European Asylum Support Office

Eritrea
National service, exit,
and return
Country of Origin Information Report

September 2019SUPPORT IS OUR MISSION

European Asylum Support Office

Eritrea
National service, exit,
and return

Country of Origin Information Report

September 2019

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu).
PDF: ISBN: 978-92-9485-056-0

doi: 10.2847/23257

BZ0219676ENN© European Asylum Support Office (EASO) 2019
Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged, unless otherwise stated.
For third-party materials reproduced in this publication, reference is made to the copyrights
statements of the respective third parties.
Cover photo: Dekemhare, Eritrea © SEM, The State Secretariat for Migration, Switzerland

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 3

Acknowledgements
EASO would like to acknowledge the State Secretariat for Migration (SEM), Division Analysis(Länderanalyse SEM), as the drafter of this report.
The following national asylum and migration departments have reviewed the report, together with
EASO:
Germany, Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), Country Analysis
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Section for Information Analysis
It must be noted that the review carried out by the mentioned departments, experts or organisations
contributes to the overall quality of the report, but does not necessarily imply their formal
endorsement of the final report, which is the full responsibility of EASO.

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EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

Contents

Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................. 3Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Disclaimer................................................................................................................................................ 6
Glossary and abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 7
Executive summary ................................................................................................................................. 9
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 11
Defining the terms of reference ................................................................................................... 11
Collecting information .................................................................................................................. 11
Source assessment ....................................................................................................................... 13
Quality control.............................................................................................................................. 14
Structure and use of the report ........................................................................................................ 14
Map ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
1. Overview: developments 2016-2019 ................................................................................................ 16
1.1. Peace with Ethiopia and foreign affairs ..................................................................................... 16
1.2. Internal affairs ........................................................................................................................... 17
1.3. Religious issues .......................................................................................................................... 18
1.4. Legal framework ........................................................................................................................ 20
2. National service................................................................................................................................. 222.1. Recent developments ................................................................................................................ 222.2. Structure .................................................................................................................................... 24
2.3. Recruitment ............................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.1. Through schooling system.................................................................................................. 26
2.3.2. Recruitment of school drop-outs ....................................................................................... 28
2.3.3. Exemptions ......................................................................................................................... 31
2.3.4. Recruitment of minors ....................................................................................................... 32
2.4. Duration and discharge ............................................................................................................. 33
2.5. Remuneration ............................................................................................................................ 35
2.6. Treatment of conscripts ............................................................................................................ 37
2.6.1. Civilian national service ...................................................................................................... 37

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2.6.2. Military national service ..................................................................................................... 37
2.6.3. Situation of women in military ........................................................................................... 38
2.7. Treatment of deserters and draft evaders ................................................................................ 40
2.7.1. Treatment of family members ........................................................................................... 41
3. Exit from Eritrea ................................................................................................................................ 42
3.1. Travel inside Eritrea and to the border ..................................................................................... 42
3.2. Legal exit .................................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.1. Exit visa ............................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.2. Exit by land to Sudan .......................................................................................................... 45
3.2.3. Exit by land to Ethiopia....................................................................................................... 45
3.2.4. Exit by air ............................................................................................................................ 49
3.3. Illegal exit ................................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.1. Illegal exit to Sudan ............................................................................................................ 49
3.3.2. Illegal exit to Ethiopia ......................................................................................................... 51
3.4. Treatment of persons crossing the border illegally ................................................................... 52
4. Treatment of returnees .................................................................................................................... 55
4.1. Voluntary return ........................................................................................................................ 55
4.1.1. Conditions for return.......................................................................................................... 55
4.1.2. Follow-up upon arrival ....................................................................................................... 56
4.1.3. ‘Diaspora status’ ................................................................................................................. 57
4.1.4. Return as a visitor............................................................................................................... 58
4.1.5. Permanent return............................................................................................................... 59
4.1.6. Return from Ethiopia .......................................................................................................... 61
4.2. Forced return ............................................................................................................................. 62
Annex 1: Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 65
Annex 2: Terms of Reference ................................................................................................................ 81

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Disclaimer
This report was written according to the EASO COI Report Methodology (2019). 1 The report is basedon carefully selected sources of information. All sources used are referenced.
The information contained in this report has been researched, evaluated and analysed with utmost
care. However, this document does not claim to be exhaustive. If a particular event, person ororganisation is not mentioned in the report, this does not mean that the event has not taken place orthat the person or organisation does not exist.
Furthermore, this report is not conclusive as to the determination or merit of any particularapplication for international protection. Terminology used should not be regarded as indicative of aparticular legal position.
‘Refugee’, ‘risk’ and similar terminology are used as generic terminology and not in the legal sense as
applied in the EU Asylum Acquis, the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the
Status of Refugees.
Neither EASO nor any person acting on its behalf may be held responsible for the use which may bemade of the information contained in this report.
The drafting of this report was finalised in August 2019. Any event taking place after this date is notincluded in this report. More information on the reference period for this report can be found in themethodology section of the introduction.

1 The EASO methodology is largely based on the Common EU Guidelines for processing Country of Origin Information (COI),

2008, and can be downloaded from the EASO website: http://www.easo.europa.eu

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

Glossary and abbreviations
ARRA

Agency for Refugees and Returnees Affairs (Ethiopia)

COI

Country of Origin Information

EPLF

Eritrean People’s Liberation Front, predecessor of PFDJ

ERN

Eritrean Nakfa

ESECE

Eritrean Secondary Education Certificate Examinations; final exam
after the 12th grade

Form 4/4.2

Form of Repentance, Letter of Regret

giffa

Round-up, razzia

hagerawi agelglot

National service

hizbawi serawit

People’s Army

ICRC

International Committee of the Red Cross

kebabiThird-tier administrative unit

matrikEritrean Secondary Education Certificate Examinations (ESECE); final
exam after the 12th grade

mefanewi

Release letter

menqesaqesi

Travel permit, laissez-passer

metayesi

Demobilisation card

mifinaw

Release from national service

mimihdarAdministration

mitiyasDemobilisation from the military component of national serviceNGO

Non-governmental organisation

Nus-Zoba

Second-tier administrative unit

PDFJ

People’s Front for Justice and Democracy

RRT

Rehabilitation and Construction Tax (‘diaspora tax’, ‘2 % tax’)

teff

Staple cereal cultivated in the Horn of Africa

tegadelti

Former EPLF fighters (tegadelai in singular)

TVET

Technical and Vocational Education Training

UN

United Nations

UNHCR

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UPR

Universal Periodic Review

USD

U.S. Dollar

warsayConscript. Literal meaning in Tigrinya: 'my heir', i. e. inheritor of the EPLF
veterans' legacy

WYDC

Warsay-Yikealo Development Campaign

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EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

yiakl

Diaspora-based opposition campaign, ‘enough’ in Tigrinya

yikealo

Younger fighter generation, ‘heir’ in Tigrinya

Zoba

First-tier administrative unit

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 9

Executive summary
In July 2018, Eritrea and Ethiopia signed a peace declaration, after 18 years of a ‘no war, no peace’situation that had followed the border war of 1998-2000. The two neighbours re-establisheddiplomatic relations, communication and transport channels. Eritrea announced peace with Djibouti
and Somalia as well, boosting its regional integration. In November 2018, the UN lifted the sanctions,which had been in place since 2009. On a domestic level, as of August 2019, peace has not yet led toany significant policy changes. Government critics and members of unrecognised religious
denominations continue to be detained. The constitution ratified in 1997 and the civil and penal codes
published in 2015 remain unimplemented; the provisional codes of 1991 continue to be applied while
no constitution is in place.
The open-ended national service has not yet been reformed. The Eritrean government stresses thatreforms are planned, but that more time is needed: before releasing hundreds of thousands of young
people from national service to the job market, opportunities had to be created for them.
Furthermore, Ethiopia has not yet retreated from the disputed border territories. As a consequence,
there are no indications of changes in terms of conditions, recruitment or policies in national service.
Most notably, the unlimited duration of national service remains in place. The remuneration reform
announced in 2015 and 2016 has partly been implemented. However, due to substantial deductions
introduced simultaneously, net salaries remained on a similar level as before for many beneficiaries.
Exit visa requirements remain in place, making it difficult for many Eritreans to leave the country
legally. From September 2018 until December 2018, however, visa requirements were de facto lifted
for Eritreans travelling to Ethiopia using the newly opened land border crossings. A large number ofEritreans took this opportunity to visit the neighbour, to seek labour, or for family reunification. Since
December 2018 (central areas) and April 2019 (peripheral areas), respectively, the land bordercrossings have been closed again. As of July 2019, crossing the Eritrean-Ethiopian border irregularly
has been reported to be much easier than prior to the border opening. Many restrictions on internal
movement within Eritrea have been lifted, too. The land border crossings to Sudan have been closed
in January 2018. In January and July 2019, the two governments announced the re-opening of theborder crossings.
Persons returning to Eritrea after living abroad are required to fulfil a number of conditions, mostnotably the payment of the 2 % Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Tax and the signing of the ‘Letterof Regret’ for those who had left without fulfilling their national service duty. De facto, the Eritrean
authorities also expect a minimum of loyalty, i.e. no oppositional political activities abroad. Returnees
who fulfil these conditions are eligible for a privileged status, which allows them to leave Eritrea
without an exit visa and relieves them from national service duty. However, this status is primarily
meant for visiting diaspora Eritreans. Persons who stay in Eritrea for longer than six to twelve months(depending on the source) are considered residents again and liable to national service duty. Eritrea
does not accept forced returns of failed asylum seekers. Sporadic events of deportations havenevertheless been recorded in the last four years, mainly across its land borders.
The punishment for desertion from national service, draft evasion, and illegal exit continues to be
applied arbitrarily and inconsistently, mostly by military commanders and other representatives ofthe security forces. Transgressors can be arrested during giffas (round-ups), through searches, whentrying to cross the border, or after returning from abroad. According to many sources, arrested
persons are screened, profiled and treated accordingly. Deserters and draft evaders are reported to
be sent to prison, mostly for terms between one and twelve months, during which interrogations andtorture may occur. Prison terms for repeated offenders, document forgers and persons who have left
the country illegally or have tried to do so are reportedly higher, up to three years. Draft evaders areafterwards sent to military trainings, while military deserters are sent back to their unit. Their

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commander decides arbitrarily whether to further punish them or reintegrate them into the unit.
Deserters from the civilian national service are often transferred to a military unit as a punishment, in
addition to time in prison. Persons who have returned from abroad or been deported are reported to
be treated similarly to those arrested within Eritrea. Returnees who have paid the 2 % tax and signedthe ‘Letter of Regret’ are usually not arrested upon arrival. After the expiry of their privileged status,
however, (re-)conscription into national service and punishment occur at the discretion of theauthorities.
No official information is available on the de facto treatment of deserters, draft evaders and persons
who leave Eritrea illegally. The information on the respective punishments presented in this report islargely based on anecdotal accounts. Therefore, and because of the arbitrary and inconsistent
application of the punishment, the treatment may deviate from it in individual cases. As of August
2019, there are no indications that the end of the ‘no war, no peace’ situation with Ethiopia has led
to more leniency when it comes to punishments for the above-mentioned offenses. One change thathas happened is that, as of July 2019, almost no irregular migrants are apprehended anymore at theborder to Ethiopia, making their potential treatment difficult to assess.

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Introduction
This report was drafted by Länderanalyse SEM, the Country of Origin Information (COI) unit of theState Secretariat for Migration (SEM) of Switzerland. It provides a full update of the SEM’s findings onnational service, exit, and return, which were first published by EASO in November 2016.
This report is produced in line with the EASO COI Report Methodology (2019) 2 and the EASO COI
Writing and Referencing Style Guide (2019). 3

Methodology
Defining the terms of reference
Länderanalyse SEM, the SEM’s COI unit continually monitors new reports from internationalorganisations, NGOs, the academic community, the media and other reputable sources. It also
maintains contact with experts on Eritrea in a variety of fields, with representatives of the Eritrean
government and its neighbouring countries, and with partner agencies in other European countries.
The SEM conducts official visits to Eritrea and to neighbouring countries, where many Eritrean
migrants stay. In 2015, EASO has published an overview of the results drafted by the SEM. In 2016, a
more detailed assessment of the aspects relevant for refugee status determination was published.
In mid-2018, Eritrea and Ethiopia made peace, ending an 18-year-old situation of ‘no war, no peace’.
Before 2018, Eritrea was justifying several measures by this situation, such as the unlimited durationof national service or the harsh treatment of deserters and draft evaders – the topics addressed in the2016 report. Hence, an update on this situation was necessary. The present report again focuses on
the questions which were identified in 2016 as most relevant for refugee status determination. These
questions have been specified by the asylum policy makers of the Swiss State Secretariat for Migration(SEM). Participation in conferences on European level and discussions in the EASO COI Specialist
Network meetings have shown that the same questions are relevant for the other EU+ states which
treat Eritrean asylum cases. A new question added to the Terms of Reference is the treatment of
persons who have left and re-entered Eritrea legally during the time the border with Ethiopia wasopen and no exit visa requirement was in place, i.e. between September 2018 and December
2018/April 2019 (see Terms of Reference).

Collecting information
Public sources
In accordance with EASO COI methodology, a range of different available sources has been consulted
on the relevant topics published in the period between August 2016 and August 2019. These include:
•
•
•
•
•

Country of Origin Information (COI) reports by governments;
information from advocacy groups;
human rights reports by governments and advocacy groups, including annual updates on thehuman rights situation;
UN reports produced by the Security Council, the Special Rapporteur on the situation ofhuman rights in Eritrea, and in the framework of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR);
Eritrean government publications, such as statements on the situation of human rights for the
African Charter on Human and People’s Rights and for UPR; official speeches and comments

2 EASO, EASO Country of Origin Information (COI) Report Methodology, June 2019, url

3 EASO, Writing and Referencing Guide for EASO Country of Origin Information (COI) Reports, June 2019, url12 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN••

published on Shabait, the website of the Eritrean Ministry of Information; and comments
made to foreign journalists;
academic publications (books and journal articles);media reports.

Reports published prior to August 2016 were included as sources, when no newer information wasavailable, to corroborate information which was otherwise only given by oral sources, or whenreferring to events and situations in the past.
The Swiss COI unit conducted a full review of available publications to the extent possible, thoughgaps cannot be discounted. For an assessment of the different categories of sources, see the next
section Source assessment.
Oral sources
After assessing these publications, some information gaps remained.
In order to complete the desk research, the SEM has conducted a number of interviews with sources
who have information about Eritrea. In order to obtain a broad base of information and to avoid abias as much as possible, these interviews were conducted in three sequences in three different
places:•••interviews with 34 refugees and 9 local sources in Tigray regional state and Addis Ababa, on
the occasion of a research visit to Ethiopia in May 2019;22 interviews with government officials, diplomats and representatives of internationalorganisations and the civil society in Asmara, on the occasion of a research visit to Eritrea in
July 2019;
6 interviews with academic Eritrea experts and human rights advocates by phone and email
in July 2019. Five of the selected experts are researchers, whose publications are often quoted
in COI reports; the sixth is a legal expert.

Most of the interviewed sources wish to be quoted anonymously. They are described in the
Bibliography.
To fill still persisting information gaps on particular issues, further experts and organisations have been
contacted via email.
Challenges in collecting information
Access to information about Eritrea, particularly on human rights issues, is difficult. The Eritrean
Ministry of Information controls all media in Eritrea. Academic researchers, journalists, andrepresentatives of human rights organisations are generally unable to conduct research in the country,
or can do so only to a very limited degree. The Eritrean authorities publish little detailed information
about the national service. There is a similar lack of transparency regarding the implementation oflegislation on national service and illegal exit; and the authorities do not publish any guidelines orimplementing provisions. A monitoring of returned former asylum seekers is not possible. 4 This meansthat there is a lack of essential sources of information on the topics identified in the Terms ofReference.
A major challenge in researching public sources is to find current information which is complete. Mostof the above-mentioned public sources have not yet published detailed reports of the situation after
the Eritrean-Ethiopian peace declaration. Furthermore, most of these sources focus on different
issues than those relevant for the asylum procedure, or do not delve as much into the details tocorrespond with the COI needs.

4 cf. Landinfo, Repons Eritrea: Faktagrunnlag og kildekritikk [Response Eritrea: Fact base and source criticism], 14 January
2019, url, p. 1

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The information provided by oral sources through interviews is by and large more current than any
other published information as of August 2019. Often, the oral information is very similar to the
published and hence mainly shows that there has been no change in a subject. Despite the described
efforts, some information gaps and uncertainties remain. They are mentioned in the text. This mostly
concerns the military component of national service, potentially adjusted punishments after the endof the ‘no war, no peace’ situation with Ethiopia, and the treatment of returnees.

Source assessment
The information available and used in this report is based on the following categories of sources:
•

•

•

•

Eritrean government (including official legal framework): The Eritrean government mostly
dismisses allegations of human rights violations. Information published by the Eritrean
government or given by government officials is rather consistently in line with the official
position. Detailed information – particularly on military issues – is often not accessible.
Eritrean laws, proclamations, and regulations are partly accessible, but often not online.
Foreigners in Eritrea: Foreign residents of Eritrea are well placed to report on the current
situation in the country. However, in the experience of the SEM, their knowledge has some
limits. For example, expatriates in Asmara have no access to prisons or military camps, or tointernal documents of the Eritrean authorities on justice or national service. This means thatthe information they provide is mostly based on oral accounts from acquaintances. Many ofthem concede that their assessments are based on anecdotal information from rather small
samples. Their own sources tend to relate the situation in Asmara and its surroundings, which
is often different from other parts of the country, and, when it comes to national service, toits civilian component, which is more present in the capital than the military component. Dueto the small size of the expatriate community in Asmara, information round tripping and false
confirmations occur. 5 Furthermore, some expatriates in Eritrea are cautious when talking toforeign delegations, as they want to preserve their access and working relations with theEritrean authorities. Accordingly, situation reports provided by foreign observers tend to be
more positive than those e.g. provided by exiled Eritreans.
Eritrean migrants and human rights advocates outside Eritrea: Reports by human rights
organisations in particular are based to a considerable extent on statements by people whohave left Eritrea. In the experience of the SEM, these organisations are mainly contacted bypeople who claim to have had very negative experiences before leaving the country or who,
for other reasons, would like to draw attention on abuses in Eritrea. 6 Likewise, opposition
media based in the diaspora use such information to criticise the Eritrean government.
According to the SEM’s experience, recently arrived Eritrean refugees such as thoseinterviewed in Ethiopia are less sensitised for politics and hence less likely to provide biased
information. Like the sources inside Eritrea, information by persons who have left Eritrea is toa large extent anecdotal. To a certain degree, Eritreans abroad are able to fill information gaps
regarding the situation outside Asmara and in the military component of national service,because their background is more diverse than the sources of expatriates in Asmara.
Academic experts: Academic publications strive for sound and balanced research. They aresupposed to be consistent with a number of methodological and scientific criteria, such as
peer review. Hence, academic researchers are probably also more sensitised to these quality
standards when interviewed. On the other hand, academic publications are rarely reflecting
currently unfolding events, and due to lacking opportunities to do research on the ground,information access for academic researchers is often difficult or delayed. Nevertheless, theytend to use broader and more balanced samples than the two source groups described above.

5 cf. Landinfo, Repons Eritrea: Faktagrunnlag og kildekritikk [Response Eritrea: Fact base and source criticism], 14 January

2019, url, p. 2; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 15
6 cf. Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, pp. 14-15

14 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN•Media reports are current, but often based on a small range of interlocutors inside and/or
outside of Eritrea. Many journalists have a limited time budget for such researches and equallylimited previous knowledge on the issue. Hence there is a risk they overly reflect the point ofview of their interlocutors, which in some cases lead to one-sided reports.

As shown, all categories of sources have advantages and disadvantages. By using all of these diverse
sources, the SEM has used all means available in order to mitigate a potential bias and draft a balanced
report. The present report should therefore be read in the light of the source assessment provided
here.

Quality control
In order to ensure that the EASO COI Report Methodology and the EASO Writing and Referencing
Guide were respected, a review was carried out by COI specialists from Germany and Sweden and by
EASO staff. All comments made by the reviewers were taken into consideration.

Structure and use of the report
Chapter 1 provides a brief overview about the developments in Eritrea’s foreign affairs, internalaffairs, religious issues and legal framework since 2016, including the peace declaration with Ethiopiaof 2018.
The subsequent three chapters provide a COI update on the topics relevant for international
protection determination: national service, legal and illegal exit, and return. These chapters mostly
describe the relevant legal framework governing the concerned issue, the government position on theissue (if available), followed by information from the used publications and by the interlocutors
interviewed in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Europe.
The report is designed to deliver relevant information for international protection determination in
Europe. The report is not meant to give a complete view of the current political or human rights
situation in Eritrea.

