Developmental changes in second language self-concept:
A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

Akira NAKAYAMA1), Sarah FAHERTY2), Glenn Amon MAGEE1) and Hiroki YOSHIDA3)
1) English Education Center, Institute for Education and Student Support, Ehime University
2) Sojo University
3) Kanto Gakuin University

must be examined within a cultural context that includes

Introduction

educational settings. This raises the question of what

There has been a great deal of interest in the rolecharacterizes the L2 self-concept of advanced learners ofof learner beliefs in second language (L2) learning,

English as a foreign language (EFL) in a speciﬁc cultural

particularly in terms of how these aﬀect the relationshipenvironment, speciﬁcally in Japan.

between learners aﬀect (i.e., motivation, self-conﬁdence,

To trace the processes involved in the formation,

and anxiety) and their decision making processes.

maintenance, and evolution of L2 learners self-concept

Researchers have also focused on the self-related

in the Japanese context, this paper examines the L2

constructs of aﬀective and cognitive factors and haveself-concept of tertiary-level Japanese EFL learners

used several psychological theories to explain thewith high proﬁciency. Highlighting the role of learner

phenomena observed, such as attribution theory, goal

beliefs during the development of the L2 self-concept, wetheory, self-determination theory, etc. The standard

speciﬁcally consider the role of learners

practice is to adopt quantitative methodologies using

language learning before and after taking the English

psychometric testing techniques to establish a theoreticalentrance exams for a Japanese university. EFL is a

psychological construct and model.

required component of the Japanese school curriculum,

beliefs about

Although this statistical approach has provided

and so there is a stronger focus on studying English,

researchers with an understanding of general tendencies

particularly in preparation for university entrance

in the characteristics of a group of learners (Papi

exams, than there is on using English for communicative& Teimouri, 2014), amanner of

purposes. Thus, their beliefs about learning English,

investigation is not well-suited to uncovering the unique

however, are likely to change after completion of thestructure and development of a particular personʼs beliefs

university entrance examination because their reason

in a complex educational and social context (Mercer,

for studying English will have changed. For incetance,2011). In the face of the lack of research on this topic,

their views change through taking university courses

there is a need for a thorough understanding of L2

in English that focus on English for communicative

learners

self-concept from a holistic perspective. Self-

purposes; otherwise, that this changes due to otherconcept is by nature open to redeﬁnition in response

reasons such as overseas studies, or faculty required

to contextual variation and change because a personʼspresentations in English.

depersonalized

beliefs, which are the foundation of the self-concept,

This paper begins by deﬁning the notions of self-vary in response to oneʼs socio-cultural and educational

concept and belief, and oﬀering a review of studies

surroundings. Therefore, the ﬁndings obtained by meanson the self-concept and beliefs of an L2 learner. Theof self-report data in cross-sectional research designs

methodology of this study is then described, and theare regarded as somewhat tenuous. Moreover, as factors

rationale for adopting the qualitative research paradigm

aﬀecting self-concept are also inﬂuenced by socio-cultural

expanded by Dörnyei and his colleagues (Dörnyei &issues and norms, L2 learners self-concept development

Chen, 2013) are set out. Finally, data collected through

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 201817

Akira NAKAYAMA, Sarah FAHERTY, Glenn Amon MAGEE, Hiroki YOSHIDA

interviews with three advanced Japanese EFL learners

When a belief is reinforced by repeated experiences orare analyzed from the perspective of retrodictive

certain inﬂuential event(s), it becomes embedded in oneʼs

qualitative modeling, and the developmental changes

self-concept. If not, a belief remains on the periphery as ain self-concept are reported. The term retrodictive ispart of the working self-concept (Markus & Wurf, 1987).

used here in opposition to predictive , and refers to the

The Peripheral Elements of the L2 Self-concept

tracing of reasons for individuals becoming second, or

Since the L2 self-concept develops with L2 learning

foreign, language learners by identifying relevant pastexperience, certain peripheral elements of L2 self-concept,

experiences (Dörnyei & Chen, 2013).

such as motivation, aﬀect, and self-regulation (Mercer,2011), can also change over time because they are
directly aﬀected by social and educational environments.

Literature Review

This section describes the eﬀects of these three variableson the formation of L2 self-concept.

Deﬁnition of the L2 Self-concept
We consider that L2 self-concept can be readily

Motivation contributes to the formation of the belief

understood through the view that self-beliefs comprisesystem, and makes L2 self-concept more complex. In theboth dynamic and relatively stable dimensions (Mercer,

traditional L2 research paradigm, researchers assumed2011). With regard to the dynamism of the self-concept,that motivation was well understood if it predictedMarkus and Wurf (1987, p.329) have deﬁned the self-

learners

concept as

dynamic and capable of change, as it

seek the pleasure of learning new things are regarded

reﬂects and mediates the actions of individuals who are

as intrinsically motivated, whereas those who study

negotiating a variety of social circumstances, meaning

English to get a good job in the future are regarded

that oneʼs self-concept will vary over the course ofas extrinsically motivated. The present research, inoneʼs life and is aﬀected by oneʼs social experiences. By

contrast, assumes that learners motivations originate in

introducing ato the traditional

their past experiences and adopts a retrodictive modelingmodel of self-concept (Epstein, 1973), Markus and Wurf

analysis that consists of an in-depth examination of(1987) explained the process of the alternation andthe history of each learner. In the sense that their past

modiﬁcation in the dynamic self-concept.

experiences cannot be changed, the development of theirworking self-concept

Concerning the components of the dynamic selfconcept, Markus and Wurf (1987) assumed that the

future behaviors. For example, learners whocore beliefs and motivation is related to their experiences
in a straightforward manner.

elements that are

Aﬀect, deriving from positive and negative feelings,

independent of the domain-speciﬁc context and lessis the second variable of the L2 learner that inﬂuences

susceptible to change, as well as peripheral

self-concept consists of stablecore

elements

the pursuit of learning English (Mercer, 2011). In thisthat are less stable, but rather active, and are dependent

regard, an interesting and well-known phenomenonon the domain-specific context. The psychologicalconcerns the role of both positive and negative feelings

construct of the self-concept is thought to be nested in(i.e., those facilitating anxiety) in L2 learning (Scovel,

belief systems, which are described as multi-layered

1978). Some EFL learners are motivated, despite fearing

webs of relationships (Barcelos, 2003). As a stable part ofnegative evaluation from others for their errors, hoping

a primitive belief system, a core concept is formed in anto escape embarrassing situations in the future. The

individualʼs mind as a result of interactions with others

self-evaluation maintenance model further explains the(e.g., friends, teachers, and parents) and the social andmaintenance of a positive self-evaluation on the basis

educational environments of early childhood. Figurativelyof others evaluation (Tesser, 1988). One of the central

speaking, the personal self-concept gradually becomesprocesses in this model entails comparison of oneself tolarger, like a snowball, as an individual ages (Smith,others. For instance, some individuals avoid comparison2012). Beliefs located near the periphery are updated andof their accomplishments to those of a close friend, asrevised easily, but the core concept is not easily altered

this might threaten their self-evaluation (Suls & Wills,

because of the strength of neuronal connections that1991), whereas others endorse self-evaluation throughform the self , as a result of individual life experiences.

