山陽論叢 第 25 巻 （2018）

論文
論文

The Importance of Reflection in Study Abroad
Stephen M. Ryan1)

Keywords: Study Abroad, Reflection, Learning
The goal of Study Abroad programmes, from an educational perspective, is forparticipants to learn from their sojourn in a new and different environment. This paper
will examine the pre-requisites for such learning, in particular the crucial role ofreflection in the learning process, and suggest some practical measures for enhancing
the learning opportunities offered by Study Abroad programmes.
It is important to note that what is being discussed here is not the formal learning
opportunities that arise from enrolment in classes at an overseas university.
Mechanisms for the transfer of credit between universities are designed to ensure thatformal learning is as similar as possible, in content if not in style, to courses students
would have taken if they had remained at their home university. Potential differencesin course style, together with differences in the physical, social and conceptual
environment at and around the host institution, constitute possibilities for informal
learning which are far richer and more extensive than those afforded by the formal
curriculum.
Consequently, it is important that Study Abroad programme participants should
be both primed for informal learning before their programme begins and supported intheir informal learning during and after the programme. Failure to provide such priming
and support would seriously undermine the educational potential of Study Abroad.

Reflection and Learning
Informal learning, or learning from observation and experience, is an area ofscholarly investigation which has generated a rich literature, dating back to Aristotle’s
Nicomachean Ethics (trans. 2000), but the most widely respected model has emerged,
since the 1970s from the work of David A. Kolb under the title “Experiential Learning”(1984). Kolb draws on work by Dewey (2009), Lewin (1946) and Piaget (1977) to produce
a four-stage, cyclical model of Experiential Learning (see Figure 1).
Kolb’s cycle begins when the learner experiences something new and noteworthy.
The learner then reflects on the experience, placing it in the context of previous
experiences, resulting in an abstract conceptualisation of the experience, often in theform of a testable hypothesis. The learner then manipulates the environment, or
conducts
furtherobservations
to
test
out
the
hypothesis.
Theexperimentation/observation generates further novel experiences and the cycle begins

1)

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Stephen M. Ryan ： The Importance of Reflection in Study Abroad

again, generating conceptualisations that correspond more and more closely to theenvironment. This, in Kolb’s terms, is learning.

Concrete Experience

Active Experimentation

Abstract Conceptualisation

Reflection

Figure 1. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle. Based on Kolb (1984).

To take a practical example from a Study Abroad programme: a student fromJapan studying in Australia notices her host mother appears rather concerned about thestudent’s consumption of water for her daily shower (concrete experience). The student
reflects on this experience, which is unlike her own mother’s attitude to water
consumption in Japan. She remembers from Social Studies lessons that Australia has a
dry climate and much of the country is desert (reflection). She wonders if Australians
tend to view water a scarce commodity (abstract conceptualisation) and looks for otherevidence that this might be true (experimentation). Next day, she notices the very highprice of bottled drinking water in a convenience store. This observation than leads tofurther reflections, conceptualisations and experiments on Australian attitudes to water
and, possibly, other natural resources. At the same time, she continues to examine her
own attitude to water.
What is clear from Kolb’s model is that, for learning to occur, experience alone is
not enough. In order to learn from experience, we must reflect on it. Experience without
reflection is not learning.

Reflection and Study Abroad
This assertion resonates with an emerging consensus among scholars who workwith Study Abroad students in (and from) the United States. Both Vande Berg, Paige,
and Lou (2012a) and Bennett (2012) refer to a paradigm shift in the field over the last
hundred years, away from a positivistic or Newtonian paradigm to a relativistic one andfrom there to a constructivist one. The positivistic paradigm emphises the importance ofexperience, of “being there,” of having direct encounters with the new environment; it
provides the theoretical basis for the “Grand Tour” approach to Study Abroad, where
going to places and seeing what they are like provides the core experience. Both

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relativistic and constructivist paradigms assert that just “being there” is not enough forlearning to occur; learning, under these paradigms, occurs when experience leads toreflection. In the case of relativism, this reflection on how and why the new environment
differs from a more familiar environment and, with a constructivist approach, it isreflection on how the new environment impacts the student’s view of the world andhis/her own identity.
What is particularly interesting about this shift from “experience” to “experience+ reflection” is that it has come about less from changes in theoretical viewpoints thanit has from the empirical experience of people whose job is to advise Study Abroad
students. As Vande Berg, Paige, and Lou (each of whom has long experience of “foreign
student advising”) report: “Not all faculty and staff are convinced . . . that most students
are more or less automatically gaining the sorts of knowledge, perspectives, and skills
that are important for living and working in a global society merely through being
exposed to the new and different in another country” (2012a, p. 5). They go on (Vande
Berg, Paige, & Lou, 2012b) to advocate a constructivist approach to preparing students
to study abroad, including long and frequent opportunities to reflect on the experienceof “being there.”

