, url
697
Reuters, Two Iranian journalists jailed on protest charges temporarily releases – state media, 14 January 2024,
url
698
AP, Iran sentences 2 journalists for allegedly collaborating with US. Both covered Masa Amini’s death, 22
October 2023, url
699
RFS, RSF fears that two newly freed Iranian women journalists could be jailed again, 16 January 2024, url
700
RFS, Iran’s ‘criminal’ journalists: a predatory judiciary casts a shadow over supposed pre-election reconciliation,
29 February 2024, url
701
RSF, Iran, n.d., url
702
IranWire, Iran Prosecutes over 90 Media Professionals This Year, 3 April 2024, url; Iran Focus, 91 Journalists,
Media Activists Persecuted in Iran in Past 3 Months, 4 April 2024, url
703
Iran International, Iran Convicted 44 Foreign-Based Journalists in Absentia, Leaked Document Reveals, 23
February 2024, url
692
693

72

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

requirements, since the election of Raisi as president704 in June 2021.705 Persons working withacademia, and especially those who travel to Europe for their work, frequently faced
espionage charges, which are brought by the Ministry of Intelligence and Security.706
In recent years, teachers were engaged in frequent protests over economic and work
conditions.707 Authorities reportedly responded to these protests with arbitrary arrests anddetentions,708 including imposing solitary confinement and deprivation of the right to family
contacts or visits on the teachers’ union activists taking part in the nationwide teachers’
protests,709 which started in May 2022.710
HRANA reported that demonstrations in support of ‘Women, Life, Freedom’ protests were heldin 143 universities across Iran, with more than 550 students being arrested in the first monthsof the protests.711 The Supreme Council ordered imminent dismissals of university academic
staff suspected of supporting the protests.712 Teachers, as well as university academic staff,
who supported students during the protests, reportedly faced arbitrary arrests anddetentions713 and various administrative measures, including suspension,714 dismissal,715 forced
retirement, and salary reductions, attributed to their participation in the protests and refusal toadhere to the mandatory hijab law.716 In June 2023, the Iranian Teachers’ Union’s
Coordination Council reported, as quoted by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFR/RL) that‘over 250 teachers and cultural union activists were arrested, imprisoned, dismissed, or exiled’
during 2022, with cases being ‘fabricated against many teachers.’717
Teachers and teacher trade union leaders were charged with national security offences,718
with the reporting by the CHRI on at least 24 convictions of teachers on national security
charges as of September 2023.719 In February 2024, several teachers were reportedly
summoned for questioning, including on the charges of ‘assembly and collusion against
national security’. A teacher from Lordegan city in the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province in

Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
USIP, The Iran Primer, Raisi: Profile of President-elect, 20 July 2021, url
706
Chamanara, B., interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
707
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url
708
USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 41; IFMAT, More than 200 teachers arrested
during the last two months, 24 June 2022, url; Iran International, 230 Teachers Arrested in Iran in Past Two Months,
26 June 2022, url
709
Iran International, 230 Teachers Arrested in Iran in Past Two Months, 26 June 2022, url
710
IFMAT, More than 200 teachers arrested during the last two months, 24 June 2022, url; Iran International, 230
Teachers Arrested in Iran in Past Two Months, 26 June 2022, url
711
Iran International, Students in Iran Protest Dismissal, Suspension of Professors, 28 November 2022, url
712
Chamanara, B., interview with EUAA, 22 March 2024
713
CHRI, Academic Year in Iran Begins with Imprisonment of Teachers, Arbitrary Arrests, 28 September 2023, url
714
Iran International, Students in Iran Protest Dismissal, Suspension of Professors, 28 November 2022, url
715
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 78; Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2023, Iran, n.d., url;
Iran International, Students in Iran Protest Dismissal, Suspension of Professors, 28 November 2022, url
716
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 78
717
RFE/RL, Iranian Authorities Keep Up Pressure On Teachers Over Support Of Protests, 5 February 2024, url
718
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 78
719
CHRI, Academic Year in Iran Begins with Imprisonment of Teachers, Arbitrary Arrests, 28 September 2023, url
704

705

73

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

the southwest of the country reported that the Supreme Court had upheld his dismissal due tohis support of the Women, Life, Freedom protests.720
As noted by UN FFM on Iran, Iranian authorities attempted to retain and hire academic
personnel loyal to the Islamic Republic, while excluding others, particularly those involved inunion activism and civil society organisations.721 Quoting Etemad newspaper, the UN FFM on
Iran reported that ‘universities were undergoing a “purification” process,’ resulting in layoff or
expulsion of some academics and administrators, which was a continuing trend.722 The
dismissals reportedly included teachers and academic staff expressing criticism of thegovernment, high school principals refusing collaboration with security forces, and womenprincipals rejecting the mandatory hijab and religious programs.723
In March 2023, teachers protested against a slow response by the authorities to suspected
poisonings of female schoolchildren which silently affected over 7 000 schoolgirls in multiple
cities of the country’s 28 provinces. Protests took place in Ahvaz, Isfahan, Karaj, Mashhad,
Rasht, Sanandaj, Saqqez, and Shiraz. Activists who claimed affiliation with Iran’s Coordinating
Council of Teachers Syndicates reported that the police used force, pepper spray, and watercannons against protesters in the cities of Mashhad, Rasht, and Saqqez.724 In early May 2024,
teachers reportedly protested across the country in favour of education reforms. As reported
by RFE/RL, four protesters detained in Tehran faced violence by security forces.725

4.6.

Draft evaders and deserters

In October 2023, Iranian authorities reportedly planned to lower compulsory military service
for all conscripts by three months, ‘based on their specific service location and the nature of
their assigned missions,’ the new duration was planned to be between 14 months to a
maximum of 21 months based on the location and the mission.726 Soldiers reportedly suffered‘physical and psychological pressures' due to lengthy mandatory service period that at times
resulted in ‘suicide or violent acts’.727 For more information on conscription, please refer tochapter 1.2.7. Military service.
After completing their compulsory military service, Iranian men obtain the cart-e payan-ekhetmat (end of military service certificate), a legal document that they need until they retire.728
This document is required for example when they apply for an exit permit from the country
unless they have an exemption.729 As indicated by Barzoo Eliassi, leaving the country without
RFE/RL, Iranian Authorities Keep Up Pressure On Teachers Over Support Of Protests, 5 February 2024, url
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 78
722
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 79
723
CHRI, Academic Year in Iran Begins with Imprisonment of Teachers, Arbitrary Arrests, 28 September 2023, url
724
AP, Teachers protest over suspected Iran schoolgirl poisonings, 7 March 2023, url
725
RFE/RL, Iranian Teachers Rally Nationwide to Protest Lack of Reforms, 5 May 2024, url
726
IRNA, Iran cuts miliary service for all conscripts by three months, 22 October 2023, url; GSN, Iran cuts theduration of military service, 24 October 2023, url
727
Iran International, Conscript arrested after killing five in Kerman barracks 22 January 2024, url
728
FP, Conscription is not an excuse for Iran’s Revolutionary Guard, 30 January 2023, url
729
Iran, Islamic Republic of Iran, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Multiple Exit Stamp, n.d., url
720
721

74

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

completing the mandatory military service may stop individuals from returning to the country.
Iranian authorities systematically screen, including upon return to the country, to find out who
did not complete the military service.730 For more information on mandatory military service,please refer to chapter 1.2.7. Military service.
Under the Iranian Penal Code, whoever ‘effectively encourages combatants or those inmilitary forces to rebel, escape, surrender, or disobey military orders’ are considered as‘moharebeh’ and can be sentenced to imprisonment.731
In an interview with EUAA, an expert working for the French authorities, indicated that Iranianauthorities would punish the same way any Iranian for desertion or refusal of military service;
however, if Baluches or Kurds demonstrate opposition to the military institution, they could be
easily suspected of being political opponent and thus can be treated severely by theauthorities.732 As noted by Barzoo Eliassi, Kurds could be punished harsher than Persians if
they desert because the Islamic Republic associates their desertion as a sign of disloyalty anddistrust to the state. A Kurdish deserter can be imprisoned or get a fine, or at times, Kurds
would leave the country to avoid the mandatory military service.733 For information on Kurds
and Baluches in Iran, please refer to chapter 4.7. Ethnic minorities. According to Article 988 of
the Iranian Civil Code, ‘Iranian nationals cannot abandon their nationality except if […] they
have completed their national military service’.734
Information on the treatment of draft evaders and deserters by the Iranian authorities could
not be found within the time constraints of this report. For more information, please refer tothe EUAA COI Query response Iran – Desertion/draft evasion published on 9 February 2022.

4.7.

Ethnic minorities

4.7.1.

Overview

In January 2024, the population of Iran was estimated at 83.5 million.735 As of 2016, Persians
constituted 61 % of the Iranian population, followed by Azeris (16 %), Kurds (10 %), Lors (6 %),Arabs (2 %), Baluches (2 %), Turkmen (2 %) and others (1 %) including Qashqai, Mazandarani,
Talysh, and Gilaki.736
Azeris live mainly in the northwestern provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Ardabil,and Zanjan as well as in Tehran, with a smaller populations found in Hamadan, Qazvin andKaraj. Iranian Kurds live mostly in the provinces of Kurdistan and Kermanshah, which is a
mountainous region on the border with Türkiye and Iraq, as well as in West Azerbaijan,
Hamadan, Ilam, Northern Khorasan, and Lorestan. Baluches live in southeastern province ofEliassi, B., interview, 14 March 2024 and email communication, 20 March 2024
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book five, url, 15 July 2013, p. 3
732
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
733
Eliassi, B., interview, 14 March 2024 and email communication, 20 March 2024
734
FAO, Civil Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran, url, p. 96
735
IFP, Iran’s population surges past 83.5mn, 28 January 2024, url
736
USIP, Iran minorities 2: Ethnic diversity, 3 September 2013, url
730
731

75

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Sistan and Baluchistan, Arabs in the southwestern province of Khuzestan and Lors in theprovinces of Lorestan, Bakhtiari, and Kohgiluyeh va Boyer-Ahmed in the west of the country.737
The regions where Kurdish, Baluch and Arab groups of population reside are economically themost deprived parts of the country.738
According to Article 19 of the Iranian Constitution, ‘All people of Iran, whatever the ethnic
group or tribe to which they belong, enjoy equal rights; colour, race, language, and the like, do
not bestow any privilege.’739 However, in August 2023, the UN Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights in Iran reported that ethnic and religious minorities in Iran continued
to be targeted by the authorities740 in particular Kurds, Baluches and Arabs.741
In 2023, as reported by USIP, scores of activists, including members of ethnic and religious
minorities remained ‘in prison on vague national security charges or were serving sentences
after grossly unfair trials.’742 In November 2023, the UN Human Rights Committee raised alarm
about the ‘very high number of executions’ in Iran and questioned ‘the disproportionate use of
the death penalty against members of minorities’.743 According to Human Rights Activists in
Iran (HRA), in 2023, there were 324 cases of arrests of people from ethnic minorities, including
156 without a warrant.744

4.7.2.

Kurds

On 22 January 1946, following the Second World War, Kurds established an autonomous statenamed ‘The Republic of Mahabad’745 in northwestern Iran,746 the present-day Kurdishinhabited areas of the country.747 A manifesto by the leader of the Mahabad Republic, Qazi
Muhammad, suggested some key policies including ‘autonomy for the Kurdish people within
Iran’ and ‘the use of Kurdish as the official language of education and administration in the
Kurdish regions’.748 In December 1946, the Republic of Mahabad was re-taken by Iran.749
Following the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran, Kurds’ claim for a greater autonomy has notbeen accepted by the new government, which resulted in a revolt750 and let to a conflict
between the IRGC and the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI). During the conflict, Kurdish
villages were destroyed and about 10 000 Kurds were reportedly killed.751

USIP, Iran minorities 2: Ethnic diversity, 3 September 2013, url
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and email communication, 27 March
2024
739
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
740
UN General Assembly, Seventy-eight session, situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/78/326,
24 August 2023, url, para. 36
741
Eliassi, B., interview, 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
742
USIP, Report: Iran’s torture, sexual assaults and killings, 12 January 2024, url
743
UN OHCHR, UN Human Rights Committee publishes findings on Iran, Kuwait, Korea, Trinidad, United States ofAmerica and Venezuela, 3 November 2023, url p. 11
744
HRA, Annual report, 2023, Annual Statistical Report of Human Rights Conditions in Iran, 20 December 2023, url,
pp. 11 and 58
745
CFR, 1920 – 2022, Kurds’ long struggle with statelessness, n.d., url
746
KCS, An enduring legacy: the Republic of Mahabad & Qazi Muhmmad, 23 January 2023, url
747
CFR, 1920 – 2022, Kurds’ long struggle with statelessness, n.d., url
748
KCS, An enduring legacy: the Republic of Mahabad & Qazi Muhmmad, 23 January 2023, url
749
CFR, 1920 –2022, Kurds’ long struggle with statelessness, n.d., url
750
CFR, 1920 – 2022, Kurds’ long struggle with statelessness, n.d., url
751
AI, Iran: Human Rights abuses against the Kurdish minority, 30 July 2008, url, p. 5
737

738

76

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

As noted by Barzoo Eliassi, Kurds are predominantly Sunni and partly Shia. A Kurd cannot
become the president of Iran or occupy high positions in politics. Only the twelve-Imam Shia
Muslims have access to high positions within the government.752 Kurds continue to beperceived by the Islamic Republic ‘as a threat to the foundation of the country’, 753 and Iranian
government restricts cultural and political activities amongst Kurds.754 As noted by an expert
on Kurdish population and regions, being Kurdish and Sunni in Iran is a double
disadvantage.755
Kurds do not have the right to education in their mother tongue.756 For instance, earlier in
2010, Iranian authorities prohibited the use of Kurdish language in all schools in the city of
Saqiz in Eastern Kurdistan. Teachers and educational personnel were instructed to use only
Persian language.757 Recent information on the enforcement of the prohibition could not befound within the time constraints of this report. Barzoo Eliassi noted that Kurdish regions are
sidelined by the Islamic Republic. As there is no work in Kurdish areas, they go to Tehran,
Karaj or Tabriz for work. In these cities, authorities often screen Kurds to see to what class or
ethnic group they belong to.758 In each governmental office there is a security office, known as
the herasat that is tasked to carry out interviews, asking questions759 through a process
known as gozinesh (screening)760 including questions on Kurdish independence, armed
groups, political affiliation, among others.761 The many Kurds in Tehran do not belong to any
privileged group - political and economic factors push them to leave their regions.762
Some Kurds work as kolbars at the borders with Iraq, Syria and Türkiye. 763 They are perceived
and treated as smugglers by the authorities and the Iranian border forces shoot them when
they cross the border from Iraq. As reported by Iran International, between March 2023 andMarch 2024, 44 kolbars died and over 400 were severely injured due to ‘direct shootings by
Iran's military forces, landmine explosions, harsh weather conditions, fatal falls from heights,
and drowning incidents’ at the border between Iran and Iraq, with 90 % increase in incidents
compared to the previous year.764 On 12 and 13 April 2024 two Kurdish kolbars were killed by
the Iranian border forces in two separate incidents.765 According to Kurdistan Human Rights

Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and email communication, 27 March
2024
754
HRW, Iran, Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
755
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and email communication, 27 March
2024
756
Eliassi, B., interview, 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
757
ANF, Iran banned use of Kurdish language in schools, 27 November 2010, url
758
Eliassi, B., interview, 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
759
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and email communication, 27 March
2024
760
Eliassi, B., interview, 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
761
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and email communication, 27 March
2024
762
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
763
Iran International, Deadly toll rises for kolbars in Iran’s western border region, 24 March 2024, url
764
Iran International, Deadly toll rises for kolbars in Iran’s western border region, 24 March 2024, url
765
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Iranian forces’ direct fire claims another kolbar’s life in one day, 14 April
2024, url
752
753

77

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Network monthly report of April 2023, Iranian authorities executed a Kurdish political prisoner,
who was a kolbar and charged with ‘taking up arms against the state’.766
There are also Kurdish women kolbars, who carry heavy goods. They dress as men to avoid
sexual assault and social pressure. They are more vulnerable also within their families.767 In
Iran being Kurdish, Sunni and woman creates many layers of ‘oppression’ such as religious,
ethnic, and gender, which are a disadvantage for Kurds.768 For additional information on the
security situation of Kurdish groups, please refer to chapter 2. Security situation.
Living mainly at the border with Iraq,769 by July 2023, numerous Iranian Kurds fled to Iraq,
where some have relatives. They fled following authorities’ crackdown on protestors related tothe ‘Women, life, freedom’ protest. Some Kurds fled with tourist visas.770 For information on thesituation at Iran and Iraq border, please refer to chapter 2. Security situation.
During the 2022 protests, Kurds were disproportionately targeted by the Islamic Republic
including arrest, torture, and execution.771 On 15 June 2023, the UN OHCHR reported thatdeath sentences related to Kurds seemed disproportionate.772
According to the UN Secretary-General, between January and June 2023, the government of
Iran executed 14 Kurds.773 In January 2023, Iranian authorities executed three Kurds on
charges of ‘deliberate murder’ and ‘narcotic drugs,’ in Kermanshah and Karaj prisons.774 On 10
March 2023, another Kurd was executed in Dizel Abad prison on charges of ‘intentionalmurder’.775
Barzoo Eliassi noted that some Kurds served the IRGC or Basij, joining them mainly foreconomic reasons and, at times, they denounced their community members if they wereinvolved in activism. However, they would avoid participating in direct attacks against Kurdish
armed groups. Kurds that served the IRGC and Basij were perceived by their community as
jash (collaborator) or ‘traitors’, which made them a legitimate target by Kurdish armed groups.
Family members of those Kurds who fought against Kurdish armed groups could be targetedby the latter groups.776 For information on Kurdish groups, please refer to chapter 2. Security
situation.

KHRN, March 2023: Human Rights violations in Iran Kurdistan, 1 April 2023, url
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
768
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
769
Al Jazeera, Iran says deal agreed with Iraq for disarming, relocation of Kurdish rebels, 28 August 2023, url
770
VoA, 10 Months since Iran’s protests, Kurdish exiles in limbo, 22 July 2023, url
771
KCS, A rise in executions of Kurds and Baloch by Iran, 5 June 2023, url
772
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 49
773
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 49
774
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, In Kermanshah and Karaj prisons, three Kurdish prisoners were
executed by hanging, 5 January 2023, url
775
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, With the execution of a prisoner in Dizel Abad Prison, Kermanshah, thenumber of Kurdish prisoners executed in 130 days reached 52, 11 May 2023, url
776
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
766
767

78

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

4.7.3.

Yarsan Kurdish community

Yarsanism (Ahl-e Haqq, ‘People of the Truth’777) was founded in 14th century in western Iran.778
Yarsan Kurds primarily inhabit the Kurdish provinces in the western part of Iran, comprising acommunity of approximately three million followers.779
The community reportedly faced several difficulties such as ‘registering their children as
Yarsan at birth, restrictions on building places of worship, and the constant fear of
persecution’.780 In March 2023, Iranian security forces apprehended Kaveh Salimi, a follower
of Yarsan faith in Kermanshah and took him to an unknown location.781 In May 2023, Iranian
security forces reportedly arrested two followers of the Yarsan faith in Sahneh, Kermanshah
Province.782 In November 2023, Iranian authorities released the spokesman of theConsultative Assembly of Yarsan Civil Activists,783 who had been arrested in September 2022
and sentenced by a revolutionary court on charges of ‘propaganda activities’ because of his
media interviews regarding the 2022 protests.784

4.7.4.

Faili Kurds

Faili Kurds (Feyli785) are a border-cross ethnic group residing mainly at the Iran and Iraq borderand are Shia Muslims.786 In Iran, they reside primarily in the provinces of Kermanshah and Ilam,
where they are known as Sawqi, in particular in Ilam province.787 The term Faili Kurds comesfrom Arabic meaning ‘Kurds from the Zagros Mountains‘.788 Following the Baath party’s
takeover of power in Iraq in 1968, many Faili Kurds were ‘stripped of their Iraqi citizenship’ andwere forcibly exiled to Iran.789 According to UNHCR, Faili Kurds ‘became stateless, or without anationality and unable to enjoy the rights and benefits.’790
Until 1970, 40 000 Faili Kurds were moved to Iran791 and their expulsion reportedly continued
during the Iran-Iraq war in 1980. The latest statistics reported by UNHCR in 2008 indicated

BBC News, In pictures: Inside Iran’s secretive Yarsan faith, 13 November 2019, url
HRA, Yarsanism, 10 November 2023, url
779
BBC News, In pictures: Inside Iran’s secretive Yarsan faith, 13 November 2019, url; Iran International, Concerns
grow over Iranian protester awaiting execution, 24 December 2023, url
780
Iran International, Concerns grow over Iranian protester awaiting execution, 24 December 2023, url
781
HRA, Yarsan follower Kaveh Salimi arrested, 7 May 2023, url
782
Kurdpa, Sahneh: Arrest of two Yarsani Kurdish civic activists by security forces, 25 May 2023, url; HRA, Two
Yarsan believers arrested in Kermanshah, 24 May 2023, url
783
Kurdpa, Siavash Hayati, the spokesperson of the Consultative Assembly of Yarsan Civil Activists and theSecretary of the United Kurdish Front, was sent on leave., 11 November 2023, url
784
Kurdpa, The deprivation of Siavash Hayati, the spokesman of the Consultative Assembly of Civil Activists of
Yarsan and the secretary of the United Front of Kurds from a medical break, 12 October 2023, url
785
Chamanara, B., interview, 22 March 2024, and email communication, 10 April 2024
786
Minority Rights Group, Faili Kurds in Iraq, 6 November 2007, url
787
Chamanara, B., interview, 22 March 2024, and email communication, 10 April 2024
788
Liebl, V., Culture in military operations, A Case Study: Operation Provide Comfort, MCUP, 1 March 2023, url
789
Shafaq News, The continuing struggle for justice: The plight of the Feyli Kurds in Iraq, 7 April 2023, url; UNHCR,
Feili Kurds in Iran seek way out of identity impasse, 28 May 2008, url; CFRI, Genocide as a state-building mode in
Iraq, 13 July 2023, url
790
UNHCR, Feili Kurds in Iran seek way out of identity impasse, 28 May 2008, url
791
CFRI, Genocide as a state-building mode in Iraq, 13 July 2023, url
777

778

79

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

that, in 2007, there were 7 000 registered Faili Kurds in Iran.792 An expert noted that Faili
Kurds are not considered as citizens in Iran.793

4.7.5.

Baluches

The Baluch region is spread between Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan794, and within Iran itcomprises the provinces of eastern Hormozgan, southern Kerman, southern Khorasan, andSistan and Baluchistan,795 where the majority of Baluches live.796 As the majority of Baluches
are Sunni Muslims,797 they are both an ethnic and religious minority in Iran.798 Over 100 000
people in the province lacked ‘official documents and are considered stateless’.799 As notedby the Iran Primer, the Baluch community is based on a tribal and clan system.800
Baluch-inhabited provinces are economically disadvantaged801 Similar to Kurdish kolbars,
some of the Baluch population work as sokhtbar (fuel carrier).802 They carry fuel to Pakistan,and every year, ‘dozens’ are shot dead or injured by the Iranian security forces, who consider
them as smugglers.803 In March 2024, security forces killed an Iranian Baluch fuel carrier insoutheastern Mirjaveh city.804
The Baluch population has continued to be targeted by the Islamic Republic since 1979.805
Iranian authorities executed 13 Baluches between January and mid-April 2023806, followed byover 31 Baluch prisoners in May 2023807 and another nine Baluches in August 2023.808 In
2023, Iranian authorities also executed five Baluch women.809 On 10 March 2023, a Baluch
prisoner was executed in the central prison of Shiraz on charges of drug-related crimes.810
Similarly, another one was executed in the Zahedan prison in July 2023,811 and another one in
Yazd central prison in January 2024.812 For more information on the situation in Baluchinhabited areas, and Baluch armed groups, please refer to chapter 2. Security situation.

UNHCR, Feili Kurds in Iran seek way out of identity impasse, 28 May 2008, url
Chamanara, B., interview, 22 March 2024, and email communication, 10 April 2024
794
Guardian (The), Where is Balochistan and why is it the target of Iran and Pakistan strikes, 18 Janvier 2024, url
795
MEMO, Is Iran afraid of Baloch awakening? 3 October 2023, url; USIP, Iran’s troubled provinces: Baluchistan, 21
February 2021, url
796
USIP, Iran’s troubled provinces: Baluchistan, 21 February 2021, url
797
France24, Iran’s Baloch population leads anti-regime protests six months after Mahsa Amini’s death, 16 March
2023, url
798
France24, Balochistan, a restive border region at heart of Iran-Pakistan strikes, 18 January 2024, url
799
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 49
800
USIP, Iran’s troubled provinces: Baluchistan, 21 February 2021, url
801
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
802
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
803
IranWire, The dangerous lives of Baluch fuel carriers, 27 April 2023, url
804
IranWire, Iranian fuel carrier killed in military firing, 3 injured, 25 March 2024, url
805
MEMO, Is Iran afraid of Baloch awakening? 3 October 2023, url
806
UNSG, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC/53/23, 15 June 2023, url, para. 49
807
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, 142 prisoners executed in Iran during May 2023, 1 June 2023, url
808
VoA, Iran hangs 11 Baloch minority members in 2 days, rights group say, 2 Augst 2023, url809
IHRNGO, Women executed in Iran in 2023, 8 March 2024, url
810
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, A Baluch prisoner executed secretly in Shiraz prison, 14 March 2023, url
811
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, The death sentence of a Baluch prisoner was executed in the Zahedan
prison, 10 July 2023, url
812
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Execution of a Baluch Inmate in Yazd Prison-Iran, 11 January 2024, url
792
793

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4.8.

Religious minorities

According to estimates of 2022, the majority of the Iranian population was Muslim (99.4 %),90 % to 95 % of whom were Shia Muslims and 5 % to 10 % Sunni Muslims.813 Based on 2020
estimates, 0.7 % were Christians, 0.3 % Baha'is, 0.3 %, agnostics, and 0.2 % others (including
Zoroastrian, Jewish, Hindu).814
Recognised religious minorities in Iran are granted five seats in the parliament,815 without
taking into consideration the size of their communities.816 According to Article 64 of theConstitution, the Zoroastrians and Jews have the right to elect one representative each, theAssyrian and Chaldean Christians have the right to elect one representative jointly, and the
Armenian Christians have the right to elect one representative in the north and one in thesouth of the country.817

4.8.1.

Freedom of religion and belief

According to Article 13 of the Iranian Constitution of 1979, ‘Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian
Iranians are the only recognised religious minorities, who, within the limits of the law, are free
to perform their religious rites and ceremonies, and to act according to their own canon inmatters of personal affairs and religious education.’ 818

4.8.2.

