EMPLOYER-MIGRANTW O R K E R R E L AT I O N S H I P S
IN THE MIDDLE EAST:
Exploring scope for internal labour
market mobility and fair migration
White Paper, March 2017

International Labour Organization
Regional Office for Arab States

Copyright © International Labour Organization 2017
First published 2017
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Employer-migrant worker relationships in the Middle East: exploring scope for internal labour market
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ISBN: 9789221306740 (print); 9789221306771 (web pdf)
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international migration / workers’ rights / Middle East
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ّAlso available in (Arabic): ‫التنقل في‬‫ استطالع آفاق‬:‫بالعمال المهاجرين في الشرق األوسط‬ّ ‫عالقات أصحاب العمل‬‫ ; سوق العمل الداخليّة والهجرة العادلة‬ISBN 9789226312043 (print); 9789226312050 (webpdf); Beirut; 2017.
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FOREWORD
Faced with decreasing oil revenues,1 high levels of youth and women’s unemployment
among nationals, massive influxes of refugee movements,2 mounting international concerns
over the sponsorship systems under which migrants work, and increasing evidence of thebenefits of allowing internal labour market mobility for (migrant) workers,3 governments in
the Middle East are reassessing the current functioning of their sponsorship systems.
In order to help understand the root causes that lead to inefficient labour markets,
undersubscribed nationalization programmes, inadequate working conditions and a highlevel of vulnerability experienced by many migrant workers in the Middle East, this paper
offers a way of analysing the employer-migrant worker relationship under the kafala
sponsorship system. It offers a lens to review five elements in the employer-migrant worker
relationship under this system, along with specific employer-migrant worker modalities
and exacerbating factors that may impede internal labour market mobility, and that may
enable or sustain labour exploitation, including situations of forced labour.
The analysis offered in this paper, and recommended ways forward, serve to stimulate
policy dialogue and remedial action to the ultimate benefit of all concerned – including
employers, economies at destination and migrant workers. As such, the paper is envisaged
to contribute to the development of a fair migration framework in the Middle East in linewith the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),4 and the Fair Migration Agenda, as adopted
by member States of the United Nations and the International Labour Organization (ILO)
respectively.

Frank Hagemann
Deputy Regional Director / Decent Work Team Director
ILO Regional Office for Arab States

Primarily in the Gulf countries.
Particularly in Lebanon and Jordan.
3
The term ‘migrant worker’ is used throughout this paper in accordance with international norms as outlined in box 1.
4
In particular SDG targets 8.7 (forced labour), 8.8 (decent work for migrant workers), and 10.7 (migration governance).
1
2v

CONTENTS
Foreword  . .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . iii
Executive Summary  . .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . vi
Acronyms and abbreviations .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . vii
1. Introduction .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 12. Background .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 33.  Potential benefits of internal labour market mobility .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 44.  Employer-migrant worker relationships that may impede internallabour market mobility and fair migration .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 64.1 Central elements of sponsorship arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Specific types of sponsorship arrangements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Other exacerbating factors in sponsorship arrangements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5. National implementation of sponsorship schemes and recent
legislative developments in the Middle East . .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 12
6. Suggested policy measures to enhance labour market mobility and          fair migration  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 16
7. Conclusion .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 21
References  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 22

BOXES AND FIGURES
Box 1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1. Analysis model for sponsorship systems in the Middle East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2. Analysis of sponsorship systems of eight countries in the region  . . . . . . . .  12vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This White Paper was authored by Hans van de Glind, Sophia Kagan, Eliza Marks andCarla Unger for the ILO Regional Office for Arab States as a tool for policy dialogue withconstituents. The paper benefited from review and feedback by a range of ILO colleagues
including Amin Al-Wreidat, Ryzsard Cholewinski, Philip Fishman, Maria Gallotti, Tareq
Haq, Aya Jaafar, Suha Labadi, Zeina Mezher, Yoshie Noguchi, Emanuela Pozzan, Deepa
Rishikesh and Torsten Schackel. The drafting was also greatly assisted by guidance offeredby members of the ILO Policy Advisory Committee on Labour Migration in the Middle East.
The report was funded with support from the Regional Office for Arab States, with a generous
contribution from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation through the FAIRWAY
project.
A final word of thanks to Reham Rached and Nadine El Khoury for translation assistance for
the Arabic version of the report.

vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The unique aspects of sponsorship systems in
the Middle East, commonly known as kafala,result in a delegation of responsibility by theState to the private employer to oversee both amigrant worker’s immigration and employment
status. This is inherently problematic as it
creates an imbalance between the rights andabilities of workers and employers to terminate
an employment relationship, and be mobile on
the labour market in the respective country.
This paper argues that reforming thesponsorship systems in a way which
disassociates a worker’s immigration statusfrom their employer’s control, and enables
a migrant worker to resign or terminate his/her employment contract by giving reasonable
notice and without losing valid immigration
status, can have significant economic, social
and administrative benefits. Furthermore it may
contribute to progress towards nationalization
programmes, the smooth functioning of thelabour market, and adherence to the rule of law.

i.

Entry to country of destination?

ii. Renewal of residence and work permit?
iii. Termination of employment?
iv. Transfer to a different employer?
v. Exit from country of destination?

In particular, reforming kafala can achieve:

This approach allows a comparison of thesponsorship systems of eight countries in theregion, while also outlining some examples ofrecent reforms.
The paper presents a series of suggested
evidence-based policy measures for reformof current sponsorship systems, which may
enhance internal labour market mobility andpromote fair migration. These suggested policy
measures include:••

ensuring that a migrant worker’s entry,
residence and work permit are not tied to a
specific employer;•

enabling the migrant worker to be responsible
for renewing his or her own visas, work andresidence permits;•creating the option for migrant workers to resign
and terminate his/her contract (with notice),
without losing valid immigration status;•

ensuring that a migrant worker has the possibility
to change employers without the consent of his/her current employer and without losing valid
immigration status; and•permitting the worker to exit the country without
seeking approval from his/her employer.

•

•

viii

The framework for analysing the core aspects ofsponsorship systems in the region is simplified
to five key questions: namely, is the migrant
worker tied to the employer for:

Economic benefits to the State through raised
economic productivity as a result of a more
attractive labour market for both businesses andworkers with recognized skills; and an improved
international reputation.
Benefits to companies and workers throughimproved skills-matching of workers tocompanies, and an incentive for employers
to provide higher wages and better working
conditions to attract talent.
Improved labour governance through areduction in practices where employers seek
to sponsor multiple workers without intending
to employ them (a practice also referred to asvisa trading). It could also lead to a reduction in
employer practices that are designed to prevent
migrant workers from leaving the employer (or‘absconding’), including through withholding ofwages, passport confiscation and restrictions on
freedom of movement.