Reflection and Learning
Further support for the centrality of reflection in learning from new experiencescomes from the emerging field of Mind, Brain, and Education, which seeks to apply thelesson of Psychology and Neuroscience to education. After an extensive review of theliterature in each of these fields (Psychology, Neuroscience, and Education), a panel ofdistinguished scholars divided their findings into four groups (Tokuhama-Espinosa,
2011): (A) what is well-established; (B) what is probably so; (C) what is intelligent
speculation and (D) what is popular misconception. Among the “probably true” group is
the finding that:
B1. Human brains seek out and quickly detect novelty(Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2011, p. 78).
As well as explaining much of the motivation for studying abroad in the first place, thisfinding goes some way to explaining how the brain functions in Study Abroad contexts:
it seeks out new things and new experiences. Scholars have suggested that this instinct
developed, in evolutionary terms, as a way of dealing with hostile environments in which
what is new or different could very well be lethal, too (Balderston, Schultz, &Helmstetter, 2011). Coupled with the brain’s dopamine-reward system, which releases
pleasure chemicals to reinforce desirable, in this case, species-saving behaviours, thisinstinct now provides the basis for human learning (Wise, 2004).
Being drawn to novelty in itself, however, is only the beginning of the learning
process. Once the brain has taken note of difference it then seeks to make sense of it.
Here, a number of the findings of Tokuhama-Espinosa’s (2011) panel are relevant:B19. The search for meaning is innate in human nature.
A5. Connecting new information to prior learning facilitates learning.

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Stephen M. Ryan ： The Importance of Reflection in Study Abroad

B2. Human brains seek patterns upon which they predict outcomes.
(p. 78)
These three findings, combined, constitute a powerful statement for the centrality ofreflection: having found an anomaly, the brain does not rest until it has found a way tomake sense of it by integrating it into previous learning. The process of integration
involves both viewing the novelty in the light of previous experience and modifying
understandings of previous experiences in order to accommodate the novel experience.
Among the results of this process are a new understanding of the anomalous experience,usually in the form of a hypothesis that can be tested against future experience (seeKolb’s model, above) and a new understanding of a world that includes the (previously)
anomalous experience. This second new understanding constitutes the “pattern” referred
to in Tokuhama-Espinosa’s panel’s B2): a pattern which can be used to predict future
experiences and prepare the brain to deal with them. This process of making sense isrewarded by a further shot of dopamine to thrill the student’s body and encourage future
sense-making reflection (Wise, 2004).
This learning process is not only natural and self-rewarding, there is also evidence
that its lessons are stronger and clearer than those taught by teachers and textbooks inmore formal learning contexts. To quote Tokuhama-Espinosa’s (2011) panel:
B16. When knowledge is actively constructed by a learner, the learner will be
motivated and engaged in learning.
(p. 78)Reflection and Cognition
Lewis and Durrant (2011) offer an understanding of the kind of processing involved
when the brain turns individual events into a pattern on which to base predictions of
future events. They give the example of a birthday party. A person may experience manydifferent kinds of birthday party. In order to form a pattern from these experiences, thebrain needs to strip away the non-standard elements from each experience in order toarrive at a common core of events that can be used to identify a gathering as a birthday
party and to predict what is likely to happen at such a gathering. The standard core may
consist of a cake, presents, smiles, congratulations and food that is rarely eaten on otheroccasions. Having this pattern in mind can help the person to avoid, for example, theembarrassment of turning up without a present or looking too sombre. Should the ownerof the brain subsequently study abroad in, say, Mexico and attend a number of birthday
parties there, their pattern for birthday parties may need to be modified to include thepossibility of a piñata.
While Lewis and Durrant present this idea as a hypothesis still waiting for
empirical verification, it is clear that some such process must be responsible for theability to turn discreet experiences into models and patterns, the stage of Kolb’s model(above) labelled as “Abstract Conceptualisation.” It is equally clear that this kind of
cognitive activity could not occur without reflection: it is necessary to reflect on an
experience in order to extract any kind of essence from it.