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— 15

Map

Map 1: General map of Eritrea, © State Secretariat for Migration SEM. 7 All borders and names used on this andother maps in this report do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by Switzerland or the European Union.

7 Map created by the State Secretariat for Migration SEM (Switzerland), 2019, based on Eritrean Demining Authority et al.,Landmine Impact Survey – 2004 [map], 2004; UN Cartographic Section, Eritrea [map], n.d., url; Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary
Commission, International Boundary between the State of Eritrea and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia [map],
2002, url

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1. Overview: developments 2016-2019
1.1. Peace with Ethiopia and foreign affairs
The most crucial event in Eritrean foreign politics in the last couple of years was the peace declaration
with Ethiopia in mid-2018. On 5 June 2018, Ethiopia’s Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed announced that
Ethiopia was willing to accept the 2002 UN decision on the Eritrean-Ethiopian border unconditionally,
which Ethiopia previously had refused to do. 8 In the following weeks, several mutual visits of highlevel delegations ensued, culminating in the signing of a five-point Joint Declaration of Peace andFriendship by Eritrea’s President Isaias Afewerki and Ethiopia’s Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed on
9 July 2018 in Asmara. 9 The signing of the peace declaration led to a chain of events which normalised
the relations between the two countries:
•
•
•
•
•
•

On 9 July 2018, Ethiopia and Eritrea opened the phone lines between each other, which had
been blocked for 20 years. 10
On 16 July 2018, the Eritrean embassy in Addis Ababa reopened. 11
On 18 July 2018, the first regular flight between Addis Ababa and Asmara in 20 years tookoff. 12On 6 September 2018, the Ethiopian embassy in Asmara reopened. 13
On 11 September 2018, the land border crossings in Debay Sima/Bure and Serha/Zalambessa
were reopened. 14
On 16 September 2018, President Isaias Afewerki and Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed signed
another peace declaration in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. 15

Peace with Ethiopia boosted Eritrea’s regional integration. On 30 July 2018, Eritrea and Somalia signed
an agreement to restore diplomatic relations, concluding a three-day visit of Somalia’s President
Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed ‘Farmaajo’ to Eritrea. 16 On 6 September 2018, another peacedeclaration was signed with Djibouti. Eritrean relations with Djibouti had been strained after a briefborder war in 2008. 17 However, the disputed border between the two countries remains unsettled
and the two countries have not yet agreed on Djiboutian soldiers missing in action. 18 Eritrea has also
intensified ties with the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, which both maintain a military

8 BBC, Ethiopia 'accepts peace deal' to end Eritrea border war, 5 June 2018, url

9 Shabait, Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship between Eritrea and Ethiopia, 9 July 2018, url; BBC, Ethiopia's Abiy andEritrea's Afwerki declare end of war, 9 July 2018, url
10 CNN, People in Ethiopia are calling strangers in Eritrea as phone lines are opened after 20 years, 10 July 2018, url
11 Reuters, Eritrea reopens embassy in Addis Ababa in fresh sign of thaw with Ethiopia, 16 July 2018, url
12 Guardian, The, Champagne and roses on first Ethiopia-Eritrea flight in two decades, 18 July 2018, url
13 Fana BC, Ethiopia reopens embassy in Asmara, 6 September 2018, url
14 Reuters, UPDATE 5-Ethiopia, Eritrea reopen border points for first time in 20 years, 11 September 2018, url
15 Reuters, Ethiopian, Eritrean leaders sign peace agreement in Jeddah, 16 September 2018, url
16 Al Jazeera, Eritrea and Somalia agree to restore diplomatic relations, 30 July 2018, url
17 Al Jazeera, Eritrea consolidates Horn of Africa peace, 11 September 2018, url, Reuters, Djibouti, Eritrea agree to normalize
ties strained since 2008, 6 September 2018, url
18 UN Security Council, Letter dated 7 November 2018 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant toresolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council,
9 November 2018, url, para. 44/47; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 5

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 17

presence at the port of Assab. 19 These countries also played an important role facilitating the peace
between Eritrea and Ethiopia. 20
On the multilateral stage, Eritrea made a breakthrough as well. On 14 November 2018, the UN
Security council voted unanimously to lift the sanctions against Eritrea, which had been in place since2009. 21 Already on 12 October 2018, the UN General Assembly had elected Eritrea as a member ofthe Human Rights Council. 22 The visit of Donald Yamamoto, the United States’ most senior diplomat
in Africa, to Eritrea in April 2018 was the first such envoy in over a decade and marked improved
relations with the United States. 23
Later in 2018 and in 2019, the peace process with Ethiopia suffered some setbacks. Some inhabitantsof Tigray, Ethiopia’s northernmost regional state bordering Eritrea, demonstrated against theannounced retreat of Ethiopia from the disputed territories at the border, thus far under Ethiopian
control. Particularly the residents of Irob and Badme, two of the disputed territories, opposed themove. 24 In two steps in December 2018 and April 2019 respectively, Eritrea unilaterally closed the landborder crossings again, although a reopening has been announced (see Chapter 3.2.3.). 25 As of July
2019, Ethiopia has not retreated from the disputed territories, the border issue remains defacto unresolved. 26

1.2. Internal affairs
As of August 2019, peace with Ethiopia and the increased regional and international integration did
not yet translate into significant changes in terms of internal politics. 27 This includes the human rights
situation, especially the repressive measures that had been put in place after the border war with
Ethiopia 28 such as unlimited national service (see Chapter 2.1.).

19 Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 220-221, UN Security Council, Letter dated 7 October 2016 from the

Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992)and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea
addressed to the President of the Security Council, 7 October 2016, url, para. 32; UN Security Council, Letter dated 7
November 2018 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009)
concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council, 9 November 2018, url, para. 22
20 International Crisis Group, The United Arab Emirates in the Horn of Africa, 6 November 2018, url, pp. 8-9; Economist (The),How Ethiopia and Eritrea made peace, 17 July 2018, url; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January
2019, url, p. 5; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 221-222
21 Economist (The), Sanctions on Eritrea are lifted, 15 November 2018, url; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 7
22 UN General Assembly, Election of the Human Rights Council (12 October 2018), 12 October 2018, url
23 Economist (The), How Ethiopia and Eritrea made peace, 17 July 2018, url; RW, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17
January 2019, url, p. 5; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 222; TesfaNews, Top U.S. Envoy Reiterates Decision
to Strengthen Ties with Eritrea, 4 December 2018, url
24 AfricaNews, Ethiopia-Eritrea reconciliation project meets resistance from border communities, 12 June 2018, url, Al
Jazeera, Ethiopia or Eritrea? Border community fears split, 20 July 2018, url; Ethiopia Observer, Irob Protests in Tigray Display
Local Obstacles to Implementing Eritrea Peace Deal, 11 June 2018, url
25 Reuters, Eritrea closes border crossing to Ethiopians, official and residents say, 28 December 2018, url, Eritrean Press[Facebook], Eritrea Closes Assab Road to Ethiopia, posted on: 22 April 2019, url, AfricaNews, Eritrea shuts all borders with
Ethiopia – unilaterally, 23 April 2019, url
26 Economist (The), Eritrea’s gulag state is crumbling, 11 July 2019, url; NZZ (Neue Zürcher Zeitung), Ein Jahr nach dem
Friedensschluss zwischen Eritrea und Äthiopien ist Ernüchterung eingekehrt [one year after the peace agreement between
Eritrea and Ethiopia, disillusion has come back], 26 July 2019, url; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 224
27 Amnesty International, Eritrea: Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 8; Human Rights Watch, World Report
2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2; Economist (The), Eritrea’s gulag state is crumbling, 11 July 2019, url; NZZ(Neue Zürcher Zeitung), Ein Jahr nach dem Friedensschluss zwischen Eritrea und Äthiopien ist Ernüchterung eingekehrt [oneyear after the peace agreement between Eritrea and Ethiopia, disillusion has come back], 26 July 2019, url; Voice of America,
Hopes Dashed as Ethiopia-Eritrea Peace Process Stagnates , 23 July 2019, url
28 Amnesty International, Eritrea: Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 8; Human Rights Watch, World Report
2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2

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According to human rights reports, arbitrary arrests of political dissenters and members ofunregistered religious groups continue. 29 Most prominent is the case of Berhane Abrehe, the former
finance minister. In September 2018, Berhane published a book abroad in which he criticised thegovernment. Berhane was detained shortly after the publication, on 16 September 2018; hiswhereabouts remain unknown. His wife had already been arrested in February 2018. 30 Persons
arrested in previous years generally remained in detention. 31 An exception was made for 35 membersof unregistered evangelical churches, who were released in July and August 2018 after they had
renounced their religion four years earlier. 32
In 2019, young diaspora Eritreans, disappointed by the apparent lack of a ‘dividend of peace’, started
a social media campaign under the hashtag #yiakl (‘enough’ in Tigrinya), in which they share videos
speaking out against President Isaias and the government, trying to mobilise people and put pressure
on the government. Meanwhile, the yiakl campaign reaches out to Eritrea as well, with pamphlets
being distributed at night in downtown Asmara and some anti-government graffities. 33 Inside Eritrea,
some youths are reportedly resolved to disobey the 2019 summons to the 12th schooling year, which
for almost all 12th graders (except for those studying at technical schools) takes place at the Sawa
military camp. 34 The government has reacted by blocking social media 35 and with round-ups in several
parts of Eritrea. 36

1.3. Religious issues
Eritrea officially allows freedom of religion. However, only the four denominations that are recognised
and registered may be freely followed for the most part: Eritrean Orthodox, Catholic and Lutheran
Christianity, and Sunni Islam. Since 2002, the practising of non-registered religions is unlawful.
Therefore, activities of all other religious groups, such as Pentecostal Churches or Jehovah’s
Witnesses, can be persecuted. 37
Arrests of members of unregistered evangelical churches continue to be reported. In 2016, there werereports about the detention of eight persons during a raid in Asmara. 38 In 2017, several arrests ofevangelical Christians were reported either during prayer meetings or at their homes. 39 An advocacy

29 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 17; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 3
30 Voice of America, Former Top Eritrean Official Arrested After Criticizing President, 20 September 2018, url; Amnesty
International, Urgent Action, Ex-Minister arbitrarily held after book release, 18 September 2018, url; Amnesty International,
Eritrea: Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 6; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17
January 2019, url, pp. 3-4; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in
Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 21 ; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13
March 2019, url, p. 5
31 United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 3; Horn ofAfrica expert, email interview, 23 July 201932 United States, USDOS, 2018 Report on International Religious Freedom, 21 June 2019, url, p. 6
33 CNN, The social media campaign that aims to topple leader of 'Africa's North Korea', 14 June 2019, url; Ethiopia Insight,
Charting a way forward for Eritrea, 28 April 2019, url; Economist (The), Eritrea’s gulag state is crumbling, 11 July 2019, url;
Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; African Arguments, Eritrea: Is political change really on the horizon?, 13
August 2019, url; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 201934 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 201935 Economist (The), Eritrea’s gulag state is crumbling, 11 July 2019, url
36 BBC Tigrinya, ኣብ ዝተፈለለየ ከባቢታት ኤርትራ ጽዑቕ ግፋ ከም ዘሎ ተፈሊጡ [Reports about intense round-ups in several areasof Eritrea], 22 July 2019, url
37 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, pp. 48-49
38 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 24 July 2017, url,para. 2139 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 24 July 2017, url,para. 21; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June
2018, url, para. 38; CSW, Eritrean Christian mother dies in prison, 11 August 2017, url

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 19

group claimed that between May and August 2017, approximately 210 evangelical Christians had beenarrested 40; in addition to 35 Jehovah’s Witnesses in July 2017. 41 Some releases were also reported: in
October 2017, a Jehovah’s Witness was released from Adi Kuala prison 42; in July and August 2018, 35
evangelical Christians were released from May Serwa prison after they had renounced their religion
four years earlier. 43 In May and June 2019, 171 members of unregistered evangelical churches, mainly
Pentecostals, were reportedly detained. 44 In June 2019, a Methodist church in Keren was raided andall faithful present arrested, half of them were released shortly after. 45 Further arrests of evangelicals
were reported in June and August 2019 in Keren and in August 2019 in Asmara. 46
In 2017, the government announced the conversion of all schools administered by religious groups
into government-administered institutions. Several committee members of Asmara’s Islamic Al Diaa
school, among them the 93-year-old Haji Musa Mohammed Nur, criticised these measures,
whereupon they were detained. This triggered street protests of Al Diaa students in October 2017.
The government suppressed the protests and detained many participants in the aftermath and inhouse raids during the following days. 47 In March 2018, Haji Musa died in detention. His funeral was
followed by new street protests, after which again many participants, including children, weredetained. 48 Most arrested persons were released during the next three months, but some schoolleaders, parents, and students reportedly remained imprisoned as of early 2019. 49
The Catholic bishops have repeatedly criticised the Eritrean government openly, e.g. in open letters in
May 2014 50 and April 2019. 51 The bishops have not been detained. Government measures targeting
the Catholic Church, however, do occur. In October 2017, the Catholic seminar in Asmara was closed
and a nun and a priest were detained for several months. 52 In 2018, the authorities closed five clinics

40 CSW, Eritrean Christian mother dies in prison, 11 August 2017, url

41 United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 6

42 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 24 July 2017, url,para. 2143 United States, USDOS, 2018 Report on International Religious Freedom, 21 June 2019, url, p. 6; Asmarino, Eritrea still holds
hundreds of Prisoners incarcerated for their Religious Faith, 18 July 2018, url
44 Persecution/International Christian Concern, Eritrea Continues to Crackdown on Pentecostal Christians – 30 Christians
Arrested, 7 June 2019, url
45 RFI (Radio France Internationale), En Érythrée, les évêques appellent à la prière et au jeûne contre la répression [In Eritrea,
the bishops call for praying and fasting against the repression], 25 June 2019, url
46 Sight, At least 150 Christians arrested in Eritrea clampdown, 26 August 2019, url
47 African Arguments, More dissent in Eritrea, a country where dissent is not tolerated, 7 March 2018, url; Neue Zürcher
Zeitung, Proteste für einen toten Nationalhelden in Eritrea [Protests for a dead national hero in Eritrea], 10 March 2018, url;
Human Rights Watch, World Report 2018: Events of 2017, 18 January 2018, url, p. 30; UN Human Rights Council, Report of
the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url, para. 36, 37, 62, 65; United States,
USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 6; Human Rights Watch, “TheyAre Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 27
48 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 3; UN Human Rights Council, Report of
the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url, para. 37, 46; UN Human Rights Council,
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 54 ; United States,
USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 6; Human Rights Watch, “TheyAre Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 27
49 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 27; Human Rights Watch,
World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 3 ; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteuron the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 54; United States, USDOS, 2018 Report on International
Religious Freedom, 21 June 2019, url, p. 5
50 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2015 – Eritrea, Events of 2014, 29 January 2015, url; BBC, Eritrea ‘desolate’ – Catholic
bishops, 9 June 2014, url
51 AMECEA, Eritrea: Reading Recent Developments from The Context of 29th April 2019 Pastoral Letter of Eritrean Catholic
Bishops, 21 June 2019, url; RFI (Radio France Internationale), En Érythrée, les évêques appellent à la prière et au jeûne contre
la répression [In Eritrea, the bishops call for praying and fasting against the repression], 25 June 2019, url
52 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url,para. 72

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run by the Catholic Church. 53 In June 2019, a government directive forced the remaining
approximately 30 Catholic clinics to close. 54 The Eritrean government justified the measures with
Regulation 73/1995 55, which limited the developmental activities of the religious institutions tocertain areas indicated by the government. It claimed that the operational/administrative authorityof the clinics was to be transferred to the respective regional branches of the Ministry of Health. 56 As
of July 2019, however, the clinics remain closed. 57
In July 2019, the former patriarch of the Eritrean-Orthodox Church, Abune Antonios, was expelledfrom the church upon accusation of ‘heresy’. Antonios had been the head of the Orthodox Church
until being deposed in 2006; since then he was in house arrest. 58 In June 2019, five Orthodox priests
from Debre Bizen monastery had been arrested for alleged support of Abune Antonios. 59

1.4. Legal framework
The legal situation remains largely unchanged over the last couple of years. The Eritrean government
stated at the end of 2018 that the main source of law are the transitional codes of 1991 (Civil Code,
Civil Procedure Code, Penal Code, Criminal Procedure Code, Commercial Code and Maritime Code) as
well as 178 proclamations and 125 legal notices. 60
The constitution of 1997 remains unimplemented. In 2014 and 2015, Eritrean officials announced theestablishment of a body to draft a new constitution. As of June 2019, no follow-up on thisannouncement is known. 61 In May 2015, the Eritrean government published a new Penal Code, Civil
Code, and their related procedure codes. These codes remain largely unimplemented. 62 The Eritrean
government communicated that ‘campaigns aimed at raising awareness on rights and duties
guaranteed by law in particular on the new National Codes’ were ongoing. 63
Due to this situation, the following chapters will refer only to the formally implemented laws and not
to the largely unimplemented constitution and codes.
The judiciary comprises civil courts (community courts, zoba courts and the Court of Last Appeal) anda special court. The Special Court was established to fight corruption, but in the meantime deals with

53 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url,para. 7354 BBC, Eritrea's seizure of Roman Catholic Church properties criticised, 17 June 2019, url; RFI (Radio France Internationale),
En Érythrée, les évêques appellent à la prière et au jeûne contre la répression [In Eritrea, the bishops call for praying andfasting against the repression], 25 June 2019, url
55 Eritrea, Proclamation No. 73/1995, Proclamation to legally standardize and articulate religious institutions and activities,
15 July 1995, url
56 Shabait, Permanent Mission of the State of Eritrea to the United Nations Geneva, 27 June 2019, url
57 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 201958 BBC, Eritrea Orthodox Church ex-leader expelled for 'heresy', 19 July 2018, url
59 CSW, Concern at seizure of Catholic properties and arrests of Orthodox Priests, 19 June 2019, url
60 UN Human Rights Council, National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council
resolution 16/21, Eritrea, 12 November 2018, url, para. 6, 72
61 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 35; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 121-122 / Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on theInitial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 18
62 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 37; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Eritrea, 18 April 2019,url, para. 21; UN Human Rights Council, Summary of Stakeholders’ submissions on Eritrea, 7 November 2018, url, para. 28;
Human Rights Watch, World Report 2018: Events of 2017, 18 January 2018, url, p. 202
63 UN Human Rights Council, National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council
resolution 16/21, Eritrea, 12 November 2018, url, para. 73

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 21

a wide range of issue of political relevance. 64 It is subjugated to the President’s Office and hence under
its influence. 65
Infringements related to national service such as desertion or draft evasion as well as illegal exit anda range of other offenses are not treated in the formal justice system. Punishments are imposed bymilitary commanders instead. 66 Such procedures are to a large degree arbitrary and inconsistent.
Eritreans are therefore often unaware what the policies of their authorities are, what the potential
consequences of an action is and why they are treated in a certain way. 67

64 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, pp. 27-28; Eritrea, Proclamation No. 85/1996, A Proclamation to Establish theSpecial Court, 6 April 1996
65 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Tronvoll, K. and Mekonnen, D.R., The African Garrison State, 2014, pp. 47-51
66 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, pp. 21-23;
Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, pp.
27-28
67 Riggan, J., The Struggling State, 2016, p. 63, 70; Treiber, M., Migration aus Eritrea, 2017, p. 39

