Regional Report
Regional Process
Commission
Region: Asia-Pacific
ANNEX
Theme: Climate

Coordinator: Asia-Pacific Water Forum

Pre-forum version
March 2018
8 th W ORL D W ATER FORUM | BRASÍ L I A -BRASI L , MARC H 1 8 -2 3 , 2 0 1 8
www.worldwaterforum8.org | secretariat@worldwaterforum8.org| office@apwf.org

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Theme: Climate
Climate change, disasters and water related adaptation
Theme Leader: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)

Contents
1.

Introduction .................................................................................................................3
Objectives.....................................................................................................................4
Methodologies..............................................................................................................4
2. 3 key messages .............................................................................................................5
3. Case studies..................................................................................................................5
3.1. Case study 1: Community Based Flood Early Warning System ...................................5
3.2. Case study 2: Regional flood outlooks for reduced flood risks ...................................6
3.3. Case study 3: Reviving drying springs in Indian Himalayas .........................................7
3.4. Case study 4: Adoption of solar powered irrigation pumps (SPIP) in Nepal as an
adaptation cum mitigation strategy ...................................................................................83.5. Case study 5: Application of System of Rice Intensification (SRI) in Addressing Climate
Change. CASE STUDY OF INDONESIA ..................................................................................93.6. Case Study 6: Improving emergency preparedness and response in Fiji ................... 10
4. The lessons learns from the case studies ...................................................................... 11
5. Actions and Sub-actions to overcome the problems and achieve the solutions ............... 11
References ..................................................................................................................... 12

Abstract
The “Climate” theme was led by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development(ICIMOD) and focused on “climate change, disasters and water related adaptation”. The
report firstly looks at the extent of climate change in the region and its impact on water
resources and water-related disasters. Secondly, it presents case studies of successful
adaptation practices – both community-based adaptation and ecosystem-based adaptation.
Through the lessons from the case studies, it highlights the necessary to promote theintegration of scientific and engineering approaches and local and traditional knowledge in
implementing the water-related assessment. It also emphasizes the importance to implement
water-related disaster risk management and adaptation measures with locally tailoredtechnological innovation and capacity building for local communities. Adaptation will bepromoted through regional cooperation, partnership development with trust building andcontinuous engagement.

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1.

Introduction

The Asia Pacific region is undergoing rapid change, driven by twin megatrends of climatechange and urbanization, which threaten their crucial water-provisioning services for over abillion people across Asia and undermine quality of life, economic development, andenvironmental sustainability within the region. This region comprises of several vulnerable
geographies – such as mountains, coasts, islands and arid regions – where impacts of climatechange are likely to higher than elsewhere given the inherent nature of these fragile
geographies. Disasters, water related and other natural disasters, are also very frequent in theregion. A study by German Watch collated all incidences of extreme weather related loss
events between 1996 to 2015 and found that of the 10 countries most affected by extreme
weather events and related loss of lives and property, as many as 6 (Myanmar, Philippines,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Vietnam and Thailand) were in the Asia Pacific region (Kreft, Ecksteinand Melchior, 2016).
This region is home to the Hindu Kush Himalayas – also called the Water Tower of Asia or theThird Pole as this region is the third largest repository of ice and snow after the two Poles. The
HKH is referred to as the water towers of Asia the ten major rivers of Asia, namely, the Amu
Darya, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra (Yarlungtsanpo), Irrawaddy, Salween (Nu), Mekong(Lancang), Yangtse (Jinsha), Yellow River (Huanghe), and Tarim (Dayan) originate here. Theseten large Asian river systems provide water, ecosystem services, and the basis for direct
livelihoods to a population of around 210.5 million people in the HKH. Additionally, theserivers support downstream irrigation systems, provide urban water supply and ecosystemservices, and control sediment processes and salinity dynamics while contributing to energy
and food security for 1.3 billion people who live in these ten river basins. The region has
54,252 glaciers with a total area of 60,054 km2 and estimated ice reserves of 6,127 km3(Bajracharya and Shrestha, 2011) which are significantly impacted by climate change that
disproportionately affects the high-elevation cryosphere (Shrestha et al. 2015). Coupled with
this, demographic changes such as urbanization and outmigration (predominantly male) inturn are affecting the ways in which water, energy and food are produced, consumed, andmanaged now and in the future. While it is certain that the HKH region is undergoing rapidchange in climate, the exact extent of it is not known. However, we can recognize threeoverarching trends. These are: a) a near universal agreement that temperatures are increasing,disproportionately so in higher altitudes (Bhutiyani et al. 2007; Lu et al. 2010); b) variable
future patterns of precipitation, which may increase, remain constant, or increase, dependingon the HKH sub-region (Palazzi et al. 2013); and c) some unanimity that higher rainfall intensity
will occur in the core monsoon zone (Sharmila et al. 2015), while heavy precipitation events
will increase in the Karakoram and western Himalayas due to increase in strength andfrequency of winter westerly disturbance (Cannon et al. 2015). These trends are expected tolead to increases in extreme discharges in rivers (Soncini et al. 2015). Overall, this means that
there will be more intense rainfall over lesser number of days and this will mean increase infrequency and severity of water related disasters (Vinke et al. 2017).
The arid Central Asia is already seeing record high temperatures. Existing climate projections
shows that mean temperatures can rise by up to 6.5 degrees compared to the pre-industrial
ear by the end of current century. This rise in temperature will lead to changes in precipitation,
occurrence of frequent events of heat extremes and increasing aridity and resulting drought.
Similar to HKH, increased temperature will lead to increasing rates of glacier melt, leading to3

