1970 年代以降のボロブドゥールにおける遺跡周辺の景観整備の変遷と維持について
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANDSCAPES MANAGEMENTAT BOROBUDUR, INDONESIA SINCE THE 1970S

長岡正哲
Nagaoka Masanori
strongly influenced by more than three and half

1.Introduction
Beginning in the late 1980s and earlycenturies of Dutch colonization. Without thorough1990s, a global heritage discourse of an enlarged

research into this historical account, and anvalue system emerged. This discourse embraced

analysis of the facts, a misleading interpretation

issues such as cultural landscape and settings,of heritage management concepts at Borobudur

living history, intangible values, vernacularwould occur in the JICA Master Plan, which washeritage, and urban landscapes with community

proposed in the 1970s.

involvement. The early 1990s saw a move against
the European-dominated discourse of heritage as

2. Research question and objective

well as the concept of authenticity in the World

Considering

on-going

international

Heritage system and other European-oriented

debates on European and Asian approaches toclassifications. The Asian experience in heritage

heritage discourse, preceding heritage studies on

discourse has begun to have a significant impact

Borobudur management as well as my experienceon the European standard. For example, the 1994

in Indonesia between 2008 and 2014, the main

Nara document articulated a developing Asian

research question I seek to answer through thisapproach to authenticity, recognizing ways andpaper is the following:

means

to

preserve

community

culturalparticipation

heritagevarious

How the management of the Borobudur historicalinterpretations of heritage, many of which weremonument, and its landscape, has developed

contrasted

since the 1970s, reaching current exclusive

to

those

and

with

existing

inEurope.

Additionally, in the 1990s, there began to benational legislative framework.

recognition of the concept of cultural landscape,which differed according to Asian and European

Contrary to the monument centric approach, theconceptualizations of the idea. These different

concept of the JICA Master Plan, published in

ideas are evident in the case of the Borobudur

1979, attempts to preserve cultural landscapeTemple and its 1991 nomination into the World

with community participation as the landscape

Heritage List.

with natural systems has formed a distinctive

The heritage management approach at

character and has impacted the interaction

Borobudur, in the 1970s and 1980s, was not

between individuals and their environment fornecessarily contrary to European concepts. Rather,some time. This concept sharply contrasts withintricate factors became entangled in the creationthat of the European theoretical and practicalandunderstanding of heritage.

executionoftheBorobudur

heritagemanagement; this involved a local value-based

In

1992,

the

World

Heritageapproach influenced by the concept of JapaneseCommittee—at its 16th session in Santa Fe,

historical natural feature management, during

USA—acknowledged

the post-colonial period, with a conservation ethic

represents the ‘combined works of nature and

学位論文梗概集 2015

that

culturallandscapeman [sic]’, designated in Article 1 of the World

3. Research methodology

Heritage Convention. This Convention became

This

the

first

international

legal

instrument

researchbuilds

on

both

an

to

extensive literature review and quantitative data

recognize and protect cultural landscape as aanalysis for the identification of factors andcategory on the World Heritage list through its

elements affecting the country’s policy on heritage

incorporation in the Operational Guidelines (OGs)management.

to the World Heritage Convention. Prior to thisWith respect to the literature review, themovement, the JICA Master Plan proposed a

research consists of five aspects: firstly, previous

re-conceptualization of heritage, with the idea ofand on-going theoretical discussions and debates

returning to local understanding and movingaround the ideas of European theoretical andaway

culturalpractical understanding of heritage will be

heritage. The Plan helped to expand the definition

examined. These can be found in numerousof heritage value from the monument to the wider

scientific publications and academic journals.

landscape in Central Java, including the intrinsic

Secondly,

linkage between nature and culture as well as

perceptions of heritage, which ‘may differ fromlocal practices, rituals, and beliefs associated with

culture to culture, and even within the samecommunity involvement (Nagaoka 2015, 237).

culture’ (ICOMOS 1994), while examining the

The JICA Plan also aimed to refine the definition

Japanese national legislation on the protection ofof cultural heritage in Indonesia as the Plan

cultural properties; this was developed in thedeveloped the concept emphasizing tangible andnineteenthintangible heritage as an integral part of culture,

examines the historical account of Indonesian

giving heritage a function and meaning for the

heritage discourse as well as a series of related

community (Japan International Cooperation

documents and plans for the preservation of the

Agency 1979, 5).