comparison with the poor performance of anotherWe deﬁne a belief as an organized portion of knowledge(Gibbons, 1986). Thus, an original fear of receiving

about oneʼs subjective feelings toward an entity or event.

negative evaluation from others may be updated as

18

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

Developmental changes in second language self-concept: A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

the person matures, meets new friends, and develops

oral exercises. However, most students in Japan who hopesocial relationships. In this way, aﬀect is not static but

to enter a Japanese national or public university mustis open to change under the inﬂuence of life context

prepare for an English test (the National Center Test forand social experience. As an example of this, Cutrone

University Admission), which is conducted in a paper-(2010) summarized Japanese communication styles andbased format and requires receptive skills (i.e., reading

reported that Japanese EFL learners predisposition toand listening) rather than productive skills (i.e., speaking

adhere to the cultural concept of Wa (i.e., maintenanceand writing). High-school classes in Japan thereforeof harmony in group situations) created diﬃculties fortend to focus on English grammar exercises, reading

learning the target language, as they needed to maintaincomprehension of texts, and listening-comprehension

their self-evaluation both among friends and within theexercises conducted in controlled conditions thatJapanese cultural system. To address these issues, thisdecontextualize English from their source meanings

paper examines individual aﬀect in relation to learners

and reinterpret them as objects that can be understoodcomparison of themselves to others in the process ofwithin the Japanese cultural paradigm. This creates adeveloping their L2 self-concept in the Japanese EFL

clear discrepancy between the goals of the educational

context.

system and the reality of classroom outcomes, which has

The third important variable aﬀecting self-concept isself-regulation, as it not only shapes concrete goals forlead to an unbalanced integration of students

Englishskills.

learning, but also deﬁnes self-concept allowing for its

Another component contributing to L2 learners coreextensive elaboration. This means self-concept is not

self-concept that is inﬂuenced by the Japanese socio-

only open to change, but indeed varies optimally. Whileeducational context concerns beliefs about the nature of

the above two psychological constructs are somewhat

EFL learning. In Japan, English is a formal school subject

constrained in terms of their degree of agency andin both junior and senior high schools. Students study

holistic competency, self-regulation guides and controls

English for a total of six years, mainly in classroom

learners actions (i.e., learning) in a speciﬁc domain. One

settings, before entering universities. The English

compelling theory is that self-regulatory mechanisms

curriculum is constrained by the course of study oﬀeredwork to enhance, scaﬀold, or protect learning-speciﬁc

by MEXT in that schools are only allowed to utilize one

actions (Dörnyei, 2003). The interplay of these threeof a limited number of government endorsed textbooks

mechanisms in processing a task is described as follows:

for teaching and evaluative purposes. In addition, due to

While learners are engaged in executing a task, theya lack of authentic English resources in Japan, students

continuously appraise the process, and when the ongoing

often do not have opportunities for exposure to English

monitoring reveals that progress is slowing, halting, orconversation outside their classrooms. In short, English

backsliding, they activate the action control system tois seen by many as purely as a school subject. Whereassave

L2 learners

or enhance the action(Dörnyei, 2003, p. 16).

beliefs about competency are embedded

In this paper, self-regulation is discussed in relationas cognitive-learning-style traits, beliefs about theto learners

nature of learning the target language are more ﬂexible

judgment of linguistic competency andlanguage learning behaviors.

because L2 learners adjust their learning behaviors

Beliefs as a Source of L2 Self-concept

to the contexts in which the learning takes place. As

One important component of self-concept is a belief inthese contexts, especially in Japan, include teachers

the ﬁxedness of oneʼs competency (Mercer, 2011). In theshared educational norms, one example being that manycase of the L2 self-concept, this entails the L2 learners

Japanese teachers put more energy into club activities

evaluation of their current competence in the target

than the subject they are licensed to teach. Indeed, as

language. In Japan, the goal of EFL learning set by thewell as the teachers and students goals in studying the

Ministry of Education, Science, Sport, and Technology

language, which is predominantly to pass high school or(MEXT), for both teachers and students, is the general

university entrance exams, it is diﬃcult to change suchintegration of the four language skills (i.e., speaking,beliefs while L2 learners remain in such contexts.

listening, reading, and writing). Therefore, English classes

The Importance of Focusing on an Individualat Japanese junior high schools have recently trended

Qualitative research studies using narrative data do

toward a communicative-oriented atmosphere with many

not deal with population-based samples, but are a form

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 201819

Akira NAKAYAMA, Sarah FAHERTY, Glenn Amon MAGEE, Hiroki YOSHIDA

of case-centered inquiry aimed at producing context-

form for this research study.

dependent knowledge, which is entirely diﬀerent from

Takahiro, a pseudonym, was a male student who

rule-based knowledge and predictive theories that aim

had started job hunting at the outset of this study. He

to summarize case studies and make generalizations

was a student in the Department of Material Science(Rimissman, 2008). In fact, although a number of studies

and Engineering. According to the TOEIC-SW® test

have considered groups to describe the abstract systemdescriptor, he ranked at Level 7 in both speaking andof beliefs related to L2 learning, the complex web ofwriting.

beliefs within a speciﬁc individual has not been examined.

Saeko, a pseudonym, is a female student and she had

For instance, learners who have contradictory beliefs canjust started searching for post-graduate employment

still succeed in EFL learning. Hence, the individual belief

while participating in this study. She belonged to thesystem requires in-depth investigation via qualitative

Department of Education, but planned to work in amethods that focus on the individual (Dörnyei & Chan,company.
Rimi, a pseudonym, was another female student who2013).

had also started job hunting at the outset of this study.
She was a student in the Department of Law and Letters

Methodand majored in comprehensive policy making.