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2. National service
2.1. Recent developments
Since Eritrea’s border war with Ethiopia, the Eritrean government justified the necessity of the infinite
duration of national service (Tigrinya: Hagerawi Agelglot) by the threat posed by Ethiopia. 68 Ethiopia
was unwilling to accept the decision of the UN Boundary Commission of 2002, demanded further
negotiations, and consequently had not withdrawn its troops from territories awarded to Eritrea by
the Boundary Commission. 69 On the grounds of a de facto state of emergency, which was introduced
in 1998 and never after has been lifted, the duration of national service has been extended indefinitely
as provided by Article 21(1) of the National Service Proclamation of 1995. 70
In June 2018, Ethiopia finally announced to accept the 2002 Boundary Commission decision. 71 As
detailed in Chapter 1.1., on 9 July 2018, Eritrean President Isaias Afewerki and Ethiopian Prime
Minister Abiy Ahmed signed a declaration to end the war 72, followed by a similar declaration on
16 September 2018. 73 Peace with Ethiopia raised expectations of reforms in national service. At thegraduation ceremony of the 31st round of recruitment, held on 13 July 2018 in Sawa military camp,
officials told the recruits that their service duty would be reduced to the 18 months as provided by
the National Service Proclamation. 74
As of August 2019 though, there have not been any official statements announcing concrete plans tolimit the duration of national service to the statutory 18 months. Most notably, President Isaias did
not concretely address the issue in any of his public speeches and media interviews since signing thepeace declaration. 75 In July 2018, ministers had announced plans to reduce the size of the army andconcentrate national service on developmental work; the officials however made clear that nodecision had been taken yet to shorten national service to 18 months. 76 In July 2019, during an event
celebrating the 25th anniversary of national service, officials said that a ‘study was conducted to bringback national service to its origins’, but that it was not possible to implement this immediately. 77
Similarly, Filipos Woldeyohannes, Chief of Staff of the Eritrean Defence Forces, stated in a TV interview
in July 2019, that national service would continue to exist, but there would be demobilisation. 78 At theend of July 2019, President Isaias gave a long TV interview about national service. Referring to the
68 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 7 August 2019, para. 168; Australia, DFAT, DFAT country

information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 14; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 226; Tronvoll, K. and
Mekonnen, D.R., The African Garrison State, 2014, pp. 172-178; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not
Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 17
69 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 35; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 44-45;
70 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 40; Tronvoll, K. and
Mekonnen, D.R., The African Garrison State, 2014, pp. 172-178; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 201971 BBC, Ethiopia 'accepts peace deal' to end Eritrea border war, 5 June 2018, url
72 Shabait18a; BBC, Ethiopia's Abiy and Eritrea's Afwerki declare end of war, 9 July 2018, url
73 Reuters, Ethiopian, Eritrean leaders sign peace agreement in Jeddah, 16 September 2018, url
74 Reuters, Eritrean conscripts told unlimited national service will end: sources, 23 July 2018, url
75 Shabait, Interview of President Isaias Afwerki; 1st Part, 10 November 2018, url; Shabait, President Isaias’ Speech on
Martyrs Day, 20 June 2019, url; ERI-TV, President Isaias Afwerki interview on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of Sawa [inTigrinya], 31 July 2019, url and url, min. 30:00 – 32:40
76 Bloomberg, Eritrea May Alter Army Draft That Forced Thousands to Europe, 03 September 2018, url; Reuters, Eritrean
conscripts told unlimited national service will end: sources, 23 July 2018, url
77 Hadas Ertra, ብምኽንያት ብሩራዊ ኢዮቤልዩ ሳዋ፡ ኣብ ኣስመራ ሰሚናራት ተኻይዱ [Seminar in Asmara on the occasion of thesilver jubilee of Sawa], 28 July 2019, url
78 ERI-TV, ሳይዳ: ዕላል ምስ ጀነራል ፍሊጶስ ወልደዮሃንስ ብዛዕባ ቅያታት ገብርኤላ ሃንሶን ተራ ደቂ-ኣንስትዮ ኣብ ሰራዊት ኤርትራ [Sayda:
Conversation with general Filipos Woldeyohannes about the stories of Gabriela Hanneso and common women in the Eritreanarmy], 7 July 2019, url, min. 17:45 – 20:35

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 23

future, Isaias vaguely stated that it was necessary to explain the purpose of national service to the
new generation and to show its benefits and achievements; the new generation was needed for thebuild-up of the country and much remained to be done. Isaias said that there the quality of national
service needed to be improved. 79 Government officials have reiterated on several occasions the
position that there will be reforms in national service also regarding its duration, but more time wasneeded to implement changes. 80
The major reason mentioned by Eritrean officials why more time was needed for reforms is thecircumstance that the sudden release of a huge number of conscripts would cause serious
socioeconomic problems for the country. Many new jobs would be needed to accommodate thereleased conscripts, such opportunities first needed to be created. The government is not interested
in having thousands of unemployed ‘idling’ in Eritrea’s cities. 81
According to observers, another important reason revolves around the concern for regional stability.
The political situation in Ethiopia is volatile, with tensions between the federal government andseveral regional states (and among them), particularly Tigray, which shares the long and disputed
border with Eritrea. 82 As of July 2019, Ethiopia has yet to fulfil its promise to hand over the territories
allotted to Eritrea by the Boundary Commission in 2002. 83 Though not an official position, Eritrean
officials have reportedly mentioned these circumstances in the context of the slow pace of reforms innational service. 84
As of July 2019, all interviewed interlocutors in Eritrea stated that there was no indication of any
reforms or changes in national service by then 85; published reports agree with that. 86 This observation
has been confirmed by the Eritrean government. 87

79 ERI-TV, President Isaias Afwerki interview on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of Sawa [in Tigrinya], 31 July 2019, url

and url, min. 30:00 – 32:40
80 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; Diplomatic source 8, Asmara, interview,
July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 5, Asmara, interview, July 201981 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; Diplomatic source 5, Asmara, interview,
July 2019; Bloomberg, Eritrea May Alter Army Draft That Forced Thousands to Europe, 03 September 2018, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 31;
Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Norway, Landinfo,
Eritrea: Endringer i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea: Changes in national service?], 21 January 2019, url, p. 2
82 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara,interview, July 2019; International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019,p. 225; Erena, “ምስሓብ ሰራዊት ኢትዮጵያ ካብ ባድመ ተደናጉዩ ኣሎ ክንብል ንኽእል ኢና፣” ኣቶ የማነ ገብርኣብ [We claim: ‘the retreatof Ethiopian troops from Badme has been delayed’], 15 April 2019, url
83 Economist (The), Eritrea’s gulag state is crumbling, 11 July 2019, url; NZZ (Neue Zürcher Zeitung), Ein Jahr nach dem
Friedensschluss zwischen Eritrea und Äthiopien ist Ernüchterung eingekehrt [one year after the peace agreement between
Eritrea and Ethiopia, disillusion has come back], 26 July 2019, url; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 224; Erena,“ምስሓብ ሰራዊት ኢትዮጵያ ካብ ባድመ ተደናጉዩ ኣሎ ክንብል ንኽእል ኢና፣” ኣቶ የማነ ገብርኣብ [We claim: ‘the retreat of Ethiopian
troops from Badme has been delayed’], 15 April 2019, url
84 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report Eritrea, 15 February
2019, p. 8
85 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara,interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019;
Diplomatic source 5, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Connell, D., telephoneinterview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 201986 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Endringer i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea: Changes in national service?], 21 January 2019, url, p.
1; Economist (The), Eritrea’s gulag state is crumbling, 11 July 2019, url; Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report Eritrea,
15 February 2019, p. 8; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in
Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 26; Amnesty International, Eritrea: Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 8; Plaut,
M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 217
87 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019

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2.2. Structure
Eritrea’s national service has been introduced in 1994, shortly after independence. Its overall aim is
not only to defend the country, but also to rebuild it following the war of independence and to
propagate the national ideology. National service is regarded as the ‘school of the nation’ in Eritrea. 88
According to the National Service Proclamation of 1995, its aims 89 are:
•
•
•
•
•

‘To establish a strong defence force... [to] ensure a free and sovereign Eritrea.
To preserve and entrust future generations with the courage, resoluteness and heroic
episodes shown by our people in the past thirty years.
To create a new generation characterised by love of work, discipline and a willingness toparticipate and serve in the reconstruction of the nation.
To develop [...] the economy of the nation by investing in the development of our people as apotential wealth.
To foster national unity among our people by eliminating sub-national feelings.’

Due to the mixed civilian-military nature of national service, national service can roughly be divided
into a military and a civilian component. All conscripts first undergo a military training and are thenassigned either to the military component under the Ministry of Defence, or to a civilian task,
administered by one of the other ministries. Part of the conscripts are assigned to one of theapproximately 30 companies owned by the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) or thearmy, which are active in fields such as agriculture, construction, transport, tourism, or trade. 90 The
SEM has no reliable information whether the conscripts in these companies belong to the military orcivilian component of national service. The Ministry of Defence is in charge of assigning the conscripts
to either the military or civilian component, while the respective ministries are responsible to assign
the persons deployed under them to concrete tasks. 91
The Eritrean government gives few indications on how many of its citizens are currently enrolled innational service. Col. Ezra Woldegebriel said in a speech held at the EriYouth Festival 2010 at Sawa
military camp that the total number of conscripts from 1994 until 2010 was 400 000 92; in a similar
speech in 2014, the number was put at 500 000. 93 In 2016, government media related that Eritrea ‘canfield an army of 300,000 plus within 48 to 72 hours in the event hostilities break out’. 94 Estimates byexperts are mostly based on demographic and education statistics as well as assumptions about the
number of persons in national service-age who have left the country. Most sources estimate thenumber of national service conscripts at 300 000 to 400 000. 95
The respective numbers of members of the military and civilian components of national service aredisputed. Two sources state that a bit less than half of them serve in the military (army, navy or air
force), bringing their number to about 150 000. 96 The World Bank’s armed forces personnel database
88 Kibreab, G., The Open-Ended Eritrean National Service, 15-16 October 2014, url, p. 3

89 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url, article 5

90 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2017:
Events of 2016, 12 January 2017, url, p. 246; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url,
p. 2; Kibreab, G., The Eritrean national service, 2017, p. 21; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI,
14 February 2017, url, p. 52; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in
Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 28; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 145; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A
Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 75-77
91 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 22
92 Shabait, 23rd Round National Service Graduate and 4th ERI-Youth Festival Officially Opened, 16 July 2010, url
93 Shabait, 6th National Youth Festival opens, 18 July 2014, url
94 Shabait, Sawa: Eritrea’s Cultural Boot Camp, 30 September 2016, url
95 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 5, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert,
telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Bertelsmann Stiftung, Eritrea – National Service, Forced Labor and Mass Exodus, 2017, p.
234; Kibreab, G., The Eritrean national service, 2017, p. 20
96 Diplomatic source 5, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 25

put the number at 202 000 in 2017. 97 In September 2018, Presidential Adviser Yemane Gebreabclaimed that less than a fifth of those in national service were in the military, while 80 % had a civilianrole. 98 Due to the high number of deserters, many army units are said to be rather depleted by now;some currently running at just one third or one quarter of their required number. 99
No statistics are available on the assignment of new conscripts. The Eritrean government generally
claims that nowadays, most new conscripts are assigned to civilian functions 100; adviser Yemane
Gebreab put the number at 85 % in 2016. 101 The government’s narrative, however, tends to focus on
those recruited through the schooling system (see Chapter 2.3.1.). 102 Many other sources contradictthese claims and state that a substantial part of the conscripts are still recruited into the military. 103
Eritrean refugees interviewed in Ethiopia claimed those in the military to be the majority 104, while
foreign observers generally refrained from making any estimations. Several factors seem to be
relevant within this context:
•
•
•

•
•

Conscripts who are recruited after the 12th schooling year are more likely to enter civilian
service than school drop-outs who are recruited by the local administration or through around-up (see Chapter 2.3.2.). 105
Among those recruited after the 12th schooling year, the marks in the Eritrean Secondary
Education Certificate Examinations (ESECE) play a decisive role for their assignment (seeChapter 2.3.1.). 106
Women are more likely to be assigned to civilian jobs than men. 107 However, Eritrean officials
such as Filipos Woldeyohannes, Chief of Staff of the army, publicly stated that womencontinue to be conscripted into the army. 108
The rural population is more likely to be conscripted into military, which is possibly linked totheir inferior access to education than the urban population. 109
Children of freedom fighters and persons with contacts to influential people are more likely
to be assigned to the civilian component. 110

97 World Bank, Armed forces personnel, total, n.d. [2017], url

98 Bloomberg, Eritrea May Alter Army Draft That Forced Thousands to Europe, 03 September 2018, url

99 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview,Bern, 18 July 2019; Awate, Crisis in the Eritrean Army, 3 April 2014, url
100 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019
101 Australia, DFAT, DFAT country information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 14; Norway, Landinfo, Report Eritrea:
National Service, 20 May 2016, url, p. 10
102 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 72
103 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 28; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Horn of Africa
expert, email interview, 23 July 2019104 Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; Eritrean asylum seeker, Rama (Ethiopia),
individual interview, 18 May 2019
105 Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 52, Connell, D., telephone interview,
17 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
106 Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019;
Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; Amnesty International, Eritrea: Shadow report to theAfrican Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 17 April 2018, url, p. 8
107 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019108 ERI-TV, ሳይዳ: ዕላል ምስ ጀነራል ፍሊጶስ ወልደዮሃንስ ብዛዕባ ቅያታት ገብርኤላ ሃንሶን ተራ ደቂ-ኣንስትዮ ኣብ ሰራዊት ኤርትራ [Sayda:
Conversation with general Filipos Woldeyohannes about the stories of Gabriela Hanneso and common women in the Eritreanarmy], 7 July 2019, url
109 Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019110 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019

26 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

National service members on civilian duty remain members of the armed forces. They can be calledback into the army at any time. 111 Therefore, they have to participate at military training ‘refreshers’
from time to time. 112
As provided by Article 23 of the National Service Proclamation, discharged soldiers are liable to servein the National Reserve Army up to the age of 50 years. 113 In 2012, the Eritrean government
established the People’s Army (Tigrinya: Hizbawi Serawit), in which all persons formally released fromnational service have to serve for a couple of days of weeks per year. Its activities encompass militarytrainings and work assignments in irregular intervals. The People’s Army is not part of the formal
national service structure. 114 Around 2015, the People’s Army was merged with the National Reserve
Army. Its activities are since then more interwoven with the army’s. For example, members of thecivilian component of national service may undergo military training ‘refreshers’ together withmembers of the People’s Army. 115

2.3. Recruitment
For an overview, see Chart 1 in Chapter 2.3.2.

2.3.1. Through schooling system
Eritrea’s schooling system is designed to channel as many students as possible to the 12th grade,
immediately after which recruitment into national service takes place; in some cases by way of
additional education in colleges or vocational schools. 116 The Eritrean government portrays this wayof recruitment as the regular one. 117 Official statistics, however, show that a rather small percentage
of each age cohort enter the 12th grade and the colleges. In 2012/13, 87 618 students were enrolled
in 1st grade, with only 17 417 pupils in 12th grade. 118
Most of those Eritrean students who stay in school up to the end of the grade school curriculum enrolat Warsay-Yikealo School at Sawa military training camp for their 12th grade. The year at Sawa usuallyencompasses physical fitness training, four months of military and political training and six to eightmonths of academic education 119, which ends in March of each year with the Eritrean Secondary
Education Certificate Examinations (ESECE), colloquially known as matrik. According to government
media reports, the number of participants was between 11 000 and 18 000 in the last couple ofyears. 120 In 2019, the Eritrean authorities communicated that 16 064 students had participated in the

111 Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 52
112 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019113 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url, article 23

114 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 43; Norway, Landinfo, Report Eritrea: National Service, 20 May 2016, url,

pp. 25-26; Switzerland, FDJP, SEM, Focus Eritrea: Volksarmee (“Volksmiliz”), 31 January 2017, url,; Africa Monitors, Membersof the reserve army in Eritrea are called for military training, 5 December 2018, url; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A
Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 56
115 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019
116 Riggan, J., The Struggling State, 2016, p. 91
117 cf. Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 127; UN Human Rights Council,
National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21, Eritrea,
12 November 2018, url, para. 67
118 Eritrea, MoE (Ministry of Education), Eritrea: Basic Education Statistics 2012/13, December 2013, p. 6
119 Shabait, 8thEri-Youth Festival Opens with the Graduation of 31st Round Nationals Service Members, 13 July 2018, url;
Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, p. 126; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making
Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, pp. 30, 35; Expressen, Snart åker Elham, 17, till det fruktade slavlägret
[Soon Elham, 17, goes to the dreaded slave camp], 12 Juli 2019, url
120 Shabait, Warsay-Yikealo Secondary School: Preparing Students For Academic Excellence, 2010, url; Shabait, Student
Members Of The 25th Round National Service Leave For Sawa, August 2011, url; Shabait, Members of 26th round National
Service leave for Sawa Training Center, 23 July 2012, url; Shabait, Participants of 28th round National Service and 7th course
Vocational Training Centre in Sawa graduate, 11 July 2015, url; Shabait, 29th round National Service members graduate, 15

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 27

ESECE. This number includes students of technical schools (TVET), whose 12th grade does not takeplace in Sawa (see below). 40.8 % passed, i.e. qualified to study in one of the colleges. 121 Human Rights
Watch holds that 60 to 65 %, i.e. between 6 000 and 9 000 students per year, do not get the results
needed for further studies. 122
Although the Eritrean government states that the students of Warsay-Yikealo School are not part ofnational service 123, government media call the students ‘National Service Program participants’. 124
Recruitment into Warsay-Yikealo School in Sawa has continued after the peace declaration with
Ethiopia. In July and August 2019, the 33rd round has been summoned. 125
The results of the final exam ESECE determine further education possibilities and the assignment to
the national service:••

The batch with the highest marks enters one of Eritrea’s nine higher learning institutes(colleges). 126 A condition for graduation at these colleges is the participation of nine monthsof ‘community service’ in civilian jobs. 127 After graduation, the graduates are assigned jobs inthe civilian component of national service. 128 In 2018, approximately 3 200 students
graduated from the nine colleges. 129 Bertelsmann Transformation Index puts the enrolment
rate at tertiary level at 2 %. 130
The batch with medium marks enters Sawa Center for Technical and Vocational Education. 131
Since its creation in 2009, between 900 and 3 700 students graduated annually 132, on average

July 2016, url; Shabait, 8thEri-Youth Festival Opens with the Graduation of 31st Round Nationals Service Members, 13 July
2018, url; cf. Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 31
121 Shabait, Press Release, 6 August 2019, url
122 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 45
123 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Eritrea, 4 January 2010, url,para. 12124 Shabait, 6th National Youth Festival opens, 18 July 2014, url
125 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Shabait, Students from Central region leave for Sawa, 21 August 2019, url; Shabait, Students
from Southern region leave for Sawa, 17 August 2019, url
126 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 172; UN Human Rights Council, National
report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21, Eritrea, 12
November 2018, url, para. 67
127 Civil society source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March
2017, para. 173
128 Norway, Landinfo, Report Eritrea: National Service, 20 May 2016, url, p. 13; Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister ofInformation, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019
129 Estimate based on the graduation numbers of the nine colleges provided by the government media: Shabait, 11th
Commencement of Eritrea Institute of Technology, July 2018, url; Shabait, Colleges in Adi Keih graduate 521 students, 8
September 2018, url; Shabait, College of Marine Science and Technology graduates 94 students, 10 June 2018, url; Shabait,
Hamelmalo College of Agriculture graduates 393 students, 8 July 2018, url; Shabait, 9th commencement of Asmara Collegeof Health Science, 8 July 2017, url; Shabait, Halhale College of Business and Economics graduates 315 students, 3 July 2017,
url; Shabait, A Look at 8th Commencement of Orotta School of Medicine and Dentistry, January 2019, url
130 Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2018 Country Report, Eritrea, 2018, url, p. 21-22
131 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 172; UN Human Rights Council, National
report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21, Eritrea, 12
November 2018, url, para. 67
132 Shabait, Sawa Vocational Training Center provides training for 2,500 students in 19 disciplines, 14 March 2012, url;
Shabait, 26th round members of National Service and 6th round Vocational Training Center students graduate, 13 July 2013,
url; Shabait, Sawa Vocational Training Center admits more than 3,000 students, 24 December 2013, url; Shabait, Participantsof 28th round National Service and 7th course Vocational Training Centre in Sawa graduate, 11 July 2015, url; Shabait,
Capacity Building in Sawa Vocational Training Center, 2017, url; Shabait, 8thEri-Youth Festival Opens with the Graduation of
31st Round Nationals Service Members, 13 July 2018, url; Shabait, Sawa Vocational Training Center graduates 909 students,
3 August 2019, url

28 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN•

2 000 per year 133; in 2019 it was 909 students. 134 The participants are assigned jobs in thecivilian or military components of national service afterwards. 135
The batch with the lowest marks is either sent to newly established vocational schools or
directly into national service. According to the Eritrean government, these schools have acapacity of 6 000 trainees at a time. 136 Those sent directly into national service are assigned
to the civilian or military component or to construction/agricultural work in the party-owned
companies. 137 According to some sources, men are mostly sent to the military, while womenare mostly assigned to civilian functions. 138

Students who are assigned to a Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET) 139 at the end ofgrade 10 spend grades 11 and 12 at the TVET schools, not in Sawa. 140 After ESECE, they undergo six
months of military training, usually at Sawa. In late 2016 and early 2017, 1 460 TVET graduates
participated in this training. 141 After the military training, they are assigned tasks within the in civilian
national service. 142

2.3.2. Recruitment of school drop-outs
As shown in Chapter 2.3.1., the majority of each age cohort drops out of school before reaching 12th
grade and ‘regular’ recruitment. The number of drop-outs is significantly higher in rural areas than intowns. 143 This group is recruited by the local administration, rounded up by the army or exemptedfrom national service (see Chapter 2.3.3.); a part of the youth also manages to avoid conscription or
flees abroad before being conscripted. As the government communication focuses on the ‘regular’
way of recruitment, there is no official information on the recruitment of drop-outs.
The local administration (mimihdar kebabi in Tigrinya) is responsible for the conscription of school
drop-outs. 144 There is no consistent practice for this kind of recruitment for all Eritrea. 145 Generally,
the local administrations keep track of the school drop-outs and their age, and these are often
reported by the schools. 146 The army instructs the local administrations periodically to summon dropouts at a certain place and time, from where they are brought to military training; or at least to handover a list of eligible youth. 147 One source mentions that the local administrations are ordered to fulfil
a certain quota of conscripts. 148 The summons are communicated by the local administrations by