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONSBD

Bahraini dinar

CEACR

Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions
and Recommendations

FPRW

Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work

GCC

Gulf Cooperation Council

ILO

International Labour Organization

LMRA

Labour Market Regulatory Authority (Bahrain)

MOHRE

Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratization (United
Arab Emirates)

NOC

no objection certificate

SDG

Sustainable Development Goal

UAE

United Arab Emiratesix

1. INTRODUCTION
Labour relations between employers and migrant workers, otherwise known as ‘temporary
expatriate workers’ (see box 1) in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries (referred to as‘GCC’ hereafter)5 and Jordan and Lebanon, are governed by an all-encompassing collectionof laws, administrative regulations, norms and customary practices which places primary
responsibility for regulating the relationship between worker and employer in the handsof the employer.
Although immigration sponsorship systems are common in many parts of the world,
the type of sponsorship arrangements prevalent in the Middle East severely limits
migrant workers’ opportunity to leave an employer, creates a number of risks of humanrights abuses and labour exploitation, and impedes internal labour market mobility. As
argued below, internal labour market mobility can bring critical benefits to the effectivefunctioning of labour markets and broadly to the economies of countries of destination.
A number of countries in the region are thus rethinking the utility of the current shape of
this system, both to avoid the potential for abuse inherent in an unbalanced employment
relationship, and to achieve more flexibility in labour markets.
This paper begins by offering a framework to analyse employer-migrant worker
relationships in the Middle East.6 It describes the aspects of the sponsorship system that
may reinforce the dependency of workers on their kafeel (employer) and may thus impact
labour market mobility. It further outlines specific types of employer-migrant worker
relationships under the kafala sponsorship system along with exacerbating factors thatmake workers particularly vulnerable.
Based on publicly available information, the paper provides an overview of the current
use of sponsorship arrangements in GCC States, Lebanon and Jordan, reflecting on bothcommonalities and differences within each of the eight country settings and giving particularattention to the specifics of recent policy reform efforts (as at January 2017), insofar as theyseek to address the central, most exploitative elements of the sponsorship system.
Based on an analysis of current modalities, the paper also explores ways to rebalance therelationship between workers and employers in the sponsorship systems in the region,
which would in turn contribute to more efficient labour markets and enhanced chances ofsuccess in nationalization programmes and fair migration. Many of these policy options
were presented in draft form to a range of senior policy makers in the Middle East, at thetime of the Senior Officials Meeting of the Abu Dhabi Dialogue in May 2016. 7 Ways forward
are also reflected in the Bali Declaration which ILO member States from Asia and the
Middle East adopted in December 2016. The Declaration emphasizes the need to enhancelabour migration governance through “redressing employer-worker relationships that
impede workers’ freedom of movement, their right to terminate employment or change
employers, taking into account any contractual obligations that may apply, and their rightto return freely to their countries of origin” (ILO, 2016c: 3).

These countries comprise Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Within the Middle East region, the focus of this study is on the GCC, Jordan and Lebanon.
7
The Abu Dhabi Dialogue is a key forum for policy dialogue on labour migration in the Asia-GCC region.
5
6

1

BOX 1. DEFINITIONS
The term ‘migrant worker’ is used throughout this paper in accordancewith international norms, in particular, Article 2 of the International
Convention on the Protection of all Migrant Workers and Members of
their Families (1990), which defines a ‘migrant worker’ as a “person who
is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated
activity in a State of which he or she is not a national”. It is important tonote that governments in the Middle East view most labour migrationas temporary and tend to prefer to use the term ‘temporary foreign
contract labourers’ or ‘temporary expatriate workers’.8

The type of sponsorship system used in the GCC countries and Lebanon
and Jordan is commonly referred to as the ‘kafala system’. While theterm kafala itself is rarely used in legislation, the concept remains
a commonly applied term, particularly in the media, to describe theunique elements of sponsorship which the systems of the Middle East
share and which are different to sponsorship systems in other countries.
‘Internal labour market mobility’ is defined in this paper as the abilityof workers to terminate employment, switch to a different employer,
renew their work permit or leave the destination country without theapproval of their employer.
‘Fair migration’ is defined for the purposes of this paper as migrationthat respects the human and labour rights of migrant workers andoffers them real opportunities for decent work, in line with international
human rights, including labour standards.9
The term ‘absconding’ refers to an administrative offence specific tothe sponsorship systems in the Middle East whereby migrant workers,
especially migrant domestic workers, leave their employer/sponsor
without permission. These workers are rendered an irregular migrant
worker and are subject to arrest, detention and deportation. This also
applies to workers who have escaped an exploitative or abusive situation.
The term ‘fake absconding’ is used to refer to a situation where an
employer falsely claims that a worker has ‘absconded’.

Similar definitions of migration for employment/migrant worker are found in the ILO migrant workers instruments (Article 11,
Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), 1949 (No. 97); and Article 11, Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions)
Convention, 1975 (No. 143).
9
No conclusive definition of ‘fair migration’ has to date been agreed on.
82

2. BACKGROUND
The sponsorship systems which allow the temporary employment of non-nationals in the
GCC countries, as well as Jordan and Lebanon, have historically been based on the conceptof kafala which in classical Arabic draws connotations of ‘guarantee’, ‘provide for’ and ‘takecare of’. The term kafala is described in Arab Gulf countries (and Jordan) as having stemmed
from a noble Bedouin tradition of hospitality that made it incumbent upon nationals to grant
strangers protection and temporary affiliation to the tribe for specific purposes (Beauge,
1986; Dito, 2015; Asia Pacific Mission for Migrants, 2014). Newcomers to society wereconsidered guests of a local who took legal and economic responsibility for their welfare, as
well as for the consequences of their actions.
The modern use of the kafala system appeared in GCC countries during the 1960s and1970s, when it was developed as a means to regulate the entry of migrant labour in the
GCC countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. Under kafala,a migrant worker’s immigration and legal residency status is tied to an individual sponsor(kafeel) throughout his or her contract period in such a way that the migrant worker cannot
typically enter the country, resign from a job, transfer employment, nor leave the country
without first obtaining explicit permission from his or her employer. This is distinct frommost other sponsorship regimes, where only the migrant worker’s employment status isdetermined by the employer at the time of entering the country, and where there is more
flexibility in being able to switch employers without losing immigration status.
Although it is important to recognize that there are many sponsors who do strive to provide
decent and respectful working conditions, the modern functioning of kafala is inherently ripewith opportunities for employers to violate the fundamental human rights of the migrant
workers under their sponsorship. Through kafala, migrant workers are placed in a positionof vulnerability and have very little leverage to negotiate with employers, given the significant
power imbalance embedded within the employment relationship. Common grievances
expressed by migrant workers include restrictions on free movement, confiscation of
passports, delayed or non-payment of salaries, long working hours, untreated medical
needs, and violence – all conditions that can give rise to situations of forced labour andhuman trafficking.
Arguably, the most problematic feature of kafala is the delegation or ‘outsourcing’ of
responsibility by the state to the private employer to oversee both a migrant worker’s
immigration and employment status. Through the linking of residence and work permits,a migrant worker’s immigration status is dependent on the contractual relationship withthe sponsor. If the employment relationship is terminated, there is no longer a legal basis
for the migrant worker to stay in the country. As ‘owner’ of the permit, the sponsor is given
authorization to exert far-reaching control over the lives of migrant workers employed bythem, making this employer-worker relationship much more asymmetrical than is common
in a normal labour market situation. It also hinders internal labour market mobility andhence negatively affects the functioning of labour markets, as this paper argues below.
The International Labour Organization’s independent Committee of Experts on the
Application of Conventions and Recommendations (CEACR) has stated in its observations
with regard to the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) that kafala ties migrant workers
to particular employers, limiting their options and freedoms. The CEACR noted that “theso-called visa ‘sponsorship system’ (or ‘kafala’ system) in certain countries in the Middle
East may be conducive to the exaction of forced labour” and urged governments to “adopt
legislative provisions specially tailored to the difficult circumstances faced by this categoryof workers and to protect them from abusive practices” (CEACR, 2015) and to “take thenecessary measures in law and practice, to ensure that migrant domestic workers are
fully protected from abusive practices and conditions that amount to the exaction of forced
labour” (CEACR, 2016).

3

In line with CEACR’s main concerns, a number of governments in the Middle East havereleased public statements in recent years indicating their recognition of the need for change,
while some have also taken measures to address unacceptable practices (see section 5 for a
detailed overview of sponsorship arrangements in countries in the Middle East).

3. POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF INTERNAL LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY
Reforming the sponsorship systems in the Middle East is not only critical to workers
as a labour rights issue, but (by enhancing internal labour market mobility) may alsooffer a series of benefits to governments, employers and economies at destination.
These benefits may include the following:

Support to nationalization policies•

Internal labour market mobility may enhance the success of strategies to enrol more nationals in
the private sector of economies in the Middle East (i.e. nationalization strategies). First by reducing
the wages and rights gap between migrant workers and nationals, as the large differential
is currently a disincentive to hire national workers. Second, if the extent of administrative andlegal responsibility of employers were to be reduced, this could stimulate more interest among
employers to engage nationals.

•

The potential of a more diverse economy is also a possibility. Current restrictions on labour market
mobility and high levels of control by employers over workers serve as a disincentive to (foreign)skilled workers, and thus impede the creation of a vibrant, diversified and resilient knowledge
economy, which in turn limit the potential to create jobs that would attract significant numbers ofnationals (Nyarko, 2016).

Economic benefits• Reforms would make the labour market more attractive both for businesses and their workers,
attract the workers needed for knowledge-based activities, and provide incentives for investment in
human capital (Saidi, 2016).

10•Enabling internal labour market mobility could also reduce the practice of visa trading and labour
hoarding, whereby employers seek more work permits than they actually need, as workers could
be hired from a pool of available workers at destination.

•

The possibility of migrant workers moving into better paid employment may act as an incentive
for workers to acquire new skills – benefiting the national economy as a whole by gradually
increasing the overall skill level of the migrant workforce (Nyarko, 2016). Currently, workers andtheir employers do not have significant incentives to invest in on-the-job training and upgrading ofskills, since the workers are confined to working for their sponsor (Saidi, 2016).

•

Kafala reforms in line with international labour standards may also contribute to improved
international reputation and a better investment climate, especially as the region has been thetarget of increased international scrutiny on labour rights and working conditions of migrant
workers,10 and will likely continue to be under global scrutiny given a number of high-profile mega

Human Rights Council (2014) Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, François Crépeau: Mission to
Qatar; ILO (2016), Complaint concerning non-observance by Qatar of the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), and the Labour
Inspection Convention, 1947 (No. 81), made by delegates to the 103rd Session (2014) of the International Labour Conference underarticle 26 of the ILO Constitution; Human Rights Watch (2016) “I Was Sold”: Abuse and Exploitation of Migrant Domestic Workers in
Oman; Human Rights Watch (2015) Migrant Workers’ Rights on Saadiyat Island in the United Arab Emirates; Human Rights Watch(2014) “I Already Bought You”: Abuse and Exploitation of Female Migrant Domestic Workers in the United Arab Emirates; Human4

projects, including the World Cup 2022 (Qatar), the World Expo 2020 (UAE), and the Guggenheim,
Louvre and NYU Abu Dhabi (UAE).
•

In the same vein, demonstrated commitment to improved labour standards would increase theattraction for world-class businesses with reputations to uphold to operate in the Middle East,
which in turn could contribute to upgrading and diversifying the economies of the region.

•

The likely reduction in worker complaints and dispute resolution cases may result in lower costs
for law enforcement. Likewise, a decrease in the number of migrant workers needing governmentfunded support, including crisis accommodation and other assistance, would contribute to lower
costs for welfare assistance.

Worker protection•

Allowing migrant workers to change employers would contribute to better functioning and more
dynamic national labour markets and would help to ensure that the skills of migrant workers are
better matched with industry and employer needs (ILO, 2015). It could lead to increased competition
among employers for qualified workers already available on the local labour market, which could
lead to employers providing higher wages and better working conditions as they compete for thebest workers. A further outcome would be higher overall productivity and a higher ranking in theWorld Economic Forum’s annual Global Competitiveness Index (Gulf Business, 2016).

•

Enhancing internal labour mobility may also address the issue of workers falling into an irregularsituation through no fault of their own.11 If such forced irregularity were to be addressed, it would
reduce the costs and administrative burden of current deportation and amnesty and regularization
schemes.

Benefits to business•

Employers who are able to engage foreign workers already in the destination country (i.e. those
who terminated their previous employment contract) can save on time, cost and administration
involved in recruiting a worker from abroad, and reduce the risk of being associated with exploitative
recruitment practices.

•

Kafala reform may also lead to higher satisfaction of employers, as research suggests that many
employers find current sponsorship responsibilities too burdensome (Insan Association, 2014).
The same research suggests that 65 per cent of employers would support kafala reform if analternative employment-based visa and various options for reimbursement of recruitment fees incases of early termination of the contract would be offered.

Rights Watch (2012) Building a Better World Cup: Protecting Migrant Workers in Qatar Ahead of FIFA 2022; US Department of State(2016) Trafficking in Persons Report 2016, Amnesty International (2016) The Ugly Side of the Beautiful Game: Exploitation of migrant
workers on a Qatar 2022 World Cup site, ITUC (2014) The Case Against Qatar.
115

While some migrant workers become irregular willingly, most do so beyond their control and through no fault of their own,
for example through administrative errors, through the action (or inaction) of their sponsor, or through escaping an abusive
situation. If workers are eligible to move to a different employer when the first employer engages in, for instance, fakeabsconding, withholding passports, non-payment of a return ticket, or failing to make a financial settlement with a migrant
worker following a court case, they will not fall into an irregular status.

4. EMPLOYER-MIGRANT WORKER RELATIONSHIPS THAT
MAY IMPEDE INTERNAL LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY AND
FAIR MIGRATIONThis section offers a framework for analysing the employer-migrant worker relationshipunder the kafala sponsorship systems. It offers a lens to review five elements in theemployer-migrant worker relationship under kafala, along with specific employer-migrant
worker modalities and exacerbating factors that may impede internal labour market
mobility, and that may enable or sustain labour exploitation, and situations of forced labour.

4.1 Central elements of sponsorship arrangements
The systems of sponsorship in the Middle East are composed of various legal requirements,
administrative regulations, and socio-cultural practices that tie a migrant worker’s
immigration and employment status to one specific sponsor. As there is some variation
amongst countries in the Middle East, this paper proposes an analysis framework covering
five core elements in the employer-migrant worker relationship that may impede internallabour market mobility and fair migration, by asking five questions as follows:i. Is entry into the country tied to a specific employer12 through a work and/or residence visa?
In order to enter the destination country, a migrant worker must be sponsored by a kafeel
and mostly remain tied to this same kafeel throughout their stay. The kafeel’s name istypically written inside the migrant worker’s entry visa, as well as in the residence andwork permits.13 While a requirement for a sponsor is common in other sponsorship systems(including in Australia, Canada and the United States), a sponsor in the Middle East is offereda level of control over migrant workers throughout their stay in the destination country, andis expected to assume responsibility for the migrant worker while they are present in the
country. This includes ensuring that the migrant worker leaves the country, by paying forthe plane ticket after termination of the contract. A number of employers have exploited thismodality by applying for more work visas than they need, resulting in migrant workers getting
stranded upon arrival, and being forced into irregularity through no fault of their own.

ii. Is renewal of stay in the country (through a residence visa) the
responsibility of the employer?
As the ‘owner’ of the work and residence permits, in most countries in the Middle East theemployer is accorded the responsibility to renew the residence visa so that the migrant
worker has legal status to continue working in the country. This makes the migrant worker
dependent upon the employer for legal residence in the country.14 If the employer fails
to renew the visa, the migrant worker becomes undocumented and may be subject topenalization, including detention and deportation. Conversely, only a few countries haveprovisions that stipulate penalties for the employer in such cases. This failure to renew theRather than tied to specific ’employment’.
Though this is not required for Egyptian workers in Jordan under a bilateral agreement between Jordan and Egypt (Organizationof Egyptian Labour Force), signed in 2007.
14
There are however exceptions. In Jordan, while the worker is responsible for submitting an application for, or renewal of, aresidence permit, this may not be issued or renewed without a valid work permit (which is still the employer’s responsibility).
12
13