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greater river runoff in the short term, but also making river flows more seasonal than before
and finally leading to decreasing water availability in the medium to long term. Changes involume and timing of water availability will lead to conflicting water demands between
agriculture and hydropower sectors (Reyer et al. 2017; Siegfried et al. 2012).
Southeast Asia has also been experiencing climate change like the rest of the Asia Pacific. Here,average temperature has increased at a rate of 0.1–0.3°C per decade and sea level has risen at
1–3 millimeter (mm) each year over the last 50 years or so. The region also experienced adownward trend in precipitation during 1960–2000. The increasing frequency and intensity of
extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, floods, and tropical cyclones in recent
decades are also evidence that climate change is already affecting the region. Climate change
is worsening water shortages; constraining agricultural production and threatening f ood
security; and causing forest fires, coastal degradation, and greater health risks (ADB, 2009).
Another new study by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) shows that the impacts of climatechange in Southeast Asia may be larger than previously estimated and possibly account for
1/10th of the gross domestic product by 2100 (Raitzer et al., 2015).
Climate change and sea level rise has been a major concern of the Pacific Island countries andthey have been a part of the international dialogues on climate change since the very
beginning – as early as 1980s when the issue gained prominence in international discourse.
While the most graphic depiction of climate change impacts on islands has been that of sea
level rise and literal drowning of entire islands, equall y important and currently felt impacts
are increasing incidence of droughts and tropical cyclones and storm surges (Ash andCampbell, 2016). Global climate models have predicted greater aridity for island states leading
to stress on its already precarious fresh water reserves (Karnauskas, Donnelly and Anchukaitis,2016). Climate induced migration is likely to increase in these island states (Locke, 2009).

Objectives
There are three main objectives of this report:
1. To understand the magnitude of climate change in the region, with a special focus onvulnerable geographies like the mountains, coasts, and islands.
2. To understand the extent and consequences of water related disasters and share someof the best practices around DRR in the region
3. To document some of the best practices for water related adaptation, including
community based and ecosystems based adaptation.

Methodologies
As a theme leader on this topic, ICIMOD will leverage all its partnerships in generating anddisseminating relevant information with close partnership with all sub-regional partners whoare interested in the theme of climate change and water related adaptation. ICIMOD is a
repository of a large number of knowledge products on issues of climate change in the HKH
region and is in the process of compiling all available evidence in the form of an assessment
called HIMAP (http://www.icimod.org/himap). HIMAP has 16 chapters related to various
aspects of HKH, of which at least 4 chapters (those on climate change, cryosphere, water anddisasters) are directly relevant to this topic. In addition, three ICIMOD staff members and 5
ICIMOD partners are also involved in IPCC’s Special Report on Oceans and Cryosphere to be4

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released in 2019. ICIMOD and its partners participated actively in the 3rd APWS in Myanmar
and presented an initial version of the thematic paper for wider consultation.

