Chapter

8

Traffic
psychology
Kazumitsu Shinohara
Professor, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University

Kazumi Renge
Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Tezukayama University

8.1

Perception and cognition of drivers

When operating a vehicle, drivers gather information from the surroundings based on their intended
purpose and process the information accordingly to operate the steering, pedals, and switches. Although
this appears to be a series of simple tasks, these actions involve various mental processes such as predicting changes in the surrounding environments, gathering information for subsequent actions, and detecting and handling dangerous situations. The process of gathering external information is defined as perception, and the process of understanding and handling the external information is defined as cognition.
The perception and cognition of massive amounts of information is performed largely automatically andunconsciously, in accordance with complex rules and under strict time limits. These mental processes,
which are performed without any errors, are critical for safe driving.
As in Figure 1, all humanAttentional resource (divided attention)
behaviors, not limited to driving,are represented in a schematic
diagram. 1) According to this [Knowledge-based]
Interpretation ofDecision making
Planning
model, human behaviors involve
situations
and task selection
three levels of information processing (skill-, rule-, and knowledge-based) between the input
of information and the output ofaction. The perceptual featuresof sensory information obtained
via the sensory organs are analyzed to recognize the content of
the information. If the content isalready well-known, appropriate[Rule-based]
Featurerecognition

Correlation between
situations and tasks

Application of
stored rules

Inhibition

Automatedsensorimotor
patterns[Skill-based]
Feature extraction
Selective attention
Sensory input

Actionresponses are elicited quickly at Figure 1. Three-level behavior control model based on Rasmussen’s SRK modelChapter 8: Traffic psychology｜81

the point of feature formation. This skill-based response is rapid and unconscious but is also fixed andinflexible. When it is necessary to behave in accord with informational content, rules for selecting a
response are recalled in order to behave appropriately. Attention is not required when the behavior to be
performed is simple and familiar, whereas a certain degree of attention is required when the behavior isunfamiliar. When the information is novel and totally unfamiliar, information processing is “knowledge-based,” which is a conscious process to interpret information and make behavioral decisions. A
behavior at this level can be slowly but flexibly controlled, and requires sufficient attention.
Most basic driving operations, such as steering and pedal operation, are controlled at the skillbased level, while rule-based processing is required when drivers have to think about driving. For example, drivers have to behave at the knowledge-based level when they encounter an irregular road situationin which the road priority is unclear and when they have to make a route to the destination. In models
of driver behavior, hierarchical concepts (operational, tactical, and strategic) have been used to explain
driver behavior.2) In particular, the operational and tactical levels apparently correspond to the skill- andrule-based levels, respectively.
In addition, attention plays an important role in driving. Attention may be classified into selective
attention for selectively gathering information and divided attention for working as mental energy to
execute actions. The cognitive process in which these two processes are deeply involved is also shown in
Figure 1.

8.2

Hazard perception

A hazard is a source of danger that may cause an accident, and hazard perception is defined as the detection of hazards and the recognition of their characteristics while operating a vehicle. Hazards are divided
into overt hazards (e.g., visible pedestrians ahead) and latent hazards (e.g., unseen pedestrians in blind
spots), and hazards need to be detected in a timely manner. Hazard perception may also be regarded asa situational awareness step required for securing safety.3)
When operating a vehicle, hazard perception relies for the most part on vision. To capture hazards
by central vision, which is highly effective but limited to a narrow area, visual information must be
obtained by looking at places where the presence of hazards is highly probable, while anticipating andpaying careful attention to the appearance of hazards. Selection of visual information is strongly affectedby drivers’ expectations and value judgments. If a driver has insufficient intention to detect hazards,“inattentional blindness” can occur, which is a phenomenon where visible objects are viewed but
overlooked.4)
Drivers are also required to quickly determine which elements or situations are hazardous based on
their experiences and knowledge. To do so, drivers must be able to store hazardous experiences, scan thecontents quickly, and recall the experiences. Drivers gradually acquire hazard-related knowledge
through driving experiences and develop a schema about hazards. Schemas are generated based on thepast experiences of events, actions, and objects, and are constructed with a number of generalized