6

visa is a particularly common occurrence where the length of the residence visa is shorter
than the length of the employment contract.15

iii. Does termination of employment require approval of the employer?
During the contract period, migrant workers in most countries in the Middle East arecommonly unable to resign or terminate their employment without the explicit writtenconsent of the employer. If migrant workers decide to leave a job before the end of theircontracts without first securing their employer’s approval, even when responding to situationsof abuse, they will automatically become ‘irregular’ (still called ‘illegal’ in countries in the
Middle East). In some countries, the law may contain a provision for immediate terminationof a contract in the particular case of abuse. However, conditions and procedures for thiscan be onerous. In practice, immediate termination without penalization is rare. In fact the
migrant worker is often returned to the employer and/or faces administrative penalties for‘absconding’, including fines, indefinite detention and deportation. The employer is typicallyobligated to report ‘missing’ migrant workers to the local police, whereupon the employer
is relinquished of all responsibility. Upon notification, the police then commonly cancel the
migrant worker’s residency permit and file an order for his or her detention. Conversely,
employers often can cancel a migrant worker’s employment permit and residency visa attheir own discretion, often with little or no notice. This power differential makes it difficult
for migrant workers to contest or complain when any part of their contractual agreement isviolated or when they face abuse.

iv. Does transfer from one employer to another require approval of the(first) employer?
In most countries in the Middle East migrant workers are required by law to procurea release form – or no objection certificate (NOC) – from the original employer prior tolegally transferring sponsorship. Commonly this is also the case even after the worker has
completed their contract and wishes to move to another employer. Some countries require
the worker to return home for several years before they are allowed to come back to work
for a new employer. Workers are not allowed to continue remaining in the country to work
for a new employer, even if they were to get permission from the current employer.16 In
some cases, the migrant worker may additionally be required to obtain written permission
from the new employer. Generally, the only way around this requirement is to seek special
permission from the relevant ministry or to file a court case. These arduous proceduresfor the transfer of employers place serious restrictions on a migrant worker’s mobility
and freedom of movement, and undermine labour market efficiency to the detriment of all
including employers.

v. Does exit from the country require approval of the employer?
In some countries in the Middle East, the migrant worker must also procure an exit permit
from their current employer in order to leave the country. 17 Even in countries where an exit
permit is not explicitly required, sponsors may be able to file a complaint with immigration
authorities, who then block the migrant worker from departing the country (thus cancellingthe need for employers to pay for the migrant worker’s return plane ticket). In some cases,
authorities may ban the workers’ later re-entry.

Commonly, the employer has a certain period (for example, 90 days) after expiry of the residency to have it renewed. This cancreate irregularity for a worker during this period, and thus the migrant worker cannot leave the country without the residency
being cancelled.
16
This is a requirement, for example, in Oman, though not in all countries. The UAE for example, allows workers who havecompleted their contracts to remain in the country for 30 days to find a new sponsor.
17
Currently, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Jordan.
15

7

Each of these elements on their own contribute to an unequal relationship between theemployer and the migrant worker, and in particular if combined, they may limit internallabour market mobility and may expose migrant workers to the greatest risk of exploitation
and abuse. Figure 1 below puts all of the elements together, and will be used in section fiveof this paper, where the sponsorship systems of eight countries in the Middle East will be
reviewed.

FIGURE 1. ANALYSIS MODEL FOR SPONSORSHIP SYSTEMS IN THE MIDDLE EAST:
IS THE MIGRANT WORKER TIED TO THE EMPLOYER FOR:Any ‘No’contributes
to enhancing
internal labour
market mobility
and fairmigration

No

I. Entry to country of destination?

Yes

No

II. Renewal of residence and work
permit?

Yes

No

III. Termination of employment?

Yes

No

IV. Transer to different employer?

Yes

No

V. Exit from country of destination?

Yes

Any ‘Yes’ offers
employers alevel of control
and may
impede internallabour market
mobility and fair
migration

4.2 Specific types of sponsorship arrangements
The majority of migrant workers in the Middle East work in private sector companies througha process whereby an employer gains approval from the relevant ministry to sponsor a
migrant worker, and the employer then directly employs this worker through recruitment
via a recruitment agent. While workers in these relationships are in an inherent positionof vulnerability, some specific categories of workers are even more vulnerable due toexacerbating circumstances of their sponsorship (Dito, 2015). Specific types of sponsorshiparrangements that may impede internal labour market mobility and fair migration include:

i. Workers whose kafeel is a labour supply company
Where a worker is recruited by a labour supply company, he or she essentially has two‘employers’ – one who employs him or her through the work and residence permit, and asecond who benefits from his or her labour. Outsourcing of labour through a sponsorshiparrangement can lead to a blurring of employment relationships and confusion over whichof the two employers should assume accountability for a migrant worker’s wages, living
conditions, insurance and other responsibilities. This may result in the second employer
abusing a migrant worker, while only the first employer is held accountable as s/he is theactual kafeel.

ii. Migrant domestic workers who are not fully covered under the labour law
While employers of migrant domestic workers are sponsors (or kafeels) who exert control
over their workers, what makes the latter especially vulnerable to exploitation is the absenceof a full legal framework regulating the employment relationship.18 Domestic workers are
not covered (or in a few cases only minimally covered) by protections afforded to othercategories of workers under national labour laws. Their vulnerability is compounded by

18

Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia are exceptions with partial coverage of domestic work in the labour law, or specific laws.
8the isolated nature of the place of work, as domestic workers are employed within a privatehousehold and usually live under the same roof as their employers. This employment
structure limits opportunities for social interaction outside of the workplace, and places
serious restrictions on mobility since domestic workers are typically required to notify or
obtain permission from their employer prior to leaving the household, even on days off orduring hours of rest. Accordingly, migrant domestic workers are among the most vulnerableof all categories of workers.

iii. Workers who are on a ‘free visa’
Under an arrangement often referred to as a ‘free visa’,19 the migrant worker becomesa self-employed rent payer to the sponsor, as opposed to a wage earner. There are twomain sub-forms: (a) a sponsor brings a migrant worker to the country in order to operate
and run a commercial activity (such as a small grocery store) and establishes an unofficial
agreement with the migrant worker to operate the business in return for rent money; or(b) the migrant worker informally agrees to pay the sponsor rent money in exchange formaintaining his or her work permit and residence status. In both of these scenarios, themigrant worker is dependent on the sponsor for their continued legal residency status,
making them vulnerable to exploitation and debt bondage and limiting their mobility. Such
rent-seeking activities by kafeels are highly lucrative and amount to what is believed to be amulti-billion dollar industry (Dito, 2008).

iv. Workers whose status became irregular beyond their control
In some cases, a migrant can become irregular through no fault of his/her own, thus further
compounding vulnerability to exploitation. Such irregularity may happen in the following
ways (Dito, 2015):
A.

a migrant worker remains in the country despite the expiration or cancellation of his/her visa. For
instance, the contract expires but the employer refuses to pay for the return airfare (as requiredby law in some sectors of some countries in the Middle East); the employer does not return the
migrant worker’s passport; or the employer does not renew the visa to ensure the migrant worker’s
legal residency status. Workers who have experienced abuse and are in shelters or are awaiting
the outcome of a legal case may have also lost their legal status, and fall into this category.

B.

a migrant worker holding a valid work permit is reported as having ‘absconded’ by the employer,
without actually having run away (i.e. ‘fake absconding’) which may result in administrative
deportation without trial.