Christians

As of May 2023, only 16 Protestant churches remained in Iran819 and, by September 2013,
there were three different Christian groups in Iran including Armenians, Chaldeans, andAssyrians.820 In 2023, there were numerous Armenian Christian churches in Isfahan city,821
including the All-Saviour’s Cathedral (kalisa-ye vank) or the Church of the Saintly Sisters.822
Ethnic Armenians, Assyrians, and a small expatriate community are the only Christians
recognised by the Islamic Republic.823 Most of the Christians run family business in the country
due to the discrimination they face when they are applying for jobs in the public sector.824
The Christian community is not mixed with others in Iran. For instance, in Isfahan there is a
Christian district called Jolfa, where most Christians live, and have their social life including

USDOS, Iran 2022, International Religious Freedom Report for 2022, 26 October 2022, url, p. 5
US, CIA, The World Factbook, Iran, 17 January 2024, url
815
AP, Many in Iran are frustrated by unrest and poor economy. Parliament elections could see a low turnout, 28
February 2024, url
816
Mehr News Agency, What role political parties, minorities play in Iran’s vote, 10 February 2024, url
817
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
818
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
819
Article18, 10 years since forced closure of Iran’s largest Persian-speaking church, 19 May 2023, url
820
USIP, Iran minorities 1: Diverse religions, 3 September 2013, url
821
Iran International, Hundreds try to enter church in Iran to celebrate Christmas, 27 December 2023, url822
Tehran Times, Vank Cathedral: a sip of Iran’s rich architectural culture in Isfahan, 10 November 2023, url
823
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, p. 4
824
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
813

814

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

going to restaurants or coffee shops.825 Only those Christians who were able to prove thatthey were Christians before the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979 areallowed to exercise their religion.826 Christianity is categorised under ‘political-security crimes’
and is seen by the Islamic Republic ‘as a Western religion’.827 Any Iranian returnee could beharassed and tracked by the Islamic Republic if they were identified as being involved in
Christian related activities abroad.828 According to a joint report by Article18, OpenDoors,
Middle East Concern (MEC) and CSW Everyone Free to Believe, ‘Christians who actively
express their faith – and especially converts from Islam – are subject to arrest and prosecution
by the State’. In 2023, 166 Christians were reportedly arrested in Iran. Most of the arrested
Christians (including converts) ‘were not informed of the reason for their arrest, neither did
they receive any charges’.829
House-churches
Most Christian converts meet in private places, which are known as house-churches in Iran830
including ‘converts to Christianity from a Muslim background, as well as ethnic Armenian and
Assyrian Christians who wish to worship in the national language (Persian), as many do not
speak or understand any other language.’831 Iranian house-churches refer to apartments,
where 10 to 15 believers gather for their rituals. Iranian authorities carry out raids on housechurches to arrest its members and confiscate anything that can be used as proof againstthem including their personal electronic devices.832
Some of the converts to Christianity go to the church secretly as the Islamic Republic ismonitoring them.833 Iranian intelligence agents monitor activities of converts online as well.834
In 2023, over 50 Christian converts were arrested at their homes or at house-churches inTehran, Karaj, Rasht, Orumiyeh, and Aligoudarz cities.835 For more information on converts,
please refer to chapter 4.10.1. Conversion.
Proselytising
Christians are not allowed to preach their religion to other Iranians or invite them to theirchurches836, and they ‘are not permitted to hold services or possess religious materials in
Persian.’ They can be imprisoned if they preach their religion or invite ‘people of Muslim
background’ to participate in church related activities.837 The Iranian intelligence reportedly
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
826
Article18, 10 years since forced closure of Iran’s largest Persian-speaking church, 19 May 2023, url
827
Fox News, Iran violently clamps down on Christians amid reports of torture, fines and floggings, 3 March 2024,
url
828
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, p. 36
829
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, pp. 3, 8, 18
830
Article18, Why do most Iranian Christians worship in house-churches?, 7 May 2024, url
831
Article18, Persian-speaking Iranian Christians have no pace where they can worship collectively, n.d., url
832
Hudson Institute, Good news from Iran: a million new Christian believers, 15 June 2023, url
833
Fox News, Iran violently clamps down on Christians amid reports of torture, fines and floggings, 3 March 2024,
url
834
OpenDoors, World watch list 2024, situation of religious freedom for Christians, 13 September 2023, url, p. 2
835
Article18, Over 50 Christians in five cities arrested in new crackdown, 18 July 2023, url
836
BBC, Iran: The Christians celebrating Easter in secrete, 2 April 2024, url
837
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, p. 4825

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banned proselytising in Persian language in churches in Iran.838 As of March 2024, having a
Bible in Persian was reportedly a crime.839 Proselytising people in Iran is a crime ‘punishable
by death’.840 For more information, please refer to chapter 3.2.4. Ta’zir punishments.

4.8.3.

Baha’isThe Baha’i religion is not recognised in Iran841 and its followers are perceived by the Islamic
Republic as a non-Muslim religious group.842 The Baha’is have historically faced ‘systematic
ideological, political, educational, and economic pressure’ in Iran843 and have been
increasingly targeted by the Islamic Republic844 Iranian authorities refer to the Baha’i religion
as a ‘deviant sect of Islam’845 and to Baha’is as ‘heretics’.846 The Baha’is were targeted in all
aspects of their lives in Iran.847 Iranian law reportedly deprived Baha’is from their freedom of
religion and authorities continued to arrest and target Baha’is ‘on vague national security
charges’.848
According to the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of
Iran, the Baha’i community in Iran continued to be ‘most severely’ targeted. They faced
arrests, harassment, raids on their homes, confiscation of their personal belongings andproperties, refusal to access universities or obtain work permits, imprisonment, anddestruction of their cemeteries.849 In July 2023, authorities arrested numerous Baha’is in Gilan
province.850
According to Iran International report of October 2023, several women from the Baha’i
community were targeted in the country,851 including 10 women arrested in Isfahan and 3 inYazd by ‘the agents the Ministry of Intelligence.’852 In 2023, Iranian security forces havearrested several Baha’is in Hamadan, Mehrshahr, Yazd, Karaj, Alborz, and Tehran.853 In Karajand Hamedan cities, 30 houses were raided and 19 Baha’is were detained.854 In January 2024,

838

Fox News, Iran violently clamps down on Christians amid reports of torture, fines and floggings, 3 March 2024,

url
839

Fox News, Iran violently clamps down on Christians amid reports of torture, fines and floggings, 3 March 2024,

url
Jerusalem Post (The), An encounter with Marziyeh Amirizadeh: Iranian Christian activist, 15 May 2023, url
HRW, ‘the boot on my neck’, 1 April 2024, url
842
Iran International, Iran’s persecution of Baha’i minority intensifies, 5 December 2023, url
843
BIC, Iranian thought leaders call for an end to the ‘historical shame’ of Baha’i persecution, 22 January 2024, url
844
Minority Rights Group, Baha’i in Iran, n.d., url
845
USCIRF, USCIRF condemns Iran’s religious persecution of Baha’is, 15 November 2023, url
846
VoA, Iran arrests Baha’is, citing Israel links, 25 July 2023, url
847
CHRI, ‘Our homes are no refuge’ Baha’i minority in Iran facing intensified state assault, 17 August 2023, url
848
HRW, Iran, Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
849
UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republicof Iran, (27 February to 31 March 2023), A/HRC/52/67, 7 February 2023, url, para. 68
850
VoA, Iran arrests Baha’is, citing Israel links, 25 July 2023, url
851
Iran International, Escalating ‘persecution’ targets Baha’i community in Iran, 28 October 2023, url
852
BIC, Twenty-six Baha’is in Iran sentenced to 126 years in prison as 10 Baha’i women arrested in Isfahan, and 3
Baha'is in Yazd, 26 October 2023, url
853
USCIRF, USCIRF condemns Iran’s religious persecution of Baha’is, 15 November 2023, url
854
BIC, More than 20 Baha’i homes invaded in violent raids and many arrested in Iran as crackdown intensifies, 10
November 2023, url
840
841

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

the Iranian authorities grabbed by force land plots of Baha’i families in the village of
Ahmadabad in Mazandaran province.855

4.8.4.

Zoroastrians

Zoroastrianism is the oldest856 pre-Islamic religion in Iran857 dating back around 3 500 years.858
Zoroastrians mainly live in Tehran, with communities being found also in Yazd and Kerman.859
The Iranian Constitution recognises Zoroastrians as a religious minority.860 The community is
granted ‘freedom of worship and representation in parliament’.861 As of September 2023, theZoroastrian member of Parliament was Esfandiyar Ekhtiyari.862 Zoroastrians were reportedly
active in society, holding jobs such as university professors and employees of thegovernment.863
In 2023, the community accounted an estimated 50 000 members in Iran.864 The main
Zoroastrian fire temple is in Yazd province,865 and their holy book is called Avesta.866 On 30
January 2023, Zoroastrians in Iran celebrated their annual Sadeh festival in the city of Yazd.867
Zoroastrians of Yazd and Kerman resisted conversion to Islam imposed by the Arab conquestof Persia.868 The number of Zoroastrians in Iran declined ‘due to emigration, conversion to
Islam, harassment and discrimination’.869

4.9.

Other ethnic and religious groups

Iranian Arabs live mainly in Khuzestan province. As reported in September 2013, there werearound 1.5 million Iranian Arabs, which represented 2 % of the overall population.870 The
Islamic Republic perceives the political claims of the Iranian Arabs as an interference of Saudi
Arabia. Their claims are regarded as against the national security and the territorial integrity of
Iran, according to Eliassi Barzoo.871 In February 2023, a Revolutionary Court in Ahwaz,
Khuzestan province, sentenced to death six Ahwazi Arabs ‘on the charge of ‘enmity against
God’ (moharebeh) in relation to armed operations carried out by a separatist group that led todeaths among security forces.’872 On 20 February 2023, one Ahwazi Arab Iranian was

BIC, Farmers displaced and farmlands seized as Iran’s government intensifies Baha’i religious persecution, 4January 2024, url
856
USIP, Iran minorities 1: Diverse religions, 3 September 2013, url
857
Iran International, Zoroastrian fest keeps fire of protests burning in Iran, 31 January 2023, url
858
RFI, Iran’s Zoroastrians keep ancient, sacred flame burning, 23 July 2023, url
859
USIP, Iran minorities 1: Diverse religions, 3 September 2023, url
860
RFI, Iran’s Zoroastrians keep ancient, sacred flame burning, 23 July 2023, url
861
RFI, Iran’s Zoroastrians keep ancient, sacred flame burning, 23 July 2023, url
862
USIP, Iran minorities 1: Diverse religions, 3 September 2013, url
863
RFI, Iran’s Zoroastrians keep ancient, sacred flame burning, 23 July 2023, url
864
France24, Iran’s Zoroastrians keep ancient, sacred flame burning, 23 July 2023, url
865
RFI, Iran’s Zoroastrians keep ancient, sacred flame burning, 23 July 2023, url
866
Tehran Times, Zoroastrians celebrate fire and light in mid-winter festival, 30 January 2023, url
867
IranWire, Iran’s Zoroastrians hold annual festival in Yazd, 31 January 2023, url
868
Zoroastrian.net, Zoroastrians of Iran, 14 November 2023, url, p. 4
869
USIP, Iran minorities 1: Diverse religions, 3 September 2013, url
870
USIP, Iran minorities 2: Ethnic diversity, 3 September 2013, url871
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
872
AI, Iran: six Ahwazi Arabs at grave risk of execution, 12 May 2023, url
855

84IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

executed by the authorities873 on charges of ‘enmity against God (moharebeh)’ following his
arrest over protests in Khuzestan province in 2011.874 For more information on Ahwazi Arabgroups, please refer to chapter 2. Security situation.
Azeris in Iran have a longer political integration into the societal elites and economically they
are more prosperous.875
There are various Sufi Muslim groups in Iran including Naqshbandi, Qaderi, Khaksari,876 andGonabadi dervishes.877 On 17 October 2023, a member of the Gonabadi dervish order wasarrested in Kashan and his personal belongings, including his laptop and mobile phone, wereconfiscated.878
Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, there were an estimated 80 000 Jews in Iran; however,as of February 2024, there were between 5 000 and 8 000 Jews in Iran.879 Most Jews moved
out of the country due to hostility against Zionist ideology and ‘hate speech against Jewish’community in the country.880 However, Jews can practice their religion legally in Iran.881

4.10.

Individuals transgressing religious and moralcodes4.10.1.

Conversion

Iranian authorities do not allow conversion from Islam to another religion.882 Most Iranians are
considered Muslims, and conversion to Christianity is seen as apostasy.883 For more
information on punishment related to apostasy, please refer to chapter 4.10.2. Apostasy. A
Muslim in Iran can be subject to arrest, assault, or death penalty in case of conversion toanother religion.884 Persons who converted from Islam are coerced by the Islamic Republic toleave the country.885
The Islamic Republic does not recognise the Christian converts in the country.886 Conversion
from Islam to Christianity is perceived as a crime and can be punished by death in Iran.887 For
AI, Iran: chilling execution spree with escalating use of death penalty against persecuted ethnic groups, 2 March
2023, url
874
HRANA, Hassan Abyat Executed in Ahvaz, 22 February 2023, url
875
Eliassi, B., interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024
876
Chamanara B, interview, 22 March 2024, and email communication, 10 April 2024
877
IranWire, Iranian Gonabadi Dervish freed nearly after five years in Prison, 25 January 2023, url
878
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Arrested two individuals in Kashan and Iranshahr by security forces, 19
October 2023, url
879
Iran International, Iran compels Jews and minorities to honor Islamic revolution, 8 February 2024, url
880
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
881
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
882
Iran International, Cleric says some Iranian Muslims converting to other religions, 11 March 2023, url
883
OpenDoors, World watch list 2024, situation of religious freedom for Christians, 13 September 2023, url, p. 4
884
IranWire, Bulgaria grants asylum to Iranian Christian convert sentenced to death, 2 January 2024, url
885
Church Times, Christian converts under pressure to leave Iran, 23 February 2024, url
886
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, p. 5
887
Jerusalem Post (The), An encounter with Marziyeh Amirizadeh: Iranian Christian activist, 15 May 2023, url
873

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

more information, please refer to 3.2. Punishments under the law, and for information on
Christians, please refer to chapter 4.8.2. Christians. Christian converts are subject to arrestsand ill-treatment by the Islamic Republic. They are also exiled ‘in remote parts of the country’or forced to undertake re-education with Islamic clerics and ‘pressured to return to Islam’, inparticular after their release.888 At times converts are targeted by their families889 and theirextended family members and society at large.890 Authorities imprison Christian converts for‘crimes against national security’.891
On 13 February 2024, a Christian convert who had returned to Iran in 2017, was arrested by
the Iranian authorities in Tehran, and taken to Ward 209 of Evin Prison after being summoned
several times before her arrest.892 In January 2024, a 60-year-old Iranian convert wassentenced to six years of imprisonment for ‘acting against national security’ by promoting
Christianity.893

4.10.2. Apostasy
Iranian authorities held back from codifying apostasy as a crime in the Penal Code fearing
international criticism.894 However, according to Article 167 of the Iranian Constitution, judges
can rely on Sharia in matters not covered by the codified law and still charge converts from
Islam with ‘apostasy’.895 In case of the absence of a particular law, the judge has to deliver
judgments ‘on the basis of authoritative Islamic sources and authentic fatawa’ (verdict).896 This
allows ‘scope for Islamic law sanctions to be applied for apostasy’.897 An Iranian pastor was
released in February 2023 after being sentenced to death for ‘apostasy’, but was instead
sentenced to receive lashes and two-year of exile of 2 000 kilometres away from home.898
According to Human Rights Watch (HRW) report of January 2024, ‘apostasy’ is punished bydeath based on the Iranian law.899 For more information, please refer to chapter 3.2.1. Hadd
punishments and chapter 3.9.1. Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal
Code.