133 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 182
134 Shabait, Sawa Vocational Training Center graduates 909 students, 3 August 2019, url
135 Norway, Landinfo, Report Eritrea: National Service, 20 May 2016, url, p. 13

136 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 172

137 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Røsberg,

A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 52; Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2018 Country Report,
Eritrea, 2018, url, p. 22
138 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019139 cf. Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 182
140 Academic source, Zoba Anseba, interview, March 2016
141 Shabait, 30th round National Service Members Graduate, 22 February 2017, url
142 Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019143 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 29
144 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 19
145 cf. SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea: National service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 9
146 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini
(Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August
2019, url, p. 46; SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea: National service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 9; SFH, Rekrutierung in den“National Service” durch die Kebabi Verwaltung [Recruitment into national service by kebabi administrations], 27 July 2017,
url, pp. 1-2
147 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray
regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019148 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 29

various means, such as notice boards, letters, house visits or radio announcements. 149 The People’s
Army or local militia often help the administration to round up the conscripts. 150 Persons conscriptedby the local authorities are mostly, but not exclusively, assigned to the military component of national
service. Their training usually does not take place in Sawa, but in smaller training camps. The sourcesname camps in Gergera, Hashenkit, Gahtelay, Kiloma, May Seraw, May Dima, Himberti, Nakfa, Wia,
Afabet. 151 One source mentions that women recruited by local administrations often go to the civilian
national service. 152 According to one source, 5 000 to 8 000 persons are conscripted annually thisway. 153

Map 2: Prisons and military sites mentioned in this report, © State Secretariat for Migration SEM 154

149 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray

regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
150 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray
regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019151 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview,Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea:
National service], 30 June 2017, url, pp. 9-10; cf. Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of theGovernment of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 55
152 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019
153 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019154 Map created by the State Secretariat for Migration SEM (Switzerland), 2019, based on Eritrean Demining Authority et al.,Landmine Impact Survey – 2004 [map], 2004; UN Cartographic Section, Eritrea [map], n.d., url; Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary

30 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

Another way of conscription are the so-called giffas: Round-ups by the security forces, during which
an area or village is blocked and all persons present checked. Mostly, these checks aim at rounding up
persons roughly in national service age, i.e. persons who have evaded draft, deserted, or who havenot been drafted. 155 However, the term giffa does not exclusively apply to military round-ups. In
December 2018 and May 2019 respectively, giffas in and around Asmara were carried out in reaction
to the attack on Gen. Sebhat Efrem and in order to ensure the security of the Independence Day
celebrations on 24 May. 156 Diplomatic and international sources in Asmara have not observed military
giffas since the peace declaration in mid-2018. 157 Several sources indicate however that especiallyoutside of Asmara there has been no significant policy change in this regard and that giffas continue
to take place, particularly since the border with Ethiopia has been closed again. 158 In mid-2019,giffas focussed on presumed sympathisers of the yiakl campaign, at least partially with the aim toround these persons up for the army. 159 BBC Tigrinya reported such giffas in Keren, Hagaz and Akurdet
in July 2019. 160 Those rounded up in giffas are usually first put in a prison for some days or weeks andthen sent to military training in one of the camps mentioned above. 161 One source reports that inrecent years, youth rounded up were initially imprisoned until a new military training round begun. 162
School drop-outs who are apprehended while trying to leave the country are usually recruited into
national service (see Chapter 3.4.), which constitutes a further way of recruitment.
Quite a big number of school drop-outs are not conscripted into national service for various reasons.
A part of them is formally or de facto exempted from national service (see Chapter 2.3.3.). Others
avoid being put on the local administration’s list by bribing or through personal connections, or are
simply overlooked. Some young Eritreans hide in the houses of relatives or in remote places outsideof their villages, in order not to be summoned or rounded up. Furthermore, in some lowland areas
summons and giffas are a very rare occurrence. 163 The local administrations summon some of the
youth who are not in national service into the People’s Army instead. 164

Commission, International Boundary between the State of Eritrea and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia [map],
2002, url
155 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 35; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating
Us”, August 2019, url, p. 20
156 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal
expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state(Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
157 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
8, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview,
July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019
158 Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert,
telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July
2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May
2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
159 Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; BBC Tigrinya, ኣብ ዝተፈለለየ ከባቢታት ኤርትራ ጽዑቕ ግፋ ከም ዘሎ ተፈሊጡ[Reports about intense round-ups in several areas of Eritrea], 22 July 2019, url
160 BBC Tigrinya, ኣብ ዝተፈለለየ ከባቢታት ኤርትራ ጽዑቕ ግፋ ከም ዘሎ ተፈሊጡ [Reports about intense round-ups in several
areas of Eritrea], 22 July 2019, url
161 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019, EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 35
162 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 48
163 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; SFH, Rekrutierung in den“National Service” durch die Kebabi Verwaltung [Recruitment into national service by kebabi administrations], 27 July 2017,
url, p. 4
164 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating
Us”, August 2019, url, p. 47

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 31

1st grade in Elementary School(60 000 to 100 000 per year)

12th gradein Sawa

12th gr.
in TVET(technical school)

ESECE

school leaving examination(11 000 to 18 000 per year)

CollegeGood
ESECE result(ca. 3 200/year)

schooldropouts

SVTC

recruitment
throughlocal
admin.

recruitment
after arrestfor illegal
exit

recruitment
throughround-up(giffa)MediumESECE result(1 000-3 000/year)

notrecruited

civilian componentof national service

military componentof national service

 not summoned exempted hiding
 emigration

Figure 1: Overview of the different forms of recruitment into national service, © State Secretariat for Migration
SEM

2.3.3. Exemptions
According to the National Service Proclamation of 1995, all Eritreans between the age of 18 and 40
are obliged to serve in national service (Article 6). Fully exempt are only those who fought in theliberation struggle (Article 12) and disabled, visually impaired, and mentally ill persons (Article 15).
Those who are unfit for military service are granted an exemption from the military programme but
are obliged to serve in civilian service instead (Article 13). 165
Apart from these de jure exemptions, which reportedly are not systematically applied 166, defacto exemptions for some categories of persons apply. While these exemptions are generally
observed by the responsible authorities, they are not legally obliged to do so and there may bediverging policies on an individual base. Most commonly, women who are pregnant or have a childare exempt. 167 Even an official statement by the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign affairs lists motherhood
165 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url

166 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 18

167 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 18; EASO, Eritrea Country

Focus, May 2015, url, p. 34; SFH, Rekrutierung in den “National Service” durch die Kebabi Verwaltung [Recruitment into

32 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

as a ground for exemption. 168 In many cases, however, mothers are exempted only from military
service, not from civilian service. 169
Married women who are not mothers or pregnant are also often exempted from national service. 170
This policy is not followed consistently. 171 In early 2017, the religious communities have reportedly
been instructed not to wed women who have not fulfilled their national service duty. 172 According to
one of the sources of the Norwegian COI unit Landinfo, they are still allowed to marry after going to
the 12th schooling year in Sawa and doing some military training. 173
Further de facto exemptions, which are however applied inconsistently, include:•••

Muslim women from rural areas such as Gash-Barka or Southern Red Sea 174;
members of nomadic tribes and the Rashaida ethnic group 175;
religious staff such as priests, imams, students in religious seminars or nuns (veryinconsistently). 176

Persons de facto exempted from national service usually do not get exemption letters. Since such
documents are required for any formal employment, their activities are limited to the informal
economy. Furthermore, there is a risk that they are caught in giffas. 177

2.3.4. Recruitment of minors
Conscription starts at the age of 18 according to the National Service Proclamation of 1995
(Article 6). 178 Furthermore, Eritrea has ratified the Optional Protocol of the Convention on the Rightsof the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, which prohibits recruitment orconscription of children under 18 by government forces. 179
However, students who have finished 11th grade are called to Sawa, regardless of their age.
Participants of the 12th grade at Warsay-Yikealo School, which includes military training, may
therefore be 17 years or younger. 180 Although Eritrean government holds that the 12th schooling year

national service by kebabi administrations], 27 July 2017, url, p. 4; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 29; United States, USDOS, Country Reports
on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 9; Kibreab, G., The Open-Ended Eritrean National Service,
15-16 October 2014, url, p. 11
168 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 265
169 Kibreab, G., The Open-Ended Eritrean National Service, 15-16 October 2014, url, p. 11; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K.,
Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 74; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019170 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 34, Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI,
14 February 2017, url, p. 74; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019171 Amnesty International, Just Deserters, 2 December 2015, url, p. 28
172 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Endringer i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea: Changes in national service?], 21 January 2019, url, p.
3; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p.
96
173 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Endringer i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea: Changes in national service?], 21 January 2019, url, p.
3
174 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017,
url, p. 127
175 Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, url, p. 44
176 United States, USDOS, 2018 Report on International Religious Freedom, 21 June 2019, url, p. 9; Australia, DFAT, DFAT
country information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 13; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea[General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 44
177 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 34; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of
the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 96
178 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url
179 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, UN Treaty Body Database, Ratification Status for Eritrea, n.d., url;
cf. Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 79
180 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 34; Amnesty International,
Amnesty International Report 2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 154-160; EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, pp.

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 33

at Sawa does not belong to national service 181, government media call the students ‘National Service
Program participants’. 182
During giffas, minors are reportedly sometimes recruited into military service. 183 The NGO Human
Rights Concern Eritrea documented the cases of Eritreans between 14 and 17, who have been
recruited through giffas. 184 Some sources state that during giffas at schools, underage students are
sometimes conscripted if they look physically fit. 185 Also local administrations are reported to fill their
quota (see Chapter 2.3.2.) by rounding up minors. 186 One interlocutor told SEM that he wasconscripted into military service at the age of 14. 187 Minors apprehended while trying to cross theborder illegally are also sometimes conscripted. 188

2.4. Duration and discharge
According to the National Service Proclamation of 1995 (Article 8), active national service duty lasts
18 months, including six months of military training and 12 months of service. At times of war, persons
in active national service may be required to serve beyond this time limit (Article 21(1)). 189 This
provision has been applied since the start of the border war with Ethiopia in 1998 and the subsequent‘no war, no peace’ situation. 190 In 2002, the Warsay-Yikealo Development Campaign was introduced
as a post-war reconstruction and development program. National service members were supposed tocontinue their service for this campaign beyond the statutory 18 months. 191 The Warsay-Yikealo
Development Campaign was terminated in 2014 and replaced by the National Indicative Development
Plan, which lasted until 2018. 192
As shown in Chapter 2.1., even after the peace declaration with Ethiopia, Article 21(1) providing forunlimited national service continues to be applied. No mass demobilisation has happened and theduration of service is still open-ended. 193 The actual duration of service varies enormously. Sources

36-37; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018,
url, p. 61
181 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review, Eritrea, 4 January 2010, url,para. 12182 Shabait, 6th National Youth Festival opens, 18 July 2014, url
183 Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p.
58-60; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2017 – Eritrea, 20 April 2018, url, p. 20; UnitedStates, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 20; UN Human Rights
Council, Advance Version, Report of the detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, 5 June
2015, url, para. 1271
184 Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p.
59-60
185 Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices for 2017 – Eritrea, 20 April 2018, url, p. 20; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices
for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 20
186 SFH, Eritrea: Rekrutierung von Minderjährigen, 21 January 2015, url, p. 5
187 Group of recently arrived Eritrean asylum seekers, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), interview, 20 May 2019188 Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p.
60-64
189 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url
190 International Crisis Group, Eritrea: Ending the Exodus? August 2014, url, p. 3; Tronvoll, K. and Mekonnen, D.R., The African
Garrison State, 2014, pp. 172-175
191 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 85; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K.,
Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 51; Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April
2017, url, p. 125; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 18; Human
Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 54
192 UN Human Rights Council, National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights
Council resolution 16/21, Eritrea, 12 November 2018, url, para. 8
193 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 28; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 23;

34 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

report that in some cases, national service members have been released already after the statutory
18 months 194, while many have served continuously since the inception of war in 1998 or for otherlong ranges of time. Interlocutors mentioned all time ranges in between these extremes as typical andwere mostly unable to give an average of the actual duration. Duty times of 10 or 20 years are reported
to be common. 195 Several factors seem influence the duration:
•

•

•
•
•

Women are usually released earlier than men. Often release happens after the birth of thefirst child, in some cases also after marriage. 196 According to some sources, this applies only
to the military component, while mothers in the civilian component stay in duty. 197 An
informal age limit of 27 years seems to be applied often 198, but there are also women above
40 still serving. 199
The place of duty is important, as in some places, too many conscripts are assigned, while inothers the skills and workforce of the conscripts are really needed. 200 According to one source,teachers are told that they would be released after four years. 201 There are, however, no
indications that this is in fact applied. 202
In the military component, serious illnesses or injuries seem to be the only way to get a formal
discharge. 203
In order to be released, the superior/commander has to agree and sign the releaseapplication. Hence the superior and an individual’s relation to the superior have an influence
on discharge. 204 There are cases of bribery and abuse of power positions. 205
Personal contacts with other influential persons also seem to play a factor. 206

In Eritrean national service, there are two crucially different forms of discharge: Demobilisation(Tigrinya: mitiyas) means the transfer from the military to the civilian component of national service
with a continued obligation to serve in the army reserve, usually in the form of periodical militaryAmnesty International, Eritrea: Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 8; Human Rights Watch, World Report
2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2
194 Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019
195 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview,
July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Internationalorganisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephoneinterview, 17 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean
asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21
May 2019; Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report 2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 160; Bertelsmann
Stiftung, Eritrea – National Service, Forced Labor and Mass Exodus, 2017, p. 236; Kibreab, G., The Eritrean national service,
2017, p. 55; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2
196 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019, Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July
2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individualinterviews, 21 May 2019197 Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), groupinterview, 20 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019
198 Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 75, Bozzini, D., National Service andState Structures in Eritrea, 28 June 2012, url, p. 9
199 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrean asylum seeker, Rama (Ethiopia), individual interview, 18 May
2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019200 Diplomatic source 8, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019
201 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019202 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, pp. 32, 56
203 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Eritrean
asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21
May 2019
204 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrean asylum
seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019
205 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019.
206 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 35

training ‘refreshers’. Release (Tigrinya: mifinaw) means a full release from national service duty. Since
2012, released persons usually enter the People’s Army (see Chapter 2.1.). 207 The factors mentioned
above may apply to both kinds of discharge.
Although there has been no release on a big scale, discharges do happen in individual cases according
to the criteria mentioned above. 208 For an individual demobilisation or release, the superior has tosign a form and send it to the Ministry of Defence. The Ministry of Defence issues a demobilisation
card (Tigrinya: metayesi in Tigrinya) in case of a demobilisation from military service with or withouttransfer to civilian service; and a release letter (Tigrinya: mefanewi) for those fully released. 209 Eritrean
citizens need a release letter or a formal exemption from national service in order to be employed.
Reportedly, in some cases, the release letter is issued with a significant delay or not at all. 210

2.5. Remuneration
In 2015, the Eritrean government announced the introduction of a new remuneration scheme for civil
servants, including those in the civilian component of national service. 211 The new scheme stipulates
significantly higher salaries depending on the education: Each year of tertiary level education after
12th grade earns ERN 500 (ca. EUR 30 according to the official exchange rate 212) more on the monthly
salary. 213 No information is given regarding civil servants who have not completed 12th grade.
Qualification
Certificate
12+1
12+2
12+3
12+4
12+5

Former Salary
ERN 910 (ca. EUR 55)
ERN 910 (ca. EUR 55)
ERN 1 200 (ca. EUR 72)
ERN 1 200 (ca. EUR 72)
ERN 1 420 (ca. EUR 85)
ERN 1 420 (ca. EUR 85)

New Salary
ERN 2 000 (ca. EUR 120)
ERN 2 000 (ca. EUR 120)
ERN 2 500 (ca. EUR 150)
ERN 3 000 (ca. EUR 180)
ERN 3 500 (ca. EUR 210)
ERN 4 000 (ca. EUR 240)

Figure 2: New remuneration scheme in civilian national service of 2015 214

As of 2019, implementation of the new scheme is still ongoing. In two official statements, the Eritrean
government stressed that the effort ‘requires some time to finalize’. 215 Minister of Information
Yemane Gebremeskel said that the new scheme was not yet implemented fully, but that civil servants
207 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; cf. Norway, Landinfo, Temanotat Eritrea: Nasjonaljeneste [Topical report

Eritrea: National service], 20 Mai 2016, url, p. 23
208 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 8, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara,interview, July 2019; International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July
2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019; Eritrean asylum seeker, Rama (Ethiopia), individual interview, 18
May 2019
209 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”,
August 2019, url, p. 22
210 International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees,
Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; Returnees from Sudan and Israel, Keren, interview, 9 March 2016
211 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, pp. 42-43; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2017:
Events of 2016, 12 January 2017, url, p. 247; Shabait, Local Media Interview with President Isaias Afwerki: Excerpts Part II, 8
February 2017, url
212 All equivalents in EUR in this report are given according to the official exchange rate. The black market exchange rate may
diverge from that rate substantially
213 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 39; Eritrea, MoE, Eritrea Education
Report 2017, December 2017, url, p. 89; cf. Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August
2019, url, p. 57
214 Eritrea, MoE, Eritrea Education Report 2017, December 2017, url, p. 89
215 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 39; UN Human Rights Council, National
report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21, Eritrea, 12
November 2018, url, para. 14

36 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

in national service were given priority and most of them were already benefitting from the newscheme. 216 Sources inside and outside Eritrea confirmed that the new scheme has been partially
implemented, especially for newly recruited and for those with higher education. Estimations about
the progress of the implementation diverged. 217
Most sources indicate that at the same time as the new remuneration scheme, new deductions havebeen introduced. 218 Deductions reportedly apply for taxes, retirement provision, logistics, building
savings, party membership, food etc. 219 Sources stress that after deductions, the salaries remain on
the same level as before 220 or are even lower. 221 Two sources mentioned recent slight real increases
in salaries. 222
This remuneration scheme does not apply to the military component of national service. One source
indicates that the salary in military national service has been increased to ERN 1 800 (ca. EUR 108) in
October 2016. 223 In 2017, President Isaias said the salary for lowest ranked military personnel was
ERN 1 800. 224 Sources in Eritrea and abroad stated lower figures, ranging from ERN 300 to 1 500 (ca.
EUR 18 to 90). 225 Substantial deductions were reported for military salaries, too. 226
Human rights defenders deem the national service remuneration to be too low to cover basic living
costs. 227

216 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019217 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 8, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source

1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephoneinterview, 12 July 2019; Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Endringer i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea: Changes in national service?],
21 January 2019, url, p. 2; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2018: Events of 2017, 18 January 2018, url, p. 201; Human
Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2; SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea: National
service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 16; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 54
218 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert,
telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Endringer
i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea: Changes in national service?], 21 January 2019, url, p. 2; Human Rights Watch, World Report
2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situationof human rights in Eritrea, 24 July 2017, url, para. 16; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 25; SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea: National service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 16;
Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 54; Human Rights Watch, “They Are
Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 58
219 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Endringer i nasjonaltjenesten? [Eritrea:
Changes in national service?], 21 January 2019, url, p. 2; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights in Eritrea, 24 July 2017, url, para. 16
220 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights in Eritrea, 24 July 2017, url, para. 16; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI,
14 February 2017, url, p. 54
221 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 25
222 Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019223 SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea: National service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 16
224 Shabait, Local Media Interview with President Isaias Afwerki: Excerpts Part II, 8 February 2017, url
225 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic
source 5, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia),group interview, 18 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; United States, USDOS,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 25
226 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; United States, USDOS,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 25; SFH, Eritrea: Nationaldienst [Eritrea:
National service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 16
227 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 28; Amnesty International, Eritrea: Shadow report to the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 17 April
2018, url, pp. 7-8; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2; Human Rights Watch,“They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 58

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 37

2.6. Treatment of conscripts
2.6.1. Civilian national service
The situation of conscripts in civilian national service is regarded as better than in military service.
Conscripts mainly bring forward the following complaints:•••

They are not free to choose their place of assignment/job, which can be opposed to theireducation, skills, and personal interest.
Salaries are too low for making a living, especially in Asmara.
They are not allowed to travel abroad. 228

The Eritrean government does not contradict these claims. 229 The working and living conditions ofcivilian national service members are largely the same as for persons outside of the national service.
This particularly applies to persons assigned to jobs in the same town or village where their family
lives. 230 For some jobs (such as teaching), national service members are assigned to remote andunfamiliar places, which causes more hardship and impedes founding an own family. 231 Furthermore,national service members who have studied at one of the colleges are not issued their degree
certificate before completing national service. 232 Some national service members are able to privately
work in another job, due to low workloads in their assigned jobs. 233
Disciplinary measures are not as harsh as in military service; the sources did not report incidents of
torture. Re-assignment to the military component, or arrest, or both, are potential punishments,
though. 234 One possible exception are the PFDJ-owned companies, part of which have own prisonswith unknown conditions. 235

2.6.2. Military national service
The situation of conscripts in the military component of national service is much harder than in thecivilian component. To some extent, this is due to the circumstance that military commanders havealmost unlimited power over their subordinates. There are no known regulations or guidelines thatdefine the powers of the commanders, the treatment of subordinates or measures against the abuseof power. 236 According to one source, an internal directive of 2005 delegated the power forpunishments in military service from military courts to the commanders. 237

228 Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert,

interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report 2016/17, 22 February 2017, url, p. 154;
United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 23; UN Human
Rights Council, Advance Version, Report of the detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, 5June 2015, url, para. 1443/4
229 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019230 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert,
interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Australia, DFAT, DFAT country information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 14; UN
Human Rights Council, Advance Version, Report of the detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in
Eritrea, 5 June 2015, url, para. 1443/4
231 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; cf. Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not
Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 59
232 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 59
233 United Kingdom, Home Office, Home Office’s Fact-Finding Mission to Eritrea, 7-20 February 2016, 7 August 2019, url,para. 9.17, EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 20
234 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email
interview, 23 July 2019
235 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019236 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, p. 131
237 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; cf. Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of theGovernment of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 28

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Problematic circumstances in military service are described below.
•
•

•
•
•
•

Punishment for lack of discipline – including inability to learn skills correctly – is often harsh
and arbitrary, being imposed by military commanders. Conscripts are reported to be beaten
or tied up for hours or days. 238
Most military units have own prisons, in which conditions are reportedly precarious. Someprisons are located underground or in shipping containers. They are often overcrowded, withtenuous hygienic, medical and nutrition conditions. 239
Work assignments are hard; 72-hour work weeks are reported. 240 Also military exercises arereported to be overly demanding. 241
Leaves are unregulated: they are prolonged, shortened or denied at the will ofcommanders. 242
Many female conscripts are subjected to sexual abuse (see Chapter 2.6.3.).
The duration is not limited, and conscripts do not know their release date. Duty times of 10
or 20 years are common (see Chapter 2.4.).