C.

a migrant worker works for an employer other than the original employer. This may be at therequest, and with the permission of the original employer, but where either the first sponsor or thesecond sponsor has failed to follow the specific legal procedures involved in this process. In thissituation the worker is in breach of their visa requirements. 20

In all of these circumstances, the worker is classified as an ‘irregular’ migrant. In mostcountries, workers with an irregular migration status are deemed to be ‘illegal’, as theworker’s status is said to result from an infringement of existing laws and they are thus
subject to arrest, detention and deportation, even if the irregularity is not the fault of the
migrant worker.

Where the work visa is not free of cost, but free of an employer (as the sponsor is not effectively the employer). Despite thepractice being illegal, these visas are traded among workers and employers for a fee.
20
For example, a sponsor agrees to release the migrant worker to another employer. This first sponsor grants the mobility rightto the migrant worker through a statement at the notary, yet the second employer neglects to renew the worker’s residency andwork permits. The government authority does not recognise the second employer as s/he does not appear on the records as thesponsor. If the first sponsor leaves the country, the migrant worker may be trapped in an irregular situation.
19

9

The threat of irregularity forces many migrant workers to endure difficult and exploitative
conditions due to the inherent deficiencies of kafala, and thus effectively limits their mobility
in the labour market. Once a worker falls into an irregular status, it may be difficult for him
or her either to regularize their status, or to legally leave the country. This may partly be
as a result of the accumulation of large amounts of overstay fines. Should such workers
be identified as irregular and placed in detention, they may be prohibited from leaving thecountry as a result of having insufficient funds to pay the accumulated fines.
In response to growing international criticism, some of the governments in the region carryout periodic amnesty programmes, allowing undocumented migrant workers to ‘regularize’
their migration status or return to their country of origin without penalty. However, critics
of these amnesty programmes argue that they do not adequately address the reasons why
migrant workers end up in irregularity (Al Jazeera, 2013; Shah, 2014).

4.3 Other exacerbating factors in sponsorship arrangements
In order to more fully understand the impact of the central elements of sponsorshipsystems on migrant workers, it is necessary to outline a number of other exacerbating
factors that may impede internal labour market mobility of migrant workers and that may
place them at a heightened risk of abuse and exploitation. Some of these factors are briefly
analysed in this section; others, such as high recruitment debt borne by migrant workers,
and limits on freedom of association, are covered in related papers (see respectively ILO,
2016b and ILO, 2015).

a) Upfront payments by employers, leading to fear of early termination ofcontract
Where employers pay recruitment costs of migrant workers (including for permits, travel,
medical examination and medical insurance), as per fair recruitment standards (see ILO,
2016b), these costs can be a cause of concern to employers who fear losing their ‘financial
investment’ if the migrant worker does not complete the full duration of the contract(Insan Association, 2014). Thus an employer may feel pressured to impose restrictions on
the migrant worker’s mobility or to pass on these costs to the worker, despite national
legislation that may be in place to prohibit migrant workers from paying any fees. A sponsor
may withhold a migrant worker’s wage payments, or oblige the worker to pay for any losses
that would be incurred through early termination of the contract in exchange for approval
to resign or transfer jobs. Such practices limit internal labour market mobility and makemigrant workers vulnerable to any demand of the employer.

b) Passport confiscation
Employers often confiscate migrant workers’ passports (and work permits) even where
national legislation is in place to prohibit the practice (ILO, 2016b). Few countries assign
penalties to a breach of the prohibition on passport confiscation, where such a prohibition
exists in legislation. Passport retention is one of the simplest ways for an employer tobe assured that the migrant worker stays for the duration of their contact and does not‘abscond’. Without access to their passports, migrant workers face restrictions that prevent
them leaving an employment relationship at their own volition, even in situations where
they may be subject to abuse or exploitation. Without identification, authorities are also
unable to determine the identity of migrant workers and migrant workers face challenges
in accessing justice without their identity cards.

10c) Inefficient dispute settlement and compensation mechanisms
Migrant workers who wish to pursue legal recourse against their employers in mostcountries in the Middle East face multiple barriers. In most cases, filing a complaint resultsin the migrant worker no longer being able to work with the same employer, thus putting
their residency status at risk in most sponsorship systems.21 In cases where migrant
workers are not given a visa that allows them to reside legally in the country and continue
to work while awaiting the outcome of a tribunal hearing, workers often refrain from evenfiling a complaint in the first place. Migrant workers with insecure immigration status areoften not able to stay in the country long enough to engage in legal proceedings. Disputesettlement procedures tend to be time consuming, while compensation mechanisms for
migrant workers in distress are virtually absent. Consequently, migrant workers are rarely
able to recoup unpaid wages. Most workers continue to endure sub-standard working
and living conditions rather than pursuing cases against their employers, again reflecting
imbalanced relationship between employer and migrant worker.

21

In most cases, once the residence permit has expired or been terminated, employers can report the workers as ‘illegallyresiding’ persons and they will be repatriated. They will not be given the opportunity to file a claim for any unpaid wages.

115. NATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF SPONSORSHIP SCHEMES AND
RECENT LEGISLATIVE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST
While a number of countries in the Middle East no longer use the term kafala, central
elements of the sponsorship system remain largely intact in most countries, with somedegree of variation. In recent years, a number of governments have declared their intention
to restructure, reform or even abolish their sponsorship system. Some initiatives havesought to alleviate the most exploitative elements of the sponsorship system, while others
have merely tackled superficial ‘symptoms’. Where progress has been made, often migrant
domestic workers are explicitly excluded from the reforms.
Applying the analysis framework offered in section 4, figure 2 below provides a brief
overview of sponsorship modalities in the six GCC countries, and Jordan and Lebanon.
Particular attention is paid to the specifics of recent policy reform efforts insofar as theyseek to promote labour market mobility and address the central, most exploitative elementsof the sponsorship system. These reforms offer learning opportunities for other countries.
The information contained in this figure is based on a thorough review of publicly available
information (as at January 2017), and further detail is provided in the footnotes.

FIGURE 2. ANALYSIS OF SPONSORSHIP SYSTEMS OF EIGHT COUNTRIES IN THE REGION
COUNTRY

BAHRAINKUWAIT

OMAN

QATAR

SAUDI
ARABIAUAE

JORDANLEBANONSPONSORSHIP-RELATED ELEMENTS
IS THE MIGRANT WORKER TIED TO THE EMPLOYER FOR:i. Entry tocountry ofdestination

yes22

yes                yes                yes                 yes                yes                yes                yes

ii. Renewalof residence
permitnoyes                yes                yes                yes

no23

yes24

iii. Terminationof employmentno25       yes                yes                 yes                yes       no26yes                 yesno27

yes28              yes                 yes                yes

no29

yes

yes

no

no

yes               yes  

no

no

no

Does themigrant worker iv. Transfer
to different
need theapproval of the employer
employer for:v. Exit fromcountry ofdestination

no

30

yes

Any ‘yes’ in thematrix offers
employers
a level ofcontrol andmay impedeinternal
labour market
mobility andfair migration

In 2009, Bahrain’s Ministry of Labour announced that the LMRA would assume a sponsorship role, but in practice the migrant
worker is still tied to an individual sponsor.
23
For workers who obtain their work permit through the Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratization (MoHRE), currently
excluding migrant domestic workers.
24
The process is particularly problematic as one year work permit need to be renewed annually.
25
Required if within 12 months of employment and for domestic workers for the duration of contract period; otherwise not required.
26
For workers who obtain their work permit through the MoHRE, yet this can cost up to three months’ salary.
27
Required if within 12 months of employment and for domestic workers for the duration of contract period; otherwise not required28
On 31 March 2016, the Public Authority for Manpower published Administrative Decision No. 378/2016, which allows migrant
workers (although not domestic workers) in the private sector to transfer their sponsorship to a new employer without theircurrent employer’s consent after three years of work, provided they give 90 day notice to their current employers. While this is aslight improvement, workers are still tied to employers for three years, and it does not apply to domestic workers.
29
For workers who obtain their work permit through the MoHRE.
30
Except migrant workers in agriculture and migrant workers whose work permit fines have not been settled.
2212