2.
•

•

•

3 key messages
The entire Asia Pacific region and especially, the mountains and the small island
developing states (SIDS) are facing severe consequences of climate change which isaffecting crucial water services and threatening the overall quality of life andenvironmental sustainability within the region.
The Hind Kush Himalayas (HKH) is the water tower of Asia and is often called the Third
Pole as this region is the third largest store of snow and ice after the North and the South
Pole. Climate change is severely affecting the water provisioning services offered by the
HKH. Climate change is also exacerbating the frequency and severity of all disasters,
especially, water related disasters.
Water induced disasters cause significant damage to life and property in the Asia Pacificregion and poorer countries are particularly vulnerable. These damages can be reduced
drastically through the right technologies and institutional arrangements that is inclusiveand community centered.

3.

Case studies

3.1.

Case study 1: Community Based Flood Early Warning System(Contributed by Dr. Neera Pradhan, ICIMOD)The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) is prone to natural hazards. Floods and flash floods are major
natural hazards and are catastrophic to downstream communities. To build resilience andadaptive capacity of the local communities to flood risks in the river tributaries, ICIMOD ispiloting community-based flood early warning system (CBFEWS), an integrated system of tools
and plans in which upstream communities, upon detecting flood risk, disseminate theinformation to vulnerable local communities downstream to take early action. It is based on
people-centered, timely, simple and low-cost technology, which uses wireless/telemetry andsolar powered transmitter and receiver stations, and SMS to disseminate information.
ICIMOD’s experience on CBFEWS started from 2010 in Assam, India. In 2012, CBFEWS was
introduced by ICIMOD integrating the community component. In 2014, ICIMOD won the
UNFCCC’s Momentum for Change 2014 Lighthouse Activity Award for showcasing immediate
impact on the ground. In 2016, CBFEWS was out scaled in Afghanistan, India, Nepal andPakistan. In 2017, cross border community based flood early warning system (CBFEWS) was
successfully showcased in Ratu river of Koshi basin between Nepal and India.
Flood early warning systems are one of the most effective non-structural ways to minimize theloss of life and property. During 2013 September, the CBFEWS installed in the Jiadhal River
successfully informed community members in Dihiri, Assam, of the pending flood providingthem at least one and a half hour of time for preparedness, and helping them save assets,
including cattle and pigs, worth approximately USD 3,300. Adopting a gender sensitive early
warning system approach with appropriate policies in place will help in reducing the disaster5

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Asia Pacific Water Forummortality of women and contribute to reducing the adverse impact of flood disasters. A
gender-sensitive approach that not only recognises the vulnerabilities of women, but also
works towards enhancing their resilience and strengthening their ability is needed to respondeffectively to disasters through awareness raising and capacity building initiatives is of critical
need.

3.2.

Case study 2: Regional flood outlooks for reduced flood risks(Case study contributed by Dr. Mandira Singh Shrestha of ICIMOD)
Every year devastating floods inundate large areas of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputrabasins, crossing national borders. The floods result in loss of lives and livelihoods as well as in
the displacement of millions of people, threatening achievement of the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals. This calls for effective cooperation between the countries
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, India, and Pakistan. However, the bilateralriver treaties and data sharing agreements currently in place are not sufficient to avert floodcatastrophes on a transboundary scale.
Regional cooperation in hydrometeorological data collection and sharing is necessary, toenable effective and timely forecasting of floods for better preparedness as well as flood
management at the regional level. In 2010, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and ICIMOD’s partnercountries, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan initiated the deve lopment of
the Hindu Kush Himalayan Hydrological Cycle Observing System (HKH HYCOS). The project’s
overall objective is to minimize the loss of human lives and property damage.
The project helped to strengthen the capacity of hydromet agencies. A total of 38 hydromet
stations (9 in Bangladesh, 9 in Bhutan, 12 in Nepal and 8 in Pakistan) were upgraded to sharereal-time data. In addition, an automated regional flood information system was establishedand facilitated the transboundary exchange of real-time data, information and know-how. The
system allows the visualization of real-time data from the hydrometeorological stations to any
geographical location by providing information on the river-water levels and amounts ofrainfall.