Research Questions
The current study aimed to answer two research

Table 2. Overview of the Primary Data Documents

questions:Primary documents(1) How did the L2 self-concept form in a Japanese EFL

Written Text 1 (WT1): Responses
in JapaneseInterview 1 (IW1): Interview memos
in JapaneseInterview 2 (IW2): Interview memos
in JapaneseInterview 3 (IW3): Interview memos
in Japanese
Written Text 2 (WT2): Full interview
entries in English

settings?
(2) How did learning beliefs change over the course of
studying English as a foreign language context?
Participants
Our initial participants were 30 Japanese university
students who were all 23 years old and were born andraised in Japan. They had taken English classes in local
schools (see Table 1). The students took four required
English classes as university freshmen and took theDate collected
May 21‒24, 2012
June 11, 2012
June 28, 2012
August 1, 2012
September 17, 2012

Data Collection
The sequence of data collection activities is outlined

Professional English Training Programin Table 2. First, on a paper-based questionnaire, theduring their sophomore year. Among them, we focusedparticipant was asked to answer, in Japanese, open-

on only three highly proﬁcient, unique, and qualiﬁed

ended questions regarding what they thought about

students who were non-English major, had completed two

their English proﬁciency and the factors that contributed

English proﬁciency tests, had studied abroad for moreto their current English skills. Next, based on theirthan six months, and desired to use English as a tool in

responses, three semi-structured interviews were

their future work. The participants signed the consent

conducted with the participants in order to (1) record inminor course

Table 1. Participant Characteristics
First Name

Takahiro

Saeko

Rimi

Major

Material Engineering

Education

Comprehensive Policy Making

Proﬁciency

Reading / Listening

Reading / Listening

Reading / Listening

TOEIC® 2009

265 / 340

255 / 295

220 / 340

TOEIC® 2010

325 / 400

295 / 400

325 / 410

TOEIC® 2011

390 / 490

340 / 450

410 / 465

TOEIC® 2012

410 / 480

340 / 495

435 / 460

Speaking / Writing

Speaking / Writing

Speaking / Writing

160 / 140

140 / 170

150 / 150

TOEIC-SW® 2012
*Levels of TOEIC-SW Descriptor
Study Abroad

20

Speaking: 7 / Writing: 7

Speaking: 6 / Writing: 8

Speaking: 6 / Writing: 7

Canada: Apr 2010- Mar 2011

Australia: Jan 2010- Mar 2011

New Zealand: Apr 2010- Mar 2011

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

Developmental changes in second language self-concept: A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

detail developmental changes in their beliefs and L2 self-

development of L2 learner beliefs. In this section, data

concept, (2) record their thoughts regarding EFL learning

for the participants are reported from two perspectives,at each stage of their education, and (3) help to code theirnamely core and peripheral components of self-concept,

questionnaire responses. As the required data concernedand developmental changes in self-beliefs.

their past experiences and thoughts regarding a speciﬁc

Takahiroʼs Core Concept

domain, they were asked to recall things related to their

Takahiroʼs response below highlights how diﬀerent EFL

EFL learning in an introspective manner.

skills were related during his learning.

The interviews were conducted by a Japanese English

As for writing skills, the sentences I wrote tended to be longteacher who was a certiﬁed school psychologist and had

before my speaking improved. However, once I can be more

more than ﬁve years of experience in clinical university

conscious of reading my sentences, the sentences I write [sic]settings. Because the interviewer had well-establishedhave been gradually shorter and easier to read. (WT2 H,

relationships and rapport with the participants, they

90–92)

could talk openly about their experiences and feelings.

Takahiroʼs analysis of his competency referred to clinicalTo keep the veracity of the statement and improve theissues related to learning English. The target of his

accuracy of the retrospective reports, the interviewer

comparison was himself, which means that rather thanadopted the technique of landmark-event-type questioning

estimating his competency by comparing himself to(Loftus & Marburger, 1983) where the interviewer asked

others, he measured his proﬁciency in comparison to his

the participants to remember their past experience,prior abilities. This is typical of self-instructed learning.

which helped the participants to recall the reference

In the extract below, he demonstrated how he identiﬁed

period and reduce telescoping effects (Sudman &and tackled his weak points.

Bradburn, 1973). The interview data were translated

As for reading skills, when I was a high school student, I

from Japanese to English and the translations checked

made every eৼort to read the passage as fast as possible

by a native English speaker. The English versions wereand I never thought of phrase structures, like where I should

also checked and revised by the participants. Finally, themake a pause in a sentence to ¿nd the groups of a certain

interview data were examined to identify developmental

meaning. However, the more my speaking skills improve, thechanges in their beliefs and L2 self-concepts in order tomore my reading skills improve in that I can pause when I

elucidate the role of learner beliefs in the development

speak in English to say what I mean to others clearly. By this,process.

I could understand the phrase structures in a sentence more

The interviews required them to consider past events

clearly. (WT2 H, 83–88)

that had made a signiﬁcant impression on them. Thus,

The above extract shows that noticing the relationshipit was necessary to focus on successful Japanese EFL

between diﬀerent skills and measuring his proﬁciency

learners rather than beginner students because it islevels in English across skills contributed to Takahiroʼs

impossible to predict who will be successful learners,

improved holistic competence. He did not wait to beor how they will become successful. In short, wetaught; rather he was active, independent, and responsible

concentrated on recording and describing the past

for his own learning.

experiences, what had inﬂuenced their beliefs, andTurning to Takahiroʼs beliefs about the nature ofwhether any signiﬁcant landmarks could be identiﬁed.

learning EFL, these were connected to his experience ofThis retrospective research strategy allowed us to

studying abroad. He did not have any childhood foreign

investigate the complex, dynamic systems underlying

language experience, and so his ideas on the nature of

the participants

retrodictive

learning EFL stemmed from his learning experience at

is used here in opposition to predictive , and refers toschool in Japan. However, regarding his experience ofthe tracing of reasons for individuals becoming second,

studying abroad in Canada, he reported as follows:

self-concept. The termor foreign, language learners by identifying relevant past

One of the factors that contributed to my improvement inexperiences (Dörnyei & Chen, 2013).

English is the instruction that I received in a language school
in &anada. The most eৼective way of teaching English, that

Results
The participants exhibited unique trajectories in their
大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

I realized, was by one of my teachers, who was in charge ofthe advanced class I belonged to. (WT2 H, 119–122)
The contrast between his reported self-directed approach21

Akira NAKAYAMA, Sarah FAHERTY, Glenn Amon MAGEE, Hiroki YOSHIDA

to learning and his assertion that the teaching heovercome his focus on accuracy, by helping him learn

received in Canada was a key factor in his improvement

what was important: I could tell what I should correct .

is interesting. It suggests that Takahiro was aware of

By focusing on key words, Takahiro was able to balance

the need to use the resources available to him in order tohis desire to speak correctly with his need to speak morebuild his English skills, including self-made resources andﬂuently.

those provided in class.