COUNTRY

BAHRAINKUWAIT

OMAN

QATAR

SAUDI
ARABIAUAE

JORDANLEBANON

EXACERBATING ELEMENTS
Passport
confiscation
allowed (notprohibited thelaw)Domestic
workers
excluded fromlabour law

no

no

no

no

yes

no31

yes32             yes33              yes34              yes35            yes36

no37

yes38

           yes            

no

no

no

Charging
recruitment
fees to workers
allowed (not        yes                yes                yes               noprohibited by
the law)

no

no

no

Any ‘yes’ inthe matrix
means lack oflegal coveragethus notoffering legal
protection
to migrant
workers

Recent developments regarding sponsorship reform in the region
The period of 2015-16 witnessed a number of legislative efforts to modify sponsorshiparrangements in a number of countries in the Middle East, in particular relating to migrant
workers’ ability to terminate a contract or transfer to a new sponsor.
In Qatar, Law No. 21 (2015) Regulating the Entry, Exit and Residency of Expatriates,39 whichcame into force in December 2016, removed the terminology of sponsorship. However
despite media coverage suggesting otherwise, the new law continues to prohibit workers
from changing employers during the contract period without the permission of the current
employer (through the NOC). Where no end date is listed in the contract, the worker will beable to move without permission of the employer only after five years (and upon receiving
permission from the Ministry of Administrative Development, Labour and Social Affairs).
Where the contract does specify an end period, a worker can only switch employers without
the permission of the employer after the end of the contract (generally two or five years) andafter giving notice to their employer (Government of Qatar, 2016).
Likewise in Saudi Arabia, changes to the labour law,40 and the enactment of new Implementing
Regulations which came into effect in April 2016 (Ministerial Decree No. 1982), made minorchanges to a migrant workers’ ability to change employers, noting that transfer of sponsor/
employer is permitted without the approval of the current sponsor/employer if:•

the employer has failed to renew the worker’s residency permit;•

the worker’s wages have not been paid for three consecutive months and at any time during the

Covered in part under the labour code, but excluded from many important provisions, including the right to change employers.
Excluded from the labour law. A specific domestic work regulation was adopted in 2015, but it falls short of international labour standards.
33
Excluded from the labour law. No other legislation is in place. The standard contract falls short of international labour standards.
34
Excluded from the labour law. No other legislation is in place. No standard contract.
35
Excluded from the labour law. A specific domestic work regulation was adopted in 2013, but falls short of international labour standards.
36
Excluded from the labour law and benefits afforded under Decrees 764, 765, 766. No other legislation is in place. Standard
contract falls short of international labour standards.
37
Covered in part under the labour law, but excluded from many important provisions. Separate regulation adopted in 2009 falls
short of international labour standards.
38
Excluded from the labour law. No other legislation is in place. Standard contract adopted in 2009 falls short of international labour
standards.
39
Law published in official gazette (Issue No. 29) on 13 December 2016.
40
Enacted pursuant to Royal Decree No. M/51 dated 27 September 2005, as amended pursuant to Royal Decree No. M/24 dated
24 March 2013, and as amended pursuant to Royal Decree No. M/46 dated 25 March 2015.
31
32

13

year that follows the due date of the third month of delay; or•

the worker has denounced a commercial cover-up activity involving the employer, with evidence
to this effect and without involvement on his/her part.41

Both Saudi Arabia and Qatar continue to impose exit bans, though in Qatar, the 2015
law introduces a process of appeal for the migrant, in cases where the employer denies
their request to leave the country (in such cases, workers can lodge a complaint with the
Exit Permit Grievances Committee, which allows the employer 72 hours to object to thedeparture. The Committee and has the power to issue an exit permit).42
More extensive changes to sponsorship have taken place in the UAE, where three Decrees
represent an important change in employer-worker relations by allowing “either party… tounilaterally terminate the employment relation at any time; neither party may be obliged tocontinue in this relationship against his/her free will” (Article 6, Decree 764). This applies
both to the ‘first two-year’ contract, and a ‘renewed’ contact, provided that the noticeprovisions are complied with, or payment is made in lieu of notice being given (maximum
notice of three months)(Decree 765).
Furthermore, the UAE now also allows a migrant worker to transfer to a new employer andbe issued a new work permit without the permission of their current employer when thecurrent employer has failed to meet their legal or contractual obligations; when the businesshas closed down; when a worker has brought a successful labour complaint against theircurrent employer; or when the worker settles indemnities with the first employer in linewith contract termination clauses (up to three months’ salary). In addition, any worker who
has completed the first two-year contract may be transferred to the new employer without
conditions, and without their current employer’s approval (Decree 766).
The Tripartite Committee of the ILO Governing Body (in March 2016) made comments on
the new legislation calling on the UAE to ensure that there is effective implementation of its
provisions, and that workers have access to a mechanism through which they can resolve
complaints and sanctions can be made against offenders (ILO 2016a). The UAE is also
requested to share data on the number of migrant workers who had recourse to complaints
mechanisms and the outcomes; and on the number of transfers of employment that haveoccurred, prior to and following the new legislation.
In another promising sign, in October 2016 Oman announced plans to scrap the NOC
required to transfer to another employer; 43 a decisions which may have been prompted byrecent changes in neighbouring countries, and a poor ranking in the Global Competitive
Report 2016-17 of the World Economic Forum due to restrictive labour regulations (GulfBusiness, 2016).
Another promising announcement was made by the government of Bahrain in September
2016, noting that in the second quarter of 2017 it will introduce a new ‘flexible’ work permit
for irregular migrant workers under which workers can apply to work without a sponsor for
two years. The stated purpose of the visa was to respond to the need of the private sector
for flexibility, including immediate and temporary sources of labour. Under the scheme,
which is not available to those who already have a sponsor or had one until September 2016,
applicants would bear their own issuance fees of 200 Bahraini dinar (BD) (approximately
US$530), healthcare fees of BD144 (approximately US$380) and a monthly social insurance

41

The Minister of Labor may also authorize such a transfer in the event of a dispute between the worker and his/her sponsor/
employer before judicial authorities if it is revealed that the employer (but not the worker) is unduly attempting to prolong suchdispute. Indicators of such an intention include the unjustified absence of the employer (or his/her representative) at two or
more hearings before the same judicial level, or if the judicial authority recommends the sponsorship transfer in order to avoid
the worker suffering any harm.

“New Expat Law Awareness Campaign Proves Popular”, Government of Qatar press release, issued 1 December 2016. The
Exit Permit Grievance Committee will be composed of officials from the Ministry of Interior, the Ministry of Administrative
Development, Labour and Social Affairs, and the National Human Rights Committee.
43
At the time of completing this paper, Oman has not yet implemented the plan to abolish the ‘no objection certificate’.
42

14

fee of BD30 (approximately US$80). The expenses would also include a deposit of the priceof a flight ticket to the worker’s home country. Flexible visa holders will be able to work
for multiple employers simultaneously, be it individuals or organizations, and essentiallybe ‘self-employed’ rather than be tied to a kafeel. The LMRA’s stated plan is to make thescheme operational in the second quarter of 2017 and to accept 2,000 employees every
month through a dedicated centre to administer the scheme. Domestic workers will not
be eligible for the visa (Mansour, 2016). The impact of this promising initiative will deserve
further study in the future to measure its impact on migrant workers and their labour market
mobility, and any evidence of a positive impact could serve to trigger similar changes inother countries in the Middle East.