82｜Theory

concepts.5) Behavior control by schemas is generally an unconscious and automatic process,6) and schemas compensate for insufficient information by using default values.5) Schemas are the basis for smooth
human behavior. By constructing schemas, drivers can recognize scenes containing hazards more correctly and comprehensively, as shown by previous studies.7), 8)
For preventing accident, it is extremely important to perform hazard perception effectively. Consequently, various hazard perception tests have been developed and incorporated into driver’s license
examinations in Western countries as well as in Japan.9) In a typical hazard perception test, drivers
observe a video of the view from the driver’s seat and push a button as soon as they discover a hazard.
Drivers’ hazard perception ability is evaluated based on the time taken to detect and react to a hazard
and the overall detection rate. In general, skilled drivers have short detection and reaction times and ahigh detection rate compared with novice drivers.10), 11) Previous studies of eye movements during hazard perception testing suggest that the difference in reaction time between skilled and novice drivers isdue to the difference in time taken to process and determine the degree of hazard rather than the difference in their respective abilities to detect hazards.12), 13)
In addition, due to the increasing number of elderly drivers, research is currently underway toinvestigate age-related changes in hazard perception ability. While some studies have shown that hazard
perception test scores are low among elderly drivers compared with younger drivers,14), 15) other studies
have revealed no age-related difference in hazard perception abilities.16) Further studies are needed toclarify whether hazard perception test scores among elderly drivers are affected by a decline in visualfunction itself (e.g., a decline in contrast sensitivity); a reduction in the useful field of view, which isindicative of an overall decline in the mechanism of attention; or age-related modifications in the structure and mechanism of the schema that is the basis of hazard perception.
Educational and training programs are offered to improve hazard perception ability. One of themethods is to point out hazards hidden in still images and videos of traffic scenes. As mentioned earlier,hazard perception is based on a schema constructed with a variety of knowledge regarding dangers. To
perform hazard perception effectively, drivers should not only memorize extensive knowledge about
typical and individual hazards and immediately retrieve knowledge appropriate for a particular scene,
but also generalize such knowledge to meet novel situations. Therefore, it is necessary to educate drivers
and give them an understanding of the processes by which hazards cause accidents and the informationthat makes hazard detection easier, rather than simply teaching them how to respond to individual hazards. For example, driving schools in Japan already provide hazard perception training in the form of
discussion-based training on hazard prediction and driving while predicting hazards. To improve hazard perception education, the incorporation of psychological approaches based on the perceptual andcognitive processes of hazard prediction into the content of driver’s education should be considered.

8.3

Risk taking

In traffic psychology, the term “risk taking” has long been used as a concept associated with accidents