These circumstances are credibly documented. 243 Although few updated information is available on
the subject, there are no indications that the situation has changed significantly. Neither are there
indications to what extent and how systematically such hardship occurs. Circumstances in military
service depend heavily on the commander. While the documented treatment by some commanders
presumably happens, normal (i.e. non-abusive) treatment is usually not reported. Hence, even a roughestimation of the share of conscripts who are subjected to the mentioned abuses would bepretentious. 244

2.6.3. Situation of women in military
Women in military are often, but not exclusively, assigned to positions such as cooks, cleaners,
launders, personal assistants of commanders, or office workers. 245 Filipos Woldeyohannes, Chief ofStaff of the Eritrean Defense Forces, stressed in a TV interview in July 2019 that women also continue
to be conscripted into the combat units. 246 One source reports that during his time in the army, thecommanders selected the best-looking women to work personally for them. 247 In such positions aswell as in military units, they are vulnerable to sexual misconduct by their superiors. 248 No known rules
238 Human Rights Watch, Service for Life, April 2009, url, pp. 29-34; Riggan, J., The Struggling State, 2016, p. 181; Kibreab, G.,

Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 137-139; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019:
Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 2; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August
2019, url, pp. 37-39; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019239 Sweden, Migrationsverket, Temarapport: Eritrea – fängelser och förvarsanläggningar [Topical report: Eritrea – prisonsand detention facilities], 12 September 2016, url; Landinfo, Repons Eritrea: Faktagrunnlag og kildekritikk [Response Eritrea:
Fact base and source criticism], 14 January 2019, url, p. 3; Tronvoll, K. and Mekonnen, D.R., The African Garrison State, 2014,
pp. 92-106; Human Rights Watch, Service for Life, April 2009, url, p. 34-38; Amnesty International, Just Deserters, 2 December
2015, url, pp. 47-51; Amnesty International, Eritrea: 20 years of independence, but still no freedom, 9 May 2013, url; Human
Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 32
240 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 40; Human Rights Watch,
World Report 2018: Events of 2017, 18 January 2018, url, p. 201
241 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 36-37; SFH, Eritrea:
Nationaldienst [Eritrea: National service], 30 June 2017, url, p. 10
242 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 131, 137
243 See Footnotes 238-242
244 cf. Landinfo, Repons Eritrea: Faktagrunnlag og kildekritikk [Response Eritrea: Fact base and source criticism], 14 January
2019, url, p. 3
245 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, p. 131
246 ERI-TV, ሳይዳ: ዕላል ምስ ጀነራል ፍሊጶስ ወልደዮሃንስ ብዛዕባ ቅያታት ገብርኤላ ሃንሶን ተራ ደቂ-ኣንስትዮ ኣብ ሰራዊት ኤርትራ [Sayda:
Conversation with general Filipos Woldeyohannes about the stories of Gabriela Hanneso and common women in the Eritreanarmy], 7 July 2019, url
247 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019248 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019;

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 39

or guidelines are in place that forbid such conduct of commanders against conscripts, which effectively
gives them impunity. 249
Sexual exploitation by commanders happens in different contexts and circumstances. Several sourcesindicate that some female conscripts try to avoid harsh assignments by offering sexual ‘favours’ totheir superiors, are offered easier treatment in return for sex, or are threatened with an unpopular
assignment (e.g. to the front line) if they do not offer such favours. 250 Once assigned, in order tomaintain a good relationship to their superior or to avoid punishments, sexual services are demandedby commanders, sometimes under the threat of harsh punishments or other disadvantages. 251 One
source mentions that such pressure occasionally happens in the civilian component, too. 252 Somesources also report even more direct abuses. 253 There are reports of women who successfully
withstood sexual advances by their commanders. 254 Some sources mention that sexual exploitation
also happens during the 12th grade at the Warsay-Yikealo School in Sawa. 255
The Eritrean government opposes the allegations of sexual harassment in national service. 256
Interlocutors of a UK fact-finding mission claimed in 2016 that the government would not toleratesexual violence in national service because it would undermine the program. 257 23 out of 190
respondents of an academic study published in 2017 made similar statements, while 167 respondents
acknowledged the prevalence of sexual violence; the respondents were female former conscripts ofnational service. 258
Extramarital sex in general and sexual violence in particular is stigmatised in the Eritrean society 259,
while sexual violence within marriage is not criminalised and authorities rarely intervene. 260 As aresult, sexual abuse in national service is potentially underreported, as it might bring shame anddishonour to a family. 261 One source however states that sometimes, women who get pregnant
unintentionally in Sawa or in national service falsely explain this as the result of forced sex by acommander. 262 While almost no sources except for the government deny that sexual violence exists,
it is again impossible to quantify how systematically it happens.

249 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url,

p. 131; Human Rights Watch, World Report
2017: Events of 2016, 12 January 2017, url, p. 246
250 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Human Rights Watch,“They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 42-43
251 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019; Human
Rights Watch, World Report 2017: Events of 2016, 12 January 2017, url, p. 246; Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean
National Service, April 2017, url, p. 132
252 Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019253 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2018: Events of 2017, 18 January 2018, url, p. 201; Amnesty International, Amnesty
International Report 2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 160; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on
the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 29; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees?
ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 76
254 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 133-134
255 Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 41-43; Kibreab, G., Sexual
Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 135-137; Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report
2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 160
256 Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 76; Expressen
257 United Kingdom, Home Office, Home Office’s Fact-Finding Mission to Eritrea, 7-20 February 2016, 7 August 2019, url,para. 9.10
258 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 135-136
259 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 131, 137-138
260 USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 18
261 Kibreab, G., Sexual Violence in the Eritrean National Service, April 2017, url, pp. 131, 137-138; Horn of Africa expert, email
interview, 23 July 2019; UN Human Rights Council, Advance Version, Report of the detailed findings of the Commission ofInquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, 5 June 2015, url, para. 1315
262 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019

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2.7. Treatment of deserters and draft evaders
In accordance with Article 37(1) of the Proclamation on National Service of 1995, any infringement ofthat proclamation (including desertion and draft evasion) is punishable by two years' imprisonment
and/or a fine of 3 000 Birr 263 (ca. EUR 180). Under Article 37(2), the same punishment applies topeople who fraudulently avoid performing their national service, inter alia, by inflicting self-harm. The
right is reserved to apply stricter penalties according to the Eritrean Penal Code of 1991. 264
Article 297(2) of the Penal Code of 1991 outlines a five-year term of imprisonment for draft evasion
during wartime. Article 300 stipulates that desertion is punishable by a term of imprisonment of up to
five years. During wartime, the term of imprisonment varies between five years and life imprisonment;in serious cases, the death penalty is imposed. 265
Although a state of war or emergency as provided by the penal code has not been formally declared,
the government referred to the circumstances after the border war with Ethiopia as a ‘no war, nopeace’ situation, and justified measures such as the unlimited duty time in national service on thatbasis. 266 Since signing the peace declaration with Ethiopia in 2018, Eritrean officials do not refer tosuch a situation anymore. However, there are no indications that the related measures have been
lifted or adapted (see Chapter 2.1.). De facto, punishment for national service-related infringements
is imposed arbitrarily by military commanders. 267 No reliable information is available regarding a
possible adjustment of these punishments in reaction to the peace declaration. Most contacted
sources had no indications of a change in policy. 268
Eritrean authorities continue to search for deserters and draft evaders. Different measures are in place
to apprehend them:
•
•
•
•
•

Military commanders send soldiers to the house or village of deserters to look for them. 269
Civil and military officials or militia members go from house to house with lists of deserters
and draft evaders and ask for them. 270
During giffas (round-ups, see Chapter 2.3.2.), deserters and draft evaders are arrested. 271
Deserters and draft evaders are arrested when trying to leave the country illegally (seeChapter 3.4.).
Sometimes, parents or siblings of deserters are arrested to put pressure on the deserter toreturn to the unit (see Chapter 2.7.1.).

Despite these measures, not all deserters and draft evaders are caught. According to several sources,
deserters and draft evaders hide at their homes, at homes of relatives or outside of populated
places. 272
263 The Eritrean currency nakfa (ERN) was introduced in 1997 with a ratio of 1:1 to the Ethiopian Birr (ETB). The official

exchange rate is pegged to the US dollar in the ration 15:1, the black market exchange rate diverges from that.
264 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url
265 Eritrea, Eritrean Transitional Penal Code, Proclamation 4/1991, amendment of Penal Code of Ethiopia 1957, 15 September
1991
266 International Crisis Group, Eritrea: Ending the Exodus? 8 August 2014, url, p. 3; Tronvoll, Kjetil und Mekonnen, Daniel R.,
Woodbridge. The African Garrison State. Human Rights & Political Development in Eritrea, 2014, pp. 172-175.
267 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; further sources
268 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Horn of Africa
expert, email interview, 23 July 2019269 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019270 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019, Legal
expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea,
13 March 2019, url, pp. 9271 International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen,
D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019272 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 20-21; United Kingdom, Home Office, Home Office’s
Fact-Finding Mission to Eritrea, 7-20 February 2016, 7 August 2019, url, para. 9.14

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 41

Deserters from the military component of national service who are apprehended by soldiers fromtheir own unit are brought to the commander, who decides on further measures. 273 Deserters fromthe military or civilian component and draft evaders apprehended during house-to-house searches,
giffas or while attempting to leave the country illegally are sent to prison. In prison, they areinterrogated and sometimes tortured as a measure of interrogation or as a punishment. 274 The
contacted sources mentioned prison terms between one and twelve months as typical, with longer
terms of up to three years for repeated offenders and document forgers. 275
From prison, deserters are sent back to their units, while draft evaders usually first undergo militarytraining. 276 Once deserters are back to their military unit, commanders decide arbitrarily on the followup. This may be additional prison time in the unit’s prison, potentially including torture, orreintegration into the unit. In some units, committees are in place to decide on the punishment. 277
Reports on the treatment of deserters from civilian national service are scarce. Some sources also
indicate that after their time in prison, they are usually transferred to a military unit. Some are also
returned to their previous working place. 278

2.7.1. Treatment of family members
Family members of deserters or draft evaders are sometimes imprisoned for a couple of weeks ormonths in order to put pressure on the searched persons to report back to the unit. This applies aslong as the searched person is believed to be still inside Eritrea. Once the person has left the country,
the relatives are usually released. 279
From 2005 until approximately 2010, family members of deserters and draft evaders who had left thecountry had to pay a fine of ERN 50 000 (ca. EUR 3 000). If they could not pay that fine, they were
imprisoned for up to one year; in some cases, business licences were revoked or property seized. 280
In the recent years, such persecution has become less consistently applied. As of 2019, it is only
sporadically reported, but continues to happen in some cases. 281
273 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019274 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; United States, USDOS,

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, pp. 3, 6

275 Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert,

telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia),group interview, 20 May 2019; Landinfo, Repons Eritrea: Faktagrunnlag og kildekritikk [Response Eritrea: Fact base andsource criticism], 14 January 2019, url, p. 3
276 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Local
source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
277 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019
278 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Local
source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not
Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 62
279 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean asylum seeker, Rama (Ethiopia), individual interview, 18 May 2019;
SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 7; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 –Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 7; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019,url, p. 48
280 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 43; Bertelsmann Stiftung, Eritrea – National Service, Forced Labor andMass Exodus, 2017, p. 234
281 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Eritrea expert,
telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17
July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May
2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, pp. 6-7, SFH,
Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and ‘diasporatax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 7; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of humanrights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url, para. 8; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation ofhuman rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 21; cf. Bertelsmann Stiftung, Eritrea – National Service, Forced Labor andMass Exodus, 2017, p. 234

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3. Exit from Eritrea
3.1. Travel inside Eritrea and to the border
Until 2018, Eritrean citizens in national service age and sometimes also below and beyond that age
needed permits to travel inside Eritrea. The Ministry of Defence issued travel permits (Tigrinya:
menqesaqesi) to persons in the military component of national service, whereas persons in the civilian
component and other employees were issued this document by their employer, school, or local
administration. Travel permits mentioned the holder and exact date and time of the trip as well as thenumber of an identity document 282, but were rarely cross-checked against other identity documents.
Small children, women and elderly were often, but not consistently allowed to travel without permit.
They still needed identity documents and, if applicable, a proof of discharge or exemption fromnational service. As a rule, passengers had to prove that they were fulfilling their national service duty
and allowed to travel, or that they had already done so. 283
Until approximately 2010, a dense network of checkpoints was in place to check travel permits andgenerally the backgrounds of travellers. These checkpoints were also intended to stop potential
migrants before they reached the border areas or to check goods coming in from the border areas.
Persons without proper documentation were arrested. 284 After 2010, most checkpoints – with a few
exceptions, such as in Keren or Tesseney – have no longer been operative. Instead, temporary
roadblocks appeared at some places and times, particularly before major holidays such as
Independence Day. Travel permits for Eritreans in national service age remained obligatory for
travelling within Eritrea, but controls became more sporadic. 285
When the land borders to Ethiopia opened on 11 September 2018, travel restrictions within Eritrea
were lifted for most Eritreans (not for foreigners). Some sources mention that this applied also tonational service members. There were no checks between Asmara and the newly opened bordercrossing points. 286 In April 2019, the last remaining land border crossings closed again. As of July 2019,sources inside and outside Eritrea mostly report that travel restrictions within Eritrea have not been
reintroduced 287; some of the recently arrived migrants in Ethiopia interviewed by SEM howeverreported that travel permits were needed to travel to the border area. 288 It is not clear if national
service members still do not need travel permits. Checkpoints and temporary roadblocks still exist;
282 For an overview on Eritrea’s identity documents, see EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, pp. 50-56; Sweden,

Migrationsverket, Eritrea – Folkbokföring, medborgarskap och identitetshandlingar (version 1.2) [Eritrea – population
registration, citizenship, and identity documents (version 1.2)], 18 July 2018, url, pp. 9-47
283 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 25; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Bozzini, D., Low-tech
Surveillance and the Despotic state in Eritrea, url, p. 98; Human Rights Watch, Service for Life, April 2009, url, p. 63; Human
Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 21
284 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 25; Bozzini, D., Low-tech Surveillance and the Despotic state in Eritrea, url,p. 94-99; Bozzini, D., En état de siège, 23 May 2011, p. 123; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Reportof the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 46
285 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 25; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 13; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. (ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital
Era, 2017, p. 31; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on
the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 46; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into
Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 21 (footnote 44)286 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019;
Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019287 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic
source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation
3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019
288 Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18
May 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 43

security forces continue to check the identity documents of the passengers of passing-by vehicles andto ask about the purpose of travel. 289 Checkpoints are particularly prevalent on roads close to theborder, such as Senafe-Serha or Adi Kuala-Mereb. 290

3.2. Legal exit
3.2.1. Exit visa
The entry and exit requirements of Eritrea are laid down in Proclamation 24/1992. In accordance with
Article 11 of the Proclamation, a valid travel document, a valid exit visa and a valid international healthcertificate are required in order to leave Eritrea legally. 291 The exit visa regime is regulated byRegulation No 4/1992 292, which has not been amended since 1992 and hence does not contain rules
regarding national service, which has been introduced later. The National Service Proclamation(Article 17) defines the fulfilment of national service or the legal exemption from it as a precondition
for the issuance of exit visas. 293
As of 2019, the exit visa de facto seems to be issued according to the following criteria:
•

•
•
•

Being released and in possession of a release letter (Tigrinya: mefanewi) or being exemptedwith proper documentation is generally a precondition for being eligible for exit visas. 294 In
exceptional cases, national service members can be granted an exit visa with the writtenconsent of their commander or employer. 295
In addition to that, sources also mention age limits. According to two sources, men must be
at least 40 years old to be issued an exit visa; women at least 30 years, unless they havechildren. 296 Other sources mention higher age limits around 50 years 297 or none at all. 298
Children above a certain age are not granted an exit visa because of the approaching national
service age. Currently, most sources state the age of 5 years as the maximum age to be issued
an exit visa. 299
Persons serving in the People’s Army are not generally forbidden to travel abroad, but theyneed the written consent of their commander, which may be difficult to obtain. 300

289 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May

2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019
290 Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18
May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019291 Eritrea, Proclamation No. 24/1992 of 1992 issued to regulate the issuing of travel documents, 1 April 1992, url
292 Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url
293 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url
294 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url, article 17; Eritrea expert, telephoneinterview, 12 July 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; United States, USDOS,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14, Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise[Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3; Australia, DFAT, DFAT country information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 28;
Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 36; Human Rights
Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 46
295 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019296 Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on
Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14
297 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report 2017/18, 22
February 2018, url, p. 160
298 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3
299 International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteuron the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url, para. 96; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial
Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 46
300 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; United States, USDOS,
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14; Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K.,
Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 55

44 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

•
•
•
•
•

Persons suffering from a disease or injury for which treatment is not available in Eritrea. 301
Persons travelling abroad for studies, for a conference, and in some cases, as businessmen or
sportsmen. 302
Former freedom fighters (Tigrinya: tegadelti) and their family members. 303
Authority representatives in leading positions and their family members. 304
De facto: persons who bribe the officials in charge of issuing exit visas, or with personalconnections to them. 305

In practice, the issuance of exit visas is inconsistent; persons fulfilling the mentioned criteria are notalways issued an exit visa. 306 According to pre-2016 information, the issuance of exit visas may bedenied to government critics, relatives of persons who have left the country illegally or failed to pay
diaspora tax while abroad, whole families or parents travelling together, and members of nonrecognised religious communities. 307
In order to obtain an exit visa, applicants generally have to file in the following documents:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

completed application form;
statement on the reasons for travelling;valid passport, or identity card for travelling to Ethiopia or Sudan;valid entry visa of the destination country, if needed;
proof of exemption or release from national service;further identity documents such as identity cards, birth certificates, health certificates etc.;
supporting letter issued by the local administration and/or the employer. 308

Additionally:•••

for medical treatment abroad, a confirmation by the medical board under the Ministry of
Health stating that a treatment abroad is necessary; as well as further medical
documentation. 309
some sources report that for Eritreans whose spouse lives abroad, a proof of their paymentof the diaspora tax (2 % tax) is needed. 310
one source stated that in order to obtain the passport, she further had to file in copies of theidentity cards of the parents and a proof that she had no liabilities with banks and service
providers. 311

301 Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019302 Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 36; EASO, Eritrea

Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 52

303 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 52
304 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 52

305 United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 17; Norway,

Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial
Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 96
306 Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p.
46; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14
307 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 53
308 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3; Australia, DFAT, DFAT country information report
Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 28; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea],
21 June 2018, p. 36; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (19992016), 2018, url, p. 46; cf. Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url, article
17(11d)309 Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019; Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit],
2 April 2019, url, p. 3; Australia, DFAT, DFAT country information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 28; Human Rights
Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 46
310 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on
the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url, p. 96
311 Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 45

Exit visas are either put as a stamp or a sticker in the passport or – if travelling with an identity card
only – on a separate piece of paper. 312 The date range on which the individual will leave Eritrea isfixed, but returning is possible at any time. 313 The visa fee is not defined in the relevant regulation. 314
It seems to depend on the circumstances. Sources name prices between ERN 200 and 700 (EUR 12
and 42). 315
From September until December 2018, an exit visa was de facto not needed to cross by land from
Eritrea into Ethiopia (see Chapter 3.2.3.).