15

6. SUGGESTED POLICY MEASURES TO ENHANCE LABOUR
MARKET MOBILITY AND FAIR MIGRATIONThis paper argues that the current sponsorship arrangements result in an imbalanced
relationship between employers and migrant workers that may impede internal labour
market mobility. Such arrangements place a high responsibility – and often a burden –on employers and may result in abuse of workers. To address these concerns, alternativemodels of sponsorship can be pursued which place the role of regulation and protection
more clearly with the government. This argument is supported by leading experts in thearea of migration regulation, as shown by the outcomes of an interregional meeting in 2014,
where the experts agreed that “while regulating immigration is the sovereign right of allnations, a legitimate criticism of kafala is that it has transitioned from immigration control
to also include labour relations where the employer is the kafeel (sponsor)”and noted that“kafala should not be a tool for employment and labour relations, and that reform is neededin this respect to de-link the employer-worker relationship from the immigration status of
the migrant worker” who has arrived legally in a country for a specified period to work (ILO,
2015, p. 10).
This notion of exploring ways to end the control by employers over migrant workers andpossible abuse of the latter while enhancing labour market mobility was elaborated further– building upon positive developments in Bahrain (2009-11) and the UAE (2016) – during
the senior officials meeting of the Abu Dhabi Dialogue in May 2016 (Glind, van de, 2016).
Furthermore, delegations from countries in the Middle East, Asia and the Pacific at the ILO
Asia Pacific Regional Meeting (December 2016) adopted the Bali Declaration in which theyprioritized enhancing labour migration policies based on international labour standards that
“redress employer-worker relationships that impede workers’ freedom of movement, theirright to terminate employment or change employers, taking into account any contractual
obligations that may apply, and their right to return freely to their countries of origin” (ILO,
2016c, p. 3).

Core measures proposed
To achieve enhanced internal labour market mobility and address abuse in the employermigrant worker relationship, the following policy measures should be considered:i) A migrant worker’s entry, residence and work permit are not tied to a
specific employer
Implementing this policy measure would mean that an employer no longer controls the terms
and conditions of a migrant worker’s immigration and employment status in the country.
•

One option could be to introduce a so-called ‘employment-based visa’ whereby a migrant worker
applies for and renews visas under his or her own name. Under this system, the recruitment
process would still be ‘employer-led’ as the migrant worker would need to demonstrate thatthey have a legitimate job offer in order to begin the visa application procedure, yet there would
be no requirement to specify the name of an individual employer on the migrant worker’s entry
papers, immigration visa, work visa, or passport for the purposes of sponsorship (Hamill, 2012).
An employment visa, rather than the sponsor, would regulate the migrant worker’s entry into
the country. Such an employment-based visa would likely curtail the fraudulent practice of visa
trading, since the issuance of permits would no longer be under the name of the employer.

•

An alternative is to introduce sector-specific visas that would allow workers to change employers
only within the sector specified on their work permit. This ensures an adequate labour supply
in the designated sectors, while enabling workers to leave exploitative situations or simply seek
employment with more favourable working conditions.
16ii) A migrant worker is responsible for renewing his or her own visas, workand residence permits
To prevent a situation whereby a worker becomes undocumented and falls into irregularmigration status due to an act of negligence by the employer, under this option the migrant
worker is responsible for the renewal (at reasonable or no cost) of his or her own visas.
•

To reduce the need and frequency of visa renewals, work and residence permits should be
sufficiently longer in duration than the employment contract.

•

To reduce travel costs and save time for migrant workers, innovative models for permit renewal
should be explored, including online mechanisms, mobile units that visit work sites, and migrantdrop-in centres near living areas of migrant workers. Awareness raising campaigns, and support
to overcome workers’ language barriers would also support workers’ capacity for permit renewal.

iii) A migrant worker has the possibility to resign and terminate her/his
employment contract at will, without losing valid immigration status
In line with recent reforms in the UAE, a migrant worker should be able to end a contract
for any reason by giving reasonable notice (in line with the stipulations of the contract) andwithout needing to obtain written approval from the current employer. In the event of an
abusive situation, a migrant worker should be able to terminate their contract immediately.
•

After giving notice of resignation, a migrant worker should be permitted to return to his or herhome country without facing fines, detention, or immigration sanctions. A migrant worker should
not face the prospect of being ‘returned’ to the same employer or private employment agency
against his or her will (Hamill, 2012). Nor should an employer have the legal responsibility toreport to the police any migrant worker who has decided to leave the employment relationship.

•

Policy measures which alleviate employers’ fears related to the potential loss of workers andfinancial investment (i.e. recruitment fees and associated costs) if the migrant worker terminates
the contract early should be considered. This might include the introduction of an insurance
scheme similar to that currently operating in Jordan.44• The loss of employment shall not in itself imply the loss of permission to reside in the country. As
stipulated in Article 8 of the ILO Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975
(No. 143), on the condition that the worker has resided legally in the country for the purpose of
employment, the migrant worker shall not be regarded as in an illegal or irregular situation by themere fact of the loss of employment.
• To alleviate the dependence of migrant workers on their employer to maintain their immigration
status, automatic ‘grace periods’ should be granted to allow migrant workers to remain in the
country for a reasonable period of time in the event of dismissal or early termination of theemployment contract. Grace periods would ensure migrant workers are not at risk of suddenly
falling into irregular migration status, nor would they feel compelled to remain in an abusive
employment situation for fear of becoming irregular.45 A grace period would remove the powerof employers to abruptly terminate a migrant worker’s contract and then forcibly repatriate theworker at short notice (Hamill, 2012). This would also deter employers from seeking to extort
money from the migrant worker in exchange for written approval to resign from the job. It should
be noted here that grace periods would generally not be necessary if work and residence visas areof sufficiently longer duration than employment contracts.

For example, Aslan, R. and Mazen, R. (forthcoming). Jordanian comprehensive insurance scheme for migrant domestic
workers. (ILO, Geneva).
45
ILO Recommendation No. 151, accompanying Convention No. 143, in particular paragraph 31: states that “a migrant who has
lost his employment should be allowed sufficient time to find alternative employment, at least for a period corresponding tothat during which he may be entitled to unemployment benefit; the authorisation of residence should be extended accordingly.”
4417iv) A migrant worker has the possibility to change employer without theconsent of her/his current employer, and without losing valid immigration
status
A migrant worker should be able to identify new employers independently and elect whether
or not to work for them. In this way, the migrant worker would no longer be inextricably
linked to a single employer. This measure would enhance internal labour market mobility to
the benefit of migrant workers and employers.
•

A migrant worker should be eligible for a visa extension that allows her or him to extend legal
residence in the country for a reasonable period of time. This would facilitate the process ofswitching employers in case of any difficulties that arise in the transfer process (Hamill, 2012).

•

Importantly, the right to change employers plays a crucial role in facilitating a migrant worker’s
access to justice. A visa extension should be issued to persons wishing to pursue legal recourse
against their employer though labour tribunals and/or criminal courts until their claims havebeen resolved. The right to pursue compensation is futile for migrant workers who have insecure
immigration status, and are unable to work with another employer in order to financially support
themselves to remain in the country.

v) A migrant worker is able to exit the country without seeking approval
from her/his employer
The exit permit requirement should be abolished in its entirety in countries where it still
exists, as it places serious restrictions on a migrant worker’s freedom of movement.
Similarly, exit bans should be eradicated whereby an employer is able to block a migrant
worker from departing the country of destination upon lodging a complaint with immigration
authorities.
•

In states that do not have exit permits but still require sponsors to cancel residency permits, thelaw/regulations should be amended to enable workers to appeal a cancellation of their permit aswell as the ability to make a claim for any unpaid wages.