Chapter 8: Traffic psychology｜83

based on the assumption that accidents are more likely caused by drivers with a tendency to act despite
being aware of potential risks. In particular, risk taking is given as the reason for high accident rates
among young drivers.
When individuals exhibit a tendency toward taking risks, they may behave in the same way but fordifferent reasons; some enter risky situations without knowing what is dangerous, while others take risks
despite being aware of the danger, for example to seek thrills. When drivers enter intersections against a
red traffic signal, they may do so with or without being aware of the signal. From the perspective of individual traits, the former may have problems with hazard perception, while the latter may have behavioral problems, such as a risk-taking tendency.
Trimpop defines risk taking as all actions that are engaged at the time of perceiving elements ofuncertainty or possibility of loss.17) Accordingly, almost all traffic behaviors involve risk taking due to theuncertainties associated with such behaviors compared with other ones in daily life.
Traffic behaviors reflect mental processes performed under extremely high time pressure, and theirfeatures affect risk-taking behaviors. Driving and traffic behaviors are characterized by the rapidity andcontinuity of the process between hazard or risk perception and risk taking via decision making.
As covered in the previous section, good hazard perception ability, for foreseeing and detecting in
advance the objects or situations that may lead to accidents, is essential for safe driving. However, therisk of potential accidents linked to one’s own driving is evaluated with respect to those hazards in acomprehensive manner. If one’s driving skills are judged to be sufficient to handle driving challenges,
then risks are evaluated as being low even though hazards are perceived correctly.
However, even when risks are evaluated to be high, if utility such as shortened time or increased
admiration from others is judged more important, it is likely that the risks will be accepted and risk-taking behaviors will emerge. If gains are made by engaging in high-risk behaviors, the risks are rewarded,
generating positive reinforcement. For example, if the time required to reach the destination is shortened by traveling at high speed, then the behavior is rewarded. In other words, driving behaviors areassociated with gains due to stress release and rushed driving. This quality, where gains exert an effecton risk taking or risk avoidance behaviors, is called risk utility.
Human motivation involves various types of risk utility, such as releasing stress, violence, expressing independence, increasing arousal levels, increasing on-road travel efficiency (in a hurry to reach
one’s destination), rebelling against adult authorities, and receiving admiration from peers. Furthermore,compared with middle-aged individuals, young individuals tend to attach importance to appearance andstyle, but not safety features, when purchasing a car. These motivations often affect risk-avoidance
behavior.
Particularly in recent years, sensation seeking has been attracting a lot of attention. According toZuckerman, sensation seeking is defined as an individual trait that plays a role in seeking various, novel,
complex, and intense sensations or experiences and for taking physical, social, legal, and financial risks
to gain such experiences.18) According to this definition, sensation seeking is nothing but a motivation
for taking risks.
As the knowledge of risk utility increases, it has become apparent that the improvement of risk

84｜Theory

perception alone is not enough to reduce the risk-taking tendency or increase the risk-avoidance tendency of drivers. To understand why drivers behave in certain ways, it is important not only to study thepossibility of accidents as risk non-utility, but also to simultaneously take into account risk utilities,
including sensation seeking and admiration of others.
Most active discussions regarding risk acceptance and avoidance in recent years are about the issues
surrounding the theories of risk compensation and risk homeostasis. Risk compensation is a tendencyof traffic participants to offset or reduce the merits of safety measures by engaging in risky behavior. For
example, even when the safety of streets is improved, traffic participants may partly negate these safety
benefits by behaving negatively, such as increasing the speed of the vehicle and failing to perform safety
checks.
According to the theory of risk homeostasis proposed by Wilde,19) we as individuals set target risk
levels for various activities and modify our behaviors to achieve or maintain these levels. As a result, thenumber of accidents will not be reduced unless safety measures are designed to decrease target risk levels, suggesting that behavior moves towards danger to the same extent as does the merit generated by
the safety measure. However, risk homeostasis theory is often criticized because it is unlikely that individual drivers can estimate safety merits accurately.

8.4

Behavior and education of elderly drivers

As it is a challenge associated with an aging society, the prevention of accidents among elderly drivers is
discussed actively. However, careful discussions are needed to clarify whether elderly drivers are indeed
high risk compared with younger drivers, because even with some form of functional decline, elderly
drivers are able to reduce the actual risk of accidents by avoiding high-risk driving (driving at night or
in rain) or driving carefully, for example, by slowing down. Such “compensatory driving” behaviors
among many elderly drivers have already been demonstrated by many studies.
However, research has also revealed that the accident rate for a given driving distance is higher
among elderly drivers compared with other age groups, except for young adults. According to Fujita, thenumber of fatal accidents and traffic accidents among elderly drivers is respectively 3 and 1.5 times thatof other age groups excepting young adults.20)
Poor driving performance is thought to be the reason for high accident rates among elderly drivers.
Using behavioral indicators (safety checking behavior and speeding behavior) and driving assessment
indicators used by instructors to evaluate the driving performance of elderly drivers, Renge et al.
revealed that the number of times elderly drivers looked to the right and left for oncoming traffic was
fewer than that of drivers in other age groups14) (Fig. 2). Although no age-related difference was observedin the speed during routine driving, at the intersections with a stop sign, elderly drivers drove faster atintersections with poor visibility or stop signs, compared with other age groups, indicating that manyelderly drivers fail to perform one of the safe driving basics: stopping to check traffic.
However, as mentioned earlier, many studies have reported that elderly drivers counterbalanceChapter 8: Traffic psychology｜85

