December 2023

Afghanistan Country Focus

Country of Origin Information

Afghanistan – Country Focus
Country of Origin Information Report

December 2023

Manuscript completed in October 2023
Neither the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) nor any person acting on behalf of the
EUAA is responsible for the use that might be made of the information contained within thispublication.
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2023
PDF

ISBN 978-92-9403-554-7 doi: 10.2847/453933 BZ-09-23-462-EN-N© European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), 2023
Cover photo: JASON AFFOLDER ©jasonaffolder, 2022
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproductionof photos or other material that is not under the EUAA copyright, permission must be sought
directly from the copyright holders.

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Acknowledgements
This report was written by the Country of Origin Information (COI) sector of EUAA.
The following national COI departments reviewed the report:•

Austria, Federal Office for Immigration and Asylum, Country of Origin Information
Department•

Belgium, Centre for Documentation and Research (CEDOCA), Office of theCommissioner General for Refugees and Stateless Persons•

France, Office for the Protection of Refugees and Stateless Persons (OFPRA),
Information, Documentation and Research Division (DIDR)•The Netherlands, Ministry of Justice and Security, Immigration and Naturalisation
Service, Office for Country Information and Language Analysis (OCILA)•

Sweden, Unit for Migration Analysis, the Swedish Migration Agency.

The review carried out by the mentioned departments contributes to the overall quality of thereport, but does not necessarily imply their formal endorsement of the final report, which is thefull responsibility of the EUAA.

5

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMContents
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ 5Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Disclaimer ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Glossary and abbreviations ......................................................................................................... 10
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 11
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 11
Defining the terms of reference .................................................................................. 11
Collecting information .................................................................................................... 11
Quality control .................................................................................................................. 11
Sources ................................................................................................................................................. 12
Sources on security incidents ..................................................................................... 12
Structure and use of the report ...................................................................................................... 15
Terminology ..................................................................................................................... 15
Map .................................................................................................................................................16
1.

Situation of the general population under Taliban rule ................................................ 17
1.1. Political context ........................................................................................................................... 17
1.1.1. Territorial control and armed opposition ....................................................... 17
1.1.2. International recognition and government formation ............................... 18
1.1.3. Political opposition and civic space ............................................................... 19
1.2. Implementation of sharia ........................................................................................................ 21
1.2.1. Issued instructions .............................................................................................. 21
1.2.2. Policy implementation ...................................................................................... 24
1.2.3. Corporal and capital punishments ................................................................ 25

2.

Security situation ............................................................................................................. 29
2.1. Recent security trends ............................................................................................................ 29
2.2. Armed groups and armed confrontations ...........................................................................312.2.1. Activities of resistance groups .........................................................................312.2.2. Activities of ISKP ................................................................................................ 32
2.2.3. Explosions and other events in Kabul Province .........................................34
2.2.4. Other recorded events ..................................................................................... 35

6

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

2.3. Impact of the violence on the civilian population ............................................................ 36
2.3.1. Internal displacement and returns ................................................................ 40
2.4. Recent crime trends...................................................................................................................41
2.5. Recruitment into the Taliban and armed groups ............................................................. 42
3.

Humanitarian situation .................................................................................................... 45
3.1. The economic and humanitarian crisis ............................................................................... 45
3.2. Poverty, basic subsistence and employment .................................................................... 47
3.3. Food security ............................................................................................................................. 50
3.4. Housing ....................................................................................................................................... 53
3.5. Healthcare .................................................................................................................................. 53

4.

Treatment of certain profiles and groups of the population ....................................... 56
4.1. Officials of the former government’s public sector and security sector ................... 56
4.1.1. The general amnesty and its implementation............................................ 56
4.1.2. Extrajudicial killings and other human rights abuses ............................... 58
4.1.3. Revenge and other motives ............................................................................ 59
4.1.4. Victim profiles ..................................................................................................... 60
4.1.5. Family members of former civilian and security personnel .................... 62
4.1.6. Former judges and prosecutors .................................................................... 63
4.2. Persons formerly affiliated with foreign forces ................................................................. 64
4.3. Persons with perceived affiliation to armed groups ....................................................... 65
4.3.1. Suspected NRF affiliates .................................................................................. 66
4.3.2. Suspected ISKP affiliates ..................................................................................67
4.3.3. Impact on other communities ......................................................................... 69
4.4. Women and girls ......................................................................................................................... 71
4.4.1. General situation under Taliban rule .............................................................. 71
4.4.2. Freedom of expression and assembly .......................................................... 73
4.4.3. Freedom of movement ...................................................................................... 74
4.4.4. Access to education...........................................................................................75
4.4.5. Access to employment ...................................................................................... 77
4.4.6. Access to healthcare and basic services .....................................................79
4.4.7. Violence against women ..................................................................................79
4.4.8. Access to justice ................................................................................................. 81
4.5. Ethnic and religious groups .................................................................................................... 81

7

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.5.1. General situation under Taliban rule ............................................................. 81
4.5.2. Religious freedom.............................................................................................. 84
4.5.3. Hazaras and other Shia groups ..................................................................... 85
4.6. Journalists and media workers ............................................................................................. 89
4.7. Human rights defenders and activists ................................................................................. 91
4.8. Humanitarian workers ............................................................................................................. 93
4.9. Education personnel................................................................................................................ 94
4.10. Family members of dissenting voices and of persons with perceived
affiliation to armed groups ............................................................................................................. 95
4.11. Returnees .................................................................................................................................. 96
4.11.1. Cross-border movements ................................................................................ 96
4.11.2. Commercial flights ..............................................................................................97
4.11.3. Attitudes towards people leaving Afghanistan...........................................97
4.11.4. Taliban reactions towards returnees ............................................................ 98
4.11.5. Societal reactions and challenges ...............................................................100
4.12. Individuals and behaviour perceived as influenced by foreign values .......... .........101
4.12.1. Western influence .............................................................................................. 101
4.12.2.Music and musicians ........................................................................................ 101
Annex 1: Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 103
Oral sources ...................................................................................................................................... 103
Public sources................................................................................................................................... 103
Annex 2: Terms of Reference .................................................................................................... 158
Annex 3: Lists of national Taliban decrees and instructions ................................................. 160

8

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Disclaimer
This report was written according to the EUAA COI Report Methodology (2023). The report isbased on carefully selected sources of information. All sources used are referenced.
The information contained in this report has been researched, evaluated and analysed withutmost care. However, this document does not claim to be exhaustive. If a particular event,person or organisation is not mentioned in the report, this does not mean that the event has
not taken place or that the person or organisation does not exist.
Furthermore, this report is not conclusive as to the determination or merit of any particularapplication for international protection. Terminology used should not be regarded asindicative of a particular legal position.
‘Refugee’, ‘risk’ and similar terminology are used as generic terminology and not in the legal
sense as applied in the EU Asylum Acquis, the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967
Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees.
Neither the EUAA, nor any person acting on its behalf, may be held responsible for the use
which may be made of the information contained in this report.
The reference period of this report ends on 30 September 2023. Events taking place after thisdate are not included in this report. For more information on the reference period of thisreport, see the Introduction.

9

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMGlossary and abbreviations
Term

Definition

ALP

Afghan Local Police

ANA

Afghanistan National Army

ANDSF

Afghan National Defense and Security Forces

COI

Country of Origin Information

GDI

General Directorate of Intelligence

IDP

Internally Displaced Person

IED

Improvised Explosive Device

ISKP

Islamic State Khorasan Province

Madrassa

Islamic religious school

MPVPVMinistry for the Propagation of Virtue andPrevention of VicemullahIslamic religious cleric

NDS

National Directorate of Security

NGO

Non-Governmental Organisation

NRF

National Resistance Front

Pashtunwali

traditional social, cultural, and quasi-legal
code regulating the Pashtun way of life

SIV

Special Immigration Visa

shariathe religious law of Islam; Islamic canonical
law

shura

A decision-making community council; often
formed for non-State dispute settlement;
made up of a group of people with
community authority (elders) to discuss andfind solutions to a problem.

UNAMA

United Nations Assistance Mission in
Afghanistan

10

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Introduction
The purpose of this report is to provide information relevant for international protection statusdetermination, including refugee status and subsidiary protection, and in particular for use in
updating EUAA’s country guidance development on Afghanistan.
The report covers the period of 1 July 2022–30 September 2023. The report is partly to beread as an update of the following COI reports published in August 2022: (1) EUAA COI
Report: Afghanistan – Targeting of individuals, (2) EUAA COI Report: Afghanistan – Security
Situation, and (3) EUAA COI Report – Key socio-economic indicators in Afghanistan and in
Kabul City. Events taking place after the end of the reference period have not been included.

Methodology
This report was drafted by EUAA and reviewed by EUAA and national COI departments in EU+
countries, as mentioned in the Acknowledgements section.
This report is produced in line with the EUAA COI Report Methodology (2023)1 and the EUAA
COI Writing and Referencing Style Guide (2023).2

Defining the terms of reference
The terms of reference (ToR) of this report were defined by EUAA based on discussions held
and input received from COI experts in the EUAA COI Specialist Network on Afghanistan andfrom policy experts in EU+ countries within the framework of a Country Guidancedevelopment on Afghanistan. The ToR for this report can be found in Annex 2: Terms ofReference.

Collecting information
The information gathered is a result of research using public, specialised paper-based andelectronic sources until 20 October 2023. Some limited additional information was added
during the finalisation of this report in response to feedback received during the quality
control process, until 23 November 2023.

Quality control
To ensure that the authors respected the EUAA COI Report Methodology and that the Termsof Reference were comprehensively addressed, a review was carried out by COI specialists
from the countries listed as reviewers in the Acknowledgements section. All comments madeby the reviewers were taken into consideration and most of them were implemented in the
EUAA, EUAA Country of Origin Information (COI) Report Methodology, February 2023, url
EUAA, EUAA Writing and Referencing Guide for EUAA Country of Origin Information (COI) Reports, February
2023, url
12

11

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

final draft of this report, which was finalised on 23 November 2023. EUAA also performed thefinal quality review and editing of the text.

Sources
In accordance with EUAA COI Report Methodology, a range of different publisheddocumentary sources have been consulted on relevant topics for this report. These include:
COI reports by governments; information from civil society, advocacy groups, humanitarianorganisations, and NGOs; international and NGO human rights reports; reports produced byvarious bodies of the United Nations; Afghan and regionally-based media and social media;
academic publications and think tank reports and specialised sources covering Afghanistan.
All information from these sources was consulted within time constraints and within the
research constraints posed by Afghanistan’s challenging information-gathering environment.
In addition to using publicly available documentary sources, several oral sources were
contacted for this report. Some sources who were interviewed chose to remain anonymous.
Sources were assessed for their background, publication history, reputability and current
ground-level knowledge. All oral sources are described in the Annex 1: Bibliography.
The local Afghan media outlet Hasht-e Subh has been used as a source, although a shift in thereporting tone has been noted since the Taliban takeover on 15 August 2021. The source
provides information that is highly critical of the Taliban, especially as regards events related
to the Taliban’s crackdowns on resistance groups and events taking place in Panjsher
Province and adjacent areas. This source is, however, one of the few local sources reportingin English and that covers events related to the resistance. Due to difficulties assessing thereliability of this source, a case-by-case assessment has been carried out before including
reports from it. Particular care has been taken on topics related to resistance groups, events
taking place in Panjsher Province and adjacent areas, as well as the Taliban’s interaction withthe local population in these areas.

Sources on security incidents
Data of the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project (ACLED)3 and the Uppsala Conflict
Data Program (UCDP)4 have been used for information on security events and fatalities. Data
provided by UN reports have also been used in some sections.
ACLED is a project that collects, analyses and maps information on ‘dates, actors, locations,fatalities, and types of all reported political violence and protest events around the world’.5 For
Afghanistan, ACLED covers political violence and protests spanning from January 2017 to thepresent. Each week, around 110 sources are reviewed in English, Dari/Farsi, Pashto, andArabic and the information is compiled in a database.6 The EUAA downloaded the ACLED
ACLED, The Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project - Bringing clarity to crisis, n.d., url
UCDP, Department of Peace and Conflict Research – Uppsala University, Sweden, n.d., url
5
ACLED, About ACLED, n.d., url
6
ACLED, ACLED Methodology and Coding Decisions around Political Violence and Demonstrations in Afghanistan(Version 5), February 2022, url, pp. 3, 10
3

4

12

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

curated data files on Central Asia and the Caucasus, including Afghanistan, on 17 October
2023, which are used in this report.
ACLED explains the methodology applied for coding and monitoring the data in a codebook
and in a specific methodology for Afghanistan.7 As ACLED points out, the reader should beaware of some limitations, including the fact that ‘most of the data is gathered based on
publicly available, secondary reports’. Thus, the data is in part a reflection of the coverage andreporting priorities of media and international organisations. One effect of this is that it may
under-estimate the volume of events of non-strategic importance (for example, low-levelcommunal conflict, or events in very isolated areas). ACLED addresses this possibility by‘triangulating data sources to include humanitarian and international organisation reports,
rather than media alone; and by conducting ground-truthing exercises’ in which they ‘present
data to local organisations and partners to assess its validity among people working directly in
conflict-affected contexts’.8 Based on the above, ACLED's figures in this report are to beconsidered as an estimate and illustration of violence trends over a given time period.9
ACLED also provides an estimated number of fatalities for each security event, but notes that‘[f]atality data are typically the most biased, and least accurate, component of any conflict data’and ‘should be treated as “reported fatalities”’.10 Furthermore, ACLED’s fatality figures include
the reported deaths in totality per event, and do not distinguish civilian deaths.11
ACLED records six event types: battles, explosions/remote violence, violence against civilians,
protests, riots and strategic developments.12 For the analysis of the security situation in
Afghanistan in this report, only battles, explosions/remote violence and violence against
civilians were included as incidents. ACLED uses the following definitions of these event
types:••

Battle: ‘a violent interaction between two politically organized armed groups’ which
occur ‘at a particular time and location’, ‘between armed and organised state, nonstate, and external groups, and in any combination therein’. There is no fatality
threshold for an incident to be included. Sub-events associated with ‘battles’ aredesignated according to the events outcome and consist of ‘armed clash’,‘government regains territory’, and ‘non-state actor overtakes territory’.13
Violence against civilians: ‘violent events where an organized armed groupdeliberately inflicts violence upon unarmed non-combatants’ and includes attempts at
inflicting harm (e.g. beating, shooting, torture, rape, mutilation) or forcibly disappearing
civilian actors. Sub-events associated with ‘violence against civilians’ are: ‘sexual

ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url; ACLED, ACLED
Methodology and Coding Decisions around Political Violence and Demonstrations in Afghanistan (Version 5),
February 2022, url, pp. 3, 8; ACLED, ACLED’s Afghanistan Coverage: Adapting Sourcing Strategy in an Evolving
Context, 16 March 2022, url
8
ACLED, Guide for Media Users, January 2015, url, pp. 9–10
9ACLED, ACLED Methodology and Coding Decisions around Political Violence and Demonstrations in Afghanistan(Version 5), February 2022, url, p. 3
10
ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url, p. 32
11
ACLED, ACLED Methodology and Coding Decisions around Political Violence and Demonstrations in Afghanistan(Version 5), February 2022, url, p. 19
12
ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url, p. 8
13
ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url, pp. 8–9
713

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM•

violence’, ‘attack’, and ‘abduction/forced disappearance’. It should be noted that all
violence against civilians do not fall under this category, as civilians can also be
harmed as ‘collateral damage’ in ‘explosions’ and ‘battles’ – in such cases a separate
civilian-specific event is not recorded, although the number of fatalities is aggravated.14
Explosions/remote violence: ‘one-sided violent events in which the tool for engaging
in conflict creates asymmetry by taking away the ability of the target to respond’. The
sub-event types associated with ‘explosions/remote violence’ are ‘chemical weapon’,‘air/drone strike’, ‘suicide bomb’, ‘shelling/artillery/missile attack’, ‘remote
explosive/landmine/IED’, and ‘grenade’.15

ACLED identifies three codes for the geo-precision of events taking place in a particular townwith available coordinates (geo-precision 1), ‘a small part of a region’ or ‘a general area’ (geoprecision 2) and a larger region (geo-precision 3).16 This report provides information about the
security situation at provincial level and therefore make use of all geo-precision levels.
The Uppsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP) is a ‘data collection project for civil war’.17 UCDP
provided EUAA with a Georeferenced Event Dataset (GED) covering the reference period of
the report. UCDP’s methodology is explained on its website as well as its GED Codebook.18
The unit of analysis of UCDP is the ‘event’19 which is defined as ‘[a]n incident where armed
force was used by an organised actor against another organized actor, or against civilians,
resulting in at least 1 direct death at a specific location and a specific date.’ 20 This leads,
among other things, to ‘seemingly low estimates’ because ‘a number of factors can preclude a
potential conflict event from inclusion in the UCDP GED’, for example, unclear actors or
uncertainty about whether fatalities occurred.21 UCDP provides three estimates for fatalities foreach event – a low estimate, a best estimate, and a high estimate. In addition, UCDP provides
an estimate of the number of civilian deaths.22 According to UCDP, ‘it is quite likely that there
are more fatalities than given in the best estimate, but it is very unlikely that there are fewer’.23
The stricter definition of an event of UCDP excludes violent incidents that are recorded by
ACLED. This includes ACLED’s option to assign violent events to ‘unidentified armed groups’.
The difference in definitions is one explanatory factor to why the number of events recordedby ACLED can be significantly higher than events recorded by UCDP.24 In this report, UCDP
data has been used to contrast ACLED data and to provide figures on civilian deaths. To
reflect the security dynamic in Afghanistan, where the actor behind many security incidents is
unknown, EUAA not only includes events that meet all UCDP’s set criteria (codified as ‘clear’events in the UCDP dataset), but also include events codified as ‘unclear’ and ‘not applicable’.

ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url, pp. 9, 12
ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url, p. 10,
16
ACLED, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED) Codebook, January 2021, url, p. 29
17
UCDP, About UCDP, n.d., url
18
UCDP, UCDP Methodology, n.d., url; UCDP, UCDP Georeferenced Event Dataset Codebook (Version 21.1), 2021,
url, p. 4
19
UCDP, UCDP Methodology, n.d., url
20
UCDP, UCDP Georeferenced Event Dataset Codebook (Version 21.1), 2021, url, p. 4
21
UCDP, UCDP Methodology, n.d., url
22
UCDP, UCDP Georeferenced Event Dataset Codebook (Version 21.1), 2021, url, pp. 5, 11, 24
23
UCDP, UCDP Methodology, n.d., url
24
ACLED, Comparing Conflict Data, Similarities and Differences Across Conflict Datasets, August 2019, url, pp. 5–7
14

15

14

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Structure and use of the report
The report’s first chapter provides information on the general population’s situation under
Taliban rule. It contains information on the political context, the functioning of the de facto
state administration, and the implementation of sharia. This is followed by a chapter outlining
the general conflict-related security situation, and a chapter on the humanitarian situation.
Thereafter, 12 chapters outline the situation of a specific group or profile of interest.

Terminology
Chapter 4 mainly focuses on targeting acts by the Taliban and other armed groups towards
certain profiles. The perpetrator of some acts is difficult to identify, and motives behind someacts are unclear. For those reasons, an act’s connection to a certain group or profile is often
difficult to determine based on available information. Furthermore, some individuals may betargeted for a range of reasons and by multiple actors. This is particularly challenging in the
Afghan context, where diverse and overlapping identities permeate society along, forinstance, religious, ethnic, tribal and/or linguistic lines.
In this report the Afghan authorities operating under the Taliban (since August 2021) aredescribed as the de facto authorities, as the announced state or interim government have notbeen internationally recognised. For readability, specific ministries or ministers operating
under the Taliban are referred to as, for example, the ‘Taliban Ministry of Interior’ or the‘Taliban Minister of Foreign Affairs’. Persons working within lower-level authorities, who havebeen appointed by the Taliban or have returned to work since the takeover are not routinely
referred to de facto state employees or Taliban officials, but efforts had been made to give
clear context in which capacity these persons are working.
The administration of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, that collapsed amid the Taliban
takeover on 15 August 2021, is either referred to by its official name or as ‘the previous
government’. In cases where the report refers to the previous government of the Taliban of
the 1990’s, this is indicated in the text. Footnoted citations for documents published by Afghan
authorities (typically previously cited as ‘Afghanistan’) are aligned with this terminology. This is
to ensure a clear distinction between publications made by the previous elected Afghan
government and publications published under the current de facto authorities.

15

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Map

Map 1. Afghanistan’s provinces25

25

UN, Afghanistan, Map No. 3958 Rev. 7, June 2011, url

16

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

1.

Situation of the general population
under Taliban rule

1.1.

Political context

1.1.1.

Territorial control and armed opposition

The Taliban took control over Afghanistan on 15 August 2021.26 Since then, two insurgencies
have been resisting Taliban rule with armed force. One is driven by resistance groups
including the National Resistance Front (NRF), formed amid the Taliban takeover, and by othergroups27 that emerged in April 2022.28 The other insurgency is driven by the Islamic State
Khorasan Province (ISKP).29 These groups have remained active in some areas,30 but none has
been able to hold significant territory.31 Little information is available on the size and capacityof the resistance,32 but it has been assessed as lacking enough coordination and resources toseriously contest Taliban rule.33 Likewise, ISKP was not considered as a serious threat to
Taliban rule in the short term.34 More information is available in chapter 2. Security situation.
The Taliban claimed to control all of the Afghan territory by October 2021,35 after they struck
down NRF in Panjsher Province.36 Other sources have also described the Taliban as
exercising control over all of Afghanistan.37 Single reports however suggest that the Taliban
were not in full control before June 2023,38 and that some districts were contested as of 29
August 2022 (including Warsaj (Takhar Province), Khost wa Firing and Andarab (Baghlan
Province), Shutul, Darah, Unabah, and Khinj (Panjsher Province).39 However, Afghanistan
EASO, Afghanistan: Security situation update, September 2021, url, p. 11
International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url; Rubin, B. R.,
Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, 20 October 2022, Stimson Center, url
28
RFE/RL, Taliban Faces Rising Armed Resistance From Former Government Factions, 27 April 2022, url; VOA,
Afghan Fighting Season Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 28 April 2022, url
29International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url; Rubin, B. R.,
Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, 20 October 2022, Stimson Center, url
30
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 15; ORF, Resistance to the Taliban: Current status and prospects for the future, 10
January 2023, url
31
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 15; VOA, Afghan ‘Fighting Season’ Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 28 April 2022,
url
32
UK, House of Commons Library, Afghanistan: One year under a Taliban government, 10 October 2022, url, p. 17
33International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url; Shekhawat,
S., Resistance to the Taliban: Current status and prospects for the future, ORF, 10 January 2023, url
34International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url; East-WestCenter, The World Must Not Wash Its Hands of Afghanistan, 26 August 2022, url
35
VOA, Taliban order Afghan media to use group’s official name, 1 October 2021, url
36
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
37
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson, 20 October 2022, url;
Sweden, Migrationsverket, Afghanistan: Styre och rättskipning [Afghanistan: Governance and administration ofjustice], (version 1.0) [source: Andrew Watkins, senior expert of Afghanistan, USIP], 06 July 2023, url, p. 17
38
UN Security Council, Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 1 June 2023,
url, para. 639
FDD’s LWJ, One year after U.S. withdrawal, resistance to Taliban rule grows, 29 August 2022, url
26
27

17

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

expert Andrew Watkins affirmed in an interview with the Swedish Migration Agency in April
2023, that the Taliban had established a monopoly of violence unprecedent in the last
decades of conflict40 and the UN Secretary-General stated that the Taliban ‘remained firmly incontrol’ by September 2023.41 UN organs have also referred to the Taliban as exercising‘effective control’ in Afghanistan, bringing obligations under international human rights law.42

1.1.2.

International recognition and government formation

Soon after their takeover, the Taliban declared the reestablishment of the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan (IEA),43 previously in power during 1996–2001, and also announced an interim
government.44 At the time of writing, no state has recognised the IEA or its de facto
government.45 Although ‘effective control’ traditionally has been a standard criterion forgovernmental recognition,46 the international community has indicated that recognition isconditional in this case.47 Foreign state representatives have for example called on the Taliban
to form an ‘inclusive’ government,48 respect women’s and girls’ rights,49 and makecounterterrorism efforts.50 Several states and international organisations have howeverinteracted with the de facto government51 and some diplomatic missions have maintained52 orre-established presence in Kabul after the takeover.53 Moreover, some neighbouring countries
have accredited Taliban-appointed ambassadors at Afghan embassies.54
The Taliban can be described as a conservative Sunni Islamic movement of the Deobandi
school of thought.55 Moreover, they adhere to the Sunni Hanafi School of jurisprudence.56
During their previous rule in Afghanistan (1996–2001), they implemented a strict interpretationof sharia,57 and what can be described as a mixture of Deobandi traditionalism, Wahhabi
Sweden, Migrationsverket, Afghanistan: Styre och rättskipning [Afghanistan: Governance and administration ofjustice], (version 1.0) [source: Andrew Watkins, senior expert of Afghanistan, USIP], 6 July 2023, url, p. 17
41
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18
September 2023 url, para. 4
42
OHCHR, Human Rights Council Holds Urgent Debate on the Human Rights of Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 1
July 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, url
43
WSJ, Taliban unveil new Afghan government, 7 September 2021, url
44
BBC News, Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government, 7 September 2021, url
45
Al Jazeera, Taliban gives a warm welcome to China’s new ambassador to Afghanistan, 13 September 2023, url
46
Brookings, Recognition and the Taliban, 30 September 2022, url
47
Brookings, Recognition and the Taliban, 30 September 2022, url; Weiss, S., One year into the Taliban’s second
rule, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 18 August 2022, url
48
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson Center, 20 October 2022,
url
49
UN, Afghanistan’s Future Depends on Taliban’s Engagement with World, But Restrictions on Women Signal Lackof International Commitments, Briefer Warns Security Council, 27 September 2022, url; Reuters, Germany won't
recognise Taliban as "dire" Afghan conditions persist, 7 June 2022, url
50
Reuters, EXCLUSIVE Afghan Taliban sign deal for Russian oil products, gas and wheat, 28 September 2022, url;
USDOS, Communiqué of the U.S.-Europe Group on Afghanistan, 22 September 2022, url
51
UN, Afghanistan’s Future Depends on Taliban’s Engagement with World, But Restrictions on Women Signal Lackof International Commitments, Briefer Warns Security Council, 27 September 2022, url; Washington Institute (The),
Turkey Calls for Recognition of the Taliban’s Islamic Emirate, 17 March 2022, url
52
WSJ, Who Are the Taliban and What’s Next for Afghanistan?, 27 September 2021, url
53
TOLOnews, Potzel Urges Western States To Resume Diplomatic Missions in Kabul, 26 December 2022, url
54
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 22
55
Rana, S. and Ganguly, S., Taliban’s religious ideology – Deobandi Islam – has roots in colonial India, The
Conversation, 25 August 2021, url
56
Lombardi, C. and March, A., Afghan Taliban Views on Legitimate Islamic Governance, USIP, February 2022, url
57
CNN, Taliban to impose their interpretation of Sharia law in Afghanistan, 15 November 2022, url
40

18

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

puritanism and Pashtunwali.58 Soon after their takeover in 2021, the Taliban declared thatsharia is to be enforced as the legal system in Afghanistan.59
The de facto government is all-male and predominantly consists of Taliban members.60 Even
though the Taliban movement includes many members of different ethnic communities, itscore is dominated by the Pashtun ethnic group.61 This is reflected in the de facto cabinet
where most are senior Pashtun members.62 Moreover, many within the de facto administration
are under UN sanctions; 58 persons according to the UN Sanctions and Monitoring Team
reporting in June 2023.63 Some are also part of the Haqqani network, which is a designatedterrorist organisation in the EU, UK and the US.64 The UN Security Council previously
exempted 13 sanctioned individuals holding senior positions from a travel ban, allowing themto meet with foreign officials abroad.65 The waiver however expired on 19 August 202266 andhas not been renewed.67

1.1.3.

Political opposition and civic space

Entities opposing Taliban rule have been fragmented68 and mainly situated abroad.69 Exiled
Afghan politicians have formed political groups such as the ‘National Resistance for theSalvation of Afghanistan’70 and the ‘Afghanistan National Movement for Peace and Justice’.71
Reported activities include appeals to the international community and the Taliban72 andformulating suggestions on how Afghanistan should be governed.73

Britannica, Taliban, 3 November 2022, url
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 24
60
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 6
61
Motwani, N., Taliban leaders still lack legitimacy, East Asia Forum, 20 October 2022, url
62
UK, House of Commons Library, Afghanistan: One year under a Taliban government, 10 October 2022, url, p. 5
63
UN Security Council, Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 1 June 2023,
url, para. 6
64
UK, House of Commons Library, Afghanistan: One year under a Taliban government, 10 October 2022, url, p. 5
65
DW, UN ends Taliban travel ban exemptions, 20 August 2022, url
66
VOA, Taliban Say Travel Ban Hurts Diplomacy and Dialogue With World, 25 August 2022, url
67
UN Security Council, Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 1 June 2023,
url, para. 61
68
France24, Afghan opposition ‘very weak’ despite mounting anger against Taliban, 15 August 2022, url; UN
Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 6
69
Foschini, F., Afghanistan: Who Opposes the Taliban? Old Politics, Resistance and the Looming Risk of Civil War,ISPI, 11 August 2022, url; France24, Afghan opposition ‘very weak’ despite mounting anger against Taliban, 15
August 2022, url
70
Khaama Press, Ankara Gathering of Political Figures, 19 Mary 2022, url
71
Khaama Press, Afghanistan National Movement for Peace and Justice Emerges, Sparking Reactions, 16 October
2022, url; Afghanistan International, Afghanistan National Movement for Peace and Justice Formed, 15 October
2022, url
72
Afghanistan International, Opposition Group Urges International Community to Support Decentralised Afghan
Government, 9 September 2022, url
73
Hasht-e Subh, Citizens to Exiled Politicians, No Need for Your Political Copies of Prescriptions, 7 November
2022, url
58

59

19

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Inside Afghanistan there is no space for political opposition.74 Free speech and peacefulpolitical activity have been stifled by arrests, detentions, beatings, and coercion.75 Althoughopen criticism of the de facto government’s policies has been occurring,76 civic space has
shrunk.77 According to the monitoring project Afghan Witness (AW), opposition largely
dispersed during the Taliban’s second year of rule.78 Media and human rights organisations
have been under pressure,79 inter alia by rules limiting media content,80 a ban on defamationand ‘unproven criticism’ of de facto government officials,81 as well as ‘open criticism’ according
to a Taliban official’s statement.82 De facto state authorities have interfered with the work of
media outlets and have detained journalists83 as well as human rights activists.84 The Taliban
have banned ‘unauthorised’ demonstrations, but nonetheless peaceful protests have takenplace.85 Protests held outdoors have however decreased according to AW.86 Especiallywomen’s rights activists have been at the forefront of the civil resistance87 and have continued
to protest major edicts out on the streets.88 Taliban fighters have violently dispersed suchdemonstrations,89 and have detained protesters.90 Some activists have been tortured and illtreated while in custody.91 Private citizens criticising the Taliban have also been detained,92
including individuals who have posted criticism in social media.93 More information on thetreatment of individuals criticising the de facto government is available in sections 4.6
Journalists and media workers and 4.7 Human rights defenders and activists.

Nishat, Z. et al., Why Do People in Afghanistan Object to Taliban Rule?, Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 22
September 2022, url; Ahmad, J. and London, D., America Should Recognize Afghanistan’s Taliban Government, FP,
23 May 2023, url
75
USIP, One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State, 17 August 2022, url
76
AP, Afghan religious scholars criticize girls’ education ban, 8 April 2023, url; BBC Monitoring, Afghan TV talkshow discusses Taliban chief's order on access to officials, 26 May 2023, url; USIP, Amid Taliban Repression,
Afghan Media Are a Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, url
77
CIVICUS, A year of Taliban rule leaves civic space decimated in Afghanistan, 8 September 2022, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, url, para. 80, 85
78
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 3
79
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, url, para. 80, 85; CPJ,
Afghanistan’s media faces crisis—and opportunity, 11 August 2022, url
80
CIVICUS, A Year of Taliban Rule Leaves Civic Space Decimated in Afghanistan, 8 September 2022, url; RFE/RL,‘Open Fear’: Taliban Cracks Down On Afghan Media By Decree, 27 July 2022, url
81
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Bans ‘Unproven Allegations’ Against Members, 22 July 2022, url; Zabihullah[Twitter], posted on: 21 July 2022, url
82
Afghan Analyst [Twitter], posted on 21 September 2022, url
83
PEN/Opp, The State of Freedom of Speech and Media in the Past Year, 9 October 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh,Media and Freedom of Speech on Verge of Collapse: UN Calls for International Community’s Attention, 20 October
2022, url
84
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 34
85
CIVICUS, A year of Taliban rule leaves civic space decimated in Afghanistan, 8 September 2022, url
86
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 4
87
CIVICUS, Protests Escalate in Afghanistan as Frustration with Taliban Rule and Abuses Grow, 28 November
2022, url
88
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 4
89
HRW, In Afghanistan, Resistance Means Women, 12 October 2022, url; AW, Two years of Taliban rule:
documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 4
90
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 34
91
HRW, Afghanistan: Women Protesters Detail Taliban Abuse, 20 October 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban’s‘suffocating crackdown’ destroying lives of women and girls – new report, 27 July 2022, url
92
CIVICUS, A year of Taliban rule leaves civic space decimated in Afghanistan, 8 September 2022, url
93
BBC News, Afghanistan: Peace at a price in the Taliban’s heartlands, 20 August 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan 2022,
27 March 2023, url
74

20

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

1.2.

Implementation of sharia

The Taliban have referred to sharia as the legal system to be enforced in Afghanistan.94 The
de facto government considers itself a guiding body,95 with the fundamental aims to ensurethat the people live in accordance with religious laws.96 Although consensus has been a key
element within the Taliban movement’s decision-making,97 the conservative supreme leader
Haibatullah Akhundzada’s authority has become increasingly notable.98 One example is his
decision not to allow secondary education for girls,99 which has even been publicly criticisedby other Taliban officials although open internal criticism is rare.100 The human rights situation
has gradually deteriorated101 and sources noted tendencies of the de facto administration
developing into a theocratic police state,102 ruling through an atmosphere of fear and abuse.103

1.2.1.

Issued instructions

Various interpretations of sharia laws exist,104 and as no formal legal framework has beenenacted,105 there is uncertainty among the population of which laws apply.106 Some sources
have described the situation as a ‘legal vacuum’.107 The Taliban have issued some instructions
in decrees and general guidance,108 but few have been issued in writing.109 Moreover, theissued instructions have tended to be vaguely formulated, which leaves space for different

Rahimi, H., What the Taliban may be getting wrong about Islamic governance, Al Jazeera, 24 August 2021, url;
WSJ, Taliban Commander Who Launched Bombings in Kabul Is Now a Police Chief in Charge of Security, 20
October 2021, url; CNN, Taliban's religious police instructed to be more moderate, 12 October 2021, url
95
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
96
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023; Ahmad, J., The Taliban’s
religious roadmap for Afghanistan, MEI, 26 January 2022, url
97
Watkins, A., one Year After the Taliban Takeover, CTC Sentinel, url, p. 5
98
RFE/RL, Taliban Leader's Dominance Results In Increased Oppression, Isolation, 22 January 2023, url;
International Crisis Group, Taliban Restrictions on Women’s Rights Deepen Afghanistan, 23 February 2023, url
99
Watkins, A., one Year After the Taliban Takeover, CTC Sentinel, url, p. 4
100
Los Angeles Times, Rare sign of division emerges among Afghan Taliban leaders, 16 February 2023, url
101
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, [Andrew Watkins, senior expert on Afghanistan], 6 July 2023, url, p. 13;
UNAMA, Dignity, freedom and justice must be upheld in Afghanistan, 10 December 2022, url
102
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, [Andrew Watkins, senior expert on Afghanistan and international analyst], 6July 2023, url, p. 13; Ottawa Citizen, Levine: A year under the Taliban — UN workers pressing for women's rights, 16
August 2022, url
103
Ottawa Citizen, Levine: A year under the Taliban — UN workers pressing for women's rights, 16 August 2022, url;
Diplomat (The), 2 Years of Taliban Rule: A Case for Humanitarian Intervention , 11 August 2023, url
104
CNN, Taliban to impose their interpretation of Sharia law in Afghanistan, 15 November 2022, url
105
ISHR, Afghanistan – Human Rights in a Lawless Society, 9 November 2022, url; Baheer, O., Year to the ground:
Taliban’s quest for elusive global legitimacy, TRT World, 15 August 2022, url
106
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 11; New Lines Magazine, Is This the Future of Taliban Rule?, 13 December 2021, url
107
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 6; Baheer, O., Year to the ground: Taliban’s quest for elusive global legitimacy, TRT World,
15 August 2022, url
108
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 6
109
ACAPS, Afghanistan: Taliban directives and decrees affecting human rights and humanitarian actors, 25 April
2023, url, p. 3; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
94

21

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

interpretations.110 Sources have suggested that issued instructions are purposefully vague to,inter alia, increase policy ambiguity and leave space for adjustments.111
Moreover, instructions have been communicated through a variety of channels, including by
individual Taliban officials on their private social media accounts112 and during media
interviews.113 The legal nature of these instructions is not clear,114 and they have not always
been embraced throughout the Taliban movement.115 Some rules have moreover not been
enforced116 and there have been local variations in the implementation, for example, of the ban
on secondary education for girls117 and the requirement of women to be accompanied by amahram118 (‘close male relative: either a husband or a male relative whom a women cannot
marry, such as a brother, father, son or uncle’119). Moreover, there have been instances where
Taliban officials have contradicted each other in public statements,120 or where it has beenpossible to work around some announcements.121 For example, the Taliban banned womenfrom working for non-governmental organisations (NGOs) on 24 December 2022, but after
major organisations suspended their operations, the Taliban sometimes gave assurances onprovincial or local level so that female staff would be able to carry out their duties.122
A compilation of relevant Taliban national decrees and instructions issued since the takeoveris available in Annex 3: Lists of national Taliban decrees and instructions.
During the reference period of this report the Afghan population was instructed that:• defamation and unproven criticism of [de facto] government officials are banned (21July 2022);123• women cannot visit recreational parks, public baths,124 and gyms125 in Kabul City
(November 2022). It was not clear whether this instruction extends to other areas,126

ACAPS, Afghanistan: Taliban directives and decrees affecting human rights and humanitarian actors, 25 April
2023, url, p. 3
111
ACAPS, Afghanistan: Taliban directives and decrees affecting human rights and humanitarian actors, 25 April
2023, url, p. 3; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
112
van Bijlert, M., The Taleban’s Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN, 7 October 2021, url
113
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
114
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
115
ACAPS, Afghanistan: Taliban directives and decrees affecting human rights and humanitarian actors, 25 April
2023, url, p. 3
116
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
117
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, [international analyst], 6 July 2023, url, p. 17; Amu TV, Afghanistan: Six
provinces keep schools open for girls despite nationwide ban, 1 January 2023, url
118
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, [international analyst], 6 July 2023, url, p. 17; Guardian (The), ‘I daren’t go
far’: Taliban rules trap Afghan women with no male guardian, 15 August 2022, url
119
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url
120
Göteborgsregionen, Temadag om Afghanistan [Online video], 18 Mars 2022, url, 04:51:00–04:51:45; ACAPS,
Afghanistan: Taliban directives and decrees affecting human rights and humanitarian actors, 25 April 2023, url, p. 3
121
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
122
RFE/RL, Aid Groups Begin Return To Afghanistan Amid Assurances For Female Workers, 17 January 2023, url;
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
123
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Bans ‘Unproven Allegations’ Against Members, 22 July 2022, url; Zabihullah[Twitter], posted on: 21 July 2022, url
124
RFE/RL, Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses, Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10November 2022, url
125France24, Taliban bans Afghan women from gyms, public baths, 13 November 2022, url
126
RFE/RL, Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses, Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10November 2022, url
110

22

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

although a later announcement barred women from the same spaces in Faryab
Province;127
university education for women is suspended (December 2022);128
national and international NGOs should suspend female staff members, or risk losing
their licences (24 December 2022);129
people should avoid celebrating Valentine’s Day (14 February 2023);130
celebrations of Nowruz were condemned by some de facto authorities (March 2023);131
women are prohibited to work for UN agencies (5 April 2023);132
beauty salons are to close down (25 June 2023);133
sorcery is prohibited (7 August 2023).134 According to the spokesperson for the Taliban
Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice (MPVPV), amulets andritual blowing in itself is not a legal issue, but rather that some had ‘turned it into abusiness model’, charging high amounts and paving way for ‘illicit relations’. He further
stated that someone carrying out sorcery should be arrested and brought to court, andpointed out that sharia allows the death sentence to be issued for such individuals.135

Additional instructions were issued in some provinces:
•
•
•
•
•

Mazar-e Sharif: shopkeepers were ordered not to sell to women without hijab (29August 2022);136
Nimroz: coffee shops were ordered to close, and wedding halls were ordered to stop
playing music at wedding parties (7 September 2022);137
Kabul: wedding halls were banned from playing music (11 June 2023);138
Bamiyan: women banned from Band-e-Amir national park (26 August 2023);139
Herat: women and families were banned from restaurants in gardens and green
spaces (10 April 2023);140

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 17
TOLOnews, Lecturer Rips Up His Certificates to Protest Ban on Women’s Education, 1 January 2023, url;
Guardian (The), Taliban ban Afghan women from university education, 20 December 2022, url
129
TOLOnews, Ministry Orders NGOs to Suspend Female Staff, 24 December 2022, url
130
RFE/RL, The Thrill Is Gone For Valentine's Day In Taliban-Controlled Kabul, 14 February 2023, url; Khaama Press,
Citizens in Afghanistan Were Not Allowed to Celebrate Valentine's Day, 15 February 2023, url
131
Hast-e Subh, Taliban Oppose Nowruz Celebrations, 23 March 2023, url; Kabul Now, Taliban in Herat prohibit
people from celebrating Nowruz, 21 March 2023, url
132
UN News, Excluded from Education, Public Life, Women, Girls Facing ‘Gender Apartheid’ in Afghanistan,Delegate Tells Security Council, 21 June 2023, url
133
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 2
134
UNAMA, Human Rights situation in Afghanistan, July - September 2023 Update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 7
135
BBC Monitoring, Afghan Taliban ministry launch campaign against ‘sorcery’, 7 August 2023, url
136
Khaama Press, Taliban Orders Shops to Refuse Selling Things to Women without Hijab, 30 August 2022, url;
Rukshana, Taliban morality police close shops over improper hijabs, 23 October 2022, url
137
TOLOnews, Nimroz Vice and Virtue Dept Orders that Coffee Shops Be Closed, 7 September 2022, url; ANI,
Afghanistan: Taliban officials in Nimroz orders coffee shop to close down, 8 September 2022, url
138
RFE/RL, Taliban Calls For Strict Ban On Music At Kabul Wedding Halls, 12 June 2023, url; Kabul Now, Talibanbans playing music at weddings in Kabul, 12 June 2023, url
139
TOLOnews, Women Banned From Visiting Band-e-Amir National Park, 26 August 2023, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan: Taliban ban women from visiting popular national park, 27 August 2023, url
140
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 36; AP, Taliban ban restaurant gardens for families, women in Herat, 10 April 2023, url
127

128

23

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM•Helmand and Kandahar: education institutes closed until further notice (17 April
2023).141

Single local media reports further claimed that wearing burqa or niqab was made compulsory
in Badakhshan142 (a previous national decree just instructed women to cover their faces143),that shopkeepers in Mazar-e Sharif were ordered to close shops during prayers and attend
them,144 and that male teachers and high-school students in Kandahar were ordered to pledge
in writing to conform with the Taliban’s interpretation of sharia (including wearing traditional
Afghan clothes and grow a beard). Failure to sign or adhere to the pledge could lead todismissals of both students and teachers.145 Corroborating information for these single reports
could not be found among the sources consulted by EUAA.

1.2.2.

Policy implementation

The de facto state administration has been described as working in arbitrary andunpredictable ways.146 Repressive bodies include the Taliban General Directorate ofIntelligence (GDI) and the Taliban MPVPV,147 as well as a number of other de facto state
institutions.148 Issued instructions that regulate the private lives of Afghans have mainly been
enforced by the Taliban MPVPV.149
Moreover, policy implementation has varied across the country.150 Local governance hasvaried due to different interpretations of decrees issued by the central de facto government,151
and due to the influence of local contexts and local stakeholders.152 The Taliban has
established provincial Uleema councils to enforce central decisions.153 According to aninternational journalist that has reported from Afghanistan for several years (but currently isbased outside the country) such councils were being established already soon after the
takeover, and there have not been any notable changes in the provinces’ implementation of
sharia. The international journalist stated that the local situations have depended on who has
been in charge and how influential the governor has been – for example if it has been
Kabul Now, Taliban shuts all educational institutions in Helmand and Kandahar, 17 April 2023, url; TOLOnews,
Classes Stopped at Private Education Centers in Kandahar, Helmand, 17 April 2023, url
142
Etilaatroz, ‫زنان برقع بپوشند یا نقاب بزنند‬: ‫امر به معروف طالبان در بدخشان‬, [Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice in
Badakhshan: women should wear a burqa or a niqab], 23 August 2023, url
143
AP, Afghanistan's Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May 2022, url
144
Khaama Press, Taliban Orders Shops to Refuse Selling Things to Women without Hijab, 30 August 2022, url
145
RFE/RL, Taliban Orders Male Teachers, Students To Sign Pledge To Observe Shari’a Law, 13 October 2022, url
146
AAN, Transition to a New Political Order: AAN dossier takes stock of Afghanistan’s momentous year, 12 August
2022, url; Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson Center, 20
October 2022, url
147
Felbab-Brown, V., Afghanistan in 2023: Taliban internal power struggles and militancy, Brookings, 3 February
2023, url
148
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 17; International analyst, interview 8–9
June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
149
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 37
150
USIP, One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State, 17 August 2022, url; DIIS,
Five tendencies that could impact the future development of Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, url
151
ACAPS, Afghanistan, Scenarios, April 2023, url, p. 11; SAK, Årsrapport 2022 [Annual report 2022], 12 May 2022,
url, p. 20
152
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023; International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023; EUAA,
Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, pp. 25–26
153
SAK, Årsrapport 2022 [Annual report 2022], 12 May 2022, url, p. 20
141

24

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

someone with a military background.154 The journalist mentioned the Taliban governor in Ghor
as a ‘prime example’ of how the person matters. The source referred to cases of aid workers
being arrested and of embezzlement of aid (which has also been reported by other sources155)
due to this governor being particularly ‘hardline’ and not being held accountable for such acts.
The source gave Nuristan as an opposite example where a local Taliban commander had tried
to make the population treat women better by not letting them carry heavy loads, without
success.156 This information could not be corroborated by other sources.
According to UNAMA, the mandate of the Taliban MPVPV is being interpreted with great
variation, and in some provinces its local departments have issued and implemented their own
instructions.157 The international journalist stated that there have been few examples where
the Taliban implemented their decrees by force, as most of the time the population has been
complying with them.158 There have, however, been cases where Taliban MPVPV officials havearrested or ill-treated individuals transgressing issued guidelines,159 such as calls on women towear hijab160 and to be accompanied by a maharam,161 as well as calls on men not to shave or
trim beards162 and to attend congregational prayers.163 Moreover, after the de facto authorities
declared the last day of Ramadan to take place one day early under the Shia Calendar,
Taliban officials reportedly forced Shia followers in Daykundi Province to break their fast164 andto perform Eid prayers (also reported in Balkh Province). Some were beaten for refusing.165

1.2.3.