Complementary measures proposed
For kafala reform to be truly effective, it should be accompanied by complementarypolicy, legislative and enforcement measures that aim to further reduce migrant workers’
vulnerabilities to abuse and exploitation and redress the unequal power relationship between
employers and migrant workers under the kafala sponsorship system. What follows is a
non-exhaustive list of suggested complementary measures, which are supplemented byproposed recruitment-specific measures covered in a 2016 ILO White Paper (ILO, 2016b):a) Employer-migrant worker relations should be governed by the labour
law and a standard contract
The relationship between the migrant worker and employer should be governed by thelabour law, and thus the scope of the labour law should be extended to all categories of
migrant workers, including domestic workers and agricultural workers. In cases wherethese workers may already receive partial protection under the labour law, exclusionary
provisions should be eliminated so that full coverage of the law applies.
In accordance with the labour law, a standard employment contract, signed by boththe employer and migrant worker, should spell out unambiguous and straightforward
termination clauses that are not under the control of the sponsor, including the migrant
worker’s right to resign and to change employers at will. The standard contract should also
provide clarity in terms of compensation arrangements as well as the minimum working
conditions and rights to which a migrant worker should be entitled. A copy of the standard
18

contract should be made in the worker’s native language (or a language clearly understoodby him or her) and should be used in case of any labour dispute. Furthermore, in the case of
a domestic worker, the standard contract should include unambiguous mobility clauses that
stipulate the migrant worker’s right to leave the household/ workplace during work hours,
rest hours and days off, without having to notify or seek permission from the employer.

b) A national coordination body should be established, or strengthened
where already in existence
To address the challenges of institutional fragmentation, it is crucial that a central
coordinating body under the Ministry of Labour regulate the entry, residence, employment,
transfer and departure of migrant workers. The responsibilities of this coordination body
would include issuing permits, enforcing employment contracts, and carrying out labour
inspection activities (Fakih and Marrouch, 2014). The body would oversee governance ofthe labour force, increase policy coherence and streamline the work of different ministries
with regards to migrant workers. If implemented well, benefits would include increased
harmonization between immigration and labour systems and policies, more consistent
recruitment processes, and improved ability to inspect and respond to work-related abuses.
In considering such coordination mechanisms, authorities may draw lessons from Bahrain’s
LMRA.

c) Address particular vulnerabilities of live-in domestic workers
Live-in domestic workers are particularly vulnerable to abuse by their employer andlimitations on mobility. To address this, live-out models of domestic work should be explored,
including freelancing mechanisms and on demand services, while domestic work should becovered under the labour law or other regulations.

d) Mechanisms should be introduced to decrease number of forced
irregular workers
Introducing bridging visas would alleviate the exploitation associated with undocumented
work, allowing migrant workers to remain in the country long enough to locate a new
employer, and long enough to complete a possible court case and benefit from a possible
financial settlement. Migrant workers who have become irregular through no fault of theirown should be provided a visa (of a minimum of three months to regularize their status
temporarily) through which they would be able to secure new employment with regular
status. If at the end of this timeframe an individual still cannot find regular employment,
his or her case would be passed on to the relevant authority to make a final judgment on
their residency status (Hamill, 2012). Such measures would contribute significantly to internallabour market mobility given that 10-15 per cent of all migrant workers in the GCC are thought
to be in irregular situations (Shah, 2014). This practice in turn could contribute tremendously
to reducing the overall cost of recruitment of workers (by recruiting workers who are alreadyat destination rather than recruiting additional migrant workers from abroad).

e) Dispute settlement and compensation mechanisms should be efficientand well-functioning
Migrant workers should have the right to file labour-related grievances with the Ministryof Labour, assured that proactive measures will be taken to make inquiries and verify
allegations through credible investigation. Migrant workers need to be able to accesscomplaints procedures without fear of intimidation or retaliation and have access to freeor affordable legal assistance and adequate language translation services. Reforms should
also incorporate some measures of due diligence to ensure migrant workers are made awareof their rights and informed on how to access and navigate dispute settlement procedures.
19Capacity building training for law enforcement officials, lawyers and the judiciary on how toprotect the rights of migrant workers, including gender-sensitivity training should also be
undertaken.46
Compensation schemes should be set up to ensure that migrant workers are able to recoup
any unpaid salaries they are owed and recruitment fees they have paid. Provisions should
be made to extend the worker’s visa until their claims have been resolved (Hamill, 2012).
Access to unemployment benefits in line with provisions under the social security law (whereapplicable) may also be required for the worker to support him/herself upon termination of
employment.

f) Legislative and regulatory frameworks should adhere to ILO’s
Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work
National migration frameworks should adhere to the eight core conventions47 that make up
ILO’s Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (FPRW) and take account of other relevantinternational labour standards.48 The rights and freedoms expressed in these standards
should be accorded to all categories of workers, including migrant workers, domestic
workers and irregular workers, and should be accompanied by credible law enforcement.

46
47

48

In particular, dealing with gender-based violence.
Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87); Right to Organise and Collective
Bargaining Convention, 1951 (No. 98); Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29); Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957
(No. 105); Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138); The Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182); Equal
Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100); Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111).
While the countries in the region have not ratified the Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), 1949 (No. 97) and theMigrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975 (No. 143), these migrant worker Conventions also serve asa relevant framework for labour migration governance. Other relevant standards include the Private Employment Agencies
Convention, 1997 (No. 181) and the Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189). Moreover, besides ratifying some of the
FPRW Conventions, countries in the regions have ratified other relevant instruments. For example, the Labour Inspection
Convention, 1947 (No. 81) has been ratified by five GCC countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and UAE.
20

7. CONCLUSION
Arguably, the most problematic feature of sponsorship systems in the GCC countries,
Lebanon and Jordan is the delegation of responsibility by the state to the private employer
to oversee both a migrant worker’s immigration and employment status. Through thelinking of residence and work permits a migrant worker’s immigration status is dependent
on the contractual relationship with the sponsor. This grants employers a level of control
over migrant workers which may violate the latter’s labour rights and impede internallabour market mobility. Therefore, the primary policy objective recommended in this paper
is to explore options to end the control employers currently have over migrant workers withregards to their mobility and legal status.
Measures to free workers from being tied to an individual employer, to enable workers to
be responsible for the renewal of their own permits, and to allow workers to resign, change
employers and exit the country without seeking permission or falling into an irregularmigration status, would have profound impact on the realization of migrant workers’ rights
in the region. It would also create a more dynamic labour market, enhance productivity andcreate a more robust economy that is more resilient to both domestic and foreign shocks.
Addressing the most exploitative elements of kafala and increasing internal labour market
mobility can help countries in the Middle East prepare for additional challenges in the region
related to the sustained low oil price, efforts to nationalize the labour force, high youth
and female unemployment of nationals, and international scrutiny on workers’ rights. The
benefits of greater labour market efficiency would be felt immediately in the areas of skills
development and skill matching, and in the recruitment of migrant workers from the local
labour supply at destination rather than the costly recruitment from countries of origin.
Such reforms also have the potential to reduce the number of irregular migrant workers in
the region, and would contribute to lower overall law enforcement costs.49 Finally, removing
restrictive labour policies would increase competitiveness and result in better scores in theannual Global Competitiveness Index by the World Economic Forum.
As such, reform of employer-migrant worker relationships in the Middle East has thepotential to offer a triple win – for governments, employers and migrant workers.

49

It would also greatly contribute to addressing fraudulent activities surrounding the use of threats of arrest, detention anddeportation of irregular migrant workers. In some countries, practices have been reported where detained migrant workers
are asked for large amounts of money to release them on the spot with no guarantee not to be detained the next time they areapprehended.

21

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