Saekoʼs Core Concept

Peripheral Components of Takahiroʼs Self-concept
Takahiroʼs EFL learning motivation is identiﬁed in thefollowing passage:

Saekoʼs core concept was also investigated in a series
of interviews. Firstly, her beliefs of competency were
examined.

I could not make myself understood in English when I

Although I have not intentionally prepared for the TOEIC

joined the 10-day exchange program abroad, but I felt andtest, I de¿nitely think that my holistic English language skills

realized that it is [sic] quite fun to have such cross-cultural

have improved when I consult my scores. (WT2 S, 6–7)

experience even when I felt uneasy and frustrated that I

Her assessment of her abilities was created using the

could not communicate with people there. This, in turn, led

TOEIC score as a guide, rather than her perception

to my motivation for further study. (WT2 H, 114–117)

of her performance. The accuracy of her assessment

Regarding Takahiroʼs aﬀect, his frustration related to ansuggests that she can correctly interpret her test scores.

inability to communicate motivated him, demonstrating

However, it appears that she is aware of its limitations,that it is possible for negative experiences to haveas she readily admits that she did not prepare speciﬁcallya positive impact. The enjoyment Takahiro found infor these tests. She also demonstrates an awareness ofexperiencing new cultures through English outweighed

the need to balance the four skills to achieve ﬂuency.

his frustration at not being able to communicate at the

As for me, I am different from the general Japaneselevel he desired, as expanded upon below.

university student, I recognize myself that I am good at

As for my speaking skills, I didn¶t have any con¿dence

listening and speaking but poor at reading. Since I think if

because I felt anxious about, for example, whether what I am

I read more books, my 4 skills would be balanced. So I am

saying is grammatically right or not, and my utterances were

now making an eৼort with joining the Book Club. (WT2 S,

understandable for others etc. And I could only speak in

28–31)

short sentences in order not to make mistakes. However, thisAs the above quote shows, Saeko not only recognizes her

strategy led to me saying the surface things and make [sic]areas for improvement, she also has the self-motivation

me to speak slowly and less Àuently. (WT H, 94–98)

to act on them. She realizes that by creating a book

Again, above we see how Takahiro identiﬁed his weak

club, she will be able to work on her reading skills,

point, anxiety about accuracy, which we saw above

which she has identiﬁed as a weak point in her English

when he reported using his reading skills to improve

performance. Additionally, this quote shows Saekoʼs

his speaking skills. His anxiety about the accuracy ofself-conﬁdence. When comparing herself with Japanese

his utterances also illustrates his beliefs about correct

university students, she does not over-evaluate her skills,

English, and this can be connected to his experience inalthough she recognizes that she is diﬀerent to the norm.

the Japanese school system, which focused on grammar

Creating a book club to improve her reading skills shows

and vocabulary, as is clear from the following:

how Saekoʼs perceived competency eﬀects her agency

However, the teacher always listened very carefully toand makes her willing to engage in certain behaviors.

the students’ utterance one by one, and then the teacher

Next, Saekoʼs beliefs about the nature of learning

corrected them even though they were very small mistakes

English as a foreign language revealed another aspect

each time. Thanks to this instruction, I could know veryof core self-concept of L2 learners. As the following

small, basic mistakes that I have made unconsciously. In

quote shows, she understood the diﬀerence between

addition, by knowing the parts of my utterance that were

receptive and productive skills, due to her time studying

not pointed out and corrected by the teacher, I also could

overseas. Her observation of the diﬀerences between thehave more con¿dence. /ike this, I could tell what I should

various types of English proﬁciency test shows that she

correct from what I should not correct, which lead to myhas noticed the emphasis on receptive skills in English

improvement of English. (WT2 H, 126–132)

education in Japan.

The teaching style of Takahiroʼs teacher helped him
22

While studying abroad, I took several prep courses for
大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

Developmental changes in second language self-concept: A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

Cambridge English Test, IE/TS and TOE)/ I realized that

understood in English in daily life outside Japan with juniorreading and listening skills are heavily focused on in TOEIC,

high school level English. However, I de¿nitely need morewhich is highly popular in English education in Japan. As forterminology for deep and professional discussions. (WT2 S,

the example, I think that they are many people who cannot

14–16)

speak English even though they scored high in TOEIC. (WT2

Although Saeko realizes that she needs only elementaryS, 23–26)

level English in order to communicate, she seeks to go

Peripheral Components of Saekoʼs Self Concept
Saeko clearly expresses her motivation to learn
English.
My motivation for studying English originated in mychildhood overseas experience. I think I was 4 or 5 years

beyond that to broaden the kind of conversation she canparticipate in.
Rimiʼs Core Concept
The extract from Rimiʼs responses below reveals
another type of attribution of EFL competency.

old at that time. When my family stayed in the US because

In my personal experience studying in New Zealand helpedof my father’s job, I was impressed by feeling diৼerent

me to improve all 4 skills so that they are all equally strong,cultures, even though I was a child at that time, and also

but I still feel that I am not good at speaking English, andby communicating in English with people having diৼerent

I am sure that this feeling will not disappear in the future.

cultural backgrounds. At the same time, as I saw my parents(WT2 R, 150–152)

speaking English, I came to have a strong motivation that

Rimiʼs responses show that she attributed the integration

I also wanted to speak English when I got older. (WT2 S,

of her English skills to her surroundings while abroad

42–47)and that she realized that all four skills were strong.

Saekoʼs motivation, then, is ﬁrmly rooted in her childhood,

However, she still showed fear about speaking English.

generated by her experience living overseas as a child,This ambivalent state might stem from her personality

with her parents as role models. She was able to create

traits. Her cognitive style, which is considered to bea realistic goal by observing her parents English ability,

stable throughout oneʼs life, was to rigidly evaluate her

and this goal has remained stable throughout her English

English skills and proﬁciency. Additionally, in the process

education. This motivation thus acts as a core conceptof self-evaluation, she appeared to underestimate herthat has not changed over time. She connects language

level of English proﬁciency. Such contradictory beliefs areto culture, viewing English as a tool for satisfying her

clear from the following extract:

curiosity about other cultures.