Corporal and capital punishments

The Taliban have reopened courts across Afghanistan but have replaced former staff. All
newly appointed judges have been male Taliban members, educated in madrassas.166 Thelack of a clear legal framework has left the interpretation of sharia to individual Taliban judges,
which has caused great variation in verdicts.167 Moreover, as the Taliban abolished theconstitution of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004), Shia jurisprudence was excluded
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
Hast-e Subh, Ghor Province: Taliban’s Embezzlement of Aid Leaves 42,000 Needy Families Deprived, 10 May
2023, url; TOLOnews, US Has Suspended Assistance Operations in Ghor: Miller, 25 May 2023, url
156International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
157
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 22–23
158
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
159
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url, p. 6; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June
2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
160
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url, p. 6; RFE/RL, Afghan Women Complain Of
Harassment, Threats by Taliban’s Morality Police, 17 July 2023, url
161
AI, Afghanistan: ‘Suffocating crackdown’ on rights of women and girls over past year under Taliban, 27 July
2022, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security,
7 December 2022, url, para. 40
162
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 38
163
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 38; Hashte Subh, Taliban Force Herat Residents to Pray Taraweeh During Ramadan, 17 April 2023, url; Khaama Press,
Taliban Orders Shops to Refuse Selling Things to Women without Hijab, 30 August 2022, url
164
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 36; Kabul Now, Taliban in Daikundi forces residents to celebrate Eid a day earlier, 21 April
2023, url
165
Kabul Now, Taliban in Daikundi forces residents to celebrate Eid a day earlier, 21 April 2023, url
166
ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, pp. 6–7; Bennet, R.,
in: DRC, Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 28 November 2022, url, p. 7
167
ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, pp. 6–7; VOA,
Taliban Undertake Speedy Overhaul of Afghanistan’s Justice System, 28 September 2023, url
154

155

25

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

from the de facto judiciary.168 Alongside formal de facto courts, informal justice mechanisms
have addressed civil and criminal issues,169 including jirgas, community elders and imams.170 In
many cases, punishments have also been left to individual Taliban fighters and commanders
to issue and enforce ‘on the spot’.171
Initially after the Taliban takeover, there was reportedly a tendency among Taliban judges not
to issue ‘too harsh’ punishments172 and there were only sporadic local reports on the use of
corporal or capital punishments.173 On 14 November 2022, however, the Taliban supremeleader ordered all Taliban judges to fully implement sharia,174 and issue so called hudud andqisas punishments where applicable175 which includes punishments such as execution,stoning, flogging and the amputation of limbs.176 Several cases of public flogging followed thisstatement, across the whole country,177 and the first known public execution since thetakeover was carried out in Farah Province on 7 December 2022 (of a man convicted ofmurder).178 Large crowds have been invited to witness punishments in sport stadiums,179 which
was common during the previous Taliban rule (1996–2001).180 A second official execution took
place in Laghman Province on 20 June 2023 (again of a man convicted of murder).181 Corpsesof alleged criminals killed during the de facto authorities’ operations against them have also
been put on display, mainly in Herat City182 but also in Mazar-e Sharif.183

RFE/RL, Afghanistan's Shi'ite Minority Suffers 'Systematic Discrimination' Under Taliban Rule, 17 July 2023, url;
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
169
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 39; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023;
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
170
ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, p. 7; International
analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
171
USIP, One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State, 17 August 2022, url; Rahimi,
H., Remaking of Afghanistan: How the Taliban are Changing Afghanistan’s Laws and Legal Institutions, ISAS, 26
July 2022, url
172
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url; AFP, Justice delayed as Taliban build their legal
system in Afghanistan, 13 November 2021, url
173
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, pp. 34–36
174
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Orders Full Implementation of Sharia Law, 14 November 2022, url
175
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 5
176
AFP, Afghan supreme leader orders full implementation of sharia law, 14 November 2022, url
177
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban’s cruel return to hardline practices with public floggings must be halted immediately, 24
November 2022, url
178
UN News, Afghanistan: First public execution since Taliban takeover, ‘deeply disturbing’ says UN rights office, 7
December 2022, url; VOA, Taliban Publicly Execute Convicted Murderer in Afghanistan, 7 December 2022, url
179
Al Jazeera, Return of Afghan floggings as Taliban takes a hardline path, Taliban News, 10 December 2022, url;
DW, Afghanistan: Taliban publicly lash 14 people at a stadium, 23 November 2022, url; UNAMA, Corporal
Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 14
180
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 4
181
Reuters, Afghanistan's Taliban administration executes man for murder of five, 20 June 2023, url; Al Jazeera,
Afghanistan’s Taliban publicly executes man convicted of murder, 20 June 2023, url; UNAMA, Human rights
situation in Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url, p. 4
182
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 18; Kabul Now, Taliban
puts two bodies on public display in Herat, 21 February 2023, url
183
AW, Taliban display bodies of alleged ‘kidnappers’, ‘insurgents’ and ‘thieves’, 17 March 2023, url
168

26

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Corporal punishments in the form of lashings have been documented by UNAMA,184 AW185 andthe recently founded Afghan human rights organisation Rawadari.186 UNAMA noted that thegreat majority of lashings occurred after the supreme leader’s statement in November 2022.187
UNAMA recorded 63 cases of lashings being issued by a de facto court in the period 15
August 2021–24 May 2023,188 while AW recorded 56 lashing cases in the period October
2022–September 2023,189 and Rawadari reported on 69 individuals being lashed in the firstsix months of 2023.190 The cases recorded by UNAMA encompassed 394 victims (313 men
and 81 women, including 2 boys and 2 girls), most cases related to zina, adultery or runningaway from home, but lashings were also issued for theft, homosexuality, consuming alcohol,
fraud and drug trafficking. In general, 30–39 lashes were issued per person, but in somecases up to 100 lashes were given.191 Later, UNAMA reported that public corporal punishments
had continued in the period July–September 2023, and in some cases large groups had beenpunished in sport stadiums.192
AW and Rawadari provided provincial breakdowns of their data. While AW recorded cases in
22 of Afghanistan’s provinces (Laghman, Parwan, Paktya, Paktika, Zabul, Kandahar, Bamyan,Ghor, Helmand, Jawzjan, Badakhshan, Kabul, Nangarhar, Takhar, Wardak, Farah, Faryab,
Khost, Kunduz, Logar, Sar-e Pul, Uruzgan)193 Rawadari recorded lashings in 8 provinces(Bamyan, Badakhshan, Kandahar, Daykundi, Ghor, Jamwzjan, Zabul and Sar-e Pul).194
AW also noted claims of amputations in social media.195 [It has not been possible tocorroborate such claims with other sources.] Rawadari also reported on two stoning sentences
being issued in Bamyan Province.196 Rawadari clarified to the EUAA that as far as they know,
the stoning sentences had not yet been implemented.197
According to assistant law professor at the American University of Afghanistan, Haroun
Rahimi, who was interviewed by EUAA for this report, corporal punishments require a very
high level of proof. Therefore, the large number of cases is ‘alarming’ in his view, since it is anindication of the loose standards of proof applied by Taliban justice.198 UNAMA also recorded
lashings that did not follow a court process but were handed down by individuals exercising a‘quasi-judicial function’ within the de facto administration, and also ad hoc beatings and

UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 13; UNAMA, Humanrights situation in Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url, p. 4
185
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 16
186
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 22
187
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, pp. 13–14
188
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 13; UNAMA, Humanrights situation in Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url, p. 4
189
AW, Public punishments in Afghanistan, n.d., url
190
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 22
191
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, pp. 13–14; UNAMA, Humanrights situation in Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url, p. 4
192
UNAMA, Human Rights situation in Afghanistan, July – September 2023 Update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 5
193
AW, Public punishments in Afghanistan, n.d., url
194
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 22 [footnote 10]
195
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 12
196
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 22
197
Rawadari, email communication, 17 October 2023
198
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
184

27

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

lashings carried out by, inter alia, members of the Taliban MPVPV and the de facto police
against individuals not conforming with issued instruction on social codes and dress codes.199
Rahimi stated that women have been accused of moral crimes to a higher degree, for example
running away from home is only applied to women, as men may leave the houseunaccompanied.200 UNAMA also mentioned that it was common for women to be accused ofsuch crimes during the previous government (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan).201
Torture and other forms of ill-treatment have been reported as a common practice against
people held in custody.202 UNAMA has documented human rights violations during arrests andsubsequent detentions by the de facto authorities, including 18 deaths in custody. Torture andother cruel inhuman and degrading treatment or punishments constituted almost 50 % ofcases recorded during the period 1 January 2022–31 July 2023.203 Rawadari also reported
that the majority of detainees had been subjected to torture and other forms of ill-treatment by
the Taliban while in custody.204 The United States Department of State (USDOS) describedprison conditions per se as ‘life-threatening’.205

UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, pp. 14–15
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
201
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment and the Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, url, p. 14
202
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 59
203
UNAMA, The treatment of detainees in Afghanistan: Respecting human rights: a factor for trust, 20 September
2023, url, pp. 3–4
204
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 22
205
USDOS, 2022 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 20 March 2023, url
199

200

28

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

2.

Security situation

2.1.

Recent security trends

After the Taliban takeover in 2021 the levels of armed violence206 and civilian harm
significantly dropped compared to the previous years of conflict.207 However, during theperiod 17 August 2022–13 November 2022, the UN reported that security-related incidents
had increased compared to the same period in 2021.208 Recorded events by ACLED data,
however, remained on the same levels,209 while UCDP data indicated a slight decrease of
events, when comparing the last months following the Taliban takeover in 2021 with the same
period in 2022.210 In 2023, there was a decrease in events recorded by ACLED and UCDP.211
The number of events recorded by ACLED as of September 2023, compared to the same
period in 2022, represented a decrease of 34.8 % (1 979 vs 689 events)212 while UCDP data
for the same periods indicated a 48.2 % decrease (720 vs 347 events).213 The UN also reported
a continued reduction of armed conflict levels in 2023,214 with less armed clashes, IED
explosions, and assassinations being recorded than in 2022. The overall number of conflictrelated security incidents recorded, however, represented only a 1 % decrease during theperiod 1 February 2023–20 May 2023, and it slightly increased during the period 20 May
2023–31 July 2023, compared to the same periods in 2022. It should, however, be noted that
security incidents recorded by the UN also included arrests (which increased) and criminality(which ‘remained high’).215
During the reference period of this report, 1 July 2022–30 September 2023, ACLED recorded
1 618 events in total216 which can be contrasted to UCDP data encompassing 781 events in

UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 3
207
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 3
208
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 18
209
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering
15 August 2021 to 31 December 2022, as of 17 October 2023, url
210
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023; UCDP, data covering 16 August 2021 to 22 October 2022 provided
by courtesy of UCDP in an email, 24 October 2022;
211
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url; EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data
covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided by courtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
212
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
January 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
213
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 16 August 2021 to 22 October 2022 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 24 October 2022; UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided
by courtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
214
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18
September 2023, url, para. 3
215
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 15; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, 18 September 2023, url, para. 18
216
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 20 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
206

29

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

total.217 UN statistics for the reference period 22 May 2022–20 May 2023 encompassed 7 339‘security incidents’ (which includes reports on assassinations, crime-related events andarrests).218 In both ACLED and UCDP data, Kabul was the province with most recorded events,
followed by Takhar and the adjacent province of Panjsher.219 Thereafter, ACLED data indicatednearby Badakhshan and Baghlan as the fourth and fifth province experiencing most events,220
while UCDP data indicated Baghlan (49 events) as the fourth province with most events, while
Badakhshan (33) was preceded by Nangarhar (44) and Kandahar (38).221
Figure 1. Events by type and month, 1 July 2022–30 September 2023 (ACLED)

Source: EUAA chart based on ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering theperiod from 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url

EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
218
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 14; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications forinternational peace and security, 7 December 2022, url, para. 18; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan
and its implications for international peace and security, 27 February 2023, url, para. 16; UN Security Council, The
situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20 June 2023, url, para. 15; UN
Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18
September 2023, url, para. 18
219
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 20 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url; EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data
covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided by courtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
220
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 20 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
221
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
217

30

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

2.2.

Armed groups and armed confrontations

2.2.1.

Activities of resistance groups

According to the UN, there were claims of at least 22 armed groups resisting the Taliban in 26
provinces by September 2022.222 In 2023, UNAMA recorded claimed attacks by three maingroups (NRF, Afghanistan Freedom Front (AFF) and Afghanistan Liberation Movement (ALM))
in eight provinces.223 ACLED data indicated that the activity of NRF and/or other resistancegroups was concentrated in the northeast of Afghanistan, with most events taking place ineither the provinces of Panjsher, Takhar, Badakhshan, Baghlan, Kapisa or Parwan, althoughsuch groups were involved in or claimed to be involved in attacks in 14 additional provinces(Kabul, Kandahar, Ghazni, Kunduz, Laghman, Balkh, Nangarhar, Samangan, Badghis, Helmand,
Jawzjan, Nuristan, Paktya, and Zabul).224 The challenging information environment however
made it difficult to verify such claims.225
The report of the UN Secretary General noted an intensification of armed opposition activities
against the Taliban in 2022.226 Sources however reported on a drop in activities by armed
groups opposing the Taliban in 2023227 and NRF has been described as ‘weak’228 after Taliban
operations against the group.229
As mentioned, the main areas of activity of NRF and other resistance groups have been in thenortheast, primarily in Panjsher Province and adjacent areas.230 In 2022, they expanded
further north to the provinces Takhar231 and Badakhshan.232 According to ACLED data, Takhar,
followed by Panjsher, Badakhshan and Baghlan were the provinces with the highest numberof recorded ‘battles’ during the reference period (238 in total). The actors involved wereUN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 15
223
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 16
224
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
225
Critical Threats, Mapping Anti Taliban Insurgencies In Afghanistan, 29 November 2022, url
226
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 15; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications forinternational peace and security, 7 December 2022, url, para. 19
227
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, p. 4;
ACLED and APW, Two Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11 August
2023, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security,
27 February 2023, url, para. 17; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications forinternational peace and security, 20 June 2023, url, para. 16
228
ACLED and APW, Two Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11
August 2023, url; Felbab-Brown, V., Afghanistan in 2023: Taliban internal power struggles and militancy, 3 February
2023, url; RFE/RL, One Year After Seizing Power, Is The Taliban Here To Stay?, 15 August 2022, url
229
RFE/RL, One Year After Seizing Power, Is The Taliban Here To Stay?, 15 August 2022, url; Roggio, B., in FDD
Events, Afghanistan in Peril: Two Years After the U.S. Withdrawal, August 2023, url, p. 2; ACLED and APW, Two
Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11 August 2023, url
230
ACLED and APW, Two Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11
August 2023, url; Critical Threats, Mapping Anti Taliban Insurgencies In Afghanistan, 29 November 2022, url; Kabul
Now, 50 Residents of Panjshir Released from Taliban Prisons, 27 December 2022, url
231
ACLED and APW, Two Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11
August 2023, url
232
Kabul Now, NRF Commander, 20 Comrades Killed Fighting Against Taliban, 26 December 2022, url
222

31

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

mainly the Taliban clashing with AFF or NRF, and unidentified armed groups, but there werealso some cases involving Taliban clashes with ISKP. Most battles in these provinces wererecorded in July–October 2022, and another peak, but smaller, occurred in August 2023
(mainly in Badakhshan and Takhar).233 Out of the events recorded by UCDP in theseprovinces, about 56 % (121 events) involved the Taliban and NRF, and 4.6 % (10 events)
involved the Taliban and AFF. UCDP data also indicated that most events in Takhar, Panjsher,
Badakhshan and Baghlan (62 %) took place in July–October 2022, and that there was anotherbut smaller peak of events (8.8 %) in August 2023.234 Out of the fatalities recorded by ACLED
in the reference period, 1 053 or 42 % took place in Takhar, Panjsher, Badakhshan and
Baghlan.235 Out of UCDP’s best estimate236 for fatalities, 35.8 % (695 deaths) took place inthese provinces, and almost 70 % of the fatalities in these provinces occurred in July–October
2022. Among the 61 civilian deaths recorded in these provinces, over half took place in thesame period.237

2.2.2.

Activities of ISKP

After the Taliban takeover, ISKP launched several attacks targeting both Taliban and civilians,
causing numerous deaths.238 The number of ISKP attacks have however decreased
significantly after Taliban operations against the group,239 and ISKP’s capabilities have been
described as ‘degraded’240 and ‘limited’.241 An analysis by AW indicated that ISKP operated
through fewer and smaller cells in 2022 and 2023.242 ACLED recorded 118 events involving
ISKP during the reference period of this report,243 while UCDP recorded 123 events.244 This canbe contrasted to the numbers that were recorded as of the Taliban takeover until 30 June
2022, when ACLED recorded 255 events involving ISKP,245 and UCDP recorded 213 events.246
The report of the UN Secretary General noted a decrease in attacks claimed or attributed to

EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
234
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
235
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
236
According to the UCDP Codebook the best estimate contain ‘the most reliable estimate of deaths identified in
the source material’. See: UCDP, UCDP Georeferenced Event Dataset Codebook Version 23.1, 2023, url, p. 5
237
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
238
EUAA, Afghanistan, Security Situation – August 2022, url, p. 66
239
BBC Monitoring, Analysis: IS struggles in Afghanistan on second anniversary of Taliban return, 15 August 2023,
url; Gossman, P., HRW, email communication, 28 September 2023
240
TOLOnews, West: Islamic Emirate 'Significantly Degraded ISKP Capability’, 13 September 2023, url
241
BBC Monitoring, Analysis: IS struggles in Afghanistan on second anniversary of Taliban return, 15 August 2023,
url
242
AW, Content released by ISKP indicates fewer and smaller cells, 30 August 2023, url
243
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
244
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
245
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering
15 August 2021 to 30 June 2022, as of 17 October 2023, url
246
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 16 August 2021 to 30 June 2022, provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 24 October 2022
233

32

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

ISKP in reporting periods spanning over September 2022–May 2023.247 In the period 14
November 2022–20 May 2023, the UN recorded 27 attacks, which can be contrasted to the
115 ISKP attacks recorded in the same periods in 2021/2022.248
The main areas of ISKP activity have been in areas of its former stronghold in eastern
Afghanistan, and also in Kabul and some northern areas.249 Most ACLED events involving ISKP
were recorded in Kabul (36 events), and the eastern provinces Kunar (18) and Nangarhar(15).250 Most events in the UCDP dataset involving ISKP also took place in the provinces Kabul,
Kunar and Nangarhar.251 Based on notes related to the reports in the ACLED dataset, someevents in Nangarhar and Kunar provinces were related to Taliban operations against ISKP, anda couple of reported fatalities concerned individuals with links to the Salafi community or withalleged links to ISKP.252
Primary targets of ISKP have been Taliban fighters, Taliban officials and religious leaders in its
strive to undermine Taliban rule.253 The deadliest attacks attributed or claimed by ISKP have
however been directed against certain ethno-religious groups, in particular the Shia Hazara
community.254 In December 2022, the UN Secretary General called on the de facto authorities
to implement adequate protection measures due to the IED attacks against civilian targets andin civilian areas, and specifically mentioned places of worship and education facilities andHazaras as a community ‘facing heightened risk’.255 On 6 September 2022, Human Rights
Watch reported that ISKP had claimed 13 attacks against Hazara targets since the Taliban
takeover, and that 3 additional attacks had links to the groups, resulting in the death of at least
700 persons.256 Later the same month, an unclaimed suicide attack was carried out against
the Kaaj Education Centre in Kabul City.257 According to UN figures, the attack killed 54 andwounded 114 persons258 and most victims were Hazara teenage girls.259 ISKP also targeted
Sikhs after the Taliban takeover;260 during the reference period of this report, a Sikh shop was

UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 20, UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications forinternational peace and security, 27 February 2023, url, para. 18; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan
and its implications for international peace and security, 20 June 2023, url, para. 17
248
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 27
February 2023, url, para. 18; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, 20 June 2023, url, para. 17
249
Critical Threats, Mapping Anti Taliban Insurgencies In Afghanistan, 29 November 2022, url
250
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
251
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
252
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
253
ISW, Afghanistan Warning Update: IS-KP in Afghanistan is Expanding Faster than Anticipated, 27 October 2021,
url
254
Critical Threats, Mapping Anti Taliban Insurgencies In Afghanistan, 29 November 2022, url
255
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 75
256HRW, Afghanistan: ISIS Group Targets Religious Minorities, 6 September 2022, url
257
BBC News, Kabul blast kills teenager sitting practice exam, 1 October 2022, url
258
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 34
259
Al Jazeera, Suicide attacker kills at least 19 in Kabul school blast, 30 September 2022, url
260
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of individuals, August 2022, url, p. 151
247

33

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

attacked by an explosion on 3 December 2022 in Jalalabad, causing six casualties according
to local de facto authorities.261
According to AW, ISKP appeared to have shifted away from carrying out attacks against
civilian and Shia Hazara neighbourhoods, as they predominantly have attacked Taliban
targets. The project, reporting on 15 August 2023, stated that they had not recorded any ISKP
attacks on Hazara or Shia targets since September 2022.262 According to a USIP (UnitedStates Institute of Peace) report, 72 % of ISKP attacks targeted the Taliban in 2022.263 Patricia
Gossman, associate director of the Asia division at Human Rights Watch, also told the EUAA
on 28 September 2023 that ISKP attacks had decreased. Those attacks that had continued tooccur in 2023 had targeted Taliban officials, and no major attacks against Hazaras or Sikhs
had been reported in many months as of September 2023.264 An anonymous internationalorganisation also told Landinfo that ISKP had shifted to primarily target the Taliban and highprofile de facto officials.265 Moreover, ISKP have claimed attacks against foreign targets,266
including the Russian embassy,267 the Pakistani embassy268 and a Chinese-owned hotel in
Kabul City.269

2.2.3.

Explosions and other events in Kabul Province

Kabul was the province where ACLED recorded most cases of explosions/remote violence.
The 55 such events that were recorded in Kabul Province during the reference period madeup around 21.7 % of explosions/remote violence in Afghanistan at large (254 cases). The great
majority of cases recorded in Kabul Province were based on reports of the detonation of
Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) and other explosions directed at both Taliban and civilian
targets, including in places of worship, schools, and vehicles. Some attacks were claimed or
attributed to ISKP, while in other cases the actor behind the attack was unknown. ACLED
recorded a total of 189 fatalities due to explosions/remote violence in Kabul Province, incontrast to the total number of 537 fatalities in Afghanistan at large due to explosions/remoteviolence. When including ‘battles’ and ‘violence against civilians’, ACLED data indicates 336
fatalities in Kabul Province. The 41 battles recorded in the province were mainly related toclashes between the Taliban and ISKP, and the Taliban and NRF and AFF.270 Meanwhile,
UCDP recorded 108 events in Kabul Province, causing 165 civilian deaths. This included 18
attacks against civilians carried out by/attributed to the de facto government, causing 12
civilian deaths. Moreover, the data included 12 attacks against civilians carried out
Ariana News, Six injured in Saturday’s blast in Jalalabad city, 4 December 2022, url
AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url,
pp. 27, 29
263
Sayed, A. and Refslund Hamming, T., The Growing Threat of the Islamic State in Afghanistan and South Asia,
USIP, 7 June 2023, url, p. 9
264
Gossman, P., HRW, email communication, 28 September 2023
265
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: ISKPs strategi og modus etter Talibans maktovertakelse, 28 August 2023, url,p. 3
266
BBC Monitoring, Analysis: IS struggles in Afghanistan on second anniversary of Taliban return, 15 August 2023,
url
267
RFE/RL, IS Claims Responsibility For Deadly Suicide Attack Outside Russian Embassy In Kabul, 5 September
2022, url
268
Reuters, Islamic State claims responsibility for attack on Pakistani embassy in Kabul, 4 December 2022, url
269
Kabul Now, 21 Killed, Wounded in ISKP’s Attack on Chinese Longan Hotel in Kabul, 13 December 2022, url
270
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
261

262

34

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

by/attributed to ISKP, causing 97 civilian deaths, and 11 attacks against civilians carried out by
unknown actors, causing 21 civilian deaths. Furthermore, 32 events involved the de facto
government on one side and ISKP on the other, causing 30 civilian deaths, and 21 events
involved the de facto government on one side and NRF and AFF on the other, causing no
known civilian deaths.271

2.2.4.

Other recorded events

Unclaimed bombings have occurred outside Sunni mosques causing several deaths andinjuries, and ISKP has claimed or been attributed attacks against pro-Taliban clerics.272 One
unclaimed suicide attack in Herat City targeted a Taliban cleric outside the entrance to amosque, killing at least 18 persons.273
During the reference period Taliban forces clashed with, inter alia, Pakistani and Iranian
security forces in border areas.274 Pakistan has also fired against what it claims to be TTP
targets, hitting populated areas in Afghanistan and causing civilian deaths.275 There have also
been clashes between the Taliban and the local population in some areas in theimplementation of the poppy cultivation ban.276 Notes related to reports in the ACLED dataset,provided information on two such cases taking place in Nangarhar and one in Badakhshan
killing 6 farmers in total, and injuring 7–10 civilians.277 UCDP also recorded two such events in
Badakhshan and Nangarhar, but did not record any civilian deaths.278
There have also been reports about some internal rifts in the Taliban movement,279 but it has
been difficult to assess their scope and the power of different factions.280 Armed clashes
following internal disagreements occurred in Faryab Province in January 2022 due to thearrest of an Uzbek commander, and in Sar-e Pul in June 2022 following the removal of a
Hazara commander as the local intelligence chief.281 According to Afghanistan-based journalist
Ali Latifi (who has reported from various parts of the country for several international media
outlets), there have been small examples of clashes between Taliban commanders whichhave been kept out of the news.282 An Afghanistan-based international analyst also reported

EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
272
EUAA, Afghanistan – Major legislative, security-related, and humanitarian developments, 4 November 2022, url,
p. 8
273
BBC News, Mujib Rahman Ansari: Taliban cleric killed in Herat mosque blast, 2 September 2022, url
274
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 22; TOLOnews, A Look at Afghanistan’s Security Situation in 2022, 31 December 2022,
url
275
Barnett, R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, 20 October 2022, url
276
AW, Poppy eradication sparks clashes between Taliban and locals in Nangarhar, 27 April 2023, url; BBC News,
Inside the Taliban's war on drugs - opium poppy crops slashed, 6 June 2023, url
277
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
278
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
279
WSJ, Taliban Splits Emerge Over Religion, Power and Girls’ Schools, 1 July 2022, url
280
Watkins, A., One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State, USIP, 17 August
2022, url
281
International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url
282
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
271

35

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

the same information and added that these incidents have not signified anything more serious
than local tensions.283
Figure 2. Events by province 1 July 2022–30 September 2023

Source: EUAA chart based on ACLED and UCDP data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data
covering the period from 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url; UCDP, data
covering the period from 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023, provided by courtesy of UCDP in an email,
9 October 2023.284

2.3.

Impact of the violence on the civilian population

UCDP recorded 619 civilian deaths resulting from the 302 events in which civilians died.285
Based on 17 262 household interviews carried out by REACH, 5 % stated that they had been
affected by conflict in the middle six months of 2022286 and UNDP estimated that thiscorresponded to 300 000 households or 2 million people when looking at the Afghan
population as a whole. Among those households affected by conflict, as reported by UNDP,
32 % had lost shelter, 27 % had lost basic services, 19 % had lost healthcare, and 11 % had
experienced an injury or death among their household members. UNDP also stressed that,

International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
Provinces with less than 30 recorded ACLED events have not been included in the chart. Recorded
ACLED/UCDP events for these provinces looked as the following: Kunduz: 27 ACLED events/13 UCDP events,
Paktika: 26/12, Laghman: 25/19, Paktya: 25/10, Khost: 25/9, Zabul: 22/7, Logar: 20/9, Badghis 19/7, Daykundi: 19/3,
Jawzjan: 18/12, Bamyan: 18/5, Ghor: 17/12, Nimroz: 17/7, Farah: 13/14, Uruzgan: 12/6, Nuristan: 8/4, Sar-e Pul: 8/6,
Wardak: 6/6.
285
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
286
REACH, Whole of Afghanistan Assessment 2022 Key Findings Presentation, 20 September 2022, url, pp. 4, 7
283

284

36

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

although only 5 % stated that they had been affected by conflict, it is not known to what extent
conflict caused uncertainty and fear among the Afghan population.287
Figure 3. Civilian deaths and events per month 1 July 2022–30 September 2023 (UCDP)

Source: EUAA chart based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering the period from 1 July 2022 to 30
September 2023, provided by courtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023.

287

UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 49, 57, 59

37

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Figure 4. Fatalities and civilian deaths by province 1 July 2022–30 September 2023

Source: EUAA chart based on ACLED and UCDP data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data
covering the period from 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url; UCDP, data
covering the period from 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided by courtesy of UCDP in an email,
9 October 2023.

The Taliban have responded to armed opposition with force, which has been followed byreports of summary executions, detentions, and ill-treatment of detainees,288 as well as
collective punishment and abuses of civilians suspected of supporting anti-Taliban groups.289
More information is available in section 4.3. Persons with perceived affiliation to armed
groups.

Watkins, A., One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State, USIP, 17 August
2022, url
289
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Execute, ‘Disappear’ Alleged Militants, 7 July 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council,
Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, url, para. 51, 57
288

38

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

IED attacks, many claimed by ISKP but also several unclaimed attacks, have targeted places ofworship. Such attacks have caused more than one third of all civilian casualties recorded by
UNAMA since the Taliban takeover. Shia worshippers have been targeted, but also Sufi, Sunniand Sikh places of worship. The Hazara community, predominantly Shia, has also beentargeted in attacks against education facilities, crowded streets, and public transportation.
IEDs targeting the Taliban have also killed and injured civilians, including de facto-government
employees and bystanders (63 deaths and 363 injuries since the takeover until 30 May 2023
according to UNAMA statistics).290 The four attacks with the highest rates of civilian deaths
recorded by the UCDP constituted about 23 % of all civilian deaths during the reference
period. These cases included an attack against the Kaaj education centre in a Hazaradominated area in Kabul City (causing 53 civilian deaths) on 30 September 2022, a suicide
attack outside a mosque in Herat (47 civilian deaths) on 2 September 2022, an explosion in amadrassa in Samangan (23 civilian deaths) on 30 November 2022, and another mosque
attack in Kabul City (21 civilian deaths) on 17 August 2022.291 More information is available insection 4.5.3. Hazaras and other Shia groups.
According to ACLED data, Kabul was the province that experienced the most events codified
as ‘explosions/remote violence’.292 On the question on how the number of IED attacks has
impacted daily life in Kabul City, the international analyst and the international journalist bothstated that it did not make any notable impact.293 According to the international analyst, an
overwhelming majority of IED attacks has been carried out against the de facto security forces
and it was mostly constituted by minor incidents.294 The international journalist affirmed thatmost explosions have been caused by small IEDs, often on the roadside. Comparing thecurrent situation with the years before the Taliban takeover, the international journalist notedthat the number of explosions is significantly lower now, even in Hazara-dominatedneighbourhoods. The journalist added that Kabul City is a huge city in which it is not always
possible to hear small explosions taking place one neighbourhood away. Due to the small
scale of most explosions and roadside IEDs, infrastructure and roads have not been impacted.
The source, however, noted that it is not possible to measure the fear among the populationin certain areas that have experienced explosions, but emphasised again that the numbers
have been much lower than before the takeover.295
Rawadari reported that there were cases of civilians being killed due to internal disputes
within the Taliban, and gave Bamiyan Province as an example where the Taliban can bedivided into two rivalling factions – one supporting the Taliban governor and the other the
Taliban police chief. The Taliban supporting the Taliban police chief has detained, tortured
and killed civilians to discredit the first more powerful group.296 This information has not been

UNAMA, Impact of Improvised Explosive Devices on Civilians in Afghanistan, 27 June 2023, url, pp. 6, 8–11
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
292
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
293International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International
journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
294
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
295
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
296
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 14
290
291

39

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

possible to corroborate with other sources. ACLED recorded 11 fatalities in Bamiyan
Province297 and UCDP recorded 4 civilian deaths.298
Afghanistan is highly contaminated with landmines and explosive remnants of war. Especiallychildren have been victims in recorded casualties.299 ICRC recorded 541 incidents involving
landmines and explosive remnants in January 2022–June 2022. A total of 1 092 people were
killed or injured in these incidents, of whom 640 were children. Cases were recorded all overthe country, but mainly in southern and eastern Afghanistan.300

2.3.1.

Internal displacement and returns

While Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) estimated that 4.4 million people lived
in displacement due to conflict in Afghanistan in 2022,301 UNHCR estimated that 3.25 million
people lived in internal displacement due to conflict in 2023.302 The conflict between the
Taliban and the previous government caused large displacement with an average of 380 000
new displacements per year across the whole country according to IDMC. After the Taliban
takeover, conflict-induced displacement decreased of nearly 100 % according to IDMC.303 New
displacement remained on lower levels in 2022304 although sporadic armed clashes between
the Taliban and other entities have continued to induce some displacement.305
Most displacement recorded in 2022 occurred in the provinces of Panjsher and Baghlan,
where anti-Taliban opposition groups have been active, and also in Sar-e Pul306 where
Mawlawi Mehdi based his resistance against the Taliban in late June 2022.307 UNOCHA
statistics indicated that 29 050 individuals were displaced in Balkhab District, Sar-e Pul
Province, in late June 2022. This constituted most cases recorded in 2022.308 The Protection
Cluster and UNHCR reported that more than 3 000 families had been displaced from the area,
but that most had returned or been forced to return by the de facto authorities as of mid-July2022.309
UNOCHA data indicated that a total of 2 205 individuals (315 families) had been displacedsince 1 July 2022 as of 22 August 2023. All recorded cases occurred in Panjsher Province,and people relocated to other parts of the same province, or to the provinces Parwan and
Kabul.310 According to IOM’s Displacement Tracking Matrix, on the other hand, 583 466
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
298
EUAA analysis based on UCDP data. UCDP, data covering 1 July 2022 to 30 September 2023 provided bycourtesy of UCDP in an email, 9 October 2023
299
UNICEF Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on: 23 August 2023, url; UNOCHA, Afghanistan: Humanitarian Access
Snapshot (March 2023), 25 May 2023, url
300
ICRC, Afghanistan: Children are the main victims of unexploded and abandoned weapons, 18 July 2023, url
301
IDMC, Global Internal Displacement Database, n.d., url
302
UNHCR, Afghanistan situation, [2023], url
303
IDMC, One year on: the Taliban takeover and Afghanistan's changing displacement crisis, August 2022, url
304
IDMC, One year on: the Taliban takeover and Afghanistan's changing displacement crisis, 24 May 2023, url
305
Protection Cluster/UNHCR, Afghanistan, Protection Analysis Update, December 2022, url, p. 6306
UNOCHA, Conflict Induced Displacements Dashboard, 15 January 2023, url
307
Rukshana, After taking control of Balkhab, Taliban summarily executed civilians, residents say, 1 July 2022, url
308
UNOCHA, Afghanistan - Conflict Induced Displacements in 2022, 5 January 2023, url
309
Protection Cluster, Afghanistan, Protection Analysis Update, December 2022, url, p. 1
310
UNOCHA, Afghanistan - Conflict Induced Displacements, (as of 22 August 2023), [2023], url
297

40

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

individuals were displaced in the last six months of 2022311 although these figures include agreat majority of people who were displaced due to disasters such as floods and earthquakes.
IOM’s findings suggested that internally displaced persons (IDPs) were spread out acrossAfghanistan, although most who were displaced in 2021 and 2022 had relocated to theprovinces Kabul (23 %) followed by Herat (10 %) and Balkh (8 %).312
While conflict-induced displacement has decreased,313 economic hardship has become adriving force in internal movement figures. Moreover, there has reportedly been a great
increase in the share of people being displaced due to disasters.314 Only 8 % of displacements
were conflict-induced in May–October 2022 according to IOM’s statistics.315
Economic hardship has been identified as a barrier for IDPs to return to their areas of origin.316
UNHCR recorded a total of 274 012 IDPs returning to their areas of origin in Afghanistan in
2022.317 IOM reported figures of 1 525 577 IDPs returning to their areas of origin in 2022.318

2.4.

Recent crime trends

The crime levels have reportedly risen in Afghanistan after the Taliban takeover, and sources
have put forward the deteriorating humanitarian and economic situation as an explanatory
factor.319 According to ‘anecdotal assessments of crime in urban centres’ collected by Andrew
Watkins, there has been a ‘significant increase’.320 Both the international analyst and theinternational journalist stated that there are few reports on crime in Afghanistan.321 While theinternational analyst suspected a significant underreporting especially in rural areas,322 theinternational journalist stated that there is no exact data over crime, and that the reason for areported increase in crime might as well be an increased attention to the problem.323
The Global Organised Crime index scored the criminality rate of Afghanistan as the 9th highest
in the world.324 The report of the UN Secretary General mainly reported incidents relating to
IOM, Afghanistan - Baseline Assessment, Settlement Level Dataset, Round 16 (September-December 2022),
Displacement Tracking Matrix, n.d., url
312
IOM, Afghanistan — Baseline Mobility Assessment Report, Round 16 (September-December 2022), Displacement
Tracking Matrix, June 2023, url, pp. 9–10
313
Holloway K. et al., Climate Change, conflict and internal displacement in Afghanistan, November 2022, url, p. 34
314
IDMC, One year on: the Taliban takeover and Afghanistan's changing displacement crisis, August 2022, url
315
IOM, Afghanistan — Baseline Mobility Assessment Report, Round 16 (September-December 2022), Displacement
Tracking Matrix, June 2023 url, p. 10316
IDMC, One year on: the Taliban takeover and Afghanistan's changing displacement crisis, August 2022, url
317
UNHCR, Operational Data Portal, Afghanistan, 12 October 2023, url
318
IOM, Afghanistan - Baseline Assessment, Settlement Level Dataset, Round 16 (September-December 2022),
Displacement Tracking Matrix, n.d., url
319
Watkins, A., The Taliban one year on, CTC Sentinel, August 2022, url, p. 11; UN Security Council, The situation in
Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14 September 2022, url, para. 14; UN Security
Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 27 February 2023,
url, para. 16
320
Watkins, A., The Taliban one year on, CTC Sentinel, August 2022, url, p. 11
321
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023; International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, andemail communication, 10 October 2023
322
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
323
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
324
Global Organized Crime Index, Afghanistan, [2023], url
311

41EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

robbery, theft and murder.325 Local media Khaama Press reported on increased crime leadingto ‘a rise in killings, suicides, and interpersonal disputes’.326 The same source indicated Kabul
as one province where kidnapping and extortion ‘recently’ [10 November 2022] had grown.327
According to an analysis by the Protection Cluster and UNHCR, increased crime levels, alongwith the economic crisis and intimidation related to debt issues, were among the mostcommon reasons for feeling insecurity among Afghan households.328 Rawadari reported onserious concern among many citizens due to a high number of targeted or ‘mysterious’ killings
that were not followed by arrests or identified perpetrators.329

2.5.

Recruitment into the Taliban and armed groups

The Taliban has been creating a national de facto military and has recruited its own members
as well as former members of the Afghan security forces who had served the Islamic Republicof Afghanistan.330 An international analyst confirmed this information but added that the
number of recruited former security force personnel has been limited and generally
concerned specialists.331
When announcing their plans to create an army, the Taliban stated that they would recruit on
voluntary basis.332 The Taliban have recruited in large numbers and their own members havebeen treated preferentially. Sometimes, however, the recruitment efforts have caused
resentment or disappointment, as Taliban members have not always been rewarded.333 An
Afghan analyst who often travels Afghanistan to conduct field-based research, gave Kandahar
Province as an example, where the de facto security structures did not have enough positions
to accommodate all Taliban members in the province. Another example of resentment
stemmed from fighters and commanders feeling that the position they were offered were notcommensurate with the sacrifice they made. The same source further explained that many
fighters were disappointed by the fact that most public servants of the former government
were retained, and there was reportedly a push to incorporate Taliban fighters into the defacto state administration. The Afghan analyst however added that these issues were morepressing in 2022 and seemed to have been resolved in 2023.334
Both the Afghan analyst and the international journalist were not aware of instances of forced
recruitment. They described the situation as quite the opposite to forced recruitment, as it isvery popular to be part of the de facto security structure in an economy without other job
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 15
326
Khaama Press, Elderly Cab Driver Killed by Armed Robbers in Northern Afghanistan, 21 August 2022, url
327
Khaama Press, Taliban Releases Kidnapped Child in Northeastern Afghanistan, Arrests Two, 10 November 2022,
url
328
Protection Cluster/UNHCR, Afghanistan, Protection Analysis Update, December 2022, url, p. 3329
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 14
330
Reuters, Taliban aim to boost Afghan security forces, anti-aircraft capacity -army chief, 12 April 2023, url
331International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
332
TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022, url
333
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International analyst,
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
334
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
325

42

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

opportunities.335 Also the international journalist pointed out the lack of other job opportunities
and stated that the Taliban have enough men, and that many were willing to serve on
voluntary basis, even without pay.336
Taliban members have been recruited to fill gaps in the former Afghan National Defense andSecurity Forces (ANDSF), as most previous personnel was removed (except for people withhighly technical functions such as pilots). Some skilled personnel of the former government
have been asked to stay or resume their work within the de facto civil administration andsecurity forces.337 The international journalists knew about a case where the Taliban went fivetimes to someone’s home and asked him to return, but he was not coerced to return to his job
although he decided to do so after a while when it was clear that he would not be able toleave Afghanistan or get other employment.338 The Afghan analyst also provided anecdotal
evidence suggesting that the Taliban tried to be ‘extra nice’ to people that they wanted toretain in their government, including civilian and security personnel. Some people that theanalyst spoke with decided not to go back to their roles, despite being approached ‘multiple
times’ to return to their duties. The Afghan analyst, however, believed that one should not ruleout the possibility that some of the former security officials might have gone back to work outof fear, reasoning that it is the best security against possible reprisals by Taliban members andsympathisers.339
The only report found on forced recruitment was USDOS’ report on the human rights situationin Afghanistan in which it is stated that societal discrimination against Hazaras have takenplace ‘in the form of extortion of money through illegal taxation, forced recruitment and forcedlabor, physical abuse, and detention’.340 This exact statement has been prevalent in every
yearly report of USDOS on the human rights situation in Afghanistan since 2010.341
Children were recruited to Taliban ranks during their time as an insurgency342 and according
to some sources, child recruitment has continued after the takeover.343 Stimson Center
estimated that thousands of children may remain in Taliban ranks.344 According to the Afghan
analyst, the Taliban have formed a commission to remove child soldiers from their ranks, andAfghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International analyst,
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
336
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
337
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
338
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
339
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
340
USDOS, 2022 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 20 March 2023, url
341
USDOS, 2021 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 12 April 2022, url; USDOS, 2020 Country
Report on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 30 March 2021, url; USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights
Practices 2019 – Afghanistan, 11 March 2020, url; USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2018 –Afghanistan, 13 March 2019, url; USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2017 – Afghanistan, 20 April
2018, url; USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2016 – Afghanistan, 3 March 2017, url; USDOS,
Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2015 – Afghanistan, 13 April 2016, url; USDOS, Country Report on
Human Rights Practices 2014 – Afghanistan, 25 June 2015, url; USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2013 - Afghanistan, 27 February 2014, url; USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2012 - Afghanistan,
19 April 2013, url, USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 2011 - Afghanistan, 24 May 2012, url;
USDOS, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 2010, 8 April 2011, url
342
HRW, This is our opportunity to end the Taliban's use of child soldiers, 20 September 2021, url
343
Borgen Project (The), Child Soldiers in Afghanistan, 26 September 2022, url; USDOS, 2023 Trafficking in
Persons Report: Afghanistan, 15 June 2023, url
344
Stimson, CSPA Implementation Tracker, Afghanistan, 7 December 2022, url
335

43EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

today the Taliban usually avoid recruiting boys that are too young by rejecting children without
a beard. The source added that the idea of childhood ending at 18 is seen as a Westernconstruct, and that in a country where the large majority of the people do not know their dateof birth or their age, becoming adult at 18 ‘makes very little sense’, and many oftentimes
estimate their age.345
As regards recruitment to ISKP, the Salafi community and Taliban foot soldiers have reportedly
been called upon to support the group.346 Afghanistan expert Antonio Giustozzi published aresearch article finding that two important sources for recruitment in Afghanistan have been
the Salafi community and university students. Giustozzi’s study demonstrated that ISKP sought
to recruit individuals with a militant Salafi profile and particularly religious students, especiallythose known to have experienced harassment from ‘extremist Hanafi students’ or from the
Taliban in their repression of ISKP. Recruitment methods demonstrated in this study included
sending recruitment videos, ‘messages about Salafism and news about the Taliban
negotiating with America’. If the student did not react positively to such approaches, therecruitment attempt was allegedly stopped. Moreover, students joining ISKP often had notbeen interested in becoming fighters but took on other roles. ISKP recruitment has mainly
focused on the Sharia faculty but other students demonstrating a strong religious interest,
even non-Salafis, could be approached. Recruitment hotspots were Kabul and Gulbahar, andalso Nangarhar University and Badakhshan University.347 The UN Sanctions and Monitoring
Team also reported on the new ISKP leader focusing on recruiting more educated individuals
and had extended recruitment to non-Salafism.348
ISKP has reportedly also engaged in recruiting children.349 In analysis of images from ISKP
cells, AW noted that a child appeared in one picture of ISKP fighters.350
No information about forced recruitment to ISKP or other armed groups opposing the Taliban
was found within the time constraints of drafting this report.

Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
Sayed, A. and Refslund Hamming, T., The Growing Threat of the Islamic State in Afghanistan and South Asia,
USIP, 7 June 2023, url, p. 11
347
Giustozzi, A., An Unfamiliar Challenge: How the Taliban are Meeting the Islamic State Threat on Afghanistan’s
University Campuses, RUSI, url, pp. 3, 6–10
348
UN Security Council, Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 1 June 2023,
url, para. 46
349
USDOS, 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Afghanistan, 15 June 2023, url
350
AW, Content released by ISKP indicates fewer and smaller cells, 30 August 2023, url
345

346

44

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

3.

Humanitarian situation

3.1.

The economic and humanitarian crisis

Afghanistan faced an economic and humanitarian crisis already before the Taliban takeover,due to drought, the COVID-19 pandemic and decreased international military spending.351
After the takeover, this crisis escalated352 and the Afghan economy entered a stage of ‘free
fall’ for months.353 The Afghan Central Bank’s assets were frozen, which has caused a liquidity
crisis and shortages of banknotes.354 All economic activity in the country has been
impacted.355 Furthermore, the non-recognition of the de facto government has limited its
possibilities to receive funds from international financial institutions to handle the situation.356
The World Bank reported that the Afghan economy contracted by 20.7 % in 2021, and by
6.2 % in 2022.357 High inflation drove up prices on basic goods and food,358 and large parts ofthe population have become increasingly reliant on humanitarian aid.359 The UN aid appeal for
Afghanistan in 2022 was the largest in history for one country,360 asking for USD 4.44 billion in
funding.361 Moreover, the Taliban’s restrictions on women access to work have impacted theeconomy.362
The Afghan economy started to stabilise in mid-2022, but at a lower equilibrium than
before.363 Living conditions marginally improved, although the situation continued to be dire.364
Large sums of afghani (AFN) banknotes were imported in November 2022,365 and the WorldBank reported on a halt in the Afghan banks ‘sharp decline in deposits’ – although thebanking system remained under stress.366 In 2023, there were some signs of a slighteconomic revival.367 The afghani stabilised in relation to major currencies, nominal and real

USIP, One Year Later, Taliban Unable to Reverse Afghanistan’s Economic Decline, 8 August 2022, url
HRW, Economic Causes of Afghanistan’s humanitarian Crisis, 4 August 2022, url; NRC, Afghanistan at a
Precipice, 10 August 2022, url, p. 4353
USIP, One Year Later, Taliban Unable to Reverse Afghanistan’s Economic Decline, 8 August 2022, url; UN
News, Afghanistan economy in ‘freefall’, threatening to take entire population with it, 19 December 2021, url
354
HRW, Afghanistan: Economic Crisis Underlies Mass Hunger, 4 August 2022, url
355
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 3
356
UK, House of Commons Library, Afghanistan: One year under a Taliban government, 10 October 2022, url, p. 6
357
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 6
358
HRW, Afghanistan: Economic Crisis Underlies Mass Hunger, 4 August 2022, url; ICRC, Afghanistan: People
suffer as spending capacity shrinks, prices rise, 13 July 2022, url
359
IOM, With More than Half of Afghans Dependent on Humanitarian Aid, IOM Calls for Sustained Support, 1
September 2022, url; Islamic Relief, Two years on, millions of Afghan civilians need greater international support, 17
August 2023, url
360
UN News, Afghanistan: UN launches largest single country aid appeal ever, 11 January 2022, url
361
UNOCHA, Afghanistan Humanitarian Response Plan 2022, [no date], url
362
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 16
363
USIP, One Year Later, Taliban Unable to Reverse Afghanistan’s Economic Decline, 8 August 2022, url; World
Bank, Afghanistan Development Update, October 2022, url, pp. 9, 17364
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update, October 2022, url, pp. 2, 10, 17
365
Reuters, Afghan central bank gets fresh banknotes after U.S. helps clear payment, 9 November 2022, url
366
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 15
367
USIP, Two Years into Taliban Rule, New Shocks Weaken Afghan Economy, 10 August 2023, url
351

352

45

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

wages slightly improved,368 and the inflation declined369 to overgo in deflation in April 2023.370
The Afghan population has however been under substantial pressure371 and has struggled tocover basic needs.372 The number of people in need of humanitarian assistance increased
from 24.4 million people in 2022 to 28.3 million people in January 2023 (which corresponds
to two thirds of the Afghan population).373 Sources described the Afghan economy andhumanitarian needs as continuously vulnerable to spillover effects from global and regional
economic challenges,374 as well as internal disasters related to climate change.375 Some
examples include Afghanistan entering its third consecutive year of drought,376 flash floods
causing deaths and severe damages to houses, land and livestock across the country,377 andan earthquake hitting Badakhshan Province on 21 March 2023.378
Aid delivery became increasingly complicated after the takeover, inter alia because Taliban
individuals under UN sanctions held key de facto government positions.379 Aid delivery was
also impacted by increased costs380 and difficulties in transferring money into Afghanistan.381
The situation was further complicated when the Taliban banned women from working for
NGOs382 and for UN offices.383 (More information on the treatment of aid workers is available inthe section 4.8 Humanitarian workers) Moreover, funding for humanitarian assistance has
decreased.384 The UN aid appeal for Afghanistan in 2022 was funded by 75 %, and on 30
September 2023 the response plan for 2023 (USD 3.23 billion) had only been funded by
34 %.385 The shortfall in funds has for example impacted the World Food Programme (WFP),
who had stopped giving food assistance to 10 million people by September 2023.386

World Bank, Afghanistan Economic Monitor, 31 July 2023, url, pp. 2, 5World Bank, Afghanistan Economic Monitor, 31 July 2023, url, p. 4; ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan– Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 3
370
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 6
371
World Bank, Afghanistan, Key conditions and challenges, April 2023, url, p. 1
372
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 12373
UNOCHA, Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023, 23 January 2023, url
374
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 18, 26
375
SIPRI, Climate, Peace and Security Fact Sheet: Afghanistan 2023, February 2023, url, p. 1; UNOCHA,
Afghanistan: The alarming effects of climate change, 1 August 2023, url
376
Save the Children, The international community must not turn its back on hungry children in Afghanistan as 2
million people lose food assistance, 6 September 2023, url
377
EUAA, Afghanistan, Major legislative, security-related, and humanitarian developments, 4 November 2022, url, p.
14; UNOCHA, Afghanistan: Floods Jul 2023, 2023, url
378
BBC News, Earthquake in Pakistan and Afghanistan kills at least 19 people, 22 March 2023, url
379
HRW, Economic Causes of Afghanistan’s humanitarian Crisis, 4 August 2022, url; NRC, Afghanistan at a
Precipice, 10 August 2022, url, p. 4
380
NRC, Afghanistan at a Precipice, 10 August 2022, url, p. 3; Refugees International, Fit for Purpose: Getting
Humanitarian Aid Right in Afghanistan One Year after the Taliban Takeover, August 2022, url, pp. 4, 14
381
HRW, Economic Causes of Afghanistan’s humanitarian Crisis, 4 August 2022, url; NRC, Afghanistan at a
Precipice, 10 August 2022, url, p. 4
382
VOA, Taliban Hold Firm to Ban on Afghan Female Aid Workers, 30 December 2022, url; NRC, A ban on female
aid workers in Afghanistan will cost lives, warn leading aid groups, 29 December 2022, url
383
UN News, Taliban order bars Afghan women from working with UN, 4 April 2023, url
384
IRC, Two years since the Taliban took power in Afghanistan, almost 30 million people remain in dire need ofassistance as funding shortfalls jeopardize the humanitarian response, 7 April 2023, url; UNOCHA, Afghanistan
Critical Funding Gas, 31 July 2023, url
385
UNOCHA, Afghanistan Humanitarian Response Plan 2023, n.d., url
386
WFP, WFP in Afghanistan forced to drop 10 million people from lifesaving assistance, deepening despair andworry for Afghans, 5 September 2023, url
368

369

46

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

3.2.