Borobudur Temple and its landscape, createdfrom

Eurocentric notions oftheresearch

century.

reviews

Thirdly,

the

the

Asian

research

In order to answer the above researchduring the 1970s. An example of such documents

question, the following objectives need to be

includes contracts between the Governments ofaddressed:

Indonesia and Japan, the Borobudur Park

1. To elucidate a chronological account of the

management authorities, and the international

evolution of the Borobudur management plan andcampaign for the safeguarding of Borobudur

its system in the 1970s and 1980s through a(Safeguarding Borobudur Project), unpublisheddetailed study of the JICA Plan, relating threedocuments from Japanese specialists involved inother JICA Plan documents;

the Safeguarding Borobudur Project and the JICA

2. To examine how the 1931 Monument Act andMaster Plan in the 1970s. Archives are stored at

the World Heritage system have influenced thethe National Research Institute for Cultural

management concepts and practices at Borobudur

Properties in Tokyo; this archive contains vastin the 1980s and 1990s, the time of the site’s

documentation concerning both projects. Forth,nomination for the inscription on the World

this research looks at a number of UNESCO’s

Heritage List in 1991 and the country’s heritage

documents

discourse from the 1990s onwards; and,management of the World Heritage Convention in

3. To identify the similarities and differences

order to identify existing inconsistencies. Lastly, it

between the JICA Master Plan and the newly

examines extensive documentation generated

adopted Borobudur Presidential Regulation inboth at the international level and under the2014 and the country’s first Spatial Plan at

World Heritage system; this documentation

Borobudur, on which work began in 2007.

mostly comes from the World Heritage Committee,

regardingtheprotection

andthe Advisory Bodies, the World Heritage Centre,
Summaries of Academic Theses 2015

the UNESCO office in Jakarta. This applies at the

There are a plethora of existing studies onnational level, under the Indonesian authorities

the Borobudur Temple; these focus on restoration,(in particular the Presidential Decree), includingarchaeology,

Indonesia’s national laws and charters and any

history, tourism and development, and the impact

official and unpublished documents concerning

on local people as a result of the conservation

the Borobudur Temple management.

intervention at the Borobudur Temple in the 20tharchitecture,conservation,

artWith regard to the quantitative data

century (Errington, 1993; Chihara, 1986; Fatimah

analysis, semi-structured questionnaires were

& Kanki, 2012; Kausar, 2010; Soekmono, 1976

distributed to the local community of Borobudur.

and 1983; Tanudirjo, 2013; Wall & Black 2004;

Additionally, one-to-one interviews with key

Yasuda et al., 2010). However, there has not yet

experts in Indonesia and Japan, as well as

been a detailed study concerning the progression

representatives

atof landscape management at Borobudur. This

Borobudur, who were involved in the planningstudy attempts to fill this gap through a historicaland implementing phases of the JICA Masteraccount and analysis of the Borobudur landscapePlan, were used in order to support and clarify

plan and its implementation since the 1970s.

of

the

local

community

secondary data collected throughout this research.

Meanwhile, a number of scholars haveContextual research emphasises understanding

offered criticisms of the process involved in thethe point of view of local villagers regarding theircreation of the JICA Master Plan. Their principlesocial,political

critique is that the Plan adopted a top-down

environment. Recognition of this study as acultural,economic

andapproach without knowledge of the area’s values

contextual one is essential in carrying out its firstand culture and without the input of the local

objective: investigating a shift in heritage andpopulation. However, these studies did notlandscape management, at Borobudur, from athoroughly

examinecommunity point of view. Consequently, thecollectionsof

integrated approach embraced in this study

documents – these were essential not only to theenables the community’s view about the current

JICA Master Plan (1978-1979) but also to theheritage discourse at Borobudur to be presented.

contiguous three JICA study reports concerning atheBorobudur

fourconsecutive

management

plan

wider area management at Borobudur: theRegional Master Plan Study (1973–1974) and the
Project Feasibility Study (1975–1976), as well as
theimplementation

document

entitledtheUpdated Former Plans and Schematic Design for
BorobudurandArcheological

Parks

Prambanan
Project

National(1981-1983).

Furthermore, although their critiques speak to
the research results regarding restricting thecommunity’s voices with regard to the JICA
Master Plan, none of these have reached the
major players in the JICA Master Plan study
team members or the Indonesian government
officials who created and executed the JICA
Master Plan in the 1970s and 1980s. This
Figure 1. Integrated zoning system (source: JICA Master Plan)

research has primarily drawn on four series of
documents and plans for the preservation of the

4. Significance of study
学位論文梗概集 2015

Borobudur landscape created and implemented

during the 1970s and 1980s.

Borobudur management plan since the 1970s.
While documentation of the cultural landscapeapproach in the Southeast Asian World Heritage
setting has received a lot of attention recently,
there has not been a lot of research into the World
Heritage sites in the region in order to clarify how
different cultural locations might shed light on
improved management. This work aims to provide
useful empirical material about the way in which

Figure 1. A series of JICA Studies (Source: PT Taman Wisata)This study also draws on a sequence ofWorld Heritage properties might be managed.
5. Dissertation structure

one-to-one interviews with key Indonesian andThis paper will be presented in seven chapters.