Some people may stop studying English because they have an

The cross-cultural experiences of her childhood are

inferiority complex. Others may continue to study English inembedded in Saekoʼs mind, and are the origin of herorder to overcome such inferiority complex. In my case, both

motivation. This motivation has helped her pursue herhave happened. This is somewhat contradictory, but since I

English studies throughout her school career. Her belief

am never content unless I am the best, I would make every

in her potential aptitude may stem from her witnessingeৼort to be the best. On the other hand, I also feel that I am

her parents, who acted as role models, communicating

so proud of myself that I don’t want to try the game that I

eﬀectively in English during their time living abroad.

de¿nitely lose. So, such mixed feelings may sometimes makeThe following quote shows Saekoʼs excitement thatme feel study English and sometimes not. (WT2 R, 170–175)

she no longer had to focus on the general high school

This extract raises an important question: How do such

curriculum upon entering university. She has a favorable

conﬂicting beliefs operate in diﬀerent situations? As Rimi

attitude to learning English, and this lead to her sense ofmentioned above, L2 learners are not always consistentliberation when she could specialize in this subject. She

in their beliefs about learning. Several ideas about

sees being able to focus on English as a positive aspect oflearning English, although sometimes contradictory, canher life at university, and that further study is a valuableco-occur and aﬀect the trajectory of learning. In Rimiʼsopportunity.

case, it seems that she wanted to use English only in

When I became a university student, I thought, “Uh… fromsituations where she could

now on, I can study English as much as I want!” In my case,belief conﬂicts with the reality that it takes L2 learners

I remember that I was studying mathematics, which is mya long time to develop their skills, which means thatweak subject, when I was at high school. (WT2 S, 49–51)

it is impossible to start at a high skill level. However,At that same time, I also realized that I can make myself

Rimi evaluated herself through a comparison process,

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018win

or be the best. This

23

Akira NAKAYAMA, Sarah FAHERTY, Glenn Amon MAGEE, Hiroki YOSHIDA

game approach to measurethat I had had a sense of failure in my overseas experienceher proﬁciency. Although she claimed to make every

in childhood. The other is that I strongly wanted to live

eﬀort to excel, she also tended to avoid situations thatoverseas since childhood. These two things have motivatedthreatened her self-evaluation. By not trying a game thatme to study English. (WT2 R, 165–168)

meaning that she used a

she might lose, she could keep her self-evaluation positive

Rimi acknowledged that her experience abroad motivatedand continue learning and using English in the Japanese

her to study English to an advanced level. Whereas she

EFL context.

could not understand her siblings lack of EFL learning

Rimi believed that she owed her English proﬁciency

motivation, Rimi seemed to accept her classmates

to English classes in high school, as is clear from thesimilar lack of interest. Although she had mixed feelings

following extract:

about her childhood experience abroad, it undoubtedly

I think that the basic foundations that I learned before my

motivated her to study further. This suggests that Rimi

graduation from high school have a great impact on myvalued the environmental factors of her upbringing

current English skills, thanks to my teachers in my highmore than her experience at school for provoking her

school days . (WT2 R, 189–193)

interest in English. Her hope to live abroad motivated her

Rimi seemed to be aware that her high school EFL

further and was connected to her previous experience.

curriculum was beneﬁcial to her learning, and she had

Thus, Rimiʼs motivation originated in the cross-culturalused that foundation to improve her English proﬁciency

experiences she had at an early age, and this reinforced

during her time at university. She also mentioned

her belief in the role of environmental factors.

environmental factors, especially her familyʼs timeoverseas, as having had a strong impact on her EFL

In addition, Rimi mentioned the role of her personality
in her degree of EFL learning motivation:

learning. Rimi reported the impact of her family on her

If there is something to diৼerentiate me from others, that

English learning as follows:

would be my longing for being a good speaker of English andThanks to my parents, I have experienced such things [cf.

my personality that I am never content until I made it. (WT2

the aforementioned experience], so I think the environmental

R, 182–185)

factors have a great impact on me and contributed to my

As mentioned in above, clear and fair perceptions andEnglish skills. But even though my elder sister and brotherevaluations about oneʼs skills and mental states are

were raised by the same parents and went to the samethe foundation for establishing a self-concept. Rimiʼsschool as me, they are not at all interested in English. That

longing simply pushed her forward, but the direction

is incomprehensible and also interesting to me. (WT2 R,

that she went was determined by her personality. This

199–203)

was related to her long-held inferiority complex. In

Rimiʼs belief in the role of environmental factors in EFL

addition, this was closely related to her aﬀect.

disinterest

With respect to Rimiʼs aﬀect, her pursuit of EFL

in pursuing further English study. Rimi believedlearning can be understood in terms of both her positivethat someone with an upbringing like hers would

and negative feelings, both of which can facilitate L2

automatically develop an interest in the English language.

learning. This is clear from the extract below.

learning was challenged by her siblings

However, her siblings had the same upbringing but did

Rather than the sense of my awareness that I am not good

not develop the same interests. In Rimiʼs case, there mustat speaking English, I think I have an inferiority complex

be further reasons why she became interested in English,

toward both native speakers and those who speak English

as environmental factors were to the sole motivators.

better than I. (WT2 R, 154–156)

Peripheral Components of Rimiʼs Self-concept
As mentioned in the introductory section, this study

Rimiʼs negative feelings towards her English skills
urged her to strive to improve her skills, although her

motivation for learning

preparedness for (or resignation towards) potential

English that originated in their past experiences.

negative evaluation seems robust. As she confessed, she

Consider the following extract in this regard:might judge a situation in terms of the evaluations offocused on the participants

However, not all of my classmates at that time who haveothers close to her in a speciﬁc domain (i.e., in speaking

taken the same English classes have acquired the same

English, which featured highly in her self-relevance). This

basics as me. In that sense, I think there is something I have,means that avoiding such situations directly facilitated

like motivation. In my case, there are two things. One is

her English learning. For Rimi, aﬀect can be translated

24

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

Developmental changes in second language self-concept: A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

into self-regulation, which controlled her behavior inlearning and using English in ideal environments.
Developmental Changes in Self-beliefs
When an L2 learnerʼs self-beliefs about their EFL
learning change drastically and are replaced with

its necessity for his future.
To change this frustrating situation, Takahiro decided
to study abroad. However, while studying abroad, he
suﬀered from another negative feeling: fear of his futureachievement, as expressed in the extract below.

