August 2022

Afghanistan
Targeting ofIndividuals

Country of Origin Information

Afghanistan – Targeting of Individuals
Country of Origin Information ReportAugust 2022

Manuscript completed in August 2022
Neither the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA) nor any person acting on behalf of the
EUAA is responsible for the use that might be made of the information contained within thispublication.
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2022
PDF

ISBN 978-92-9400-448-2 doi: 10.2847/180374

BZ-07-22-787-EN-N© European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), 2022
Cover photo: ‘Daily Life in Afghanistan's Capital’, Milad Hamadi for the Tasnim News Agency,
19 September 2021, © Wikimedia Commons, Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0), url
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. For any use or reproductionof photos or other material that is not under the EUAA copyright, permission must be sought
directly from the copyright holders.

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Acknowledgements
This report was jointly written by the Country of Origin Information (COI) sector of EUAA andthe following national COI departments:•

Belgium, Centre for Documentation and Research (Cedoca), Office of theCommissioner General for Refugees and Stateless Persons•

Finland, Legal Service and Country Information Unit, Finnish Immigration Service•

France, Office for the Protection of Refugees and Stateless Persons (OFPRA),
Information, Documentation and Research Division (DIDR)•

Germany, Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF)•

Sweden, Unit for Migration Analysis, the Swedish Migration Agency

The following departments reviewed the report:•

Belgium, Centre for Documentation and Research (Cedoca), Office of theCommissioner General for Refugees and Stateless Persons•

Greece, Asylum Processes and Training Department, Greek Asylum Service, Ministryof Migration and Asylum•

Slovakia, Department of Documentation and Foreign Cooperation, Migration Office ofthe Ministry of Interior

It must be noted that the review carried out by the mentioned departments contributes to theoverall quality of the report, but does not necessarily imply their formal endorsement of the
final report, which is the full responsibility of the EUAA.

5

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMContents
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ 5Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Disclaimer ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Glossary and abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 11
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 13
Methodology ........................................................................................................................................13
Defining the terms of reference ..................................................................................13
Collecting information ....................................................................................................13
Quality control ..................................................................................................................13
Sources ..................................................................................................................................................14
Structure and use of the report .......................................................................................................14
Terminology ......................................................................................................................14
Research limitations .......................................................................................................................... 15
Map .................................................................................................................................................16
1.

Background: Situation of the general population under Taliban rule ......................... 17
1.1. Political context ........................................................................................................................... 17
1.1.1. Political and military opposition ....................................................................... 17
1.1.2. Government formation ..................................................................................... 20
1.1.3. Recognition and international relations ....................................................... 20
1.1.4. Functioning of the state ................................................................................... 24
1.2. Reactions to opposition and criticism ................................................................................. 36
1.2.1. Expressed opposition and criticism .............................................................. 36
1.2.2. Demonstrations and protests ......................................................................... 38
1.3. Implemented sharia and cultural norms in everyday life ................................................41
1.3.1. General implementation and the nature of restrictions ............................41
1.3.2. Restrictions issued at national level ..............................................................43
1.3.3. Provincial and local variations ........................................................................ 45
1.4. Crackdowns on ISKP and suspected affiliates ................................................................. 49
1.5. Leaving and returning to Afghanistan ................................................................................ 50
1.5.1. Taliban attitudes and public statements...................................................... 50

6

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

1.5.2. Treatment of persons trying to leave and returnees ............................... 53
2.

Persons affiliated with security institutions of the former government ..................... 56
2.1. General situation under Taliban rule................................................................................... 56
2.2. Taliban capabilities in identifying their targets ................................................................. 63
2.3. Recruitment of former ANDSF members by Taliban forces or other armed groups
65
2.4. Persons who served in former military units ......................................................................67
2.5. Persons who served in former police units ....................................................................... 69
2.6. Persons who served in the former NDS ..............................................................................70
2.7. Persons who served in former local defence forces and pro-government militias 72
2.8. Women who served in ANDSF .............................................................................................. 73

3.

Persons affiliated with foreign forces ............................................................................ 74
3.1. General situation under Taliban rule.................................................................................... 74
3.2. Interpreters..................................................................................................................................76

4.

Public officials and servants of the former government .............................................. 78
4.1. General situation under Taliban rule.................................................................................... 78
4.2. Former judicial workers ........................................................................................................... 81
4.3. High-ranking former officials and diplomats ..................................................................... 83

5.

Gender-based targeting .................................................................................................. 85
5.1. General societal situation of women and girls ................................................................. 85
5.1.1. Position of women and girls in society ........................................................ 85
5.1.2. Dress codes and behavioural norms ............................................................. 87
5.1.3. Women in public roles ...................................................................................... 88
5.1.4. Harmful traditional practices ........................................................................... 89
5.1.5. Sexual and gender-based violence .............................................................. 90
5.1.6. Moral offences and adultery ........................................................................... 94
5.1.7. Honour violence ................................................................................................. 96
5.2. Situation of women and girls under Taliban rule ..............................................................97
5.2.1. Access to education.......................................................................................... 99
5.2.2. Access to employment .................................................................................... 105
5.2.3. Freedom of movement ...................................................................................... 111
5.2.4. Freedom of expression and assembly ......................................................... 115
5.2.5. Implemented dress codes and behavioural norms .................................. 119

7

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

5.3. Incidents targeting women and girls .................................................................................. 124
6.