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A regional flood outlook has been developed for the Ganges Brahmaputra basin using thereal-time data available from the region, satellite based products and weather forecasts. The
regional flood outlook provides real-time information pertaining to the threat of potential
large-scale flooding to the national hydrometeorological agencies to support and enhancenational flood forecasting and warning services. These products are used by partners to
forewarn communities of increasing river water levels, helping to reduce risks. In August 2014
and 2017 for example, the flood outlook was used by the Department of Hydrology andMeteorology of Nepal as one of the inputs to issue a flood warning. It did so by means of aflood bulletin which was widely disseminated through the website and emails to key
stakeholders.
Through the capacity building and knowledge sharing activities of HKH HYCOS there was an
improvement in the hydrometeorological skills of partners that has attracted larger investment
in modernization of hydromet networks in the region. Investments in effective modern early
warning systems can prevent flood disasters and loss that in the long term pay off the initialinvestments. This reduces people’s vulnerabilities, leading to more sustainable development. It
has led to promoting regional cooperation and building trust and confidence which is along-term process requiring continued dialogue and engagement.

Flood outlook for the Koshi at Chatara on 10th August 2017

3.3.

Case study 3: Reviving drying springs in Indian Himalayas(Case study contributed by Arghyam – a civil society organization in India)
Springs are the dominant form of groundwater in the Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats
and are the main source of water for about 200 million people who live in scattered andremote hamlets across these mountain ranges. They are critical to mountainous ecosystems,
and feed streams and rivers, almost all non-Himalayan Rivers and many Himalayan rivers
originate in the form of thousands of springs in the catchment areas. Many of the se springs
have cultural significance - with shrines of worship constructed at the origin or as sacredgroves. If managed well, springs can provide a steady, safe source of water for mountainous
communities for lifeline and livelihood needs and provide critical support to the ecosystem.
Science based spring revival has shown quick results and promises to be the best way to7

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ensure water security in our mountainous regions. These interventions help reduce drudgery
of women and children who otherwise spend almost their entire day battling arduous slopes insearch of water and help sustain our river systems.
Arghyam facilitated work acorss various NGOs in India. The Indian springs initiative is a rapidly
expanding coalition of 19 members who have been at the forefront of ushering in radical
change in the way springs are perceived and managed across India. In response to thedeterioration of springs the Initiative’s members are giving spring protection renewed focus atvarious scales. The Government of Sikkim and Meghalaya have initiated statewide
programmes to inventorise, monitor, protect and rejuvenate springs. The Government of West
Bengal has also taken up work in 3 districts through its MGNREGA department to adopt the
spring water management approach. NGOs in all major mountainous regions have also
developed successful spring programmes, many of which are now being emulated by local
government at block and district levels. The Central Himalayan Action and Research Group(CHIRAG) and People’s Science Institute (PSI) have well established spring protection
programmes in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Similar initiatives have independently
developed in the Eastern and Western Ghats. The work is now spread across 10 states (SeeFigure 5) - Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha,
Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal. In fact, through ICIMOD, the approach has
now spread beyond India to other Himalayan countries like Nepal and Bhutan. Springs
Initiative partners have several years of experience in implementing the spring water
management work. This includes the entire lifecycle from strengthening supply throughappropriate recharge interventions; improving access by establishing cost-effective watersupply systems with appropriate solutions for improving water quality using government funds
to reduce drudgery and improve health outcomes for mountainous habitations. They are also
conversant with methods to monitor and visualise impact and advocate this to policy. Core
partners of the Springs Initiative have experience in capacity building various actors:
Communities, so they understand their water balance and design and adopt appropriate water
security plans and management protocols; NGO/ CSO staff in new geographies who can thenbecome stand-alone resource centres for their regions and state governments that haveadopted springshed management at scale to train field staff to implement spring water
management along with communities.

3.4.