Poverty, basic subsistence and employment

Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world.387 The most recent poverty estimatesare based on data collected in 2019 and 2020, which suggested that 47.5 % of the population
lived on assets below the poverty threshold.388 The World Bank affirmed these figures andestimated 48.3 % of the population to be poor in April–June 2023, although monetary poverty
was estimated to impact 70 % of the population.389 Other sources have however reported onnearly all Afghans living in poverty.390 UNDP, for example, suggested that 85 % of the
population (34 million people) lived below the poverty line in December 2022 – their estimate
does not however correspond to the conventional poverty rate.391
The decrease in labour earnings and wages has been reported as a main challenge forhouseholds to cover basic expenses.392 In most Afghan households, agriculture and livestock
have been primary sources of income.393 These sectors have been negatively impacted bydrought394 and extreme temperatures.395 Moreover, the Taliban have enforced their ban onopium poppy cultivation, which has been a common source of income.396
Salaried employment opportunities decreased significantly after the Taliban takeover.397
International Labour Organization (ILO) reported that 450 000 persons had lost their jobs
between the second quarter of 2021 and the fourth quarter of 2022, and projected that
900 000 people would have been unemployed by the end of 2022 had not the administration
changed.398 The World Bank also noted a negative unemployment and underemployment
trend399 – only 16 % had a salaried employment in the public or private sector in October
2022,400 which went down to 12 % in April–June 2023 according to WFP.401 Particularly womenand youth were overrepresented in unemployment rates.402 According to ILO, both female andyouth employment had decreased 25 % by the last quarter of 2022 compared to before theUNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 12; World Bank, Gross national income
per capita 2022, Atlas method and PPP, 1 July 2023, url, pp. 3–4
388
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 43
389
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 6, 23
390
IOM, With More than Half of Afghans Dependent on Humanitarian Aid, IOM Calls for Sustained Support, 1
September 2022, url; IRC, Afghanistan: An entire population pushed into poverty, 22 December 2022, url
391
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 14, 46
392
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update, October 2022, url, p. 2; HRW, Economic Causes of
Afghanistan’s Humanitarian Crisis, 4 August 2022, url
393
UNOCHA and REACH, Whole of Afghanistan Assessment, October 2022, url, p. 3; ACAPS, Afghanistan,
Scenarios, April 2023, url, p. 11
394
UNOCHA, Afghanistan: The alarming effects of climate change, 1 August 2023, url; IPS, Drought-Displaced
Afghan Peasants Yearn for Their Rural Life, 17 July 2023, url
395
FAO, Afghanistan: Cold Wave Assessment on Livestock, 4 August 2023, url, p. 1; IPS, Drought-Displaced Afghan
Peasants Yearn for Their Rural Life, 17 July 2023, url
396
ACAPS, Afghanistan, Scenarios, April 2023, url, p. 11; USIP, The Taliban’s Successful Opium Ban is Bad for
Afghans and the World, 8 June 2023, url
397
UNDP, One Year in Review-Afghanistan since August 2021, 5 October 2022, url, p. 27; ACAPS, Afghanistan,
Scenarios, April 2023, url, p. 11
398
ILO, Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid impact assessment, March 2023, url, p. 1
399
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47
400
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11
401
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, 5 July 2023, url, p. 12
402
ILO, Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid impact assessment, March 2023, url, p. 1
387

47

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

takeover.403 The World Bank reported an unemployment rate of 31 % for males in the agegroup 14–24, in contrast to the average male unemployment rate of 18 % for all ages (14–65
years). Meanwhile, the average unemployment rate among women was 44.4 %.404 Moreover,
women in urban areas, with a secondary or post-secondary education and who used to be
employed in 2020, tended to be unemployed in 2022.405 Other sources also reported on
educated women facing unemployment due to Taliban restrictions.406
The World Bank noted a significant increase in labour force participation among both men andwomen in 2022 and 2023.407 Male labour force participation rose from 69 % to 86 %, and theparticipation of women saw a threefold increase by April–June 2023 compared to thesituation in 2020.408 Due to the lack of employment opportunities people have however
increasingly engaged in work in the informal sector.409 According to the World Bank’s statistics
most men were self-employed or engaged in casual work,410 while women tended livestock,
worked on farms411 or engaged in small-scale economic activities from home.412 Other sources
have also reported on how economic struggles have made women engage in home-based
business.413
At the same time as job opportunities have decreased, the high inflation in 2021–2022
reduced the real value of earnings.414 By April–June 2023, however, nominal wages had
recovered to their pre-crisis levels according to the World Bank, and the real wages value wasaccentuated by the lower inflation and the subsequent deflation. The World Bank further
reported that this contributed to an improvement in household welfare, but also pointed outthat poverty remained high and that the recent gains could be an effect of households
exhausting all resources and coping strategies.415 ILO reported that labour income had
become more insecure as more people engaged in self-employment.416 According to a survey
carried out by REACH, the average monthly household income in 2022 was AFN 6 489 [about
EUR 80, by September 2023], and the median income per person was AFN 833 [about EUR
10, by September 2023].417

ILO, Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid impact assessment, March 2023, url, pp. 3–4; World Bank,
Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47
404
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47
405
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11
406
SCMP, Afghan women, ‘gradually dying’ as Taliban shuts off more jobs, retrain as nurses, 9 August 2023, url;
Hasht-e Subh, Business Women’s Day: Work Deprivation Has Depressed Women in Afghanistan, 23 September
2023, url
407
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11; World Bank, Afghanistan
Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 14
408World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 14
409
UNDP, One Year in Review-Afghanistan since August 2021, 5 October 2022, url, p. 27
410
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11
411
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11; World Bank, Afghanistan
Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 14412World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11
413
Context, Afghan women set up secret businesses to escape Taliban bans, 15 August 2023, url; New
Humanitarian (The), For Afghan women, fashion and crafts offer a work lifeline, 8 June 2023, url
414
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update, October 2022, url, p. 2; HRW, World Report 2023:
Afghanistan, 12 January 2023, url; ILO, Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid impact assessment, March
2023, url, p. 1
415
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 23
416
ILO, Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid impact assessment, March 2023, url, p. 3
417
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 39
403

48

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

According to the World Bank, poverty rates were higher in urban areas.418 The urban
population heavily relied on work within the construction sector which collapsed after the
Taliban takeover.419 Meanwhile, the populations in rural areas have to a large extent depended
on agriculture420 and, with the possibility to self-produce, farmers have generally been lessvulnerable to changes in workforce demands.421 The agricultural sector has however been
vulnerable to climate change422 and some reports suggest that poverty has been more intense
in rural areas.423 ACAPS, on the other hand, described rural and urban households as linked
and impacting each other as regards job losses and income reduction.424
Common strategies to cope with the situation have included reducing the quality and quantityof food, getting into heavy debt, selling property,425 begging,426 marrying off girls,427 taking
children out of school, child labour,428 and in extreme cases organ trafficking.429 According to
WFP, households without an income have been more likely to resort to extreme coping
mechanism during food shortages.430 A nationwide household survey called the Whole ofAfghanistan Assessment (WoAA) covers the situation for Afghan households in the previous
six months (as of September 2022). It was carried out by REACH and is based on 17 262
household interviews.431 This survey found that 92 % of households were using coping
mechanisms, or lacked such alternatives as they had already exhausted their resources.
Based on this data, UNDP assessed that 4.3 million households had borrowed money tosecure food, almost 470 000 had been begging, more than 850 000 had sent their children towork, and almost 80 000 (2 %) had married off girls earlier than intended.432
According to UNOCHA, Kabul was the province where most people in need of humanitarianassistance were located as of January 2023. There were 4.7 million people in need in thisarea, but the severity of needs in Kabul (as well as Takhar) were estimated not to be as grave
as in other provinces.433 A study by ACAPS found that households in Kabul City as well ashouseholds in rural Qarabagh (Kabul Province) struggled to meet their basic needs due to theeconomic situation and the dysfunctional financial system. Many households had resorted toWorld Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47
MEE, ‘Afghanistan’s food crisis is one of access, not availability’, 29 September 2023, url; CMI, Understanding
and addressing poverty and food insecurity in Afghanistan, April 2023, url
420World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47;
Asef Shaiq, M. et al., Dimensions of Poverty in Kunduz Province of Afghanistan, 30 November 2022, url
421
CMI, Understanding and addressing poverty and food insecurity in Afghanistan, April 2023, url
422
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47;
Asef Shaiq, M. et al., Dimensions of Poverty in Kunduz Province of Afghanistan, 30 November 2022, url
423
Hakimi, H., Afghanistan’s Outlook: Under Taliban Rule, the economy slumps as taxation income rises, 15 August
2023, url; Asef Shaiq, M. et al., Dimensions of Poverty in Kunduz Province of Afghanistan, 30 November 2022, url;
AAN, No Food For Hope: Afghanistan’s Child Malnutrition Dilemma in 2023, 7 July 2023, url
424
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 12425
CARE, The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29 December 2022, url, pp. 8, 10–11;
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 15, 62, 68
426
New Humanitarian (The), For Afghan women, fashion and crafts offer a work lifeline, 8 June 2023, url; UNDP,
Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 15
427
CARE, The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29 December 2022, url, pp. 8, 11; Save
the Children, Afghanistan, Multi-Sectoral Needs Assessment, January 2022, url, p. 8
428
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 57
429
CARE, The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29 December 2022, url, pp. 8, 11
430
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, p. 11
431
REACH, Whole of Afghanistan Assessment 2022 Key Findings Presentation, 20 September 2022, url, p. 4
432
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 15, 63–64
433
UNOCHA, Afghanistan Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023 (January 2023), 23 January 2023, url, p. 9
418

419

49

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

coping mechanisms such as changing their diet, delaying or avoiding medical care, borrowing
money, resorting to humanitarian aid, selling assets and child labour.434

3.3.

Food security

Afghanistan is one of the most food insecure countries in the world.435 The hunger situation
has not been classified as a famine436 but food insecurity is widespread throughout thecountry.437 Buying food has been the top priority for Afghan households438 and in certain
periods in 2022 the average household was spending over 90 % of its income on food.439
After a sharp increase following the Taliban takeover,440 prices on food and basic household
items started to decrease in 2022441 and continued to do so in 2023.442 Prices were howeverstill high in contrast to before the takeover,443 and the general purchasing power has been
weak.444
WFP estimated that at least 89 % of the population experienced insufficient food consumption
in November 2022,445 but noted a marginal improvement (down to 87 %) in the first twoquarters of 2023.446 The Integrated Food Security Phase Classifications (IPC)447 provides
overviews of the acute food insecurity situation for September 2022–October 2022 as well as
for April 2023. According to these analyses, at least 40 % of the population has been

ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 1
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 5
436
MEM, ‘Afghanistan’s food crisis is one of access, not availability’, 29 September 2023, url; IPC, Afghanistan:
Acute Food Insecurity Situation for September 2022 - October 2022 and Projection for November 2022 - March
2023, 23 January 2023, url; IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for April 2023 and Projection for May- October 2023, 15 May 2023, url
437
UNOCHA and REACH, Whole of Afghanistan Assessment, October 2022, url, p. 2
438
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 57
439
IRC, Afghanistan: An entire population pushed into poverty, 22 December 2022, url; WFP, Afghanistan Food
Security Update – December 2022, 21 February 2023, url
440
Save the Children, Afghanistan: Price Hikes Push Food out of Reach for Millions of Children, 26 August 2021, url
441
REACH and WFP, Afghanistan Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) (12 - 21 July 2022), 21 August 2022, url, p.
3; REACH and WFP, Afghanistan Joint Market Monitoring Initiative (JMMI) (06 - 15 December 2022), 16 January2023, url, p. 3
442
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, pp. 3, 13; Pajhwok, Consumer
prices in Afghanistan fall, first deflation since 2021, 2 July 2023, url
443
WFP, Afghanistan: Countrywide Weekly Market Price Bulletin, Issue 169: Week 4 September 2023, 2 October
2023, urlp. 1; World Bank, Afghanistan Economic Monitor, 31 July 2023, url
444
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, pp. 3, 13; ACAPS, Afghanistan
Scenarios, April 2023, url, p. 12445
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update, November 2022, url
446
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, pp. 8–9; WFP, Afghanistan Food
Security Update - 2nd Quarter (June 2023), 26 September 2023, url, p. 8447
IPC ‘provides a common scale for classifying the severity and magnitude of food insecurity and acutemalnutrition’ with five phases ranging from None/Minimal (Phase 1) to Catastrophe/Famine (Phase 5). See: IPC,
Understanding the IPC Scales, June 2022, url, pp. 3–4
434

435

50

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

experiencing high levels of acute food insecurity (IPC Phase 3 and 4).448 IPC provided thefollowing figures on the prevalence of acute food insecurity within the total population:
Table 1: Prevalence of acute food insecurity according to IPC
IPC Phase
1: No or minimal
2: Stressed
3: Crisis
4: Acute
5: Famine

September–October 2022
22 % (9,4 million)
37 % (15,4 million)
30 % (12,5 million)
11 % (4,4 million)
0%

April 2023
24 % (10,1 million)
36 % (15,8 million)
32 % (13,9 million)
8 % (3,4 million)0%

Source: IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for September 2022 - October 2022 and Projection for
November 2022 - March 2023, 23 January 2023, url; IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for April
2023 and Projection for May - October 2023, 15 May 2023, url

IPC indicated that all provinces had been experiencing ‘crisis’ conditions (IPC Phase 3), except
for Badakhshan and Ghor where the situation has been ‘acute’ (IPC Phase 4): 20 % of therespective populations have experienced ‘acute’ food insecurity.449 Other sources noted
difficult conditions in northern provinces severely affected by drought.450 In Kabul City, 45 %experienced IPC phase 3 or 4 in September–October 2022, and 40 % in April 2023.451
Many households have coped with the situation by adjusting their diets to avoid expensive
food,452 and reducing the food quality, for example by eating more staples, and less meat, fruit,and vegetables.453 Parents have been skipping meals so their children can eat.454
Food insecurity has particularly impacted households headed by persons with lower
education,455 persons with disabilities,456 and women.457 Women’s access to food has been
negatively impacted due to restrictions on their freedom of movement,458 and limited job
IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for September 2022 - October 2022 and Projection for
November 2022 - March 2023, 23 January 2023, url; IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for April
2023 and Projection for May - October 2023, 15 May 2023, url
449
IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for September 2022 - October 2022 and Projection for
November 2022 - March 2023, 23 January 2023, url; IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for April
2023 and Projection for May - October 2023, 15 May 2023, url
450
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, p. 9; Save the Children,
Afghanistan: Three in Four Children Surveyed are Eating Less Amid Soaring Hunger, as Country Marks Two Yearsof Taliban Rule, 15 August 2023, url
451
IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for September 2022 - October 2022 and Projection for
November 2022 - March 2023, 23 January 2023, url; IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for April
2023 and Projection for May - October 2023, 15 May 2023, url
452
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 2nd Quarter (June 2023), 26 September 2023, url, p. 9; ACAPS,ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 9453
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, p. 8; CARE, The Impact of theFood Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29 December 2022, url, pp. 8–9
454
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 2nd Quarter (June 2023), 26 September 2023, url, p. 12455
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, p. 8; Najam, W., et al., Social
Determinants of Rural Household Food Insecurity under the Taliban Regime, 30 March 2023, url
456
WFP, Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (January-April) 2023, url, p. 8; IFRC, Afghanistan: Hunger
and poverty surge as drought persists, 17 June 2022, url
457
Save the Children, Afghanistan: Three in Four Children Surveyed are Eating Less Amid Soaring Hunger, asCountry Marks Two Years of Taliban Rule, 15 August 2023, url; Najam, W., et al., Social Determinants of Rural
Household Food Insecurity under the Taliban Regime, 30 March 2023, url
458
CARE, The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29 December 2022, url, p. 5
448

51

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

opportunities.459 A study by CARE International found that both men and women have beenskipping meals for the sake of their children and partner. The newest female family member(often daughters-in-law) were however identified as likely to be more food insecure than otherhousehold members. Often, they have to ensure that all senior members in the household arecared for first.460 In the IPC analysis of the prevalence of malnutrition in September–October
2022, 4 million women and children were estimated to suffer from acute malnutrition,
including over 800 000 pregnant or breast-feeding women.461 A SMART462 survey found that
20.7 % of pregnant and lactating women were malnourished.463
According to IPC, 16 % of children had a minimum acceptable diet in September–October
2022464 and UNICEF reported that 12 % of children aged 6–24 months received the rightvariety and quantity of food needed for their age.465 In a survey by Save the Children from
August 2022, in which 1 690 children in seven provinces participated, 88 % were eating lessthan usual since the Taliban takeover, and 10 % frequently went to bed hungry (two thirds ofthese children were girls).466 Moreover, many children have shown signs of psychosocial
distress due to their families’ economic hardship.467
Since the Taliban takeover, the number of children under five being admitted into healthfacilities due to severe acute malnutrition has increased.468 According to UNICEF, over 41 % ofchildren under five suffered from stunting (an indicator of long-term malnutrition) which is thehighest rate in the world.469 The SMART survey (covering April–October 2022), however,found that the overall prevalence of stunting was 32.7 %.470 The same study found that 23.4 %of children under five were underweight, whereof 6.3 % were severely underweight. Higher
rates of child malnutrition and stunting was recorded in some southern provinces (Ghazni,
Kandahar, Paktika, Uruzgan, and Zabul), in the northeast (Badakhshan, Badghis, Kunar,
Laghman, Nangarhar, and Nuristan), and in Ghor and Kapisa. Paktika was singled out as theone province experiencing ‘very high’ rates of malnutrition. Furthermore, Uruzgan had thehighest rate of child stunting (59.3 %). In Kabul City, the rates of underweight (24.8 %) andsevere underweight (7 %) were slightly over the national average, while the rates of stunting(25.5 %) and severe stunting (6.6 %) were slightly below.471

IRC, One year later: What are Afghans facing now?, 15 August 2022, url
CARE, The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29 December 2022, url, pp. 6–7
461
IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Malnutrition Situation for September - October 2022 and Projection for November 2022
- April 2023, 30 January 2023, url
462‘The SMART Methodology is a simplified and standardized cross-sectional survey method’. See: Nutrition Cluster
et al., Afghanistan National SMART Survey Report (April-October 2022), 8 June 2023, url, p. 16
463
Nutrition Cluster et al., Afghanistan National SMART Survey Report (April-October 2022), 8 June 2023, url, p. 60
464
IPC, Afghanistan: Acute Malnutrition Situation for September - October 2022 and Projection for November 2022
- April 2023, 30 January 2023, url
465
UNICEF, Nutrition, n.d., url
466
Save the Children, Breaking Point: Children’s Lives One Year under Taliban Rule, 10 August 2022, url, pp. 4, 6
467
WHO, Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022, url, p. 4; Save the Children, Breaking Point: Children’s
Lives One Year under Taliban Rule, 10 August 2022, url, pp. 4, 6
468
PBS, 1.1 million Afghan children under 5 could face severe malnutrition this year, U.N. says, 25 May 2022, url
469
UNICEF, Nutrition, n.d., url
470
Nutrition Cluster et al., Afghanistan National SMART Survey Report (April-October 2022), 8 June 2023, url, p. 42
471
Nutrition Cluster et al., Afghanistan National SMART Survey Report (April-October 2022), 8 June 2023, url, pp.
39–45, 58
459

460

52

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

3.4.

Housing

According to the local media outlet Pajhwok, property prices and rental rates sharply
decreased after the Taliban takeover, but stabilised and went up again by September 2022,
although at a lower level than before.472 However, according to a survey by Gallup, 73 % of
Afghans experienced economic challenges in providing adequate shelter or housing forthemselves and their families in 2022, in contrast to 58 % in 2021.473 Many have struggled to
pay rent474 and most lack a formal rental agreement.475 The WoAA for 2022 found that housing
was the sixth top priority among Afghan households (after food, employment, healthcare,
repaying debts and clean water). Among surveyed households, 61 % lived in shelters made ofmud, and many shelters were partially damaged. Only 6 % lived in permanent shelters ofrobust materials, and 20 % lived in severely damaged shelters. Leaks were reported ascommon under heavy rain (45 %) and light rain (28 %). Over 40 % could not afford repairs.
Many of the poorest reportedly lived in tents.476
The same survey found that many households had problems with water and energy. 80 %lacked access to piped water, and there was a lack of sanitation facilities and soap. More thanhalf of households lacked heating devices for cooking, and 16 % had no cooking items at all.
Electricity was short in supply and too weak to support more than some light bulbs or atelephone charger. Moreover, deaths from cold have been common in Afghanistan and the
WoAA for 2022 found that only 1 % of households used electricity for heating, and 2 % usedliquid petroleum gas. Others burned wood, coal, dung, paper, carton or plastics for heating
purposes. Moreover, winter clothes were in very short supply. Over half of households did nothave winter clothing, and only 18 % had winter clothing for all their children. In some provinces
the average number of blankets were less than one per person.477 ACAPS also reported on alack of warm winter clothing.478

3.5.

Healthcare

Public healthcare was free under the previous government except for registration fees,
medication and some medical supplies.479 Oftentimes people however turned to private
healthcare options as they were perceived as providing better quality care than government
facilities.480 After the Taliban takeover, the already weak public health system was heavily

Pajhwok, Falling a year ago, home prices up by 24pc in Kabul – Pajhwok Afghan News, 19 September 2022, url
Gallup, Taliban Plunge Afghans Into Economic Ruin, 1 December 2022, url
474
NRC, Private renters facing risk of eviction, October 2022, url, p. 1; ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan– Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 12475
NRC, Private renters facing risk of eviction, October 2022, url, p. 1
476
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 53–55, 57, 65
477
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, pp. 53–55, 57, 65
478
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 1
479
HRW, “I Would Like Four Kids – If We Stay Alive”, Women’s Access to Health Care in Afghanistan, May 2021, url,
pp. 19, 28–31
480
MSF, The Continued Struggle to Access Medical Care in Afghanistan, 18 June 2021, url, p. 18, HRW, “I Would
Like Four Kids – If We Stay Alive”, Women’s Access to Health Care in Afghanistan, May 2021, url, p. 33
472
473

53

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

impacted by the halt in aid flows.481 Many health workers did not receive their salaries,
medicines ran out and many health professionals left Afghanistan.482 The few private
healthcare options that remained have often been too expensive for people to afford.483 At thesame time, multiple infectious diseases have spread, including heavy outbreaks of measles
and acute watery diarrhoea,484 and natural disasters have caused deaths and injuries.485 In a
research study published in June 2023, healthcare workers across all of Afghanistan’s
provinces in rural, semi-rural and urban areas, experienced a deterioration of their working
conditions, as well as the availability and quality of care. Main issues were the lack of skilled
staff, shortages in medical supplies and medication, and harassment by the Taliban against
staff members and against women seeking care.486
Especially maternal and child healthcare have deteriorated.487 Afghanistan has had one of theworld’s highest maternal and neonatal mortality rates in the world for a long time, despite asteady decline in the past 20 years.488 Although no recent data has been available,489 themortality numbers of both mothers and infants have been expected to increase.490 In theabove-mentioned research study from June 2023, more than one third of healthcare workers
believed that child and maternal mortality had increased. One healthcare worker reported thatsome healthcare facilities did not have any professional midwives.491 WHO estimated that 167
infants die every day in Afghanistan due to preventable child mortality causes.492
The costs of healthcare services and the costs of travelling were the main obstacles forpeople to access healthcare,493 and many have avoided seeking care due to its expenses.494
Particularly women have faced obstacles in accessing healthcare due to mobility restrictions

WVI, Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022, url, p. 14; WHO, Afghanistan’s health system is on the brinkof collapse: urgent action is needed, 24 January 2022, url
482
ICRC, Health Care in Afghanistan, 25 October 2022, url; Jalazai, R. et al., The Maternal and Child Health Crisis in
Afghanistan, Johns Hopkins Center for Public Health and Human Rights, 9 November 2022, url, p. 6
483
WVI, Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022, url, p. 14; ICRC, Health Care in Afghanistan [Podcast], 25
October 2022, url, [4:40–5:10]
484
WHO, Afghanistan Emergency Situation Report, December 22, url, pp. 1, 4; Neyazi, N. et al., Non-communicablediseases in Afghanistan: a silent tsunami, 17 June 2023, url
485
WHO, Afghanistan Emergency Situation Report, December 22, url, p. 1; France24, Afghanistan earthquake death
toll rises to more than 2,400, says Taliban spokesman, 8 October 2023, url
486
Glass, N., et al., The crisis of maternal and child health in Afghanistan, 12 June 2023, url
487
WHO, Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022, url, pp. 4, 6, 12; Jalazai, R. et al., The Maternal and Child
Health Crisis in Afghanistan, Johns Hopkins Center for Public Health and Human Rights, 9 November 2022, url, pp.
5–6; Health Cluster and WHO, Afghanistan Health Cluster Bulletin, August 2023, 25 September 2023, url, p. 2
488
Jalazai, R. et al., The Maternal and Child Health Crisis in Afghanistan, Johns Hopkins Center for Public Healthand Human Rights, 9 November 2022, url, p. 4; WSJ, Maternity Care, Once a Sign of Hope in Afghanistan, Is
Faltering Under the Taliban, 18 July 2022, url
489
MSF, Persistent barriers to access healthcare in Afghanistan, 6 February 2023, url, p. 19
490
Jalazai, R. et al., The Maternal and Child Health Crisis in Afghanistan, Johns Hopkins Center for Public Healthand Human Rights, 9 November 2022, url, p. 16; GiHA Working Group et al., Afghanistan Inter-agency Rapid
Gender Analysis, November 2022, url, p. 14
491
Glass, N., et al., The crisis of maternal and child health in Afghanistan, Conflict and Health, 12 June 2023, url
492
WHO Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on: 17 April 2023, url
493
MSF, Persistent barriers to access healthcare in Afghanistan, 6 February 2023, url, pp. 3, 15
494
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 64; MSF, Persistent barriers to accesshealthcare in Afghanistan, 6 February 2023, url, p. 7481

54

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

and the lack of female health workers.495 The WoAA for 2022 found that only 20 % of Afghan
households experienced no barrier to accessing healthcare.496
Basic health services have not been physically available in some places,497 and distances andpossibilities to obtain transport have been issues in accessing healthcare.498 Some rural areas
have been described as ‘white areas’ – areas without any healthcare structures in place.499
WHO described the distance to health care as better in urban and peri-urban areas, with anaverage travel time of around 90 minutes. In contrast, the average travel time for inhabitants inrural areas was four hours in summer and ‘much longer’ in winter.500 UNOCHA and REACH
also assessed Kabul and other urban areas as experiencing less issues related to transport.501
According to WHO there were 134 hospitals in Afghanistan, and 26 were located in Kabul.502
The Health Cluster and WHO reported that its care giving partners were present in all 34
provinces in January–August 2023. By August 2023, the coverage had however decreased
from 353 districts to 321 districts, and from 1 471 health facilities to 972. Baghlan and Panjsher
were the two provinces with only three to four active agencies, in contrast to Kabul where
over nine were active.503 The same source identified 21 provinces as having critical/extreme
health needs in August 2023 (Badakhshan, Baghlan, Balkh, Daykundi, Farah, Ghazni, Ghor,
Helmand, Kabul, Kapisa, Khost, Laghman, Nimroz, Nuristan, Paktika, Paktya, Panjsher, Parwan,
Sar-e-Pul, Wardak and Zabul) and the remaining 13 provinces as having severe healthneeds.504 WHO warned that the lack of funding of the humanitarian assistance programme in2023 will leave 8 million people without essential health assistance, 450 000 with little to no
trauma care services (including blood transfusions and referrals), and 1,6 million people withmental health issues without access to consultations and psychosocial support.505

MSF, Persistent barriers to access healthcare in Afghanistan, 6 February 2023, url, p. 4; Glass, N., et al., Thecrisis of maternal and child health in Afghanistan, Conflict and Health, 12 June 2023, url
496
UNDP, Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook 2023, 18 April 2023, url, p. 65
497
Save the Children, Afghanistan, Multi-Sectoral Needs Assessment, January 2022, url, p. 7
498
Protection Cluster, Afghanistan, Protection Analysis Update, December 2022, url, p. 5; Save the Children,
Afghanistan, Multi-Sectoral Needs Assessment, January 2022, url, p. 7
499
WHO, Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022, url, pp. 12, 14; Intersos, Health emergency in Afghanistan,system close to collapse, n.d., url
500
WHO, Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022, url, pp. 12, 14
501
UNOCHA and REACH, Whole of Afghanistan Assessment, October 2022, url, p. 4
502
WHO, Afghanistan, Hospital and laboratory services, 2023, url
503
Health Cluster and WHO, Afghanistan: Health Cluster Partners Presence (January - August 2023), 24 September
2023, url
504
Health Cluster and WHO, Afghanistan Health Cluster Bulletin, August 2023, 25 September 2023, url, p. 2
505
WHO, Afghanistan's health system suffers critical underfunding, calls for donor support, 18 August 2023, url
495

55

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.

Treatment of certain profiles andgroups of the population

4.1.

Officials of the former government’s public sector
and security sector

4.1.1.

The general amnesty and its implementation

Soon after their takeover in 2021, the Taliban issued a general amnesty for individuals serving
the former government.506 Taliban officials have repeatedly expressed their commitment tothe amnesty, and have called upon their members to uphold it.507 There is, however, limited
information about the efforts made by the de facto authorities to hold individuals accountablefor breaching the amnesty and carrying out human rights violations against former
government officials and ANDSF members.508 Moreover, the amnesty’s text has not been
available beyond general reference to its existence, including from senior Taliban officials.509
UNAMA explained how the lack of a written text has caused uncertainties around theamnesty’s temporal scope and consequences for breaching it.510
Sources have described the practices towards former officials as ‘inconsistent’,511 ‘ad hoc’512
and ‘an interesting mixture of contradictory policies’.513 Some senior members of the former
government have remained in Afghanistan, including former President Hamid Karzai (althoughrelatives told TOLOnews that he has been facing restrictions as regards travelling abroad andmeeting with people in Afghanistan514), the former chairman of the High Council for National
Reconciliation, Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of the senate Committee, Fazal Hadi
Muslimyar, and the leader of the political party Hezb-e Islami, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar.515
Moreover, most civilian former public officials have been able to resume their duties within the
new de facto administration in Kabul,516 except for most female civil servants that were sent

EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 56
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, p. 1
508
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, p. 1; USDOS, 2022 Country Report on Human Rights
Practices: Afghanistan, 20 March 2023, url, p. 5
509
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
510
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, p. 11
511
Rubin, B., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson, url
512
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
513
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
514
TOLOnews, Karzai’s Relatives Confirm Ban On His Travel Abroad, 6 September 2023, url
515
TOLOnews, No Restrictions Imposed on Former Govt Officials: Mujahid, 28 April 2023, url
516
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 78; Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023,
and email communication, 10 October 2023; International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and emailcommunication, 10 October 2023
506
507

56

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

home.517 At sub-national level the Taliban have tried to bring in their own members to be
trained by and then replace former officials.518 Some former security personnel work in the
Taliban’s de facto forces,519 and an international journalist knew about a case where even theformer local head of the former National Directorate of Security (NDS) in one area had been
appointed head of the Taliban valley shura.520 Retired officials have also staged protests
against the non-payment of their pensions.521 At the same time, killings and various forms of illtreatment have taken place against both former military and civilian personnel,522 and suchindividuals have reportedly been living in hiding.523
The Taliban have communicated that former officials returning from abroad will be ensured
safety, and established a commission for the ‘Return and Communications with Former Afghan
Officials and Political Figures’ in March 2022.524 According to this commission, as reported by
TOLOnews, up to 1 000 businessmen and political or military figures had returned to
Afghanistan as of early November 2022, including some former ministers, governors, andgenerals.525 The commission continued to report on returns of political figures and former
government officials in 2023.526 An international analyst questioned their estimate of 1 000
people returning, stating instead that a handful former political and military figures had
returned, and that many could have gone but left again.527
Other media outlets also reported on political figures and former government officials
returning to Afghanistan.528 According to the international analyst, the return commission has
not led to any political recognition or pledges for allegiance, and the commission has mainly
been a way for wealthy individuals to return to manage their assets.529 The former director ofAfghanistan's intelligence agency, Rahmatullah Nabil, also stated that some former officials
had returned for personal business interests, to retain their properties and assets.530 Local
media Kabul Now reported on individual cases of low-ranking military officials being detained,
disappeared or killed after returning. The same source reported that some high-ranking
military officials had received a ‘warm reception’ by Taliban officials upon their return, whilst
others had received a ‘cold welcome’ or were living in fear and uncertainty. The same source
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; ACAPS,
Afghanistan, Scenarios, April 2023, url, p. 13
518International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
519
International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url
520International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
521
TOLOnews, Retirees in Kabul Protest Unpaid Pensions, 2 January 2023, url
522
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 75
523
RFE/RL, ‘They Call Us Infidels’: Former Afghan Soldiers Still Live in Hiding to Avoid Taliban Retribution, 13 July
2022, url; WSJ, Arrests and Killings Drive Afghan Troops Once Allied With U.S. Into Hiding. The Taliban appear tohave launched a campaign to track down former Afghan forces, the troops and American veterans trying to help
they say, 26 August 2022, url
524
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of individuals, August 2022, url, pp. 52, 83
525
TOLOnews, Delawar: Almost 1,000 Ex-Officials, Business People Have Returned, 6 November 2022, url
526
TOLOnews, Commission: 30 Individuals Return to Country in Past Two Months, 6 September 2023, url;
TOLOnews, 25 Political Figures, Officials Returned Last Month: Commission, 30 June 2023, url; TOLOnews, Over
100 Political Figures Returned to Afghanistan in 3 Months: Commission, 15 January 2023, url; International analyst,
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
527
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
528
Pakistan Observer, Dawlat Waziri, former Defence ministry spokesperson, returns to Afghanistan, [2022], url;
VOA, Taliban Welcome, Others Criticize Return of Former Afghan Officials, 8 June 2022, url
529
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
530
VOA, Taliban Welcome, Others Criticize Return of Former Afghan Officials, 8 June 2022, url
517

57

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

reported that returning officials were to be provided with ‘immunity cards’ upon their return toensure that they were not detained. However, it was reportedly difficult to receive an immunity
card as the Taliban had not announced a registration centre and the return commission was
hard to reach, and in some cases returned individuals had to bribe Taliban officials to receive
an immunity card. Moreover, in some cases Taliban officials detained individuals despite
having immunity cards.531 It has not been possible to corroborate the information provided by
Kabul Now with other sources.

4.1.2.

Extrajudicial killings and other human rights abuses

Since the takeover, there have been continuous claims of the Taliban killing former ANDSF
members and their relatives.532 Some experts have assessed that the reprisals have been
relatively few in contrast to the size of the former administration’s civil and military sector.533
As of 30 June 2023, UNAMA had recorded at least 800 cases of human rights violations
against former civilian and military personnel carried out by the de facto authorities since the
Taliban takeover. These cases included 218 killings, 14 instances of enforced disappearance,
424 arbitrary arrests and detentions, 144 instances of torture, and multiple threats. Most cases
took place in the four months immediately following the takeover in 2021, including aroundhalf of the killings. Killings and other human rights violations have however continued to berecorded in 2022 and 2023.534
Rawadari also recorded human right abuses against former civilian and military personnel, but
their reference period was the first six months of 2023. Moreover, the perpetrators in theirdata included both the Taliban and unknown individuals. Rawadari recorded 54 killings and 1
person being injured in targeting incidents, including 45 former military personnel and 10
former civilian employees (it was not clear whether the injured person had worked for a
civilian or a security department). Furthermore, Rawadari recorded 11 enforced
disappearances of both civilian and military personnel, as well as individuals affiliated to such
persons. Last, it recorded arbitrary arrests of 47 former security personnel, and 5 former civil
servants. The prevalence of enforced disappearances was believed to be much higher as
Rawadari had received reports about the Taliban threatening family members to not speakwith human rights organisations.535 Kabul Now also reported on the Taliban pressuring family
members of detained individuals not to approach media or human rights organisations.536
Data collected by the NGO Safety and Risk Mitigation Organization (SMRO) and AW only
included former ANDSF members and their families, and not former civilian government

Kabul Now, Taliban’s False Amnesty: The Fate of Former Military Officers Who Return to Afghanistan, 23 July
2023, url
532
AW, Claims of Taliban killings of former ANDSF and family members continue to surface, including female
officer, 1 August 2023, url
533International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url;
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
534
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, pp. 5–10
535
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, pp. 4, 11, 14–18
536
Kabul Now, Fear and Nightmares: the dark life after Taliban captivity, 14 April 2023, url
531

58

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

personnel. These sources also included cases with unknown perpetrators.537 In 2022, SMRO
recorded 76 killings and 57 detentions of former security forces, but noted an increase in2023, as they logged 27 killings and 55 detentions in the first quarter alone. 538 In the second
quarter of 2023, SMRO logged 2 instances of rape and another 15 killings and 35 detentionsof former security forces in numerous provinces. Most killings took place in Kabul (4 cases).
Moreover, one former NDS official reportedly committed suicide after being subjected tosevere torture in custody in Khost Province.539 In almost the same reference period (1 January
2023–10 July 2023), AW recorded 108 claims of torture, arbitrary detention, killings andattacks against former ANDSF members and their family members in 28 provinces. 57 alleged
killings were carried out across 19 provinces, and one took place in an unknown location. AW
data also indicated that most killings took place in Kabul Province (9 cases).540

4.1.3.

Revenge and other motives

According to International Crisis Group, the sporadic nature of the reprisals and their relatively
low numbers suggest that the Taliban have not had a ‘nationwide policy to hunt down all
former government officials’.541 This information was confirmed by the international journalist
who stated that if the Taliban had carried out an orchestrated revenge campaign to kill former
soldiers, the number of deaths would be much higher.542
The Taliban have claimed that violations of the amnesty have taken place due to personalanimosities, and not because of a government policy.543 Expert sources emphasised that it has
been hard to discern motives behind the killings, especially when taking what was described
as an existing ‘revenge culture’ into account.544 According to Human Rights Watch’s Patricia
Gossman, as referenced by RFE/RL, there have been cases of revenge killings being carriedout ‘with the knowledge or tacit approval of senior Taliban commanders’.545
According to the international analyst, the most important thing for the Taliban is that
individuals are loyal to them today, rather than their allegiances from before the takeover.
However, people may be targeted due to personal disputes.546 Journalist Ali Latifi stated that
individuals that are willing to function within the new circumstances of the de facto
administration have been able to do so, as the Taliban needs to keep the de facto authorities
functioning. However, Latifi also pointed out retaliating acts as a continuing issue for the defacto administration – which it has been for all governments in Afghan history.547 French
AW, Claims of Taliban killings of former ANDSF and family members continue to surface, including female
officer, 1 August 2023, url; SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, April–June 2023, [2023, url, pp. 8, 11, 13; SRMO,
Civic Space Quarterly Report, January–March 2023, [2023], url, p. 10
538
SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, January–March 2023, [2023], url, p. 10
539
SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, April–June 2023, [2023], url, pp. 8, 11, 13
540
AW, Claims of Taliban killings of former ANDSF and family members continue to surface, including female
officer, 1 August 2023, url
541
International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August 2022, url
542International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
543
Rubin, B., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson, url
544International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International
journalist, online interview 3 October 2023
545
RFE/RL, ‘They Call Us Infidels’: Former Afghan Soldiers Still Live in Hiding to Avoid Taliban Retribution, 13 July
2022, url
546
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October, 2023
547
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October, 2023
537

59

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

newspaper Le Figaro reported that journalists and international observers lack insight on thesituation in the Afghan countryside where former enemies of the Taliban have frequently been
hunted and executed. Amnesty International and a US Department of State official told Le
Figaro that disappearances of such individuals have been ‘completely underestimated’.548
Rawadari recorded cases of human rights abuse against former military and former civilian
personnel following allegations of possessing weapons. The organisation also reported that
there have been cases of the Taliban killing people of these groups but claiming that thevictims were ISKP members or committed suicide.549 The international analyst also noted
uncertainties as regards people presented as ISKP by the Taliban, particularly in the north. It is
unclear whether those people have actually been ISKP members or they have been simply
suspected of being part of the former regime or they were linked to resistance groups.550
UNAMA noted that arrests and detentions of former government officials and ANDSF
members occurred on accusations of affiliations to NRF, and according to some accounts suchclaims were false and used as a cover for the Taliban to target individuals who had served theformer government.551 More information related to this topic is available in section 4.3. Persons
with perceived affiliation to armed groups.
In February 2023, the Taliban reportedly announced that they had conducted a mass burial ofover 100 corpses of deceased ‘drug addicts’. No further details were provided about these
individuals’ identity, why they were in Taliban custody or about the cause of death. According
to the Independent, the event fuelled ‘concern that this was a poorly concealed cover-up of
extra-judicial killings’.552 This information could not be corroborated by other sources.

4.1.4.

Victim profiles

Both the international analyst and the international journalist stated that it is not possible todraw any conclusions or identify any patterns as regards the targeting of particular profiles
among civil and security personnel of the former government.553 The international analyst
added that there have been many more killings than what has been reported.554 The
international journalist had not noted any indications of targeting being carried out based onsome general criteria. However, based on Taliban propaganda and the patterns of attacks
they carried out during the insurgency, one could note that they, by then, particularly disliked
the NDS Zero Units (‘squadrons of U.S.-trained Afghan special forces soldiers’555), the army
commandos and the Afghan Local Police (ALP). The source could however not say if this has
played a role in the targeting that has occurred after the takeover.556 Le Monde reported thatLe Figaro, Afghanistan, un pays à la dérive, 3 March 2023, url
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 16
550International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
551
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, p. 9552
Independent (The), Inside the Taliban slaughterhouses where Western ‘collaborators’ are tortured to death, 17
February 2023, url
553International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International
journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
554
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
555
ProPublica, The Truth About Afghanistan’s Zero Unit Night Raids, March 2019, url
556International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
548

549

60

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

the Taliban hold a ‘real grudge’ against NDS agents, which is ‘aggravated toward those whohave worked with foreign forces’.557
Rather than the targeting being carried out based on an individual’s previous role in theformer government, the international journalist thought that the targeting depended on thelocal contexts. In one area, for example, the amnesty was upheld, and the former local NDS
director was appointed head of the Taliban approved valley shura, while many killings
seemed to take place in Kandahar.558 According to ACLED data over fatalities in Kandahar
Province, 29 events (out of 100) concerned killings of former security forces personnel, as wellas the killing of one former customs department employee. The Taliban was the main
identified perpetrator, but in many cases the actor behind the killings was unknown.559 In aninterview carried out by the Afghanistan Analyst Network (AAN), a former senior civil servantof the former government described how he and his two brothers had been able to return to
Afghanistan (after fleeing to Turkey amid the Taliban takeover) after the general amnesty wasannounced. This individual stated that he had not faced any issues with the de facto
authorities, and that they even let him carry a gun for his protection while travelling in his areaof origin. He thought that the reason for the Taliban not targeting him or his family was due tothe fact that they had not fought the Taliban but served as civilians for the former republic. A
former Afghan National Army (ANA) member from Nangarhar stated that he had been arrested
and faced one week’s imprisonment and subsequently was investigated two more times, as
the social network of his home village did not protect him from retaliation. Rather, he had been
‘subjected to a “show of force” by fellow tribesmen’ on the winning side after the Taliban
takeover.560
Out of the 800 human rights violations against former government officials and former security
personnel that UNAMA documented in the period 15 August 2021–30 June 2023, 31 %targeted members of the former military, and 26 % targeted members of the former police(including the former Afghan National Police (ANP) and the former ALP). Moreover, 22 %targeted affiliates to the former provincial and district departments, 15 % targeted the former
NDS, and 4 % targeted the former central government and former national authorities. Cases
were recorded in all provinces, but mostly in Kabul, Kandahar and Balkh. UNAMA could also
note some geographical concentration in the targeting of certain profiles, for example former
ANP members were targeted to a greater extent in Kandahar Province, and former membersof the paramilitary unit Khost Protection Force (KPF) in Khost Province.561
Former security personnel also made up the majority of victims in Rawadari’s data, althoughcases of former servants of various former civilian departments were also recorded, as well as
their relatives.562 SMRO, on the other hand, only recorded cases of former security personnel

Le Monde, The bitterness of former Afghan spies who worked for France, 12 April 2023, urlInternational journalist, online interview 3 October 2023
559
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, data covering 1
July 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023, url
560
Samim, S., Back to the Village: Afghan city dwellers go home for a long-over-due visit, AAN, 25 March 2023, url
561
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, pp. 5–6
562
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, pp. 11–12
557

558

61

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

being targeted, as well as their close relatives.563 While UNAMA pointed out former ANA
members as most exposed to targeting acts,564 Rawadari and SMRO did not report on any
former security profile being more exposed, but provided data on various such profiles being
targeted, including former members of the Republic’s army, police, and intelligence.565
Rawadari also reported on former uprising force members being targeted.566

4.1.5.

Family members of former civilian and security personnel

ACAPS reported that households in both urban and rural Kabul feared that they would beabused by the de facto authorities due to a family member’s previous employment in the
ANDSF. This concern caused anxiety and reportedly impacted all household members,
affecting their ability to travel, work, or access humanitarian aid, as they did not want to attract
the attention of the Taliban.567 SMRO explained that relatives were frequently ‘caught up’ inattacks targeting former security personnel and gave the example of a wife and two sons of aformer military official being beaten when their home was raided by Taliban troops. The twosons were taken to an unknown location. 568
In the second quarter of 2023, SMRO collected data of 6 relatives of former security
personnel being detained, and 1 being raped.569 In the first six months of 2023, Rawadarirecorded arbitrary arrests of 21 relatives of former civil and security personnel. As mentioned,
Rawadari assessed the prevalence of enforced disappearances to be much higher due toreports of family members being threatened not to speak with human rights organisations.
The cases documented by Rawadari included the Taliban torturing and subsequently killing awoman married to a former soldier that had left Afghanistan. Another case concerned the
Taliban’s enforced disappearance and subsequent killing of a person that was affiliated to aformer soldier, as well as the imprisonment of one of his family members. Moreover, theTaliban detained a former NDS member together with one of his family members, a 17-yearold boy in Panjsher Province who refused to disclose his father’s whereabouts (a former
security official), and the father of a former security official who had left Afghanistan.570 AW
also reported on family members to former ANDSF being killed, although no breakdown of
events was provided. AW noted that some victims appeared to be minors.571 Moreover, the UN
Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan reported that 21 individuals

SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, January–March 2023, [2023], url, p. 10; SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly
Report, April–June 2023, [2023, url, pp. 8–9
564
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, p. 6565
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, pp. 11–12, 16, 18; SRMO, Civic Space
Quarterly Report, January–March 2023, [2023], url, p. 10; SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, April–June 2023,[2023], url, pp. 8–9
566
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, pp. 11, 17
567
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023, url, p. 7
568
SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, April–June 2023, [2023, url, p. 9
569
SRMO, Civic Space Quarterly Report, April–June 2023, [2023, url, p. 8570
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, pp. 4, 11–12, 14–18
571
AW, Claims of Taliban killings of former ANDSF and family members continue to surface, including female officer,
1 August 2023, url
563

62AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

were arrested and tortured in Daykundi Province in December 2022, because they werefamily members to former government employees and possessed weapons.572
In August 2022, the daughter of a former army general accused a Taliban official on social
media of raping her while in custody, and subsequently forcing her to marry him. She
moreover accused him of ill-treating her throughout their marriage. The accusations weredenied by the Taliban official.573 The woman was detained anew in November 2022 on
charges of defamation.574 After escaping Afghanistan in April 2023, she described how she
was tortured for months while in custody.575

4.1.6.

Former judges and prosecutors

The Taliban ousted all judges after their takeover,576 and although prosecutors initially weretold not to come to work, they were not formally dismissed.577 Some male judges working in
administration and considered ‘professional’ have, however, been asked to return to work
according to interlocutors of the Afghanistan Analysts Network (AAN).578 The Office of the UN
High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) on the other hand reported on 11 September
2023 that no former judges had been retained.579 ILAC reported that there were a few reports
of a handful of male judges being called back to limited or temporary roles, but these reports
remained unconfirmed and ‘extremely rare’.580 Former prosecutors have been resuming workat the de facto prosecutor’s office.581 Although emphasising that the numbers are not precise,
ILAC estimated that 20–25 % of former prosecutors had returned to work at the Attorney
General’s office in Kabul by late 2021. Later announcements by the Taliban supreme leader
and the Taliban Attorney General, however, indicated that the de facto courts should not rely
on prosecutors and that prosecutors should cease operations. The de facto Attorney
General’s Office has, however, not been abolished. The legal and operational status ofprosecutors has remained unclear and ‘varied substantially from region to region’ according to
ILAC.582 Many prosecutors (as well as judges) have however reportedly been living in hiding or
have left Afghanistan.583 Particularly women judges have fled the country.584 The Afghanistan

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 40
Independent (The), Forced to be a Taliban official’s wife, she was imprisoned for 156 days: “They beat me up
until I passed out, 5 July 2023, url
574
Independent (The), Afghan woman says she was raped and forced to marry Taliban official, 2 September 2022,
url
575
Independent (The), Forced to be a Taliban official’s wife, she was imprisoned for 156 days: “They beat me up
until I passed out, 5 July 2023, url
576
OHCHR, UN experts: legal professionals in Afghanistan face extreme risks, need urgent international support,
20 January 2023, url, p. 3
577
ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, pp. 13, 21578
Clark, K. and Shapour, R., What do the Taleban Spend Afghanistan’s Money on?, AAN, March 2023, url, pp. 36–
37
579
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan 11 September 2023, url, para. 16
580
ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, p. 13
581
Clark, K. and Shapour, R., What do the Taleban Spend Afghanistan’s Money on?, AAN, March 2023, url, pp. 36–
37; ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, p. 21
582
ILAC, Justice Matters: A Status Report on Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, url, pp. 21–22
583
Clark, K. and Shapour, R., What do the Taleban Spend Afghanistan’s Money on?, AAN, March 2023, url, pp. 36–
37
584
OHCHR, UN experts: legal professionals in Afghanistan face extreme risks, need urgent international support,
20 January 2023, url, pp. 1, 3; NAWJ, Escape from Kabul – and Those Left Behind, 24 January 2023, url
572
573

63

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Judges Association has stressed that male judges face a precarious situation585 which was
also indicated by a legal consultant, who also emphasised that male prosecutors had been
attacked, in a conversation with the International Bar Association.586
Among the 800 human rights violations documented by UNAMA in the period 15 August
2021–30 June 2023, 2 % targeted former judges and prosecutors.587 Criminal offenders
released by the Taliban have sought to carry out reprisals against prosecutors and judges
who had sentenced them.588 According to a member of the Association of Prosecuting
Attorneys Afghanistan, as cited by the Guardian, at least 28 former prosecutors and theirfamily members have been killed since the Taliban takeover.589 The UN Special Rapporteur
reported on over a dozen former prosecutors being killed in July–December 2022.590

4.2.