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Moving deeper into the cognitive processes, Clark’s (2015) model of the role ofprediction in both thought and action underlines the importance of the patterns ormodels resulting from the synthesis of multiple experiences. Clark claims that the ability
to predict what will happen next is the basis not only for our understanding of the world
but also of our ability to act in the world. The brain has been characterised as a“prediction machine” (Chennu et al, 2013), existing solely to provide predictions about
what is likely to happen next: to make those predictions, it relies on patterns constructedfrom myriad discreet experiences, taking note only when a new experience fails to
conform to what has been predicted from existing patterns. The “error message” (Clark,2015) arising from a mis-match between prediction and reality is then used to modify
the pattern in order to make more accurate predictions in the future.
Needless to say, this process of “prediction–error message–modified pattern–
modified prediction” is both cyclical and ongoing, operating continually as the brain
gathers more information by experiencing its environment. An understanding of thisprocess is particularly relevant to Study Abroad as the whole point of Study Abroad is toplace the brain in a novel environment, one that will challenge the brain’s ability to makesense of it. The sheer number of novel experiences provided by the first few hours andthe extra work the brain has to do to make sense of them is one of the explanations of
why the first hours and days in new surroundings can be so tiring.
Clark’s “error messages” and the process they entail are largely unconscious,
though Kahneman (2013) does suggest that some disconfirmations of expectations are
so large and disconcerting that they lead to the brain being engaged on a conscious level.
Interestingly, Lewis and Durrant (2011) propose their theory of pattern building in thecontext of sleep research, suggesting that much of this processing occurs while the bodyis resting. Sleep scientists have long known that the brain is more active when its owneris asleep than awake (Lewis, 2014); Lewis and Durrant suggest that the consolidation ofmemory (reflection) is one of the things that keep the brain so active. However, theevidence of the Study Abroad advisers (Vande Berg, Paige, & Lou, 2012b) suggests that
there is much to be gained by helping Study Abroad students make at least some of thesethought processes conscious.

Impediments to Reflection
Not reflecting on experience during Study Abroad can have many causes and takeseveral forms. The natural tiredness incurred by travelling to a new place and settling
into circumstances necessarily different from home (Gilme, 2013) can be compounded,
as we have seen, by the pressures on the overworked brain as it struggles with
unfamiliar input. This tiredness, in itself, can be a major reason for not reflecting on
novel experiences and possibly even for ceasing to notice the new things in theenvironment.
Compounding the effects of tiredness are the symptoms of stress. Stress is asurvival mechanism, initially functioning as a way of dealing with potential threats fromthe environment. It consists of a series of complex neurological changes, principally
involving norepinephrine and cortisol (Ratey, 2008, pp. 62–63) and commonly known as“fight or flight.” When triggered by a potential threat, this cascade of chemicals has the- 73 -

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effect of narrowing the brain’s focus to those needed to perceive, identify and react to thesource of possible danger. Physiological and cognitive processes not need in the battle tosurvive the immediate (potential) threat are subdued and, at times, switched off
altogether (Ratey, 2008). Clearly, a Study Abroad environment, full of novelty, canappear to the brain to pose many potential dangers. In reacting to these stimuli, thecapacity to reflect on a new experience in terms other than “threat/no threat” may be
severely limited by the brain’s own defence mechanisms.
Attitudinal factors can also inhibit reflection. In Bennett’s (1986) widely-cited
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, the first stage of reactions to a newenvironment is characterised as “Denial of Difference.” Surrounded by a novel andpotentially threatening environment, one of the most common initial reactions, themodel claims, is to deny that there is anything novel or threatening about theenvironment at all: “It is just like home!” The model, initially based on empirical evidence
from large numbers of Study Abroad students (Bennett, 1986) has since been used as abasis for many studies of acculturation to new environments (Hammer, 2012). In the
majority of cases, these studies reveal that not only do most Study Abroad students
tested begin their overseas sojourn with the state of mind labelled as “Denial ofDifference,” a significant number also end their overseas experience with most of their
responses still falling into the “Denial of Difference” category (Hammer, 2012). If
students are in denial about the existence of many of the differences they encounter, theycannot even begin to reflect on them, at least not consciously.
Another attitude that tends to shut down the possibility of reflection can becharacterised as, “Yes. This is exactly what I expected.” Although the old adage has itthat travel broadens the mind, the author once had the experience of travelling to a
distant and exotic land with a friend whose purpose seemed to be the opposite: rather
than broadening his mind, he was travelling to confirm his expectations. At every turn
he would confirm to himself that conditions in this new environment were just as he had
expected them to be. This is not so much a denial of difference as an acknowledgementof it that, nevertheless, hinders further thought and investigation. Reflection does notoccur because there is nothing to reflect on.
This is close to the “tourism” attitude, where visits to novel environments areundertaken in order to collect things. Souvenirs, anecdotes, photos, and experiences are
all sought for as mementoes of a place visited. At a later date they are presented to others
for their edification and, principally, entertainment. Facebook, Instagram and blogs
have now superseded the photo album, scrapbook and travel diaries as repositories ofunanalysed experience. The purpose of such travel appears to be not learning throughreflection but the collection of trivia. So many students approach Study Abroad with thisattitude (Gardner, Gross, & Steglitz, 2008) that it sometimes appears that theeducational benefits claimed for Study Abroad are just a thin academic veneer ofrespectability covering a hedonistic pursuit of raw experience.
A further non-reflective attitude acknowledges differences in the host environment
but labels them as “cultural” and effectively files them away without further analysis.
This attitude is a close relative to the uneducated and now largely unacceptable response
to difference that, “Foreigners are crazy; that’s why they do weird thing.” While more
acceptable in educated circles, labelling any difference encountered as “cultural” is just