functional decline and the deteriorationof their driving performance with com-

Safety check scores70

pensatory driving behavior. Matsuura,
Ishida, and Mori developed the safe driv-

60

ing workbook, which includes dangerous
driving scales and compensatory driving
scales to test their hypothesis that elderly
drivers engage in compensatory driving
behaviors to avoid dangerous situations

50
40
60.1

30

upon realizing potentially dangerous

56.8

50.0

45.1

Middle-aged Pre-elderly
Elderly
Elderly
individuals individuals individuals individuals
aged
aged
65–74 years ≥75 years

Figure 2. Safety check scores by age groupdriving performance due to functional
decline.21) Their study revealed that dangerous driving and compensatory driving scores increased withage. Furthermore, as the scores for dangerous driving increased, elderly drivers were involved in more
accidents and committed more violations, and their driving behaviors were rated lower by instructors.
A previous study performed at a driving school has shown the effectiveness of a program that educates elderly drivers how to comply with stop signs and verify traffic safety.22) The educational program
was developed because elderly drivers are generally not good at stopping at stop signs or checking traffic
safety. In this program, using the behavior check and feedback approach, (1) elderly drivers drove
through the predetermined course at the school using one of the school cars, and their performance wasvideotaped (performance-based diagnosis), and (2) elderly drivers evaluated their driving behavior on
the video and received feedback from the instructors.
After converting this educational method
Indicator value
into a practical coaching method, developing160
an educational manual for instructors, and140
training them, Renge et al. asked appropriatequestions and provided feedback to cause pro120
gram participants to recognize their own prob100
lems. 23) In the program, participants slowed
100
down at intersections and increased their number of traffic safety checking steps comparedwith non-participants (Fig. 3). The efficacy
weakened but persisted over one month after
the program.
Although it is sometimes questioned

100

Individuals in the program

Individuals not in the program

134.9
109.2

115.2
98.7

80
Driving 1
Driving 2
Driving 3(before the(immediately(one month later)
educational program)
after theeducational program)

Figure 3. Educational efficacy in terms of total number ofsafety checks

whether educational programs for elderly individuals are effective, a certain level of efficacy can be expected with the use of this method, where program participants check their own driving performance and receive appropriate feedback.

86｜Theory

8.5

Behavior and education of bicycle users

The rate of bicycle-related accidents is high among children and elderly individuals, and failing to stopat stop signs, ignoring traffic signals, traveling the wrong way, and crossing streets inappropriately havebeen indicated as potential reasons. Furthermore, analysis performed by the International Associationof Traffic and Safety Sciences (IATSS) in 1995 and adjusted for the number of licensed drivers and fortraveling time has shown that elderly individuals with no driver’s license have a high rate of accident. 24)
Although a similar trend is observed among young and middle-aged individuals, the problem is more
serious for elderly individuals because of the low proportion of licensed drivers in this group.
In 2012, the IATSS also conducted a study using the driving lanes at a driving school to investigate
behavioral characteristics such as stopping and checking the safety at intersections. 25) The study evaluated where bicycles traveled in their lane and safety checking behavior (how many times bicycle users
looked to the right and left at intersections, and how thoroughly they did so).
Figure 4 shows the effect of obtaining a
Individuals with a driver’s license
100

Individuals without a driver’s license

80

Scores

60

69.0
53.0
40.5

40
22.7
20
0
Bicycling

Walking

Figure 4. Effect of obtaining a driver’s license on total
safety check scores for bicycling and walking

driver’s license, which includes the benefits ofdriving experience and drivers’ education. The
results indicate that higher safety check scoresat intersections were obtained by bicycle users
with a driver’s license than by those without.
The former also scored higher for location of
their bicycle on the road, showing that theychoose to travel closer to the roadside than thelatter did.