Persons formerly affiliated with foreign forces

The Taliban’s general amnesty extended to individuals that were affiliated with foreign
forces.591 Many left Afghanistan during the evacuation efforts following the Taliban takeover,592
and in media interviews, individuals who have remained stated that they were living in
hiding.593 As previously mentioned, Le Monde reported that the Taliban hold a ‘real grudge’
against NDS agents, which is ‘aggravated toward those who have worked with foreign
forces’.594 Furthermore, a joint investigation by The Independent, Lighthouse Reports and Sky
News found that dozens of former commandos ‘set up, trained and funded by the British’ hadbeen beaten, tortured or killed by the Taliban since August 2021.595 The men served theformer Commando Force 333 (CF333) established in 2002 and the former Afghan Territorial
Force 444 (ATF444), knows as the ‘Triples’ established in 2006. Documentary evidence
showed that the units had received a salary from the British Foreign and Commonwealth
Office, and after 2014 Polish forces reportedly took charge of the ATF444.596 Many reportedly
also lived in hiding apart from their families, and moved location every month to escape the
Taliban. The investigation could verify 24 such cases, and provided examples of 6 killings

Afghanistan Judges Association, [No title], February 2022, url
IBA, Afghanistan: Male judges and prosecutors left behind in ‘forgotten crisis’, 17 January 2023, url
587
UNAMA, A barrier to securing peace: Human rights violations against former government officials and former
armed force members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023, url, pp. 5–6
588
OHCHR, UN experts: legal professionals in Afghanistan face extreme risks, need urgent international support,
20 January 2023, url, pp. 1, 3
589
Guardian (The), Thousands of Afghan judges and legal staff remain at risk post-Taliban takeover, 14 August
2023, url
590
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 79
591
AP, Afghanistan: more than 100 believed killed despite Taliban amnesty offer, says UN, 31 Janury 2022, url; BBC
News, Amid violent reprisals, Afghans fear the Taliban's 'amnesty' was empty, 31 August 2021, url
592
Lighthouse Reports, France’s forgotten Afghan spies, 12 Aril 2023. url; EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting ofindividuals, August 2022, url, p. 74
593
TRT World [YouTube], One year under Taliban: Forgotten interpreters in hiding, 31 August 2022, url; Times (The),
Hundreds of British Army’s interpreters still stranded in Afghanistan, 28 August 2023, url; Lighthouse Reports,
France’s forgotten Afghan spies, 12 Aril 2023. url;
594
Le Monde, The bitterness of former Afghan spies who worked for France, 12 April 2023, url
595
Independent (The), Murdered, tortured or in hiding: The special forces abandoned by Britain, 1 November 2023,
url
596
Lighthouse Reports, Abandoned Afghan Commandos, 1 November 2023, url
585

586

64

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

carried out by the Taliban and unidentified actors, and 3 cases of torture in Taliban custody.597
One man who previously worked as a US contractor, building NATO military bases, told the
AAN that he had ‘managed to establish good connections’ with the de facto authorities after
the takeover, and described the Taliban as ‘committed to the amnesty’.598
The Association of Wartime Allies surveyed Afghans that have served US forces and had
applied for a Special Immigration Visa (SIV) in 2023. Although not specifying the number of
respondents, the source indicated that 30 % had been imprisoned by the Taliban due to theirservice to the US, and around half of the respondents stated that they had been detained orquestioned by the Taliban. Almost all respondents did not dare to leave their homes out offear of retaliation. 76–78 % had personally witnessed violence towards individuals supporting
the US mission in Afghanistan.599 The organisation No One Left Behind surveyed 16 000 SIV
applicants in 2022. Almost 70 % were living in Kabul City, and another 10,8 % in Kabul
Province. 63.8 % stated that they and their families did not live secure and safe from harm,
while 6.5 % stated that they did, and 29.7 % stated that they did this ‘sometimes’. The Taliban
were identified as the biggest threat to safety by 77.6 % of the respondents. Close to 10 %stated that they and their families had been threatened by the Taliban within the last week,
and 75.8 % had been threatened within the last one to six months (in August 2022). 14.5 % had
never been threatened by the Taliban.600

4.3.

Persons with perceived affiliation to armed groups

The Taliban have responded to armed opposition with force, with subsequent reports onsummary executions, detentions, and ill-treatment of detainees,601 as well as collective
punishment and abuses of civilians suspected of supporting anti-Taliban groups.602 From
March 2022 until August 2023, UNAMA documented 408 arbitrary arrests and detentions ofindividuals perceived as NRF affiliates and 39 arbitrary arrests and detentions of individuals
perceived as ISKP affiliates.603 According to data collected by Rawadari, in the first half of2023, the de facto authorities arbitrarily arrested and detained at least 53 individuals accusedof affiliation with NRF and other armed groups opposing the Taliban. Moreover, at least nine
civilians were killed by the Taliban due to suspicions of being members or collaborating with
NRF or other anti-Taliban groups.604 More information on the security situation’s impact on
civilians is available in section 2.3. Impact of the violence on the civilian population.

597

Independent (The), Murdered, tortured or in hiding: The special forces abandoned by Britain, 1 November 2023,

url
Samim, S., Back to the Village: Afghan city dwellers go home for a long-over-due visit, AAN, 25 March 2023, urlAWA, Quarterly Report, April 2023, url, p. 12
600
No One Left Behind, State of the SIV Program and its Applicants, August 2022, url, pp. 2–3
601
Watkins, A., One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State, USIP, 17 August
2022, url
602
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Execute, ‘Disappear’ Alleged Militants, 7 July 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council,
Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, url, para. 51, 57
603
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 58
604
Rawadari, Human rights situation: Mid-year report 1 January to 30 June 2023, August 2023, url, p. 19
598

599

65

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.3.1.

Suspected NRF affiliates

Various sources reported that during 2022 the Taliban carried out reprisal attacks, including
arbitrary arrests and killings of civilians in areas associated with resistance groups, mostly inPanjsher Province605 but also in the provinces Baghlan, Takhar606 and in Daykundi.607
Following a visit to Afghanistan in October 2022, the UN Special Rapporteur on the situationof human rights in Afghanistan stated that communities in, inter alia, Panjsher Province werebeing ‘heavily suppressed’ and that civilians considered to be associated with NRF were
subjected to house searches, arbitrary arrests, detentions, extrajudicial killings, torture,displacement and an information blackout. The UN Special Rapporteur further stated that it
appeared to ‘amount to collective punishment’.608 Media sources have also reported on the
Taliban subjecting civilians in Pansjher Province to arrests,609 killings,610 torture and forced
evictions,611 as well as limited information flows from the province.612 Amnesty International
carried out interviews with residents of Panjsher Province, who also informed about civilians
being subjected to arbitrary arrests, killings and torture carried out by the Taliban.613 In
September 2022, videos circulated which appeared to show the Taliban executing two
groups of NRF fighters.614 The UN Special Rapporteur expressed deep concern about theallegations and called for an investigation,615 while Amnesty international carried out an initialassessment confirming that the videos did show extrajudicial executions of what seemed to
be NRF members, carried out by the Taliban.616 AW later reported that they, through OSINT
techniques, could link the Taliban to the executions of 10 men in Dara District. In addition, AW
reported on an additional 17 executions and 30 deaths resulting from the Taliban offensive
against the resistance in Panjsher Province in September 2022.617
In November 2022, journalist Ali Latifi reported that around 150 families had fled sevenvillages in Panjsher’s Shotul District in the last months. Crossfire between the Taliban and
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban’s cruel attacks in Panjshir province amount to war crime of collective punishment – newreport, 8 June 2023, url
606
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; Gossman, P., Associate
Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, online interview, 12 May 2022; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Torture Civilians in
Panjshir: Collective Punishment Over Armed Group’s Actions Is Unlawful, 10 June 2022, url; BBC News, Afghan
resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May 2022, url
607
UNICEF, [Twitter], posted on: 25 November 2022, url; RFE/RL, Survivors Of Deadly Taliban Raid On Hazara
Village In Afghanistan Demand Justice, 20 December 2022, url
608
UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Statement of the Special Rapporteur on
the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 26 October 2022, url, p. 4
609
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests and Severely Tortures 30 Civilians in Panjshir, 29 August 2022, url; Kabul Now,
Taliban Arrest and Torture Locals after Infighting in Panjshir, 21 October 2022, url
610
BBC News, Afghanistan: In a quiet valley the Taliban face armed resistance, 27 July 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh,
Sources report that the Taliban group arrested another Panjshiri resident in Kabul and then shot him dead, 13
October 2022, url
611
Kabul Now, Villagers Forces To Leave Properties Under Crackdown in Panjshir, 26 October 2022, url
612
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Bans Smartphones Use, An Attempt to Covering Crimes, 24 October 2022, url; Yalda
Hakim [Twitter], posted on: 29 August 2022, url
613
AI, “Your Sons Are in the Mountains”: The collective punishment of civilians in Panjshir by the Taliban, 7 June
2023, url, p. 5
614
RFE/RL, UN ‘Deeply Concerned Over Video Appearing To Show Taliban Executing Members Of ResistanceGroup, 15 September 2022, url
615
UN Special Rapporteur Richard Bennet [Twitter], posted on: 14 September 2022, url
616
Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 15 September 2022, url
617
AW, Systematic and Summary: Investigating Evidence of Prisoner Executions in the Panjshir Valley in September
2022, url, p. 1
605

66

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

NRF, and also the Taliban’s demands for information about NRF fighters from villagers(assuming they had kinship ties) reportedly prompted people to leave.618 On 27 December
2022, Kabul Now reported on the Taliban’s release of 50 individuals originating from Panjsher
Province, who had been arrested over alleged connections with anti-Taliban armed groups.
One of the men said that he had been detained for nine months.619 Kabul Now also reported
on local sources in Panjsher Province describing ‘a heavy and wider’ military presence by the
Taliban in most villages, making life ‘difficult’ for the local population [in 2022]. However, withthe winter approaching, clashes between NRF and the Taliban reportedly decreased.620 Kabul
Now also reported on the Taliban arresting individuals originating from Panjsher Province in
Kabul City for suspected links to NRF.621
An Afghan analyst noted that Tajiks (also called by the Taliban Panjsheris or Andarabis as an
insult) were among the communities more prone to violations in the aftermath of the takeover.
Since armed opposition groups have ‘almost disappeared’ in these areas, the situation in both
Panjsher Province and Andarab District of Baghlan Province has reportedly changed recently,
and treatment of civilians by the Taliban ‘has improved significantly’. However, the same
source also noted that individuals suspected of being affiliated with armed groups still facesignificant challenges, including arbitrarily detentions, inhuman treatment and ‘allegedly eventorture.’ Moreover, the source stated that a person may become guilty by association if seen
with a suspected NRF or ISKP affiliate, and mentioned cases of civilians travelling with asuspect, being arrested and mistreated at the hands of the de facto intelligencedepartment.622 Latifi stated that the de facto police has been adamant about searching forvehicles and pedestrians that, they believe, are operating as ‘gun runners’ for armed groups
opposing the Taliban. Latifi reported that residents from Panjsher had told him in interviews
that they were caught in the crossfire of both sides and met with suspicion from the de facto
authorities: ‘Such suspicion and questionings by [the] Taliban have forced thousands of
Panjsheris to move to Parwan (if they have fewer financial means) or to Kabul (if they havebetter financial means).’ Latifi mentioned the case of a Panjsheri man who was beaten andthen arrested for allegedly transporting guns and knives to Kabul only because he had a bag
placed over his head.623 In January 2023, 15 men were arrested in Ab-e-Barik Village in Anaba
District of Panjsher Province, on accusations of being NRF members. According to Rawadari,these individuals included activists, students, university professors, drivers, and farmers.
Another case concerned a young man who was arrested and then killed in April 2023 in
Takhar Province, due to suspicions of being a NRF member.624

4.3.2.

Suspected ISKP affiliates

Taliban crackdowns on Salafists have coincided with the Taliban’s effort to restrain ISKP.625
Killings and abuses of suspected ISKP affiliates and supporters were especially reported in
New Humanitarian (The), In Afghanistan’s shadowy new conflict, new displacement and new civilian abuses, 23
November 2022, url
619
Kabul Now, 50 Residents of Panjshir Released from Taliban Prisons, 27 December 2022, url
620
Kabul Now, Clash Between Taliban and NRF Leaves 5 Dead in Panjshir, 16 December 2022, url
621
Kabul Now, Taliban Arrest Six Panjshir Residents over Cooperation with NRF, 5 December 2022, url
622
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
623
Latifi A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
624
Rawadari, Human rights situation: Mid-year report 1 January to 30 June 2023, August 2023, url, pp. 13, 19
625
RFE/RL, Senior Clerics Caught In The Crossfire Of The Taliban's Intensifying War With IS-K, 24 August 2022, url
618

67EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

October and November 2021 in the provinces Nangarhar626 and Kunar.627 Reported cases
included extrajudicial killings, beheadings, mutilation and severe torture.628 UNAMA statistics
indicated that human rights violations against suspected ISKP affiliates decreased in
September–December 2022 in comparison to the same period the previous year.629
According to an international journalist there were a few cases of Salafists being killed in
2022, in both Kunar and Nangarhar provinces. The Taliban’s crackdowns of 2021 had ebbed
out a bit, although the situation ‘went a bit up and down’ in 2022 with the issue being
addressed to temporarily stop and to later resume again. Local Salafists told the journalist thatthings were ‘much better’ in 2022. The journalist however noted that this issue is heavily
underreported, making it hard to follow.630 Another source, an international analyst, also statedthat violations against Salafists occurred in 2023 as well, and gave as an example that womenand children have been arrested without charges.631 The international journalist explained thatthe situation in Kunar has not been as bad in Nangarhar, due to the fact that the great majorityof the population is Salafi in Kunar, including most of the Taliban rank-and-file. In Nangarhar,
on the contrary, the few persons that dared to speak with the journalist described how they
had stopped to go to the Salafi mosque and stopped praying ‘Salafi style’ (e.g. raising theirhands and holding their hands higher up on their chest than Hanafi Muslims). In 2022,
Salafists told the journalist the situation was ‘liveable’ again, although incidents still occurred.
The most recent case that the journalist was aware of concerned a man who was detained for
two weeks during Ramadan in 2022, after having prayed ‘Salafi style’ in a Hanafi mosque. The
journalist did not know if Salafists in Nangarhar still avoided to pray in certain ways or avoided
Salafi mosques in 2023.632
The Taliban’s approach towards Salafists has reportedly varied from location to location, withattempts by the Taliban to distinguish between Salafi members with links to ISKP and those
who had no links to the group.633 As mentioned, social and communal profiling of Salafists,
took place especially in the east, in the provinces of Nangarhar and Kunar, but then also
increasingly in Kunduz and Badakhshan. In addition to disappearances and summary
executions in Nangarhar and Kunar provinces,634 some limitations were imposed on Salafi
communities on what they can teach.635 Teachers and university students with suspected links
to ISKP were arrested from the university campus in Kabul City and subsequently released,636
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 26
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Execute, ‘Disappear’ Alleged Militants, 7 July 2022, url
628
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Execute, ‘Disappear’ Alleged Militants, 7 July 2022, url; EUAA, Afghanistan –Targeting of individuals, August 2022, url, pp. 49–50
629
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 7
December 2022, url, para. 36
630International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
631
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
632
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
633
Giustozzi A., An Unfamiliar Challenge. How the Taliban are Meeting the Islamic State Threat on Afghanistan’s
University Campuses, Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, May 2023, url, p. 15;
Giustozzi A., The Taliban’s Campaign Against the Islamic State: Explaining Initial Successes, RUSI, October 2023,
url, pp. 17–18
634
HRW, World report 2023, Afghanistan, Events of 2022, 12 January 2023, url; Gossman, P., Associate Asia
Director of Human Rights Watch, online interview, 12 May 2022; France24, Fear stalks city in Islamic State's Afghan
heartland, 21 January 2022, url; International journalist, Online interview, 3 October 2023
635
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
636
Giustozzi A., An Unfamiliar Challenge. How the Taliban are Meeting the Islamic State Threat on Afghanistan’s
University Campuses, Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, May 2023, url, pp. 8, 16
626
627

68

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

and there were cases of high-level Salafi clerics being assassinated and imprisoned.637 In
October 2023, the international analyst stated that, more recently, the de facto security forcesin Nangarhar (notably the Taliban GDI chief and the Taliban Chief of Police) had adopted amuch more conciliatory approach, with Salafi madrassas re-opening in an attempt to prevent
Salafists having no other option to protect themselves from supporting ISKP.638

4.3.3.

Impact on other communities

Since 15 August 2021, a pattern of forced evictions and land grabbing based on ethnicity orpolitical association was documented639 (see chapter 4.5 Ethnic and religious groups).
Reporting on such a trend, AAN analyst Fabrizio Foschini mentioned cases of forced evictionsof local communities, including Hazara, Tajik and Uzbek communities, in northeastern
provinces as well as in Hazarajat,640 in favour of formerly displaced Pashtuns returning to theirareas of origin and Kuchi nomads (also Pashtuns). Foschini noted that such a phenomenon
could be attributed to the Taliban’s strategy aimed at gaining political and military control overthese areas rather than for the purpose of ‘Pashtunisation’ of the country. Moreover, according
to Foschini, the Taliban fear that non-Pashtun communities in Takhar might be exposed torecruitment campaigns of armed groups opposing the Taliban (NRF and ISKP) as well asradical Islamist groups only loosely aligned with the movement (such as Jundullah).641
As the Taliban clashed with the dissident Taliban member Mawlawi Mehdi in Balkhab District,Sar-e Pul Province, in the end of June 2022642 there were reports of the Taliban killing civilians
in the district – which has a large Hazara population.643 Some sources reported on summary
executions of civilians, and the Taliban also reportedly blocked communication means in thearea.644 Human Rights Watch’s Patricia Gossman told Foreign Policy that the reports ofcivilians being executed seemed to be part of a pattern where the Taliban failed to distinguishcivilians from combatants, or resorted to collective punishments in areas of armed
resistance.645 Rawadari reported that the Taliban killed a resident of Chemtal District, Balkh
Province, in a night raid along with six members of his family. The event happened in 2023
and according to relatives it was due to allegations of having connections with Mehdi.646

Giustozzi A., The Taliban’s Campaign Against the Islamic State: Explaining Initial Successes, RUSI, October
2023, url, pp. 28, 38; Giustozzi A., An Unfamiliar Challenge. How the Taliban are Meeting the Islamic State Threaton Afghanistan’s University Campuses, Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, May 2023,
url, p. 29
638International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
639
UNHRC, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 46; RFL/RL, Taliban Accused Of
Forced Evictions As Fighting Intensifies In Northern Afghanistan, 7 June 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Settlement ofHundreds of Nomad Families in Northern Afghanistan’s Takhar Province, 5 September 2022, url
640
A unofficial region in Central Afghanistan. Historically encompassing the provinces of Bamyan, Ghor, Uruzgan,and parts of Herat, Farah, Kandahar, Ghazni, Parwan, Baghlan, Balkh and Badghis. See: EUAA, Afghanistan –Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 130
641
Foschini F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url
642
Rukshana, After taking control of Balkhab, Taliban summarily executed civilians, residents say, 1 July 2022, url
643
FP, Taliban Wage War Over Coal Mining in Afghanistan, 5 July 2022, url
644
Rukshana, After taking control of Balkhab, Taliban summarily executed civilians, residents say, 1 July 2022, url;Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 27 June 2022, url
645
FP, Taliban Wage War Over Coal Mining in Afghanistan, 5 July 2022, url
646
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 13
637

69

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Moreover, the Taliban reportedly killed six Hazaras during a raid in Ghor Province. According
to Amnesty International, Taliban news sources claimed that the target for the operation had
been affiliated with Mawlawi Mehdi and participated in attacks against the Taliban in Balkhab
District. During this raid the Taliban detained four men and executed them; one of the bodies
showed signs of torture, and a woman and a 12-year-old girl were killed when the Taliban
targeted their home with rifle and grenade attacks.647
Some sources have pointed out that people affiliated to former General Abdul Raziq in Spin
Boldak, Kandahar Province, and members of his Pasthun Achakzai tribe were being targetedby the Taliban.648 According to the Afghan analyst some incidents have been recorded in
Kandahar Province; as the Taliban understand the southern tribal tensions, they can target
individuals more easily there than in Panjsher, for instance where it has been more difficult forthem to identify people.649 The international journalist emphasised that the issue was linked toGeneral Razig, but that tribal tensions between the Achakzai tribe and the Nurzai tribe
predates this individual.650 A former lawmaker from Kandahar also told RFE/RL that ‘Achakzai
leaders and others in Kandahar accuse them of turning the crackdown on Raziq's supporters
into a tribal vendetta’ – potentially reigniting the ‘century-old vendetta’ with the Nurzai tribe.651
Senior figures close to General Raziq told RFE/RL that members of the Achakzai tribe had
been subjected to ‘killings, forced disappearances, torture, detention, displacement andproperty seizures’. The exiled former presidential adviser told media on behalf of Raziq’s
family that about 4 000 of Raziq’s supporters had been killed by the Taliban, including womenand children and that thousands had been forcefully disappeared or detained. A former
lawmaker from Kandahar told RFE/RL that the Taliban had ‘systematically’ targeted the 18 000
members that served the former border force of Spin Boldak and the former police in
Kandahar under General Raziq. He claimed that 300 members of these forces were killed
immediately after the Taliban takeover.652 An analyst claiming to cite intelligence sources,
declared that 600 youths and tribal leaders form the Achakzai tribe were killed in the first fourmonths after the Taliban takeover.653 These figures have not been possible to corroborate.

AI, Afghanistan: Taliban torture and execute Hazaras in targeted attack – new investigation, 15 Septer url
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International journalist,
online interview, 3 October 2023; Kabul Now, Special Report: Inside the Taliban’s factional and tribal warfare tocontrol, 3 April 2023, url
649
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
650
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
651
RFE/RL, 'Afghanistan Is Hell': Supporters Of Late Afghan General Claim Taliban Killings, Persecution, 2November 2022, url
652
RFE/RL, 'Afghanistan Is Hell': Supporters Of Late Afghan General Claim Taliban Killings, Persecution, 2November 2022, url
653
Sohail, A., Pakistani Intelligence Agencies ignite Tribal Conflicts in Pak-Afghan Region, 26 September 2022, url
647

648

70

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

4.4.

Women and girls

4.4.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

Since their takeover, the de facto authorities have repeatedly expressed their commitment torespect women’s and girl’s rights within the framework of sharia.654 Several edicts, decrees
and declarations have been issued by the Taliban since 15 August 2021, which haveincreasingly restricted women’s and girls’ freedom of movement, expression and behaviour,
as well as their access to education, employment, healthcare, justice, and social protection.655
In practice, women and girls have been confined to the home.656 In June 2023, the UN
assessed that the general situation of women’s and girls’ human rights further deteriorated,657
and the UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan further statedthat the violations of women’s and girls’ rights were ‘large-scale’, ‘systematic’ andimplemented with ‘harsh enforcement methods’. He further called the Taliban’s policies‘discriminatory’ and ‘misogynistic’, constituting ‘gender persecution and an institutionalized
framework of gender apartheid’.658
A compilation of relevant Taliban national decrees and instructions issued since the takeover
are available in Annex 3: Lists of national Taliban decrees and instructions.
Some of the edicts/instructions issued by the de facto authorities during the reference periodof this report include:
•
•
•
•
•

shopkeepers in Mazar-e Sharif ordered not to sell to women without hijab (August2022);659
women government workers asked to stay home from work (23 August 2022);660
women not allowed to visit recreational parks, public baths661, and gyms662 in Kabul
City, (November 2022)663 and in Faryab (November 2022);664
the right of women to attend university suspended (20 December 2022);
education for girls beyond grade 6 suspended (22 December 2022);

Al Jazeera, Transcript of Taliban’s first news conference in Kabul, 17 August 2021, url; TOLOnews, Haqqani Tells
Tribal Elders to Respect Women's Rights, 30 March 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women andgirls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 11
655
HRW, Afghan Women Watching the Walls Close In, 2 March 2022, url; UNAMA, Human rights situation in
Afghanistan, (February-April 2023), 9 May 2023, url, pp. 1–2; Shapour R. and Mirzada, R., Strangers in Our Own
Country: How Afghan women cope with life under the Islamic Emirate, AAN, 28 December 2022, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 17; Bjelica J., What Do Young
Afghan Women Do? A glimpse into everyday life after the bans, ANN, 17 August 2023, url
656
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 30
657
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 37
658
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 97
659
Khaama Press, Taliban Orders Shops to Refuse Selling Things to Women without Hijab, 30 August 2022, url;
Rukshana, Taliban morality police close shops over improper hijabs, 23 October 2022, url
660
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 17
661
RFE/RL, Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses, Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10November 2022, url
662
France24, Taliban bans Afghan women from gyms, public baths, 13 November 2022, url
663
RFE/RL, Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses, Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10November 2022, url664
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 1765471EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

•
•
•
•
•
•
•

right of women to work with national and international NGOs suspended (24December 2022);
Afghan women banned from working in the UN (4 April 2023);665
women and families banned from restaurants, gardens and green spaces in Herat(April 2023);666
women’s beauty salons ordered to close within a month (25 June 2023;667 the order
entered into force on 25 July 2023);668
women banned from visiting the Band-e-Amir national park in Bamiyan Province (26August 2023);669
wearing burqa or niqab compulsory for women in Badakhshan (August 2023)670 [thisinformation could not be corroborated];in Khost and Zabul provinces, de facto MPVPV announced via loudspeaker thatwomen are forbidden from going to local markets or shops without a mahram(September 2023).671

The enforcement of issued edicts and instructions has not been consistent,672 especially at
local level, ‘leading to a climate of legal uncertainty and fear, in which people self-censor to
avoid punishment by individual Taliban officers who have their own understanding of therestrictions and punishments for perceived transgression.’673 In practice, women’s active
participation in political, economic and social life has been largely curtailed in comparison totheir situation under the previous government,674 and violations of women’s rights under thede facto authorities have been systematic.675 While for most rural women, education and work
opportunities have always been limited (beyond menial farm work), since the Taliban takeover,their situation has worsened, largely due to the deteriorating economy (e.g. forcing them toration food, undertake more labour, avoid seeking medical assistance).676 Some women andgirls have been ‘disproportionately affected by lack of access to services and means tonavigate the restrictive environment’ including those without a male family member.677 The
situation of widows has been socially and economically precarious, especially for widows

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 17
AP, Taliban ban restaurant gardens for families, women in Herat, 10 April 2023, url
667
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 2
668
Reuters, Beauty salons banned in Afghanistan, 24 July 2023, url; RFE/RL, After Deadline Passes, Afghan Women
Pay The Price As Beauty Salons Shut Their Doors, 26 July 2023, url
669
TOLOnews, Women Banned From Visiting Band-e-Amir National Park, 26 August 2023, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan: Taliban ban women from visiting popular national park, 27 August 2023, url
670
Etilaatroz, ‫زنان برقع بپوشند یا نقاب بزنند‬: ‫امر به معروف طالبان در بدخشان‬, [The Taliban Ministry of Propagation of
Virtue and Prevention of Vice in Badakhshan: women should wear a burqa or a niqab], 23 August 2023, url
671
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 2
672
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 19–20; Latifi, A.,interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
673
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 19–20
674
FIDH, Broken promises: Civil society under siege after 100 days of Taliban takeover, 23 November 2021, url; UN
Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28 January2022, url, para. 3; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 66;
Republik, A year under the Taliban, 21 June 2022, url
675
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 10; HRW, Joint
Statement: Marking Two Years of Taliban Oppression, 17 August 2023, url
676
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
677
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 87
665

666

72

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

without sons due to the intensified requirement of having a mahram.678 Female-headedhouseholds have also faced issues in accessing humanitarian assistance due to their lack of amahram and the lack of female humanitarian staff.679 Coupled with the dire economic situation
the country is facing, the restrictions imposed on women have had a significant impact also on
their physical and mental health.680 Although statistics on suicide are not available, reports ofwomen committing suicide have been widespread,681 especially among teenage girls who
have been prevented from accessing education,682 with cases occurring across the wholecountry.683
Documented cases of women being harassed or beaten up at checkpoints for not wearing
hijab, or ordered to return home from markets because they were not accompanied by amahram have reportedly occurred frequently.684 However, journalist Ali Latifi also observed
that, in the cities, some women defy Taliban’s instructions to wear a black niqab or a blue
chadari and continue to dress as they used to (e.g. colourful outfits, makeup, sunglasses andother expressions of personal style and fashion). However, Latifi also noted, that when womenneed to go to government buildings for instance, they will wear a ‘proper’ dress in line with the
Taliban’s direction and would be accompanied by a male chaperone.685

4.4.2.

Freedom of expression and assembly

Since the Taliban took power, women have held peaceful demonstrations protesting686 themultiple restrictions imposed on their rights. The de facto security forces have responded tothese protests with excessive use of force, intimidation, arrest, arbitrary detention (in somecases amounting to enforced disappearance) and ill-treatment.687 Women activists being
detained have reportedly been subjected to ill-treatment, including sexual violence andtorture.688 The UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan,reporting in June 2023, said to have received ‘numerous credible reports’ of women
protesters being brutally beaten, arbitrarily arrested and detained. Most of these women were
subsequently released under the guarantee of stopping their activism and of not disclosing
the treatment they received. Those arrested reported that the Taliban subjected them to
Shapour R., The Daily Hustle: Being a widow in Afghanistan, AAN, 4 June 2023, url
UN Women, Out of jobs, into poverty – the impact of the ban on Afghan women working in NGOs, 13 January2023, url, p. 5
680
UNHCR, Afghanistan Crisis update: Women and Girls in Displacement, Factsheet III, May 2023, url, p. 2; UN
Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 12, 55, 63; IOM,UNAMA, UN Women, Summary report of country-wide women’s consultations, September 2023, url, pp. 2, 3
681
BBC News, Afghan women in mental health crisis over bleak future, 5 June 2023, url; Guardian (The), ‘Despair issettling in’: female suicides on rise in Taliban’s Afghanistan, 28 August 2023, url
682
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 63; Washington
Post (The), As Afghan schools remain closed for girls, mental health crisis builds, 7 July 2023, url
683
BBC News, Afghan women in mental health crisis over bleak future, 5 June 2023, url; Guardian (The), ‘Despair issettling in’: female suicides on rise in Taliban’s Afghanistan, 28 August 2023, url684
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 32
685
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
686
Reuters, Protests get harder for Afghan women amid risks and red tape, 4 October 2021, url
687
Hindustan Times, Taliban open fire to push back protesting women in Kabul, 30 September 2021, url; HRW,
Afghanistan: Women Protesters Detail Taliban Abuse, 20 October 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of
women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023 url, para. 29, 30; CIVICUS, Afghanistan: Assault on civic spacepersists two years after Taliban takeover, 13 August 2023, url
688
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 30; EUAA,
Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 171
678

679

73

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

violence, including sexual violence, in order to seek information about the organisers of theprotests.689 Amnesty International also reported on detainees being subjected to rape or
threats by Taliban members. Moreover, women being detained subsequently face a ‘life-longstigma’ as the surrounding community tend to assume that all detained women were
subjected to sexual violence.690
Between 1 January 2022 and 30 July 2023, UNAMA documented over 1 600 human rights
violations (almost 50 % of which comprised ‘acts of torture and other cruel, inhuman ordegrading treatment or punishment’) perpetrated by de facto authorities during arrests anddetention across 29 provinces. 11 % of these violations involved women.691 From March 2022
until August 2023, at least 78 women civil society activists were arbitrarily arrested anddetained.692 Among those arrested were women’s rights activist Zarifa Yaqobi, who wassubsequently released,693 as well as activists Neda Parwani and Zholya Parsi who weredetained in September 2023.694
Journalist Ali Latifi mentioned the case of a woman activist he personally knew who wasdetained for more than six months between 2022 and 2023. She had been under watch prior
to her arrest and once in detention, the de facto security forces took her phone searching for
any incriminating evidence, including others she was in correspondence with. Her family waswarned that her activities could impact them as well. ‘She has since been silenced and makes
few public appearances, if she is still in the country.’695 In July 2023, women held
demonstrations in Kabul against the closure of beauty salons. The de facto security forces
responded with water cannons696 and beatings; some protesters said stun guns were also
used against them and others said their phones had been confiscated.697 Four women
protestors were arrested and released later the same day.698

4.4.3.

Freedom of movement

Women and girls have been banned from accessing public spaces such as public bathhouses,(hammams),699 gyms, parks,700 including more recently the Band-e-Amir national park in
Bamiyan Province.701 In a previous decree issued in December 2021 women were instructed

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 30
AI, Afghanistan: Death in slow motion: Women and girls under Taliban rule, 27 July 2022, pp. 36, 76, 78
691
UNAMA, The treatment of detainees in Afghanistan, 20 September 2023, url, p. 3
692
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 55, 56
693
RFE/RL, Women's Rights Activist Zarifa Yaqobi Released From Taliban Prison, Sister Says, 13 December 2022,
url
694
RFE/RL, UN's Afghan Mission Condemns Arrest Of Women's Rights Activists By Taliban, 29 September 2023, url
695
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
696
BBC News, Afghanistan: Women protest against beauty salon closures, 19 July 2023, url
697
CIVICUS, Afghanistan: Assault on civic space persists two years after Taliban takeover, 13 August 2023, url
698
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 2
699
Guardian (The), Taliban stop Afghan women from using bathhouses in northern provinces, 7 January 2022, url;France24, Taliban ban Afghan women from gyms and public baths, 13 November 2022, url
700
Bjelica J., What Do Young Afghan Women Do? A glimpse into everyday life after the bans, ANN, 17 August 2023,
url
701
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban ban women from visiting popular national park, 27 August 2023, url; UNAMA,
Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 2
689

690

74

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

not to travel more than 72 km without being accompanied by a mahram.702 In March 2022,
women were further barred from boarding domestic or international flights without a mahram
and without wearing a ‘proper hijab’.703 Journalist Ali Latifi stated that the ban imposed on
women from travelling domestically without a male guardian, likewise all other instructions
issued by the de facto authorities, has been implemented inconsistently, and ‘thousands ofwomen have ignored that rule and still go out on their own or with other female associates ona daily basis’. He added that, while he has witnessed women travelling without a maleguardian on the way to Logar and Bamiyan, as well as within the city of Kabul, he is also awareof incidents occurred to women who travelled to Mazar-e Sharif and who faced issues trying
to return to Kabul without a mahram. Another incident he mentioned took place in Bamiyan,
where a group of women was not given a hotel room because they were not accompanied bya male guardian.704 The UN stated that these restrictions are increasingly enforced, especiallyat checkpoints and harassment is commonly reported. Women are being increasingly
questioned when travelling alone and moving in the public space, while men travelling withwomen are requested to show ID cards or marriage certificates to prove their relation to thewoman.705
Ali Latifi stated that the ruling forbidding Afghan women from traveling outside the country
without a mahram has been instead very strictly enforced in recent months (whereas during2021 and 2022, it was more lax), ‘to the point where even a well-known female doctor was notallowed to attend an international health conference last winter.’706 Other reported cases ofwomen being prohibited to travel abroad707 include the case of some 60 girls who were
granted a scholarship to study at the University of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
The girls were turned away from the airport in August 2023.708

4.4.4.

Access to education

Following the Taliban takeover, primary and elementary schools were reopened709 after being
closed down during the Covid-19 pandemic.710 Girls have however been denied education
beyond primary level,711 as girls’ secondary schools were ordered to remain closed.712 As somesources noted, Taliban policies towards education, including towards girls’ secondary
education has been inconsistent since their takeover.713 In some cases, secondary schools for

RFE/RL, Afghan Women Banned From Making Trips Unless Escorted, 26 December 2021, url; RFE/RL, Afghans
Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
703
Reuters, Taliban ban women in Afghanistan from flying without male chaperone, 27 March 2022, url; Bjelica J.,
What Do Young Afghan Women Do? A glimpse into everyday life after the bans, AAN, 17 August 2023, url
704
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
705
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 54
706
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
707
Reuters, Taliban ban women in Afghanistan from flying without male chaperone, 27 March 2022, url
708
BBC News, Taliban stop female Afghan students leaving country to study in Dubai, 28 August 2023, url
709
TOLOnews, Afghan Students Anxious as Schools Remain Closed, 16 September 2021, url
710
Al Jazeera, The Taliban closes Afghan girls’ schools hours after reopening, 23 March 2022, url711
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan. Report of the Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights in Afghanistan and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, 20
June 2023, url, para. 33
712
TOLOnews, Concerns of Afghan Girls Rise Over Closed Schools, 21 September 2021, url; HRW, Taliban Close
Girls’ Secondary Schools in Afghanistan, Again, 23 March 2023, url
713
HRW, Four Ways to Support Girls’ Access to Education in Afghanistan, 20 March 2022, url
702

75EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

girls were able to open714 in at least 13 provinces during the 2021–2022 school year. 715 Private
secondary schools were reportedly allowed to offer education for girls in all provinces,716 but
many schools closed due to lack of resources stemming from families affected by poverty andunemployment, and their resultant inability to pay school fees.717 However, sources indicatedthat most secondary schools have since closed718 in all provinces, including private secondary
schools.719
According to a local media outlet, some private schools providing secondary education forgirls were open in Herat in 2022720 and in 2023.721 There were also reports of the Taliban in
Kandahar Province conducting inspections of girls’ primary schools and expelling hundreds of
secondary education aged girls who attended primary level education.722 Underground secretschools have been running in parts of the country despite the ban.723 According to the reportof the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, other ‘adaptive andcreative methods’ have emerged to support girls’ education, including online. However, thesemethods ‘are not equally accessible or sustainable,’724 also due to the instable internet
connection across the country.725
In October 2022, women were allowed to take entrance exams to universities only for limited
subjects, and hindered from applying for many others, including journalism, engineering,
economics, and many subjects of social and natural sciences.726 (For more information see
EUAA Query Response, Afghanistan, Major legislative, security-related, and humanitariandevelopments 1 July to 31 October 2022, 4 November 2022). On 20 December 2022, theright for women to attend universities was however ‘suspended’ until further notice.727 In July
2023, a statement issued by the Taliban National Examination Directorate informed thatfemale students would not be allowed to take university entrance exams for the newacademic year.728 In August 2023, the Taliban Ministry of Education announced that womenClark K., Who Gets to Go to School? (1): What people told us about education since the Taleban took over, AAN,
26 January 2022, url
715
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan. Report of the Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights in Afghanistan and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, 20
June 2023, url, para. 33, 36
716
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson, 20 October 2022, url;
Guardian (The), ‘She asked me, will they kill you if they discover you?’: Afghan girls defy education ban at secretschools, 13 August 2022, url
717
Salaam Times, Poverty, restrictions on girls shutter 400 Afghan private schools, 17 August 2022, url
718
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan. Report of the Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights in Afghanistan and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, 20
June 2023, url, para. 33, 36
719
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023
720
Salaam Times, Resalat private high school in Herat offers hope to hundreds of girls, 29 September 2022, url
721
Salaam Times, Herat businessman provides free education for hundreds of Afghan girls, 14 August 2023, url
722
RFE/RL, Taliban Inspects Girl’s Schools, Expels Hundreds Of Pubescent Students, 6 October 2022, url
723
Washington Post (The), Where learning is against the law: A secret school for Afghan girls, 9 November 2022,
url; BBC News, Five key moments in the crushing of Afghan women's rights, 15 August 2023, url; VOA, Despite
Taliban Ban, Secret Schools Educate Afghan Girls, 22 January 2023, url724
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 33, 36
725International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
726
RFE/RL, 'Heartbroken And Disillusioned': Taliban Bans Afghan Women From Many University Courses, 20
October 2022, url
727
Reuters, Taliban-led Afghan administration suspends women from universities, 20 December 2022, url
728
Kabul Now, Taliban excludes female students from next academic year’s university entrance exams, 17 July
2023, url
714

76

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

will be readmitted to universities as soon as the supreme leader gives the order for the ban to
be lifted. However, it was not clarified when or whether that would actually happen.729 UNAMA
reported that throughout July, August and September 2023, the de facto authorities took
‘various steps’ to ensure that the exclusion of women from secondary and tertiary education
was fully implemented.730
On 30 September 2022, a suicide attack was carried out against the Kaaj Educational Centre
in Dasht-e Barchi District of Kabul, killing 54 people and injuring another 114. Most of thevictims were young Hazara women and girls who were preparing for the university entrance
exams.731 In June 2023, between 60732 and 90 schoolgirls and their teachers were poisoned
and hospitalised in two separate targeted poison attacks against two primary schools in
Sangcharak District in Sar-e Pul Province. A Taliban education official claimed that a ‘personal
grudge’ was behind the attack. Such an incident was reportedly the first of its kind since the
Taliban took power in August 2021.733

4.4.5.

Access to employment

Unlike the 1990s, the de facto authorities have not outright banned paid employment for
women. However, their restrictions on where women can work outside their home hassignificantly affected the female workforce.734 Based on a survey conducted from June toAugust 2022, the World Bank estimated that nearly half of women previously employed insalaried work lost their job since Taliban took power.735
The approximate 4 000 women who had served within the Afghan military in the previous
government have lost their job. Some are reported to be forced to beg for a living and live inhiding to avoid reprisals.736 (More information is available in section 4.1. Officials of the former
government’s public sector and security sector). Women lawyers and judges have been
altogether barred from practicing.737 Many female judges have reportedly been living in hiding
or have left Afghanistan due to threats received from convicts released from prison.738 (Moreinformation is available in section 4.1.6 Former judges and prosecutors). Women journalists
have been banned from state-run media outlets and those in the private sector have been
allowed to work within certain restriction, such as covering their faces when appearing on TV

AP, Afghan universities ready to readmit women but not until Taliban leader says it’s ok, official says, 12 August
2023, url
730
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 3
731
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 38
732
Reuters, Sixty Afghan girls hospitalised after school poisoning, 5 June 2023, url
733
New York Time, Nearly 90 Afghan Schoolgirls Were Poisoned, Officials Suspect, 5 June 2023, url; AP, Official:
Almost 80 schoolgirls poisoned, hospitalized in northern Afghanistan, 4 June 2023, url734
Bjelica J., What Do Young Afghan Women Do? A glimpse into everyday life after the bans, ANN, 17 August 2023,
url
735
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November 2022, url, p. 3
736
Guardian, Hungry, hunted, terrified: unending plight of the Afghan women who served in military and police, 14
August 2023, url; Guardian, ‘I was a policewoman. Now I beg in the street’: life for Afghan women one year after
the Taliban took power, 14 August 2022, url
737
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 23
738
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 85
729

77

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

and working in gender-segregated offices.739 Also, female journalists have been banned from
attending press conferences,740 and from interviewing male government officials.741 Since theTalban takeover, 80 % of women journalists are estimated to have lost their jobs.742
Women working in the public sectors were instructed to stay home and they have been cut-off
from working in most of the government entities, although some continue working in someroles within the de facto ministries of Public Health, Interior and Education, and also at airports
and in security.743 In December 2022, women were banned from working in international andnational NGOs, and on 5 April 2023, the de facto authorities issued a countrywide ban on
Afghan women working in the UN. Most foreign embassies were also informed that Afghan
women could no longer work in their offices, as reported by the UN.744 Although not officiallystated by the de facto authorities, many NGOs reported that exemptions of such ban weremade for women working in health, nutrition and education sectors. In Kandahar Province,
however, most female health workers have not been able to work.745 As journalist Ali Latifi
noted, by January 2023, many women employees in both international and local NGOs wereable to ‘create workarounds’ that allowed them to continue working, for example by working
from home when they were barred from inter-provincial travel. In some international NGOs,
female staff has reportedly returned to work, including working from the offices. ‘However,they all fear that if this situation becomes too public it could lead to a backlash and these
exceptions and workarounds being taken away.’746 The ban on Afghan female NGO workers
has further complicated aid delivery efforts.747
Women entrepreneurs have been encouraged by the Taliban, which represents an exception
among restrictions for women.748 Female entrepreneurship summits have taken place, with the
Taliban often promoting these events to claim they are not as restrictive on women as theoutside world makes them look.749 It has been reported, however, that women in the private
sector have also been affected by restrictions, including cases of suppliers refusing to sellmaterial to them,750 being requested to operate in a gender segregated environment and tocater to female consumers only.751 Ali Latifi stated that women are still allowed to work in
private businesses, such as airlines, banks (including government-run banks), stores, travel

AFJC, 366 Violations against media freedoms in Afghanistan during two years of Taliban rule: AFJC, 15 August
2023, url; VOA, Female Afghan Journalists Describe Life Under Taliban Misogyny, 30 August 2023, url; Latifi, A.,interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
740
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 46
741
VOA, Female Afghan Journalists Describe Life Under Taliban Misogyny, 30 August 2023, url742
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 46; RSF, Afghan
journalism still resisting after two years of Taliban persecution, 10 August 2023, url743
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 27; Latifi, A.,interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
744
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 47–48
745
Clark K., Bans on women working, then and now: The dilemmas of delivering humanitarian aid during the firstand second Islamic Emirates, AAN, April 2023, url, pp. 8, 9746
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
747
International Crisis Group, Taliban Restrictions on Women’s Rights Deepen Afghanistan’s Crisis, 23 February
2023, url
748
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; Latifi, A., interview 8–9
June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
749
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
750
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 48, 49
751
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
739

78

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

agencies, cell phone and production companies.752 In July 2023, beauty salons were shut
down, which left some 60 000 women without an income.753 UNAMA reported that salons thathave continued to operate beyond the deadline, have faced ‘harsh responses’ by the Taliban
officials. For instance, in one case, Taliban GDI officers ‘raided a beauty salon that was
operating in secret, fined the owner, arrested and physically assaulted the owner’s brotherand forced the salon’s clients to wash their makeup and to promise never to visit any salon in
future.’754
The lack of employment prospects has pushed increasingly more women in the main cities tostroll the streets, pushing carts and selling second-hand goods or simple food goods from thecarts.755 The humanitarian situation has also impacted women’s participation in the labour
market756 (see section 3.2 Poverty, basic subsistence and employment).

4.4.6.

Access to healthcare and basic services

Women and girls have been facing difficulties in accessing critical and routine healthcare due
to a ‘strained health system, the economic crisis, the limitations on movement and therestrictions placed on male health-care professionals treating women and girls’. For instance,
there were reports of women unable to give birth in clinics because of the costs involved or
insufficient resources in the clinics.757 Moreover, humanitarian workers have faced increasing
challenges in gaining access to women in need across the country.758 The bans on working forinternational and national NGOs and the UN have also jeopardised the effective delivery ofhumanitarian assistance to women,759 as well as medical support service. Women belonging to
ethnic and religious minorities, such as Shia Hazara, women with disabilities, women living inpoverty, in rural areas, and those without male family members face additional challenges inaccessing services.760 The humanitarian situation has also impacted women’s access tohealthcare (see section 3.5 Healthcare).

4.4.7.

Violence against women

Afghanistan has been estimated to have one of the highest rates of violence against womenin the world.761 In December 2021, the de facto authorities issued a Decree on Women’s
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
USIP, Two Years of the Taliban’s ‘Gender Apartheid’ in Afghanistan, 14 September 2023, url; New York Times,
Taliban Shut Beauty Salons, One of Afghan Women's Last Public Spaces, 25 July 2023, url
754
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 2755
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023; Sadat S. A., and Shapour R., The
Daily Hustle: Women take to street peddling to feed their families, AAN, 22 July 2023, url
756
ILO, Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid impact assessment, March 2023, url, pp. 3–4; World Bank,
Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3 October 2023, url, p. 47
757
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 57, 61
758
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 57
759
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 11;
International Crisis Group, Taliban Restrictions on Women’s Rights Deepen Afghanistan’s Crisis, 23 February 2023,
url
760
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 87–88
761
Japan Times, Afghan women forced back to abusive ex-husbands after divorces annulled, 2 April 2023, url;
Sardinha, L., et al., Global, regional, and national prevalence estimates of physical or sexual, or both, intimate
partner violence against women in 2018, Lancet 2022; 399: 803–13, 16 February 2022, url
752
753

79

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMRights,762 outlawing some traditional practices, such as forced marriage, including for widows,
as well as baad - the exchange of daughters between families or clans as a way to end feuds
or disputes.763 Despite the Decree, cases of gender-based violence have been treatedinconsistently by the de facto authorities, and in many instances resolved through informalmeans such as mediation.764
The phenomenon of forced and early marriage of women and girls has seen an increase
under Taliban rule, due to several factors, but mostly related to the economic andhumanitarian crisis, lack of education and employment prospects, and families’ belief that
securing a spouse for their daughters would protect them from being forced to marry amember of the Taliban.765 Women seeking a divorce have reportedly been routinely forced toreturn to violent relationships.766 International media have reported on cases of divorced
women being forced back to their ex-husbands by the local Taliban. Some women havevoiced concerns that divorces made under the previous government would not be seen as
valid by the Taliban; senior Taliban officials did not give clear answers as whether they would
accept judgements made in divorce cases under the previous government.767
From March 2022 until August 2023, UNAMA documented at least 324 cases of violenceagainst women and girls, including so-called ‘honour killings’, forced and child marriages,
beatings and domestic violence resulting in self-immolation or suicide.768 ACLED reported thatsexual violence was on the rise, and documented 22 such incidents in the first six months of2023.769 Taliban officials have reportedly subjected women protesters to ill-treatment,
including sexual violence in custody.770 In another case, Taliban members allegedly carried out
a gang rape against a woman and her two minor daughters on 28 February 2023.771 In anothercase, a Taliban official allegedly raped a woman in custody and subsequently forced her tomarry him.772 UN experts assessed that the instruction on punishment of men ‘for the conductof women and girls’ might lead to normalisation of discrimination and violence against womenand girls.773

Zabihullah [Twitter], posted on: 3 December 2021, url
Barnett R. R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, 20 October 2022, url764
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 27
765
AI, Death in Slow Motion: Women and girls under Taliban rule, 27 July 2022, url, p. 7; RFE/RL, Afghans
Increasingly Marrying Off Young Daughters To Avoid Forced Unions With Taliban, 1 December 2022, url766
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 82
767
Washington Post (The), Afghan women who were divorced under prior government fear for their status, 4 March
2023, url; Japan Times, Afghan women forced back to abusive ex-husbands after divorces annulled, 2 April 2023,
url
768
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 27
769
ACLED, Two Years Of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11 August 2023,
url
770
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 30
771
AI, Afghanistan: Alleged rape by Taliban members must be investigated and prosecuted immediately, 10 March
2023, url
772
Independent, Forced to be a Taliban official’s wife, she was imprisoned for 156 days: ‘They beat me up till I
passed out’, 5 July 2023, url773
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 20
762
763

80

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

4.4.8.