Case study 4: Adoption of solar powered irrigation pumps (SPIP) in Nepal as an
adaptation cum mitigation strategy(Case study contributed by Dr. Aditi Mukherji of ICIMOD)
Nepal’s Terai has an estimated renewable dynamic groundwater reserve of 8800 million cubic
meters (MCM) of which only 1053 MCM (12%) has been tapped so far for irrigation, industrial
and drinking water purposes. In spite of abundant water resources in the plains, farmers facewater scarcity due to lack of affordable and clean energy to pump water. Lack of access toaffordable and reliable irrigation means that farmers often leave a large part of their land
fallow. Solar Powered Irrigation Pumps (SPIPs) have been tested widely in the region and has
been found to be a technically proven and workable solution for all categories of farmers –men and women. This new technology can prove to be instrumental in addressing foodsecurity through increased agricultural production. So far, 23 SPIPs have been installed, of8Asia-Pacific Regional Process Report
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Asia Pacific Water Forumthese 12 are owned and operated by women farmers. These pumps have so far irrigated over
50 hectares of land, avoided emission of 12,500 kilos of carbon because of lesser use of diesel
and have led to higher incomes for farmers from twin benefits – one of diesel saving andanother of growing more crops, including fish.

3.5.

Case study 5: Application of System of Rice Intensification (SRI) in Addressing
Climate Change. CASE STUDY OF INDONESIA(detailed case study in Annex 1) Written by Adhitya Wirayasa; Edited by Rahayu Ning Tyas andFany Wedahuditama, Global Water Partnership Southeast Asia
The origin of SRI methodology was invented back in the early 1980s by Fr. Henri de Laulanié,
S.J., who working with Malagasy farmers to improve their rice production, since rice is thestaple food in Madagascar. In Indonesia, the SRI farming method was introduced in 1999 by
Ministry of Agriculture's Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD). The
progress of implementing SRI method in Indonesia between year 2010-2014 can be seen at the
below table. Ministry of Agriculture's Agency for Agricultural Research and Development(AARD)TABLE 1 THE PROGRESS OF SRI IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA BETWEEN 2010-2014
Year
Number of Province
Number of Regency
Area (Ha)
2010
13
24
5,240
2011
27
137
11,1402012
20
101
60,0002013
29
269
205,8002014
29
247
168,675
Total
450,855
Source: Agriculture Department (2014)

The preeminent of SRI in Indonesia compared to other farming methods are listed below.
1. Improved land productivity. Several researches were conducted and the results
as follows:- In average, during 2002-2006, the productivity increased by 78% when tested in
the Eastern Region of Indonesia (several areas in Nusa Tenggara and Sulawesi).
[Sato et al., 2011)- In addition, using 3 variety of seeds, the SRI method able to increase productivity
by 40-43% compared to the conventional method. (Gani et al., 2002)- Under dry season period, the SRI method was tested in 8 provinces, and theresult shown increased productivity between 7.1 -33.3 % at various location.
(Gani et al., 2002)- The SRI method was carried out in the terraces field in Central Java and the result
shown the productivity improved by 5.4-9%. (Arif et al., 2015) and (Toriyama andYokohama, 2014).

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Asia Pacific Water Forum2. Better water efficiency. In the Western Region of Indonesia, SRI practice wascapable to save 37.6% of water for irrigation and in the Eastern Region 40%.
(from various researches)
3. Reduced greenhouse gas emission. The menthane (CH 4) is produced underanaerobic condition during the decomposition of organic matters. Methane (CH 4)
emission was reduced by 26.5 - 46.5% in various sites and under numerous field
condition. (from various researches)
4. reduce dependency on inorganic fertilizers. Reduced the use of inorganic
fertilizer by 50% with complementary organic fertilizer. (Sato et al., 2011)
5. increase economic benefits. The production costs can be deducted by 20% due toreduced number of seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. (Sato et al., 2011)

3.6.