new beliefs, their purpose in learning English may/earning English was a preparation for studying abroad. I

also change, even though their learning environment

was really frustrated with my surroundings at that time. So

remains the same. Various experiences can cause

when I decided to go and study abroad, my short-term goalchanges in self-beliefs, such as an unexpected meetingfor studying English was really focused. On the other hand,with good teachers, friends and rivals, environmental

during my time abroad, I had felt somehow impatient. I thinkchanges due to moving to a new place, or the existence

it comes from the fact that I spent a lot of my parents’ money,of new opportunities. In contrast, original beliefs canand also from a kind of fear that I would not be a goodbe maintained if they have been gradually and steadily

speaker of English after studying abroad when I get [sic]constructed as a result of past experience. In this section,back to Japan. And also, I had started to compare myself towith reference to the analysis in the previous sections,the other foreign students who were surely brushing up their

we examine developmental changes to his self-beliefs.

skills. (WT2 H, 271–277)

Takahiroʼs Beliefs

Takahiroʼs self-imposed pressure to use his time abroad

This section describes the developmental changes in

eﬀectively motivated him to work harder. This was

Takahiroʼs beliefs about learning English. As an EFL

exacerbated by his comparison of his own proﬁciency

learner in the Japanese context, Takahiro studied English

to that of his classmates. Takahiroʼs beliefs about EFL

in order to get a good mark on the university entrance

learning were thus updated in this new context, and he

exam, but he also acknowledged that English was useful

became more focused.

for international communication, as is clear from the

Takahiro said that he did not have clear beliefs about

extract below. As mentioned in the previous section, thisEnglish-language learning until his experience as an

idea originated from his overseas experience in Canada.

exchange student. In that context, he realized the need/earning English not only is for preparation of the entrance

for acquiring speaking skills so that he could enjoy

exams but will also help me to communicate with foreigners

communicating with others. His conﬁdence in English

more deeply. (WT2 H, 258–259)

grew as a result of the interaction between diﬀerent

Personal feelings can also be understood as originating

variables, such as his relationship with teachers and hisfrom oneʼs beliefs. The extract below shows thatlack of integrated language skills. At the same time, thisTakahiro was frustrated with his fellow learners and thecontradicts his general belief that English is essential

curriculum, and that he could not set a clear goal for his

as a school subject to be successful in the university

English study.

entrance examination. Consider now the extract from

When I was a high school student, my goal of studying

Takahiroʼs responses following his return to Japan:

English was quite obvious. It was so simple. As a university

Actually, I just concentrated on ¿nishing classes of my major

student majoring in engineering, I was told that I would needand job hunting, and I did not study English so much. (WT2

to study English more and gain a high pro¿ciency. But in

H, 280–281)

fact, we don’t need to study English so hard to be an engineer

Takahiro did not reﬂect on the advantages his English

who wants to work in Japan. And also the number of English

skills gave him in the employment market, suggestingclasses is not so many. In addition, my friends in the samethat he retained the belief that working in Japan as

department do [sic] not seem to be interested in English. So,

an engineer does not require English skills. He did notwhen I entered my university, it was di৽cult to have a clear

continue to build his English skills during his free time;goal for studying English. (WT2 H, 262–268)

instead, he focused on job hunting. It may be speculated

Takahiro did not ﬁnd like-minded friends when hethat, upon his return to Japan, Takahiroʼs beliefs were

became a university student; his classmates did not share

updated.

his belief that English was useful. As a result, Takahiro

Saekoʼs Beliefs

did not have a clear reason for studying English; hisThis section discusses the developmental changes ininitial experience at the university caused him to doubt

Saekoʼs beliefs about learning English at each stage of

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 201825

Akira NAKAYAMA, Sarah FAHERTY, Glenn Amon MAGEE, Hiroki YOSHIDA

high school, university freshman, study abroad, and while

into the ESL context. She formed the book club, andjob hunting.

continued participating in the English Speaking Society/earning English is to prepare for the entrance examination.

(ESS) upon her return. Environmental factors, then, wereAnd it is mostly focused on reading skills. I think I likevery important for Saeko. Her environment at university

speaking English more compared to my classmates but I do

provided her with the opportunity to collaborate withnot want to show it oৼ to them outside my house and local

like-minded colleagues to improve on her self-assessed

community. And I also have a belief that learning English is

weak points.

to acquire useful tools. It was a contradiction for me to haveSince I can speak English better than ordinary Japaneseboth beliefs. (WT2 S, 222–226)

students, I realized again that English is a very useful

As a high school student, she had conﬂicted feelings

language for my life.

about learning English because her educational context

Job hunting gave Saeko another opportunity to reaﬃrm

required her to study English as preparation for theher beliefs about learning English and building English

entrance examinations, although she wanted to speak

proﬁciency. This relates to her original belief that

English more often. Additionally, she believed English

learning English would provide her with useful skills.

would be a useful tool for her future, either professionallyThis belief is stable, as it remained throughout heror personally. Despite feeling constrained by her

education, and so is unlikely to change. Her realization

environment, and hesitant to show her skills outside thethat her English skills provide her with advantages overclassroom, she recognized that speaking English ﬂuently

other students, who may not have such skills, supports

is a useful skill to have. When she went to university,

this belief. As a result of this recognition, Saeko was ablea change in her environment provoked a change in her

to develop realistic beliefs about using English in her

beliefs.

professional life.

… I was released from such contradictory beliefs when I

Rimiʼs Beliefs

could meet my friends of English study group “ESS” inThis section traces the developmental changes inuniversity who have the same ideas as me on that and started

Rimiʼs beliefs about learning English at each stage,

studying English with them. (WT2 S, 229-231)

beginning with the extract below regarding the highUnlike junior high and senior high school, I could easily ¿ndschool phase.

people who are interested in English and study English with/earning English is just to concentrate on doing grammar

them, which actually encouraged me to study English. (WT2

exercises, reading some passages, and answering questions

S, 53, 54)

on the passages. In fact, the opportunities of speaking

As a high school student, her beliefs about learning

English are totally limited. It is surely related to the place

English in order to pass an examination constrained

I lived in… well, the high school I went to was located in a

her behavior. When she met friends who shared similarrural area, but we also had to prepare the entrance exams.

beliefs about learning English, beliefs originating in(WT2 R, 295–298)

childhood experience emerged and worked to facilitate

Thus, while she was in high school, Rimi felt aher learning behavior.

contradiction between several ideas about English

In an advanced English class, I was, for the ¿rst time,learning. She appears to have felt constricted by theencouraged to express myself in English. Through thisrural environment, which did not oﬀer opportunities toexperience, I could clearly set my goal and come to know

speak English, but, like other high school students, shewhat I should learn for exchanging thought in a foreign

still had to prepare for the entrance examination. This

language. While studying abroad, I thought that is learning

further limited her English use. Her beliefs changed

English is to acquire tools for cross-cultural communication.

when she entered university, as seen below.