4.10.3. Atheism
In Iran it is not legal or recognised to be identified as an atheist or as non-religious person.900
As reported by BBC Iran, numerous individuals in younger generations considered themselves

Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, pp. 5, 8, 31
OpenDoors, World Watch Research, December 2023, 10 January 2024, url, p. 6
890
Article18, “Faceless Victims, rights violations against Christians in Iran, 19 February 2024, url, p. 5
891
OpenDoors, World Watch Research, December 2023, 10 January 2024, url, p. 6
892
Article18, Chrisitan convert baptised in Malysia given prison sentence on return to Iran, 26 March 2024, url
893
Iran International, Iranian Christian convert faces imprisonment, 6 January 2024, url; Article18, Christian convert,
60, summoned to begin prison sentence for house-church leadership, 5 January 2024, url
894
Article18, Apostasy never codified in Iranian law “due to international pressure”, 17 January 2023, url
895
Article18, Iran country profile, 27 February 2024, url
896
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
897
Article18, Iran country profile, 27 February 2024, url
898
Article18, Arbitrarily detained pastor released from prison but faces flogging and exile, 1 March 2023, url
899
HRW, Iran: events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
900
Humanists International, The Freedom of Thought Report, Iran, 24 October 2023, url
888

889

86

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

atheists or agnostics.901 Information on the treatment of atheists in Iran could not be foundwithin the time constraints of this report.

4.10.4. Blasphemy
Blasphemy is punished by death under the Iranian law.902 According to thehudud punishments, insulting the Prophet and Islamic sanctities is punished by death.903
Article 262 of the Iranian Penal Code stipulates that ‘Anyone who swears at […] the Great
Prophet […] or any of the Great Prophets, shall be considered as Sab ul-nabi [a person who
swears at the Prophet], and shall be sentenced to the death penalty.’904 For more information,please refer to chapter 3.2.1. Hadd punishments and chapter 3.9.1. Crimes punishable with thedeath penalty under the Penal Code.
In May 2023, the Iranian government ‘executed two individuals for blasphemy’905 on charges
of promoting on social media ‘atheism and insulting religious and Islamic sanctities’906
including ‘insulting the Prophet’.907The execution of the aforementioned two men was orderedby the judiciary based on Articles 262 and 513 of the Iranian Penal Code.908 UN human rights
experts raised concerns over the execution of the two men on charges of blasphemy and‘following grossly unfair trials’.909 In March 2024, Iranian authorities arrested Maryam (Marzieh)
Khalili, who was further charged with ‘spreading propaganda against the regime’, ‘insulting theSupreme Leader’, and ‘blasphemy’ by the Revolutionary Court of Isfahan.910

4.10.5. Behaviour perceived as transgressing religious and moral
codes
Consumption of alcohol is referred to as shorb-e-khamr (intoxicant) in Penal Code of Iran.911
According to HRW report of January 2024, consumption of alcohol in the country can bepunished by death under the Iranian law.912 For more information on punishments related
to consumption of alcohol, please refer to chapter 3.2.1. Hadd punishments and chapter
3.9.1. Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal Code.

BBC, Iran: The Christians celebrating Easter in secrete, 2 April 2024, urlFrance24, Iran hangs two men for blasphemy as executions arise amid unrest, 8 May 2023, url; Minority Rights
Group, Criminalising blasphemy: implications for Iran’s religious minorities, 12 December 2023, url; HRW, Iran:events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
903
IranWire, Iran’s unjust executions for ‘insulting the prophet’, 15 May 2023, url
904
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book one and two, 4 April 2024,
url, p. 50
905
Minority Rights Group, Criminalising blasphemy: implications for Iran’s religious minorities, 12 December 2023,
url
906
RFI/RL, Iran hangs two men for blasphemy, 8 May 2023, url907
Humanists International, The Freedom of Thought Report, Iran, 24 October 2023, url
908
IranWire, Iran’s unjust executions for ‘insulting the prophet’, 15 May 2023, url
909
UN OHCHR, Iran: UN experts condemn recent executions, urge moratorium on death penalty, 9 May 2023, url
910
HRANA, Maryan Khalili detained by security forces in Isfahan, 15 March 2024, url
911
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book one and two, 4 April 2024,
url, p. 50
912
HRW, Iran: events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
901

902

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Extramarital relations are ‘severely’ punished under the Islamic hudud crimes¸ as per the
Iranian Penal Code. Extramarital relations are referred to as zena (adultery).913 Iranian courts attimes punish individuals charged with adultery to death by stoning.914 In November 2023, a
woman was sentenced to death by the Iranian authorities for adultery.915 For more information
on punishments for zena under hadd punishments, please refer to chapter 3.9.1. Crimes
punishable with the death penalty under the Penal Code.
In Iran, there are limitations on marriage between persons of different faiths.916 While Muslim
men are permitted to marry women belonging to the constitutionally recognised minority
religions,917 marriage between a female Muslim with a non-Muslim man is prohibited under
Article 1059 of Iranian Civil Code.918

4.11.

Women and girls

4.11.1.

Women’s rights

Following the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, authorities imposed a series of restrictions on
women and girls’ rights.919 Since then, women and girls have continued to face ‘legal, political,
economic and social challenges’ in the country920 including lowering the marriage age forgirls, restrictions on divorce, child custody, nationality, travel, inheritance and dress code.921
These restrictions ‘deeply impacted women’s lives in the country.922 Iranian women have beenprohibited to enter workspace without the hijab,923 they have also been banned to dance inpublic, or to ride a bicycle.924 A husband may prevent his wife from employment or travelingabroad.925 Women have also been banned from joining the army or performing public sport
activities,926 or to become president. In some legal cases, they are considered as half of aman.927
As noted by an expert interviewed by EUAA, in rural areas, control on women is ‘tight’ asfamilies know each other, and girls and women are known in the local communities, while in

IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book one and two, url, 4 April
2024,
914
Le Monde, Iran sentences woman to death for adultery, 4 November 2023, url
915
AP, Iran sentences a woman to death for adultery, state media say, 3 November 2023, url
916
Iran International, Hardliners in Iran promote polygamy, obedience of wives, 2 November 2023, url917
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
918
Iran, Civil Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran, url, p. 105
919
USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, url
920
Iran International, Hardliners in Iran promote polygamy, obedience of wives, 2 November 2023, url
921
USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, url
922
HRW, Unveiling resistance: the struggle for women’s rights in Iran, 26 June 2023, url
923
IranWire, My story of Forced hijab in Iran, 7 April 2023, url
924
Boniadi, N., Iran women are still fighting, Time, 14 September 2023, url
925
Reuters, How Iran treats women, 6 October 2023, url
926
IranWire, My story of Forced hijab in Iran, 7 April 2023, url
927
Boniadi,N., Iran women are still fighting, Time, 14 September 2023, url
913

88IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

big cities such as Mashhad, Isfahan, and Tehran, the majority of the people are educated andopen-minded and this allows girls more freedom including in the way they wish to dress.928
On 30 August 2023, a group of six special rapporteurs ‘have expressed their ‘grave concerns
regarding the ongoing institutionalisation of gender-based inequality and discrimination indifferent spheres of life, violence against women and girls including, but not limited to, thecriminalisation of women protesting the compulsory veiling laws in the Islamic Republic of Iran,as well as gendered violence committed offline and online against women human rights
defenders, including those who challenge State laws and policies that discriminate against
women and girls on the grounds of sex and gender.‘929

4.11.2.

Dress-code

In Iran, women and girls are required to wear a dark hijab, which is known as chador (veil).930
The black chador and hijab had been a ‘political symbol’ for women and girls before they
became compulsory following the 1979 Revolution.931 After 1979, the country’s new Supreme
Leader, Khomeini ‘decreed that all women had to wear the veil [hijab932] – regardless ofreligion or nationality’.933 They are also required under the Iranian law to wear ‘long, loosefitting clothing to disguise their figures’.934 The Iranian Penal Code criminalises the lack ofhijab in the public space935 as stipulated in its note to Article 638: ‘Women, who appear in
public places and roads without wearing an Islamic hijab, shall be sentenced to ten days to
two months’ imprisonment or a fine.’936 Laws of the country control strictly Iranian women’s
lives through the mandatory hijab.937 According to AI, mandatory hijab for women ‘isentrenched in Iran’s Penal Code and other laws and regulations that enable security andadministrative bodies to subject women to arbitrary arrest and detention and deny themaccess to public institutions including hospitals, schools, government offices and airports ifthey do not cover their hair.’938
In Iran, women and girls are required to wear a hijab when they turn nine years old.939 At
times, the government of Iran enforced compulsory hijab on girls at the age of seven.940
According to the Shia Islam rituals in Iran, girls at the age of nine attend a ceremony known as
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
929
UN OHCHR, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 30 August
2023, url, p. 1
930
USIP, Female protests in Iran: tools of resistance, 6 September 2023, url
931
The National, Iran sentences jailed Nobel laureate Narges Mohammadi to additional prison term, 15 January2024, url
932
BBC, Iran protests: Mahsa Amini’s death puts morality police under spotlight, 21 September 2022, url
933
BBC, Iranian women - before and after the Islamic Revolution, 8 February 2019, url
934
BBC, Iran protests: Mahsa Amini’s death puts morality police under spotlight, 21 September 2022, url
935
HRW, Unveiling resistance: the struggle for women’s rights in Iran, 26 June 2023, url
936
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book five, 15 July 2013, url, p. 26
937
The National, Iran sentences jailed Nobel laureate Narges Mohammadi to additional prison term, 15 January2024, url
938
AI, Iran: International community must not be deceived by dubious claims of disbanding ‘morality police’, 6
December 2022, url
939
USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, url; RFE/RL, Iranian President signs decree restricting how
women can dress, 15 August 2022, url
940
UN General Assembly, Seventy-eight session, situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/78/326,
24 August 2023, url, para. 44
928

89EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

taklif (a legal charge or obligation941) during which clerics introduce religious obligations
including ‘praying, fasting and modest dress’ such as hijab.942
On 3 February 2023, the head of legal and judicial commission of the Iranian Parliament
reportedly stated that ‘a draft bill was being considered to suspend identity cards of women,
who refuse to comply with compulsory’ hijab, and to prevent them from banking services till‘they paid a fine.’ 943 On 30 March 2023, the Iranian Ministry of Interior reportedly announced
that the ‘country’s judiciary, law enforcement and other relevant bodies would take action
against those breaking the norms’ including compulsory hijab.944 On 21 May 2023, a ‘chastity
and hijab culture protection bill’ was presented by the government to the parliament,945 which
was approved on 20 September 2023946 for a period of a three-year trial.947 The bill, which is
officially titled ‘Protection of Family Through Promotion of Hijab and Chastity Culture’,948
includes punishments of up to ten years of imprisonment for women and girls who do notcomply with the hijab rules.949 The bill considers non-wearing of the hijab by women and girls
in Iran as ‘nudity’.950 In April 2024, the bill was rejected by the Guardian Council for ‘alleged
formal deficiencies’ and the council ‘called for revisions to clarify ambiguous terms.’ 951 For
more information on the role of the Guardian Council, please refer to chapter 1.1.5 Guardian
Council.
Following the death of Mahsa Amini in September 2022 in police custody,952 Iranian women
increasingly refused to wear a headscarf although authorities continued to target them.953 In
January 2023, the Iranian Prosecutor General reportedly instructed the Iranian Law
Enforcement Command to impose the mandatory hijab ‘decisively’.954 For more information,please refer to chapters 1.2.5. Morality police and 3.3. Punishments related to violence against
women.
Authorities carried out widespread campaigns to enforce the mandatory hijab rules bymonitoring women and girls in public spaces including in vehicles and airports.955 The police,
the Basij, and the morality police reportedly enforced the mandatory hijab rules by taking
Oxford Reference, Taklif, n.d., url
USIP, Khamenei at coming-of-age ceremony for girls, 6 February 2023, url
943
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC53/23, 15 June 2023,
url, para. 41
944
UN General Assembly, Seventy-eight session, situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/78/326,
24 August 2023, url, para. 46
945
Mashregh News, ‫[ الیحه حمایت از فرهنگ عفاف و حجاب‬chastity and hijab culture protection bill], 21 May 2023, url
946
Al Jazeera, Iran’s parliament approves ‘hijab’ bill; harsh punishment for violations, 20 September 2023, url
947
Mizan Online News Agency, ‫[ گزارش کمیسیون قضائي و حقوقي‬report of the Legal and Judiciary Commission], 12
September 2023, url, p. 1
948
Iran International, Iranian Lawmaker Calls New Punitive Hijab Bill ‘Compassionate’, 12 February 2024, url
949
Le Monde, Iran Lawmakers vote to toughen penalties for women flouting dress code, 20 September 2023, url
950
USIP, Parliament passes new ‘Hijab and Chasity’ bill, 25 September 2023, url
951
Iran International, Iranian Lawmaker Calls New Punitive Hijab Bill ‘Compassionate’, 12 February 2024, url
952
Le Monde, Iranian teenager dies in suspicious circumstances reminiscent of Mahsa Amini death, 30 October
2023, url
953
The National, Iran sentences jailed Nobel laureate Narges Mohammadi to additional prison term, 15 January2024, url954
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/HRC53/23, 15 June 2023,
url, para. 41
955
AI, Iran: Draconian campaign to enforce compulsory veiling laws through surveillance and mass car
confiscations, 6 March 2024, url
941

942

90

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

justice in their hands, which led to violence against women.956 The Iranian morality police isthe main body tasked to enforce behaviour and hijab rules based on a ‘strict interpretation of
Iranian Islamic law’.957 For more information on morality police, please refer to chapter 1.2.5.
Morality police.
In April 2023, the Iranian Ministries of Health and Education reportedly banned women fromusing health and educational services if they did not comply with the mandatory hijab rules.958
On 15 April 2023, Iranian authorities reportedly announced a new domestic surveillance
programme to monitor women including with street cameras (known as FARAJA cameras959)
to check whether they comply with the hijab rules.960 However, Iranian women continued todefy authorities with non-compliance with the compulsory hijab in the streets and on social
media.961
By July 2023, some women were sent to mental hospitals or were obliged to do forced labour
as a punishment for non-compliance with the hijab rules.962 During the same period, themorality police reportedly conducted patrols in the streets to impose ‘strictly’ the dress coderules.963 On 1 October 2023, the morality police reportedly attacked 16-year-old Armita
Geravand in the metro in Tehran for non-compliance with the compulsory hijab rules,964 whoreportedly died on 28 October 2023, ‘after suffering from brain damage’.965 Following thisevent, UN human rights experts stated being aware of ‘reprisals against other women,
including celebrities, for refusing to comply with the mandatory dress code.’966 In November
2023, there were reportedly 2 850 hijab guards conducting patrols to monitor compliancewith the hijab rules in Tehran’s subway stations.967
Authorities increasingly targeted women who did not comply with the required rules. By way
of examples:••