Access to justice

The Taliban’s exclusion of female judges and lawyers from practicing the law774 has negatively
impacted women’s access to justice, including their ability to obtain legal aid and equality
before the law.775 Moreover, for certain issues such as domestic violence women’s access tojustice is very limited.776 Corporal punishments inflicted by courts for both men and women
have increased under Taliban rule,777 especially since November 2022. From 15 August 2021
until 30 April 2023, UNAMA documented 80 instances of women being subjected to the
judicial punishment of lashings, mostly in relation to zina (adultery or ‘running away fromhome’).778 More information on such punishments is available in section 1.2.3 Corporal andcapital punishments.

4.5.

Ethnic and religious groups

4.5.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

The de facto government has been led by a thirty-three-member caretaker cabinet, composedof men who are predominantly ethnic Pashtuns.779 Non-Pashtun members of the cabinet
include the Taliban deputy Prime Minister for Administrative Affairs, Mullah Abdul Salam
Hanafi780 (ethnic Uzbek from Jawzjan Province),781 the Taliban Minister of Agriculture, Mawlawi
Ataullah Omari 782 (ethnic Uzbek from Faryab Province),783 the Taliban Minister of Economy,
Qari Din Mohammad Hanif784 (ethnic Tajik from Badakhshan Province),785 the Taliban Chief ofStaff, Qari Fasihuddin786 (also ethnic Tajik from Badakhshan Province),787 the Taliban Ministerof Trade Hajji Norruddin Azizi788 (ethnic Tajik from Panjsher Province),789 and Mohammad
Khaled, the Taliban Minister of the MPVPV790 (ethnic Nuristani from Nuristan Province).791 Three
Hazaras have been appointed de facto deputy ministers of Economy, Public Health and Urban
Development and Land since the takeover,792 and were reported to still serve in their post in
UN OHCHR, UN experts: legal professionals in Afghanistan face extreme risks, need urgent international
support, 20 January 2023, url; AP, The Taliban have waged a systematic assault on freedom in Afghanistan, says
UN human rights chief, 12 September 2023, url
775
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 23
776
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
777
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
778
UNAMA, Corporal Punishment in Afghanistan, May 2023, url, pp. 13–14
779
Council on Foreign Relations, The Taliban in Afghanistan, last updated 19 January 2023, url
780
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url
781
AA, Who’s who in Taliban interim government?, 9 September 2021, url
782
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url783
Ali, O., Non-Pashtun Taleban of the North (2): Case studies of Uzbek Taleban in Faryab and Sar-e Pul, AAN, 17
March 2017, url
784
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url
785
AA, Who’s who in Taliban interim government?, 9 September 2021, url
786
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url
787
AA, Who’s who in Taliban interim government?, 9 September 2021, url
788
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url
789
Agenzia Nova, Afghanistan: the Taliban appoint a UN representative and ask to speak to the General Assembly,
22 September 2021, url
790
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, url
791
Afghanistan, de facto MOPVPE, Biography of the ministry leadership, n.d., url
792
Kabul Now, Taliban Appoint a Shia-Hasara as Deputy Minister, 2 December 2022, url
774

81EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2023.793 At provincial level, ethnic groups other than Pashtuns have been represented to asomewhat higher degree.794 An international analyst however pointed out that the local
communities do not necessarily feel represented by these individuals solely by sharing thesame ethnicity.795 Hazara interviewees also told AAN analyst Fabrizio Foschini that ethnicbalance in the Taliban’s commissions responsible for handling local land disputes did notguarantee impartiality.796
Since the Taliban took power, they have not enacted any formal discriminatory policies
towards ethnic or religious groups,797 but the marginalisation of minorities in the decisionmaking processes has worsened due to their decreased representation in public positions. 798
Afghanistan experts observed that, in theory, the Taliban leadership generally respectedminorities,799 but in practice Taliban rank-and-file often do not.800 The Taliban’s treatment of
ethnic and religious groups has also been determined by the reality of the past wars and of
Afghan society.801 For instance, since having connections to government bodies is key toobtain services in Afghanistan, 802 ethnic and religious minorities have become more
vulnerable in terms of accessing government services but also accessing justice.803 Moreover,Farsi signs are being replaced with Pashto signs in predominantly Farsi-speaking cities suchas Herat and Mazar-e Sharif,804 and Pashto is increasingly being used in government services,which creates further obstacles to those who do not speak the language.805
In communication with the EUAA, the international analyst stated that ethnicity has become
more important since the Taliban took power, adding that there are multiple examples of
Taliban supporting Pashtun communities, especially in conflict with their non-Pashtun
neighbours over property and land claims.806 Since 15 August 2021, historical tensions
between settled and nomadic communities (which have fuelled ethnic and territorial disputes
for decades) have intensified in the provinces of Parwan, Jawzjan, Badakhshan, Ghazni,

BBC Monitoring, Biography, Afghanistan, Mohammad Hassan Ghiassi, 25 May 2023, url; BBC Monitoring,
Biography, Afghanistan, Sheikh Madar Ali Karimi Bamiani, 4 May 2023, url; BBC monitoring, Biography, Afghanistan,
Dr Abdul Latif Nazari, 9 May 2023, url
794
Aamaj News, 80% of Taliban’s rulers Pashtuns, 98.3% their own members as 1.5 years passes, 15 February 2023,
url; International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
795
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
796
Foschini, F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url
797
USDOS, 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 15 May 2023, url
798
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 42; USDOS,
2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 15 May 2023, url799
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023; International analyst,
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
800
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023; Mohammadi, M.,
Human Rights Conditions for Hazaras in Afghanistan Under the Taliban Regime, 7 February 2023, url, p. 1
801
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023; Foschini F., Conflict
Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis and local communities,
AAN, 22 December 2022, url
802
Afghan analyst, online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; Rahimi, H., online
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
803
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
804
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 43; Hasht-e
Subh, Taliban’s Animosity with Farsi: Fuelling the Fire of Afghanistan’s Enemies, 8 June 2023, url
805
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
806
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
793

82

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Maidan Wardak and Daykundi.807 Forced evictions and displacement of minority groups,
including Hazaras, Uzbeks and Tajiks, were reportedly facilitated or tolerated by the de facto
authorities.808 At least 2 800 Hazara residents have reportedly been forcibly displaced from 15
villages in Daykundi and Uruzgan provinces in September 2021 alone. In December 2022,
residents of Sar-e Pul Province, mostly Uzbeks and Tajiks, ‘staged a protest against theirforced eviction and the seizure of land’ by the Taliban in eight villages. They were reportedly‘threatened with a military response if they did not follow orders’.809
Several land disputes also occurred in Takhar Province,810 especially in the northern districts,
including Dasht-e Qala, Rustaq, Darqad and Yangi Qala and Khwaja Bahauddin. These
disputes involved returning Pashtun refugees from Pakistan, most of whom are Kuchis,
reclaiming those areas. During these disputes, local Taliban authorities reportedly sided with
the Pashtun Kuchis leading to the local population, mainly Uzbeks and Tajiks, being evictedfrom their houses and lands.811 According to an Afghan analyst, these conflicts are based moreon complex land dispute dynamics between communities rather than being ethnically driven.
Even in provinces with a homogenous ethnic composition, such disputes have re-emerged,
often along tribal or clan-based lines. For instance, the analyst noted that people were evicted
in cities as well, including in Kabul where the de facto authorities have demolished homes thatwere built on government land. Having said that, the same source stated that, ‘Kuchis havebecome more brazen, especially on claiming lands since Taliban took power.’812 Foschini also
identified motivations other than ethnicity behind the Taliban’s general siding with Kuchis inland disputes, such as seeking political and military control over the affected areas,813 as
mentioned in section 4.3. Persons with perceived affiliation to armed groups.
Since the Taliban takeover, several sources reported on the targeting of Tajik communities in
the northeast provinces of the country, due to their perceived affiliation to armed resistancegroups.814 Salafi communities were also targeted, due to their perceived affiliation to ISKP.815(See section 4.3. Persons with perceived affiliation to armed groups)

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 46–47
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Forcibly Evict Minority Shia, 22 October 2021, url; Foschini F., Conflict Management
or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis and local communities, AAN, 22
December 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url,para. 48809
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 46–48
810
ANI, Land dispute leads to clashes between residents, refugees in Afghanistan's Takhar, 19 September 2022,
url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban to Displace 400 Families in Khwaja Bahauddin District, Takhar, 6 October 2022, url
811
Foschini F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url
812
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
813
Foschini, F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url
814
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; Gossman, P., Associate
Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, online interview, 12 May 2022; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Torture Civilians in
Panjshir: Collective Punishment Over Armed Group’s Actions Is Unlawful, 10 June 2022, url; BBC News, Afghan
resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May 2022, url
815
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; Gossman, P., Associate
Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, online interview, 12 May 2022; France24, Fear stalks city in Islamic State's
Afghan heartland, 21 January 2022, url; Jamestown Foundation, The Taliban’s Persistent War on Salafists in
Afghanistan, 24 September 2021, url; Hudson Institute, Making Sense of the Islamic State’s War on the Afghan
Taliban, 25 January 2022, url
807

808

83

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.5.2.

Religious freedom

In the aftermath of their takeover, the Taliban stated that human rights in general - although
not specifying religious freedom - would be respected in Afghanistan ‘within the framework ofIslamic law’.816 The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF)
noted that, since August 2021, religious freedom conditions have deteriorated, adding that not
only have the de facto authorities enforced its harsh interpretation of sharia on all Afghans,but they have also failed to provide ethnic and religious communities residing in the country
with safety and security against violence perpetrated towards these groups by ISKP and by‘factions of the Taliban itself’.817 Physical and verbal attacks against religious minorities havebeen reported.818 According to USCIRF, religious minorities such as Christians, Ahmadiyya
Muslims, Baha’is, and nonbelievers have been unable to openly express their faith and belief,
being actively discriminated against or targeted by the Taliban or ISKP.819
Conversion from Islam to another religion is considered as apostasy and is punishable bydeath, according to the Taliban’s interpretation of sharia.820 As noted by the international
analyst, people born into another faith and who did not convert from Islam are allowed not tobe Muslim. The same source noted that there has not been formal Taliban policy on hunting
down converts, as there is a general expectation that converts are killed by their own families
rather than by the authorities.821
Some restrictions on religious and cultural events were issued by the de facto authorities
during the reporting period. On 21 March 2023, the Taliban MPVPV announced thecancellation of the Nowruz (Persian New Year) celebration, considered an ‘un-Islamic
tradition’.822 On 17 July 2023, it was announced that, for security reasons, large gatherings
would not be allowed during the celebration of Ashura, a holy day for Shia Muslims.823
Some sources indicated that Taliban have ordered government employees to adhere to
religious practices, including taking a test on Islamic subjects, making it mandatory to growbeards and wear traditional clothing, and in some areas also forcing them to attend prayers.824
In communication with the EUAA, a representative of the human rights organisation Rawardari
explained that shopkeepers and men in markets have been ‘encouraged, shamed, andthreatened’ by the Taliban MPVPV particularly to attend prayers on Fridays.825 Local media
website Hasht-e Subh reported that, in April 2023, the de facto authorities forced residents inRehman, R., Taliban 2021: Mujahid, Munafiq? - Protecting Islam or undermining it?, Human Rights in Context, 26
August 2021, url
817
USCIRF, Annual report on religious freedom – Afghanistan, May 2023, url, p. 12
818
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 36
819
USCIRF, Annual report on religious freedom – Afghanistan, May 2023, url, p. 12820
USCIRF, Religious Freedom and Women’s Rights in Afghanistan, 30 August 2023, url, p. 3
821
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
822
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 40; Kazemi S.
R. and Sadat S. A., Simple Pleasures Amidst Great Frustrations: An essentially outlawed Nawruz in Taleban-ruled
Afghanistan, 21 March 2023, url; Reuters, Taliban cancel public holiday for Nowruz but say celebrations allowed, 20
march 2022, url
823
Kabul Now, Death toll of Taliban crack down on Ashura mourners rises, 30 July 2023, url; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 40
824
RFE/RL, Under The Taliban, Public Employees Must Pass Test Of Faith, 8 September 2022, url; Kabul Now,
Taliban Foreign Ministry instructs employees to adhere to religious practices, 13 July 2023, url
825
Rawadari, email communication, 18 October 2023
816

84

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Herat City to attend congregational evening prayers during Ramadan. De facto security forceswere reported to actively patrolling the streets in some areas of the city, looking for people
not attending the prayers and ‘assaulting bystanders, shopkeepers, medicine vendors’.826 This
information could not be corroborated. According to other local sources, during the samemonth, Taliban forced Shia Hazara communities in some parts of the country, including in
Balkh827 and Daykundi provinces, to perform Eid prayers one day earlier than their religious
practice foresaw, with reports of Taliban beating those who refused.828
Many Sikhs and Hindus sought to resettle outside of Afghanistan after the Taliban takeover,829
and in 2022 religious representatives estimated that less than 100 Hindus and Sikhs remainedin the country - mainly to care for temples. According to USDOS, Sikhs and Hindus faced
discrimination, including ‘unequal access to government jobs, harassment in school, andverbal and physical abuse in public places’.830 The UN Special Rapporteur on the situation ofhuman rights in Afghanistan also expressed concern about verbal and physical threats andattacks against religious minorities, including Sikhs, forcing some to flee the country.831
UNAMA recorded one attack against a Sikh place of worship in the period 15 August 2021–30
May 2023, in which two individuals were killed and three wounded.832 Indian media also
reported on an explosion targeting a Sikh shop close to a Sikh place of worship in Kabul City
on 27 July 2022.833

4.5.3.

Hazaras and other Shia groups

Most Hazaras in Afghanistan are Shia Muslims.834 In the months following their coming to power,
the Taliban held a series of meetings with Shia Hazara leaders from various parts of the country,
promising to provide security for all citizens and expressing the willingness to avoid sectariandivisions.835 As mentioned, three Hazara deputy ministers have been appointed within the defacto government and public messaging by de facto authorities towards Hazaras and Shias has
continued to be conciliatory.836 However, in practice, Hazaras and Shias have reportedly faced
discrimination under Taliban rule.837 Hazaras have been killed in Taliban raids allegedly
targeting armed groups838 or former government officials.839 Moreover, the Shia Hazara
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Force Herat Residents to Pray Taraweeh During Ramadan, 17 April 2023, url
Afghanistan International, Taliban Forced Shia Clerics To Offer Eid Prayers On Friday in Balkh, 22 April 2023, url
828
Kabul Now, Taliban in Daikundi forces residents to celebrate Eid a day earlier, 21 April 2023, url
829
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of individuals, August 2022, url, p. 151
830
USDOS, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 20 March 2023, url
831
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 36, 41
832
UNAMA, Impact of Improvised Explosive Devices on Civilians in Afghanistan, 27 June 2023, url, p. 9
833
Indian Express, Explosion rocks Sikh man’s shop near Kabul gurdwara; kin in Delhi call for India’s help, 27 July
2022, url; Times of India (The), Kabul Gurdwara Attacked Again, Blast Near Main Gate, 28 July 2022, url
834
Mohammadi, M., Human Rights Conditions for Hazaras in Afghanistan Under the Taliban Regime, SJSU, 7
February 2023, url, p. 4
835
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 38, 51
836
Adili A. Y., The politics of survival in the face of exclusion: Hazara and Shia Actors under the Taliban, AAN,
February 2023, url, p. 35
837
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; International analyst,
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; RFE/RL, Afghanistan's Shi'ite Minority
Suffers 'Systematic Discrimination' Under Taliban Rule, 17 July 2023, url
838
RFE/RL, Survivors Of Deadly Taliban Raid On Hazara Village in Afghanistan Demand Justice, 20 December
2022, url
839
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban torture and execute Hazaras in targeted attack – new investigation, 15 September 2022,
url
826
827

85

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

community has been a target in attacks frequently claimed by ISKP and unknown
perpetrators.840 (More information is available in section 2.3. Impact of the violence on thecivilian population) Sources noted a discrepancy between Taliban leadership’s public stancetowards Hazaras/Shias and the actual treatment of these communities by Taliban rank-and-filesecurity forces.841 Despite their public statements, the Taliban are reported to have failed toprotect the Hazara and Shia communities from targeted attacks, while harassment and forced
displacement of these communities have increased. AAN analyst Ali Yawar Adili further notedthat Hazaras have become ‘increasingly vulnerable to collective punishment’ by the Taliban in
their attempt to pre-emptively crack down on any possible mobilisation and armed resistancein Hazarajat.842
The international analyst explained to the EUAA that, while the Taliban leadership does not
perceive the Hazaras and Shias as a threat and their position in this regard is very clear, local
commanders do exhibit intolerance against these communities. The same source noted that
Taliban do not usually attack Hazara and Shia communities, and no confrontations were
documented in provinces where Hazara leaders have been appointed, such as in Bamiyan andDaykundi provinces. However, Hazaras have been facing discrimination and armed Taliban
fighters have constantly been out controlling these areas: ‘so, some will always think there is apossibility that the status quo may change for the worse.’ 843
As pointed out by the Afghan analyst, Hazaras have historically tended to face societal
discrimination in Afghanistan, from Pashtuns and also from Tajiks, Uzbeks and others. Suchdiscrimination has persisted to this date. Under the Taliban however, the analyst pointed outthat Hazaras have not been facing targeted discrimination, although the local Taliban would‘view Hazaras negatively and treat them with contempt (in line with historical norms)’. The same
source added that ‘there is a view’ that Hazaras ‘benefitted too much’ under the previous rule,
which must be ‘corrected’ now. As a result, Hazaras have been ‘systematically treateddifferently’ by the local Taliban.844 Some sources reported on many individuals from the Hazara
communities being dismissed and replaced from their government jobs.845 The Afghan analyst
stated that since Hazaras have been disproportionately underrepresented within the de facto
government (hence they tend to have fewer connections in positions of power), their access togovernment services has been negatively impacted.846 For example, Hazaras are reported to
face more barriers in obtaining passports in order to leave the country.847

HRW, Afghanistan: ISIS Groups Targets Religious Minorities, 6 September 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council,
Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, 9 September 2022, url, para. 67
841
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023; Afghan analyst,
interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
842
Adili A. Y., The politics of survival in the face of exclusion: Hazara and Shia Actors under the Taliban, AAN,
February 2023, url, p. 35
843
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
844
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
845
Irish Examiner, Afghanistan's powerless Hazara community still facing persecution, 22 August 2022, url;Mohammadi, M., Human Rights Conditions for Hazaras in Afghanistan Under the Taliban Regime, SJSU, 7 February
2023, url, pp. 2, 3
846
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
847
Mohammadi, M., Human Rights Conditions for Hazaras in Afghanistan Under the Taliban Regime, SJSU, 7
February 2023, url, pp. 2, 13; Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
840

86

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Some restrictions imposed by the de facto authorities on the Hazara and Shia communities
include the prohibition to teach Shia jurisprudence in some universities; 848 the ban on marriages
among Shia and Sunni individuals in the Nusay district of Badakhshan Province issued in
February 2023;849 restrictions on group movements and large gatherings during the Shia
celebration of Ashura in July 2023.850
In November 2022, Taliban fighters conducted a raid in the village of Siwak Shibar, in Nili
District of Daykundi Province,851 killing four Hazara boys aged between 1 and 14,852 wounding
another four people and detaining several others. Taliban claimed that the target of this attack
was ‘armed rebels’, while according to locals the victims were all civilians.853 On 28 July 2023,
in Ghazni Province, members of the de facto security forces opened fire without warning atmourners gathered to commemorate the Shia Ashura ceremony.854 Four people were killed,
including one child and one woman, six other were injured. De facto Provincial Governor’s
office posted a tweet in response to the incidents stating that some people had thrown stones
and had opened fired at the de facto security forces, resulting in the casualties, while UNAMA
reported that the mourners were unarmed.855
Since the Taliban takeover, ‘a greater number’ of Kuchi nomads, compared to previous years,
moved into Hazarajat (the central region of the country which is historically been disputed
between the Kuchis/local Pashtuns and the Hazara people),856 resulting in the forced evictions
and displacement of local Hazara population.857 Also, some decades-old judicial cases related
to claims by Kuchis of human or animal losses in past disputes with the Hazaras, were reopened,with Taliban siding with the Kuchi/Pashtun party in all these cases and enforcing collective
punishments towards local Hazara communities.858
Between August and September 2023, local media reported that the Taliban killed several
Hazara residents in the Khas Uruzgan district of Uruzgan Province,859 and that hundreds of
RFE/RL, Afghanistan's Shi'ite Minority Suffers 'Systematic Discrimination' Under Taliban Rule, 17 July 2023, url;
USCIRF, Religious Freedom and Women’s Rights in Afghanistan, 30 August 2023, url, p. 3
849
USCIRF, Religious Freedom and Women’s Rights in Afghanistan, 30 August 2023, url, p. 3; Hasht-e Subh,
Taliban Ban Shia-Sunni Marriages in Badakhshan’s Nusay District, 3 February 2023, url
850
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18
September 2023, url, para. 37; Kabul Now, Death toll of Taliban crack down on Ashura mourners rises, 30 July
2023, url
851
RFE/RL, Survivors Of Deadly Taliban Raid On Hazara Village In Afghanistan Demand Justice, 20 December
2022, url
852
UNICEF, [Twitter], posted on 25 November 2022, url
853
RFE/RL, Survivors Of Deadly Taliban Raid On Hazara Village In Afghanistan Demand Justice, 20 December
2022, url
854
Kabul Now, Death toll of Taliban crack down on Ashura mourners rises, 30 July 2023, url
855
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 53
856
Foschini F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url
857
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 39, 64; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Forcibly Evict Minority Shia, 22 October 2021, url;
Foschini F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in
Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 48
858
Foschini F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes between Kuchis andlocal communities, AAN, 22 December 2022, url
859
Hasht-e Subh, The National Resistance Council for the Salvation of Afghanistan: The Taliban have killed 17
Hazaras in Uruzgan Province in the Last Two Years, 24 September 2023, url
848

87EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hazara families were at risk of forced eviction.860 UNAMA informed that a delegation of the defacto government visited Khas Uruzgan District on 16 September 2023, to investigate suchallegations. Following this visit, 16 individuals were reportedly arrested and were awaiting trial.
With regards to these alleged violations, UNAMA stated to have confirmed the following
incidents in the Khas Uruzgan District between January and September 2023: killings of at leastsix Hazara residents by unknown perpetrators; at least five cases of destruction of property(including vehicles, houses and agricultural crops) belonging to Hazara residents by unknown
perpetrators; at least two incidents of beatings of Hazara residents by unknown perpetrators.861
According to the UN, from 30 August 2021 to 30 September 2022, there were 22 recorded
attacks against civilians in Afghanistan, 16 of which targeted the Hazara population
specifically.862 During 2022, attacks claimed by ISKP against Hazaras and Shias killed andinjured at least 700 people, according to some estimates.863 In 2023, the number of attacks
against the Shia Hazara community has gone down, and as of September 2023, no major
attacks on Hazaras has been recorded. Some sources link such a decrease to the Taliban’s
operations against ISKP and a shift of focus of ISKP to Taliban targets.864
In August 2022, a string of ISKP attacks targeting the Shia Hazara group occurred in Kabul
City during three consecutive days before the Ashura commemoration on 8 August 2022.865
Reports on the death toll varied between 2,866 3867 and 8,868 as well as reports on the numberof injured which ranged from 7 to 30.869 Unclaimed bombings have also been reported in the
Dacht-e Barchi Shia dominated area of Kabul City in August and September 2022.870 On 30
September 2022, a suicide IED attack was carried out against the Kaaj educational centre in
Dasht-e-Barchi area of Kabul,871 killing 54 people and injuring another 114. Out of the 54 killed,
51 were young Hazara women between the ages of 14 and 22 who were studying for theuniversity entrance examination.872

Kabul Now, Hundreds of Hazara families risk forced eviction in Khas Uruzgan district , 14 August 2023, url
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, pp. 5, 6862
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 36
863
HRW, Afghanistan: ISIS Group Targets Religious Minorities, 6 September 2022, url; HRW, World report 2023,
Afghanistan, Events of 2022, 12 January 2023, url; USDOS, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices:
Afghanistan, 20 March 2023, url
864
Gossman, P., HRW, email communication, 28 September 2023; AW, Two years of Taliban rule: documenting
human rights abuses using open source, 15 August 2023, url, pp. 27, 29
865
UN Security Council, Situation of in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 14
September 2022, url, para. 16; Business Standard, Over 120 killed, wounded in recent days in Afghanistan: United,
8 August 2022, url; VOA, Islamic State Bombing Kills 8 Afghan Shiite Mourners in Kabul, 5 August 2022, url;
TOLOnews, 3 People Die in Blast on Second Day of Attacks in Kabul, 6 August 2022, url
866
APW, Weekly Briefing August 01 – Aug 07, 8 August 2022, url
867
TOLOnews, 3 People Die in Blast on Second Day of Attacks in Kabul, 6 August 2022, url
868
Reuters, Bomb blast in Kabul kills eight, injures more than 20, 6 August 2022, url
869
TOLOnews, 3 People Die in Blast on Second Day of Attacks in Kabul, 6 August 2022, url; APW, Weekly Briefing
Aug 01 – Aug 07, 8 August 2022, url; Reuters, Bomb blast in Kabul kills eight, injures more than 20, 6 August 2022,
url
870
BBC News, Kabul blast kills teenager sitting practice exam, 1 October 2022, url871
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 46; BBC News,
Kabul blast kills teenager sitting practice exam, 1 October 2022, url872
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 36
860
861

88

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

4.6.

Journalists and media workers

Immediately after they came to power, the Taliban claimed to be ‘committed to media’ within
their ‘cultural frameworks’. They allowed private media companies to continue their activities,
although instructing them to respect ‘Islamic values’ and urging Afghan media not to work
against national values or unity.873 In practice, the right to freedom of opinion and expression
has been severely curbed since the Taliban took power.874 Most female media workers losttheir jobs:875 it is estimated that more than 80 % of women journalists have had to stop
working since 15 August 2021.876 Many media outlets closed, mainly due to financial issues877
but also due pressure from the Taliban.878
Numerous journalists fled Afghanistan or went into hiding, and the closure of media outlets left
thousands of journalists jobless, forcing many to find other employment.879 Out of the roughly
12 000 journalists – male and female – active in Afghanistan in 2021, more than two thirds are
estimated to have quit the profession.880
During the reference period of this report, the media landscape and press freedoms havefurther deteriorated in Afghanistan, and journalists have increasingly faced surveillance,
intimidation, threats, violence, arrest and detention from the de facto authorities.881 Guidelines
for the media issued between August 2021 and March 2022 remained in place and increasing
restrictions were introduced.882 In July 2022, a decree issued by the supreme leader warned
against criticising Taliban authorities.883 In October 2022, the de facto authorities suspended
two Afghan news websites, Hasht-e Subh and Zawia News and threatened to revoke thelicenses of several other news agencies. In December 2022, they blocked the FM broadcastsof Radio Azadi and Voice of America (in addition to the previous ban on BBC News andDeutsche Welle TV channels in March 2022).884 In March 2023, the de facto minister of higher
education warned that ‘all those who undermine the regime, whether that is via tongue, pen or

Al Jazeera, Transcript of Taliban’s first news conference in Kabul, 17 August 2021, url
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 33
875
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March 2022, url; RSF, Afghan journalism still resisting
after two years of Taliban persecution, 10 August 2023, url
876
RSF, Afghan journalism still resisting after two years of Taliban persecution, 10 August 2023, url
877
Ariana News, Crippling economy closing Afghan media outlets, 11 October 2021, url; TOLOnews, Afghan Media
Face Budget Issues, Lack of Access to Information, 21 September 2021, url
878
New York Times (The), New Taliban Guidelines Stir Fear About the Future of Press Freedom, 23 September
2021, url; RSF, Since the Taliban takeover, 40% of Afghan media have closed, 80% of women journalists have losttheir jobs, 20 December 2021, url
879
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Severely Restrict Media, 1 October 2021, url; Columbia Journalism Review, What
happened to Afghanistan’s journalists after the government collapsed, 17 March 2022, url
880
RSF, Afghan journalism still resisting after two years of Taliban persecution, 10 August 2023, url
881
AFJC, 366 Violations against media freedoms in Afghanistan during two years of Taliban rule: AFJC, 15 August
2023, url; RSF, Nine arrested in Taliban offensive against Afghan journalists, 15 August 2023, url; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 68–73; UN Human Rights Council,
Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 57; UN Security Council, The situation in
Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18 September 2023, url, para. 36
882
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 33
883
Zabihullah [Twitter], posted on: 21 July 2022, url; TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Bans ‘Unproven
Allegations’ Against Members, 22 July 2022, url884
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 73
873

874

89

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

practically undermining it, are considered rebellious and deserve death’.885 On 25 July 2023,
the Taliban Ministry of Information and Culture started distributing ID cards to male and female
journalists. While UNAMA observed that this measure ‘has the potential to facilitate journalists’access to reporting sites and press conferences,’886 some media practitioners voiced concernsthat this practice may instead further increase control on the press by the de facto
authorities.887
The issued restrictions on media are considered vague, and difficult for media workers tofollow in practice.888 After the Taliban takeover, the media outlets that continued to operate
adjusted their reporting by decreasing potentially provocative content, while content praising
the Taliban increased.889 Moreover, there have been reports of increased self-censorship890
among Afghan journalists as a result of continuous harassment.891 Reporting on certain topics
and events, particularly women’s rights issues and women’s protests might lead to abuse.892
According to journalist Ali Latifi, ‘that’s a major red line, and footage of these protests is now
often taken by women themselves’. Most incidents where journalists were involved occurred
during women’s protests, Latifi noted, and as such, ‘coverage of such events has becomemuch rarer’. Nevertheless, journalism continues in Afghanistan,893 with some journalists
defying potential reprisals by raising critical voices, covering protests and questioning Taliban
edicts, including on women's rights.894
Summons, punitive measures and arrests against journalists and media workers have been
carried out mainly by the de facto intelligence security apparatus,895 as well as by the Taliban
MPVPV.896 According to Latifi, while journalists have not actively been killed, they have been
intimidated, pressurised and allowed to work within certain constraints: ‘It depends on who
you deal with.’ Usually, high officials have been more welcoming towards reporters whereas
the lower Taliban ranks are more prone to intimidate and antagonise journalists, ‘especiallywhen reporting in English’. There have even been instances where media permits issued by
the Taliban Ministry of Information and Culture (MoIC) or Taliban Ministry of Foreign Affairs(MoFA) have not been recognised by the de facto police and other Taliban officials on the
ground in Kabul and other provinces. Latifi said to be aware of frequent reports of journalists

TOLOnews, Nadim Warns of Consequences for Opponents of Interim Govt, 12 March 2023, url; USIP, Amid
Taliban Repression, Afghan Media Are a Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, url; VOA, Those Undermining Taliban'Deserve Death,' Says Taliban Minister, 15 March 2023, url
886
UNAMA, Human rights situation in Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 6
887
VOA, Afghan Journalists Wary of Taliban Registration, 26 July 2023, url; UNAMA, Human rights situation in
Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 6
888
USIP, Amid Taliban Repression, Afghan Media Are a Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, url; DW, Afghanistan:
Journalists encounter tough times under Taliban rule, 7 October 2021, url
889
BBC News, How Afghanistan's media is changing under Taliban rule, 21 August 2021, url; RFE/RL, Fewer women,
No Entertainment: Kabul’s Media Scene Transforms After Taliban Takeover, 18 August 2021, url
890
New York Times (The), Everything Changed Overnight: Afghan Reporters Face an Intolerant Regime, 11
September 2021, url; AFJC, 366 Violations against media freedoms in Afghanistan during two years of Taliban rule:
AFJC, 15 August 2023, url
891
USIP, Amid Taliban Repression, Afghan Media Are a Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, url
892
HRW, World report 2023, Afghanistan, Events of 2022, 12 January 2023, url
893
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
894
USIP, Amid Taliban Repression, Afghan Media Are a Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, url
895
USIP, Amid Taliban Repression, Afghan Media Are a Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, url
896
AFJC, 366 Violations against media freedoms in Afghanistan during two years of Taliban rule: AFJC, 15 August
2023, url
885

90

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

held for questioning for hours or days and then released (for example in Khost, Kabul,
Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-e Sharif), as well as of journalists being beaten up by the de facto
security forces on the streets of Kabul, Herat and Kandahar.897
From 15 August 2021 until 15 August 2023, the civil society organisation Afghanistan
Journalists Center (AFJC) documented a total of 366 violations against media freedom,including the case of 3 journalists who lost their life in Kabul and in Balkh provinces, 23 casesof journalists being injured, 176 cases of temporary and mid-term detentions, with frequent
reports of insult, physical violence, and even torture during detention. At least 139 cases of
threats, and 25 cases of physical harassment and beatings were also reported.898
UNAMA documented several incidents in which journalists were prevented from accessing
sites of IED incidents for reporting purposes, ‘including through excessive or inappropriate useof force, threats and arbitrary arrests and detention.’899 From March 2022 until August 2023,
UNAMA documented arbitrary arrests and detentions of at least 115 media workers.900 FrenchAfghan journalist, Mortaza Behboudi was arrested in January 2023901 on unknown charges.902
Between July and August 2023, the Taliban carried out a series of raids against journalists
and independent media outlets ‘at an astonishing pace’, leading to the closure of some media
platforms and the arrests of journalists, including the arbitrary arrest by de facto GDI of nine
journalists from six provinces in August 2023.903 The nine journalists were subsequently
released.904
In March 2023, ISKP carried out a bomb attack in Mazar-e Sharif during a ceremony marking‘Afghan Journalists Day’, killing 2 journalists and a security guard and injuring at least 15 otherjournalists.905

4.7.

Human rights defenders and activists

The de facto authorities frequently expressed commitment to respect human rights within theframework of sharia. Since the Taliban takeover, the space of Afghanistan’s civil society has
narrowed down significantly.906 Civil society organisations (CSO) have been targeted, with
reports of Taliban raiding their offices, freezing their bank accounts, and forcing many to close
their offices.907 Human rights defenders and civil society actors largely halted their activities inmost provinces, out of fear of repercussions.908 Activists, especially women rights defenders,

Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
AFJC, 366 Violations against media freedoms in Afghanistan during two years of Taliban rule: AFJC, 15 August
2023, url
899
UNAMA, Impact of Improvised Explosive Devices on Civilians in Afghanistan, 27 June 2023, url, p. 11
900
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 57
901
Le Monde, Concern grows for detained French-Afghan journalist Mortaza Behboudi, 7 June 2023, url902
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 57
903
RSF, Nine arrested in Taliban offensive against Afghan journalists, 15 August 2023, url
904
IFJ, Afghanistan: Taliban releases nine journalists following crackdown, 5 September 2023, url
905
RSF, Mazar-i-Sharif bombing – “biggest attack” on Afghan journalists in months, 14 March 2023, url906
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 52
907
CIVICUS, Afghanistan: Assault on civic space persists two years after Taliban takeover, 13 August 2023, url
908
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 20
897

898

91

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

have faced arbitrary arrest and detention,909 but also men publicly advocating or protesting in
support of women’s rights have been arrested, detained and ill-treated.910 Prominent Afghan
education activist, Matiullah Wesa911 and founder of a local NGO was arrested on 27 March 2023
on unspecified charges.912 During the same month, university lecturer, Islamic scholar andactivist Rasool Parsi was also arrested, after having criticised the Taliban on social media.913 BothWesa and Parsi remained in detention during the reference period of this report.914 In a jointstatement issued on the second-year anniversary since the Taliban takeover, a coalition of civilsociety organisations, besides expressing serious concerns for the safety of those in Taliban
custody, stated that many human rights defenders have been compelled to leave the country.
The CSO’s coalition further assessed that ‘internal protection and legal safeguards for those atrisk are practically non-existent’.915
Official approval by the de facto authorities is needed in order to hold demonstrations,916 andas journalist Ali Latifi pointed out, authorisation is given only for certain types of gatherings. In
practice, ‘Taliban have no patience at all for protests or dissent of any kind.’ According to thesame source, the situation for activists and protestors deteriorated following the December
2022 decree banning women from university. ‘We saw men protestors in Kandahar beingchased away and potentially being shot at on the streets.’ These protests, mainly attended bymen, spread to nearby Kunar and Khost provinces and were met with violence.917 During thesame wave of protests, beatings of women protestors were also reported in Kabul City andHerat City.918
The Taliban GDI and the Taliban MPVPV are said to be effective mechanisms of repression andcontrol, actively working to identify opponents.919 Methods used by the de facto security
apparatus to suppress dissent include various ways of intimidation, and not necessarily killings.
Assistant law professor Haroun Rahimi noted that ‘if you resist in a softer way, you get
intimidated, harassed and your family gets questioned to make you stop resisting.’920
Sources noted that activists and individuals seen as aligned against the Taliban are considered
as instruments and ‘puppets’ of Western influence,921 and Taliban believe they have the right tosuppress such dissent.922 Therefore, ‘anyone who chooses to resist the Taliban may face
CIVICUS, Afghanistan: Assault on civic space persists two years after Taliban takeover, 13 August 2023, url
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 30
911
New Humanitarian (The), Arrest of leading education activist leaves Afghans confused and worried, 12 April
2023, url; TOLOnews, Amnesty Intl Calls For Release of Matiullah Wesa, Neda Parwani, 28 September 2023, url
912
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, 20 June 2023, url, para. 30
913
Human Rights Watch, Taliban Expand Civil Society Crackdown, 29 March 2023, url
914
AI et al., Alliance for Human Rights in Afghanistan – Joint statement – Afghanistan: call for Justice accountability
and effective response to ongoing violations and gender persecution, 15 August 2023, url; Hasht-e Subh, The
Taliban’s Suppression of Critics: Where is Rasool Parsi?, 31 March 2023, url
915
AI et al., Alliance for Human Rights in Afghanistan – Joint statement – Afghanistan: call for Justiceaccountability and effective response to ongoing violations and gender persecution, 15 August 2023, url
916
Guardian,Taliban ban protests and slogans that don’t have their approval, 8 September 2021, url
917
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9
June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
918
CIVICUS, Afghanistan: Assault on civic space persists two years after Taliban takeover, 13 August 2023, url
919
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
920
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
921
Latifi A., In-person interview, 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
922
Al Jazeera, Missing Afghan women activists released: UN, 13 February 2022, url; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–
9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
909
910

92

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

consequences’, according to Rahimi.923 Ali Latifi mentioned the case of education activist
Matiullah Wesa, who was arrested and then released several times. But the moment he started
to publicly announce he was meeting with foreigners and going abroad, not only was hearrested, but also his family was targeted. His house was raided and at least two of his brothers
were also briefly detained, while another brother fled the country.924

4.8.

Humanitarian workers

Following the Taliban takeover, some humanitarian aid workers were evacuated fromAfghanistan.925 In September 2021, the de facto authorities stated its guarantees for ‘thesafety and security of humanitarian staff’ and freedom of movement of humanitarian workers,
including women.926 The pledges ‘to safeguard humanitarian aid workers’ were reiterated in
February 2022.927 While humanitarian workers have strived to continue their work, the overall
environment in which they perform their activities is reported as ‘extremely challenging’928 andprecarious, with de facto local authorities routinely interfering and restricting their operations.
Since the Taliban took power, the UN noted an increase in the number of arrests ofhumanitarian workers (from 3 cases in 2020 to 76 cases in 2022).929 Between 6 February and
20 May 2023, a total number of 299 incidents involving interference in the implementation ofhumanitarian activities was recorded by the UN, which represents an increase compared tothe same period in 2022 (with 158 incidents recorded). During the same period, 78 attacks
against humanitarian personnel, assets and facilities were recorded, which is a decrease from91 incidents documented in the same period in 2022.930
An international analyst stated that the Taliban GDI and the Taliban MPVPV actively work to
identify perceived opponents, including by creating obstacles for NGOs whose personnel theysuspect or/and whose programmes do not align with Taliban ideology.931 During September
2023, 18 staff members (including an American surgeon) of the NGO International Assistance
Mission (IAM) in Afghanistan were arrested from their offices in Ghor Province and detained.
The circumstances that led to this arrest is unclear.932 In an interview with the EUAA, aninternational journalist noted that the de facto governor of Ghor Province is notoriously a
Taliban hardliner, adding that the arrest of the 18 humanitarian workers could be seen as an

Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
925
DW, Afghanistan: Aid workers in need, 24 August 2021, url; FAO, A humanitarian worker in Afghanistan, throughthick and thin, 9 November 2021, url
926
UN, Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General – on Afghanistan, 5 September 2021,
url
927
AP, Swiss group: Taliban make pledges on education, aid workers, 11 February 2022, url
928
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 11
929
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 31, 66
930
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 20
June 2023, url, para. 63
931
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
932
AP, The Taliban have detained 18 staff, including a foreigner, from an Afghanistan-based NGO, it says, 16
September 2023, url; RFE/RL, Taliban Detains 18 Staffers At Humanitarian NGO's Offices, Including American
Surgeon, 15 September 2023, url
923

924

93

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

example of the arbitrariness and inconsistency with which the de facto authorities treat NGOs
and their personnel, which they believe do not comply with their policies.933

4.9.

Education personnel

Since the Taliban took power, only madrassa-educated men were assigned as seniorappointees to the de facto Ministry of Education (MoE). A similar trend was noted at
subnational level. In various provinces, such as Herat, Helmand, Kandahar, Logar, Paktya,
Balkh, some clerics and Taliban ‘sympathising schoolteachers’ have been appointed as headsof provincial and district directorates of education.934 Some changes were introduced in the
Afghan education system, including the revision of school curriculum, with the aim to make it‘compatible’ with sharia.935 Pashtana Durrani, human rights activist and founder of the NGO
LEARN Afghanistan, stated that such changes of the curriculum regard in particular history andgeography subjects. As an example of these revisions, she mentioned the removal from booksof some Afghan historical figures (including women figures) who have now been replaced withothers, such as Mullah Yacoub being described as ‘the historical character who made theinfidels leave the countries.’ 936 Teachers have been required to take religious tests, with theallegedly intention by the Taliban to dismiss those who are not madrassa-educated.937 A
proliferation of madrassas for both boys and girls has been noticed across the country since
the Taliban took power.938
In communication with the EUAA, an international analyst explained that the supreme leader isdetermined to implement the Taliban’s version of sharia to ‘purify’ Afghan society, which hesees as his mandated responsibility. Within this context, the issue around education is not only
about the assault against female education: it is an assault against Western education
altogether.939 Such a ‘purification’ campaign940 and efforts to eradicate secular education arereported to have intensified during the reference period of this report.941 As of September
2023, further steps were taken by the de facto authorities to ensure the implementation ofedicts, including the expansion of religious education.942

International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023
Clark K., Who Gets to Go to School? (1): What people told us about education since the Taleban took over, AAN,
26 January 2022, url
935
USCIRF, Issue Update: Religious freedom and women’s rights in Afghanistan, url, August 2023, p. 4; Kazemi S.
R., Clark K., Who Gets to Go to School? (2) The Taleban and education through time, 31 January 2022, url; Hasht-e
Subh, EXCLUSIVE: Taliban Modify Education Curriculum to Propagate Violence and Bigotry, 17 December 2022, url
936
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023
937
USIP, Taking a Terrible Toll: The Taliban’s Education Ban, 13 April 2023, url
938
Afghan Witness, Several new Taliban madrasas established and multiple others reported in nationwide drive, 22June 2022, url; USCIRF, Issue Update: Religious freedom and women’s rights in Afghanistan, August 2023, url, p. 4;
USIP, Two Years of the Taliban’s ‘Gender Apartheid’ in Afghanistan, 14 September 2023, url
939
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
940
Washington Post (The), Taliban forging religious emirate in Afghanistan with draconian Islamic law, 18 February
2023, url
941
RFE/RL, The Azadi Briefing: Taliban Intensifies Efforts To Eradicate Secular Education In Afghanistan, 14 July
2023, url
942
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18
September 2023, url, para. 3
933

934

94

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

In July 2023, the Taliban MoE ordered the dissolution of Teachers Training Centres,943 statingthat the almost 4 000 teachers affected would be reassigned to other departments of the
Taliban MoE. According to information provided by the de facto authorities to UNAMA, as of
15 August 2023, there were around 15 000 madrassas in Afghanistan, all funded throughnational budget and reportedly teaching religious subjects with a few courses on modern
sciences. In June 2023, the plan to recruit 100 000 madrassa teachers was approved, and –according to UNAMA – there are plans to ‘significantly increase’ the number of madrassas in
the country. For girls beyond the sixth grade, madrassa education is reported to be almost
entirely the only available education opportunity.944 Durrani told the EUAA that, according totheir monitoring, in the past two months [by October 2023] some 400 new madrassas (mostly
established in private homes’ rooms) were opened in Kandahar only.945
Harassment and intimidation of teachers are reported to occur carried out by the Taliban
MPVPV.946 Sources reported on some cases of teachers being arrested for working inunderground schools,947 and for criticising the Taliban's ban on education for women andgirls.948 As mentioned, prominent Afghan education activist, Matiullah Wesa was arrested by
the Taliban in March 2023.949
On 30 September 2022, a suicide IED attack was carried out against the Kaaj educational
centre in Dasht-e-Barchi area of Kabul,950 killing 54 people and injuring another 114.951 The
attack was not claimed by any actor.952

4.10.

Family members of dissenting voices and of
persons with perceived affiliation to armed groups

Family members of activists, journalists and people perceived to be tied to resistance groups
have reportedly been targeted by the de facto authorities as a way to obtain information, toscare and to intimidate.953 A local news outlet reported that in some cases, family members ofdetainees have been coerced ‘into collaborating with their intelligence network, forcing them

TOLOnews, Teacher Training Center Shut Down by Islamic Emirate: Teachers, 12 July 2023, url
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 18
September 2023, url, para. 3, 11, 12945
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023
946
USIP, Taking a Terrible Toll: The Taliban’s Education Ban, 13 April 2023, url
947
Washington Post (The), Where learning is against the law: A secret school for Afghan girls, 9 November 2022,
url
948
BBC News, Ismail Mashal: Taliban arrests Afghan professor who backed girls' education, 3 February 2023, url;
RFE/RL, 'Arrested And Beaten': Afghan Professor's Protest Against Taliban's Education Ban On Women Lands Him
In Prison, 3 February 2023, url
949
New Humanitarian (The), Arrest of leading education activist leaves Afghans confused and worried, 12 April
2023, url; TOLOnews, Amnesty Intl Calls For Release of Matiullah Wesa, Neda Parwani, 28 September 2023, url
950
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 46; BBC
News, Kabul blast kills teenager sitting practice exam, 1 October 2022, url951
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 February 2023, url, para. 36
952
Clark, K., Civilian Casualties since the Taleban Takeover: New UNAMA report shows sharp drop – but somecommunities still under threat, AAN, 27 June 2023, url
953
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9
June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
943

944

95

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

to spy on their communities.’954 Journalist Ali Latifi stated that, in some instances, the de facto
security forces detain family members rather than the targeted individuals themselves in order
to avoid attracting too much public attention on such violations: ‘it is easier to silently takeyour father; that is often enough to scare people.’955 Amnesty International reported on casesof arrests of family members of individuals participating in women’s right protests during2022.956 As explained by an international analyst, individuals who have been detained havenormally been asked to provide all the names of male relatives on both sides of the family:‘They will go through who you are, who your relatives are, and what they do. They won’t besatisfied if they can’t get this information. That’s their way of intimidating people.’957

4.11.

Returnees

4.11.1.

Cross-border movements

According to IOM statistics, millions of people have crossed the borders of Afghanistan to andfrom the neighbouring countries Pakistan and Iran. Precise arrival numbers and the circularityof flows are, however, not known.958 According to the same source, over 3 million people
crossed into Afghanistan from Pakistan in 2022, and over 800 000 from Iran. In the same
period almost 3.5 million crossed into Pakistan from Afghanistan, and over 500 000 crossed
into Iran from Afghanistan.959 As of May 2023 almost 1.5 million people had crossed into
Afghanistan from Pakistan and 182 197 from Iran. In the same period, over 1.5 million had
crossed into Pakistan from Afghanistan and more than 180 000 into Iran from Afghanistan.960
There have been some reports about Afghans returning voluntarily to Afghanistan, to relocate
there961, for business, to visit family962 and go on holiday963 – including from Europe964 and theUS.965 The number of Afghans being deported increased in 2022 from Iran966 and Türkiye.967
According to Türkiye officials, as reported by the Middle East Eye in November 2022, over
57 000 individuals had been sent back to Afghanistan from Türkiye in 2022, and the vast
majority (41 185 persons) were deported on 217 chartered flights.968 UNCHR reported that
12 795 refugees (395 from Iran, 12 283 from Pakistan, 117 from other countries) had returned to

Kabul Now, Fear and Nightmares: the dark life after Taliban captivity, 14 April 2023, url
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
956
AI, Afghanistan 2022, 27 March 2023, url
957
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
958
IOM, IOM Comprehensive Action Plan for Afghanistan and Neighbouring Countries, May 2023, url, pp. 8–9
959
IOM, Movements in and out of Afghanistan, 15 January 2023, url
960
IOM, Movements in and out of Afghanistan, 23 June 2023, url
961
UNHCR, Afghanistan Situation - Voluntary Repatriation of Afghan Refugees, 24 July 2023, url
962
MEE, On an Istanbul-Kabul flight, refugees and emigres prepare to see a new Afghanistan, 1 June 2022, url
963
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023; Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Departures and returns after
Taliban’s takeover of power, 29 September 2022, url, p. 5
964
MEE, On an Istanbul-Kabul flight, refugees and emigres prepare to see a new Afghanistan, 1 June 2022, url
965
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023
966
AP, As Iran-Taliban tensions rise, Afghan migrants in tinderbox, 2 May 2022, url; MEE, Over 240,000 Afghan
refugees deported from Iran and Turkey, 15 November 2022, url
967
HRW, “No One Asked Me Why I Left Afghanistan”: Pushbacks and Deportations of Afghans from Turkey, 18
November 2022, url
968
MEE, Over 240,000 Afghan refugees deported from Iran and Turkey, 15 November 2022, url
954

955

96

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Afghanistan in 2023, as of September 2023, which is over three times higher than the figure
reported during the same period in 2022.969

4.11.2.

Commercial flights

According to Taliban sources, international airports have reportedly become operative
again970 in Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-e Sharif.971 According to the Independent, about
20–30 flights leave Afghanistan every day, and most go to Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Türkiye.
Among the countries that allow direct flights to Afghanistan were China, Russia, Iran, Pakistan,
Uzbekistan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and India.972 International commercial air operators
have not been flying to Afghanistan,973 but Fly Dubai announced that they planned to resume
flights in November 2023.974

4.11.3.