Targeting based on ethnicity and religion ................................................................... 126
6.1. Ethnic and religious composition of Afghanistan ........................................................... 126
6.2. Representation in the de facto government .................................................................... 127
6.3. Religious freedom under Taliban rule ............................................................................... 128
6.4. Hazaras and other Shia groups ........................................................................................... 130
6.4.1. Background on Hazaras ................................................................................. 130
6.4.2. General situation under Taliban rule ........................................................... 133
6.4.3. Incidents targeting Hazaras and Shia Muslims ......................................... 136
6.4.4. Other Shia groups.............................................................................................. 141
6.4.5. Targeting of other Shia groups ..................................................................... 143
6.5. Tajiks ........................................................................................................................................... 144
6.5.1. Background ........................................................................................................ 144
6.5.2. General situation under Taliban rule ........................................................... 146
6.6. Other ethnic groups and religious minorities .................................................................. 149
6.6.1. Sufis ...................................................................................................................... 149
6.6.2. Baha’i.................................................................................................................... 150
6.6.3. Sikhs and Hindus .............................................................................................. 150
6.6.4. Uyghurs ............................................................................................................... 152
6.6.5. Ahmadiyya .......................................................................................................... 153
6.6.6. Salafists................................................................................................................ 154

7.

Journalists and media workers ..................................................................................... 156
7.1. General situation under Taliban rule.................................................................................. 156
7.2. Incidents targeting journalists and media workers ........................................................ 159

8.

Human rights defenders and activists ......................................................................... 163
8.1. General situation under Taliban rule.................................................................................. 163
8.2. Incidents targeting human rights defenders and activists ........................................... 168

9.

Healthcare professionals ................................................................................................173
9.1. General situation under Taliban rule.................................................................................. 173
9.1.1. Employment of women in the health sector .............................................. 173
9.1.2. Incidents targeting healthcare professionals ............................................ 175

10.

Humanitarian workers ................................................................................................... 178
10.1. General situation under Taliban rule.................................................................................. 178

8

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

10.1.1. Employment of women in the humanitarian sector ................................. 178
10.1.2.Incidents targeting humanitarian workers.................................................. 179
11.

LGBTIQ persons .............................................................................................................. 181
11.1. General situation under Taliban rule................................................................................... 181
11.2. Societal treatment ................................................................................................................... 183
11.3. Incidents targeting LGBTIQ persons by the Taliban and armed groups ................. 184

12.

Education personnel ...................................................................................................... 186
12.1. Background............................................................................................................................... 186
12.2.General situation under Taliban rule ................................................................................. 186
12.3.Incidents targeting education personnel and school facilities ................................... 187

13.

Recruitment to armed groups ....................................................................................... 188
13.1. Recruitment to the Taliban.................................................................................................... 188
13.1.1. Overview ............................................................................................................. 188
13.1.2. Forced recruitment ........................................................................................... 190
13.2.Recruitment to Islamic State Khorasan Province ............................................................ 190
13.3. Child recruitment ................................................................................................................... 192

Annex 1: Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 194
Oral sources ...................................................................................................................................... 194
Public sources................................................................................................................................... 195
Annex 2: Terms of Reference ....................................................................................................320

9

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Disclaimer
This report was written according to the EASO COI Report Methodology (2019). The report isbased on carefully selected sources of information. All sources used are referenced.
The information contained in this report has been researched, evaluated and analysed withutmost care. However, this document does not claim to be exhaustive. If a particular event,person or organisation is not mentioned in the report, this does not mean that the event has
not taken place or that the person or organisation does not exist.
Furthermore, this report is not conclusive as to the determination or merit of any particularapplication for international protection. Terminology used should not be regarded asindicative of a particular legal position.
‘Refugee’, ‘risk’ and similar terminology are used as generic terminology and not in the legal
sense as applied in the EU Asylum Acquis, the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967
Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees.
Neither the EUAA, nor any person acting on its behalf, may be held responsible for the use
which may be made of the information contained in this report.
On 19 January 2022, the European Asylum Support Office (EASO) became the European
Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA). All references to EASO, EASO products and bodies should
be understood as references to the EUAA.
The drafting of this report was finalised on 30 June 2022. Events taking place after this date
are not included in this report, except for some clarifying information on the outcomes of a
grand assembly that took place in Kabul City on 30 June 2022–2 July 2022. For more
information on the reference period of this report, see the Introduction.

10

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSGlossary and abbreviations
Term

Definition

AFN

Afghan Afghani (currency)

AIHRC

Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission

ALP

Afghan Local Police

ANA

Afghanistan National Army

ANCOP

Afghan National Civil Order Police

ANDSF

Afghan National Defense and Security Forces

COI

Country of Origin Information

GDI

General Directorate of Intelligence

IDP

Internally Displaced Person

IEA

Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

IED

Improvised Explosive Device

ISKP

Islamic State Khorasan Province

LGBTIQ

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, non-binary, Intersex andQueermadrassa

Islamic religious school

MoWA

Ministry of Women’s Affairs

MPVPV

Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention ofVicemullahIslamic religious clerk

NDS

National Directorate of Security

NGO

Non-Governmental Organisation

NRF

National Resistance Front

OHCHR

Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights

11EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TermDefinition

Pashtunwali

traditional social, cultural, and quasi-legal code regulating
the Pashtun way of life

shariathe religious law of Islam; Islamic canonical law

TTP

Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan

UNAMA

United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan

12

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSIntroduction
The purpose of this report is to provide information relevant for international protection statusdetermination. The report contains information on targeting of individuals in Afghanistan.
The reference period is 1 December 2021–30 June 2022, and the report is partly to be viewed
as a continuation of the EASO COI report: Afghanistan – Country Focus (January 2022).
Sections covering education personnel and forced recruitment were not covered in thispreceding report. Therefore, these sections have reference periods starting on the date of the
Taliban takeover of power in Afghanistan (15 August 2021). The background chapters also
contain information from before the reference period.