In January 2024, a woman was punished with 74 lashes and fine for her noncompliance with the hijab rules in public.968
On 6 February 2024, Iranian authorities reportedly banned women from exercisingsport activities in the city parks in the province of Khorasan.969

UN General Assembly, Seventy-eight session, situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/78/326,
24 August 2023, url, para. 45
957
France, OFPRA, DIDR, Iran: Women adopt behaviour perceived as transgressive of the social norms assigned tothem, 24 July 2023, url, p. 5
958
CFR, Women this week : Iran bans women without hijabs from education and health services, 7 April 2023, url
959
Article19, Iran: tech-enabled ‘hijab and chastity’ law will further punish women, 22 August 2023, url
960
VoA, Iran’s new Hijab surveillance system met with Internet defiance, derision, 23 April 2023, url
961
The New Arab, On streets and social media, women challenge IRCG general’s obligatory hijab campaign, 25
April2023, url
962
The New Arab, Iranian authorities refer women defying hijab law to psychiatric hospitals and funeral centres, 25
July 2023, url
963
Euronews, Explained: why the Islamic headscarf is crucial in Iranian society, 18 July 2023, url
964
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Hijab and Coma: Armita Geravand; the latest victims of forced hijab in
Iran, 6 October 2023, url
965
BBC News, Armita Geravand: Iranian girl who collapsed on Tehran metro dies, 28 October 2023, url
966
UN OHCHR, Wave of attacks on girls and women, 2 November 2023, url
967
RFE/RL, Classified on Iran’s ‘hijab’s guards’ unveil government cover-up, 29 November 2023, url; IranInternational, Newspaper faces persecution in Iran for revealing hijab document, 29 November 2023, url
968
IranWire, Iran woman whipped for not wearing hijab, 8 January 2024, url
969
IranWire, Women in Northeast Iran province barred from exercising in parks, 6 February 2024, url
956

91EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM•In February 2024, Zainab Mousavi, an Iranian female comedian ‘has been summoned
to serve a two-year prison sentence’ following her speech against the compulsory
hijab in a comedy video.970

According to sources, the morality police in the Capital announced the restart of its street
patrols as of 13 April 2024 to enforce hijab rules by women and girls.971 For more information
please refer to chapter 3.3. Punishments related to violence against women.

4.11.3.

Marriage and restrictions related to divorce

The marriage law allows men to marry four wives at the same time while women are allowed
to marry only one husband.972 Iran also allows men an unlimited number of temporary
marriages (which is known as sigheh973) for an arranged period.974 Women need a maleguardian’s consent for marriage.975 The husband can divorce ‘incontestably’ while a woman
could divorce with constrained reasons such as proving ‘an intolerable level of spousal
abuse’,976 husband’s addiction, imprisonment or refusal to support the family financially. 977
Wives can obtain divorce only by the order of a judge in a court while a verbal
acknowledgment is sufficient for men to file a divorce.978 Divorce proceedings initiated by
women last longer in courts, which ‘often resulting in women giving up some of their rights’
including the ‘payment of mahriye’ (dower payment) to accelerate the settlement.979
In Iran, it is religiously accepted if the husband states the word ‘talaq’’ (divorce) three times infront of an assembly or a council in the absence of his wife. It is known as the ‘triple talaq’,
which is a form of divorce often practised in Sunni-majority regions of Iran980 including in
Kermanshah and Kurdistan provinces.981 The divorce is not legally settled but rather arbitrarily
and in a sudden manner that often impacts women economically and emotionally. 982

4.11.4.

Forced and child marriage

The law in Iran forbids forced marriage, however, the law ‘does not consider the marriage of agirl under the age of 15 to be forced’.983 According to the UN Women’s report of 2023, Iran does
not have ‘legally defined marriageable age for either girls or boys.’984 As indicated by Leila
IranWire, Iranian comedian Zeinab Mousavi summoned to serve prison sentence, 6 February 2024, url
IranWire, Iran intensifies hijab enforcement amid regional tensions and civil disobedience, 13 April 2024, url
972
Iran International, Hardliners in Iran promote polygamy, obedience of wives, 2 November 2023, url
973
Iran International, Tehran’s ‘revolutionary’ mayor faces financial, marital scandals, 8 December 2023, url
974
Reuters, How Iran treats women, 6 October 2023, url
975
Iran International, Hardliners in Iran promote polygamy, obedience of wives, 2 November 2023, url
976
Reuters, How Iran treats women, 6 October 2023, url977
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
978
USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, url979
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
980
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
981
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and email communication, 27 March2024
982
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
983
France, OFPRA, DIDR, Iran: Women adopt behaviour perceived as transgressive of the social norms assigned tothem, 24 July 2023, url, p. 10984
UN Women, Legislating and enforcing the minimum age of marriage: A comparative study of experiences andlessons learned in ending the legalization of child marriage, n.d., url, p. 21
970
971

92

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Alikarami, child marriage is legally allowed by Iran’s Civil Code, which leads to forced marriageof numerous girls every year.985 According to the latest statistics recorded by Statistical Centerof Iran (SCI) between 2018 and 2019, 16 510 girls between 10 and 14 years old were married inurban areas and 19 895 in rural areas. During the same period, 332 841 girls between 15 and 19
years old were married in urban areas and 228 237 in rural areas.986 As the majority of the childmarriages and forced marriages were not legally registered,987 the actual numbers could behigher.988
Prior to the Islamic Republic period in Iran, the legal marriage age for girls was 18 and 20 forboys, which has been abolished by the order of Ayatollah Khomeini following the Islamic
Revolution in 1979.989 Since then, the legal age of marriage for girls continued to be loweredover the years990 from 18 to 9 years old.991 According to HRW, the Iranian civil code permits
girls to marry at the age of 13 years old,992 and according to Reuters, ‘younger girls may also
marry with special paternal and judicial consent’. A woman requires her father’s permission to
marry, however, a court may disregard his refusal.993
Islamic Jurisprudence in Iran allows fathers and paternal grandfathers to determine adaughter’s marriage.994 On 9 April 2023, the Iranian Parliament approved the general outlines
of a draft bill on ‘Preventing harm to women and improving their safety against maltreatment’,of which Article 34 indicates that ‘if the guardian of a girl forces her to marry he would faceprison and payment of a fine’.995
As noted by an expert interviewed by EUAA, forced marriage was more present in rural areasand its occurrence depended on a family social and economic background.996 Forced marriages
in Iran reportedly impacted various social classes, and victims had ‘no legal or social
protection’.997 On 24 September 2023, a 17-year-old girl reportedly committed suicide after
being forced by her grandfather to marry her cousin in Harsin, Kermanshah province, Iran.998

Alikarami L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
SCI, Iran Statistical Yearbook 1397, 6 January 2021, url, p. 173
987
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “protect” women with new bill, 14 April 2023, url
988
France, OFPRA, DIDR, Iran: Women adopt behaviour perceived as transgressive of the social norms assigned tothem, 24 July 2023, url, p. 10
989
KAYHANLIFE, Thousands of child marriages are celebrated in Iran each year, 25 May 2023, url
990
Iran International, Hardliners in Iran promote polygamy, obedience of wives, 2 November 2023, url
991
Boniadi, N., Iran women are still fighting, Time, 14 September 2023, url
992
HRW, Iran: events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
993
Reuters, How Iran treats women, 6 October 2023, url
994
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Suicide of a 17-year-old girl in Harsin following forced marriagepressure, 27 September 2023, url
995
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “protect” women with new bill, 14 April 2023, url
996
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
997
France, OFPRA, DIDR, Iran: Women adopt behaviour perceived as transgressive of the social norms assigned tothem, 24 July 2023, url, p. 10
998
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Suicide of a 17-year-old girl in Harsin following forced marriagepressure, 27 September 2023, url
985

986

93

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.11.5.

Widows

A widowed woman in Iran ‘only inherits one-eighth’ from her husband’s property999 under the
Iranian Civil Code.1000 However, the husband inherits the entire property of his spouse in caseof her death.1001 In Kurdish regions, some of the widows have been working as kolbars.1002 For
more information on kolbars, please refer to chapter 4.7.2 Kurds.
According to the latest data recorded by the SCI between 2018 and 2019, there were
175 0624 widows in urban areas (including 142 between 10 and 14 years old and 652 between
15 and 19 years old), and 647 411 in rural areas (including 84 between 10 and 14 years old and541 between 15 and 19 years old).1003

4.11.6.

Violence against women and girls

In Iran, violence against women continues to be perpetrated including physical, legal, andsocial violence.1004 In February 2023, the UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of humanrights in Iran stated that he was ‘alarmed at the continuing violence against women and girls,
including cases of killings, physical and sexual abuse.1005
On 9 April 2023, the Iranian parliament approved the general outlines of a draft bill on‘Preventing harm to women and improving their safety against maltreatment’,1006 which is also
known as the bill on ‘Protection, Dignity and Safety of Women against Violence’.1007 However,
IranWire cited Pegah Banihashemi, a legal expert, stating that ‘the bill does not address someof the important issues affecting Iranian women, including domestic violence and “honor”
killings’.1008 For information on domestic violence and honour killing, please refer to chapter
4.11.8. Domestic and honour-related violence.
In 2023, HRA recorded 363 cases of violence against women in Iran including 26 cases ofrape and sexual assault, 82 cases of murder, 28 cases of honour killings (including 4 menbeing killed in a result of honour killings), and 7 cases of acid attacks.1009 For more information
on punishments related to violence against women, please refer to chapter 3.3. Punishments
related to violence against women.

USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, urlIran, Civil Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran, url, p. 86
1001
USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, url
1002
BMC women’s health, Identification of causes and consequences of Kolberi among Iranian Kurdish women: agrounded theory study, 5 December 2023, url
1003
SCI, Iran Statistical Yearbook 1397, 6 January 2021, url, p. 173
1004
Wilson Center, Iran: violence against women, 4 December 2023, url
1005
UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republicof Iran, (27 February to 31 March 2023), A/HRC/52/67, 7 February 2023, url, para. 8
1006
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “protect” women with new bill, 14 April 2023, url
1007
IP, New bill protects women against violence, 9 April 2023, url
1008
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “protect” women with new bill, 14 April 2023, url
1009
HRA, Annual report, 2023, annual statistical report of human rights conditions in Iran, 20 December 2023, url, p.
48
999

1000

94

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

As reported by Human Rights Watch, between January and March 2023, schoolgirls in 58
schools were allegedly poisoned in 10 provinces across Iran.1010 According to AI, girls’ schools
were deliberately attacked with chemical gas in Iran.1011 Schools in several cities were targetedwith ‘suspected poisoning attacks on the students’ impacting 13 000 schoolgirls.1012
In August 2023, the UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Iran reported
on continued violence against women and girls in Iran including ‘cases of deliberate killings,
as well as sexual and physical violence.1013
According to an AI report of December 2023, following the arrests during the 2022 protests,
women and girls were ‘raped and sexually abused’ by different Iranian security forces
including the IRGC, the Basij, the Ministry of Intelligence, the Public Security Police, theInvestigation Unit of Iran’s police, and the Special Forces of the police.1014 As noted by the UN
FFM on Iran, State authorities perpetrated sexual and gender-based violence against women(as well as men and children) in places of detention such as ‘rape, including with an object,threats of rape, electrocution to the genitalia, forced nudity, groping, touching and other forms
of sexual violence’.1015 In February 2023, it was reported that a court had imprisoned a police
commander accused of raping a teenage girl in Zahedan, the capital of Sistan and Baluchistan
province.1016 For more information, please refer to chapter 3.8. Treatment in detention andprison conditions.
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C)
In Iran, FGM/C, which is known as khatna or sonat (circumcision),1017 is another form of
violence against women’s sexual rights,1018 which has been practised during the reporting
period in the country1019 on girls as young as six-week1020 to ten years old.1021 FGM/C is mainly
carried out by traditional locale female circumcisers, who are known as dayeh or bibis(midwives), or at times by elderly female family members, based on the region.1022 FGM/C has
been practised mainly in four provinces of Iran including in Hormozgan, West Azerbaijan,
Kermanshah and Kurdistan, with the highest number in Hormozgan province.1023 According to

HRW, Iran: events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
AI, Iran: millions of schoolgirls at risk of poisoning, 19 April 2023, url
1012
Iran International, Poisoning at Iran schools unabated; Regime urges media not to cover news, 11 April 2023, url
1013
UN General Assembly, Seventy-eight session, situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, A/78/326,
24 August 2023, url, para. 12
1014
AI, Iran: Security forces used rape and other sexual violence to crush “Woman Life Freedom” uprising with
impunity, 6 December 2023, url
1015
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, para. 46
1016
Reuters, Overnight protests rock Tehran, other Iranian cities, videos show, 17 February 2023, url
1017
Stop FGM Middle East, Iran, n.d., url
1018
Kameel Ahmady, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Iran, 5 November 2023, url
1019
UNFPA, Female genital mutilation (FGM) frequently asked questions, 10 February 2024, url
1020
Stop FGM Middle East, Iran, n.d., url
1021
Equality Now, On the 1st anniversary of Mahsa Amini’s death, a UN submission sheds light on dire human rights
for women and girls in Iran, 16 September 2023, url
1022
Stop FGM Middle East, Iran, n.d., url
1023
Kameel Ahmady, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Iran, 5 November 2023, url; for more information, see the
Persian version: Kameel Ahmady, )‫[ ختنه زنانه (ختنه دختران‬Female FGM], 5 November 2023, url
1010
1011

95

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUSDOS, there were no recent reports on instances of FGM/C in Iran.1024 According to FGM/C
Research Initiative, the FGM/C practice exists in the country but there is lack of reliable
data.1025
As noted by Leila Alikarami, while there is no specific law for punishing female genital
mutilation/cutting, FGM/C, ‘can be considered as bodily harm, which leads to legal prosecution
and punishment under the Penal Code.’ Additionally, FGM/C can be punished under Article
663 of the Penal Code addressing diyeh punishments, which states that:‘Cutting or removal of either of the two parts of genital organs of a woman results inhalf of her full blood money (diyeh). Cutting or removing a part of it bears proportionate
diyeh. In this ruling, there is no distinction between virgin and non-virgin, minor andadult, healthy and disabled individual.’1026
While authorities have not made any noticeable efforts to abolish the FGM/C practice in the
country,1027 the Supreme Leader reportedly expressed his opinion on the matter in 2014
stating that ‘female circumcision is not obligatory’.1028

4.11.7.