(WT2 S, 234–237)

When I entered the university and took English classes

Saekoʼs beliefs changed once again with anotherfor freshmen, I thought that it was diৼerent from… that I

environmental change, and this guided her learning

expected before. I thought that I should study English much

behavior.

harder than I did in high school. And I was a little annoyed

Following her experience abroad, Saeko reaﬃrmed her

like what I should do. I mean, because the goals of thebeliefs and reset her goals. In fact, she spent more timeclasses seems to be very vague. But after that, when I met

studying English after leaving the EFL context to returnsome students who were interested in studying English…

26

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

Developmental changes in second language self-concept: A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

they were a member of ESS [English Speaking Society, a

As was previously described in the literature review,club activity], I could have fun talking with them in English.

the L2 self-concept is part of oneʼs overall self-concept

I could be more positive about studying English. And

and develops with L2 learning experience. The coregradually, I wanted to study abroad. (WT2 R, 301–307)

component of the L2 self-concept develops from theHer behaviors in high school were somewhat constrainedinterplay between individual self-systems, the socio-

by her beliefs, but when she met like-minded friends at

cultural context, and the educational environment. Moreuniversity who shared similar feelings and beliefs about

concretely, the participants in this study developed

EFL learning, her original (and strong) beliefs endorsed

their L2 self-concept through accurate and precise

by her childhood experiences re-emerged. Environmental

perception of their competency within the interpersonal

factors, then, played an important role for Rimi, justdevelopment of their can-do conﬁdence and proﬁciency

as they did for Takahiro. Encountering other highly

and by comparison to other people in their environment.

motivated students gave Rimi opportunities to build her

However, the core components of the self-concept are

English skills beyond the classroom. Disappointed by thealways exposed to the social and educational context

vague goals of her freshman classes, joining the ESS clubwith temporary beliefs as responses to the environment.

helped Rimi form her own goals. Turning to her time

Not all of the temporary beliefs are captured in the core

studying abroad, Rimi reported as follows:

component, but beliefs that match the self-concept can be

It is a loser who stays with and hangs out with Japanese

integrated.

students while studying abroad. Also I don’t want to stay

The L2 self-concept can be understood better in termswith those who dropped out from Japan. So I tried to leaveof the idea that self-beliefs comprise both dynamic andthem during my stay in New Zealand. (WT2 R, 310–312)

relatively stable dimensions (Mercer, 2011). Particularly,

Rimi had very strong feelings about studying abroad.

by looking at each learner as a holistic being, diﬀerent

Like Takahiro, she wanted to make the best of her time

self-histories emerge. One aspect that is clear from this

there. Furthermore, she had a particular disdain forstudy is that, although learners past experiences cannot

Japanese students who spent their free time with otherbe changed; he or she can be re-interpreted from aJapanese students. She recognized the need to spend

diﬀerent perspective at a later date. This process can betime with like-minded people in order to improve her

a key to self-understanding as people re-interpret past

English.

events based on a matured understanding of oneself andDuring her stay abroad, she reset her goals forthe world. In that sense, L2 learning motivation thatlearning English, and they became more focused thanis endorsed by experience is not a static variable. In

before, as is clear below.

addition, oneʼs personality and cognitive style are stable

When I took the TOEIC test, I got very good score eventraits, and aﬀective and cognitive responses toward oneʼs

though I have never practiced and prepared for the test. I

surroundings (both people and environments) are stable

was very surprised at the results. But in turn, I felt pressure.

in oneʼs mind. Because the participants EFL competence

I mean, I thought that I got this higher score, so I need towere gradually improving (and sometimes deteriorating),

perform in English, which the level the test proved. (WT2 R,

their self-evaluations of language skills varies over

315–318)

time in the course of their English study. Besides, theThus, Rimiʼs beliefs were updated as a reaction to theparticipants

beliefs about the nature of EFL learning

micro features of the environment. However, she felt

were shown to be changeable and aﬀected by contextualpressure to perform at the level suggested by her TOEIC

changes over time when moving from one institution totest scores. This strict view of her own competenceanother. The important point to be noted here is that themight have emerged from her childhood experiences,

L2 self-concept is continually changing simply because

but this attitude toward EFL learning helped her to be ait is constructed and adapted in an ongoing manner

successful English learner.

throughout oneʼs life. As the term individual diﬀerencesin the ﬁeld of second language acquisition suggests, theDiscussion

factors contributing to the development of the L2 selfconcept are diﬀerent for each individual and include

How Did L2 Self-concept Form in the Japanese EFL

motivation as a result of past experiences, personality,

Context?

cognitive style, and related variables. Based on this

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 201827

Akira NAKAYAMA, Sarah FAHERTY, Glenn Amon MAGEE, Hiroki YOSHIDA

foundation, L2 learners construct their own self-concept

to his original beliefs. By comparing himself to otherin terms of their assessment of their present ability andstudents in his language school, Takahiro felt inferior tothe context. In this sense, learners

them. However, his view that English would be a usefulunique pathways

have subtle diﬀerences.

skill for his life was updated throughout his progress.

The characteristics of the present participants

While in high school, he saw English as both a way toresponses are worth mentioning in that they clearlypass a test and to communicate. This belief was updated

recognized their current level of English competence.

when he moved to university and found himself with no

From the present data, it is possible to understand theirreal goal for learning English, particularly as he believed

diﬀerent styles of learning English. They consciously

it was unnecessary for his plans to work as an engineer

integrated their four EFL skills, and, in turn, gainedin Japan. This belief changed again when he decided

information regarding the improvement of their holistic

to study in Canada, which gave him a new purpose for

language skills. Thus, beliefs about their abilities

his study. Finally, he returned to Japan and focused oninﬂuenced their behaviors. The self-concept could aﬀect

a new goal of ﬁnding employment; studying English

decisions about the degree to which learners feel able

became less of a priority. As for another example, Rimiʼs

to direct and control their agency in enhancing theirbeliefs about environmental factors were also updated

L2 learning. Hence, a clear self-evaluation of oneʼs own

and strengthened as she progressed. She believed

competence is an important foundation for establishing athat her upbringing led her to develop an interest in

self-concept as an EFL learner.