Methodology
This report was jointly drafted and reviewed by EUAA and national COI departments in EU+
countries1 mentioned in the Acknowledgements section. The report was drafted and reviewed
in line with the EASO COI Report Methodology (2019)2 and the EASO COI Writing andReferencing Style Guide (2019).3

Defining the terms of reference
The terms of reference were defined by EUAA and were based on inputs on informationneeds from country of origin information (COI) and policy experts in EU+ countries within theframework of a Country Guidance development on Afghanistan. The terms of reference areavailable in Annex 2: Terms of Reference.

Collecting information
In accordance with the EASO COI Report Methodology, the content of this report relies on a
range of different open-source material, as well as interviews and email contacts with oral
sources. Information was mainly gathered from public COI reports of national migration
administrations, media reports, research articles, reports by international organisations, andinternational non-governmental organisations.

Quality control
The report was peer reviewed by COI specialists from EU+ countries mentioned in the
Acknowledgements section, and internally by EUAA. All comments made by reviewers weretaken into consideration and most of them were implemented in the final draft. Some
information was added after the peer review during the finalisation of the report. The two main
reports from which information has been added includes the first report released by United
EU Member States plus Norway and Switzerland.
EUAA, EASO Country of Origin Information (COI) Report Methodology, June 2019, url
3
EUAA, EASO Writing and Referencing Guide for EASO Country of Origin Information (COI) Reports, June 2019, url
1

2

13

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMNation’s Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) since the Taliban takeover, covering
human rights in Afghanistan during the period 15 August 2021–15 June 20224, and a report by
the Danish Immigration Service (DIS) based on a fact-finding mission to Islamabad, Pakistan, in
March and April 2022.5

Sources
In accordance with the EASO COI Report Methodology oral sources were interviewed andcontacted via email to fill in gaps in available written information. Material from interviews withoral sources for the EASO COI report: Afghanistan – Country Focus (January 2022) was also
used for this report. Some sources were anonymised upon their own request. Sixteen oral
sources were consulted in total and included experts based both in Afghanistan and abroad.
They hold a variety of specialisations, such as in human rights, Islamic law, anthropology, andarmed groups. All sources are outlined in Annex 1: Bibliography.
The local Afghan media outlet Hasht-e Subh is used as a source in the report, although a shift
in the reporting tone was noted during the drafting exercise which became more critical of the
Taliban, especially on events taking place in Panjsher Province. Due to difficulties assessing
the reliability of this source, case-by-case assessments have been made on the inclusion ofreports from Hasht-e Subh. Particular care has been taken on topics related to resistancegroups involving Panjsher Province, and the Taliban’s interactions with the local population ofthis area as well as with Tajiks in general. Reporting from Hasht-e Subh was often
uncorroborated. Efforts to corroborate the information have been made but were not always
possible.

Structure and use of the report
The purpose of the background chapter of the report is to give a contextual understanding of
the general population’s situation in Afghanistan under Taliban rule. It contains information on
the political context, the functioning of the de facto state administration, and the implemented
Islamic law (sharia). The chapter also contains information on the Taliban’s perception of
persons leaving Afghanistan, mainly to Western countries, and the treatment of those trying toleave and those returning from abroad. The background is followed by 12 chapters, eachcovering the situation of a specific group or profile of interest for this report.

Terminology
This report mainly focuses on targeting acts by the Taliban and other armed groups towards
certain profiles. The chapters covering gender-based targeting, targeting of LGBTIQ persons,and partly the chapter on targeting of ethnic and religious groups, also include information onsocietal targeting. It should be noted that the perpetrator of some acts is difficult to identify,
and that the motives behind some acts are unclear. For those reasons, an act’s connection to
4
5

UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url

14

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

a certain group or profile is often difficult to determine based on available information.
Furthermore, some individuals may be targeted for a range of reasons and by multiple actors.
This is particularly challenging in the Afghan context, where diverse and overlapping identities
permeate society along, for instance, religious, ethnic, tribal and/or linguistic lines.
In this report the Afghan authorities operating under the Taliban (since August 2021) aredescribed as the de facto authorities, as the announced state or interim government have notbeen internationally recognised. For readability, specific ministries or ministers operating
under the Taliban are referred to as, for example, the ‘Taliban Ministry of Interior’ or the‘Taliban Minister of Foreign Affairs’. Persons working within lower-level authorities, who havebeen appointed by the Taliban or have returned to work since the takeover are not routinely
referred to de facto state employees or Taliban officials, but efforts had been made to give
clear context in which capacity these persons are working.
The administration of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, that collapsed amid the Taliban
takeover on 15 August 2021, is either referred to by its official name or as ‘the previous
government’. In cases where the reports refer to the previous government of the Taliban of
the 1990’s, this is indicated in the text.
Footnoted citations for documents published by Afghan authorities (typically previously citedas ‘Afghanistan’) are aligned with this terminology. This is to ensure a clear distinction
between publications made by the previous elected Afghan government and publications
published under the current de facto authorities.