Attitudes towards people leaving Afghanistan

Senior Taliban officials called upon Afghans to stay in Afghanistan.975 According to an analysis
by BBC Monitoring, the migrant discourse in Afghan media has focused on the situation of
Afghans in neighbouring countries, expressing public sympathy for their difficult situation
facing ‘indignity’ and ‘discrimination’.976 The Taliban have also sent their condolences to thefamilies to those who died in the Mediterranean sea on their way to Europe, asking all citizens
to refrain from using smugglers and illegal pathways to go to foreign countries.977 The bodies
of 18 Afghans that suffocated to death in a lorry in Bulgaria were repatriated to Afghanistan on
23 May 2023.978 The Taliban foreign minister reportedly met with family members of thedeceased and expressed his condolences.979
During a conference organised by the Danish Refugee Council (DRC) on 28 November 2022,
Dr. Liza Schuster, Reader in Sociology at University of London, shared her knowledge on the
topic ‘Risk factors of returnees to Afghanistan focusing on westernization’. According to Dr.
Schuster those who left after 2021 often were seen as ‘traitors’ by the Taliban. According to
Dr. Schuster, the Taliban attitude is that people should stay and contribute with their skills andknowledge, at the same time as some individual Taliban members have made widespread

UNHCR, Voluntary Repatriation of Afghan Refugees - South West Asia Quarterly Update, 2023 Q3, 18 October
2023, url
970
Business Standard, All airports in Afghanistan operational, with 20 foreign flights daily, 5 June 2023, url;
Independent (The), China resumes commercial flights to Afghanistan as cooperation with Taliban regime grows, 25
May 2023, url
971
ECHO, Report on humanitarian situation and humanitarian aid (as of July 2023), 19 July 2023, url
972
Independent (The), China resumes commercial flights to Afghanistan as cooperation with Taliban regime grows,
25 May 2023, url
973
ECHO, Report on humanitarian situation and humanitarian aid (as of July 2023), 19 July 2023, url
974
TOLOnews, Fly Dubai to Resume Flights to Afghanistan Next Month, 12 October 2023, url
975
TOLOnews, Over 100 Political Figures Returned to Afghanistan in 3 Months: Commission, 15 January 2023, url
976
BBC Monitoring, Explainer: How anti-migrant discourse features in Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan, 28 June 2023, url
977
Taliban Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‫د‬. ‫ا‬.‫ا‬.‫د ایټالیا په سویلي سمندر کې د کښتۍ د ډوبیدو له امله د شهیدو شویو افغانانو د شهادت په اړه د ا‬‫[ تعزیت پیغام‬Message of condolence from the IEA related to the Afghans who died in the Southern Italian Sea after
their boat sank], 9 March 2023, url
978
BBC Monitoring, Briefing: Bodies of 18 Afghan migrants repatriated from Bulgaria, 26 May 2023, url; TOLOnews,
Acting Foreign Minister Muttaqi Calls World’s Sanctions 'Cruel', 31 May 2023, url
979
Hafiz Zia Ahmad [Twitter], posted on: 30 May 2023, url; Bakhtar News Agency, FM Muttaqi Condolences Family
Victims of Bulgaria Incident, 31 May 2023, url
969

97EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

video recordings saying that it is a sin to leave Afghanistan and pointing out those who leave
as sinners. Moreover, Dr. Schuster stated that the Taliban have been scrutinizing social media
profiles, and that people consequently have been accused of moral corruption. Family
members of people who have left have also been harassed by Taliban officials andneighbours according to Dr. Schuster, including evictions and aggressive questioning. 980
The Afghan analyst described how obstacles have been created for people wanting to leave,
and that de facto authorities have not been especially willing to cooperate. For example,
documents related to travelling abroad have become monetised, and people have to pay alarge amount of money to obtain such documents. In some cases, Taliban authorities haverequested marriage certificates for people to leave – which is a document few people have in
Afghanistan. Although they still issue the necessary documents, the de facto authorities
perceive the applicant as ‘someone that wants to leave’, and may be harsh towards them or
use bad words. Furthermore, bribes for passports had skyrocketed to over USD 3000.
Ordinary applicants have been scrutinised at several levels, accused of paying bribes, abused
and sometimes even beaten if they have been seen as creating chaos inside the office.981
Journalist Ali Latifi added that it was difficult to obtain documents under the previous
government too due to the corruption and a grudge against people who wanted to leave.
People could be harassed, intimidated and asked for bribes already back then, and it wasmore common during the former rule than during the current.982 Sources also noted that therequirement for women to travel with a mahram created problems when it came to women’s
access to services and possibilities to travel abroad.983

4.11.4.

Taliban reactions towards returnees

Information about the Taliban’s return commission and returning former government officials isavailable in section 4.1.1. The general amnesty and its implementation.
Many states have halted deportations of Afghans, while IOM984 and Frontex have suspended
activities facilitating or accompanying returns to Afghanistan.985 Therefore, no information wasavailable about individuals being deported or returned from the EU after the Taliban takeover.
Matiullah Wesa, prominent activist advocating for girls’ education, was arrested after a trip to
Brussels in early 2023986 where he had met with diplomats and EU officials.987 He had also

Schuster, L., in: DRC, Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 28 November
2022, url, pp. 41–42, 44–45
981
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
982
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023
983
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023; Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9
June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023
984
CoE Parliamentary Assembly, The humanitarian crisis emerging for Afghanistan and Afghan refugees, 25
September 2023, url, para. 37; IOM, Assisted Voluntary Return & Reintegration, n.d., url
985
CoE Parliamentary Assembly, The humanitarian crisis emerging for Afghanistan and Afghan refugees, 25
September 2023, url, para. 37; url, p. 24
986
New Humanitarian (The), Arrest of leading education activist leaves Afghans confused and worried, 12 April
2023, url
987
Matiullah Wesa [Twitter], posted on: 27 February 2023, url
980

98AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

previously met with foreign diplomats988 and UN officials in Kabul City.989 Oftentimes heposted pictures from such meetings on Twitter.990 After the arrest, Taliban supporters madeallusions online that Wesa had connections with foreign actors by circulating such pictures of
Wesa meeting with foreign diplomats and travelling in Europe.991 RFE/RL called it a ‘smear
campaign’ portraying Wesa as a ‘Western spy’.992 Moreover, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah
Mujahid told VOA that Wesa was detained as the de facto intelligence agency had ‘some
suspicious information about him’ and as he ‘was organising meetings and making contacts
that were a cause of concern’.993 Anecdotal information from a journalist interviewed by
RFE/RL, suggested that that Wesa’s visit to Brussels was likely the reason for his arrest, as the
Taliban ‘want all Afghans to meet foreign officials only after getting their approval’.994
According to an international analyst, the Taliban have minimal background information on
returning individuals. The source stated that, upon return, individuals sometimes have been
given travel money to reach their homes, and may be lectured by a mullah on the dangers ofleaving. Overall, the source found the Taliban ‘lenient’ in their handling of returnees. The
source gave the example of a young man who cut the Taliban flag and draped his shoulders
with the Republic flag in a video that went viral; the Taliban still took him back. Moreover, thesource stated that, upon the return of individuals with criminal records in foreign countries
arriving from Pakistan and Iran, the Taliban note details and then let most of them go. The
source further stated that more than 800 individuals who had parts of their sentences to beserved, had been deported from Iran and were sent to prison. Most of them were however
pardoned and released during Eid. The source added that it was not clear on the basis ofwhich criteria they were released or if any of these individuals had been re-arrested.995
Pashtana Durrani, human rights activist and founder of the project LEARN Afghanistan,
explained that high-profile individuals might face problems if they would return. Based on her
experience it has however been possible to return, as long as you do not have any problems
with the de facto authorities.996
According to anonymous sources consulted by Landinfo, the security of Kabul airport has
been outsourced to private security companies and the Taliban have not been visible inside
the airport.997 The international analyst contradicted such statements, saying that the Taliban
have been clearly in charge of security at the airport, and have controlled the terminal airport

Embassy of Japan in Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on: 3 February 2023, url; Matiullah Wesa [Twitter], Posted on
28 January 2023, url
989
UNAMA News [Twitter], posted on: 3 January 2023, url
990
RFE/RL, Arrest Of Prominent Afghan Education Campaigner A ‘Sign of Authoritarianism’ Under The Taliban, 30
March 2023, url
991
New Humanitarian (The), Arrest of leading education activist leaves Afghans confused and worried, 12 April
2023, url
992
RFE/RL, Arrest Of Prominent Afghan Education Campaigner A ‘Sign of Authoritarianism’ Under The Taliban, 30
March 2023, url
993
VOA, Taliban: Afghan Education Advocate Detained Over 'Suspicious' Activities, 29 March 2023, url
994
RFE/RL, Arrest Of Prominent Afghan Education Campaigner A ‘Sign of Authoritarianism’ Under The Taliban, 30
March 2023, url
995International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
996
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023
997
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Departures and returns after Taliban’s takeover of power, 29 September 2022,
url. p. 5
988

99EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

perimeter. The security companies have provided some ground handling services, including
luggage screening and tarmac checks.998
It has not been possible to corroborate the information provided by oral sources in thissection.

4.11.5.

Societal reactions and challenges

Sources have emphasised that it is of great importance to have a social network in
Afghanistan for returnees.999 TOLOnews further reported that returnees were facing severe
economic challenges and unemployment.1000
Dr. Schuster stated that a ‘huge stigma’ exists around deportation, except for deportations
from countries such as Iran or Pakistan – as this is very common.1001 Previously, when people
left for Europe, applied for asylum and then involuntarily returned or been deported, they
could raise suspicion and questions as regards to what extent they had been ‘contaminated’by European ways of living. Dr. Schuster gave examples of neighbours asking questions about
a deported individuals’ time in the West, scrutinising their behaviour and looking for signs thatthey had changed, and making assumptions about how they had been impacted. The
surrounding community could make assumptions that deported individuals who had
committed crimes, were ‘particularly stupid’ or unlucky. Bad luck is perceived as ‘contagious’and therefore ‘not a good thing’ according to the source. Dr. Schuster moreover emphasisedthat accusations that may seem small, such as someone having had a girlfriend or having
drunk alcohol in Europe, easily spread and may lead to conflicts. Moreover, the deported
individuals’ families have often financed the move which adds ‘weight’ to a person’s
involuntary return, at the same time as the surrounding community might assume thatsomeone returning from Europe have money which makes them vulnerable to theft androbbery.1002

International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
Schuster, L., in: DRC, Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 28 November
2022, url, p. 47; SAK, in: Göteborgsregionen, Temadag om Afghanistan [Thematic day on Afghanistan] [Online
video], 18 Mars 2022, url, 05:13:58–05:15:10
1000
TOLOnews, Hanafi Aks Afghans Living Abroad to Return Home, 18 December 2022, url
1001
Schuster, L., in: DRC, Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 28 November
2022, url, p. 39
1002
Schuster, L., in: DRC, Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, 28 November
2022, url, pp. 39, 41, 48
998

999

100

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

4.12.

Individuals and behaviour perceived as influenced
by foreign values

4.12.1.

Western influence

The Taliban have reportedly had the aim to ‘purify’ Afghan society1003 and eject foreign
influence from Afghanistan1004. The de facto state has invested vast resources on building
mosques and madrassas across the country.1005 As mentioned, an international analyst statedthat the Taliban’s ‘assault’ on Western education is part of the supreme leader’s project to‘purify’ Afghan society.1006
In some areas the Taliban have issued instructions against trimming beards and have advised
men to not wear Western-style clothes1007, but they have not imposed any general dress codefor men.1008 A Taliban official however called on people to stop wearing the necktie arguingthat it is a symbol for the Christian cross.1009 Male students and teachers have earlier beencalled upon not to wear ties (15 April 2022).1010 Ties are however still used by inter alia news
anchors.1011 There were also reports about people wearing t-shirts and clothes with US motives
in Kabul City.1012 Moreover, the New York Times reported on fast food restaurants andbodybuilding gyms being present in every neighbourhood in Kabul City.1013

4.12.2. Music and musiciansSome sources described music as banned in Afghanistan.1014 However, reports on formal
instructions from the de facto authorities have concerned certain areas, such as parts of
Kabul1015 and Kandahar1016, and also certain situations such as not playing music in cars.1017
According to OHCHR, the Taliban MPVPV has urged people to refrain from playing music at

Just Security, Time for the United States to Rethink its Strategy for Afghanistan, 20 April 2023, url; Washington
Post (The), Taliban forging religious emirate in Afghanistan with draconian Islamic law, 18 February 2023, url;
International Analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
1004
Watkins, A., The Taliban one year on, CTC Sentinel, August 2022, url, p. 2
1005
Sweden, Swedish Migration Board, Afghanistan. Styre och rättskipning, 6 July 2023, url, p. 14
1006International Analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023
1007
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, pp. 45–46
1008
AFP, Afghan official says neckties 'sign of cross', calls for elimination, 28 July 2023, url
1009
AFP, Afghan official says neckties 'sign of cross', calls for elimination, 28 July 2023, url; Afghanistan Times,
Taliban say neckties a sign of cross and must be eliminated, 26 July 2023, url
1010
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 45
1011
Afghanistan Times, Taliban say neckties a sign of cross and must be eliminated, 26 July 2023, url
1012
New York Times (The) In These Corners of Kabul, Western Influences Live On, 29 June 2023, url; Marty, F. J.,
Life under the Taliban, 25 July 2023, url; Marty, F. J., Life under the Taliban, 25 July 2023, url
1013
New York Times (The) In These Corners of Kabul, Western Influences Live On, 29 June 2023, url; Marty, F. J.,
Life under the Taliban, 25 July 2023, url
1014
RFE/RL, With Music Banned, Afghan Musician Now Sells Snacks To Feed His Family, 17 December 2022, url; UN
Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 September 2022, url, para. 81
1015
ZAWIA News [Facebook], posted on: 22 August 2022, url; ‫[ د امربالمعروف او نهی عن المنکر وزارت‬Taliban MPVPV][Twitter], posted on: 24 November 2022, url
1016
Rukshana, ‘The best night of my life turned into the worst one’: Taliban disrupt wedding parties, insult anddetain people for playing music, 22 July 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Dozens Arrested and Tortured by Taliban in
Kandahar for Shaving Beards, 12 October 2022, url
1017
RFE/RL, Afghan Women Banned From Making Trips Unless Escorted, 26 December 2021, url
1003

101

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

wedding and hotels by putting up signs in Kabul City, and in a video this de facto authority
explained that music is forbidden as it ‘destroys the roots of Islam’. The same source further
reported that the Taliban MPVPV had disallowed poetry with a musical rhythm.1018 Other
sources have reported on restaurants in Kabul still playing music.1019
Since the takeover, music schools have been closed1020, and Taliban fighters have been
destroying1021 and burning music instruments,1022 and subjecting musicians to public shaming,
physical violence,1023 and arrests.1024 Many musicians have left Afghanistan.1025 or have stopped
performing.1026 On 25 January 2023, a singer originating from Panjsher Province was arrested
for the second time by the Taliban. In 2022, the singer was reportedly arrested and tortured,
before being released.1027 Afghan media reported on cases where the Taliban had
detained,1028 beaten1029 and killed individuals for playing music.1030 In one case the Taliban
detained and shaved the heads of around 30 students in Faryab as punishment for playing
music.1031 OHCHR also recorded instances of arbitrary arrests, detentions and ill-treatment insituations where music has been apprehended in private vehicles, on telephones and during
weddings.1032 On 31 July 2023, the Taliban MPVPV announced that they had confiscated USB
flash drives and memory cards with music in Badakhshan Province.1033
International Music Council (IMC) called the situation of music in Afghanistan a violation of the
UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the right to ‘freely to participate in the cultural
life of the community, to enjoy the arts’.1034

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 39
New York Times (The) In These Corners of Kabul, Western Influences Live On, 29 June 2023, url; Marty, F. J.,
Life under the Taliban, 25 July 2023, url
1020
Kabul Now, IMC Condemns ‘Musical Genocide’ in Afghanistan, 14 December 2022, url
1021
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 September 2022, url, para. 50; RFE/RL,
Symphony Of Courage: Young Afghan Musicians Play On After Fleeing To Lisbon, 15 August 2022, url
1022
RFE/RL, 'I Feel Suffocated': Taliban Intensifies Clampdown On Music In Afghanistan, 17 August 2023, url; Skynews Australia [YouTube], Taliban sets fire to pile of musical instruments, 1 August 2023, url1023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 September 2022, url, para. 50, 81; EUAA,
Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 34
1024
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 September 2022, url, para. 50, 81; Kabul
Now, Taliban arrest ten people for playing music at a wedding in Helmand, 7 March 2023, url
1025
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 9 September 2022, url, para. 50; RFE/RL,
Exiled Afghan Musicians Who Fled The Taliban Fear Deportation From Pakistan, 20 December 2022, url
1026
RFE/RL, With Music Banned, Afghan Musician Now Sells Snacks To Feed His Family, 17 December 2022, url;
Kabul Now, IMC Condemns ‘Musical Genocide’ in Afghanistan, 14 December 2022, url
1027
AI, Taliban Arrests Afghan Singer from Panjshir in Kabul, 25 January 2023, url, Hasht-e Subh, Taliban in Kabul
Arrest Panjshiri Singer for a Second Time, 25 January 2023, url
1028
Rukshana, ‘The best night of my life turned into the worst one’: Taliban disrupt wedding parties, insult anddetain people for playing music, 22 July 2022, url; Kabul Now, Taliban detains six people for playing music in
Mazar-i-sharif, 2 September 2023, url
1029
Rukshana, Taliban publicly whip a young man and woman for alleged adultery in Bamyan, 1 December 2022,
url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Seize Wedding Musicians' Drums After Assaulting Ceremony in Zabul Province, 6 August
2023, url
1030
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 2 September 2023, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Kill Young Man for Playing Musicin Kandahar, 16 October 2022, url
1031
Kabul Now, Taliban Detain, Shave Students’ Heads as Punishment for Playing Music in Faryab, 12 September
2023, url; BNN, Taliban Shave Heads of 29 Students of Faryab University for Playing Music, September 2023, url1032
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 11 September 2023, url, para. 39
1033
BBC Monitoring, Afghan media highlights 31 Jul 23, 31 July 2023, url; Afghanistan International, Taliban
Confiscates Memory Chips From Passenger Vehicles To Stop Music In Badakhshan, 31 July 2023, url
1034
IMC, IMC Statement about music rights in Afghanistan, 13 December 2022, url
1018

1019

102

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Annex 1: Bibliography
Oral sources
Afghan analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023. The
analyst is based outside Afghanistan, but often travels to the country to conduct field-based
research on the security situation, armed groups and the general situation under Taliban rule.
The source requested to be anonymised out of operational reasons.
Gossman, P., HRW, online interview, 12 May 2022, and email communication, 28 September
2023. Patricia Gossman is the associate director for the Asia division of Human Rights Watch.
International journalist, online interview, 3 October 2023. The international journalist hasreported from Afghanistan for several years but is currently based outside the country. The
source requested to be anonymised out of operational reasons.
International analyst, interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 10 October 2023.
The senior analyst is based in Afghanistan since many years and has extensive experience on
researching and reporting on the security situation, as well as the political and human rights
situation in the country. The source requested to be anonymised out of operational reasons.
Latifi, A., interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 9 October 2023. Ali Latifi is an
Afghanistan-based journalist. Latifi has reported from various parts of Afghanistan for several
international media outlets.
Durrani, P., online interview, 19 October 2023. Pashtana Durrani is a human rights activist andfounder of the NGO LEARN Afghanistan (https://learnafghan.org/). Durrani is currently basedoutside Afghanistan but is still engaged in the activities of LEARN Afghanistan.
Rahimi, H., online interview 8–9 June 2023, and email communication, 4 October 2023.
Haroun Rahimi is an assistant Professor of Law at the American University of Afghanistan.
Rawadari, email communication, 17 October 2023. Rawadari is a newly founded Afghan
human rights organisation that monitor and report on human rights violations in Afghanistan.

Public sources‫[ د امربالمعروف او نهی عن المنکر وزارت‬Taliban MPVPV] [Twitter], posted on: 24 November 2022,
https://twitter.com/MOPVPE1/status/1595681827221643266, accessed 20 October 2023
AA, Who’s who in Taliban interim government?, 9 September 2021,
https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/whos-who-in-taliban-interim-government/2360424,
accessed 6 November 2023

103

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Aamaj News, 80% of Taliban’s rulers Pashtuns, 98.3% their own members as 1.5 years
passes, 15 February 2023, https://aamajnews24.com/taliban-613/, accessed 9 November2023
AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), Decrees, Orders and Instructions of His Excellency,
Amir al-mu’minin, as published in the Official Gazette on 22 May 2023, July 2023,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/07/Decreesorder-of-Taleban-amir-English.pdf, accessed 20 October 2022
AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), No Food For Hope: Afghanistan’s Child Malnutrition
Dilemma in 2023, 7 July 2023, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economydevelopment-environment/no-food-for-hope-afghanistans-child-malnutrition-dilemma-in2023/, accessed 20 October 2023
AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), Transition to a New Political Order: AAN dossier
takes stock of Afghanistan’s momentous year, 12 August 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/transition-to-a-new-political-order-aan-dossiertakes-stock-of-afghanistans-momentous-year/, accessed 20 October 2023
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/acaps-thematic-report-afghanistan-coping-crisisconversations-afghan-households-kabul-province-16-june-2023, accessed 20 October
2023
ACAPS, ACAPS Thematic Report Afghanistan – Coping with the crisis, 17 June 2023,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/acaps-thematic-report-afghanistan-coping-crisisconversations-afghan-households-kabul-province-16-june-2023, accessed 20 October
2023
ACAPS, Afghanistan, Scenarios, April 2023,
https://www.acaps.org/fileadmin/Data_Product/Main_media/20230425_acaps_afghanista
n_scenarios_possible_developments_in_household_livelihoods_and_purchasing_power_
over_the_next_20_months.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
ACAPS, Afghanistan, Scenarios, April 2023,
https://www.acaps.org/fileadmin/Data_Product/Main_media/20230425_acaps_afghanista
n_scenarios_possible_developments_in_household_livelihoods_and_purchasing_power_
over_the_next_20_months.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
ACAPS, Afghanistan: Taliban directives and decrees affecting human rights andhumanitarian actors, 25 April 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/acaps-thematicreport-afghanistan-taliban-directives-and-decrees-affecting-human-rights-andhumanitarian-actors, accessed 20 October 2023
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project) and APW (Afghan Peace Watch),
Two Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11
August 2023, https://acleddata.com/2023/08/11/two-years-of-repression-mapping-talibanviolence-targeting-civilians-in-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023

104

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project), Curated Data Files, Afghanistan,data covering 1 January 2022 to 30 September 2023, as of 17 October 2023,
https://acleddata.com/curated-data-files/, accessed 20 October 2023
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project), Two Years Of Repression: Mapping
Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11 August 2023,
https://acleddata.com/2023/08/11/two-years-of-repression-mapping-taliban-violencetargeting-civilians-in-afghanistan/, accessed 6 November 2023
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project) and APW (Afghan Peace Watch),
Two Years of Repression: Mapping Taliban Violence Targeting Civilians in Afghanistan, 11
August 2023, https://acleddata.com/2023/08/11/two-years-of-repression-mapping-talibanviolence-targeting-civilians-in-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Adili A. Y., The politics of survival in the face of exclusion: Hazara and Shia Actors under
the Taliban, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), February 2023, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/the-politics-of-survival-in-the-face-of-exclusionhazara-and-shia-actors-under-the-taleban/, accessed 20 October 2023
Afghan Analyst [Twitter], posted on 21 September 2022,
https://twitter.com/AfghanAnalyst2/status/1572497977004134401?s=20&t=dOto5tGI386dZ
Z4AiUvYSA, accessed 20 October 2023
Afghanistan International, Afghanistan National Movement for Peace and Justice Formed,
15 October 2022, https://www.afintl.com/en/202210151424, accessed 20 October 2023
Afghanistan International, Opposition Group Urges International Community to Support
Decentralised Afghan Government, 9 September 2022,
https://www.afintl.com/en/202209097101, accessed 20 October 2023
Afghanistan International, Taliban Arrests Afghan Singer from Panjshir in Kabul, 25 January2023, https://www.afintl.com/en/202301253598, accessed 20 October 2023
Afghanistan International, Taliban Confiscates Memory Chips From Passenger Vehicles To
Stop Music In Badakhshan, 31 July 2023,
https://www.afintl.com/en/202307314694?nxtPslug=202307314694, accessed 20 October
2023
Afghanistan International, Taliban Forced Shia Clerics To Offer Eid Prayers On Friday in
Balkh, 2 April 2023, https://www.afintl.com/en/202304224623, accessed 20 October
2023
Afghanistan Judges Association, [No title], February 2022,
https://nvvr.org/uploads/documenten/Judges-Letter-Afghanistan-febr-2022.pdf, accessed
20 October 2023
Afghanistan Times, Taliban say neckties a sign of cross and must be eliminated, 26 July
2023, https://www.afghanistantimes.af/taliban-say-neckties-a-sign-of-cross-and-must-beeliminated/, accessed 20 October 2023

105

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Afghanistan, de facto MOPVPE, Biography of the ministry leadership, n.d.,
https://mopvpe.gov.af/en/biography-ministry-leadership, accessed 9 November 2023
AFJC (Afghanistan Journalists Center), 366 Violations against media freedoms in
Afghanistan during two years of Taliban rule: AFJC, 15 August 2023,
https://afjc.media/english/events/press-release/366-violations-against-media-freedoms-inafghanistan-during-two-years-of-taliban-rule-afjc, accessed 9 November 2023
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Afghan supreme leader orders full implementation of sharia
law, 14 November 2022, available at:https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/14/afghanistan-supreme-leader-orders-fullimplementation-of-sharia-law-taliban, accessed 23 November 2023
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Justice delayed as Taliban build their legal system in
Afghanistan, 13 November 2021, https://www.rfi.fr/en/justice-delayed-as-taliban-build-theirlegal-system-in-afghanistan, accessed 9 November 2023
Agenzia Nova Afghanistan: the Taliban appoint a UN representative and ask to speak to
the General Assembly, 22 September 2021,
https://www.agenzianova.com/en/news/afghanistan-i-talebani-nominano-unrappresentante-onu-e-chiedono-di-parlare-allassemblea-generale/, accessed 9 November
2023
Ahmad, J. and London, D., America Should Recognize Afghanistan’s Taliban Government,
FP (Foreign Policy), 23 May 2023, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/05/23/afghanistanbiden-taliban-akhundzada-haqqani/, accessed 20 October 2023
Ahmad, J., The Taliban’s religious roadmap for Afghanistan, MEI (Middle East Institute), 26
January 2022, https://www.mei.edu/publications/talibans-religious-roadmap-afghanistan,accessed 20 October 2023
AI (Amnesty International), “Your Sons Are in the Mountains”: The collective punishment ofcivilians in Panjshir by the Taliban, 7 June 2023, https://www.amnesty.org/en/wpcontent/uploads/2023/06/ASA1168162023ENGLISH.pdf, accessed 10 November 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban’s cruel attacks in Panjshir province amountto war crime of collective punishment – new report, 8 June 2023,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/06/afghanistan-talibans-cruel-attacks-inpanjshir-province-amount-to-war-crime-of-collective-punishment-new-report/, accessed 7
November 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan 2022, 27 March 2023,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-asia/afghanistan/reportafghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: ‘Suffocating crackdown’ on rights of women andgirls over past year under Taliban, 27 July 2022, https://www.amnesty.org.uk/pressreleases/afghanistan-suffocating-crackdown-rights-women-and-girls-over-past-year-under,accessed 20 October 2023

106

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Alleged rape by Taliban members must be
investigated and prosecuted immediately, 10 March 2023,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/afghanistan-alleged-rape-by-talibanmembers-must-be-investigated-and-prosecuted-immediately/, accessed 9 November
2023
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Death in slow motion: Women and girls under
Taliban rule, 27 July 2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa11/5685/2022/en/,
accessed 9 November 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban torture and execute Hazaras in targeted
attack – new investigation, 15 September 2022,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/09/afghanistan-taliban-torture-and-executehazaras-in-targeted-attack-new-investigation/, accessed 6 November 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban’s cruel return to hardline practices withpublic floggings must be halted immediately, 24 November 2022,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/11/afghanistan-talibans-cruel-return-tohardline-practices-with-public-floggings-need-to-be-halted-immediately/, accessed 20
October 2023
AI (Amnesty International), OMCT (World Organisation Against Torture), Freedom House,
Front Line Defenders, Urgent Action Fund, WILPF (Women’s International League for
Peace & Freedom), MADRE, Freedom Now, FIDH (International Federation for Human
Rights), HRW (Human Rights Watch), Alliance for Human Rights in Afghanistan – Joint
statement – Afghanistan: call for Justice accountability and effective response to ongoing
violations and gender persecution, 15 August 2023,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2095718/ASA1171102023ENGLISH.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 15
September 2022,
https://twitter.com/amnestysasia/status/1570397995270643713?s=20&t=pLi7OGniRG3XlsokT3AFQ, accessed 20 October 2023
AI (Amnesty International), Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 27 June
2022, https://twitter.com/amnestysasia/status/1541328857810161664, accessed 20
October 2023
Al Jazeera, Afghanistan’s Taliban publicly executes man convicted of murder, 20 June
2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/20/afghanistans-taliban-publicly-executesman-convicted-of-murder, accessed 20 October 2023
Al Jazeera, Missing Afghan women activists released: UN, 13 February 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/13/four-missing-afghan-women-activists-releasedby-authorities, accessed 9 November 2023
Al Jazeera, Return of Afghan floggings as Taliban takes a hardline path, Taliban News, 10
December 2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/12/10/return-of-floggings-asafghan-taliban-takes-a-hardline-path, accessed 20 October 2023

107

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Al Jazeera, Suicide attacker kills at least 19 in Kabul school blast, 30 September 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/30/at-least-19-killed-in-kabul-blast-authorities,
accessed 20 October 2023
Al Jazeera, Taliban gives a warm welcome to China’s new ambassador to Afghanistan, 13
September 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/13/taliban-gives-a-warmwelcome-to-chinas-new-ambassador-to-afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
Al Jazeera, The Taliban closes Afghan girls’ schools hours after reopening, 23 March
2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/23/taliban-orders-girls-schools-shut-hoursafter-reopening, accessed 6 November 2023
Al Jazeera, Transcript of Taliban’s first news conference in Kabul, 17 August 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/17/transcript-of-talibans-first-press-conference-inkabul, accessed 20 October 2023
Al Jazeera, UN says prominent Afghan girls’ education activist arrested, 28 March 2023,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/28/un-says-prominent-afghan-girls-educationactivist-arrested, accessed 8 November 2023
Ali, O., Non-Pashtun Taleban of the North (2): Case studies of Uzbek Taleban in Faryab andSar-e Pul, AAN, 17 March 2017, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-andpeace/non-pashtun-taleban-of-the-north-2-case-studies-of-uzbek-taleban-in-faryab-andsar-e-pul/, accessed 9 November 2023
Amu TV, Afghanistan: Six provinces keep schools open for girls despite nationwide ban, 1January 2023,
https://amu.tv/30372/#:~:text=Kunduz%20province,girls%20schools%20across%20the%20
country., accessed 20 October 2023
ANI (Asian News International), Afghanistan: Taliban officials in Nimroz orders coffee shop
to close down, 8 September 2022, https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/afghanistantaliban-officials-in-nimroz-orders-coffee-shop-to-close-down20220908213200/, accessed
20 October 2023
ANI (Asian News International), Land dispute leads to clashes between residents, refugees
in Afghanistan's Takhar, 19 September 2022,
https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/land-dispute-leads-to-clashes-between-residentsrefugees-in-afghanistans-takhar20220919103933/, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Afghan religious scholars criticize girls’ education ban, 8 April 2023,
https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-girls-educationef86d548a6f6d736557000943f49d323, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Afghan universities ready to readmit women but not until Taliban
leader says it’s ok, official says, 12 August 2023, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistantaliban-women-university-ban-f2ffb09a8bacc80b371ad2be88d9b182, accessed 20
October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Afghanistan: more than 100 believed killed despite Taliban amnesty
offer, says UN, 31 Janury 2022,
108

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/31/afghanistan-more-than-100-believedkilled-despite-taliban-amnesty-offer-says-un, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Afghanistan's Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban49b17d77d03022ad4817eeecf4f5da93, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), As Iran-Taliban tensions rise, Afghan migrants in tinderbox, 2 May
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-business-united-states-migration-tehran1c11473c17ae6377db0bd8b960e25be1, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Official: Almost 80 schoolgirls poisoned, hospitalized in northern
Afghanistan, 4 June 2023, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-schoolgirls-poisoned9c3a542e345ea3d5caec20f3481fc744, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Swiss group: Taliban make pledges on education, aid workers, 11
February 2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-coronavirus-pandemic-healthswitzerland-europe-3ea340f6f6e225d57fa351a36ec5f27a, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), Taliban ban restaurant gardens for families, women in Herat, 10
April 2023, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-ban-women-outdoor-dining7c6fc23f8b199e117935d902f7c4dbe2#:~:text=KABUL%2C%20Afghanistan%20(AP)%20%E
2%80%94,in%20such%20places%2C%20he%20said., accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), The Taliban are outlawing women's beauty salons in Afghanistan, 4July 2023, https://apnews.com/article/taliban-beauty-salons-ban-womens-rightsafghanistan-06f401ddb19dc4176f0907f144995a99, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), The Taliban have detained 18 staff, including a foreigner, from an
Afghanistan-based NGO, it says, 16 September 2023,
https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-nonprofit-staff-detentiond98127ddaec7cbc1dabf2d7111992d30, accessed 20 October 2023
AP (Associated Press), The Taliban have waged a systematic assault on freedom in
Afghanistan, says UN human rights chief, 12 September 2023,
https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-un-human-rights-women5613b81b95c9dc26e9204b9776284783, accessed 9 November 2023
APW (Afghan Peace Watch), Weekly Briefing Aug 01 – Aug 07, 8 August 2022, available at:
http://web.archive.org/web/20230601153836/https://afghanpeacewatch.org/1558/weeklybriefing-aug-01-aug-07, accessed 25 October 2023
Ariana News, Crippling economy closing Afghan media outlets, 11 October 2021,
https://www.ariananews.af/crippling-economy-closing-afghan-mediaoutlets/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 October 2023
Ariana News, Six injured in Saturday’s blast in Jalalabad city, 4 December 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/six-injured-on-saturdays-blast-in-jalalabad-city/, accessed 20
October 2023

109

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Asef Shaiq, M., Akbar Barati, A., Kalantari, K., and Asadi, A., Dimensions of Poverty in
Kunduz Province of Afghanistan, 30 November 2022, https://www.mdpi.com/26734060/3/4/55, accessed 20 October 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Claims of Taliban killings of former ANDSF and family members
continue to surface, including female officer, 1 August 2023,
https://www.afghanwitness.org/reports/claims-of-taliban-killings-of-former-andsf-andfamily-members-continue-to-surface%2C-including-female-officer-, accessed 20 October
2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Content released by ISKP indicates fewer and smaller cells, 30
August 2023, https://www.afghanwitness.org/reports/content-released-by-iskp-indicatesfewer-and-smaller-cells, accessed 20 October 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Poppy eradication sparks clashes between Taliban and locals in
Nangarhar, 27 April 2023, https://www.afghanwitness.org/reports/poppy-eradicationsparks-clashes-between-taliban-and-locals-in-nangarhar-, accessed 20 October 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Public punishments in Afghanistan, n.d.,
https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/iNlGu/34/, accessed 20 October 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Several new Taliban madrasas established and multiple others
reported in nationwide drive, 22 June 2022, https://fa.afghanwitness.org/reports/severalnew-taliban-madrasas-established-and-multiple-others-reported-in-nationwide-drive-,
accessed 9 November 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Systematic and Summary: Investigating Evidence of Prisoner
Executions in the Panjshir Valley in September 2022, https://1428cf7b-1a53-46a9-bbdc15c96c60e192.usrfiles.com/ugd/e138d3_130857cfde544d44925234700e3a09c5.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Taliban display bodies of alleged ‘kidnappers’, ‘insurgents’ and‘thieves’, 17 March 2023, https://www.afghanwitness.org/reports/taliban-display-bodies-ofalleged-%E2%80%98kidnappers%E2%80%99%2C-%E2%80%98insurgents%E2%80%99and-%E2%80%98thieves%E2%80%99, accessed 20 October 2023
AW (Afghan Witness), Two years of Taliban rule: documenting human rights abuses using
open source, 15 August 2023, https://www.afghanwitness.org/reports/two-years-of-talibanrule%3A-documenting-human-rights-abuses-using-open-source, accessed 20 October
2023
AWA (Association of Wartime Allies), Quarterly Report, April 2023,
https://www.wartimeallies.co/_files/ugd/5887eb_fe671af8c617489b8ae94262c8671152.pdf, accessed 25 October 2023
Baheer, O., Year to the ground: Taliban’s quest for elusive global legitimacy, TRT World, 15
August 2022, https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/year-to-the-ground-taliban-s-quest-forelusive-global-legitimacy-59727, accessed 20 October 2023

110

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Bakhtar News Agency, FM Muttaqi Condolences Family Victims of Bulgaria Incident, 31
May 2023, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/fm-muttaqi-condolences-family-victims-of-bulgariaincident/, accessed 20 October 2023
Barnett, R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, 20 October
2022, https://www.stimson.org/2022/afghanistan-under-the-taliban-findings-on-thecurrent-situation/, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC Monitoring, Afghan media highlights 31 Jul 23, 31 July 2023, available by subscription
at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/b0000lqm, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC Monitoring, Afghan Taliban ministry launch campaign against ‘sorcery’, 7 August
2023, available by subscription at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/b0000mj0,
accessed 9 November 2023
BBC Monitoring, Afghan TV talk show discusses Taliban chief's order on access to officials,
26 May 2023, available by subscription at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/b0000g1b,
accessed 20 October 2023
BBC Monitoring, Analysis: IS struggles in Afghanistan on second anniversary of Taliban
return, 15 August 2023, available by subscription at:https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/c204i5jh, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC monitoring, Biography, Afghanistan, Dr Abdul Latif Nazari, 9 May 2023, available bysubscription at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/country/AFG?preview=true, accessed 9
November 2023
BBC Monitoring, Biography, Afghanistan, Mohammad Hassan Ghiassi, 25 May 2023,
available by subscription at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/country/AFG?preview=true,
accessed 9 November 2023
BBC Monitoring, Biography, Afghanistan, Sheikh Madar Ali Karimi Bamiani, 4 May 2023,
available by subscription at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/country/AFG?preview=true,
accessed 9 November 2023
BBC Monitoring, Briefing: Bodies of 18 Afghan migrants repatriated from Bulgaria, 26 May
2023, available by subscription at: https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/b0000g08,
accessed 20 October 2023
BBC Monitoring, Explainer: How anti-migrant discourse features in Iran, Iraq and
Afghanistan, 28 June 2023, available by subscription at:https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/c204dsmf, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC Monitoring, Government List, Afghanistan, 17 July 2023, available by subscription at:https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/country/AFG?preview=true, accessed 9 November 2023
BBC News, Afghan resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61430836, accessed 25 October 2023

111

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMBBC News, Afghan women in mental health crisis over bleak future, 5 June 2023,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia65765399?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Afghanistan: In a quiet valley the Taliban face armed resistance, 27 July 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61887714, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Afghanistan: Peace at a price in the Taliban’s heartlands, 20 August 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-62566884, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban ban women from visiting popular national park, 27 August
2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia66633178?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Afghanistan: Women protest against beauty salon closures, 19 July 2023,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-66244408, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Amid violent reprisals, Afghans fear the Taliban's 'amnesty' was empty, 31
August 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58395954, accessed 20 October
2023
BBC News, Earthquake in Pakistan and Afghanistan kills at least 19 people, 22 March
2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-65034776, accessed 6 November 2023
BBC News, Five key moments in the crushing of Afghan women's rights, 15 August 2023,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-66461711?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA,
accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government, 7 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, How Afghanistan's media is changing under Taliban rule, 21 August 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-58273011, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Inside the Taliban's war on drugs - opium poppy crops slashed, 6 June 2023,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-65787391, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Ismail Mashal: Taliban arrests Afghan professor who backed girls' education, 3
February 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-64509867, accessed 20 October
2023
BBC News, Kabul blast kills teenager sitting practice exam, 1 October 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia57137981?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA, accessed 20 October 2023
BBC News, Taliban stop female Afghan students leaving country to study in Dubai, 28
August 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia66636750?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA, accessed 20 October 2023

112

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Bennet, R., Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights Situation after August 2021, DRC(Danish Refugee Council), 28 November 2022, https://asyl.drc.ngo/media/13vhsflb/drcafghanistan-conference-report-28nov2022.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
Bjelica J., What Do Young Afghan Women Do? A glimpse into everyday life after the bans,
ANN, 17 August 2023, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rightsfreedom/what-do-young-afghan-women-do-a-glimpse-into-everyday-life-after-the-bans/,
accessed 20 October 2023
BNN, Taliban Shave Heads of 29 Students of Faryab University for Playing Music,
September 2023, https://bnn.network/breaking-news/crime/taliban-shave-heads-of-29students-of-faryab-university-for-playing-music/, accessed 25 October 2023
Borgen Project (The), Child Soldiers in Afghanistan, 26 September 2022,
https://borgenproject.org/child-soldiers-in-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Britannica, Taliban, 3 November 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Talibana,accessed 20 October 2023
British Red Cross, Afghanistan earthquake: thousands of people affected in Heratprovince, 13 October 2023, https://www.redcross.org.uk/stories/disasters-andemergencies/world/afghanistan-earthquake, accessed 20 October 2023
Brookings, Recognition and the Taliban, 30 September 2022,
https://www.brookings.edu/research/recognition-and-the-taliban-2/, accessed 20 October
2023
Business Standard, All airports in Afghanistan operational, with 20 foreign flights daily, 5June 2023, https://www.business-standard.com/world-news/all-airports-in-afghanistanoperational-with-20-foreign-flights-daily-123060500419_1.html, accessed 20 October
2023
Business Standard, Over 120 killed, wounded in recent days in Afghanistan: United, 8
August 2022, https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/over-120-killedwounded-in-recent-days-in-afghanistan-united-nations-122080800086_1.html, accessed
20 October 2023
CARE, The Impact of the Food Crisis on Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 29
December 2022, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/impact-food-crisiswomen-and-girls-afghanistan-november-2022, accessed 20 October 2023
CIVICUS, A year of Taliban rule leaves civic space decimated in Afghanistan, 8 September
2022, https://monitor.civicus.org/updates/2022/09/08/year-taliban-rule-leaves-civic-spacedecimated-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
CIVICUS, Afghanistan: Assault on civic space persists two years after Taliban takeover, 13
August 2023, https://www.civicus.org/index.php/media-resources/news/6513-assault-oncivic-space-persists-two-years-after-the-taliban-takeover, accessed 20 October 2023

113

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMCIVICUS, Protests Escalate in Afghanistan as Frustration with Taliban Rule and Abuses
Grow, 28 November 2022, https://monitor.civicus.org/country/afghanistan/#newspost4826, accessed 20 October 2023
Clark K., Bans on women working, then and now: The dilemmas of delivering humanitarian
aid during the first and second Islamic Emirates, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), April
2023, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/04/Banson-Women-Working-FINAL.pdf, accessed 9 November 2023
Clark, K., Civilian Casualties since the Taleban Takeover: New UNAMA report shows sharp
drop – but some communities still under threat, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 27
June 2023, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/civiliancasualties-since-the-taleban-takeover-new-unama-report-shows-sharp-drop-but-somecommunities-still-under-threat/, accessed 16 November 2023
Clark K., Who Gets to Go to School? (1): What people told us about education since theTaleban took over, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 26 January 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/who-gets-to-go-to-school1-what-people-told-us-about-education-since-the-taleban-took-over/,accessed 20 October
2023
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/we-need-to-breathe-toowomen-across-afghanistan-navigate-the-talebans-hijab-ruling%ef%bf%bc/, accessed 9
November 2023
Clark, K. and Shapour, R., What do the Taleban Spend Afghanistan’s Money on?, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), March 2023, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/what-do-the-taleban-spendafghanistans-money-on-government-expenditure-under-the-islamic-emirate/,accessed 20
October 2023
CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute for Science and Intellectual Freedom), Understanding andaddressing poverty and food insecurity in Afghanistan, April 2023,
https://www.cmi.no/publications/8783-understanding-and-addressing-poverty-and-foodinsecurity-in-afghanistana, accessed 20 October 2023
CNN, Taliban to impose their interpretation of Sharia law in Afghanistan, 15 November
2022, https://edition.cnn.com/2022/11/15/asia/taliban-afghanistan-sharia-law-intlhnk/index.html#:~:text=The%20Taliban%20has%20ordered%20judges,rights%20in%20the%20impoverished%20country., accessed 20 October 2023
CNN, Taliban's religious police instructed to be more moderate, 12 October 2021,
https://edition.cnn.com/2021/10/11/asia/afghanistan-taliban-justice-cmd-intl/index.html,
accessed 20 October 2023
CNN, Women banned from Afghan television dramas under new Taliban media rules, 22
November 2021, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/11/22/asia/taliban-women-banned-tv-dramaafghanistan-intl/index.html, accessed 20 October 2023

114

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

CoE (Council of Europe) Parliamentary Assembly, The humanitarian crisis emerging for
Afghanistan and Afghan refugees, 25 September 2023,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2097952/doc.+15831.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
Columbia Journalism Review, What happened to Afghanistan’s journalists after thegovernment collapsed, 17 March 2022, https://www.cjr.org/analysis/afghanistan-journaliststaliban.php, accessed 20 October 2023
Context, Afghan women set up secret businesses to escape Taliban bans, 15 August 2023,
https://www.context.news/socioeconomic-inclusion/afghan-women-set-up-secretbusinesses-to-escape-taliban-bans, accessed 20 October 2023
Council on Foreign Relations, The Taliban in Afghanistan, last updated 19 January 2023,
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/taliban-afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
CPJ (Committee to Protect Journalists), Afghanistan’s Media Crisis, One year after the
Taliban’s return to power, August 2022, https://cpj.org/wpcontent/uploads/2022/08/CPJ_Afghanistans_Media_Crisis_Report_2022.pdf, accessed
25 October 2023
CPJ (Committee to Protect Journalists), Afghanistan’s media faces crisis—and opportunity,
11 August 2022, https://cpj.org/2022/08/afghanistans-media-faces-crisis-and-opportunity/,
accessed 20 October 2023
Critical Threats, Mapping Anti Taliban Insurgencies In Afghanistan, 29 November 2022,
https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/mapping-anti-taliban-insurgencies-in-afghanistan,accessed 20 October 2023
DIIS (Danish Institute for International Studies), Five tendencies that could impact the future
development of Afghanistan, 6 September 2022, https://www.diis.dk/en/research/fivetendencies-that-could-impact-the-future-development-of-afghanistan, accessed 20
October 2023
Diplomat (The), 2 Years of Taliban Rule: A Case for Humanitarian Intervention , 11 August
2023, https://thediplomat.com/2023/08/2-years-of-taliban-rule-a-case-for-humanitarianintervention/, accessed 20 October 2023
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Aid workers in need, 24 August 2021,
https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-aid-workers-in-need/a-58964933, accessed 20
October 2023
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Journalists encounter tough times under Taliban rule, 7October 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-journalists-encounter-tough-timesunder-taliban-rule/a-59439857?maca=en-rss-en-asia-5133rdf&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 October 2023
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Taliban publicly lash 14 people at a stadium, 23
November 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-taliban-publicly-lash-14-people-at-astadium/a63865861#:~:text=The%20punishment%20was%20administered%20for,people%20report
edly%20attended%20the%20lashing., accessed 20 October 2023
115

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

DW (Deutsche Welle), UN ends Taliban travel ban exemptions, 20 August 2022,
https://www.dw.com/en/un-fails-to-reach-deal-to-extend-taliban-travel-ban-exemptions/a62873851, accessed 20 October 2023
EASO (European Asylum Support Office), Afghanistan – Country focus, January 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2022_01_EASO_COI_Report_Afghani
stan_Country_focus.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
EASO (European Asylum Support Office), Afghanistan: Security situation update,
September 2021,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2021_09_EASO_COI_Report_Afghani
stan_Security_situation_update.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
East-West Center, The World Must Not Wash Its Hands of Afghanistan, 26 August 2022,
https://www.eastwestcenter.org/news/east-west-wire/the-world-must-not-wash-its-handsafghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
ECHO (European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations), Report on
humanitarian situation and humanitarian aid (as of July 2023), 19 July 2023, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2098238.html, accessed 20 October 2023
Embassy of Japan in Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on: 3 February 2023,
https://twitter.com/JapaninAFG/status/1621429997763272705, accessed 8 November
2023
Etilaatroz, ‫زنان برقع بپوشند یا نقاب بزنند‬: ‫امر به معروف طالبان در بدخشان‬, [Propagation of Virtue andPrevention of Vice in Badahkshan: women should wear a burqa or a niqab], 23 August
2023, https://www.etilaatroz.com/152164/%d8%a7%d9%85%d8%b1-%d8%a8%d9%87%d9%85%d8%b9%d8%b1%d9%88%d9%81%d8%b7%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a8%d8%a7%d9%86-%d8%af%d8%b1%d8%a8%d8%af%d8%ae%d8%b4%d8%a7%d9%86-%d8%b2%d9%86%d8%a7%d9%86%d8%a8%d8%b1%d9%82%d8%b9/, accessed 20 October 2023
EUAA (European Union Agency for Asylum), Afghanistan – Major legislative, securityrelated, and humanitarian developments, 4 November 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2022_11_Q35_EUAA_COI_Query_Re
sponse_Afghanistan_update_1_July_31_October_2022.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
EUAA (European Union Agency for Asylum), Afghanistan – Security Situation, August2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2022_08_EUAA_COI_Report_Afghan
istan_Security_situation.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
EUAA (European Union Agency for Asylum), Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August
2022, https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/202209/2022_05_COI_Report_Afghanistan_Targeting_of_Individuals_EN.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023