Japanese experts involved in the planning and

The first chapter provides background, research

implementing process of the JICA Master Plan.

questions and objectives, research methodology,

Moreover, the study examined documents fromsignificance of the study and structure ofJapanese specialists involved in the Safeguarding

dissertation. The second chapter includes a

Borobudur Project and the JICA Master Plan ingeneral introduction

to Borobudur

and its

the 1970s. After these individuals’ passing in 1997

surrounding areas, including historical setting,and 2001 respectively, the families of Dr Daigoro

geographical features, its discovery in the 1900s

Chihara and Dr Masaru Sekino, who both led theand restoration movements in the 20th century

JICA Study Team in the 1970s, donated their

A.D. The chapter will also include an overview of

personal archives to the National Research

academic Borobudur studies conducted since theInstitute for Cultural Properties in Tokyo. This

19th century and information about the current

archive contains their entire documentation

condition of the Borobudur Temple. The thirdconcerning both projects, including personal

chapter

communication

memos,

unpublishedreports,

introducesaheritagemanagement

discourse of Borobudur in the 1970s. The threeminutes,

JICA Plans were consecutively created from 1973

correspondence with the Indonesian authorities

to 1979, and this research clarifies the differences

draft

restorationplans,

meetingand UNESCO, and references, photos andbetween the European and Asian theoretical andscientific papers delivered at a number ofpractical understanding of heritage, in particularinternational symposia in the 1970s and 1980s.

regarding cultural landscape. This chapter also

The study also introduces the unpublishedclarifies how the comprehensive legal framework

personal document of Yasutaka Nagai, who led

inthe JICA study team as its planning coordinatorproperties and their wider settings, was developed

from 1973 to 1980, with a view to clarifying how

Japan, whichaims toprotect cultural

through Japanese heritage laws. This Japanese

the concept of an integrated zoning system washeritage discourse has influenced the concept ofcreatedthe JICA Plan, which aimed to expand andandevolvedthroughout

the

four

subsequent JICA Plans in the 1970s.
The study aims to contribute to thereinforce the existing protection system at
Borobudurand correspond

to

the

society’s

growing literature base looking to critiquerequirements. The fourth chapter provides amanagement concepts and practices surrounding

historical account of the implementation phase of

spatial zoning approaches at Borobudur proposed

the JICA Master Plan in the 1980s. This chapter

by the JICA Plan, while providing a holisticallyanalyzes ways in which the JICA Plan attempted

detailed historical account of the evolution of theto explore and refine heritage value and its
Summaries of Academic Theses 2015

management, promoting recognition of buffer

discourse to community-participation, with regard

zones as a tool not only to protect the property oftohistorical monuments but also to interpret therecommended in the JICA Master Plan in 1979.

values of the surrounding areas and strengthen

The final chapter in this paper concludes withthe bond between people and heritage. This

recommendations of the development of wider

chapter also clarifies how the early Worldlandscape protection with community-involved

Heritage system has influenced the concepts,

initiatives in heritage management for future

practices, and legislative measures of Indonesia’s

action, thus helping to enhance community

heritage management at Borobudur. The fifth

representation in the region and meeting thechapter discusses current heritage discourse in

obligations of the national government withIndonesia approximately 35 years after the Park

regard to heritage management, as stipulated in

Project completion, which saw a change in the

Article 5 of the World Heritage Convention

definition of “heritage value” as well as adoption(UNESCO 1972).

wider

landscapepreservation,

wasof a wider cultural landscape concept with regard
to Borobudur. This chapter attempts to elucidate

6. Conclusion

the similarities and differences between the JICA

The paper concludes that an important

Master Plan and the country’s Spatial Plan atmilestone in the Indonesian heritage discourse

Borobudur. It will also attempt to identify thegeographical change of land use within zone 3 of
the

JICA

Master

Plan,

which

measureswasthe

introduction

of

the

Borobudur

management plan to Indonesia in the 1970s; thisapproximately 10 Square kilometers (1,000 ha.);concept was developed by Japanese heritage

this is achieved by comparing data from the 1979

practitioners. Acknowledging the similarities in

JICA Plan to the survey results carried out bylandscape contexts between central Java and the

UNESCO in 2009. The sixth chapter clarifies how

Nara prefecture in Japan, members of the JICA

astudy team sought to use their knowledge of the

move

of

community-driven

heritagemanagement in the beginning of the 21st century
was reinforced and promoted by the Indonesianauthorities; this was vital to the JICA Master

preservation approach of historic climate linking
with heritage and its surrounding cultural