Research limitations
Due to the Taliban takeover in August 2021, research limitations during the drafting of thisreport were observed. These challenges included: reduced and restricted media coverage,
closing of local media outlets and fleeing of journalists, censorship, political interference fromthe Taliban in the work of journalists, threats and violence toward media workers and outlets,and difficulties verifying source/information reliability and corroborating information, especiallyfrom social media sources.6 Efforts have been made to locate reliable and corroborated
information where possible given the limits.

RSF, RSF seeks UN Security Council meeting on plight of journalists in Afghanistan, 18 August 2021, url; CNN, The
media spotlight in Afghanistan is about to dim as journalists evacuate, 20 August 2021, url; Denmark, DIS,
Afghanistan, Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 8; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening
Provincial Media, 7 March 2022, url
6

15

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Map

Map 1. Afghanistan77

UN, Afghanistan, Map No. 3958 Rev. 7, June 2011, url

16

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

1.

Background: Situation of the general
population under Taliban rule

1.1.

Political context

When US and international forces withdrew from Afghanistan in 2021, Taliban forces
advanced and gradually took control of more territory. In the first weeks of August 2021, mostprovincial capitals fell to the Taliban, and on 15 August 2021 their forces entered the capital
Kabul.8 The Afghan government collapsed9, and President Ashraf Ghani and other key officials
fled the country.10 The Taliban declared the war to be over and reinstated the Islamic Emirateof Afghanistan (IEA).11 In the meantime, first Vice President Amrullah Saleh relocated to
Panjsher Province and declared himself ‘caretaker President’.12 Resistance forces (the National
Resistance Front (NRF)) held out for a few weeks in the province before the Taliban claimed tohave defeated them on 6 September 2021.13 The Taliban claimed control of the entire territoryof Afghanistan.14 No other actor reportedly exercised territorial control by June 202215, orconstitute an existential threat to the Taliban’s authority.16

1.1.1.

Political and military opposition

Political entities opposing the Taliban are fragmented and mainly situated abroad.17 The
evacuations of thousands of Afghans in August 202118 included many who might have joinedor led civilian or military resistance.19 Armed actors occasionally targeted the Taliban, mainlywith small arms, hand grenades or improvised explosive devices (IEDs), but there were no
territorial areas where military or political opposition could base itself.20
In April 2022, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) reported on an uncoordinatedoffensive by factions of the previous government in several provinces, similar to the Taliban’s

EASO, Afghanistan: Security situation update, September 2021, url, p. 11
Murtazashvili, J. B., The Collapse of Afghanistan, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 33, Issue 1, January 2022, url
10
WSJ, High-Ranking Afghan Officials Escaped to Luxury Homes Abroad, 13 June 2022, url
11
EASO, Afghanistan: Security situation update, September 2021, url, p. 11
12
LWJ, After fall of Kabul, resistance to Taliban emerges in Panjshir, 18 August 2021, url; Amrullah Saleh [Twitter],posted on: 17 August 2021, url
13
EUAA, Afghanistan: Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 58; LWJ, Taliban completes conquest of Afghanistan
after seizing Panjshir, 6 September 2022, url
14
VOA, Taliban order Afghan media to use group’s official name, 1 October 2021, url
15
LWJ, FDD's Long War Journal, Mapping Taliban Control in Afghanistan, 28 June 2022, url
16
Saul, B., Recognition and the Taliban’s international Legal Status, ICCT, 15 December 2021, url; Marty, F., J., Vive
la Résistance in Afghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022, url; Sweden, Swedish Migration
Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April
2022, url, p. 27
17
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 11
18
Reuters, Factbox: Evacuations from Afghanistan by country, 30 August 2021, url
19
Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2), 30 December 2021, url
20
Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2), 30 December 2021, url; Marty, F., J., Vive la Résistance inAfghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022, url
8

9

17

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

annual ‘spring offensive’ during their time as an insurgency.21 Voice of America (VOA) reported
on a half-dozen resistance groups announcing their existence, vowing to fight alongside
NRF,22 while UNAMA reported on a dozen armed groups opposing the Taliban as of 15 June
2022.23 The resistance groups however lacked unity and coordination.24 The Taliban
reportedly considered the resistance ‘small and insignificant’25, but nevertheless conductedsearch operations of private residents and deployed forces to the border provinces
Badakhshan, Badghis, and Farah, to counter the resistance according to some sources.26
On 17 May 2022, several exiled Afghan politicians met in Ankara, Turkey, and formed asupreme council of ‘National Resistance for the Salvation of Afghanistan’.27 The meeting-hostwas Abdul Rasheed Dostum28, warlord and leader of the National Islamic Movement of
Afghanistan.29 The participants included representatives of Afghan political parties (People’s
Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan and Hezb-e Wahdat), and top officials of the former
government (the former vice president, finance minister, and speaker of parliament, as well asa representative for the former Minister of Foreign Affairs). A joint statement read that politicaland military action would be taken against the Taliban, although ‘an enduring peace via
politics’ was to prefer.30 The council met with the US Special Representative for Afghanistan in
Istanbul, Turkey, at the end of May 2022.31
There were reportedly lineages within the Taliban movement based on ethnic, regional, andtribal affiliation, as well as military and policy lines. Some of the reported factions were theHaqqani network, networks from the south, and rifts between more pragmatic andconservative entities.32 In December 2021, Afghanistan analyst Kate Clark stated that somerivalry and in-fighting had occurred, although Clark described the Taliban as ‘relatively
united’.33 The UN Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team also noticed sometensions but called the Taliban largely cohesive and unified.34 There were also reports on
Taliban members of Uzbek ethnicity being dissatisfied with the mainly Pashtun leadership in

RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Faces Rising Armed Resistance From Former Government Factions, 27 April 2022, url
VOA, Afghan Fighting Season Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 28 April 2022, url
23
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 17
24
VOA, Afghan Fighting Season Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 28 April 2022, url
25
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Faces Rising Armed Resistance From Former Government Factions, 27 April 2022, url
26
Ariana News, IEA says resistance happening only on internet, 11 March 2022, url; New York Times (The), Taliban
Search Operation Echoes Resented U.S. Tactics, 2 March 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Says New Troops
Near Central Asian Borders Will Bring Stability. The Neighbours Are Not So Sure, 16 February 2022, url;
International Crisis Group, Tracking Conflict WorldWide, Afghanistan, June 2022, url
27
Khaama Press, Ankara Gathering of Political Figures, 19 Mary 2022, url
28
TOLOnews, Statement Released from Afghan Politicians at Turkey Meeting, 19 May 2022, url; Khaama Press,
Ankara Gathering of Political Figures, 19 May 2022, url
29
HRW, Paying for the Taliban's Crimes, 2002, url
30
TOLOnews, Statement Released from Afghan Politicians at Turkey Meeting, 19 May 2022, url
31
Khaama Press, Thomas West Meets with the Representatives of Afghan Political Parties in Turkey, 30 May 2022,
url; TOLOnews, Thomas West Meets Afghan Politicians, Civil Society in Istanbul, 30 May 2022, url
32
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Unprecedented Differences: Rifts Within The Taliban Come Out In The Open, 2 June 2022,
url; Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2), 30 December 2021, url; UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of theAnalytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022, url, pp. 6, 8
33
Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2), 30 December 2021, url
34
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022,
url, pp. 6, 8
21

22

18

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Kabul35, especially after some Uzbek commanders were excluded for alleged crimes.36
According to an Afghan journalist interviewed by RFE/RL, the rifts within the Taliban were‘merely differences of opinion’ and did not amount to factional infighting.37 As reported by aninternational non-governmental organisation (NGO) in Kabul, interviewed by the Swedish
Migration Agency’s Unit for Migration Analysis on 16 March 2022, there were no splintergroups fighting the main Taliban movement with armed means38 but in June 2022, aninfluential Hazara member, Mehdi Mujahid, took up arms against the Taliban.39 Mujahid left the
Taliban40 and based himself in Balkhab District, Sar-e Pul Province.41 The Taliban sent forces tothe area and there were reportedly clashes. RFE/RL reported that the fighting appeared tohave calmed as of 28 June 2022, and Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid, also Taliban
Deputy Minister of Culture and Information, claimed on social media that the situation had‘returned to normal’ in Balkhab.42
On 30 June 2022, the Taliban organised a major gathering with up to 3 000 participants in
Kabul.43 Taliban representatives claimed to have invited two clerics and one tribal elder fromeach of Afghanistan’s provinces44 to discuss national unity, security, stabilisation and otherissues.45 Key officials of the former government were reportedly not invited.46 After thegathering, a resolution with 11 principles was released, including a principle defining armed
opposition against the current government as ‘rebellion’.47
UNAMA’s monitoring indicated a ‘clear pattern’ regarding targeting taking place on 15 August
2021–15 June 2022 and identified individuals accused of affiliation with armed groups as oneof the groups having been ‘particularly at risk of experiencing human rights violations’.48 The
Taliban launched operations against the Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISKP) which
impacted Salafist communities49 and operations against resistance forces impacting, inter alia,
Tajik communities.50 For more information, see sections 6.6.6. Salafists and 6.5 Tajiks.

Times (The), Commander’s arrest exposes ethnic splits in Taliban, 14 January 2022, url; Sweden, Swedish
Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter talibanrörelsens
maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 26
36
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 26
37
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Unprecedented Differences: Rifts Within The Taliban Come Out In The Open, 2 June 2022, url
38
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 25
39
Hasht-e Subh, Fierce Fighting Rages Between Taliban and Local Forces Led by Mawlawi Mehdi in Balkhab, 23
June 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Deploys Troops to Arrest Mawlawi Mehdi, 13 June 2022, url
40Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 13 June 2022, url
41
Hasht-e Subh, Fierce Fighting Rages Between Taliban and Local Forces Led by Mawlawi Mehdi in Balkhab, 23
June 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Deploys Troops to Arrest Mawlawi Mehdi, 13 June 2022, url
42
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Atrocities Reported In Crackdown On Rebel Hazara Commander, 1 July 2022, url
43
TOLOnews, Clerics' Gathering to Be Held on Thursday: Hanafi, 29 June 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA to holdGrand Assembly in Kabul, 28 June 2022, url
44
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Says Govt is Obliged to Consider Clerics' Opinions, 30 June 2022, url
45
TOLOnews, Clerics' Gathering to Be Held on Thursday: Hanafi, 29 June 2022, url
46
TOLOnews, Afghan Politicians Call for Inclusivity at Clerics’ Gathering, 30 June 2022, url
47
Ariana News, Afghan scholars issue 11-point resolution after 3-day mass gathering in Kabul, 2 July 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Islamic Clerics’ Gathering Issues 11-Point Resolution, 2 July 2022, url
48
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 13
49
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
50
BBC News, Afghan resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May, url
35

19

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

1.1.2.