English, although this interest was not shared by her

How Did Learning Beliefs Change over the Course of

siblings. This belief did not extend to her educational

Studying English as a Foreign Language Context?

environment, as she readily accepted that her classmates

In terms of the role of beliefs in dynamic systems, at

did not share her interest. However, while studying

least three signiﬁcant ﬁndings can be extracted fromabroad, she came to feel that it was important to use

the present ﬁndings. First, there was shift from simple

these environmental factors to her advantage, labelingto complex development. For example, Takahiroʼs beliefs

those who spent their time with other Japanese learners

regarding the importance of accuracy did not change

while abroad as losers . This shows that she believed in

substantially as he progressed, as can be seen from his

creating an environment that was conducive to language

reaction to the education he received in Canada. Thislearning for herself. She also demonstrated this in her

experience reconﬁrmed the beliefs about accuracy hefreshman year at university by joining the ESS. Her

had developed in high school. However, his ability tobelief in environmental factors, then, moved from a focus

analyze his own competence improved and became

on upbringing to a strong belief in improving oneʼs own

more complex, although his experience abroad gave him

learning environment by ﬁnding like-minded friends.

a negative view of his competence when he compared

The third ﬁnding of this study is related to changes

himself to other foreign students. Rimiʼs beliefs about

in beliefs over time from a broad to a more speciﬁc (orher general English ability become more complex as she

focused) nature. For example, Takahiroʼs view of himself

progressed. Although she had mixed emotions about EFLchanged to include a more complex analysis of his skills

learning throughout her learning pathway, her inferiority

as he progressed. His knowledge about the four skills

complex deepened as her proﬁciency improved. Her

and his assessment of his proﬁciency in each, as well as

conﬂicting beliefs (i.e., wanting to be the best but never

his knowledge of the interconnection between the skills,

believing she had achieved that goal) intensiﬁed asdemonstrated his independence as a learner. He could

she progressed. This was clear after her return fromtarget his weaknesses and give them speciﬁc attention.

overseas, when her improved TOEIC score caused her

Unlike Saeko, Rimi focused primarily on her generalanxiety and the feeling that she had to demonstrate that

English proﬁciency, although she referred to speaking

she merited such a score.

as the weakest of her four skills. Her beliefs did not

The second finding regarding development of

become more speciﬁc in this regard. Whereas her beliefs

beliefs relates to how they changed over time: The

certainly became stronger, they remained static in terms

participantsof focus.

original beliefs were updated. Takahiroʼsbeliefs, for instance, were reconﬁrmed and updated byhis experience overseas, although they remained similar
28

大学教育実践ジャーナル 第16号 2018

Developmental changes in second language self-concept: A case study focusing on three Japanese learners of English as a foreign language

Concluding Remarks

about S/A New Research Approaches. Kluwer Academic Press,
Dordrecht, pp. 7-34.

The analysis of the interview data in this study
revealed the nested construction of self-beliefs regarding

Cutrone, P. (2010). Helping Japanese ESL/EFL Learners
Overcome Difficulties in Intercultural Communication.

EFL learning as a complex system. Beliefs, both

Journal of the )aculty of *lobal Communication, University of

individual and interrelated, had a strong and dynamic

Nagasaki, 11, 11-22.

impact on EFL learning behaviors. Beliefs are inter-

Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations

connected and the links are weighted diﬀerently as ain language learning: Advances in theory, research, andresult of oneʼs individual experience. Thus, by viewing

applications. /anguage /earning, 53(S1), 3-32. doi: 10.1111/1467-

an individual EFL learner as a holistic being, the L2 selfconcept can be revealed. For the current participant,9922.53222
Dörnyei,Z.

(2014).

Researchingcomplexdynamic

beliefs about EFL learning were formed in childhood orsystems:

were aﬀected by early intercultural experiences. Suchlanguage classroom. /anguage Teaching, 47(01), 80-91.

Retrodictive qualitative modellingin thebeliefs, formed in early life, are relatively resistant toDörnyei, Z., & Chen, L. (2013). Identifying learner archetypes

change and represent a limited number of systems. Theseand signature dynamics in the L2 classroom: A dynamic

systems, however, may give rise to an unlimited number

systems perspective. Paper presented at the AAAL2013,of self-concepts and behaviors (i.e., individual diﬀerences).
In the Japanese EFL context, it may be that learners
beliefs are skewed during the development of thesesystems by the emphasis on studying English purely forthe purposes of entrance examinations, rather than asa tool for communication. The present ﬁndings mightsuggest that, in successful EFL learners, the originalcore beliefs (i.e., those stemming from childhood or past

Dallas, TX.
Epstein, S. (1973). The self-concept revisited: Or a theory of atheory. American psychologist, 28(5), 404.
Gibbons, F. X. (1986). Social comparison and depression:Companyʼs eﬀect on misery. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 51(1), 140.
Loftus, E. F., & Marburger, W. (1983). Since the eruption of
Mt. St. Helens, has anyone beaten you up? Improving theaccuracy of retrospective reports with land mark events.

experience) can overcome the dynamic beliefs (i.e., those

Memory & Cognition, 11(2), 114-120. doi: 10.3758/BF03213465

stemming from formal education experience). By theMarkus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: Atime such learners complete their formal education, theysocial psychological perspective. Annual review of psychology,

demonstrate autonomy in their learning, and their unique

38(1), 299-337.

trajectories become clearer. As Dörnyei (2014) stated, theMatsuda, S., & Gobel, P. (2004). Anxiety and predictors ofsystem itself is not complex, but the learnerʼs behaviors

performance in the foreign language classroom. System, 32(1),are unpredictable because they are the result of a highly
complex interaction between internal and contextual
variables. As for the limitations of the present study,

21-36. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2003.08.002
Mercer, S. (2011). Towards an understanding of language learner
self-concept. Springer, Dordrecht.

untangling the participantʼs web of beliefs is beyond its

Papi, M., & Teimouri, Y. (2014). Language Learner Motivational

scope, and further study is required to understand theTypes: A cluster analysis study. /anguage /earning, 64(3), 493-

full extent of an individualʼs beliefs, including a variety of525. doi: 10.1111/lang.12065

beliefs not covered by this paper.

Rimissman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences.
Sage.

Notes & Acknowledgment

Scovel, T. (1978). The eﬀect of aﬀect on foreign language

Drafts were presented at the BAAL2013, thelearning: A review of the anxiety research. /anguage

International Conference on Motivational Dynamics and/earning, 28(1), 129-142. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1978.tb00309.x

Second Language Acquisition in 2014, and SLRF2016.

Smith, G. D. (2012).

Kit Drummers and the Snowball Self:

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant

A socio-cultural-psychological perspective on identity andNumber 25350360.

learning realisation , Faculty of Education, University ofCambridge, Cambridge, UK

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