However, bicycle users without a driver’s
license set low standards for safety checking,the location of their bicycle, and driving behavior, thereby showing high-risk behavior, when riding abicycle compared with when walking. We interpreted this to mean that elderly bicycle users who have adriver’s license can readily engage in appropriate risk avoidance behavior, owing to driving skills andknowledge previously acquired at driving school or through their own driving experiences. The early
establishment of educational programs for bicycle users that are equivalent to driver’s education programs may reduce accidents among bicycle users who do not have a driver’s license, and therefore, proactive educational programs should be provided in cooperation with schools and local traffic safety
associations.
Using an observational and coaching method, Ogawa developed a bicycle education program forhigh school students based on his hypothesis that a lack of awareness of one’s behavior and role as acyclist is a factor causing unsafe behaviors.26) By applying the basic principles of coaching, observationof others was performed in several steps such as group discussions, video viewing, and bicycling simulation. Before and after the educational program, high school students created 20 self-awareness sentences
starting with “I” using the 20-responses technique. Comparison of the sentences revealed that althoughChapter 8: Traffic psychology｜87

the students provided general bicycling-related descriptions before the program, they increased both thenumber of statements and the descriptions about proactively securing safety, especially the safety-checking category, after the program. Such bicycling education programs that enhance self-awareness should
be promoted because they are suited for and benefit adolescent individuals who are transitioning into
adulthood, and provide lifelong benefits.

References
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doraiba no unten pafomansu to hazado chikaku” [Driving performance and hazard perception of elderly drivers]. Japanese
Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 29, No. 1: 1–16. (in Japanese)15) Renge, Kazumi, Masahiro Tada, and Marehiro Mukai. 2014. “Korei doraiba to chunen doraiba no risuku tekingu kodo ni
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88｜Theory20) Fujita, Goro. 1996. “Kotsujiko ritsu, kikenbakuro do oyobi untenkodo no nenrei ni yoru chigai” [Difference in the ratio oftraffic accidents, the degree of danger exposure, and driving behaviors based on age]. Reports of the Scientific Police ResearchInstitute. Research on traffic safety and regulation Vol. 37, No. 2: 48–57. (in Japanese)21) Matsuura, Tsuneo, Toshiro Ishida, and Nobuaki Mori. 2008. Korei doraiba no tameno anzen unten wakubukku [The Safe
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puroguramu no koka” [The effectiveness of educational programs for elderly drivers using a coaching method]. Japanese
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Recommended Reading
1) Wickens, C. D., and J. S. McCarley. 2008. Applied attention theory. CRC Press.
2) McKenna, F. P., and M.S. Horswill. 1999. “Hazard perception and its relevance for driver licensing.” IATSS Research Vol. 23:
36–41.
3) Endsley, M.R. 2000. “Theoretical underpinnings of situation awareness: a critical review.” In Situation awareness analysis andmeasurement, edited by M. R. Endsley, and D. J. Garland, 3–28. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
4) Marottoli, R.A., and E. D. Richardson. 1998. “Confidence in, and self-rating of, driving ability among older drivers.” Accident
Analysis and Perception Vol. 30: 331–336.
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7) Oxley, J., B. Fildes, B. Corben, and J. Langford. 2006. “Intersection design for older drivers.” Transportation Research Part F:
Traffic Psychology and Behaviour Vol. 9: 335–346.
8) Renge, K. 1998. “Drivers’ hazard and risk perception, confidence in safe driving, and choice of speed.” IATSS Research Vol.
22, No. 103-110.
Practical application projects for reference
Identification of brain regions associated with the central and peripheral visual field and applications for improving traffic safety:
164–167
An educational program for better control of emotions while driving: 168–171
A study on safety measures considering the psychological behavior characteristics of cyclists, from adolescents to the elderly:
172–175