Government formation

The Taliban announced an interim government on 7 September 2021.51 Additional rounds ofsenior appointments followed in September and October 202152, in December 202153, and in
February 2022.54 The announced interim government included many members who served in
the Taliban’s previous administration of the 1990s55 and who were part of the leadershipcouncil during the years of insurgency.56 Several were on the UN Security Council’s sanctions
list.57 The appointed were exclusively Taliban members and exclusively men.58 Most were
Pashtuns and clericals59 although a few appointees had a non-Pashtun ethnic background(Hazaras, Tajiks and Uzbeks).60 For more information on ethnic representation in the de facto
administration, see section 6.2. Representation in the de facto government.
Appointments were also made to security and government structures on national and subnational levels.61 The first female senior appointment was made on 1 February 2022, when awoman was appointed director of a maternity hospital in Kabul.62
Some sources described the appointments to government positions as a way of distributing
power within the Taliban movement as well as rewarding cadres.63 Appointments to state
institutions were also reportedly used to address internal tensions.64 Timor Sharan, an Afghan
academic scholar and associate fellow at the think-thank LSE Ideas, stated that the Taliban
Ministry of Interior faced difficulties appointing people to thousands of positions as they were
‘occupied by the key political networks along tribal lines, political lines, [and] religious lines’.65

1.1.3.

Recognition and international relations

Many stakeholders in the international community called for an ‘inclusive’ government as arequisite for recognition, as well as respect for human rights, women’s rights, and making
counterterrorism efforts.66 Some of the stakeholders making such calls included the EU67, the

BBC News, Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government, 7 September 2021, url
van Bijlert, M., The Taleban's Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN, 7 October 2021, url
53
Khaama Press, A none-Taliban figure, Abdul Latif Nazari appointed as Deputy Minister of economy, 25 December
2021, url
54
TOLOnews, New Civil, Military Appointments Announced, 25 February 2022, url
55
BBC News, Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government, 7 September 2021, url
56
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 63
57
UN Security Council, Haqqani network, n.d., url; UN Security Council, Mohammad Hassan Akhund, n.d., url
58
Guardian (The), Taliban name all-male Afghan cabinet including minister wanted by FBI, 7 September 2021, url
59
van Bijlert, M., The focus of the Taleban’s new government, AAN, 12 September 2021, url
60
New International (The), Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara representatives included: Taliban expand cabinet to ‘make’ it
inclusive, 22 September 2022, url
61
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 3
62
Ariana News, IEA makes first senior female appointment, 1 February 2022, url
63
Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2), AAN, 30 December 2021, url; Vox, What the Taliban’s new
government reveals about how they will rule, 13 September 2021, url
64
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 4
65
NAC, The Taliban’s Oslo Visit: Now What? [Online video], 22 February 2022, url, 1:31.00–1:31.40
66
Saul, B., Recognition and the Taliban’s international Legal Status, ICCT, 15 December 2021, url
67
EEAS, Afghanistan: Statement by the Spokesperson on the appointment by the Taliban of a de facto interim
government, 9 September 2021, url
51

52

20

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSUN Security Council68, the US69, Iran70, Pakistan71, China72, and Russia73. Calls were repeated injoint statements after intra-state meetings on the situation in Afghanistan.74
The Taliban repeatedly stated that the preconditions of inclusiveness had been fulfilled, thathuman rights and women’s rights were respected75, and that Afghan soil did not pose a threat
to any country and denied any presence of foreign terrorists.76 The Taliban Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Amir Khan Muttaqi, stated in January 2022 that the government included ‘all Afghan
ethnic groups’, and questioned the international community for not providing any definition or
example of an ‘inclusive government’.77 The EU special envoy to Afghanistan, Tomas
Niklasson, reacted on social media by stating that ‘all adult Afghan men and women’ should
define inclusiveness through transparent processes.78 Iran and Russia called for political andethnic inclusiveness79, but the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sergeĭ Lavrov, later stated,in April 2022, that different ethnic groups had been included. He emphasised instead theissue with all appointed being Taliban members.80 In June 2022, Germany’s foreign minister,Annalena Baerbock, stated that there was no room for recognition, and referred to girls’ being
excluded from education, women being excluded from public life, and dissenting voices being
suppressed.81 The Taliban dismissed reports on human rights violations as false and stressedthat the situation had improved compared to the conflict years.82 They also said that the rights
of all Afghans, including women, were protected ‘under Islamic laws and principles’.83
Uzbek and Pakistani representatives stated that they could not recognise the Taliban ‘alone’,apart from the international community.84 Russia’s special envoy stated in mid-June 2022, that
there were prospects for recognition85, but later that week, the presidential spokesman said
that recognising the de facto administration was not on Russia’s current agenda.86
As of 30 June 2022, no state had yet formally recognised the IEA or its interim government.87