3.2.2. Exit by land to Sudan
Regulation 4/1992 specifies three border crossings with Sudan as legal land entry points: Talatasher –the main border crossing between Tesseney and Kassala –, Girmaika, and Karora. 316 As of 2013, theEritrean Department for Immigration and Nationality mentioned the Talatasher and Girmaika bordercrossings above plus one more in Adebra as open, while Karora was closed. 317
On 5 January 2018, Sudan closed its land border with Eritrea, indicating security concerns. 318 At theend of January 2019, Sudan announced the reopening of the Eritrean border. 319 In July 2019, bothcountries discussed the issue again and notified the upcoming reopening. 320 As of August 2019,
however, SEM is not aware of any reports that the border has actually opened.
In 2011, Sudan and Eritrea signed a bilateral agreement allowing mutual visa-free travel with identity
cards only for stays of up to three months. 321 Eritreans and Sudanese were indeed able to cross withidentity cards only until the border closure in January 2018. Most sources agree that despite theagreement, Eritreans needed an exit visa. 322 Two among the interlocutors interviewed by a Swedishfact-finding mission in 2018 reported, however, that no exit visa was needed; one of them referring
only to people from the border area. Other interlocutors stated it was needed. 323

3.2.3. Exit by land to Ethiopia
From the outbreak of the border war in 1998 until September 2018, the land border between Eritrea
and Ethiopia was de jure closed to all traffic except for a couple of family reunifications arranged by
ICRC. 324 Starting from 11 September 2018, the border crossings between the two countries were

312 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3

313 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 52; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; cf.

Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url, article 17(7)314 cf. Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url, article 17(13)315 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 02 April 2019, url, p. 3, EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p.
52; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019316 Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url, article 3(3).
317 EASO, Eritrea Country Focus, May 2015, url, p. 52
318 Reuters, Sudan closes border with Eritrea, 6 January 2018, url; Sudan Tribune, Sudan shut down border with Eritrea, 7January 2018, url
319 Reuters, Looking for friends, Sudan’s Bashir reopens Eritrea border, 31 January 2019, url, RFI (Radio France
Internationale), Bashir reopens Sudan border with Eritrea, dismisses protests, 1 February 2019, url
320 Shabait, President Isaias meets Deputy Chairman of Sudanese TMC, 2 July 2019, url; Sudan Tribune, Sudan, Eritrea discussborder reopening, 8 July 2019, url
321 Sudan Tribune, Sudan and Eritrea agreed to remove entry visa requirements for citizens, 12 May 2011, url; Sweden,
Migrationsverket, Eritrea: Familjemedlemmars kontakt med eritreanska beskickningar i utlandet [Eritrea: Family members’
contact with Eritrean representations abroad], 26 April 2018, url, p. 17
322 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 3; Sweden, Migrationsverket, Eritrea:
Familjemedlemmars kontakt med eritreanska beskickningar i utlandet [Eritrea: Family members’ contact with Eritrean
representations abroad], 26 April 2018, url, p. 17; Eritrea, Department for Immigration and Nationality, interview, Asmara,
6 November 2013
323 Sweden, Migrationsverket, Eritrea: Familjemedlemmars kontakt med eritreanska beskickningar i utlandet [Eritrea: Family
members’ contact with Eritrean representations abroad], 26 April 2018, url, p. 17
324 Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 41

46 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

opened, until closing again a couple of months later. The following four entry points were the mainroad border crossings during that period:••••

Debay Sima (Eritrea) – Bure (Ethiopia) south of Assab, opened on 11 September 2018 325,
closed on 22 April 2019. 326
Serha (Eritrea) – Zalambessa (Ethiopia) south of Senafe, opened on 11 September 2018 327,
closed on 26 December 2018. 328
Ksadika (Eritrea) – Rama (Ethiopia) on Mereb river, south of Adi Kuala, opened on
17 September 2018 329, closed on 26 December 2018. 330
Omhajer (Eritrea) – Humera (Ethiopia) close to the border tripoint with Sudan, opened on
7 January 2019 331, closed on 19 April 2019. 332

In addition to these border crossings, Regulation 4/1992 mentions entry points at Shilalo, Tsorona,and Thio. 333 There are no reports about an opening or closure of these border crossings. One source
mentioned that several minor border crossings for pedestrians were open roughly in the same period
as the road border crossings, and were closed afterwards. 334

325 Reuters, UPDATE 5-Ethiopia, Eritrea reopen border points for first time in 20 years, 11 September 2018, url
326 Eritrean Press [Facebook], Eritrea Closes Assab Road to Ethiopia, posted on: 22 April 2019, url

327 Reuters, UPDATE 5-Ethiopia, Eritrea reopen border points for first time in 20 years, 11 September 2018, url
328 Reuters, Eritrea closes border crossing to Ethiopians, official and residents say, 28 December 2018, url
329 TesfaNews [Twitter], posted on: 17 September 2018, url

330 Reuters, Eritrea closes border crossing to Ethiopians, official and residents say, 28 December 2018, url
331 TesfaNews, Omhajer-Humera border point re-opened, 7 January 2019, url

332 BBC Tigrinya, መስመር ሑመራ-ኦምሓጀር ዳግም ተዓፅዩ [The route Humera-Omhajer was closed again], 18 April 2019, url;AfricaNews, Eritrea shuts all borders with Ethiopia – unilaterally, 23 April 2019, url
333 Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url, article 3(3)334 Local source 1, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 47

Map 3: Borders of Eritrea, © State Secretariat for Migration SEM 335

In the days immediately after the first border opening in September 2018, there were no controls
whatsoever on neither side of the border. Persons who crossed the border reported that the border
between Eritrea and Ethiopia was not discernible and that travellers, goods and vehicles were notchecked. 336
A few days or weeks after the border opening – SEM has no knowledge of the exact date – a rather
lax form of checks was introduced. The policy was not consistent and varied over time and place ofthe border crossing. Sources report that soldiers wrote down the names of persons crossing, but insome cases only the names of the driver or the car plate of the vehicle. 337 The soldiers sometimes did

335 Map created by the State Secretariat for Migration SEM (Switzerland), 2019, based on Eritrean Demining Authority et al.,Landmine Impact Survey – 2004 [map], 2004; UN Cartographic Section, Eritrea [map], n.d., url; Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary
Commission, International Boundary between the State of Eritrea and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia [map],
2002, url; and the sources mentioned in Chapter 3 of this report.
336 Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic
source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephoneinterview, 17 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Local source 1, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia),
interview, May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Amnesty International, Eritrea:
Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 7; Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 2
337 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara,interview, July 2019; Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; Local source 1, Tigray regional state(Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Norway, Landinfo,
Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 2

48 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

check identity documents, but they let people pass who had no passport or identity card; they would
just ask for the name and the purpose of travel instead. 338 During that period, de facto no exit visa
was needed. 339 National service members were not stopped from crossing. 340 One source mentionedthat they were allowed to stay in Ethiopia for 20 days 341, another for a ‘specific period’ depending on
individual circumstances. 342
In December 2018 – the sources do not agree on an exact date – stricter procedures were introduced
at the borders. Exit visas or other forms of written permission such as letters issued by the local
administration were now required in order to cross into Ethiopia. 343 National service members were
no more allowed to cross. 344 In early 2019, only the peripheral border crossings in Omhajer and Debay
Sima remained open. Controls were in place at these checkpoints, but the exit visa requirement was
not necessarily enforced at all times. 345
On 26 December 2018, the two centrally located border crossings Serha and Ksadika (Mereb) wereclosed. In April 2019, the crossings in Omhajer and Debay Sima were closed, too (see above). The
government called the measure a ‘restriction for legal measures’. 346 Legal border crossing by land into
Ethiopia is no more possible since then. As of July 2019, the return of Eritreans who had crossed into
Ethiopia when the border was open seemed to be still tolerated, though. 347 Illegal border crossings,
however, have become much easier than prior to the border opening and appear to be tolerated to acertain degree by the border guards (see Chapter 3.3.2.).
The border opening had significant consequences for migration and the economy. Immediately after
the border opening, thousands of Eritreans travelled to Ethiopia. 348 Between 11 September 2018 andthe 20 December 2018, 27 500 Eritreans have registered as refugees in Ethiopia according to figuresof the European Union 349, the UN Special Rapporteur mentioned 45 000 for the same period. 350 Many
more have left Eritrea and established themselves in Ethiopian cities without registering, their number
338 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea

expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini
(Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 –Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14; Economist (The), For the first time in years, Eritreans can leave their country freely, 11
October 2018, url
339 Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Connell, D.,telephone interview, 17 July 2019; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13
March 2019, url, p. 14; Economist (The), For the first time in years, Eritreans can leave their country freely, 11 October 2018,
url; United States, USDOS, 2018 Report on International Religious Freedom, 21 June 2019, url, p. 7
340 Local source 1, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019;
Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert,
telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview,
23 July 2019
341 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019342 Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019343 Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea
expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; UN Human Rights Council,
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url, para. 8/65; Norway, Landinfo,
Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 2
344 Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019345 NZZ (Neue Zürcher Zeitung), Flucht aus dem Kasernenstaat [flight from the garrison state], 20 February 2019, url; Local
source 1, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea
expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019;346 Shabait, Sawa Vocational Training Center graduates 909 students, 3 August 2019, url
347 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R.,
telephone interview, 17 July 2019348 New Humanitarian (The), Eritrea-Ethiopia peace leads to a refugee surge, 15 November 2018, url; Guardian, The, 'I was
euphoric': Eritrea's joy becomes Ethiopia's burden amid huge exodus, 12 October 2018, url
349 European Commission, Emergency Response Coordination Centre (ERCC), Ethiopia, Influx of Eritrean refugees, December
2018, url
350 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 64EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 49

is unknown. 351 The free flow of goods in the first months after the border opening led to a decreaseof prices in Eritrea. Some staples such as teff (a cereal cultivated in the Horn of Africa) suddenly
became four or five times cheaper. 352 The Eritrean economy, however, struggled to compete with themuch cheaper Ethiopian products. 353 After the closure of the border, prices increased again. 354
Eritrea and Ethiopia are currently discussing on trade agreements, which reportedly include a reopening of the land border crossings. 355 Issues include the regulation of the previously unregulated
movement of persons and goods 356 as well as technical issues such as the construction of formal
border checkpoints, its staff, and the exchange rate. 357

3.2.4. Exit by air
As of August 2019, the only legal entry point by air was Asmara International Airport. Asmara currently
has scheduled flight services to Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, Saudi-Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, andTurkey. 358 Regulation 4/1992 mentions two additional international airports in Massawa and Assab. 359
These airports have no scheduled international air services.
Eritrean citizens need exit visas for all international air travel, including to Ethiopia and Sudan. 360

3.3. Illegal exit
3.3.1. Illegal exit to Sudan
For many years, the migration route into Sudan was more popular than the one into Ethiopia, due toits comparatively low military presence and well-established smuggling networks. 361 Eritreanstravelling illegally into Sudan use diverse modi operandi. Most common are the following:••

The cheapest way for getting into Sudan is to travel by public transport to a border town, such
as Tesseney, Guluj, or Omhajer, and to continue by foot – often in small groups with othermigrants.
Some Eritreans travel on their own – by public transport or by foot – to one of the border
towns, from where they continue accompanied by a facilitator in order to get across theborder to Kassala, Gedaref, or other Sudanese towns.

351 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 64; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019352 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019;
International organisation 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019353 Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019354 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019;355 Borkena, Eritrea-Ethiopia trade agreements under preparation, 26 July 2019, url; TesfaNews, Ethiopia, Eritrea to Open
Four Commercial Border Checkpoints, 16 Januar 2019, url; New Delhi Times, Eritrea-Ethiopia road border to open probably
within six months, 12 August 2019, url; Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019356 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview,
July 2019; New Delhi Times, Eritrea-Ethiopia road border to open probably within six months, 12 August 2019, url; Ezega
News, Ethiopia Finalizing Legal Documents for Trade with Eritrea - Official, 26 July 2019, url
357 Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Connell, D.,telephone interview, 17 July 2019358 Airportia, Asmara International Airport ASM Departures, n.d., url
359 Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url, article 3(1)360 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 2-3, United States, USDOS, 2018 Report on
International Religious Freedom, 21 June 2019, url, p. 7
361 CMI, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Eastern Sudan, September 2017, url, p. 27, 32; Expertise France et al., Eritrea
country statement, September 2017, url, pp. 6-7

50 —EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN

Another, more expensive option is to travel with a facilitator all the way from Asmara to
Kassala or Khartoum. 362•

As reported in 2017, costs for facilitation ranged between USD 100 for a short journey across theborder, up to almost USD 10 000 to travel directly from Asmara to Sudan; for the latter, however,costs between USD 3 000 and 6 000 were reported to be more typical. 363
Well-organised smuggling and trafficking networks operate at the Eritrean-Sudanese border. Groups
involved in smuggling and trafficking include ethnic groups living on both sides of the border who
know the area well, particularly the Rashaida. Also the Eritrean military units in charge of controllingthe border as well as Sudanese officials are reported to be involved. 364 In the border area, particularly
migrants travelling on their own or in small groups are in risk of attacks by human traffickers.
Informants provide the traffickers hints on the movement of migrants, enabling the traffickers toabduct them. In some cases, the traffickers have arrangements with facilitators for that purpose. 365
Migrants who reach Sudan either register at the UNHCR refugee camp at Shagerab or travel on to
Khartoum without registration. 366
Due to these risks and the fact that the border with Ethiopia has become increasingly easy to cross,the flow of migrants across the Eritrean-Sudanese border has decreased in the last couple of years(see chart below). 367 However, these numbers do not show the full extent of migration across theborder, since only approximately one third of the migrants register as refugees at the UNHCR
camps. 368

Arrivals of Eritrean refugees 2014 – 2018
50000
40000

42460
33314

35000
25265

30000
20000

16368

18455

12721

10000
0

2014

2015
Sudan

9043

9970

2016

2017

7001

2018

Ethiopia

Figure 3: Arrivals of Eritrean refugees 2014 – 2018 registered by UNHCR 369

362 CMI, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Eastern Sudan, September 2017, url, p. 27, 32; Expertise France et al., Eritrea

country statement, September 2017, url, pp. 6-7
363 Expertise France et al., Eritrea country statement, September 2017, url, pp. 6-7; CMI, Human Smuggling and Trafficking
in Eastern Sudan, September 2017, url, p. 28
364 CMI, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Eastern Sudan, September 2017, url, p. 16, 18, 30; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere,M. (ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era, 2017, p. 44, 119; Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2018 Country Report,
Eritrea, 2018, url, p. 7; UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea,
16 May 2019, url, para. 68; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 154-156; Guardian, The, Captured, raped,
ransomed: the kidnappers preying on Eritrean refugees, 19 January 2018, url
365 CMI, Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Eastern Sudan, September 2017, url, pp. 31, 38
366 Expertise France et al., Eritrea country statement, September 2017, url, p. 6
367 Economist (The), Migration from Eritrea slows, 25 May 2017, url; Africa Monitors, Sudanese Authorities deport 115
Eritreans and Ethiopians Migrant, 1 March 2017, url
368 Economist (The), Migration from Eritrea slows, 25 May 2017, url
369 Official UNHCR figures according to: UNHCR, East Sudan New Arrival Dashboard as of 31 December 2018, 9 January 2019,
url; UNHCR, Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Sudan, 2016 (Plan), [2017], url; UNHCR, Ethiopia Country Refugee Response
Plan January – December 2018, [2018], url, p. 5; UNHCR, Operations, Ethiopia, [2014 – 2019], url

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 51

3.3.2. Illegal exit to Ethiopia
Prior to the peace declaration with Ethiopia in 2018, the Eritrean-Ethiopian border was a military frontline with no legal border crossings. Even though the border had become increasingly porous in theyears before the peace declaration, crossing was still a considerable risk. Therefore, many migrants
travelled in groups or with facilitators. Nevertheless, it was common for migrants to be apprehended
by border guards and detained. 370 According to UNHCR, it was mostly young men who crossed. 371
After the formal opening of the border in September 2018, crossing the border legally became
possible even without exit visa or other travel documents (see Chapter 3.2.3.). Many Eritreans usedthat possibility, particularly women and minors with relatives who had migrated to Ethiopia and othercountries in the years before. 372 Some Eritreans continued to cross the border bypassing the official
road border crossings. 373
In two steps in December 2018 and April 2019, the land border between Eritrea and Ethiopia closed
again, making all land border crossings into Ethiopia illegal. Nevertheless, the border is no military
front line anymore. Crossing illegally has become easier, as border guards reportedly tend to lookaway when people are attempting to cross. 374 Some sources relate that they even point out which
way to go. 375 People cross illegally into Ethiopia just for visits or trade. 376 Migrants now mostly travel
without facilitators, but still in some cases in the company of persons who know the border area
well. 377 The UN Special Rapporteur mentions however that facilitators are still used. 378 As opposed to
the Sudanese border, facilitators at the Ethiopian border seem to operate on a small scale andindividual base without connection to bigger networks. 379
The most common modus operandi in the first half of 2019 was to travel by bus to a town close to theborder such as Serha, Tsorona or Adi Kuala, and then to continue on foot. Most popular is theSerha/Zalambessa crossing. Buses and private vehicles travel all the way from Asmara to Serha. From
there, migrants, smugglers and other travellers continue on foot, avoiding the checkpoint at the roadborder crossing. After a short walk, they reach the bus stop in Zalambessa on the Ethiopian side, withonward connections to Adigrat and Mekelle. People also smuggle goods on donkeys. 380 Anotherpopular way is to take the bus to Adi Kuala and to continue by foot from there to Rama. The detour
avoiding checkpoints is less well established there, and it takes a whole day to walk from Adi Kuala toEritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individualinterviews, 21 May 2019; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. (ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era, 2017, p. 29
371 UNHCR, Operational Update Ethiopia (September 2018), 16 October 2018, url, p. 2
372 UNHCR, Operational Update Ethiopia (September 2018), 16 October 2018, url, p. 2; UNHCR, Renewed influx of Eritrean
refugees, 20 October 2018, url
373 Local source 3, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
374 Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Internationalorganisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 2,
Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17
July 2019; Local source 3, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Local source 5, Tigray regional state,interview, May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18
July 2019; Voice of America, Hopes Dashed as Ethiopia-Eritrea Peace Process Stagnates , 23 July 2019, url
375 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019
376 Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview,Bern, 18 July 2019; Voice of America, Hopes Dashed as Ethiopia-Eritrea Peace Process Stagnates, 23 July 2019, url
377 Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18
May 2019
378 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 16 May 2019, url,para. 66
379 Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. (ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era, 2017, p. 29
380 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society
source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama
(Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019
370

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Rama. 381 One source related that in Omhajer, floats are used to cross Tekeze river. 382 In order to returnto Eritrea, the use of the official border crossings is mostly tolerated, as there are still people returning
who are presumed having left legally when the border was open. 383
Despite these circumstances, the policies of the Eritrean authorities regarding illegal border crossing
formally remain in place 384 and due to the border closure, crossing has become riskier again. There
are border guards who are less lenient, and consequently sporadic reports that detentions still
happen. 385 In August 2019, social media entries claimed Eritrea had moved troops to theSerha/Zalambessa border crossing in order to stop the outflow of migrants. Persons crossing havereportedly been detained. 386 There is no independent confirmation of this information and neither anindication whether this is a temporary or permanent measure.
Further obstacles include dangerous animals such as snakes, hyenas, scorpions or – in Tekeze river –crocodiles, and the torrent of rivers during rainy season. 387
As of June 2019, 250 to 300 Eritreans crossed the border per day, according to Ethiopian officials. 388
On the Ethiopian side of the border, migrants who want to be registered as refugees report to thearmy, militia, police or civilian authorities. They are collected at several collection points along theborder. From there, they are transferred to the registration centre of the Ethiopian refugee agency
ARRA and UNHCR in Endabaguna and later to one of the four refugee camps in Tigray regional state;or to the parallel infrastructure in Afar regional state. 389