Case Study 6: Improving emergency preparedness and response in Fiji

Source: Pacific sub-region contribution to Asia Pacific reporting to 8th World Water Forum
Fiji’s population of just over 900,000 is scattered across some 333 Pacific islands. With
increasing urbanization, informal settlements in flood plains and densely populated coastal
areas, the proportion of Fiji’s population affected by emergencies caused by flooding andcyclones is increasing. In recent years Fiji has made preparedness a priority - building capacity
to deal with disasters and provide safe and sustainable water supply and sanitation systems aswell as effective hygiene promotion. Modelled on global best practice, a cluster approach forhumanitarian response in emergencies was endorsed by the Government of Fiji following theimpacts of a major cyclone in 2012, and strengthened over subsequent years. The approach
includes the establishment of a Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) cluster, ensuring better
coordination of partner efforts to deliver WASH interventions during disasters andemergencies. The WASH cluster approach was put to full use in Fiji’s response to the impactsof the record breaking Tropical Cyclone Winston that struck the nation in 2016, and was
instrumental in coordinating the suite of WASH-related interventions required during the
response and recovery phases.

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Figure: The Fiji WASH Cluster has been instrumental in coordinating water and sanitation
recovery efforts in the aftermath of 2016’s Tropical Cyclone Winston (SPC)

4.

The lessons learns from the case studies







5.

Technological innovations are very important and will help in adaptation andmitigation – as exemplified by case studies on SPIP and Regional Flood Information
Systems.
Community based adaptations are equally important as exemplified by the case ofCommunity Based Flood Early Warning Systems
Coordinated governmental and non-governmental efforts is necessary to devise andimplement effective disaster preparedeness and emergy response as exempli fied by
the case of Fiji.
Fragile areas like mountains have their own particular needs, for example, drying ofsprings affects millions of people in the mountains and local solutions for spring
revival are needed. Here partnerships across sectors is needed as exemplified by the
Spring Revival in India.
Agronomic practices like SRI can help farmers adapt to climate change and for that tohappen, policy support is required.

Actions and Sub-actions to overcome the problems and achieve
the solutions
1. Derive consensus about climate change and its impact across all stakeholders in
the regiona. Contribute and support studies that unpack the varied impacts on climatechange on water resources and various other aspects such as agriculture,

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Asia Pacific Water Forumhydropower, ecosystems etc.
2. Provide special attention and assistance to vulnerable geographies likemountains, islands and coastal regions.
a. Contribute to, and use the findings from IPCC’s ongoing Special Report on
Cryosphere and Oceans in a Changing Climate (SROCC) for informing
public policy discussions.
3. Promote good practices of adaptation – both community and ecosystems based
adaptations
a. Use existing platforms, like the World Water Forum and UNFCCC todocument “best practices” and lobby for its adoption in similar
geographies.

References
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Regional Review. Asian Development Bank, Manila. 223p.
Raitzer, D.A., F. Bosello, M. Tavoni, C. Orecchia, G. Marangoni, and J. N G. Samson. 2015.
Southeach Asia and the economics of global climate stabilization. Asian Development Bank.
Manila. 167 pp.
Bajracharya, S.R and Shrestha, B. (eds) (2011). The status of glaciers in the Hindu Kush
Himalayan region. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu,
Nepal.
Bhutiyani, M.R; Kale, V.S; Pawar, N.J. (2007). Long term trends in maximum, minimum andmean annual air temperature acorss the Northwestern Himalaya during the twentieth century.
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Ash, J. and J. Campbell. 2016. Climate change and migration: the case of the Pacific Islands andAustralia. The Journal of Pacific Studies, Volume 36 Issue 1: 53-72
Cannon, F; Carvalho, L.M.V; Jones, C; Bookhagen, B (2015), Multi -annual variations in winterwesterly disturbance activity affecting the Himalaya. Climate Dynamics 44 (1): 441-455.
Karnauskas, K. B., J.P. Donnelly andK. J. Anchukaitis, 2016. Future freshwater stress forisland populations. Nature Climate Change, Volume 6, pages 720–725 (2016)
doi:10.1038/nclimate2987
Kreft, S., D. Eckstein and I. Melchior. 2016. Who Suffers Most From Extreme Weather Events?
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Briefing Paper, German Watch. Available at https://germanwatch.org/de/download/16411.pdf
Locke, J. T. 2009. Climate change-induced migration in the Pacific Region: sudden crisis andlong-term developments. The Geographical Journal, Volume 175, Issue 3 September 2009
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Lu, A; Kang, S; Li, Z; Theakstone, W.H (2010). Altitude effects of climatic variation on Tibetan
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