UN News, Security Council Press Statement on Afghanistan, 16 August 2021, url
Al Jazeera, US lays out conditions for recognising a new Afghan gov’t, 16 August 2021, url; Dawn, US torecognise Taliban only if they respect basic rights, says Blinken, 16 August 2021, url
70
TOLOnews, Iranian President Calls for Inclusive Govt in Afghanistan, 13 May 2022, url
71
VOA, Pakistan PM Stresses Inclusivity in Government in Talks With Taliban, 18 September 2021, url
72
TOLOnews, China Calls for Inclusive Government in Afghanistan, 25 March 2022, url
73
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Must Ensure Inclusiveness: Kabulov, 18 December 2021, url
74
Pakistan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Joint Statement of the Third Foreign Ministers’ Meeting, 31 March 2022, url;
USDOS, U.S.-Europe Joint Statement on Afghanistan, 27 January 2022, url
75
TOLOnews, Kabul Urges Islamic Countries to Recognize Afghan Govt, 19 January 2022, url
76
TOLOnews, EU, Central Asian Envoys Call for Inclusive Govt in Afghanistan, 23 February 2022, url
77
TOLOnews, Intl Community Yet to Define Inclusive Govt: Islamic Emirate, 27 January 2022, url
78
Tomas Niklasson [Twitter], posted on: 27 January 2022, url
79
TOLOnews, Iranian President Calls for Inclusive Govt Afghanistan, 13 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate
Must Ensure Inclusiveness: Kabulov, 18 December 2021, url
80
TOLOnews, Lavrov: We Want to Work Towards Full Diplomatic Recognition, 27 April 2022, url
81
Reuters, Germany won't recognise Taliban as dire Afghan conditions persist, 7 June 2022, url
82
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Denies Claims in HRW Report on Afghanistan, 14 January 2022, url; Khaama Press,
News Agency (The), Taliban Denies US Report over Violation of Human Rights, 15 April 2022, url
83
TOLOnews, Recognition Requires Respect for Human Rights: UN Chief, 22 January 2022, url
84
TOLOnews, Uzbekistan Will Not Recognize Islamic Emirate Alone: Envoy, 6 May 2022, url; Le Figaro, «Nous
voulons que la reconnaissance du gouvernement taliban soit une démarche collective», 14 February 2022, url
85
TASS, Russia to decide whether to recognize Taliban regardless of others, 14 June 2022, url
86
Ariana News, IEA’s recognition not on Russia’s current agenda: Kremlin, 16 June 2022, url
87
VOA, Taliban Hold Islamic Scholars' Huddle to Show Strength, Legitimacy, 20 June 2022, url
68

69

21

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In March 2022, researcher Aaron Y. Zelin at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy
stated that 34 countries had ‘shown some level of engagement’ with the Taliban anddescribed this ‘de facto recognition’ as ‘an accepted reality’.88 During the reference period of
this report [1 December 2021–30 June 2022] visits received by the Taliban in Kabul included
delegations from Turkey, Qatar89, Turkmenistan90, Kazakhstan91, Uzbekistan92, Pakistan93,
Russia, China94, India95 and several UN institutions.96 Taliban delegations paid visits to Iran97,
Turkmenistan98, and Norway. The meeting in Norway was held with the EU special envoy anddelegates from the US, UK, Norway, Germany, Italy, France and Qatar as well as Afghan civilsociety members.99 The Taliban also met delegations of Gulf countries100 and the US abroad.101
Diplomatic missions of the former government, representing the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan, continued operating after the Taliban takeover. Many missions did not align withthe de facto administration and operated independently, despite financial pressure.102 New
envoys representing the Taliban government were introduced in some countries103, which wascalled a “silent recognition” by Taliban officials.104 Such accreditations were made in China,
Pakistan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Iran.105 Afghan media reported on accreditations in
Qatar106 and Kazakhstan107, but the information could not be corroborated. Moreover, a Taliban
official told VOA that the embassies in Malaysia and Saudi Arabia had started following
instructions.108
Some countries kept their Kabul embassies open during the Taliban takeover, including China,
Pakistan, Russia, Iran, Qatar109, Turkey110, and Kazakhstan.111 Some states resumed diplomatic

Washington Institute (The), Turkey Calls for Recognition of the Taliban’s Islamic Emirate, 17 March 2022, url
TOLOnews, Turkey, Qatar Delegation Arrives in Kabul, 23 December 2021, url
90
Ariana News, IEA deputy PM Hanafi meets Turkmenistan deputy FM, discusses TAPI Project, 9 January 2022, url
91
TOLOnews, Kazakhstan Delegation in Kabul to Discuss Trade, 25 December 2021, url
92
VOA, Uzbekistan Seeks to Engage Taliban Without Alienating West, 4 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Senior
Delegation from Uzbekistan Visits Afghanistan, 20 June 2022, url
93
TOLOnews, Pakistan NSA Arrives in Kabul for Talks with Islamic Emirate, 29 January 2022, url
94
AP, China's foreign minister makes surprise stop in Afghanistan, 25 March 2022, url
95
Reuters, Indian officials meet Taliban in Kabul in first visit since U.S. exit, 2 June 2022, url
96
UN, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet visits Kabul, Afghanistan, 11 March 2022, url; AP,
UN refugee chief in Kabul to say Afghans are not forgotten, 15 March 2022, url; UN, Facing critical human rights
challenges, Afghanistan at a crossroads, 26 May 2022, url
97
TOLOnews, Delegates Leave Kabul for Tehran, 6 January 2022, url
98
TOLOnews, Muttaqi Discusses Major Projects with Turkmen Officials, 16 January 2022, url
99
Al Jazeera, Taliban, Western officials meeting in Oslo to discuss Afghanistan, 24 January 2022, url; TOLOnews,
Islamic Emirate Meets With Envoys of 7 Nations, EU in Oslo, 24 January 2022, url
100
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Meets Envoys of Gulf States in Doha: FM, 14 February 2022, url
101
TOLOnews, Thomas West Meets Afghan Politicians, Civil Society in Istanbul, 30 May 2022, url; Ariana News,
Afghan acting FM heads to Doha for talks with US, 29 June 2022, url
102
AFP, Afghan diplomats under pressure from Taliban regime,14 March 2022, url
103
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Calls on Foreign Countries to Accept New Envoys, 18 March 2022, url
104
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 22
105
Khaama Press, Kabul Optimistic about Formal Recognition amid Heightened Situation, 27 June 2022, url
106
Ariana News, Iran accredits Afghan diplomats appointed by IEA, 25 April 2022, url
107
TOLOnews, Kabul Faces Criticism for Not Yet Gaining Intl Recognition, 2 May 2022, url
108
VOA, Russia Latest Country to Establish Diplomatic Ties With Taliban, 9 April 2022, url
109
WSJ, Who Are the Taliban and What’s Next for Afghanistan?, 27 September 2021, url
110
AA, Turkish Embassy in Kabul continues operations: Foreign minister, url
111
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Resettlement Of Afghanistan's Ethnic Kazakhs To Kazakhstan, 28 December 2021, url
88