3.4. Treatment of persons crossing the border illegally
Pursuant to Proclamation 24/1992 (Article 29(2)), attempts to cross the border illegally or to help
others to do so are punishable by a term of imprisonment of up to five years or a fine of up to 10 000
Birr 390 (ca. EUR 600) or both. 391 The provisions of the National Service Proclamation and of the penal
code cited in Chapter 2.7. also apply to people who leave the country after deserting or evading thedraft. According to Article 37(3) of the National Service Proclamation, records are kept of persons
liable to serve in national service (‘any citizen [...] knowing that he has the duty of serving in the
National Service’) who flee the country. If they do not return before their 40th birthday and complete
their compulsory service, they may be imprisoned for five years up until their 50th birthday. They also
lose the right to work and to own land. In this field, the law does not distinguish between legal andillegal exits. 392

381 Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18

May 2019; Eritrean asylum seeker, Rama (Ethiopia), individual interview, 18 May 2019382 Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019383 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R.,
telephone interview, 17 July 2019
384 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019385 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Local source 5, Tigray
regional state, interview, May 2019386 Asmara Standard [Twitter], posted on: 19 August 2019, url; Selam Kidane [Twitter], posted on 19 August 2019, url;
Eminetti [Twitter], posted on 19 August 2019, url
387 Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; SFH, Eritreisch-äthiopisches Grenzgebiet [Eritrean-Ethiopian
border area], 08 February 2017, url, pp. 7-8
388 In Depth News, Continuous Influx of Eritrean Refugees Challenges Ethiopia, 22 June 2019, url
389 UNHCR, Update on renewed influx from Eritrea, 24 September 2018, url; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p.
164; Expertise France et al., Eritrea country statement, September 2017, url, p. 7
390 The Eritrean currency nakfa (ERN) was introduced in 1997 with a ratio of 1:1 to the Ethiopian Birr (ETB). The official
exchange rate is pegged to the US dollar in the ration 15:1, the black market exchange rate diverges from that.
391 Eritrea, Proclamation No. 24/1992 of 1992 issued to regulate the issuing of travel documents, 1 April 1992, url
392 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url

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De facto, the treatment of persons apprehended when crossing the border is arbitrary and depends
on numerous factors, such as:
•
•
•
•
•

the unit or the responsible commander making the arrest;
the place of the arrest;
the national service status (deserter, draft evader, exempted/completed, too young);
for deserters: the unit they belong to;
the time of the year (i.e. harsher treatment when national holidays are approaching). 393

The arrested person is usually held for some time in a cell at the border area and afterwards brought
to prisons such as Barentu, Hashferay (for Gash-Barka), Adi Abeito, or Edaga (for Debub; see map in
Chapter 2.3.2.). There, military and security officers investigate whether the person is a civilian or not.
Torture such as beating or tying detainees up in painful positions is common during this investigation.
The follow-up depends on their national service status. 394 The following categorisation is based on the
SEM’s assessment of the available information and on statements by the sources mentioned in thefootnotes.
•

•

•

•

Deserters and draft evaders are treated as described in Chapter 2.7. Due to their attempt tocross the border, the punishment may be more severe. In Assab, according to one source,
deserters and draft evaders who are arrested while trying to leave the country illegally aredetained for five years, while the commanders of other fronts are more lenient. 395
For deserters from the civilian national service, the ministry for which they are working
decides on the treatment. Usually, they spend some time in prison, after which they are either
sent to a military unit or, in some cases, returned to their previous assignment. 396
Persons in national service age who have never been summoned or drafted are treated thesame as draft evaders, i.e. imprisoned and conscripted afterwards. 397 According to one
source, illegal exit at this age is considered as absconding from service duty. 398 Referring to a
prison in Zoba Debub, one source relates that women above 18 years have been released
upon payment of a fee. 399
Minors are usually not brought to these prisons for investigation, but rather detained for acouple of weeks in a place close to the border and incidentally beaten or tied up, particularlyboys. For their release, family members have to prove that they are not yet 18 years old andin some cases have to sign a guarantee that they will remain in the country or pay a fee. 400
There are recent reports of minors who – after spending time in prison – were brought tomilitary training centres 401; or to a prison-like boarding school in Nakfa for re-education. At

International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Amnesty
International, Amnesty International Report 2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 160
394 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Amnesty
International, Eritrea: Repression without borders, 27 June 2019, url, p. 7; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human
Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, pp. 3, 4, 6; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves,
Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, pp. 49, 61-62
395 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; Eritrean refugees,
Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019396 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Local
source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not
Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 62
397 Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individualinterviews, 21 May 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019398 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019399 Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019
400 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Eritrean
refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not
Educating Us”, August 2019, url, p. 49
401 Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Amnesty International, Amnesty International
Report 2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 160; United States, USDOS, Trafficking in Persons Report 2018, June 2018, url, p.
393

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this school, the teachers are national service teachers who had equally been arrested while
trying to leave illegally. 402
No recent information is available on the treatment of persons who had completed theirnational service duty or had been exempted from it, presumably since many of them wereable to leave legally. 403

Contrary to the SEM’s findings, the Norwegian COI unit Landinfo holds that it is not possible tocategorise arrested persons in groups with higher or lower probability for short- or long-term
imprisonment. 404
The information presented above primarily refers to the situation prior to the peace declaration with
Ethiopia. Information on the treatment of persons crossing illegally after the closure of the border in
December 2018/April 2019 is scarce, mainly due to the fact that the border guards are reluctant tointerfere when people are crossing illegally, hence cases of arrest have become rare (seeChapter 3.3.2.). 405 The former policy theoretically remains in place, though, and some border guards
continue to follow it. According to anecdotal information by some sources, persons caught in theborder areas are now often simply sent back to their places of origin. 406 There have also been reportsof persons detained, in which cases the treatment was similar as before peace with Ethiopia, including
torture. 407
The shoot-to-kill order on persons attempting to leave the country illegally, which had been
introduced in 2004, has been applied inconsistently and rather rarely for a couple of years. 408 Sporadic
incidents of shootings on persons at the border continue to be reported, even after the peacedeclaration with Ethiopia. 409 In these latest cases, it was not clear whether the persons concerned had
just accidentally walked into a military area, or if the border guards had shot at them for attempting
to cross. 410 There are reports of persons who have been taken back by Eritrean security forces after
having crossed into Ethiopia (see Chapter 4.2.). 411
For the treatment of family members of persons arrested at the attempt of border crossing, see
Chapter 2.7.1.

180; Human Rights Concern Eritrea, A Submission on the Initial Report of the Government of Eritrea (1999-2016), 2018, url,
p. 60-64; Human Rights Watch, “They Are Making Us into Slaves, Not Educating Us”, August 2019, url, pp. 49-50
402 Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia),
interview, May 2019403 Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019404 Landinfo, Repons Eritrea: Faktagrunnlag og kildekritikk [Response Eritrea: Fact base and source criticism], 14 January
2019, url, p. 3
405 Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email
interview, 23 July 2019;406 Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May
2019
407 Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019408 cf. EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, pp. 26, 28; SFH, Eritreisch-äthiopisches Grenzgebiet[Eritrean-Ethiopian border area], 08 February 2017, url, p. 22
409 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019; UN Human
Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url, para. 61;
United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March 2019, url, p. 14; Netherlands,
MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 37 ; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M.
(ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era, 2017, p. 362
410 Local source 5, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019
411 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Local source 4, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019

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4. Treatment of returnees
As provided by Proclamations 62/1994 and 67/1995, Eritreans residing abroad are liable to pay 2 % of
their income as Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Tax (‘2 % tax’, see Chapter 4.1.1.). 412
A part of the Eritreans who return to their country have previously broken Eritrean laws – in particular
Proclamation 24/1992, which lays down rules governing the entry to and exit from the country, andthe National Service Proclamation on account of their desertion or draft evasion. The relevant
provisions by these laws are described in Chapters 2.7 and 3.4. However, more severe conditions apply
for citizens who have absconded abroad compared to deserters and draft evaders apprehended inside
Eritrea. According to Article 37(3) of the National Service Proclamation, records are kept of persons
liable to serve in national service (‘any citizen [...] knowing that he has the duty of serving in the
National Service’) who flee the country. If they do not return before their 40th birthday and complete
their compulsory duty, they may be imprisoned for up to five years until their 50th birthday. They also
lose the right to work and to own land. In this field, the law does not distinguish between legal andillegal exits. 413
De facto, various factors are relevant for the way the Eritrean authorities treat returnees:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

the way of return: voluntarily or forced;
the way of exit from Eritrea: legal or illegal;
the year of exit from Eritrea (i.e. before or after independence, the border war with Ethiopia);
payment of the 2 % tax and signing of Form 4/4.2;
political activities abroad: none, pro-government, anti-government;
their national service status prior to their exit from Eritrea;
duration of stay in Eritrea: short-term visitor or permanent returnee;
personal contacts in the responsible authorities;
arbitrariness. 414

This chapter differentiates between voluntary and forced returnees, and between short-term andpermanent returnees.

4.1. Voluntary return4.1.1. Conditions for return
Eritrean representations abroad are reported to set two conditions for giving Eritreans clearance toreturn and offer other consular services:
All Eritreans residing abroad – regardless whether they have left the country legally or illegally – areobliged to pay 2 % of their income (salary or welfare payments) as Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
Tax (RRT), colloquially known as 2 % tax or diaspora tax. The payment of this tax is regulated in

412 Eritrea, Proclamation No 62/1994, A Proclamation to provide for payment of income tax, 5 October 1994, url; Eritrea,

Proclamation No 67/1995, Tax Payment Proclamation, 10 February 1995, url; cf. Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report(1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para 70
413 Eritrea, Proclamation on National Service No. 82/1995, 23 October 1995, url
414 See sources listed in Chapter 4; cf. Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 5; Norway,
Landinfo, Respons Eritrea: Eritrea: Utstedelse av utreisetillatelse og ulovlig utreise [Response Eritera: issuance of exit permit
and illegal exit], 15 September 2016, url, p. 6; Sweden, Migrationsverket, Eritrea: Familjemedlemmars kontakt med
eritreanska beskickningar i utlandet [Eritrea: Family members’ contact with Eritrean representations abroad], 26 April 2018,
url, p. 22; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 63

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Proclamations 62/1994 and 67/1995 415; it was initially introduced by Proclamation 17/1991. 416
Eritreans wishing to return have to pay the 2 % tax at the responsible representation for their countryof residence. They get a receipt as a proof of payment. 417
Eritreans wishing to return who have not completed national service moreover have to sign
Form 4/4.2, which is colloquially known as ‘form of repentance’ or ‘letter of regret’ and bears the title
Immigration and Citizenship Services Request Form. In that form, they admit to having committed acriminal offence and accept the penalty for it. 418 The English translation of the original text (in Tigrinya)reads: ‘I ... confirm […] that I regret having committed an offence by not completing the national
service and am ready to accept appropriate punishment in due course.’ 419 This applies to all Eritreans
who have left the country illegally without completing national service; only persons who are
exempted from national service or who have fulfilled their service duty are not asked to sign. 420
De facto, a further condition applies: Persons wishing to return should have a minimum of loyalty
towards the Eritrean government, i.e. not be politically active for the opposition abroad. Snitches invarious countries are reported to collect information in this regard. 421

4.1.2. Follow-up upon arrival
Upon arrival at Asmara International Airport, the Eritrean immigration authorities usually screen andprofile returning Eritreans. The screening includes checks on which Eritrean and foreign identity
documents they have, if they have paid the 2 % tax and – if applicable – signed the Form 4/4.2.
Sometimes, the officers have information on searched returnees. However, these procedures areinconsistent. 422 When travelling with an Eritrean passport, the immigration authorities can easily spota person who has previously left the country illegally, since such a person lacks an exit stamp in the
passport. 423 If the authorities are suspicious of a person, interrogations may follow. Possible reasons
are incomplete documents (such as lacking an Eritrean ID card) or non-payment of the 2 % tax. 424
Some persons are arrested and brought to a police station or prison in downtown Asmara. According
to some sources, this can happen if a returnee has not signed the Form 4/4.2 despite being required
to do so. Also anti-government political activities abroad can have this consequence, as snitches in thediaspora countries are reportedly informing the authorities in Eritrea about such activities. 425

415 Eritrea, Proclamation No 62/1994, A Proclamation to provide for payment of income tax, 5 October 1994, url; Eritrea,

Proclamation No 67/1995, Tax Payment Proclamation, 10 February 1995, url; cf. Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report(1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para 70
416 Eritrea, Proclamation No 17/1991, Proclamation issued for the collection of a rehabilitation tax, [1991], url
417 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview,Bern, 18 July 2019; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 64;
Bertelsmann Stiftung, Eritrea – National Service, Forced Labor and Mass Exodus, 2017, p. 235; Stauffer, H.-U., Eritrea: Der
zweite Blick, 2017, p. 210; United States, USDOS, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2018 – Eritrea, 13 March
2019, url, p. 15
418 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Sweden, Migrationsverket, Eritrea: Familjemedlemmars kontakt med
eritreanska beskickningar i utlandet [Eritrea: Family members’ contact with Eritrean representations abroad], 26 April 2018,
url, p. 22; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 63, 64;
Bertelsmann Stiftung, Eritrea – National Service, Forced Labor and Mass Exodus, 2017, p. 234
419 United Nations Security Council, Letter dated 11 July 2012 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant toresolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council,
13 July 2012, url, pp. 62-64
420 Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019
421 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Plaut, M., Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 187-190
422 International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Connell,D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019423 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 5
424 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019425 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Plaut, M., Understanding
Eritrea, 2016/2019, pp. 187-190

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4.1.3. ‘Diaspora status’
Eritreans residing abroad are eligible to obtain a preferential status often referred to as ‘diaspora
status’ from the Department for Immigration and Nationality. This status gives access to privileges:
Holders are exempt from compulsory national service and – contrary to the provisions ofProclamation 24/1992 – may leave Eritrea again without an exit visa. 426 On the other side, holders do
not have access to government services meant for residents such as food coupons, or the right to buy
and sell land. 427
In order to obtain the ‘diaspora status’, Eritreans have to file in the following documents:
•
•
•
•
•

proof of payment of 2 % tax;
proof of signing Form 4/4.2 (if applicable);
Eritrean ID card;an international travel document such as a passport or a 1954 Convention travel document;
supporting letter from the responsible Eritrean representation abroad that proves that they
have lived outside Eritrea for more than three years. 428

The Department of Immigration and Nationality then issues a computer printout titled Residence
Clearance Form. SEM has knowledge of such documents issued between 2014 and 2018 with similar
layouts. 429

Image 1: Residence Clearance Form issued in 2018 in Asmara, © State Secretariat for Migration SEM

The ‘diaspora status’ is primarily meant for Eritreans residing abroad and visiting Eritrea for shortterms. 430 According to information given by officials of the competent authority in 2016, it may also
be obtained by persons who plan to resettle in Eritrea. According to the officials, applicants must have
paid the 2 % tax, signed the Form 4/4.2 and have resided abroad for at least three years. 431
Independent sources add that informally, further conditions apply, such as unquestionable political

426 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 30; International organisation 3, Asmara, interview,

July 2019427 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; Academic expert with Eritrean origin A,
email, 10 December 2018
428 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 29-30; Strategic Initiative for Women in the Hornof Africa, A Report to the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, May 2015, url, p. 11; Eritrea, Department of
Immigration and Nationality, Residence Clearance Form, issued in 2018 [scan shown above]
429 Strategic Initiative for Women in the Horn of Africa, A Report to the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea,
May 2015, url, p. 11; EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 30; Eritrea, Department of
Immigration and Nationality, Residence Clearance Form, issued in 2018430 Sweden, Migrationsverket, Landrapport Eritrea (version 1.0) [Country report Eritrea (version 1.0)], 15 December 2015,
url, p. 21; SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return,and ‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 10
431 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 30

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loyalty. Applicants who engaged in opposition activities abroad are not likely to obtain the status. 432
Two sources note that applicants need a valid residence permit or foreign citizenship abroad. 433
According to two sources, most of those who benefit from the ‘diaspora status’ had left Eritrea before
2001. 434 However, in 2016, SEM has been shown a Residence Status Forms issued to a person who
had left Eritrea after 2001 and who held no residence permit abroad. 435
Information about the term of validity of the ‘diaspora status’ and the Residence Clearance Form iscontradictory. In 2016, officials stated a validity of three years. 436 Independent sources named five or
ten years, respectively. 437 SEM has knowledge of a Residence Clearance Form issued in 2018 that has
a term of validity of eight years (see photo above). 438 The ‘diaspora status’ and Residence Clearance
Form however do not authorize to stay uninterruptedly for its whole term of validity. Most sources
contacted by the SEM as well as some publications mention that the permitted uninterrupted stay
was limited either to six months 439 or one year. 440 One source reported that an uninterrupted stay of
two years was possible. 441 One source relates that persons working in the Gulf States were permitted
an uninterrupted stay of six months, while others could stay twelve months. 442 In 2016, theDepartment for Immigration and Nationality had communicated that an uninterrupted stay for thefull three years of validity was permitted. 443
All sources agree that persons who stay longer than the term granted for permanent stay are
considered Eritrean residents again, losing the privileges of the ‘diaspora status’. 444 Their treatment is
described in Chapter 4.1.5.

4.1.4. Return as a visitor
According to official figures, an average of 95 000 Eritreans living abroad travel to Eritrea yearly. This
includes Eritreans who are residing abroad for decades and who have obtained other citizenships. 445
International sources quote similar numbers 446, but both sources are not verifiable. Visitors usually
meet the requirements set by the authorities (payment of 2 % tax, signing Form 4/4.2) and are
432 Mekonnen, SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members,
return, and ‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 10;433 Sweden, Migrationsverket, Landrapport Eritrea (version 1.0) [Country report Eritrea (version 1.0)], 15 December 2015,
url, p. 21; Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 10
434 SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 10; Mekonnen, D.R., email, 18 March 2019
435 Returnees from Israel and Yemen, Asmara, interview, 2 March 2016
436 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 30
437 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019438 Eritrea, Department of Immigration and Nationality, Residence Clearance Form, issued in 2018
439 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018; Academic expert
with Eritrean origin A, email, 10 December 2018; Academic expert with Eritrean origin D, email, 21 December 2018
440 Mekonnen, D.R., email, 18 March 2019; Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018; Academic expert with
Eritrean origin B, email, 11 December 2018; Academic expert with Eritrean origin C, email, 13 December 2018; Netherlands,
MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 63; Norway, Landinfo, Report
Eritrea: Reactions towards returned asylum seekers, 27 April 2016, url, p. 4
441 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019442 SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 10
443 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 30
444 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 30; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July
2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Academic expert, email
interview, 21 July 2019; Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 02 April 2019, url, p. 5; SFH, Eritrea:
Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and ‘diaspora tax’, 30
September 2018, url, pp. 9-11
445 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 278
446 Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 64; Australia, DFAT,
DFAT country information report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 29

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therefore able to visit Eritrea temporarily. The Eritrean authorities say that although the signing ofForm 4/4.2 is an admission of guilt, the punishment is de facto waived. 447 The contacted sources
generally confirm this policy; short-term visits of diaspora members to Eritrea under these terms areusually unproblematic. 448
Meeting these conditions is, however, no guarantee against persecution. 449 Some sources mentioned
isolated events of visitors who were detained for reasons such as not signing the Form 4/4.2 oractivities abroad which were perceived as anti-government 450; and who were conscripted into
national service or the People’s Army. 451