Trafficking in women and girls

According to IranWire, in Iran, there is a lack of legal framework to protect women from being
trafficked, and thus due to socio-economic factors, they are often sexually exploited.1029
Numerous Iranian women and girls have been ‘victims of sex trafficking in cafes, hotels, andmassage centres’ in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region.1030 Iranian women have also been trafficked to Gulf
countries.1031
On 20 May 2023, Iranian authorities reportedly executed the leader of a network that ‘trafficked
Iranian women to neighbouring countries for prostitution.’1032 The convicted individual was
charged with ‘corruption on earth for establishing and managing a wide network of prostitution at
the international level, which has been attracting Iranian and foreign girls’.1033 The convictedindividual lured some of the girls via social media.1034 According to Global Organised Crime Index,
as a result of the absence of transparency in Iran, accurate statistics cannot be found on womenand girls being trafficked.1035

USDOS, Iran 2022 Human Rights Report, 20 March 2023, url, p. 54
FGMCRI, Middle East, Regional prevalence, FGM is reported in at least five Middle Eastern countries: Iraq, Iran,Oman, the UAE, and Yemen, 2 July 2023, url1026
Alikarami, L., email correspondence with EUAA, 3 April 2024
1027
Stop FGM Middle East, Iran, n.d., url
1028
Rayehe Mozafarian, The point of view of the Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran on Female Genital
Mutilation, Stop FGM Middle East, 7 June 2014, url
1029
IranWire, Human trafficking in Iran: dearth of transparent data, compensation, 15 March 2024, url
1030
USDOS, 2023 Trafficking in persons report: Iraq, 11 July 2023, url
1031
GOCI, Iran, 27 September 2023, url, p. 3
1032
VoA, Iran, leader of women trafficking network executed, 20 May 2023, url
1033
The New Arab, Iran executes convicted ringleader of women trafficking network, 20 May 2023, url
1034
Jerusalem Post (The), Iranian leader of women trafficking network executed by Islamic Republic, 20 May 2023,
url
1035
GOCI, Iran, 27 September 2023, url, p. 3
1024

1025

96

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

As noted by USDOS, victims of sex trafficking in Iran were charged for adultery, being treated as
persons having ‘sexual relations outside of marriage and can be punished by death’. Iranianauthorities ‘continued punishing potential adult and child sex trafficking victims through lashings,
public shaming, forced confessions, imprisonment, and death penalty.’ For more information on
punishment related to adultery, please refer to chapter 3.2.1. Hadd punishments and chapter 3.9.1.
Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal Code.

4.11.8.

Domestic and honour-related violence

According to HRW, there is no law in the country on domestic violence to ‘prevent abuse andprotect survivors’.1036 Domestic violence can be criminalised as a physical assault; however,two male witnesses are required to the violence. Additionally, marital rape is not considered acrime in Iran.1037
Honour-related killings include women and girls who often refused forced marriages, whowere victim of rape, who got divorced, who had sexual relationships, or were engaged in
adultery.1038 As noted by Leila Alikarami, honour killings ‘are implicitly sanctioned by the law’.
At times ‘honour crimes take the form of forced self-immolation, allowing the woman’s death
to be reported as suicide or an accident’.1039 Honour-related violence is widespread in Iran,however, there ‘are no reliable and comprehensive figures about the scale on which thisoccurs’.1040
In 2023, at least 122 cases of femicide were reported in several cities in Iran, including 24
cases in Tehran province (comprising 7 related to honour killings) and 15 cases in Urmia
province (including 9 honour killings).1041 According to HRW, in 2023, there was a surge incases of ‘femicide’ in the country.1042 Human Rights Watch reported that 27 women and girls
were killed in honour killings by their family members between mid-March 2023 and mid-May
2023.1043
During the past two years, 165 women were killed by their family members in Iran including
65.5 % by their husbands (108 cases), 10.3 % by their brothers (17 cases), 7.9 % by their fathers(18 cases), 5.5 % by their sons (9 cases) and 10.9 % by others (18 cases).1044 Additionally,
perpetrators included fathers-in-law, sons-in-law, suitors, fiancées and uncles.1045 Perpetrators
reportedly used different weapons and methods to kill their victims including by bullet, knife,
HRW, Iran: Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1038
MEI, Iranian women campaign to stop the rise in “honor killings”, 26 August 2021, url1039
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1040
Netherlands (The), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, general Country of Origin Information on Iran, available at EUAA,
19 January 2023, url
1041
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, International women's day: statistical report on widespread violationsof women's rights in Iran during 2023, 7 March 2024, url
1042
HRW, Iran: Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
1043
HRW, Iran: Events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url
1044
Shargh daily, ‫‘[ هر چهار روز یک زن کشی‬every four-day a woman is being killed’], ۱۴۰۲ ‫ تیر‬۱۴ [‘5 July 2023’], 5 July
2023, url; Shargh daily is a Tehran based newspaper covering political, economic, cultural and sport related topics,
about us, n.d., url
1045
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, International women's day: statistical report on widespread violationsof women's rights in Iran during 2023, 7 March 2024, url
1036
1037

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by strangulation, immolation, pushing, and beating with hammer. The main reasons forfemicides were family disputes, in addition to honour-related violence and money-related
issues.1046 In cases of honour killings, if the perpetrator is the father, he does not face qesas
punishment.1047 For more information on qesas punishments, please refer to chapter 3.2.2.
Qesas punishments.

4.11.9.

Access to justice

Article 20 of the Iranian Constitution stipulates that ‘All citizens of the country, both men andwomen, equally enjoy the protection of the law and enjoy all human, political, economic,
social, and cultural rights, in conformity with Islamic criteria.’1048 However, in practice, theConstitution ‘gave the women fewer social rights and personal liberties’.1049 As noted by Leila
Alikarami, ‘women are treated differently in many aspects of Iranian law and the judicial
system, solely on account of their gender’.1050 Iran’s former Supreme Leader Khomeini
reportedly abolished the family protection law1051 and replaced the family protection courts
with the civil courts,1052 following his arrival to power in 1979. The family protection law, which
was enacted in 1967, had given ‘women the right to seek a divorce, raised the age of marriage
to eighteen for girls, and allowed a man to take a second wife only with the consent of his firstwife and the permission of a family court.’1053
As noted by Alikarami, family-related rights were absorbed by a Civil Code which preserved
male authority in the household. Additionally, there is a ‘lack of legal instruments protecting
women’ in Iran, which ‘has created a climate of impunity for acts of violence against women
perpetrated by the state and non-state actors’.1054
Courts in Iran are generally presided by clerics, and in matters of family disputes, the judges
often decided in favour of the husband.1055As of June 2023, there were 121 female judges in
Iran serving in family courts and drafting verdicts, however, only male judges were allowed tosign the verdicts, not female judges.1056
According to AI, the majority of Iranian women who were arrested during the protests andsuffered torture and rape by the Iranian security forces, including by the IRGC, feared tocomplain to the judiciary. As noted further by AI, prosecutors and judges had ignored andShargh daily, ‫‘[ هر چهار روز یک زن کشی‬every four-day a woman is being killed’], ۱۴۰۲ ‫ تیر‬۱۴ [‘5 July 2023’], 5 July
2023, url
1047
IranWire, Iran’s Islamic Republic Claims to “protect” women with new bill, 14 April 2023, url
1048
Iran, The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, n.d., url
1049
USIP, Part 3: Iran Laws on women, 13 August 2023, url1050
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1051
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Statistics report on wide-spread violations of women’s rights in Iranduring 2023, 7 March 2024, url
1052
Atlantic Council, Iran and the women’s question, 4 February 2019, url
1053
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, Statistics report on wide-spread violations of women’s rights in Iranduring 2023, 7 March 2024, url1054
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1055
Wilson Center, Iran: violence against women, 4 December 2023, url
1056
Iran International, Female judges in Iran not authorised to sign rulings: MP, 10 June 2023, url
1046

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

covered up complains of rape and used ‘torture-tainted “confessions” to bring spurious
charges against survivors and sentence them to imprisonment or death’.1057

4.12.

LGBTIQ persons and activists for LBGTIQ rights

In Iran, same-sex relationships continues to remain a taboo under social, religious and legal
constraints.1058 Homosexuality is depreciatively referred to as ‘hamjensbazi (faggotry)’ by theIslamic Republic in Iran and authorities have increasingly used hate speech against LGBTIQ
individuals.1059 Iranian authorities also refer to LGBTIQ persons as ‘”deviant” and “sick”’.1060 On
21 March 2023, Iranian and International organisations addressed a joint statement to the UN
Human Rights Council on Iran indicating that ‘Lesbian, Gay, Bi, Trans and Intersex people […]are subject to systematic discrimination’ in Iran.1061 As noted by Leila Alikarami, LGBTIQ
persons in Iran ‘often face social stigma, discrimination, and violence from their families,
communities, and even healthcare providers’.1062
Iran's legal system ‘discriminates’ against LGBTIQ individuals and criminalises same-sex acts
under the Islamic hadd crimes.1063 Based on the Iranian Penal Code, sex between men isdefined as livat and between women as mosahaqa.1064 Same-sex relations in Iran arepunished by death1065 under the Iranian penal code, which enforces harsh punishments
against consensual same-sex acts.1066 Article 234 of the Islamic Penal Code stipulates that:‘The hadd punishment for livat shall be the death penalty for the insertive/active party if
he has committed livat by using force, coercion, […] otherwise, he shall be sentenced to
one hundred lashes. The hadd punishment for the receptive/passive party, in any case[…] shall be the death penalty.’1067
For more information on punishment related to livat, please refer to chapter 3.2.1. Hadd
punishments and chapter 3.9.1. Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal
Code.
Men who are considered homosexual could face mistreatment in detention.1068 In February
2024, the UN Fact-Finding Mission reported on sexual violence in places of detention, such as
AI, Iran: Security forces used rape and other sexual violence to crush “Woman Life Freedom” uprising with
impunity, 6 December 2023, url
1058
Sayed Mohsen Pourmohseni Shakib, Sajjad Razaei, Ashkan Naseh, Personality traits in homosexual men withdifferent sex roles in Iran, available at ACCSCIENCE Publishing, 31 July 2023, url, p. 1
1059
6Rang, Silencing protests: officials hate speech against LGBT people as a tool of suppression, 30 March 2023,
url, pp. 6 and 9
1060
Iran International, Iranian LGBTQ activists call for protests on Amini anniversary, 11 September 2023, url
1061
HRW, Joint NGO Statement on Iran to Member States of the United Nations Human Rights Council, 21 March
2024, url
1062
Alikarami, L., email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1063
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book one and two, 4 April 2014,
url; Alikarami, L, email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1064
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book one and two, url,
1065
HRW, Iran: events of 2023, 11 January 2024, url1066
Alikarami, L, email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1067
IHRDC, Translation of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book one and two, 4 April 2014,
url, p. 46
1068
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
1057

99

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM‘rape, including with an object, threats of rape, electrocution to the genitalia, forced nudity,
groping, touching and other forms of sexual violence’ against LGBTIQ individuals (and others)
in Iran.1069
Homosexual women are ‘badly’ perceived by the society and are targeted.1070 For more
information on punishment related to lesbian relationship, please refer to chapter 3.2.1. Hadd
punishments and chapter 3.9.1. Crimes punishable with the death penalty under the Penal
Code.
As noted by Leila Alikarami, activists and lawyers advocating for LGBTIQ rights face censorship,
harassment, and arbitrary arrest by the Islamic Republic. Iranian authorities often refer to vague
laws such as ‘morality’ or ‘national security’ to silence dissent and target individuals who
promote LGBTIQ rights.1071 In February 2024, Iranian authorities arrested Elham Choubdar, a 26year-old LGBTIQ activist in Urmia (West Azerbaijan province) and sent her to the women sectionof Urmia central prison to serve three-year imprisonment. Choubdar was initially sentenced todeath on charges of ‘corruption on earth by propagation of homosexuality’, ‘promotion of
Christianity’, and ‘collaboration with opposition parties’ in September 2023; however, the death
sentence was overturned by the Supreme Court, and she was temporarily released on bail,before receiving a new sentence.1072
The transgender community in Iran continues facing ‘discrimination and threats of physicaland psychological abuse’.1073 Despite Iranian authorities’ and clerics’ acceptance that Iranians
conduct surgery to change their sex,1074 and gender-affirming surgeries are officiallyrecognised in the country1075, transgender people do not have equal access to mental health.
They also encounter ‘disrepute, infamy, stigma, and as well as sexual abuse, social
discrimination, and a lack of family social support’.1076 In 2023, an estimated number of 4 000transgender people were residing in Iran.1077 On 26 June 2023, five transgender Iranians werearrested in Afsariyeh district of Tehran following their dispute with a religious vigilante whotargeted them for their physical appearance. Legal action has been taken against them after
they have undergone forced confession.1078

UN Human Rights Council, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission on the Islamic Republicof Iran, A/HRC/55/67, 2 February 2024, url, p. 8
1070
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
1071
Alikarami, L, email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024
1072
Hengaw Organization for Human Rights, LGBTQ+ community activists apprehended in Urmia, 28 February
2024, url
1073
Rudaw, ‘’At war with my own body:’’ Iran’s transgender community still at risk, 26 June 2023, url
1074
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications, interview 14 March
2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024
1075
Rudaw, ‘’At war with my own body:’’ Iran’s transgender community still at risk, 26 June 2023, url
1076
Frontiers, Young transgender individuals' lived experiences of facing life's challenges: a qualitative study in Iran,
15 June 2023, url
1077
Frontiers, Young transgender individuals' lived experiences of facing life's challenges: a qualitative study in Iran,
15 June 2023, url
1078
HRANA, Five transgender individuals arrested and coerced into confession, 26 June 2026, url
1069

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5.

Socio-economic situation in Tehran

5.1.