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山陽論叢 第 25 巻 （2018）as effective in shutting down further inquiry. Young people travelling abroad for the firsttime are not the only ones who are susceptible to this attitude: much academic researchin the fields of Intercultural Communication and Cross-cultural Psychology consists ofcomparing data sets collected in different geographical locations, seeking obvious
explanations for some of the variability in the data sets (eg. “One sample was slightly
older, on average, than the other, so some of the variation may be age-related.”),controlling for that variable, and then labelling any variability that cannot be explainedin these terms as a “cultural” difference (Ryan, 2000). As an explanatory variable“culture” fails in its most essential role: it does not explain anything. In terms more
understandable to Study Abroad students, it is perhaps best to say that “culture” should
not be the end of a conversation about differences in the host environment; it should be
the beginning.

An Example of Reflection
Having reviewed some of the impediments to reflection, perhaps it is time to offer
a more worked out example of what reflection looks like in practice.
On the first evening of an accompanied Study Abroad visit to the Philippines, agroup of Japanese students took a walk in central Manila and were very surprised tofind pigs, chickens, and other livestock being kept in a compound just next to what
appeared to be a luxury apartment complex. Once they had noticed this, they began to
pay attention to other examples of what they termed “rich and poor people living side byside.”
Later that night, in a hotel-room discussion, the accompanying teacher pushedthem to imagine why this might be. After a few half-hearted suggestions, one member ofthe group said: “I think it is because there is no democracy here. In Japan we do not see
such things because we have democracy.” This quickly became the group consensus, but
the teacher encouraged them to ask their Filipino hosts about democracy in thePhilippines.
Later in the stay, the nightly discussion topic returned to democracy and several
students reported that they and been told by Filipino friends that the Philippines wasindeed a democratic country. In fact, most had heard stories of how, in living memory,the people had taken to the streets and overthrown a non-democratic president. Others
had been given details of voting procedures and frequency of elections.
One student reported that a Filipino friend had mentioned doubts about thequality of Japanese democracy, since the friend had heard that the same political party
had been in power in Japan since the 1950s. While the initial reaction to this was rather
defensive, a lively discussion on the nature of democracy and its different qualities andmanifestations ensued.
Later, when the Japanese students returned from overnight homestays, they
became very interested in the fact that their host families all had live-in maids and somefamilies had a very extensive domestic staff. The teacher referred them back to theircomments on rich and poor living conditions and they began to understand that relations
between the well off and the less well off were much more nuanced than they had initiallyappreciated. One student reflected further that there were also rich and poor people inJapan but they tended to keep away from each other.

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Through this extended process of reflection the Study Abroad students not only
learned about life in the Philippines but also had a chance to reflect on their own lives
in Japan. Their sense of what is “normal” or “reasonable” was expanded. Their desire
and ability to look below the surface of things were enhanced. Perhaps most importantly,
several of them commented that the more they reflected on and investigated an issue themore interesting it became.