Plan. Community-driven tourism initiative has

landscape,been in place since the 1990s, with local

Javanese ideas of landscape, and to incorporate

businesses using natural and cultural resources

this concept into a management system for theand authorities in the
includecommunity

21stcentury trying tomembersinheritagemanagement. To explore the natural catastrophic
disaster at Borobudur in 2010, analysis ofsemi-structured questionnaires was employed in

along

with

existing

andlivingwider area of Central Java. This JICA MasterPlan

attempted

topreserve

not

only

the

architectural features of the temples but also
wider

landscapesurroundingthetemples;2012 and 2013 within the local community at

community participation was key to the plan. The

Borobudur; this chapter aims to elucidate thestudy also asserts that the JICA Master Plan

notion that these factors contributed to an

explored a pioneering and integrated approach toincreased awareness of, and pride in, thebuffer zones, evolving from a pure layer ofenvironmental setting and culture, helping topromote community participation in heritage
management

andstrengthening

the

bond

geographical protection around a monument to amuch wider concept inclusive of the holistic

between heritage and people. A fundamental

contribution of educational, social, and economic

power shift from the authority-driven heritage

development. The plan was particular important

学位論文梗概集 2015

to the newly adopted National Spatial Plan at

Journal of Architectural Institute of Japan, Vol. 77 No. 673. (pp.

Borobudur

563-572), 2012.

withinthenewPresidential

Regulation in 2014. However, the JICA Plan was4) ICOMOS. The Nara Document on Authenticity, Paris,

not realized because the authorities had to follow

ICOMOS, 1994.

the then World Heritage system at the time of the5) Japan International Cooperation Agency. Republic ofsite’s nomination for inscription into the World

Indonesia Borobudur Prambanan National Archaeological

Heritage List in 1991.

Parks Final Report, Tokyo, JICA, 1979.

The

study

in

6) Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia. The Law ofIndonesia’s heritage management discourse at

the Republic of Indonesia – Number 11 of the Year 2010

Borobudur,

Concerning Cultural Property. Indonesia, Ministry of Culture andfrommonument-centric

explores
an

the

shift

authority-driven

approachtoaTourism of Indonesia, 2010.

community-based approach for wider landscape7) Nagaoka, Masanori. ‘European’ and ‘Asian’ approaches topreservation from the late 1990s until the early

cultural landscapes management at Borobudur, Indonesia in

21st

the 1970s, In Smith, Laurajane (Eds), International Journal of

century.

Richnaturalandtraditional

resources were utilized, as were authorities’

Heritage

initiatives toward community participation in

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13527258.2014.93

heritage management in the early 21st century;

0065

looking at the natural disaster at Borobudur8) Soekmono. Chandi Borobudur. A monument of mankind.

occurring in 2010, community-driven heritage

Conservation Information Network, Paris, UNESCO Press, 1976.

management was explored, with the resulting9) Soekmono. Usaha Demi Usaha Menyelamatkan Candi

wider cultural landscape protection at Borobudur,

Borobudur, in Menyingkap Tabir Misteri Borobudur. PT

which was reinforced and promoted by the

Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur dan Prambanan, (PP. 6-17), 1983.

Indonesian authorities and community members.

10) UNESCO. Convention Concerning the Protection of the

The study concludes that the Indonesian heritage

World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris, UNESCO, 1972.

discourse has currently evolved exclusively away

11) Wall, Geoffrey, and Heather Black. “Global Heritage andfrom both colonial conservation ethic, which is

Local Problems: Some Examples from Indonesia.” Current

strongly influenced by the Netherlands, and theIssues in Tourism 7 (4–5), (pp. 436–439), London, Routledge, 2004.

Japanese heritage discourse.

12) Yasuda, Kozue., Amana Hiaga., Hidetoshi Saito. The

Studies,

2015.

RetrievedfromGeneral Description of the Restoration of Project of Borobudur
References

Remains and the Consultative Committee for the Safeguarding

1) Chihara, Daigoro. Conservation of Cultural Heritage andof Candi Borobudur – A study on the international cooperation

Tourism Development, Unpublished raw data, 1981.

project2) Errington, Shelly. Making Progress on Borobudur: An Old

Architectural Planning. Vol. 75. No. 650, (pp. 979-987). Japan.

Monument in New Order. Visual Anthropology Review.

Architectural Institute of Japanfor

Borobudur

remains

(Part

1).

JournalofVolume 9 Number 2. 32-59, American Anthropological Association,
1993.
3) Fatimah, Titin and Kiyoko Kanki. “Evaluation of Rural
Tourism Initiatives in Borobudur Sub-district, Indonesia”,

Summaries of Academic Theses 2015