Mobility and admittanceDuring the reporting period, little information could be found regarding residency registration
requirements in Tehran city specifically. This section, therefore, mainly focuses on the broader
aspects of mobility and admittance in Iran.
Iran is a country with a rapid expansion of urban areas and a rise in the urban population.1079
The urbanisation rate has increased from 71 % in 2011 to 75.5 % in 2020. Annually, around 1 %of working-age adults reportedly move to a new city, suggesting a notable degree of
economic mobility.1080 The provinces of Tehran and Alborz have experienced a higher level ofurbanisation, compared to other provinces in Iran.1081
According to the law, Iranian nationals are required to register their address within 20 days ofchanging the place of residence to access administrative and government services.1082 It is
possible to register one’s place of residence online, via the website of the Civil Registry
Organisation.1083
As noted by USDOS, the law guarantees ‘freedom on internal movement, foreign travel,emigration, and repatriation’ and these rights are generally respected by the authorities, albeit
with certain exceptions concerning ‘released prisoners, women, and migrants.’ After releasefrom prison, some persons were subjected to internal exile, effectively prohibiting them fromresiding in or travelling to certain provinces. Similarly, refugees reportedly encounteredrestrictions limiting their residence or travel to specific provinces.1084
As of 2023, Iran is the largest refugee-hosting country in the world,1085 hosting 3.4
million Afghan refugees and persons ‘in refugee-like situations’, who were issued
documentation by the Iranian government. The total estimated number of Afghan populationin the country is 4.5 million. Furthermore, Iran is hosting around 12 000 refugees from Iraq.1086
For the information on the situation of Afghan refugees in Iran, please refer to EUAA COI
report Iran – Situation of Afghan refugees published in December 2022.

Enayatrad, M., et al, Determing the Levels of Urbanisation in Iran Using Hierarchical Clustering, Iranian Journalof Public Health, 48 (6), 2019, url
1080
World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, p. 10
1081
Enayatrad, M., et al, Determing the Levels of Urbanisation in Iran Using Hierarchical Clustering, Iranian Journal of
Public Health, 48 (6), 2019, url
1082
IRNA, ‫[ آخرین نشانی خود را در سامانه ثبت احوال ثبت کنید‬Register your last address in the civil registration system], 22
December 2023, url
1083
Heyvalaw, ‫[ اعالم اینترنتی تغییر نشانی در سازمان ثبت احوال‬Online declaration of the change of address in the Civil Registry
Organisation], n.d., url
1084
USDOS, Iran 2023 Human Rights Report, 22 April 2024, url, p. 47
1085
Statista, Ranking of the largest refugee-hosting countries as of 2023, 11 December 2023, url
1086
WFP, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Annual Country Report 2023, n.d., url, p. 8
1079

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Between 2021 and 2022, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) recorded
84 000 internal displacements in Iran due to earthquakes, floods, and storms.1087
As reported by the European Network on Statelessness (ENS) and the Institute on
Statelessness and Inclusion (ISI) in November 2019, Faili Kurds, Khavari Afghans, and Baluch
population in Sistan and Baluchistan province were either affected by or at risk ofstatelessness.1088 For more information, please refer to chapter 4.7. Ethnic minorities.

5.2.

Socio-economic overview

5.2.1.

EconomyIran is classified as a lower middle-income country. The country faces longstanding economic
challenges due to sanctions, limited trade and foreign relations, fluctuating oil prices,
depreciation of its currency, and impact of COVID-19 pandemic. Iran also grapples with thechallenge of hosting a growing number of refugees and risks posed by natural disasters, suchas earthquakes, droughts and floods, which exacerbate the strain on livelihoods andinfrastructure.1089
The World Bank noted that in 2022/2023 (from March to March as per the Iranian calendar
year) Iran’s economy experienced moderate growth for the third consecutive year. Real grossdomestic product (GDP) reportedly grew by 3.8 %,1090 with private consumption, which grew by
8.7 %, being the main driver of this growth. Despite sanctions, the country’s oil sector hasreportedly expanded, while the agriculture sector managed to overcome contractions
experienced in previous years, thanks to an increased amount of rainfall.1091 The service sector
grew in 2022/2023 by 2.7 %, compared to 6.5 % growth in 2021/2022. The sector’s expansion
was driven largely by growth in transport and storage, wholesale and retail, and informationand telecommunication services.1092
Iran’s currency, the rial, has seen a constant depreciation in its value, reaching 600 000 rials
to the dollar in February 20231093 and record low at 613 500 in March 2024.1094 In January2023, according to the official statistics, inflation in the country surged to over 53 %.1095
Reporting on 2022/2023, World Bank noted that for the fourth consecutive year, consumer
prices in Iran grew by over 40 %, with food prices accounting for around 40 % of the total
inflation, followed by housing prices.1096 Rising inflation hits harder lower-income households,

ICMC, Country Profile – Iran, Islamic Republic Of, Displacement Data, url
ENS and ISI, Stateless in Iran, Country Position Paper, November 2019, url, pp. 12-14
1089
WFP, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Annual Country Report 2023, n.d., url, p. 8
1090
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, pp. ix, 11
1091
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 4
1092
World Bank (The),, Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, pp. ix, 11
1093
AP, Iran’s currency hits new low amid anti-government protests, 2 February 2023, url1094
AP, Iran’s currency hits a record low, 24 March 2024, url1095
AP, Iran’s currency hits new low amid anti-government protests, 2 February 2023, url
1096
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 8
1087

1088

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

as 80 % of their budget is allocated to food and housing expenses, while their real wages
fall.1097
With a population of 9.5 million people, Tehran is the second largest city in the Middle East1098
and the economic centre of the country.1099 Tehran hosts over half of Iran’s main industries,
including manufacturing of electrical equipment, textiles, automobiles, cement, chemical
products,1100 and offers higher level of welfare compared to many the country’s poorer
provinces.1101 In the Global Liveability Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) for 2022,
Iran was ranked 163rd out of 172 countries.1102

5.2.2.

Employment

As of 2021, the population of Iran was estimated at 85 million people, almost a quarter ofwhom were below 14 years old.1103 The International Labour Organisation (ILO) reported that
23.5 million of Iranians over 15 years old were employed in 2022.1104 The World Bank reported
that employment in Iran saw a moderate growth of 1.1 % in 2022/2023; however, the labour
market could not reach its pre-pandemic level and still lacked 700,000 jobs compared to
2019/2020. Jobs were lost particularly in the agriculture sector, which suffered severely fromdrought and water shortages.1105
As noted by the World Bank, labour participation in the country in 2022/2023 stood at 40.9 %,a decrease from 44.1 % in 2019/2020, and revealed a significant gender gap (68.2 % for men
and 16.6 % for women).1106 According to ILO data, in 2019, 51.2 % of employed Iranians were
engaged in services, 31.4 % in industry, and 17.4 % in the agriculture sector.1107
Based on the Iranian Statistical Centre’s data of July 2023, the labour participation rate in
Tehran province was 40 % and the employment rate 36.9 %.1108 Many rural residents
reportedly migrated to urban areas, and particularly to Tehran, in search of employment,
driven by prolonged drought, lack of jobs in the agriculture sector, and hard economic
situation.1109 Across the country, many who were ‘listed as employed’ did not have formal
employment contracts.1110

World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 8
Ziabari, K., The Tragedy of Tehran, Gulf International Forum, 1 July 2023, url
1099
Britannica, Tehran, n.d., url
1100
Qatar, Qatar Embassy in Tehran – Islamic Republic of Iran, General Information about Tehran, n.d., url
1101
Ziabari, K., The Tragedy of Tehran, Gulf International Forum, 1 July 2023, url
1102
EIU, The Global Liveability Index 2022, url, p. 3
1103
ILO, Islamic Republic of Iran, The Employment – Environment – Climate Nexus, Employment and environmental
sustainability factsheet, November 2022, url, pp. 1-2
1104
ILOSTAT explorer, [Filter: Employment by sex and age (thousands) – Annual, Iran, Islamic Republic Of, latest
period], accessed on 4 April 2023, url
1105
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, pp. ix, 4
1106
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 4
1107
ILO, Islamic Republic of Iran, The Employment – Environment – Climate Nexus, Employment and environmental
sustainability factsheet, November 2022, url, p. 2
1108
Financial Tribune, Seven Provinces Register Double-Digit Unemployment, 10 July 2023, url
1109
IranWire, Unemployment Pushes Educated Iranians to Big Cities, 7 July 2023, url
1110
RFE/RL, Majority of Iranians Shunning Workforce Amid Rise In Discontent, 13 February 2024, url
1097

1098

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EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

5.2.3.

Unemployment

According to the World Bank, in 2022/2023, the unemployment rate in Iran reached a record
low of 9 %.1111 In July 2023, the Statistical Centre of Iran reported that the unemployment rate in
Tehran province was 7.6 %, while the provinces of Kermanshah, Kurdistan, Khuzestan,
Chaharmahal-Bakhtiari, Hormozgan, Lorestan, and Sistan and Baluchistan had the highest
unemployment rate ranging from 10 to 12.5 %.1112
While the Iranian government claimed to have further reduced the unemployment rate to 7.6%, Iran’s Parliamentary Research Centre suggested that the real figure was 2.5 times higher.
Furthermore, RFR/RL noted that the official data on unemployment also included
underemployed persons, including those who worked ‘only one hour a week.’1113 Sources
noted that the decline in unemployment in Iran was related to a rise in the economicallyinactive population,1114 as long-term unemployed people stopped seeking work.1115 In midFebruary 2024, an official from the Labour Ministry noted that 58.5 % of Iran’s population wasconsidered inactive, as people in this category were neither having a job, nor looking forone.1116
According to the World Bank, in 2022/2023, unemployment in Iran varied among subgroups,
being the lowest among men (7.7 %) and much higher among university graduates (12.9 %),women (15.8 %) and the youth (22.6 %).1117 Based on the data of the Iranian Statistical Centre,
persons with higher education degrees comprised nearly 41 % of the total unemployed in thesecond quarter of 2023, while persons in the age group between 18 and 35 accounted forover 70 % of the country’s unemployed.1118

5.2.4.

Poverty

According to official figures the poverty rate in Iran has increased from 19 % to 30 % in a
decade.1119 As noted by the World Bank Group, the number of Iranians living below theinternational poverty line (6.85 dollars [EUR 6.30] a day in 2017 purchasing power parity terms)
increased from 20 % to 28.1 % between 2011 and 2020, which corresponded to 9.5 million
people countrywide living in poverty.1120 Moreover, the level of deprivation of impoverishedIranians and the severity of poverty have reportedly increased.1121 In May 2023, IranWorld Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 4
Financial Tribune, Seven Provinces Register Double-Digit Unemployment, 10 July 2023, url
1113
RFE/RL, Majority of Iranians Shunning Workforce Amid Rise In Discontent, 13 February 2024, url
1114
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 4; Iran International, Iran Claims Lower
Unemployment but Numbers Say Otherwise, 5 January 2024, url; RFE/RL, Majority of Iranians Shunning Workforce
Amid Rise In Discontent, 13 February 2024, url
1115
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 4
1116
RFE/RL, Majority of Iranians Shunning Workforce Amid Rise In Discontent, 13 February 2024, url
1117
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, pp. 4-5
1118
Iran Focus, Youth Account for 70% Of Unemployed Population In Iran, 20 October 2023, url
1119
Economist (The), Iran rethinks its role as a regional troublemaker, 14 December 2023, url; Iran International, IranPoverty Rate Reached Over 30 % Since 2018, 31 May 2023, url
1120
World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, p. 14
1121
World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, p. 15
1111

1112

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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

International reported that, based on the data by the Ministry of Interior, around 60 % of
Iranians live under the relative poverty line.1122
Poverty in Iran is more evident in rural areas, with half of rural population being poor. In 2020,
over 50 % of agricultural labourers and 36 % of people self-employed in agriculture and nonagricultural jobs were poor. Geographically, poverty has affected the Southeast andNorthwest regions more,1123 while in the Tehran metropolitan area and the Central region,
which were home to 40 % of Iran’s population, 24 % of the country’s poor resided.1124
Furthermore, while overall poverty in the country has increased between 2011 and 2020, Iran’surban centres, including the capital Tehran, have seen almost no rise in poverty rates.1125 As
further noted by the World Bank Group, ‘the poor have larger households, lower educationlevels, and are more likely to be headed by a woman, especially if she is divorced’. 1126 Childlabour was reported in Tehran’s informal settlements and impoverished areas.1127

5.2.5.

Food security

Iran is confronted with increased climate change challenges, including severe droughts, more
frequent floods and dust storms.1128 Drought and desertification force many Iranians to migrate
to urban areas for livelihoods. 1129 The country’s food security, as well as its agricultural
production is threatened by water shortages,1130 while economic downturn, depreciation of the
Iranian rial and trade restrictions have negatively impacted ‘the import of raw materials andthus the availability of food and non-food items.’1131

5.2.6.

Housing

In Iran, housing is largely a privatised sector. Housing construction and development is carriedout by individual landowners, realtors, small-scale developers and corporate developers,
primarily focused on condominium construction. In Iranian cities, including the capital,
individual ownership predominates, with market dynamics regulating purchase and rental
prices.1132 Official data for 2023 on income and expenditures of households in Tehran
indicated that housing accounted for 50 % of the total expenses, compared to the average inthe country of 38 %.1133 The absence of public housing reportedly contributed to thepersistently high cost of housing.1134

Iran International, Iran Poverty Rate Reached Over 30 % Since 2018, 31 May 2023, urlWorld Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, p. 4
1124
World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, p. 30
1125
World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, p. 31
1126
World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity, Iran Poverty Diagnostic, November 2023, url, pp. 6
1127
Ziabari, K., The Tragedy of Tehran, Gulf International Forum, 1 July 2023, url
1128
World Bank (The), Islamic Republic of Iran, 20 October 2022, url
1129
Economist (The), Iran rethinks its role as a regional troublemaker, 14 December 2023, url
1130
World Bank (The), Iran Economic Monitor, Spring/Summer 2023, url, p. 3
1131
WFP, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Annual Country Report 2023, n.d., url, p. 9
1132
Yousefi, S. and Farahani, I., Spacial inequality in Tehran, a structural explanation, Urban Research & Practice,
Volume 15 (1), 2019, url
1133
Iran Focus, Housing Accounts for Half of Spending by Tehran Households, 15 March 2024, url
1134
Yousefi, S. and Farahani, I., Spacial inequality in Tehran, a structural explanation, Urban Research & Practice,
Volume 15 (1), 2019, url
1122
1123

105

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In January 2023, the Central Bank of Iran reported that an average price for one square meterin Tehran was 480.7 million rials (1 265 dollars).1135 In mid-March 2024, the Statistical Centre of
Iran revealed that housing prices in Tehran had surged to over 830 million rials (1 353 dollars)
per square meter, a figure confirmed by the Central Bank of Iran. A pro-government media
outlet, 90 Egtesadi, as reported by Iran Focus, noted on a 60 % decline in housingtransactions in 2023.1136 The decline in people’s purchasing power was reportedly the main
factor contributing to their inability to obtain housing.1137 To avoid high rental costs, someresidents of Tehran reportedly relocated to smaller towns surrounding the capital. 1138
In 2020, the existence of shanty settlements was reported in all 22 districts of Tehran.1139
These settlements were constructed illegally1140 and remained poorly developed. Official data
indicated that nearly four million people lived in ‘informal settlements and impoverished areas’in Tehran province, with the majority concentrated in the city of Tehran. These settlements
suffered from poor sanitary conditions and irregular access to water and heating.1141 The
situation with water supply and sanitation in Iran has reportedly improved, particularly inregard to accessibility to water supply in urban areas.1142

5.2.7.