Encouraging Reflection
From the outset, the Study Abroad programme should be framed for students as alearning experience. It is worth stating explicitly that the goal is not tourism, or shopping,or experience collecting, but learning. Students may, at first, have little idea of whatkind of learning is expected, but the emphasis on learning needs to be present
throughout, both for the academic credibility of the programme and for the chance it
offers to shape students’ attitudes in approaching the Study Abroad experience. On
accompanied programmes, each conversation with a student can begin with “So, what
did you learn today?” A similar effect can be achieved while keeping in touch withunaccompanied Study Abroad students by email or some form of social media. Postprogramme follow up should be framed in a similar fashion.
A first step towards encouraging reflection is to make sure students keep a recordof things that strike them as strange or different. Especially in the first days in a novel
environment, new experiences come quickly and frequently. Without some form ofrecording mechanism, many of them will be forgotten before they can be reflected on,
and even those which are initially reflected on may be lost to memory before comparison
with other similar experiences becomes possible. Fortunately, most students these now
carry a camera with them as part of their daily lives. They should be encouraged tophotograph anything that strikes them as unusual. In accompanied programmes, asking
each student to take a hundred photos a day of things that they would not see at home
is not an unreasonable goal. A similar level of alertness can be encouraged in nonaccompanied students by having them send one or two photos a day of things they findunusual together with a short explanation, by email or social medium. Non-visual or
hard to photograph differences can be recorded in a notebook.
In moving students on through the experiential learning cycle from observation toreflection, the simple question “Why?” can be a most effective ally. A student notes adifference and is immediately asked why s/he think the difference occurs. An attempted
explanation can be deepened by a “Why do you think so?” Other, nuanced prompts forthinking include: “Have you noticed anything similar?” “How do people deal with this inyour own country” “How could we check out that theory?” and “Have you seen otherthings that could be explained in a similar way?” For best effect, these questions are
asked in person during an accompanied programme, though a similar dialogue can be
conducted through social media with unaccompanied students. Eventually, the goal is tohave students ask themselves these questions without being prompted by a teacher.
While pre-departure Orientation sessions tend to be taken up with practicalitiesof passports, airline tickets and course registration, they also offer the opportunity to
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approach their Study Abroad experience. A series of provocative pictures from aroundthe world (see, for example, Menzel, 2007 and Mollison, 2010) can be used to stimulate
students to reflect on differences in people’s daily lives without specific reference to thearea of the world they are about to visit. Orientation is also a good time to have students
explore and share what they think they know about the place they are going to visit.
Such an activity can lead to a questioning of how they know what they think they know,a question which should become a part of the reflection process.
Gilmour (2007) advocates training Study Abroad students as ethnographers andsending off to their overseas destination as fully fledged participant observers. While
this may be too time-consuming and unnecessarily rigorous for most Study Abroad
programmes, a brief D.I.E. exercise (Intercultural Communication Institute, 2008),
which encourages participants to distinguish between their description, interpretation,and evaluation of an event or phenomenon, can be used to train students to bring somediscipline to their reflective processes.
During accompanied programmes, time can often be included in the daily schedule
for reflection. Ideally, a reflection session would be held each day in comfortablesurroundings, secluded from the rich variety of experiences offered by the hostenvironment, and with access to audio-visual equipment so that students can illustrate
their reflections with photographs from the hundreds they have been encouraged to take.
Including such sessions in the programme schedule is a good way of reminding students
that reflection is just as important as experience for learning. If resources of time andequipment are not so readily available, group meal times often provide an opportunity
for stimulating reflection with as simple a question as “What’s the most interesting thing
you saw today?” Failing that, time spent in transit can also be used in a similar fashion.
Obviously, such detailed discussions are more difficult to achieve withunaccompanied programmes. Slower, less detailed discussions can be conducted throughsocial media, especially if students have a duty to report back regularly to the hostinstitution, but the role of the teacher here is much more as provoker of thought than as
discussant. This lack of opportunity for detailed discussions in unaccompanied
programmes makes pre-departure training and post-return reporting much more
important for unaccompanied than for accompanied students.
Most programmes have some kind of reporting requirement for students returningfrom Study Abroad. These can be used to encourage students both to continue theirreflections on their experiences overseas and to begin integrating these reflections into
their life in the home country. A written report, poster or PowerPoint presentation,
instead of giving a factual account of places visited, foods eaten, or courses taken can beused for reflection either on the experience in general or on one particular aspect of it.
Sharing such reports with members of the home university community can have amultiplier effect, not only in encouraging more students to study abroad, but also in
exposing them to the kind of reflection that makes new experiences valuable.

Conclusion
There is nothing unnatural about reflection. It is an essential element in alllearning, whether we use the word “learning” in its formal sense of acquiring new skills- 77 -

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and knowledge or the more general sense of the ways in which an organism (the humanbrain) adapts to its environment.
Given the impediments, neurological, physiological and attitudinal, that may
prevent our students from reflecting on their Study Abroad experiences, however, it isuseful to remind them of the importance of reflection, to prime them to reflect on their
host environment and to support them in their efforts to make sense of their experiences.
Indeed, failure to do this is to fail in our responsibility as educators to make sure ourstudents receive the best possible educational benefits of their time abroad.
The implications of a focus on reflection, though, extend far beyond Study Abroad
programmes. Since reflection is such a natural part of learning, especially informal
learning, the habits of mind encouraged by reflective Study Abroad are exactly the habitsof mind that will support our students in their lifelong journey of learning.

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