116

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), A humanitarian worker in Afghanistan, throughthick and thin, 9 November 2021, https://www.fao.org/fao-stories/article/en/c/1451161/,
accessed 20 October 2023
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), Afghanistan: Cold Wave Assessment on
Livestock, 4 August 2023, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistancold-wave-assessment-livestock-data-emergencies-impact-report-july2023#:~:text=Afghanistan%20is%20an%20agricultural%20country,source%20of%20incom
e%20and%20food., accessed 20 October 2023
FDD’s (Foundation for Defense of Democracies) LWJ (Long War Journal), One year after
U.S. withdrawal, resistance to Taliban rule grows, 29 August 2022,
https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2022/08/one-year-after-u-s-withdrawalresistance-to-taliban-rule-grows.php, accessed 20 October 2023
Felbab-Brown, V., Afghanistan in 2023: Taliban internal power struggles and militancy,
Brookings, 3 February 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/afghanistan-in-2023taliban-internal-power-struggles-and-militancy/, accessed 20 October 2023
FIDH (International Federation for Human Rights), Broken promises: Civil society undersiege after 100 days of Taliban takeover, 23 November 2021,
https://www.fidh.org/en/region/asia/afghanistan/broken-promises-civil-society-under-siegeafter-100-days-of-taliban, accessed 20 October 2023
Foschini F., Conflict Management or Retribution? How the Taleban deal with land disputes
between Kuchis and local communities, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 22
December 2022, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/politicallandscape/conflict-management-or-retribution-hoe-the-taleban-deal-with-land-disputesbetween-kuchis-and-local-communities/, accessed 20 October 2023
Foschini, F., Afghanistan: Who Opposes the Taliban? Old Politics, Resistance and the
Looming Risk of Civil War, ISPI (Italian Institute for International Political Studies), 11 August
2022, https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/who-opposes-taliban-old-politicsresistance-and-looming-risk-civil-war-35963, accessed 20 October 2023
FP (Foreign Policy), Taliban Wage War Over Coal Mining in Afghanistan, 5 July 2022,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/07/05/taliban-afghanistan-coal-mining-resourceseconomy/, accessed 20 October 2023
France24, Afghan opposition ‘very weak’ despite mounting anger against Taliban, 15
August 2022, https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220815-afghan-oppositionvery-weak-despite-mounting-public-anger-against-taliban, accessed 20 October 2023
France24, Afghanistan earthquake death toll rises to more than 2,400, says Taliban
spokesman, 8 October 2023, https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20231008afghanistan-earthquake-death-toll-rises-to-more-than-1-000-says-gov-t-spokesman,accessed 20 October 2023
France24, Fear stalks city in Islamic State's Afghan heartland, 21 January 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220121-fear-stalks-city-in-islamic-state-s-afghanheartland, accessed 20 October 2023
117

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMFrance24, Taliban bans Afghan women from gyms, public baths, 13 November 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20221113-taliban-bans-afghan-women-fromgyms-public-baths, accessed 20 October 2023
Freedom House, 2022 Freedom in the World, Afghanistan, 2023,
https://freedomhouse.org/country/afghanistan/freedom-world/2023, accessed 20 October
2023
Gallup, Taliban Plunge Afghans Into Economic Ruin, 1 December
2022, https://news.gallup.com/poll/405524/taliban-plunge-afghans-economic-ruin.aspx,
accessed 20 October 2023
GiHA Working Group, GenCap (Afghanistan Gender Capacity), and CARE International,
Afghanistan Inter-agency Rapid Gender Analysis, November
2022, https://asiapacific.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2022-12/af-GiHA_AfghanistanInter-agency-Rapid-Gender-Analysis_Dec2022-s.pdf, accessed 25 October 2023
Giustozzi A., The Taliban’s Campaign Against the Islamic State: Explaining Initial
Successes, Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), October 2023, https://static.rusi.org/optaliban-campaign-against-islamic-state.pdf, accessed 9 November 2023
Giustozzi, A., An Unfamiliar Challenge: How the Taliban are Meeting the Islamic State
Threat on Afghanistan’s University Campuses, RUSI (Royal United Services Institute for
Defence and Security Studies), https://static.rusi.org/rusi-emerging-insights-how-talibanmeeting-is-threat-on-afghan-university-campuses.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
Glass, N., Jalalzai, R., Spiegel, P. and Rubenstein, L., The crisis of maternal and child healthin Afghanistan, Conflict and Health, 12 June 2023,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10262474/, accessed 20 October 2023
Global Organized Crime Index, Afghanistan, [2023],
https://ocindex.net/country/afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
Göteborgsregionen, Temadag om Afghanistan [Theme Day on Afghanistan] [Online video],
18 Mars 2022, https://play.quickchannel.com/play/r38pvhg, accessed 25 October 2023
Guardian (The), ‘Despair is settling in’: female suicides on rise in Taliban’s Afghanistan, 28
August 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/28/despair-is-settling-infemale-suicides-on-rise-in-talibans-afghanistan, accessed 9 November 2023
Guardian (The), ‘I daren’t go far’: Taliban rules trap Afghan women with no male guardian,
15 August 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/15/taliban-rules-trapafghan-women-no-male-guardian, accessed 20 October 2023
Guardian (The), ‘I was a policewoman. Now I beg in the street’: life for Afghan women one
year after the Taliban took power, 14 August 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2022/aug/14/life-for-afghan-women-one-year-after-the-taliban-took-power,
accessed 9 November 2023

118

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Guardian (The), ‘She asked me, will they kill you if they discover you?’: Afghan girls defy
education ban at secret schools, 13 August 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/13/she-asked-me-will-they-kill-you-if-theydiscover-you-afghan-girls-defy-education-ban-at-secret-schools, accessed 20 October
2023
Guardian (The), Hungry, hunted, terrified: unending plight of the Afghan women who
served in military and police, 14 August 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2023/aug/14/hungry-hunted-terrified-unending-plight-of-the-afghan-womenwho-served-in-military-and-police?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 6
November 2023
Guardian (The), Taliban ban Afghan women from university education, 20 December 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/20/taliban-ban-afghan-women-universityeducation, accessed 20 October 2023
Guardian (The), Taliban ban protests and slogans that don’t have their approval, 8September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/08/taliban-ban-protestsand-slogans-that-dont-have-their-approval, accessed 9 November 2023
Guardian (The), Taliban stop Afghan women from using bathhouses in northern provinces,
7 January 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jan/07/talibanstop-afghan-women-using-bathhouses-in-northern-provinces, accessed 9 November 2023
Guardian (The), Thousands of Afghan judges and legal staff remain at risk post-Taliban
takeover, 14 August 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2023/aug/14/thousands-of-afghan-judges-and-legal-staff-remain-at-risk-posttaliban-takeover, accessed 20 October 2023
Hafiz Zia Ahmad [Twitter], posted on: 30 May 2023,
https://twitter.com/HafizZiaAhmad1/status/1663544575611531268, accessed 20 October
2023
Hakimi, H., Afghanistan’s Outlook: Under Taliban Rule, the economy slumps as taxation
income rises, 15 August 2023, https://blog.bti-project.org/2023/08/15/afghanistansoutlook-under-taliban-rule-the-economy-slumps-as-taxation-income-rises/, accessed 20
October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Business Women’s Day: Work Deprivation Has Depressed Women in
Afghanistan, 23 September 2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/09/23/business-womensday-work-deprivation-has-depressed-women-in-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Citizens to Exiled Politicians, No Need for Your Political Copies of
Prescriptions, 7 November 2022, https://8am.media/eng/citizens-to-exiled-politicians-noneed-for-your-political-copies-of-prescriptions/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Dozens Arrested and Tortured by Taliban in Kandahar for Shaving Beards,
12 October 2022, https://8am.media/eng/dozens-arrested-and-tortured-by-taliban-inkandahar-for-shaving-beards/, accessed 20 October 2023

119EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hasht-e Subh, EXCLUSIVE: Taliban Modify Education Curriculum to Propagate Violenceand Bigotry, 17 December 2022, https://8am.media/eng/2022/12/17/exclusive-talibanmodify-education-curriculum-to-propagate-violence-andbigotry/?fbclid=IwAR3pDgU_RfsRxB679XHZLctkQ7Kv7B1r2qlFyobzFv6znap0L7n8l1ttoQI,
accessed 6 November 2023
Hast-e Subh, Ghor Province: Taliban’s Embezzlement of Aid Leaves 42,000 Needy
Families Deprived, 10 May 2023, https://8am.media/eng/ghor-province-talibansembezzlement-of-aid-leaves-42000-needy-families-deprived/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Media and Freedom of Speech on Verge of Collapse: UN Calls forInternational Community’s Attention, 20 October 2022, https://8am.media/eng/media-andfreedom-of-speech-on-verge-of-collapse-un-calls-for-international-communitys-attention/,
accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Settlement of Hundreds of Nomad Families in Northern Afghanistan’s
Takhar Province, 5 September 2022, https://8am.media/eng/settlement-of-hundreds-ofnomad-families-in-northern-afghanistans-takhar-province/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Sources report that the Taliban group arrested another Panjshiri resident in
Kabul and then shot him dead, 13 October 2022, https://8am.media/eng/another-panjshiriresident-shot-dead-by-taliban-in-kabul/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests and Severely Tortures 30 Civilians in Panjshir, 29 August
2022, https://8am.media/eng/taliban-arrests-and-severely-tortures-30-civilians-in-panjshir/,accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Ban Shia-Sunni Marriages in Badakhshan’s Nusay District, 3February 2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/02/03/taliban-ban-shia-sunni-marriages-inbadakhshans-nusay-district/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Bans Smartphones Use, An Attempt to Covering Crimes, 24
October 2022, https://8am.media/eng/2022/10/24/taliban-bans-smartphones-use-anattempt-to-covering-crimes/, accessed 13 November 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Force Herat Residents to Pray Taraweeh During Ramadan, 17 April
2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/04/17/taliban-force-herat-residents-to-pray-taraweehduring-ramadan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban in Kabul Arrest Panjshiri Singer for a Second Time, 25 January2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/01/25/taliban-in-kabul-arrest-panjshiri-singer-for-the2nd-time/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Kill Young Man for Playing Music in Kandahar, 16 October 2022,
https://8am.media/eng/2022/10/16/taliban-kill-young-man-for-playing-music-in-kandahar/,accessed 20 October 2023
Hast-e Subh, Taliban Oppose Nowruz Celebrations, 23 March 2023,
https://8am.media/eng/taliban-oppose-nowruz-celebrations/, accessed 20 October 2023

120

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Seize Wedding Musicians' Drums After Assaulting Ceremony inZabul Province, 6 August 2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/08/06/taliban-seizewedding-musicians-drums-after-assaulting-ceremony-in-zabul-province/, accessed 20
October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban to Displace 400 Families in Khwaja Bahauddin District, Takhar, 6
October 2022, https://8am.media/eng/taliban-to-displace-400-families-in-khwajabahauddin-district-takhar/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban’s Animosity with Farsi: Fueling the Fire of Afghanistan’s Enemies, 8June 2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/06/08/talibans-animosity-with-farsi-fueling-thefire-of-afghanistans-enemies/, accessed 9 November 2023
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban’s Grip Tightens: School Teacher Arrested in Baghlan Province, 1June 2023, https://8am.media/eng/talibans-grip-tightens-school-teacher-arrested-inbaghlan-province/, accessed 20 October 2023
Hasht-e Subh, The National Resistance Council for the Salvation of Afghanistan: The
Taliban have killed 17 Hazaras in Uruzgan Province in the Last Two Years, 24 September
2023, https://8am.media/eng/2023/09/24/the-national-resistance-council-for-the-salvationof-afghanistan-the-taliban-have-killed-17-hazaras-in-uruzgan-province-in-the-last-twoyears/#:~:text=Following%20the%20recent%20killing%20of,deaths%20of%2017%20Hazar
a%20residents, accessed 9 November 2023
Hasht-e Subh, The Taliban’s Suppression of Critics: Where is Rasool Parsi?, 31 March 2023,
https://8am.media/eng/the-talibans-suppression-of-critics-where-is-rasool-parsi/, accessed
20 October 2023
Health Cluster and WHO (World Health Organisation), Afghanistan Health Cluster Bulletin,
August 2023, 25 September 2023, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-health-cluster-bulletin-august2023?_gl=1*lwtjyg*_ga*MTgxNDQ2OTc0LjE2NTg0ODU3MDc.*_ga_E60ZNX2F68*MTY5Nj
U5Njg1MS43OC4xLjE2OTY1OTY4NjkuNDIuMC4w, accessed 20 October 2023
Health Cluster and WHO (World Health Organisation), Afghanistan: Health Cluster Partners
Presence (January - August 2023), 24 September 2023, available at:https://reliefweb.int/map/afghanistan/afghanistan-health-cluster-partners-presencejanuary-august2023?_gl=1*187jta7*_ga*MTgxNDQ2OTc0LjE2NTg0ODU3MDc.*_ga_E60ZNX2F68*MTY5
NjY1ODY2NC43OS4xLjE2OTY2NTk2OTkuNjAuMC4w, accessed 20 October 2023
Hindustan Times, Taliban open fire to push back protesting women in Kabul, 30
September 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/taliban-open-fire-to-pushback-protesting-women-in-kabul-101633005017690.html, accessed 6 November 2023
Holloway K., Ullah, Z., Ahmadi, D., Hakimi, E. and Ullah, A., Climate Change, conflict andinternal displacement in Afghanistan, November 2022,
https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/HPG_CCD_case_study_Afghanistan_final_rev.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023

121

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

HRW (Human Rights Watch), “I Would Like Four Kids – If We Stay Alive”, Women’s Accessto Health Care in Afghanistan, May 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2021/05/afghanistan0521_web.pdf,
accessed 6 November 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), “No One Asked Me Why I Left Afghanistan”: Pushbacks andDeportations of Afghans from Turkey, 18 November 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/report/2022/11/18/no-one-asked-me-why-i-left-afghanistan/pushbacksand-deportations-afghans-turkey, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghan Women Watching the Walls Close In, 2 March 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/02/afghan-women-watching-walls-close, accessed 20
October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Economic Crisis Underlies Mass Hunger, 4August 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/08/04/afghanistan-economic-crisisunderlies-mass-hunger, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: ISIS Group Targets Religious Minorities, 6
September 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/09/06/afghanistan-isis-group-targetsreligious-minorities, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Execute, ‘Disappear’ Alleged Militants, 7
July 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/07/07/afghanistan-taliban-execute-disappearalleged-militants, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Forcibly Evict Minority Shia, 22 October
2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/22/afghanistan-taliban-forcibly-evict-minority-shia,
accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Severely Restrict Media, 1 October 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/01/afghanistan-taliban-severely-restrict-media,
accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March
2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/07/afghanistan-taliban-threatening-provincialmedia, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Torture Civilians in Panjshir: Collective
Punishment Over Armed Group’s Actions Is Unlawful, 10 June 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/06/10/afghanistan-taliban-torture-civilians-panjshir,accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Women Protesters Detail Taliban Abuse, 20
October 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/10/20/afghanistan-women-protestersdetail-taliban-abuse, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Economic Causes of Afghanistan’s humanitarian Crisis, 4August 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/08/04/economic-causes-afghanistanshumanitarian-crisis, accessed 20 October 2023

122

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

HRW (Human Rights Watch), Four Ways to Support Girls’ Access to Education in
Afghanistan, 20 March 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/20/four-ways-supportgirls-access-education-afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), In Afghanistan, Resistance Means Women, 12 October 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/10/12/afghanistan-resistance-means-women, accessed 20
October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Joint Statement: Marking Two Years of Taliban Oppression, 17
August 2023, https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/08/17/joint-statement-marking-two-yearstaliban-oppression, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), This is our opportunity to end the Taliban's use of childsoldiers, 20 September 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/20/our-opportunity-endtalibans-use-child-soldiers, accessed 20 October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), World report 2023, Afghanistan, Events of 2022, 12 January2023, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/afghanistan, accessed 20
October 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Taliban Close Girls’ Secondary Schools in Afghanistan, Again,
23 March 2023, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/23/taliban-close-girls-secondaryschools-afghanistan-again, accessed 9 November 2023
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Taliban Expand Civil Society Crackdown, 29 March 2023,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/03/29/taliban-expand-civil-society-crackdown, accessed
9 November 2023
Hudson Institute, Making Sense of the Islamic State’s War on the Afghan Taliban, 25
January 2022, https://www.hudson.org/research/17796-making-sense-of-the-islamic-states-war-on-the-afghan-taliban, accessed 20 October 2023
IBA (International Bar Association), Afghanistan: Male judges and prosecutors left behind in‘forgotten crisis’, 17 January 2023, https://www.ibanet.org/Afghanistan-Male-judges-andprosecutors-left-behind, accessed 25 October 2023
ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross), Afghanistan: Children are the main
victims of unexploded and abandoned weapons, 18 July 2023,
https://www.icrc.org/en/document/afghanistan-children-victims-unexploded-abandonedweapons, accessed 20 October 2023
ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross), Afghanistan: People suffer as spending
capacity shrinks, prices rise, 13 July 2022, https://www.icrc.org/en/document/afghanistanpeople-suffer-spending-capacity-shrinks-prices-rise, accessed 20 October 2023
ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross), Health Care in Afghanistan [Podcast], 25
October 2022, https://blogs.icrc.org/intercross/2022/10/25/health-care-in-afghanistan/,accessed 20 October 2023

123

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMIDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre) Global Internal Displacement Database,n.d., https://www.internal-displacement.org/database/displacement-data, accessed 10
November 2023
IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre), One year on: the Taliban takeover andAfghanistan's changing displacement crisis, August 2022, https://www.internaldisplacement.org/expert-opinion/one-year-on-the-taliban-takeover-and-afghanistanschanging-displacement-crisis, accessed 20 October 2023
IFJ (International Federation of Journalists), Afghanistan: Taliban releases nine journalists
following crackdown, 5 September 2023, https://www.ifj.org/mediacentre/news/detail/category/press-releases/article/afghanistan-taliban-releases-ninejournalists-following-crackdown, accessed 9 November 2023
IFRC (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies), Afghanistan:
Hunger and poverty surge as drought persists, 17 June 2022, https://www.ifrc.org/pressrelease/afghanistan-hunger-and-poverty-surge-drought-persists, accessed 20 October
2023
ILAC (International Legal Assistance Consortium), Justice Matters: A Status Report on
Afghanistan Since the Taliban Takeover, 2023, http://ilacnet.org/wpcontent/uploads/2023/01/ILAC_Afghanistan_Report_2023-2.pdf, accessed 20 October2023
ILO (International Labour Organization), Employment in Afghanistan in 2022: A rapid
impact assessment, March 2023, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---robangkok/documents/briefingnote/wcms_869949.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
IMC (International Music Council), IMC Statement about music rights in Afghanistan, 13
December 2022, https://www.imc-cim.org/news-imc/imc-news/8627-imc-statement-aboutmusic-rights-in-afghanistan.html, accessed 20 October 2023
Independent (The), Afghan woman says she was raped and forced to marry Taliban official,
2 September 2022, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/south-asia/afghan-woman-rapemarried-taliban-b2158308.html, accessed 6 November 2023
Independent (The), China resumes commercial flights to Afghanistan as cooperation with
Taliban regime grows, 25 May 2023, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/south-asia/chinaafghanistan-commercial-flight-taliban-b2345591.html, accessed 6 November 2023
Independent (The), Forced to be a Taliban official’s wife, she was imprisoned for 156 days:“They beat me up until I passed out, 5 July 2023,
https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/south-asia/elaha-delawarzai-taliban-afghanistanprison-b2369554.html, accessed 6 November 2023
Independent (The), Forced to be a Taliban official’s wife, she was imprisoned for 156 days:‘They beat me up till I passed out’, 5 July 2023, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/southasia/elaha-delawarzai-taliban-afghanistan-prison-b2369554.html, accessed 9 November
2023

124

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Independent (The), Inside the Taliban slaughterhouses where Western ‘collaborators’ aretortured to death, 17 February 2023, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/southasia/afghanistan-taliban-prison-kabulb2284259.html?fbclid=IwAR38A7gZznZrZn4B6BxBsYJvBbtBxGzIBLkgbS4F3z8dMFTthz2_-UaEAg, accessed 8 November 2023
Independent (The), Murdered, tortured or in hiding: The special forces abandoned by
Britain, 1 November 2023, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/afghanspecial-forces-triples-abandoned-britain-b2435597.html, accessed 6 November 2023
International Crisis Group, Afghanistan’s Security Challenges under the Taliban, 12 August
2022, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/afghanistans-securitychallenges-undertaliban#:~:text=The%20Taliban%20are%20fighting%20two,aligned%20with%20the%20for
mer%20government., accessed 6 November 2023
International Crisis Group, Taliban Restrictions on Women’s Rights Deepen Afghanistan’s
Crisis, 23 February 2023, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/329taliban-restrictions-womens-rights-deepen-afghanistans-crisis, accessed 6 November
2023
Intersos, Health emergency in Afghanistan, system close to collapse, n.d.,
https://www.intersos.org/en/health-emergency-in-afghanistan-system-close-tocollapse/#:~:text=Vast%20areas%20of%20the%20country,is%20where%20our%20interve
ntion%20focuses., accessed 20 October 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission
in Afghanistan), UN Women, Summary report of country-wide women’s consultations,
September 2023, https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/2023-09-19__situation_of_afghan_women_summary_report.pdf, accessed 9 November 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), Afghanistan - Baseline Assessment,
Settlement Level Dataset, Round 16 (September-December 2022), Displacement Tracking
Matrix, n.d., https://dtm.iom.int/datasets/afghanistan-baseline-assessment-settlement-leveldataset-round-16-september-december-2022, accessed 6 November 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), Afghanistan — Baseline Mobility
Assessment Report, Round 16 (September-December 2022), Displacement Tracking
Matrix, June 2023, https://dtm.iom.int/reports/afghanistan-baseline-mobility-assessmentreport-round-16-september-december-2022, accessed 6 November 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), Assisted Voluntary Return & Reintegration,n.d., https://afghanistan.iom.int/assisted-voluntary-return-and-reintegration, accessed 20
October 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), IOM Comprehensive Action Plan for
Afghanistan and Neighbouring Countries, May 2023,
https://crisisresponse.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1481/files/uploadedfiles/IOM%20Comprehensive%20Action%20Plan%20for%20Afghanistan%20and%20Neighbouring%20Countries%20-%202023%20Revision.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023

125

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

IOM (International Organization for Migration), Movements in and out of Afghanistan, 15January 2023, https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/2023-01/afgmovements-in-and-out-16-31-dec-2022-v3.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), Movements in and out of Afghanistan, 23
June 2023, https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/2023-06/afgmovements-in-and-out-1-31-may-2023-v2.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
IOM (International Organization for Migration), With More than Half of Afghans Dependenton Humanitarian Aid, IOM Calls for Sustained Support, 1 September 2022,
https://www.iom.int/news/more-half-afghans-dependent-humanitarian-aid-iom-callssustained-support, accessed 20 October 2023
IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification), Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity
Situation for April 2023 and Projection for May - October 2023, 15 May 2023,
https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/details-map/en/c/1156351/?iso3=AFG,
accessed 20 October 2023
IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification), Afghanistan: Acute Food Insecurity
Situation for September 2022 - October 2022 and Projection for November 2022 - March
2023, 23 January 2023, https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/detailsmap/es/c/1156270/?iso3=AFGhttps://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/detailsmap/es/c/1156270/?iso3=AFG, accessed 20 October 2023
IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification), Afghanistan: Acute Malnutrition
Situation for September - October 2022 and Projection for November 2022 - April 2023,
30 January 2023, https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/detailsmap/es/c/1156185/?iso3=AFG, accessed 20 October 2023
IPC (Integrated Food Security Phase Classification), Understanding the IPC Scales, June2022,
https://www.ipcinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ipcinfo/docs/communication_tools/brochur
es/IPC_Brochure_Understanding_the_IPC_Scales.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
IPS (Inter Press Service), Drought-Displaced Afghan Peasants Yearn for Their Rural Life, 17
July 2023, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/drought-displaced-afghanpeasants-yearn-their-rurallife#:~:text=The%20main%20source%20of%20livelihood,in%20a%20worn%2Dtorn%20cou
ntry. , accessed 20 October 2023
IRC (International Rescue Committee), Afghanistan: An entire population pushed intopoverty, 22 December 2022, https://www.rescue.org/article/afghanistan-entire-populationpushed-poverty, accessed 20 October 2023
IRC (International Rescue Committee, One year later: What are Afghans facing now?, 15
August 2022, https://www.rescue.org/article/one-year-later-what-are-afghans-facing-now,
accessed 20 October 2023
IRC (International Rescue Committee, Two years since the Taliban took power in
Afghanistan, almost 30 million people remain in dire need of assistance as funding
shortfalls jeopardize the humanitarian response, 7 April 2023, available at:
126

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/two-years-taliban-took-power-afghanistan-almost30-million-people-remain-dire-need-assistance-funding-shortfalls-jeopardize-humanitarianresponse#:~:text=Just%2023%25%20of%20required%20funds,the%20same%20period%2
0last%20year., accessed 20 October 2023
Irish Examiner, Afghanistan's powerless Hazara community still facing persecution, 22
August 2022, https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/spotlight/arid-40945052.html,
accessed 7 November 2023
ISHR (International Society for Human Rights), Afghanistan – Human Rights in a LawlessSociety, 9 November 2022, https://ishr.org/afghanistan-human-rights-in-a-lawlesssociety/#:~:text=At%20the%20moment%2C%20there%20is,the%20principle%20of%20thei
r%20governance., accessed 20 October 2023
Islamic Relief, Two years on, millions of Afghan civilians need greater international support,
17 August 2023, available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/two-years-millionsafghan-civilians-need-greater-internationalsupport#:~:text=The%20economic%20collapse%20and%20international,impact%20when%20it%20is%20funded., accessed 20 October 2023
ISW (Institute for the Study of War), Afghanistan Warning Update: IS-KP in Afghanistan is
Expanding Faster than Anticipated, 27 October 2021,
https://www.iswresearch.org/2021/10/afghanistan-warning-update-is-kp-in.html, accessed
20 October 2023
Jalazai, R., Glass, N., and Rubenstein, L., The Maternal and Child Health Crisis in
Afghanistan, Johns Hopkins Center for Public Health and Human Rights, 9 November
2022, http://hopkinshumanitarianhealth.org/assets/documents/Matern-Child-HealthAfghanistan-Report-FINAL_30-Oct_2.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
Jamestown Foundation, The Taliban’s Persistent War on Salafists in Afghanistan, 24
September 2021, https://jamestown.org/program/the-talibans-persistent-war-on-salafists-inafghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Japan Times (The), Afghan women forced back to abusive ex-husbands after divorces
annulled, 2 April 2023, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/04/02/world/divorcedafghan-women-fear-abuse-husband-return/, accessed 7 November 2023
Just Security, Time for the United States to Rethink its Strategy for Afghanistan, 20 April
2023, https://www.justsecurity.org/86054/time-for-the-united-states-to-rethink-its-strategyfor-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, 21 Killed, Wounded in ISKP’s Attack on Chinese Longan Hotel in Kabul, 13
December 2022, https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/50-residents-of-panjshir-released-fromtaliban-prisons/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, 50 Residents of Panjshir Released from Taliban Prisons, 27 December 2022,
https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/50-residents-of-panjshir-released-from-taliban-prisons/,
accessed 20 October 2023

127

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Kabul Now, Clash Between Taliban and NRF Leaves 5 Dead in Panjshir, 16 December
2022, https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/clash-between-taliban-and-nrf-leaves-5-dead-inpanjshir/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Death toll of Taliban crack down on Ashura mourners rises, 30 July 2023,
https://kabulnow.com/2023/07/death-toll-of-taliban-crack-down-on-ashura-mourners-rises/,
accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Fear and Nightmares: the dark life after Taliban captivity, 14 April 2023,
https://kabulnow.com/2023/04/suffering-of-talibans-former-prisoners/, accessed 9
November 2023
Kabul Now, Hundreds of Hazara families risk forced eviction in Khas Uruzgan district , 14August 2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/08/hundreds-of-hazara-families-risk-forcedeviction-in-khas-uruzgan-district/, accessed 6 November 2023
Kabul Now, IMC Condemns ‘Musical Genocide’ in Afghanistan, 14 December 2022,
https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/imc-condemns-musical-genocide-in-afghanistan/, accessed
20 October 2023
Kabul Now, NRF Commander, 20 Comrades Killed Fighting Against Taliban, 26 December
2022, https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/nrf-commander-20-comrades-killed-fighting-againsttaliban/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban Appoint a Shia-Hasara as Deputy Minister, 2 December 2022,
https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/taliban-appoint-a-shia-hazara-as-deputy-minister/, accessed
20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban Arrest and Torture Locals after Infighting in Panjshir, 21 October 2022,
https://kabulnow.com/2022/10/taliban-arrest-and-torture-locals-after-infighting-in-panjshir/,accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban Arrest Six Panjshir Residents over Cooperation with NRF, 5 December
2022, https://kabulnow.com/2022/12/taliban-arrest-six-panjshir-residents-overcooperation-with-nrf/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban arrest ten people for playing music at a wedding in Helmand, 7 March
2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/03/taliban-arrest-ten-men-for-playing-music/, accessed
20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban bans playing music at weddings in Kabul, 12 June 2023,
https://kabulnow.com/2023/06/taliban-bans-playing-music-at-weddings-in-kabul/,
accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban Detain, Shave Students’ Heads as Punishment for Playing Music in
Faryab, 12 September 2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/09/taliban-detain-shave-studentsheads-as-punishment-for-playing-music-in-faryab/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban detains six people for playing music in Mazar-i-sharif, 2 September
2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/09/taliban-detains-six-people-for-playing-music-inmazar-i-sharif/, accessed 20 October 2023
128

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Kabul Now, Taliban excludes female students from next academic year’s university
entrance exams, 17 July 2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/07/taliban-excludes-femalestudents-from-next-academic-years-university-entrance-exams/, accessed 20 October
2023
Kabul Now, Taliban Foreign Ministry instructs employees to adhere to religious practices,
13 July 2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/07/taliban-foreign-ministry-instructs-employeesto-adhere-to-religious-practices/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban in Daikundi forces residents to celebrate Eid a day earlier, 21 April
2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/04/taliban-in-daikundi-forces-residents-to-celebrate-eida-day-earlier/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban in Herat prohibit people from celebrating Nowruz, 21 March 2023,
https://kabulnow.com/2023/03/taliban-in-herat-prohibit-people-from-celebrating-nowruz/,
accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban puts two bodies on public display in Herat, 21 February 2023,
https://kabulnow.com/2023/02/taliban-puts-bodies-on-public-display-in-herat/, accessed
20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban shuts all educational institutions in Helmand and Kandahar, 17 April
2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/04/taliban-shuts-all-educational-institutions-in-helmandand-kandahar/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kabul Now, Taliban’s False Amnesty: The Fate of Former Military Officers Who Return to
Afghanistan, 23 July 2023, https://kabulnow.com/2023/07/talibans-false-amnesty-the-fateof-former-military-officers-who-return-to-afghanistan/, accessed 8 November 2023
Kazemi S. R. and Sadat S. A., Simple Pleasures Amidst Great Frustrations: An essentiallyoutlawed Nawruz in Taleban-ruled Afghanistan, 21 March 2023, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/simple-pleasures-amidst-great-frustrations-anessentially-outlawed-nawruz-in-taleban-ruled-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Kazemi S. R., Clark K., Who Gets to Go to School? (2) The Taleban and education throughtime, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 31 January 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/going-back-to-school-2-looking-at-the-taleban-andeducation-through-time/, accessed 20 October 2023
Khaama Press, Afghanistan National Movement for Peace and Justice Emerges, Sparking
Reactions, 16 October 2022, https://www.khaama.com/afghanistan-national-movement-forpeace-and-justice-emerges-sparking-reactions-67485/, accessed 20 October 2023
Khaama Press, Ankara Gathering of Political Figures, 19 Mary 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/ankara-gathering-of-political-figures-forms-the-supreme-councilof-national-resistance-for-the-salvation-of-afghanistan68391/, accessed 20 October 2023
Khaama Press, Citizens in Afghanistan Were Not Allowed to Celebrate Valentine's Day, 15
February 2023, https://www.khaama.com/citizens-in-afghanistan-were-not-allowed-tocelebrate-valentines-day/, accessed 20 October 2023

129

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Khaama Press, Elderly Cab Driver Killed by Armed Robbers in Northern Afghanistan, 21
August 2022, https://www.khaama.com/elderly-cab-driver-killed-by-armed-robbers-innorthern-afghanistan-57687/, accessed 20 October 2023
Khaama Press, Taliban Orders Shops to Refuse Selling Things to Women without Hijab, 30
August 2022, https://www.khaama.com/taliban-orders-shops-to-refuse-selling-things-towomen-without-hijab-354769/, accessed 20 October 2023
Khaama Press, Taliban Releases Kidnapped Child in Northeastern Afghanistan, Arrests
Two, 10 November 2022, https://www.khaama.com/taliban-releases-kidnapped-child-innortheastern-afghanistan-arrests-two-37583/, accessed 20 October 2023
Le Figaro, Afghanistan, un pays à la dérive, 3 March 2023,
https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/afghanistan-un-pays-a-la-derive-20230303, accessed
8 November 2023
Le Monde, Concern grows for detained French-Afghan journalist Mortaza Behboudi, 7
June 2023, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/economy/article/2023/06/07/concern-grows-fordetained-french-afghan-journalist-mortaza-behboudi_6030338_19.html, accessed 20
October 2023
Le Monde, The bitterness of former Afghan spies who worked for France, 12 April 2023,
https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2023/04/12/the-bitterness-of-formerafghan-spies-who-worked-for-france_6022665_4.html, accessed 9 November 2023
Lighthouse Reports, Abandoned Afghan Commandos, 1 November 2023,
https://www.lighthousereports.com/investigation/abandoned-afghan-commandos/,
accessed 9 November 2023
Lighthouse Reports, France’s forgotten Afghan spies, 12 Aril 2023,
https://www.lighthousereports.com/investigation/frances-forgotten-afghan-spies/,
accessed 20 October 2023
Lombardi, C. and March, A., Afghan Taliban Views on Legitimate Islamic Governance, USIP
(United States Institute of Peace), February 2022,
https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2022-09/pw_182afghan_taliban_views_on_legitimate_islamic_governance.pdf, accessed 9 November
2023
Los Angeles Times, Rare sign of division emerges among Afghan Taliban leaders, 16
February 2023, https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2023-02-16/afghanistantaliban-rare-division, accessed 20 October 2023
Marty, F. J., Life under the Taliban, 25 July 2023,
https://www.globalaffairs.ch/2023/07/25/life-under-the-taliban/, accessed 20 October
2023
Matiullah Wesa [Twitter], Posted on 28 January 2023,
https://twitter.com/matiullahwesa/status/1619431784240021504, accessed 8 November
2023

130

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Matiullah Wesa [Twitter], posted on: 27 February 2023,
https://twitter.com/matiullahwesa/status/1630308429158928386, accessed 8 November2023
MEE (Middle Eastern Eye), ‘Afghanistan’s food crisis is one of access, not availability’, 29
September 2023, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230929-afghanistans-food-crisisis-one-of-access-not-availability/, accessed 20 October 2023
MEE (Middle Eastern Eye), On an Istanbul-Kabul flight, refugees and emigres prepare tosee a new Afghanistan, 1 June 2022, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/afghanistanistanbul-kabul-flight-refugees-emigres-prepare, accessed 20 October 2023
MEE (Middle Eastern Eye), Over 240,000 Afghan refugees deported from Iran and Turkey,
15 November 2022, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/iran-turkey-afghan-refugeesdeported, accessed 20 October 2023
MEM (Middle East Monitor), ‘Afghanistan’s food crisis is one of access, not availability’, 29
September 2023, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230929-afghanistans-food-crisisis-one-of-access-not-availability/, accessed 20 October 2023
Mohammadi, M., Human Rights Conditions for Hazaras in Afghanistan Under the Taliban
Regime, 7 February 2023,
https://www.sjsu.edu/hri/docs/SJSU%20HRI%20REPORT_%20%20Human%20Rights%20C
onditions%20for%20Hazaras%20in%20Afghanistan%20Under%20the%20Taliban%20Regi
me.pdf, accessed 7 November 2023
Motwani, N., Taliban leaders still lack legitimacy, East Asia Forum, 20 October 2022,
https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/10/20/taliban-leaders-still-lack-legitimacy/, accessed
20 October 2023
MSF (Médecins sans frontières), Persistent barriers to access healthcare in Afghanistan, 6
February 2023,
https://msf.or.ke/sites/default/files/msfpublications/report_persistent_barriers_to_access_h
ealthcare_in_afghanistan_final.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
MSF (Médecins sans frontières), The Continued Struggle to Access Medical Care in
Afghanistan, 18 June 2021, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/continued-struggleaccess-medical-care-afghanistan, accessed 6 November 2023
Najam, W., Ibiyemi, T., Aziz, S., Najam, R., Gichohi-Wainaina, W. N. and Oldewage-Theron,W., Social Determinants of Rural Household Food Insecurity under the Taliban Regime, 30
March 2023,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10097274/#:~:text=Prior%20reports%20in%
20Afghanistan%20indicated,the%20Taliban%20regime%20%5B52%5D., accessed 20
October 2023
NAWJ (National Association of Women Judges), Escape from Kabul – and Those Left
Behind, 24 January 2023, https://www.nawj.org/past-webinars/escape-from-kabul-andthose-left-behind, accessed 20 October 2023

131

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

New Humanitarian (The), Arrest of leading education activist leaves Afghans confused andworried, 12 April 2023, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2023/04/12/arrestafghanistan-matiullah-wesa-education-advocate, accessed 20 October 2023
New Humanitarian (The), For Afghan women, fashion and crafts offer a work lifeline, 8 June
2023, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2023/06/08/afghan-womenfashion-and-crafts-offer-work-lifeline, accessed 20 October 2023
New Humanitarian (The), In Afghanistan’s shadowy new conflict, new displacement andnew civilian abuses, 23 November 2022, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/newsfeature/2022/11/23/Afghanistan-Panjshir-Taliban-abuses-resistance-UN, accessed 20
October 2023
New Humanitarian (The), For Afghan women, fashion and crafts offer a work lifeline, 8 June
2023, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2023/06/08/afghan-womenfashion-and-crafts-offer-work-lifeline, accessed 20 October 2023
New Lines Magazine, Is This the Future of Taliban Rule?, 13 December 2021,
https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/is-this-the-future-of-taliban-rule/, accessed 20 October2023
New York Time (The), Nearly 90 Afghan Schoolgirls Were Poisoned, Officials Suspect, 5June 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/05/world/asia/afghanistan-girls-schoolpoison.html, accessed 9 November 2023
New York Times (The) In These Corners of Kabul, Western Influences Live On, 29 June
2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/29/world/asia/kabul-afghanistan-westerninfluence.html, accessed 20 October 2023
New York Times (The), Everything Changed Overnight: Afghan Reporters Face an
Intolerant Regime, 11 September 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/11/world/afghanistan-journalists-reporters.html,
accessed 20 October 2023
New York Times (The), New Taliban Guidelines Stir Fear About the Future of Press
Freedom, 23 September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/23/world/asia/talibanmedia-guidelines-afghanistan.html, 20 October 2023
New York Times (The), Taliban Shut Beauty Salons, One of Afghan Women's Last Public
Spaces, 25 July 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/25/world/asia/taliban-beautysalons-afghanistan.html, accessed 9 November 2023
Neyazi, N., Mosadeghrad, A. M. and AbouZeid, A., Non-communicable diseases in
Afghanistan: a silent tsunami, 17 June 2023,
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(23)010711/fulltext#:~:text=Afghanistan%20is%20suffering%20from%20the,19%20have%20worsened%20the%20situation., accessed 26 October 2023
Nishat Z., Shelley, J., Karimi, S. and El-Badawy, E., Why Do People in Afghanistan Object to
Taliban Rule?, Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 22 September 2022,

132

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

https://www.institute.global/insights/geopolitics-and-security/why-do-people-afghanistanobject-taliban-rule, accessed 20 October 2023
No One Left Behind, State of the SIV Program and its Applicants, August 2022,
https://www.nooneleft.org/_files/ugd/18aae3_54f344dc66b947b08c51d9fff9bd8ddf.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Departures and returns after Taliban’s takeover of power,
29 September 2022, https://landinfo.no/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Query-responseAfghanistan-Departure-and-return-after-the-Talibans-takeover-of-power-29092022.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: ISKPs strategi og modus etter Talibans maktovertakelse,
28 August 2023, https://landinfo.no/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Respons-AfghanistanISKPs-strategi-og-modus-etter-Talibans-maktovertakelse-28082023.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
NRC (Norwegian Refugee Council), A ban on female aid workers in Afghanistan will cost
lives, warn leading aid groups, 29 December 2022,
https://www.nrc.no/news/2022/december/a-ban-on-female-aid-workers-in-afghanistan-willcost-lives-warn-leading-aid-groups/, accessed 20 October 2023
NRC (Norwegian Refugee Council), Afghanistan at a Precipice, 10 August
2022, https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/reports/afghanistan-at-a-precipice/afghanistanat-a-precipice_nrc_august-2022.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
NRC (Norwegian Refugee Council), Private renters facing risk of eviction, October
2022, https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/briefing-notes/private-renters-facing-risk-ofeviction/nrc-briefing-note---private-renters-facing-risk-of-eviction-october-2022.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
Nutrition Cluster et al., Afghanistan National SMART Survey Report (April-October 2022), 8
June 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-national-smart-surveyreport-april-october-2022, accessed 20 October 2023
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights), Human Rights Council Holds
Urgent Debate on the Human Rights of Women and Girls in Afghanistan, 1 July 2022,
https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/07/human-rights-council-holds-urgentdebate-human-rights-women-and-girls, accessed 20 October 2023
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights), UN experts: legal
professionals in Afghanistan face extreme risks, need urgent international support, 20
January 2023,
https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/ijudiciary/statements/2023-0117/202301-stm-sr-ijl-sr-afghanistan-day-endangered-lawyer.pdf, accessed 20 October
2023
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights), UN experts: legal
professionals in Afghanistan face extreme risks, need urgent international support, 20
January 2023,
https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/ijudiciary/statements/2023-01133

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

17/202301-stm-sr-ijl-sr-afghanistan-day-endangered-lawyer.pdf, accessed 9 November
2023
ORF (Observer Research Foundation), Resistance to the Taliban: Current status andprospects for the future, 10 January 2023, https://www.orfonline.org/expertspeak/resistance-to-the-taliban/, accessed 7 November 2023
Ottawa Citizen, Levine: A year under the Taliban — UN workers pressing for women's
rights, 16 August 2022, https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/levine-a-year-under-the-talibanun-workers-still-pressing-for-womens-rights, accessed 20 October 2023
Pajhwok, Consumer prices in Afghanistan fall, first deflation since 2021, 2 July 2023,
https://pajhwok.com/2023/07/02/consumer-prices-in-afghanistan-fall-first-deflation-since2021/, accessed 20 October 2023
Pajhwok, Falling a year ago, home prices up by 24pc in Kabul, 19 September 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/09/19/falling-a-year-ago-home-prices-up-by-24pc-in-kabul/,
accessed 6 November 2023
Pakistan Observer, Dawlat Waziri, former Defence ministry spokesperson, returns to
Afghanistan, [2022], https://pakobserver.net/dawlat-waziri-former-defence-ministryspokesperson-returns-to-afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
PBS, 1.1 million Afghan children under 5 could face severe malnutrition this year, U.N. says,
25 May 2022, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/1-1-million-afghan-children-under-5could-face-severe-malnutrition-this-year-u-n-says, accessed 20 October 2023
PEN/Opp, The State of Freedom of Speech and Media in the Past Year, 9 October 2022,
https://www.penopp.org/articles/state-freedom-speech-and-media-pastyear?language_content_entity=en, accessed 26 October 2023
ProPublica, The Truth About Afghanistan’s Zero Unit Night Raids, March 2019,https://www.propublica.org/article/afghanistan-night-raids-zero-units-lynzy-billing,
accessed 8 November 2023
Protection Cluster, Afghanistan, Protection Analysis Update, December 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-protection-analysis-update-updatepost-conflict-and-climate-related-protection-risks-trends-december-2022, accessed 20
October 2023
Rahimi, H. What the Taliban may be getting wrong about Islamic governance, Al Jazeera,
24 August 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/8/24/what-the-taliban-may-begetting-wrong-about-islamic-governance, accessed 20 October 2023
Rahimi, H., Remaking of Afghanistan: How the Taliban are Changing Afghanistan’s Laws
and Legal Institutions, ISAS (Institute of South Asian Studies), 26 July 2022,
https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/papers/remaking-of-afghanistan-how-the-taliban-arechanging-afghanistans-laws-and-legal-institutions/#_ftnref8, accessed 26 October 2023
Rana, S. and Ganguly, S., Taliban’s religious ideology – Deobandi Islam – has roots incolonial India, The Conversation, 25 August 2021, https://theconversation.com/talibans-

134

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

religious-ideology-deobandi-islam-has-roots-in-colonial-india166323#:~:text=At%20its%20heart%2C%20Deobandi%20Islam,is%20the%20path%20of%2
0salvation., accessed 20 October 2023
Rawadari, Human Rights Situation in Afghanistan, August 2023, https://rawadari.org/wpcontent/uploads/2023/08/RW_AFGHumanRights2023_English.pdf?, accessed 20 October
2023
REACH, Whole of Afghanistan Assessment 2022 Key Findings Presentation, 20
September 2022, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/whole-afghanistan-assessment2022-key-findings-presentation-inter-cluster-coordination-team-kabul-20-september-202,
accessed 10 November 2023
REACH and WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan Joint Market Monitoring Initiative(JMMI) (12 - 21 July 2022), 21 August 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-joint-market-monitoring-initiative-jmmi12-21-july-2022, accessed 20 October 2023
REACH and WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan Joint Market Monitoring Initiative(JMMI) (06 - 15 December 2022), 16 January 2023, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-joint-market-monitoring-initiative-jmmi06-15-december-2022, accessed 26 October 2023
Refugees International, Fit for Purpose: Getting Humanitarian Aid Right in Afghanistan One
Year after the Taliban Takeover, August 2022,
https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports/2022/8/16/fit-for-purpose-gettinghumanitarian-aid-right-in-afghanistan-one-year-after-the-taliban-takeover, accessed 20
October 2023
Rehman, R., Taliban 2021: Mujahid, Munafiq? - Protecting Islam or undermining it?, Human
Rights in Context, 26 August 2021, https://www.humanrightsincontext.be/post/taliban2021-mujahid-munafiq, accessed 20 October 2023
Republik, A year under the Taliban, 21 June 2022, https://www.republik.ch/2022/06/21/einjahr-unter-den-taliban, accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, Afghan central bank gets fresh banknotes after U.S. helps clear payment, 9November 2022, https://www.reuters.com/markets/asia/afghan-central-bank-gets-freshbanknotes-after-us-helps-clear-payment-2022-11-09/, accessed 6 November 2023
Reuters, Afghanistan's Taliban administration executes man for murder of five, 20 June
2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-taliban-administrationexecutes-man-murder-five-2023-0620/#:~:text=Afghanistan%27s%20Taliban%20administration%20executes%20man%20for%
20murder%20of%20five,Reuters&text=KABUL%2C%20June%2020%20(Reuters),movement%20took%20over%20in%202021., accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, Beauty salons banned in Afghanistan, 24 July 2023,
https://www.reuters.com/pictures/beauty-salons-banned-afghanistan-2023-0724/PAAEAEDQOFKS3DLH3AC2DVWMXM/, accessed 20 October 2023
135

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Reuters, Bomb blast in Kabul kills eight, injures more than 20, 6 August 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/blast-afghan-capital-kabul-many-feared-injuredeyewitnesses-2022-08-06/, accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, EXCLUSIVE Afghan Taliban sign deal for Russian oil products, gas and wheat, 28
September 2022, https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/exclusive-afghan-talibansign-deal-russian-oil-products-gas-wheat-2022-09-27/, accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, Germany won't recognise Taliban as "dire" Afghan conditions persist, 7 June
2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/world-must-tell-taliban-its-going-wrongdirection-says-german-foreign-minister-2022-06-07/, accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, Islamic State claims responsibility for attack on Pakistani embassy in Kabul, 4
December 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/islamic-state-claimsresponsibility-attack-pakistani-embassy-kabul-2022-12-04/, accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, Protests get harder for Afghan women amid risks and red tape, 4 October 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/protests-get-harder-afghan-women-amid-risksred-tape-2021-10-04/?rpc=401&, accessed 7 November 2023
Reuters, Sixty Afghan girls hospitalised after school poisoning, 5 June 2023,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/sixty-afghan-girls-hospitalised-after-schoolpoisoning-police-2023-06-05/, accessed 6 November 2023
Reuters, Taliban aim to boost Afghan security forces, anti-aircraft capacity -army chief, 12
April 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-aim-boost-afghan-securityforces-anti-aircraft-capacity-army-chief-2023-04-12/, accessed 20 October 2023
Reuters, Taliban ban women in Afghanistan from flying without male chaperone, 27 March
2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-taliban-ban-women-flyingwithout-male-chaperone-sources-2022-03-27/, accessed 7 November 2023
Reuters, Taliban cancel public holiday for Nowruz but say celebrations allowed, 20 March
2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-cancel-public-holiday-nowruzsay-celebrations-allowed-2022-03-20/, accessed 9 November 2023
Reuters, Taliban-led Afghan administration suspends women from universities, 20
December 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-led-afghanadministration-says-female-students-suspended-universities-2022-12-20/, accessed 20
October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), ‘Open Fear’: Taliban Cracks Down On Afghan
Media By Decree, 27 July 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/taliban-cracks-down-on-afghanmedia-by-decree/31962540.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), ‘They Call Us Infidels’: Former Afghan Soldiers
Still Live in Hiding to Avoid Taliban Retribution, 13 July 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-revengekillings/31942162.html#:~:text=Abubakar%20Siddique-136

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS,%27They%20Call%20Us%20Infidels%27%3A%20Former%20Afghan%20Soldiers%20Still%
20Live,forces%20live%20in%20constant%20fear., accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Afghanistan's Shi'ite Minority Suffers 'Systematic
Discrimination' Under Taliban Rule, 17 July 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistantaliban-shiite-persecution-discrimination/32507042.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Afghans Increasingly Marrying Off Young
Daughters To Avoid Forced Unions With Taliban, 1 December 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-early-marriage-avoid-taliban/32157525.html, accessed
20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), After Deadline Passes, Afghan Women Pay The
Price As Beauty Salons Shut Their Doors, 26 July 2023,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-beauty-salons-close-womens-rights-talibanrepression/32520725.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), 'Arrested And Beaten': Afghan Professor's
Protest Against Taliban's Education Ban On Women Lands Him In Prison, 3 February 2023,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-professor-prison-women-education-banprotest/32254677.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), 'Forced To Dress Like a Muslim': Taliban
Imposes Restrictions On Afghanistan's Sikh, Hindu Minorities, 22 August 2023,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-sikh-hindu-muslim-taliban-restrictions/32559175.html,
accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), 'Heartbroken And Disillusioned': Taliban Bans
Afghan Women From Many University Courses, 20 October 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-women-banned-university-coursesexams/32093362.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), IS Claims Responsibility For Deadly Suicide
Attack Outside Russian Embassy In Kabul, 5 September 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/suicide-bomber-detonates-outside-russian-embassy-in-kabul/32018922.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Survivors Of Deadly Taliban Raid On Hazara
Village In Afghanistan Demand Justice, 20 December 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghan-survivors-taliban-raid-hazara-village-demandjustice/32185190.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Detains 18 Staffers At Humanitarian
NGO's Offices, Including American Surgeon, 15 September 2023,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-ngo-staff-arrested/32594482.html, accessed 20
October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), The Azadi Briefing: Taliban Intensifies Efforts To
Eradicate Secular Education In Afghanistan, 14 July 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/azadiafghanistan-taliban-education/32503707.html, accessed 20 October 2023