4.1.5. Permanent return
In the recent years, Eritreans have returned to Eritrea on a more permanent base from several
European countries, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Egypt and other countries. Returnees from Europe 452
and Israel 453 include rejected asylum seekers and voluntary returnees. Returnees from Saudi Arabia
and the Gulf States are mostly persons whose work permit had expired. 454 In the first months of 2019,
68 Eritreans were reported to have returned from Libya because of the civil war and the precarious
situation in the migrants’ camps. 455
The Eritrean government reported in 2018 that between 2013 and 2015 a total of 9 971 persons had
returned to Eritrea and reintegrated into ‘normal daily life’. 456 The Eritrean government stated
repeatedly that migrants can come back from abroad and will face no problems. 457 Yemane
Gebremeskel, the Minister of Information, stated that there would not be a general clemency, as thiswould motivate others to do the same illicit acts. In practice, however, clemency would be granted inmany cases, while others had to undergo ‘some kind of rehabilitation which is very lenient’. 458
Most sources contacted by SEM had no recent information on the actual treatment of such returnees;
their monitoring is not possible even for international organisations. 459 Some sources had knowledge
447 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 29; Australia, DFAT, DFAT country information

report Eritrea, 08 February 2017, url, p. 29; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report
Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 63
448 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Netherlands, MoFA,
Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 64; cf. EASO, Eritrea: National service andillegal exit, November 2016, url, pp. 32-33
449 Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 63; Sweden,
Migrationsverket, Eritrea: Familjemedlemmars kontakt med eritreanska beskickningar i utlandet [Eritrea: Family members’
contact with Eritrean representations abroad], 26 April 2018, url, p. 22
450 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019451 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019, Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018452 Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Die Schweiz weist immer mehr Eritreer weg [Switzerland sends more and more Eritreans away],
13 May 2019, url; Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019453 According to data of the Israeli Ministry of Interior, 2 318 Eritreans have returned voluntarily from Israel to Eritrea
between January 2015 and the end of May 2018; Source: UNHCR Israel, email, 14 August 2019; cf. United Kingdom, Home
Office, Home Office’s Fact-Finding Mission to Eritrea, 7-20 February 2016, 7 August 2019, url, para. 11.7.10; Haaretz, 5,667
African Refugees Who Left Israel Returned to Home Countries, 20 August 2015, url.
454 Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 64
455 AfricaNews, Eritrea wants citizens home from Libya, summons UNHCR top official, 1 May 2019, url
456 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 283
457 Eritrea, MoFA, Eritrea: Initial National Report (1999-2016), 28 March 2017, para. 283; New Humanitarian (The), Amid
border wrangles, Eritreans wrestle with staying or going, 30 April 2019, url; Deutsche Welle, Eritrea's Foreign Minister Osman
Saleh Mohammed says Eritreans are welcome home, 28 August 2018, url; EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit,
November 2016, url, p. 29
458 Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; cf. Shabait, UNHCR Eligibility Guidelines:
Factual Findings or Recycled Defamation? 17 December 2015, url
459 Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Diplomatic source
7, Asmara, interview, July 2019; International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephoneinterview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019;
Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 62-64; Plaut, M.,

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of returnees who had successfully reintegrated into society. They were mostly pro-government andbelonged to the older generation of migrants. 460
In 2015 and 2016, the Eritrean authorities arranged meetings of voluntary returnees with European
delegations and other visitors. The returnees had left Eritrea illegally and spent time in Israel, Sudan,
and Yemen. They said they had paid the 2 % tax and signed the Form 4/4.2 prior to their return. The
returnees claimed having not encountered any problems and being treated well. Government officials
were present during these meetings; such statements are hence to be treated cautiously. 461 Somesources share the view that returnees who previously fulfilled the return conditions and registered for‘diaspora status’ are upon return initially treated the same as visitors from the diaspora (seeChapter 4.1.4.). 462 Purportedly they get a ‘probation time’ before being summoned into national
service 463, or do not encounter major problems as long as they had made an ‘arrangement’ prior to
returning and do not expose themselves too much. 464 After a certain period spent permanently in
Eritrea – most sources mention six to twelve months, see Chapter 4.1.3. – their preferential treatment
or ‘diaspora status’ expires and they are treated like normal Eritrean residents again, liable to national
service duty. 465 Some returnees are reported to having left again to Ethiopia or Sudan. 466
Returnees who are again considered residents and who have not fulfilled yet their national service
duty can be summoned again into national service or People’s Army and eventually be punished fordesertion, draft evasion or illegal exit. 467 Whether they are effectively summoned or not is up to thediscretion of the authorities 468; cases of summons are however reported. 469 One source reports thateven prior to the expiry of the diaspora status, they may be caught in giffas. 470 Another source has
anecdotal knowledge of cases of returnees from Libya, Egypt and other countries who have beendetained shortly after arrival. Reportedly, they were interrogated and tortured in prison and later sent
to a military unit; a part of them fled the country again. The source indicates that a part of these cases
had paid the 2 % tax and signed the Form 4/4.2 before returning. They had been treated somewhat
better, but were still put into detention followed by military service. 471 Other sources share the view

Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 185; Deutsche Welle, Eritrea's Foreign Minister Osman Saleh Mohammed says
Eritreans are welcome home, 25 August 2018, url
460 Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019.
461 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, pp. 30-31; United Kingdom, Home Office, Home
Office’s Fact-Finding Mission to Eritrea, 7-20 February 2016, 7 August 2019, pp. 214-222, 228-241, url,; Stauffer, H.-U.,
Eritrea: Der zweite Blick, 2017, pp. 210-211
462 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert,
interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018
463 Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019464 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019465 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Academic expert with
Eritrean origin D, email, 21 December 2018; Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018; SFH, Eritrea:
Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and ‘diaspora tax’, 30
September 2018, url, p. 9
466 Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Horn of Africa
expert, email interview, 23 July 2019467 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Legal expert,
interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Former resident of Asmara, email, 11
September 2018; SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members,
return, and ‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 11
468 Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019469 Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018
470 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019471 Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019;

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that such scenarios are possible. 472 One source states that ‘according to rumours, some are detained
and others not.’ 473 In most cases, however, there is no information whatsoever (see above).
In a survey among 153 Eritreans in refugee camps in Ethiopia who had left Eritrea between 1998 and2016, 96 % of the male and 97 % of the female respondents perceived returning to Eritrea toconstitute a considerable threat to themselves and/or their families. 80 % of the respondents claimed
that they would be in danger of arrest and detention as they had left Eritrea illegally. 474

4.1.6. Return from Ethiopia
A special category of returnees are the Eritreans who left their country temporarily when the borderto Ethiopia was open and mostly unregulated (see Chapter 3.2.3.) and returned home either duringthat period or afterwards. They left Eritrea unhindered, but had no exit stamp, exit visa or any otherproof of legal exit as provided by Regulation 4/1992 475, which formally continues to be applied. Also,
those who decided to return were reportedly neither checked nor registered. Sources report thatmany of those who returned to Eritrea after a couple of days or weeks in Ethiopia encountered no
problems, because their stay in Ethiopia had not been explicitly known to the Eritrean authorities. 476
Among those travelling back and forth were also members of national service. Since there was noproper control at the border, they were generally not detected upon return to Eritrea. 477 However,depending on the assignment within national service, time limits for the stay in Ethiopia applied
informally. 478 It was hence possible that their commander or ministry detected absences for overly
long time frames or considered those not returning as deserters. One source reports that someteachers who had left to Ethiopia and eventually returned were first put in prison because of
absconding. Due to the shortage of teaching staff, however, they were released after payment of apenalty and reinstated in their previous positions. 479 Some incidents of forced returns from Ethiopia
have also been reported. It is not known what happened to these returnees. 480 Many national service
members who had crossed the border opted to stay in Ethiopia. 481 Three sources assessed that there
would probably be repercussions against such returnees. 482
Sources reported that return to Eritrea was possible and unproblematic also after the border closure,even at the official entry points. 483 One source however said that in some incidents, returnees havebeen mistreated by border guards. 484 Furthermore, persons who wanted to return from Ethiopia
either did not dare or had to pay fines. 485 At the Omhajer/Humera crossing, minors were reported to

472 Norway, Landinfo, Eritrea: Utreise [Eritrea: exit], 2 April 2019, url, p. 5; SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehr und“Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and ‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, pp. 11-12;
International organisation 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019473 Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea [General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 62
474 Røsberg, A.H. and Tronvoll, K., Migrants or Refugees? ILPI, 14 February 2017, url, p. 92
475 Eritrea, Regulation No 4/1992 on Travel Documents and Immigration, 15 July 1992, url
476 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Local source 1, Tigray
regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019; Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019477 Mekonnen, D.R., telephone interview, 17 July 2019; Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019478 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019479 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; cf. UN Human Rights Council, Advance Version, Report of thedetailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, 5 June 2015, url, para. 1243
480 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Local source 4, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019481 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019;482 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019; Local source 1, Tigray
regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019483 Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Mekonnen, D.R.,
telephone interview, 17 July 2019
484 Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019
485 Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019; Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019

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stay on the Ethiopian side because they did not dare to return as they had left Eritrea without thenecessary permission. 486

4.2. Forced return
The Eritrean government opposes any forced return of its citizens. 487 However, a Ministry of Foreign
Affairs official told a delegation from the United Kingdom in 2016 that their policy was ‘to prefervoluntary returns. But if a host country decides to repatriate them by force, we will accept them. But
we should negotiate this first.’ 488 Eritrea’s President Isaias Afewerki has criticised the countries, which
send migrants back to Eritrea, for not supporting the returnees adequately. Isaias mentioned Israel’s
policy of giving deportees USD 3 500 and said USD 50 000 would be more appropriate. 489
Sporadic incidents of forced returns to Eritrea are recorded, mostly across the land borders. Between
2016 and 2019, they occurred rather seldomly. Forced returns prior to 2016 have been covered in
EASO’s report National service and illegal migration (Chapter 3.4). 490 SEM has knowledge of thefollowing incidents:
•

•
•

•

Most incidents of deportations to Eritrea are still known from Sudan. Multiple forced returns
across the land border at Talatasher between Kassala and Tesseney were reported in 2016
and 2017: According to a number of sources, several hundred Eritrean migrants were
repatriated from Sudan in 2016 alone. 491 In early 2017, another 115 Eritreans and Ethiopians
were reportedly deported across the land border. 492 After the border closure in January 2018,
no further incidents are documented. 493
One source reported in early 2017 that Egypt had deported 25 Eritreans to their homecountry. The source reported no further details. 494
Two interlocutors reported that during the time the Eritrean-Ethiopian border was open,
Eritrean soldiers went into Northern Ethiopia in search of absconded national service
members. Some of them allegedly were taken back, while others remained in Ethiopia. The
Ethiopian authorities were not reported to be actively involved in these incidents. 495
On 6 June 2019, France deported an Eritrean woman by air via Istanbul, escorted by Frenchpolicemen. The woman had been arrested in possession of counterfeit ID documents. 496 The

486 NZZ (Neue Zürcher Zeitung), Flucht aus dem Kasernenstaat [flight from the garrison state], 20 February 2019, url

487 Eritrea, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019; Netherlands, MoFA, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Eritrea[General official report Eritrea], 21 June 2018, p. 65; New York Times, Trump Administration Punishes Countries That Refuse
to Take Back Deported Citizens, 13 September 2017, url; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Die Schweiz will Eritreer wegweisen, aberein Abkommen zur Rückübernahme bleibt unrealistisch [Switzerland wants to send Eritreans away, but a readmissionagreement remains unrealistic], 5 April 2018, url; Amnesty International, Rückführungen nach Eritrea nicht möglich[repatriations to Eritrea not possible], 3 September 2018, url
488 United Kingdom, Home Office, Home Office’s Fact-Finding Mission to Eritrea, 7-20 February 2016, 7 August 2019, url,para. 11.7.21
489 Shabait, Interview with President Isaias Afwerki: Domestic Issues, 31 January 2018, url
490 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 36
491 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2017: Events of 2016, 12 January 2017, url, p. 249; Amnesty International, Amnesty
International Report 2017/18, 22 February 2018, url, p. 159; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. (ed.), Human Trafficking andTrauma in the Digital Era, 2017, pp. 142-146; Africa Monitors, Sudanese Government Sends the Janjaweed Against Eritrean
Refugees, 29 August 2016, url
492 Africa Monitors, Sudanese Authorities deport 115 Eritreans and Ethiopians Migrant, 1 March 2017, url; cf. Plaut, M.,
Understanding Eritrea, 2016/2019, p. 161
493 Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019; Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019494 Africa Monitors, Egypt: deportation of migrants to Eritrea, 25 February 2017, url
495 International organisation 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019; Local source 4, Tigray regional state, interview, May 2019
496 RFI (Radio France Internationale), France: une femme expulsée en Érythrée, un des pays les plus répressifs au monde[France : one woman deported to Eritrea, one of the most repressive countries in the world], 12 June 2019, url; Le Figaro, La
France expulse une Erythréenne vers son pays, une «première» selon la Cimade, 12 June 2019, url; La Cimade, La France
expulse vers l’Érythrée, 12 June 2019, url

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French NGO La Cimade reported that she had applied for asylum after being arrested, which
had been rejected. 497 A media report states that she did not speak English well and her firstindications suggested that she had no fear in case of return. 498
The United States announced in September 2017 the repatriation of 700 Eritreans. 499 At the sametime, the U.S. government complained that Eritrea refused to take back deported citizens. 500
Nevertheless, the U.S. authorities reported to have ‘removed’ 41 Eritreans in 2017 and 62 in 2018. 501
These statistics do not show the destination country of the deportations; at least a part of the Eritreans
were removed to third countries. 502 In some cases, they were deported to Cairo airport and handed
over to the Egyptian police. In June 2018, an Eritrean deportee committed suicide in a cell at Cairo
airport. 503 As of August 2019, discussions continue between the United States and Eritrea on means
for returning nationals to their country of origin. 504 The SEM and a consulted U.S. non-governmentalorganisation have no knowledge of reports on any direct removals of Eritreans from the United States
to Eritrea. 505
Information about the treatment of the deported persons is scarce. Forced returnees usually have noopportunity to pay the 2 % tax and sign F orm 4/4.2 and to thereby ensure a more lenient
treatment. 506 SEM observed that the fate of most deported persons upon arrival in Eritrea is unknown
and undocumented. Information is available only regarding persons repatriated across the landborders from Sudan, and it is anecdotal. The available accounts describe that after arrival in Eritrea,
most returnees were put in an underground prison near Tesseney, where the authorities screened
and profiled them. Torture is reported from this prison. 507 According to the accounts of deportees
from Sudan who have left Eritrea again and sources who have been in touch with them, the follow-up
depended on the profile:•••

Persons who had not been conscripted yet were sent to military training e.g. in Afabet andlater deployed to military units.
Persons who had already been in military were sent to other prisons such as Hashferay or Adi
Abeito.
Younger children were released to their families.

497 La Cimade, La France expulse vers l’Érythrée, 12 June 2019, url ; Le Figaro, La France expulse une Erythréenne vers sonpays, une «première» selon la Cimade, 12 June 2019, url
498 RFI (Radio France Internationale), France: une femme expulsée en Érythrée, un des pays les plus répressifs au monde[France : one woman deported to Eritrea, one of the most repressive countries in the world], 12 June 2019, url
499 United States, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, DHS Announces Implementation of Visa Sanctions on FourCountries, 13 September 2017, url; Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 4; UN
Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Eritrea, 25 June 2018, url, para.
102; ABC News, US deporting more and more people to Eritrea - a country it says tortures and kills its citizens, 10 May 2019,url
500 United States, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, DHS Announces Implementation of Visa Sanctions on FourCountries, 13 September 2017, url; New York Times, Trump Administration Punishes Countries That Refuse to Take Back
Deported Citizens, 13 September 2017, url
501 United States, ICE, Fiscal Year 2018 ICE Enforcement and Removal Operations Report, 2019, url, p. 18
502 NGO, USA, email, 16 August 2019
503 USNews, Eritrean US Detainee Kills Himself at Egyptian Airport, 9 June 2018, url; Human Rights Watch, World Report
2019: Events of 2018, 17 January 2019, url, p. 4; ABC News, US deporting more and more people to Eritrea - a country it says
tortures and kills its citizens, 10 May 2019, url
504 USA, government official, email, 19 August 2019
505 NGO, USA, email, 16 August 2019506 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, pp. 36-37; SFH, Eritrea: Reflexverfolgung, Rückkehrund “Diaspora-Steuer” [Eritrea: Persecution of family members, return, and ‘diaspora tax’, 30 September 2018, url, p. 11
507 Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia),
interview, May 2019; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. (ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era, 2017, p. 146;
cf. UN Human Rights Council, Advance Version, Report of the detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights
in Eritrea, 5 June 2015, url, para. 814, 1015, 1050, 1059, 1065

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Elderly were sent to the military or enlisted in the People’s Army. 508

Due to the small number of forced returns to Eritrea, the information on the treatment of the forced
returnees from Sudan is based on a small sample of anecdotal information. However, theseobservations are generally in line with SEM’s findings published in 2016. 509

508 Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019; Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia),

interview, May 2019; Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. (ed.), Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era, 2017, p. 146;
cf. UN Human Rights Council, Detailed findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea, A/HRC/32/CRP.1, 8June 2016, url, para. 98
509 EASO, Eritrea: National service and illegal exit, November 2016, url, p. 36

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Annex 1: Bibliography
Oral sources, including anonymous sources
Most oral sources asked to remain anonymous due to different concerns such as security or access to
Eritrea and its authorities. Due to the very small number of potential sources, it has not been possible
to describe them in more detail than presented below, as this could reveal their identity.
Academic expert with Eritrean origin A, email, 10 December 2018. Academic expert A is a researcher
in the field of migration.
Academic expert with Eritrean origin B, email, 11 December 2018. Academic expert B lives in Europe
and travels occasionally to Eritrea.
Academic expert with Eritrean origin C, email, 13 December 2018.
Academic expert with Eritrean origin D, email, 21 December 2018. Academic expert D has regularprofessional contact with newly arrived Eritrean migrants.
Academic expert, email interview, 21 July 2019
Academic source, Zoba Anseba, interview, March 2016
Civil society source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Civil society source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Civil society source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Connell, D., telephone interview, 17 July 2019. Dan Connell is a Visiting Scholar at Boston University's
African Studies Center and a retired senior lecturer in journalism and African politics at Simmons
College. His work focuses mainly on Eritrea.
Diplomatic source 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019. Diplomatic sources are representatives of foreignembassies to Eritrea, based in Asmara or neighbouring countries, which the SEM has interviewed
during the technical visit in July 2019.
Diplomatic source 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 5, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 6, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 7, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 8, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Diplomatic source 9, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Eritrea expert, telephone interview, 12 July 2019
Eritrea, Department for Immigration and Nationality, interview, Asmara, 6 November 2013
Eritrea, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019

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Eritrean asylum seekers, Rama (Ethiopia), group interview, 18 May 2019. This is a group of seven
Eritreans who arrived to Ethiopia in May 2019. They were interviewed by the SEM during the technicalvisit in May 2019.
Eritrean asylum seeker, Rama (Ethiopia), individual interview, 18 May 2019. The SEM conducted two
individual interviews with participants of the group interview mentioned above.
Eritrean refugees, Addis Ababa, individual interviews, 21 May 2019. The SEM has interviewed
individually a group of seven Eritreans who have left Eritrea between 2017 and 2019 and settled in
Addis Ababa during the technical visit in May 2019.
Eritrean refugees, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), group interview, 20 May 2019. This is a group of 20 Eritreans
who have left Eritrea between 2017 and 2019 and were living in Mai Aini refugee camp in May 2019.
They have been interviewed as a group by the SEM during the technical visit in May 2019, followed byindividual interviews with two persons.
Eritrean refugee, Mai Aini (Ethiopia), individual interview, 20 May 2019. The SEM conducted two
individual interviews with participants of the group interview mentioned above.
Former resident of Asmara, email, 11 September 2018
Horn of Africa expert, email interview, 23 July 2019
International organization 1, Asmara, interview, July 2019
International organization 2, Asmara, interview, July 2019
International organization 3, Asmara, interview, July 2019
International organization 4, Asmara, interview, July 2019
Legal expert, interview, Bern, 18 July 2019. The legal expert is an Eritrean national who is familiar withthe legal framework of Eritrea and its implementation.
Local source 1, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019. The local sources in Tigray are
persons who have been in touch with Eritrean migrants and/or have observed the opening and closureof the land border crossings in 2018 and 2019 due to work or personal relations.
Local source 2, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019Local source 3, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019Local source 4, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019Local source 5, Tigray regional state (Ethiopia), interview, May 2019
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has published books and articles about Eritrea.
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NGO, USA, email, 16 August 2019. The NGO is active in the field of human rights.
Returnees from Israel and Yemen, Asmara, interview, 2 March 2016
Returnees from Sudan and Israel, Keren, interview, 9 March 2016.
UNHCR Israel, email, 14 August 2018
USA, government official, email, 19 August 2019
Yemane Gebremeskel, Minister of Information, Asmara, interview, 2 July 2019

EASO COUNTRY OF ORIGIN INFORMATION REPORT - ERITREA: NATIONAL SERVICE, EXIT, AND RETURN— 67

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Annex 2: Terms of ReferenceThis report updates the questions dealt with in EASO’s 2016 report on national service and illegal exitin the light of the developments since 2016, most notably the peace agreement between Eritrea andEthiopia in 2018. The following are the guiding questions:
1. Is there a punishment in place for deserters, draft evaders and persons who left the country
illegally – be it when arrested in Eritrea, when trying to cross the border legally or illegally, or
upon return to Eritrea? If so, how severe are the punishments?
2. Are the punishments meted out according to law and does legal certainty exist (procedural
guarantees, written judgments, possibilities of appeal)?
3. Are the punishments and conditions of detention for deserters, draft evaders and people who
left the country illegally more degrading and/or more brutal than those for people who havecommitted an offence under another generally applicable law?
4. Did the peace agreement with Ethiopia in 2018 lead to any change of policies in national
service, particularly regarding recruitment, the duration of service and punishments?
5. Have the remuneration reforms announced in 2015 and 2016 been implemented?
6. What are or have been the possibilities for legally leaving and re-entering Eritrea upon the
opening of the land border crossings with Ethiopia in 2018?

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doi: 10.2847/23257