Healthcare

Primary healthcare is free of charge in Iran.1143 Healthcare is provided under the nationwide
Iranian Primary Health Care (PHC) network, established in 1985. Sources report good results
achieved by PHC, such as vaccination coverage and reduction of child mortality,1144 ‘despite
the negative impact of sanctions – i.e., high inflation, increasing out-of-pocket expenses,
reduced income and access to medicine and health equipment.’ 1145As noted by World HealthOrganization (WHO), the main basic health insurance providers in Iran were the Social Security
Organisation, the Iranian Health Insurance Organisation, and the military insurance scheme. In
2018, 7 % of Iranians had private insurance, and around 8.5 % were uninsured.1146
PHC was the main provider of healthcare in Tehran. In mid-2022, Iran had 18 242 healthhouses, 5 489 health posts and over 5 489 healthcare centres; in addition, each province had

Tehran Times, Housing price increases 2.9 % in Tehran city, 2 January 2023, url
Iran Focus, Average Housing Price in Tehran at 830 million Rials, 1 April 2024, url
1137
Iran Focus, Housing Accounts for Half of Spending by Tehran Households, 15 March 2024, url; Iran Focus,
Average Housing Price in Tehran at 830 million Rials, 1 April 2024, url
1138
Iran International, Iranians Voice Deep Concern Over Exorbitant Rents, 10 March 2024, url
1139
Ziabari, K., The Tragedy of Tehran, Gulf International Forum, 1 July 2023, url
1140
Wynn, M., et al, Housing development and the smart city: a case study of Tehran, Iran, Journal of Infrastructure
Policy and Development, 7 (2), 2022, url, p. 13
1141
Ziabari, K., The Tragedy of Tehran, Gulf International Forum, 1 July 2023, url
1142
WHO, Situation, Strategies, Programs, Challenges, and Joint Priorities of The Ministry of Health and Medical
Education (MOHME), and the World Health Organization (WHO), in Islamic Republic of Iran, November 2022, url
1143
UNHCR, Iran, Health, n.d., url1144
WHO, The Islamic Republic of Iran: a primary health care case study in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic,
url, p. 2; Doshmangir, L. et al, Iranian primary health care network: challenges and ways forward, Primary HealthCare Research and Development, 9 January 2023, url
1145
WHO, The Islamic Republic of Iran: a primary health care case study in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic,
url, p. 1
1146
WHO, The Islamic Republic of Iran: a primary health care case study in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic,
url, p. 2
1135

1136

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at least one university of medical sciences.1147 Based on 2017 data, 18 % of all hospitals in Iranwere situated in Tehran province, with 51 % of them being state-owned. In the capital, 46 % of
the hospitals were state-owned, compared to 73 % nationwide.1148
Several safety accidents in hospitals in Tehran have been reported. In 2020, an explosion
resulting from a gas leak at Sina Athar Medical Centre killed 19 people,1149after which officials
admitted inadequate infrastructure and poor safety measures of many hospitals.1150 In January2024, a fire was reported in the prominent medical centre Ghandi Hospital1151 in northern
Tehran,1152 again causing concerns regarding the safety of medical facilities.1153 The Ministry of
Health reportedly revoked the licences of 100 hospitals and placed an additional 250 underprobation.1154

5.2.8.

Education

All children in Iran have access to primary and secondary education, with all school children,
including refugees and undocumented children, following the same national curriculum. 1155 As
of 2022, the literacy rate in Iran was estimated at 89 %1156 with 85 % for women1157 and 93 %men.1158
The education system in Iran had significant disparities in resource distribution between
provinces, notably evident in the contrast between such provinces as Sistan, Baluchistan andKurdistan and more prosperous regions such as Tehran, Alborz, and Isfahan. Moreover, highschool dropout rates were reported, particularly in less-developed regions.1159 In 2018,according to the data of Well-being Organization, the government documented around
327 000 children in Tehran who were not attending school between March and June of thesame year.1160

WHO, The Islamic Republic of Iran: a primary health care case study in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic,
url, p. 1
1148
Yousefi, S. and Farahani, I., Spacial inequality in Tehran, a structural explanation, Urban Research & Practice,
Volume 15 (1), 2019, url
1149
Iran International, Tehran Hospital Buildings In Neglect and Unsafe: Official, 29 December 2023, url
1150
Iran International, Tehran Hospital Buildings In Neglect and Unsafe: Official, 29 December 2023, url;
Iran International, 100 Hospitals in Iran Have License Revoked, 250 on Probation, 4 February 2024, url
1151
VoA, Fire Breaks Out at Tehran Hospital, Iran State Media Reports, 25 January 2024, url
1152
Iran International, 100 Hospitals in Iran Have License Revoked, 250 on Probation, 4 February 2024, url
1153
IranWire, Tehran Hospital Blaze Highlights Security Challenges In Iran, 30 January 2024, url
1154
Iran International, 100 Hospitals in Iran Have License Revoked, 250 on Probation, 4 February 2024, url
1155
UNHCR Iran, Education, n.d., url
1156
World Bank (The), Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Iran, Islamic Rep., UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, accessed by the World Bank on 19 September 2023, n.d., url
1157
World Bank (The), Literacy rate, adult total (% of females ages 15 and above) – Iran, Islamic Rep., UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, accessed by the World Bank on 19 September 2023, n.d., url
1158
World Bank (The), Literacy rate, adult total (% of males ages 15 and above) – Iran, Islamic Rep., UNESCO Institutefor Statistics, accessed by the World Bank on 19 September 2023, n.d., url
1159
IranWire, Dropouts, Disparities and Shortages: Schooling in Iran’s Poorer Provinces, 23 October 2023, url
1160
Iran Focus, Millions of Iranian Children Deprived of Education, 19 September 2018, url
1147

107

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMAs of 2022, the gross ratio1161 of enrolment to tertiary education in Iran stood at 61 %,1162 bothfor men1163 and for women.1164 In the Academic Ranking of World Universities,1165 University of
Tehran was placed in the 301-400 range in both 2021 and 2022 and in the 401-500 range in
2023.1166 Overall, in 2023, ten Iranian universities were ranked among the top 1 000
universities in the world.1167

As defined by UNESCO Institute for Statistics, gross enrolment ratio is the ratio of total enrolment ‘regardless ofage, expressed as a percentage of the eligible official school-age population corresponding to the same level of
education in a given school year.’ See, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Gross enrolment ration, n.d., https://
uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/gross-enrolment-ratio
1162
World Bank (The), School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) – Iran, Islamic Rep., 19 September 2023, url
1163
World Bank (The), School enrollment, tertiary, men (% gross) – Iran, Islamic Rep., 19 September 2023, url
1164
World Bank (The), School enrollment, tertiary, female (% gross) – Iran, Islamic Rep., 19 September 2023, url
1165
In the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), 2 500 universities are ranked and the details of the best
1 000 of them are published. For the methodology, see Shanghai Ranking, Shanghai Ranking’s Academic
Ranking of World Universities, Methodology 2023, n.d., url
1166
Shanghai Ranking, University of Tehran, n.d., url
1167
Shanghai Ranking, 2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities [country: Iran], n.d., url
1161

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Annex 1: Bibliography
Oral sources, including anonymous sources
Barzoo Eliassi, interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 20 March 2024. Eliassi isan associate professor at department of social work, Linnaeus University, based in Sweden.
Eliassi has extensive experience on statelessness and Kurdish minorities.
Behrooz Chamanara, interview 22 March 2024, and email communication, 10 April 2024.
Chamanara is director of International Institute for the Study of Kurdish Societies (IISKS) basedin Germany. He has extensive experience on the Kurdish population and Kurdish provinces in
Iran.
Leila Alikarami, email communication 11 March 202, 26 March 2024. Alikarami is an expert on
Iranian law, qualified attorney, and a member of Iran’s Central Bar Association since 2002.
She has extensive expertise on the situation of women in Iran. She is based outside Iran.
Expert on Kurdish population and regions in Iran, interview 20 March 2024, and emailcommunication, 27 March 2024. The expert has extensive and recent field expertise on
Kurdish regions, including in Iran. The source requested to be anonymised for security
reasons.
Expert and professional working for the French authorities examining asylum applications,interview 14 March 2024, and email communication, 4 April 2024. The expert has extensive
experience on the situation of women in Iran. The source requested to be anonymised out of
operational reasons.

Public sources
6Rang, Silencing protests: officials hate speech against LGBT people as a tool of suppression,
30 March 2023, https://6rang.org/english/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/30.03.23-HatespeechEN-SBFV.pdf, accessed 10 April 2024
AA (Anadolu Agency) 6 Iranian border guards killed in clashes near Pakistan border, 21 May
2023, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/6-iranian-border-guards-killed-in-clashes-nearpakistan-border/2902815, accessed 10 April 2024
ABC (Abdorrahman Boroumand Center), IHRDC (Iran Human Rights Documentation Centre),
Impact Iran, and HRA (Human Rights Activists in Iran), Alternative Report to Human Rights
Committee, For the periodic review of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Right to Fair Trial and Due
Process, 9 October – 3 November 2023,
https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/DownloadDraft.aspx?key=ocur2hR
T+kKZk9oJz6sKXCTjwQFnYtkjmw+WvVvFV2Z3bASKpZxP2CNGOanMfxhYK/SGE+cuQqbIsrIzsR84Dw==#:~:text=Article%20169%20of%20the%20Islamic,of%20the%20IPC%20foresees%20
a, accessed 2 May 2024

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ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project), Curated Data Files, Iran, data covering
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February 2024, https://agsiw.org/the-end-of-mandatory-hijab-in-iran/, accessed 10 April 2024
AI (Amnesty International) “Don’t Let Them Kill Us”, Iran’s Relentless Execution Crisis Since the2022 Uprising, April 2024, https://www.amnesty.org/en/wpcontent/uploads/2024/04/MDE1378692024ENGLISH-1.pdf, accessed 10 April 2024
AI (Amnesty International), Iran: International community must not be deceived by dubious
claims of disbanding ‘morality police’, 6 December 2022,
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AI (Amnesty International) Iranian LGBTI defender sentenced to death, n.d.,
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2 May 2024

110

IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

AI (Amnesty International), Amnesty International Report 2022/2023, 2023,
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AI (Amnesty International), Iran executes 853 people in eight-year high amid relentless
repression and renewed ‘war on drugs’, 4 April 2024,
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AI (Amnesty International), Iran: 14 People Sentenced to Death in Relation to Protests, n.d.,
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AI (Amnesty International), Iran: chilling execution spree with escalating use of death penalty
against persecuted ethnic groups, 2 March 2023,
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AI (Amnesty International), Iran: Draconian campaign to enforce compulsory veiling laws
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2024
AI (Amnesty International), Iran: Ebrahim Raisi must be investigated for crimes against
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protests must end, 21 August 2023,
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AI (Amnesty International), Iran: Human Rights abuses against the Kurdish minority, 30 July
2008, https://www.amnesty.org/en/wpcontent/uploads/2021/05/MDE130882008ENGLISH.pdf, accessed 10 April 2024

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AI (Amnesty International), Iran: millions of schoolgirls at risk of poisoning, 19 April 2023,
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Annex 2: Terms of Reference
The reference period should be 1 January 2023 – 17 April 2024
The report covers the general political situation, the security situation including armed
confrontations, the legal system and the judiciary, detention and prison conditions, treatment ofcertain profiles and groups of population, and socio-economic situation, including focus on
Tehran (economy, health care, education, food security, poverty and employment, housing andliving conditions including water and sanitation).
General overview
System of government and political situation in the country••

Structure
Policies and methods

Iranian authorities
•
•
•
•

IRGC
Basij
morality policeIntelligence agencies

Military service and recruitment
Security situation•

Armed confrontations

Legal system and the judiciaryThis chapter should cover the overall structure of the judiciary in Iran, including such topics as
independence of judiciary and corruption of the judicial system, the types of punishments under
the Penal Code, and court procedures, particularly for persons involved in or supporting the2022 protests, and subsequent punishments
•
•
•
•
•
•

criminal law and punishments under Sharia (hadd, qesas, ta’zir)
types of criminal courts, including juvenile and revolutionary courts
appellate courts
due process and access to legal aid
treatment in detention and prison conditions
death penalty

Treatment of certain profiles and groups of population• Persons expressing political dissent and opposition or perceived as such•Protesters, including minors•

Human rights defenders and activists
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IRAN – COUNTRY FOCUS•

Journalists and media workers•

Education personnel•

Draft evaders and deserters•

Ethnic and religious minorities, including Kurds and Yarsan, Baluches, freedom of
religion and belief, Christians and Baha’is, Zoroastrians, and other religious and ethnic
minorities•

Individuals transgressing religious and moral codes including conversion, apostasy,atheism, blasphemy, and other behaviours perceived as transgressing religious andmoral codes•

Situation of women and girls including restrictions on women’s rights and dress code,
violence against women and girls including forced and child marriage, domestic andhonour-related violence and access to justice•

LGBTIQ persons and activists for LGBTIQ rights

Socio-economic situation with focus on Tehran••

Access and residency requirements for Tehran
Key socio-economic indicators in Tehran including economy, employment, poverty, foodsecurity, healthcare, education, housing and living conditions (including water andsanitation)151

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