137

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Under The Taliban, Public Employees Must Pass
Test Of Faith, 8 September 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-ministriestests-islam/32024524.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), UN's Afghan Mission Condemns Arrest Of
Women's Rights Activists By Taliban, 29 September 2023,
https://www.rferl.org/a/32616288.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Women's Rights Activist Zarifa Yaqobi Released
From Taliban Prison, Sister Says, 13 December 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistanwomen-activist-yaqobi-released-prison/32174075.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Afghan Women Banned From Making Trips
Unless Escorted, 26 December 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/taliban-woman-banned-travelchaperone/31626822.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Afghan Women Complain Of Harassment,
Threats by Taliban’s Morality Police, 17 July 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistanwomen-taliban-harassment-threats-moralitypolice/32507354.html#0_8_10089_8766_2710_249248246, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Aid Groups Begin Return To Afghanistan Amid
Assurances For Female Workers, 17 January 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistansave-the-children-resumes-women/32225931.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Arrest Of Prominent Afghan Education
Campaigner A ‘Sign of Authoritarianism’ Under The Taliban, 30 March 2023,
https://www.rferl.org/a/arrest-afghan-campaigner-taliban-authoritarianism/32342260.html,
accessed 13 November 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses,
Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10 November 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-women-banned-parks-bathhousesprison/32124374.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Exiled Afghan Musicians Who Fled The Taliban
Fear Deportation From Pakistan, 20 December 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/exiledafghan-musicians-taliban-deportation-pakistan/32185166.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Fewer women, No Entertainment: Kabul’s Media
Scene Transforms After Taliban Takeover, 18 August 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-media-restrictions/31417225.html, accessed
20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), 'I Feel Suffocated': Taliban Intensifies
Clampdown On Music In Afghanistan, 17 August 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/talibanintensifies-crackdown-music-afghanistan/32551971.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), One Year After Seizing Power, Is The Taliban
Here To Stay?, 15 August 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-one-year-latersolidify-power-internal-divisions/31988877.html, accessed 20 October 2023
138

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Senior Clerics Caught In The Crossfire Of The
Taliban's Intensifying War With IS-K, 24 August 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistantaliban-islamic-state-khorasanclerics/32003122.html#:~:text=Many%20IS%2DK%20fighters%20are,of%20the%20faith%2
0as%20heretical., accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Survivors Of Deadly Taliban Raid On Hazara
Village in Afghanistan Demand Justice, 20 December 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/afghan-survivors-taliban-raid-hazara-village-demandjustice/32185190.html, accessed 6 November 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Symphony Of Courage: Young Afghan
Musicians Play On After Fleeing To Lisbon, 15 August 2022,
https://www.rferl.org/a/symphony-of-courage-young-afghan-musicians-play-on-afterfleeing-to-lisbon/31989674.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Accused Of Forced Evictions As
Fighting Intensifies In Northern Afghanistan, 7 June 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/talibanforced-evictions-northern-afghanistan/31887719.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Calls For Strict Ban On Music At Kabul
Wedding Halls, 12 June 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/taliban-bans-music-kabul-weddinghalls/32455849.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Faces Rising Armed Resistance From
Former Government Factions, 27 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibanresistance-former-government-factions/31823881.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Inspects Girl’s Schools, Expels
Hundreds Of Pubescent Students, 6 October 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-inspects-girls-schools-expelspubescents/32068471.html, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Leader's Dominance Results In
Increased Oppression, Isolation, 22 January 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistantaliban-leader-akhundzada-oppressionisolation/32234403.html#:~:text=Taliban%20Leader%27s%20Dominance%20Results%20In%20Increased%20Oppression%2C%20Isolation,A%20man%20sells&text=Few%20Taliban%20members%20can%20reach,scholars%20fro
m%20the%20Muslim%20world, accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban Orders Male Teachers, Students To
Sign Pledge To Observe Shari’a Law, 13 October 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-students-pledge-sharia/32080961.html,
accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), The Thrill Is Gone For Valentine's Day In
Taliban-Controlled Kabul, 14 February 2023, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-save-thechildren-resumes-women/32225931.html, accessed 20 October 2023

139

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), UN ‘Deeply Concerned Over Video Appearing
To Show Taliban Executing Members Of Resistance Group, 15 September 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-un-execution-video/32034904.html,
accessed 20 October 2023
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), With Music Banned, Afghan Musician Now Sells
Snacks To Feed His Family, 17 December 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-kabulmusic-ban-taliban-harmonium-wedding/32178596.html, accessed 20 October 2023
Roggio, B., in FDD Events, Afghanistan in Peril: Two Years After the U.S. Withdrawal,
August 2023, https://www.fdd.org/wpcontent/uploads/2023/08/Events_AfghanistanInPeril_Transcript_v02.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Afghan journalism still resisting after two years of Taliban
persecution, 10 August 2023, https://rsf.org/en/afghan-journalism-still-resisting-after-twoyears-taliban-persecution, accessed 9 November 2023
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Afghanistan, n.d., https://rsf.org/en/country/afghanistan,accessed 20 October 2023
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Mazar-i-Sharif bombing – “biggest attack” on Afghan
journalists in months, 14 March 2023, https://rsf.org/en/mazar-i-sharif-bombing-biggestattack-afghan-journalists-months, accessed 20 October 2023
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Nine arrested in Taliban offensive against Afghan
journalists, 15 August 2023, https://rsf.org/en/nine-arrested-taliban-offensive-againstafghan-journalists, accessed 20 October 2023
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Since the Taliban takeover, 40% of Afghan media haveclosed, 80% of women journalists have lost their jobs, 20 December 2021,
https://rsf.org/en/taliban-takeover-40-afghan-media-have-closed-80-women-journalistshave-lost-their-jobs, accessed 16 November 2023
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan Under the Taliban: Findings on the Current Situation, Stimson
Center, 20 October 2022, https://www.stimson.org/2022/afghanistan-under-the-talibanfindings-on-the-current-situation/, 20 October 2023
Rukshana, ‘The best night of my life turned into the worst one’: Taliban disrupt wedding
parties, insult and detain people for playing music, 22 July 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/en/the-best-night-of-my-life-turned-into-the-worst-one-talibandisrupt-wedding-parties-insult-and-detain-people-for-playing-music, accessed 20 October
2023
Rukshana, After taking control of Balkhab, Taliban summarily executed civilians, residents
say, 1 July 2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/after-taking-control-of-balkhab-talibansummarily-executed-civilians-residents-say, accessed 20 October 2023
Rukshana, Taliban morality police close shops over improper hijabs, 23 October 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/en/taliban-morality-police-close-shops-over-improper-hijabs,
accessed 20 October 2023
140

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Rukshana, Taliban publicly whip a young man and woman for alleged adultery in Bamyan, 1
December 2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/taliban-publically-whip-a-young-man-andwoman-for-alleged-adultery-in-bamyan, accessed 20 October 2023
Sadat, S. A., and Shapour, R., The Daily Hustle: Women take to street peddling to feed theirfamilies, AAN, 22 July 2023, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economydevelopment-environment/the-daily-hustle-women-take-to-street-peddling-to-feed-theirfamilies/, accessed 6 November 2023
SAK (Swedish Afghanistan Committee), Årsrapport 2022 [Annual report 2022], 12 May
2022, https://sak.se/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/05/SAK-Arsrapport-2022-2ndedition-digital-kompr.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
SAK (Swedish Afghanistan Committee), in: Göteborgsregionen, Temadag om Afghanistan[Thematic day on Afghanistan] [Online video], 18 Mars 2022,
https://play.quickchannel.com/play/r38pvhg, accessed 8 November 2023
Salaam Times, Herat businessman provides free education for hundreds of Afghan girls, 14
August 2023, https://afghanistan.asianews.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2023/08/14/feature-01, accessed 7 November
2023
Salaam Times, Poverty, restrictions on girls shutter 400 Afghan private schools, 17 August
2022, https://afghanistan.asianews.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2022/08/17/feature-01, accessed 20 October
2023
Salaam Times, Resalat private high school in Herat offers hope to hundreds of girls, 29
September 2022, https://afghanistan.asianews.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2022/09/29/feature-01, accessed 9 November
2023
Samim, S., Back to the Village: Afghan city dwellers go home for a long-over-due visit, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), 25 March 2023, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/context-culture/back-to-the-village-afghan-city-dwellers-go-homefor-a-long-over-due-visit/#_ftn1, accessed 7 November 2023
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 15 June 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/policing-public-moralitydebates-on-promoting-virtue-and-preventing-vice-in-the-talebans-secondemirate%ef%bf%bc/, accessed 7 November 2023
Sardinha, L., Maheu-Giroux, M., Stöckl, H. and García-Moreno, C., Global, regional, andnational prevalence estimates of physical or sexual, or both, intimate partner violenceagainst women in 2018, Lancet 2022; 399: 803–13, 16 February 2022,
https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736%2821%2902664-7, accessed
7 November 2023

141

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Save the Children, Afghanistan, Multi-Sectoral Needs Assessment, January2022, https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/Afghanistan-MSNA-Full-ReportMarch2022.pdf/, accessed 20 October 2023
Save the Children, Afghanistan: Price Hikes Push Food out of Reach for Millions ofChildren, 26 August 2021, https://www.savethechildren.net/news/afghanistan-price-hikespush-food-out-reach-millionschildren#:~:text=24%20August%2C%202021%20%E2%80%93%20Millions%20of,pre%2DC
OVID%2D19%20prices., accessed 20 October 2023
Save the Children, Afghanistan: Three in Four Children Surveyed are Eating Less Amid
Soaring Hunger, as Country Marks Two Years of Taliban Rule, 15 August 2023,
https://www.savethechildren.org.uk/news/media-centre/press-releases/afghanistan-markstwo-years-of-taliban-rule, accessed 20 October 2023
Save the Children, Breaking Point: Children’s Lives One Year under Taliban Rule, 10
August 2022, https://www.savethechildren.nl/sci-nl/media/Save-thechildren/PDF/Breaking-Point-Childrens-lives-one-year-under-Taliban-rule-Aug-2022_1.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
Save the Children, The international community must not turn its back on hungry children
in Afghanistan as 2 million people lose food assistance, 6 September 2023,
https://www.savethechildren.net/news/international-community-must-not-turn-its-backhungry-children-afghanistan-2-millionpeople#:~:text=KABUL%2C%206%20September%202023%20%E2%80%93%20The,reach%2C%20said%20Save%20the%20Children., accessed 20 October 2023
Sayed, A. and Refslund Hamming, T., The Growing Threat of the Islamic State inAfghanistan and South Asia, USIP (United States Institute of Peace), 7 June 2023,
https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/06/growing-threat-islamic-state-afghanistan-andsouth-asia, accessed 20 October 2023
Schuster, L., in: DRC (Danish Refugee Council), Afghanistan conference, The Human Rights
Situation after August 2021, 28 November 2022, https://asyl.drc.ngo/media/13vhsflb/drcafghanistan-conference-report-28nov2022.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
SCMP (South China Morning Post), Afghan women, ‘gradually dying’ as Taliban shuts off
more jobs, retrain as nurses, 9 August 2023, https://www.scmp.com/news/world/russiacentral-asia/article/3230409/afghan-women-gradually-dying-taliban-shuts-more-jobsretrain-nurses, accessed 20 October 2023
Shapour R. and Mirzada R., Strangers in Our Own Country: How Afghan women cope withlife under the Islamic Emirate, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 28 December 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/strangers-in-our-owncountry-how-afghan-women-cope-with-life-under-the-islamic-emirate/, accessed 20
October 2023
Shapour R., The Daily Hustle: Being a widow in Afghanistan, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts
Network), 4 June 2023, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/economydevelopment-environment/the-daily-hustle-being-a-widow-in-afghanistan/, accessed 20
October 2023
142

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Shekhawat, S., Resistance to the Taliban: Current status and prospects for the future, ORF(Observer Research Foundation), 10 January 2023, https://www.orfonline.org/expertspeak/resistance-to-the-taliban/, accessed 20 October 2023
SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute), Climate, Peace and Security Fact
Sheet: Afghanistan 2023, February 2023,
https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023%20NUPI_FactSheet_Afghanistan.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
Sky news Australia [YouTube], Taliban sets fire to pile of musical instruments, 1 August
2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kh_eblTY-VU, accessed 20 October 2023
SRMO (Safety and Risk Mitigation Organization) , Civic Space Quarterly Report, April–June
2023, [2023], https://srmo.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/SRMO-2nd-Civic-SpaceQuarterly-Apr-Jun-2023-Final.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
SRMO (Safety and Risk Mitigation Organization), Civic Space Quarterly Report, January–
March 2023, [2023], https://srmo.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/SRMO-Civic-SpaceQuarterly-Jan-Mar-2023-Final-1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
Stimson, CSPA Implementation Tracker, Afghanistan, 7 December 2022,
https://www.stimson.org/project/child-soldiers/cspa-implementation-tracker/countryprofiles/afghanistan/, accessed 20 October 2023
Sweden, Migrationsverket, Afghanistan: Styre och rättskipning [Afghanistan: Governanceand administration of justice], (version 1.0), 06 July 2023,
https://lifos.migrationsverket.se/dokument?documentSummaryId=47545, accessed 26
October 2023
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan:
Säkerhetsläget efter talibanrörelsens maktövertagande [Afghanistan: The security situation
after the Taliban takeover of power], 29 April 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/sweden/PLib/220510300.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
Taliban Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‫د ایټالیا په سویلي سمندر کې د کښتۍ د ډوبیدو له امله د شهیدو شویو افغانانو‬‫د تعزیت پیغام‬. ‫ا‬.‫ا‬.‫[ د شهادت په اړه د ا‬Message of condolence from the IEA related to the Afghans
who died in the Southern Italian Sea after their boat sank], 9 March 2023,
https://mfa.gov.af/%d8%af-%d8%a7%db%8c%d9%bc%d8%a7%d9%84%db%8c%d8%a7%d9%be%d9%87-%d8%b3%d9%88%db%8c%d9%84%d9%8a%d8%b3%d9%85%d9%86%d8%af%d8%b1-%da%a9%db%90-%d8%af%da%a9%da%9a%d8%aa%db%8d-%d8%af-%da%89%d9%88%d8%a8/, accessed 20
October 2023
Times (The), Hundreds of British Army’s interpreters still stranded in Afghanistan, 28
August 2023, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/afghanistan-hiding-british-interpreterskabul-taliban-20233ntmm85gg#:~:text=Hundreds%20of%20Afghans%20who%20worked,to%20support%20t
he%20British%20military., accessed 20 October 2023

143

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Times of India (The), Kabul Gurdwara Attacked Again, Blast Near Main Gate, 28 July 2022,
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/kabul-gurdwara-attacked-again-blastnear-main-gate/articleshow/93172741.cms, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 2 September 2023,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1697919996322541834, accessed 26 October 2023
TOLOnews, 3 People Die in Blast on Second Day of Attacks in Kabul, 6 August 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-179284, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, 25 Political Figures, Officials Returned Last Month: Commission, 30 June
2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-183993, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, A Look at Afghanistan’s Security Situation in 2022, 31 December 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-181421, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Acting Foreign Minister Muttaqi Calls World’s Sanctions 'Cruel', 31 May 2023,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-183593, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Afghan Media Face Budget Issues, Lack of Access to Information, 21
September 2021, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174739l, accessed 26 October 2023
TOLOnews, Afghan Students Anxious as Schools Remain Closed, 16 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174679, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Amnesty Intl Calls For Release of Matiullah Wesa, Neda Parwani, 28
September 2023, https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-185294, accessed 20
October 2023
TOLOnews, Classes Stopped at Private Education Centers in Kandahar, Helmand, 17 April
2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-183009, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Commission: 30 Individuals Return to Country in Past Two Months, 6September 2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-184987, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Concerns of Afghan Girls Rise Over Closed Schools, 21 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174748, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Delawar: Almost 1,000 Ex-Officials, Business People Have Returned, 6
November 2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-180635, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Fly Dubai to Resume Flights to Afghanistan Next Month, 12 October 2023,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-185506, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176253, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Hanafi Aks Afghans Living Abroad to Return Home, 18 December 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-181241, accessed 20 October 2023

144

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

TOLOnews, Haqqani Tells Tribal Elders to Respect Women's Rights, 30 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177336, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Bans ‘Unproven Allegations’ Against Members, 22 July
2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-179059, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Orders Full Implementation of Sharia Law, 14
November 2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-180747, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Lecturer Rips Up His Certificates to Protest Ban on Women’s Education, 1January 2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-181431, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Ministry Orders NGOs to Suspend Female Staff, 24 December 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-181332, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Nadim Warns of Consequences for Opponents of Interim Govt, 12 March
2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/provincial-182457, accessed 6 November 2023
TOLOnews, Nimroz Vice and Virtue Dept Orders that Coffee Shops Be Closed, 7September 2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-179750, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, No Restrictions Imposed on Former Govt Officials: Mujahid, 28 April 2023,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-183147, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Over 100 Political Figures Returned to Afghanistan in 3 Months: Commission,
15 January 2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan181614#:~:text=The%20commission%20said%20that%20in%20total%2C%20471%20political,play%20their%20role%20in%20the%20development%20of%20Afghanistan., accessed
20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Potzel Urges Western States To Resume Diplomatic Missions in Kabul, 26
December 2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-181350, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Retirees in Kabul Protest Unpaid Pensions, 2 January 2023,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-181446, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Teacher Training Center Shut Down by Islamic Emirate: Teachers, 12 July
2023, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-184163, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, US Has Suspended Assistance Operations in Ghor: Miller, 25 May 2023,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-183516, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, West: Islamic Emirate 'Significantly Degraded ISKP Capability’, 13 September
2023, https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-185084, accessed 20 October 2023
TOLOnews, Women Banned From Visiting Band-e-Amir National Park, 26 August 2023,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-184818, accessed 20 October 2023
TRT World [YouTube], One year under Taliban: Forgotten interpreters in hiding, 31 August
2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OduCSJh3IIc, accessed 20 October 2023

145

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUCDP (Uppsala Conflict Data Program), data covering 16 August 2021 to 20 October 2023
provided by courtesy of UCDP in emails, 24 October 2022 and 9 October 2023
UCDP (Uppsala Conflict Data Program), UCDP Georeferenced Event Dataset Codebook
Version 23.1, 2023, https://ucdp.uu.se/downloads/ged/ged231.pdf, accessed 23 November
2023
UK (United Kingdom), House of Commons Library, Afghanistan: One year under a Taliban
government, 10 October 2022,
https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9632/CBP-9632.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
UN (United Nation), Afghanistan, Map No. 3958 Rev. 7, June 2011, accessed 16 November
2023, https://www.un.org/geospatial/content/afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Report of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/49/24, 4 March 2022, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/situation-human-rights-afghanistan-report-unitednations-high-commissioner-human, accessed 26 October 2023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, A/HRC/51/6, 6 September2022,
https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsit
es%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fhrbodies%2Fhrcouncil%2Fregularsession%2Fses
sion51%2F2022-0906%2FA_HRC_51_6_AdvanceUneditedVersion.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK, accessed
26 October 2023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, A/HRC/51/6, 9 September
2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2078445/G2248343.pdf, accessed 26 October2023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan, Report of the Officeof the High Commissioner for Human Right, A/HRC/54/21, 11 September 2023,
https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecoi.net%2Fen%
2Ffile%2Flocal%2F2097200%2FA_HRC_54_21_AdvanceUneditedVersion.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK, accessed 26 October 2023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Richard Bennett, A/HRC/52/84,
9 February 2023, available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/countryreports/ahrc5284-situation-human-rights-afghanistan-report-special-rapporteur, accessed
26 October 2023
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of women and girls in Afghanistan. Report of theSpecial Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan and the Working Groupon discrimination against women and girls, A/HRC/53/21, 20 June 2023,
https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/country-reports/ahrc5321-situation-women-and-girlsafghanistan-report-special-rapporteur, accessed 20 October 2023
146

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

UN News, Afghanistan economy in ‘freefall’, threatening to take entire population with it, 19
December 2021, https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/12/1108372, accessed 20 October2023
UN News, Afghanistan: First public execution since Taliban takeover, ‘deeply disturbing’says UN rights office, 7 December 2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/12/1131487,
accessed 20 October 2023
UN News, Afghanistan: UN launches largest single country aid appeal ever, 11 January2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/01/1109492, accessed 20 October 2023
UN News, Excluded from Education, Public Life, Women, Girls Facing ‘Gender Apartheid’ in
Afghanistan, Delegate Tells Security Council, 21 June 2023,
https://press.un.org/en/2023/sc15330.doc.htm, accessed 26 October 2023
UN News, Taliban order bars Afghan women from working with UN, 4 April 2023,
https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/04/1135357, accessed 20 October 2023
UN Security Council, Fourteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring
Team, S/2023/370, 1 June 2023,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2093255/N2312536.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/77/340-S/2022/692, 14 September
2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2079419/N2259109.pdf , accessed 20 October2023
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/77/636-S/2022/916, 7 December2022,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/221207_sg_report_on_afghanistan_s.202
2.916.pdf, accessed 26 October 2023
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, A/76/667–S/2022/64, 28 January 2022, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/situation-afghanistan-and-its-implicationsinternational-peace-and-security-66, accessed 26 October 2023
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/77/772-S/2023/151, 27 February
2023, available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/4005377, accessed 26 October 2023
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/77/914-S/2023/453, 20 June 2023,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2095410/N2317030.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international
peace and security, Report of the Secretary-General, A/78/361-S/2023/678, 18 September
2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2097813/N2325802.pdf, accessed 26 October
2023
147

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, Statement of theSpecial Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 26 October 2022,
https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsit
es%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fcountries%2Faf%2Fsr%2F2022-1027%2FStatement_SRAfghanistan_GA77_261022.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK, accessed
26 October 2023
UN Special Rapporteur Richard Bennet [Twitter], posted on: 14 September 2022,
https://twitter.com/SR_Afghanistan/status/1570068489066389506, accessed 26 October2023
UN Women, Out of jobs, into poverty – the impact of the ban on Afghan women working inNGOs, 13 January 2023, Gender-alert-3-Out-of-jobs-into-poverty-Afghanistan-en.pdf(unwomen.org) , accessed 7 November 2023
UN, Afghanistan’s Future Depends on Taliban’s Engagement with World, But Restrictions
on Women Signal Lack of International Commitments, Briefer Warns Security Council, 27
September 2022, https://press.un.org/en/2022/sc15038.doc.htm, accessed 26 October
2023
UN, Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General – on
Afghanistan, 5 September 2021, https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2021-0905/statement-attributable-the-spokesperson-for-the-secretary-general-%E2%80%93afghanistan, accessed 26 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), A barrier to securing peace:
Human rights violations against former government officials and former armed force
members in Afghanistan, 22 August 2023,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/a_barrier_to_securing_peace_aug_2023_
english_.pdf, accessed 26 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Corporal Punishment and the
Death Penalty in Afghanistan, 3 May 2023, https://unama.unmissions.org/corporalpunishment-and-death-penalty-afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Dignity, freedom and justicemust be upheld in Afghanistan, 10 December 2022, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/dignity-freedom-and-justice-must-be-upheldafghanistan-world-marks-human-rights-day, accessed 20 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Human Rights in Afghanistan
15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/unama_human_rights_in_afghanistan_rep
ort_-_june_2022_english.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Human rights situation in
Afghanistan, (February-April 2023), 9 May 2023, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/unama-human-rights-update-february-april-2023endarips, accessed 20 October 2023

148

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Impact of Improvised
Explosive Devices on Civilians in Afghanistan, 27 June 2023,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/report_on_civilian_harm_caused_by_ied__eng_27062023.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), The treatment of detainees in
Afghanistan, 20 September 2023,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/unama_report_-_eng__treatment_of_detainees_sept_23_0.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Human rights situation in
Afghanistan: July - September 2023 update, 23 October 2023,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/human_rights_situation_in_afghanistan_jul-sep_2023.pdf, accessed 6 November 2023
UNAMA News [Twitter], posted on: 3 January 2023,
https://twitter.com/UNAMAnews/status/1610237501356007424, accessed 8 November
2023
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), Afghanistan, Socio-Economic Outlook
2023, 18 April 2023, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/202304/SEO%202023-Executive%20Summary_English.pdf, accessed 26 October 2023
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), One Year in Review-Afghanistan sinceAugust 2021, 5 October 2022, https://www.undp.org/afghanistan/publications/one-yearreview-afghanistan-august-2021, accessed 26 October 2023
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Afghanistan Crisis update:
Women and Girls in Displacement, Factsheet III, May 2023,
https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/100885, accessed 20 October 2023
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Afghanistan Situation Voluntary Repatriation of Afghan Refugees, 24 July 2023, available at:https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/unhcr-rbap-afghanistan-situation-voluntaryrepatriation-afghan-refugees-quarterly-update-april-june2023#:~:text=In%202023%2C%205%2C836%20Afghan%20refugees,in%202022%20(1%2
C237%20individuals)., accessed 20 October 2023
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Afghanistan situation, [2023],
https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/afghanistan?_gl=1*1m9j0zb*_rup_ga*MTEzNzY5Nzk3Lj
E2OTUyMTU4MDM.*_rup_ga_EVDQTJ4LMY*MTY5NzEzOTUxOC42LjEuMTY5NzEzOTU0MS4wLjAuMA..*_ga*NDYwNjA0OTcwLjE2NzM4ODQ3MTA.*_ga_X2YZPJ1XWR*MTY5NzEz
OTUxOC4yLjEuMTY5NzEzOTU0MS4wLjAuMA.., accessed 20 October 2023
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Operational Data Portal,
Afghanistan, 12 October 2023, https://data.unhcr.org/en/country/afg, accessed 26 October
2023
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Voluntary Repatriation of
Afghan Refugees - South West Asia Quarterly Update, 2023 Q3, 18 October 2023,
https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/104123, accessed 8 November 2023
149

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), Nutrition, n.d.,
https://www.unicef.org/afghanistan/nutrition#:~:text=Afghanistan%20has%20one%20of%2
0the,children%20under%20five%3A%2041%20percent.&text=The%20rate%20of%20wasti
ng%2C%20the,extremely%20high%3A%209.5%20per%20cent.&text=One%20in%20three%20adolescent%20girls%20suffers%20from%20anaemia., accessed 26 October 2023
UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on 25 November
2022, https://twitter.com/UNICEFAfg/status/1596178934613544960, accessed 26 October2023
UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on: 23 August
2023, https://twitter.com/UNICEFAfg/status/1694250621912645719, accessed 26 October
2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) and REACH,
Whole of Afghanistan Assessment, October 2022, https://www.impactrepository.org/document/reach/15a7c7ff/REACH_AFG_-WoAA-2022_Key-SectoralFindings_Factsheet_October-2022.pdf, accessed 26 October 2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan- Conflict Induced Displacements in 2022, 5 January 2023,
https://response.reliefweb.int/afghanistan/internal-displacement-due-conflict, accessed 26
October 2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan
Critical Funding Gas, 31 July 2023,
https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-critical-funding-gaps,
accessed 26 October 2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan
Humanitarian Needs Overview 2023, 23 January 2023,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-humanitarian-needs-overview-2023january-2023, accessed 26 October 2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan
Humanitarian Response Plan 2023, n.d., https://fts.unocha.org/plans/1117/summary,accessed 26 October 2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan:
Humanitarian Access Snapshot (March 2023), 25 May 2023,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-humanitarian-access-snapshot-march2023, accessed 26 October 2023
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan:
The alarming effects of climate change, 1 August 2023,
https://www.unocha.org/news/afghanistan-alarming-effects-climatechange#:~:text=Severe%20droughts%20intensify&text=At%20least%2060%20per%20cent,food%20insecurity%2C%20malnutrition%20and%20disease., accessed 26 October 2023

150

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

USCIRF (United States Commission on International Religious Freedom), Annual report on
religious freedom – Afghanistan, May 2023, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/202305/Afghanistan.pdf, accessed 26 October 2023
USCIRF (United States Commission on International Religious Freedom), Issue Update:
Religious freedom and women’s rights in Afghanistan, August 2023,
https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2023%20Religious%20Freedom%20and%20Wom
ens%20Rights%20in%20Afghanistan%20Issue%20Update_Final.pdf, accessed 26 October
2023
USCIRF (United States Commission on International Religious Freedom), Religious
Freedom and Women’s Rights in Afghanistan, 30 August 2023,
https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2023%20Religious%20Freedom%20and%20Wom
ens%20Rights%20in%20Afghanistan%20Issue%20Update_Final.pdf, accessed 26 October
2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), 2020 Country Report on Human Rights
Practices: Afghanistan, 30 March 2021, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2048097.html, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), 2021 Country Report on Human Rights
Practices: Afghanistan, 12 April 2022, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2071122.html, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), 2022 Country Report on Human Rights
Practices: Afghanistan, 20 March 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2089060.html,
accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report:
Afghanistan, 15 June 2023, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2093602.html, accessed
26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Communiqué of the U.S.-Europe Group on
Afghanistan, 22 September 2022, https://www.state.gov/communique-of-the-u-s-europegroup-on-afghanistan/, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2010, 8 April 2011, available at: https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1340751.html, accessed
26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices for2011 – Afghanistan, 24 May 2012, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1302468.html, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2012 - Afghanistan, 19 April 2013, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1071153.html, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2013 - Afghanistan, 27 February 2014, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1001955.html, accessed 26 October 2023
151

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUSDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2014 – Afghanistan, 25 June 2015, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1297615.html,
accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2015 – Afghanistan, 13 April 2016, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1306098.html, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2016 - Afghanistan, 3 March 2017, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1395012.html,
accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices2017 – Afghanistan, 20 April 2018, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1430103.html, accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2018 – Afghanistan, 13 March 2019, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2004129.html,
accessed 26 October 2023
USDOS (United States Department of State), Country Report on Human Rights Practices
2019 - Afghanistan, 11 March 2020, https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2026337.html,
accessed 26 October 2023
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), Amid Taliban Repression, Afghan Media Are a
Beacon of Hope, 10 August 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/08/amid-talibanrepression-afghan-media-are-beacon-hope, accessed 26 October 2023
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), One Year Later, Taliban Unable to Reverse
Afghanistan’s Economic Decline, 8 August 2022,
https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/08/one-year-later-taliban-unable-reverseafghanistans-economic-decline, accessed 26 October 2023
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), Taking a Terrible Toll: The Taliban’s Education Ban,
13 April 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/04/taking-terrible-toll-talibanseducation-ban, accessed 26 October 2023
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), The Taliban’s Successful Opium Ban is Bad for
Afghans and the World, 8 June 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/06/talibanssuccessful-opium-ban-bad-afghans-and-world, accessed 20 October 2023
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), Two Years into Taliban Rule, New Shocks Weaken
Afghan Economy, 10 August 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/08/two-yearstaliban-rule-new-shocks-weaken-afghan-economy, accessed 20 October 2023
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), Two Years of the Taliban’s ‘Gender Apartheid’ in
Afghanistan, 14 September 2023, https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/09/two-yearstalibans-gender-apartheid-afghanistan, accessed 20 October 2023

152

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

van Bijlert, M., The Taleban’s Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), 7 October 2021, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/the-talebans-caretaker-cabinet-and-othersenior-appointments/, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Afghan Fighting Season Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 28
April 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/afghan-fighting-season-ushers-in-new-anti-talibangroups/6542148.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Afghan Journalists Wary of Taliban Registration, 26 July 2023,
https://www.voanews.com/a/afghan-journalists-wary-of-taliban-registration-/7199247.html,
accessed 9 November 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Despite Taliban Ban, Secret Schools Educate Afghan Girls, 22
January 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/despite-taliban-ban-secret-schools-educateafghan-girls-/6928776.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Fading Afghan Media Give Space to Disinformation, 4 October
2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/fading-afghan-media-give-space-to-disinformation/6775911.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Female Afghan Journalists Describe Life Under Taliban Misogyny,
30 August 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/female-afghan-journalists-describe-lifeunder-taliban-misogyny/7248022.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Islamic State Bombing Kills 8 Afghan Shiite Mourners in Kabul, 5August 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-bombing-hits-shiite-area-ofkabul/6688865.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Hold Firm to Ban on Afghan Female Aid Workers, 30
December 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-hold-firm-to-ban-on-afghan-femaleaid-workers-/6898315.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban order Afghan media to use group’s official name, 1
October 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-order-afghan-media-to-use-group-sofficial-name/6254019.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Publicly Execute Convicted Murderer in Afghanistan, 7
December 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/islamist-taliban-publicly-execute-convictedmurderer-in-afghanistan-/6866149.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Say Travel Ban Hurts Diplomacy and Dialogue With World,
25 August 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-say-foreign-travel-ban-hurdle-tosettling-issues-through-peaceful-means-/6716112.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Undertake Speedy Overhaul of Afghanistan’s Justice
System, 28 September 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-undertake-speedyoverhaul-afghanistan-justice-system/7289101.html, accessed 26 October 2023

153

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMVOA (Voice of America), Taliban Welcome, Others Criticize Return of Former Afghan
Officials, 8 June 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-welcome-others-criticizereturn-of-former-afghan-officials/6609042.html, accessed 20 October 2023
VOA, Taliban: Afghan Education Advocate Detained Over 'Suspicious' Activities, 29 March
2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-afghan-education-advocate-detained-oversuspicious-activities/7027050.html, accessed 8 November 2023
VOA (Voice of America), Those Undermining Taliban 'Deserve Death,' Says Taliban
Minister, 15 March 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/7006159.html, accessed 7
November 2023
Washington Institute (The), Turkey Calls for Recognition of the Taliban’s Islamic Emirate, 17March 2022, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/turkey-calls-recognitiontalibans-islamic-emirate, accessed 20 October 2023
Washington Post (The), Afghan women who were divorced under prior government fear for
their status, 4 March 2023,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/03/04/afghanistan-taliban-women-marriagedivorce/, accessed 6 November 2023
Washington Post (The), As Afghan schools remain closed for girls, mental health crisis
builds, 7 July 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/07/07/afghanistanwomen-girls-mental-health/, accessed 20 October 2023
Washington Post (The), Taliban forging religious emirate in Afghanistan with draconian
Islamic law, 18 February 2023,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2023/afghanistan-taliban-islamic-lawrights/, accessed 20 October 2023
Washington Post (The), Where learning is against the law: A secret school for Afghan girls,
9 November 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/11/02/afghanistan-girlsschool-education-taliban/, accessed 20 October 2023
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021,
https://ctc.usma.edu/an-assessment-of-taliban-rule-at-three-months/, accessed 20 October
2023
Watkins, A., One Year After the Taliban Takeover, CTC Sentinel,
https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/CTC-SENTINEL-082022.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
Watkins, A., One Year Later: Taliban Reprise Repressive Rule, but Struggle to Build a State,
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), 17 August 2022,
https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/08/one-year-later-taliban-reprise-repressive-rulestruggle-build-state, accessed 20 October 2023
Watkins, A., The Taliban one year on, CTC Sentinel, August 2022,
https://ctc.westpoint.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/CTC-SENTINEL-082022.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023

154

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Weiss, S., One year into the Taliban’s second rule, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 18 August 2022,
https://www.boell.de/en/2022/08/18/one-year-into-the-talibans-second-rule, accessed 20
October 2023
WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan Food Security Update - 1st Quarter (JanuaryApril) 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-food-security-update-1stquarter-january-april-2023, accessed 20 October 2023
WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan Food Security Update - 2nd Quarter (June2023), 26 September 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-foodsecurity-update-2nd-quarter-june-2023, accessed 20 October 2023
WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan Food Security Update – December 2022, 21
February 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-food-security-updatedecember-2022, accessed 20 October 2023
WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan Food Security Update, November 2022,
https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000145958/download/, accessed 20 October2023
WFP (World Food Programme), Afghanistan: Countrywide Weekly Market Price Bulletin,
Issue 169: Week 4 September 2023, 2 October 2023,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-countrywide-weekly-market-pricebulletin-issue-169-week-4-september-2023, accessed 26 October 2023
WFP (World Food Programme), WFP in Afghanistan forced to drop 10 million people fromlifesaving assistance, deepening despair and worry for Afghans, 5 September 2023,
https://www.wfp.org/news/wfp-afghanistan-forced-drop-10-million-people-lifesavingassistance-deepening-despair-and, accessed 20 October 2023
WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan Emergency Situation Report, December
2022, https://www.emro.who.int/images/stories/afghanistan/emergency-situation-reportdecember.pdf?ua=1, accessed 20 October 2023
WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan Emergency Situation Report, December
22, https://www.emro.who.int/images/stories/afghanistan/emergency-situation-reportdecember.pdf?ua=1, accessed 20 October 2023
WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan, Hospital and laboratory services, 2023,
https://www.emro.who.int/afg/programmes/hospital-and-laboratory-services.html,
accessed 20 October 2023
WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August 2022,
https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/2022-08/A%20Children%E2%80%99s%20Crisis.pdf,
accessed 20 October 2023
WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August
2022, https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/202208/A%20Children%E2%80%99s%20Crisis.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023

155

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan’s health system is on the brink of collapse:
urgent action is needed, 24 January 2022, https://www.who.int/news-room/featurestories/detail/afghanistan-s-health-system-is-on-the-brink-of-collapse-urgent-action-isneeded, accessed 20 October 2023
WHO (World Health Organization), Afghanistan's health system suffers criticalunderfunding, calls for donor support, 18 August 2023, https://www.who.int/news/item/1808-2023-afghanistan-s-health-system-suffers-critical-underfunding--calls-for-donorsupport, accessed 20 October 2023
WHO Afghanistan [Twitter], posted on: 17 April 2023,
https://twitter.com/WHOAfghanistan/status/1647852006826995712, accessed 20 October
2023
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update - Uncertainty After Fleeting Stability, 3
October 2023, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-development-updateuncertainty-after-fleeting-stability-october-2023, accessed 20 October 2023
World Bank, Afghanistan Development Update, October 2022,
https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/d7d49962c0c44fd6bb9ba3bfe1b6de1f0310062022/original/Afghanistan-Development-Update-October-2022.pdf, accessed 26
October 2023
World Bank, Afghanistan Economic Monitor, 31 July 2023,
https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/556f10c93b28f880074208ad43583bf70310012023/original/Afghanistan-Economic-Monitor-31-July-2023.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
World Bank, Afghanistan Welfare Monitoring Survey, November
2022, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/e5065dff5ce7cced35c8d51150e903260310012022/original/WB-Afghanistan-AWMS-Brief-R2-Aug2022-V7.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
World Bank, Afghanistan, Key conditions and challenges, April 2023,
https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099906304122327182/pdf/IDU0070a05990
6f5204a5e09fdd0987724ab1df1.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
World Bank, Gross national income per capita 2022, Atlas method and PPP, 1 July 2023,
https://databankfiles.worldbank.org/public/ddpext_download/GNIPC.pdf, accessed 20
October 2023
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Arrests and Killings Drive Afghan Troops Once Allied With U.S.
Into Hiding. The Taliban appear to have launched a campaign to track down former Afghan
forces, the troops and American veterans trying to help they say, 26 August 2022,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/afghanistan-taliban-national-resistance-front-11661523527,
accessed 20 October 2023
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Maternity Care, Once a Sign of Hope in Afghanistan, Is Faltering
Under the Taliban, 18 July 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/afghanistan-maternity-careis-faltering-11658136601, accessed 20 October 2023

156

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban Commander Who Launched Bombings in Kabul Is Now a
Police Chief in Charge of Security, 20 October 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/talibancommander-who-launched-bombings-in-kabul-is-now-a-police-chief-in-charge-of-security11634740097, accessed 20 October 2023
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban Splits Emerge Over Religion, Power and Girls’ Schools, 1
July 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-splits-afghanistan-religion-girls-schools11656682831, accessed 20 October 2023
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban unveil new Afghan government, 7 September 2021,
https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-crack-down-on-protest-led-by-women-in-kabul11631014019, accessed 20 October 2023
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Who Are the Taliban and What’s Next for Afghanistan?, 27
September 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-are-the-taliban-11628629642,
accessed 20 October 2023
WVI (World Vision), Afghanistan: A Children's Crisis, 11 August
2022, https://www.wvi.org/sites/default/files/202208/A%20Children%E2%80%99s%20Crisis.pdf, accessed 20 October 2023
Yalda Hakim [Twitter], posted on: 29 August 2022,
https://twitter.com/BBCYaldaHakim/status/1431879692676521987, accessed 20 October
2023
Zabihullah [Twitter], posted on: 21 July 2022,
https://twitter.com/Zabehulah_M33/status/1550154759209893888?s=20&t=EXNYqe1SBeT
jfB29t4JL7w, accessed 20 October 2023
Zabihullah [Twitter], posted on: 3 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/Zabehulah_M33/status/1466663907750256642?s=20&t=OSIB1ZasfMSJ
XFjMESiE-A. , accessed 20 October 2023
ZAWIA News [Facebook], posted on: 22 August 2022,
https://www.facebook.com/ZAWIANews.af/photos/a.137128174411848/645427190248608/?
type=3, accessed 20 October 2023

157

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Annex 2: Terms of Reference
The reference period should be 1 July 2022 - 30 September 2023.
The report should cover the general security situation as regards conflict-related
violence, violent crime, and the humanitarian situation, and provide data on provincial
level where available. The report should also cover treatment by the Taliban and otherarmed groups of the profiles listed below, as well as provide information on societal
treatment where it is relevant.
Situation of the general population under Taliban rule• International recognition status of the de facto authorities• Territorial control• Political context and civic space, including the situation of Afghan media, thespace for anti-Taliban demonstrations and other criticism of the de facto
authorities• The Taliban’s implementation of the sharia, including capital and corporalpunishment• Treatment of individuals returning from abroad, in particular individuals
returning from Western countries• Treatment of individuals perceived as influenced by foreign values.
Security situation
This part should provide a country-wide overview of the situation, highlighting regional
and in some cases provincial specifics. It should focus on the dynamics concerning
armed resistance groups, on the one hand, and ISKP on the other. Brief information
should be provided on the provinces most affected by the above-mentioned conflicts.
••••

Presence of different armed actors
Conflict-data and recent security trends, including a geographical overview of
security trends and violence levels
Impact on the civilian population; casualties, impact on infrastructure,displacement and returns, including a geographical overview of trends
Crime trends and crime prevention under the Taliban, including a geographicaloverview of trends.

Humanitarian situation• National economic and financial situation, and poverty rates including ageographical overview of trends• Basic subsistence and employment, including a geographical overview oftrends• Food security, including a geographical overview of trends• Housing, including a geographical overview of trends• Healthcare, including a geographical overview of trends

158

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

Treatment of persons formerly affiliated with security institutions of the former
government (including military units, police units, NDS), and treatment of family
members
Treatment of persons formerly affiliated with foreign forces, and treatment offamily members
Treatment of public officials and servants of the former government (including
judicial workers), and treatment of family members
Treatment of women and girls• Social norms, including dress-codes and behaviour• Women’s and girls’ access to healthcare, education, employment and freedomof movement• Women’s and girls’ freedom of expression and assembly, including Taliban
reactions towards women-led demonstrations, and women’s visibility in media• Violence against women and girls, including forced and child marriage, sexual
violence and rape, domestic violence, and honour violence.
Religious freedom and treatment of religious and ethnic minorities• Religious freedom under Taliban rule (incl. aspects related to forced religious
practice)• Representation in the de facto authorities• Treatment of Hazaras and other Shias, including reports on discrimination andattacks• Treatment of other ethno-religious groups including reports on discrimination
and attacks.
Treatment of individuals with a perceived affiliation to armed groups
Treatment of journalists and media workers
Treatment of human rights defenders and activists
Treatment of humanitarian workers, including individuals working for national andinternational NGOs
Treatment of education personnel
Forced recruitment, including information on recruitment by the Taliban and armed
groups159

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Annex 3: Lists of national Taliban decrees
and instructions
This is a list of national decrees and instructions issued by the Taliban, based on research forthis report, previous reporting by the EUAA, and the AAN’s translation of the Taliban’s official
gazette issued on May 2023 (the gazette included instructions from 2016 and onwards).1035
The list is not exhaustive, and aims to provide an overview of national restrictions relevant forthis report.
Media and freedom of expression
•
•
•

•
•
•

Prohibition of indecency and profanity in the media, communications and letters (6May 2017)1036
prohibition of unauthorised assemblies (8 September 2021)
media should not address topics in conflict with Islam or ‘insulting national
personalities’, reports should be produced in coordination with the Taliban
government’s media office (23 September 2021)1037
women news presenters “must” wear headscarves when appearing on screen, andmen “must” wear proper clothes (22 November 2021)1038
prohibition of foreign drama series (March 2022)1039
a ban of defamation and unproven criticism of [de facto] government officials (21 July2022).1040

Women and girls
•

•
•

•

Gender segregation at private universities (September 2021). Classes should be
divided at least by a curtain, women should be taught by female teachers, or in thelack thereof, elderly men with ‘good character’1041
secondary education for girls was not reopened (September 2021)
decree on women’s rights (3 December 2021). Women should not be considered
property or being forced into marriage, widows should have a share in their husbands
property1042
women barred from appearing in television dramas, soap operas and entertainmentshows (November 2021)

AAN, Decrees, Orders and Instructions of His Excellency, Amir al-mu’minin, as published in the Official Gazetteon 22 May 2023, July 2023, url
1036
AAN, Decrees, Orders and Instructions of His Excellency, Amir al-mu’minin, as published in the Official Gazetteon 22 May 2023, July 2023, url, p. 3
1037
EASO, Afghanistan – Country focus, January 2022, url, pp. 34, 48
1038
EASO, Afghanistan – Country focus, January 2022, url, p. 39; CNN, Women banned from Afghan television
dramas under new Taliban media rules, 22 November 2021, url
1039
EASO, Afghanistan – Country focus, January 2022, url, p. 44
1040
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Bans ‘Unproven Allegations’ Against Members, 22 July 2022, url; Zabihullah[Twitter], posted on: 21 July 2022, url
1041
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 43
1042
EASO, Afghanistan – Country focus, January 2022, url, pp. 38–39
1035

160

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•

women news presenters ‘must’ wear headscarves when appearing on screen(November 2021)
women travelling more than 72 km should not be offered transport unlessaccompanied by a close male relative (26 December 2021)
drivers should not pick up female passengers without a hijab covering their hair (26December 2021)
the Taliban Health Ministry should gender-segregate employees by separating maleand female offices (16 March 2022)
secondary education for girls to remain closed (23 March 2022)
airlines should not let women board without a male chaperone (27 March 2022)
female teachers were recommended to wear hijab (15 April 2022)
women should cover their faces (7 May 2022). Failure to comply may result in the
woman’s father or closest male relative facing reprimands, imprisonment or being
fired from his employment. Women should not leave their homes unless ‘necessary’
all female television presenters ordered to cover their faces while presenting (19 May2022)1043
women are not allowed to visit recreational parks, public baths1044 and gyms1045 in
Kabul City (November 2022) [It was not clear whether this extends to other areas1046]
university education for women was suspended (December 2022)1047
national and international NGOs were instructed to suspend female staff members, orrisk losing their licences (24 December 2022)1048
women were prohibited to work for UN organs (5 April 2023)1049
beauty salons were ordered to close within one month (24 June 2023).1050

Other
•
•
•
•

Leadership approval needed for hudud and qisas punishments (6 May 2017)1051
male students and teachers were called upon not to wear ties (15 April 2022)
body building athletes should cover ‘abdominal muscles and limbs with loose-fitting
garments’ (17 June 2022)1052
people were called on to avoid celebrating Valentine’s Day (14 February 2023) 1053

EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, pp. 43–45, 100
RFE/RL, Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses, Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10November 2022, url
1045
France24, Taliban bans Afghan women from gyms, public baths, 13 November 2022, url
1046
RFE/RL, Banned From Public Parks And Bathhouses, Afghan Women Say Life Under Taliban Is Like A 'Prison', 10November 2022, url
1047
TOLOnews, Lecturer Rips Up His Certificates to Protest Ban on Women’s Education, 1 January 2023, url;
Guardian (The), Taliban ban Afghan women from university education, 20 December 2022, url
1048
TOLOnews, Ministry Orders NGOs to Suspend Female Staff, 24 December 2022, url
1049
UN News, Excluded from Education, Public Life, Women, Girls Facing ‘Gender Apartheid’ in Afghanistan,Delegate Tells Security Council, 21 June 2023, url
1050
AP, The Taliban are outlawing women's beauty salons in Afghanistan, 4 July 2023, url
1051
AAN, Decrees, Orders and Instructions of His Excellency, Amir al-mu’minin, as published in the Official Gazetteon 22 May 2023, July 2023, url, p. 3
1052
EUAA, Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals, August 2022, url, p. 45
1053
RFE/RL, The Thrill Is Gone For Valentine's Day In Taliban-Controlled Kabul, 14 February 2023, url; Khaama
Press, Citizens in Afghanistan Were Not Allowed to Celebrate Valentine's Day, 15 February 2023, url
1043

1044

161

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

•
•
•

•

celebrations of Nowruz were condemned by some de facto authorities (March
2023)1054
a ban of poppy cultivation (5 April 2022)1055
restricted access to the social media platform TikTok and the online game
PlayerUnknown’s Battleground, closure of channels with ‘immoral programs’ (21 April
2022)1056
sorcery is prohibited (7 August 2023).1057

Hast-e Subh, Taliban Oppose Nowruz Celebrations, 23 March 2023, url; Kabul Now, Taliban in Herat prohibit
people from celebrating Nowruz, 21 March 2023, url
1055
AAN, Decrees, Orders and Instructions of His Excellency, Amir al-mu’minin, as published in the Official Gazetteon 22 May 2023, July 2023, url, p. 41056
EASO, Afghanistan – Country focus, January 2022, url, p. 44
1057
UNAMA, Human Rights situation in Afghanistan, July – September 2023 Update, 23 October 2023, url, p. 7
1054

162

AFGHANISTAN – COUNTRY FOCUS

163