89

22

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

activities after closing their missions, including Saudi Arabia112, Indonesia113, the United Arabemirates (UAE)114, and India.115 US interests were represented by a special section at theembassy of Qatar.116 In January 2022, the then European Commission foreign affairs
spokesman, Peter Stano, stated that the EU would re-establish ‘minimal’ physical presence forhumanitarian purposes.117 In March 2022, Khaama Press reported that 15 countries and the EU
had opened their diplomatic missions in Kabul and met with the Taliban authorities.118 The
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) also reponed its office in Kabul.119 Within the UN
system a Special rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan was established
for the first time since 2005120, and UNAMA’s mandate was renewed until 17 March 2023.121
Besides calling for recognition, the Taliban called for the release of the Afghan central bank’s
assets.122 Nearly USD 9.5 billion [around EUR 9.08 billion] were frozen by the US after the
takeover.123 China, Iran, Pakistan, Russia, and international aid groups echoed this call.124
Taliban forces reportedly clashed with some neighbouring states’ security forces125 including
with Pakistani security forces126, which caused tensions between the Afghan Taliban and the
Pakistani government.127 Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) also claimed responsibility for attacks
against Pakistani security forces. The US Special Inspector General for Afghanistan
Reconstruction (SIGAR) presented data of 45 attacks in December 2021, 42 in January 2022,
and 22 in February 2022.128 On 21 April 2022, Pakistan carried out airstrikes inside
Afghanistan against suspected TTP localities, killing civilians in the provinces Khost andKunar.129 The Taliban pledged to prevent TPP attacks, and mediated talks between Pakistan
and TTP in Kabul.130

TOLOnews, Govt Praises Return of Saudis to Consulate in Kabul, 1 December 2021, url
Jakarta Post (The), Indonesia reinstates embassy in Kabul, 16 January 2022, url
114
Daily Pakistan, UAE reopens embassy in Afghanistan after power change in Kabul, 22 November 2021, url
115
Hindustan Times, Why India needs to be on the ground in Kabul, 29 June 2022, url
116
Hill (The), Qatar to formally represent US interests in Afghanistan, 11 December 2021, url
117
RFE/RL/Gandhara, EU Says It Will Establish Minimal Presence In Afghanistan, 21 January 2022, url
118
Khaama Press, Several embassies handed over to IEA, Taliban closer to full recognition, 23 March 2022, url
119
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 25
120
OHCHR, Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan, n.d., url
121
UNAMA, UNAMA Political Mission Mandate Renewal to 17 March 2023, 17 March 2022, url
122France 24, Taliban warn will reconsider policy towards US if assets not freed, 14 February 2022, url
123
Al Jazeera, US freezes Afghan central bank’s assets of $9.5bn, 18 August 2021, url
124
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 68
125
Al Jazeera, Iran and Taliban forces clash in border area, 1 December 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Turkmen
Border Guards Skirmish With Taliban, 4 January 2022, url
126
Reuters, Fresh clashes on Pakistan-Afghanistan border kill two, wound several, 25 February 2022, url
127
Mir, A., Pakistan’s Twin Taliban Problem, USIP, 4 May 2022, url
128
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 72
129
New York Times (The), Death Toll From Pakistani Airstrike Rises to 45, Afghan Officials Say, 17 April 2022, url
130
AP, Pakistan sends 50-member team to Kabul to discuss cease-fire, 1 June 2022, url
112
113

23

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

1.1.4.
(a)Functioning of the state
Governance and legal framework

The Taliban did not clearly indicate how they intended to govern or structure the state.131 One
fundamental aim of their armed struggle was to establish a ‘true’ Islamic system132, and after
the takeover Taliban officials referred to sharia as the legal system that they were going toenforce.133 According to the Taliban’s interpretation of sharia, their first rule of the 1990’s wasnever ‘vanquished but went into abeyance’ as reported by United States Institute for Peace(USIP). The same source stated that the Taliban tried to ‘form and formalise their governing
structure’, calling the situation ‘dynamic and fluid’.134 According to an anonymous internationalorganisation, consulted by the Norwegian Country of Origin Information Centre Landinfo in
February and March 2022, all decisions required consensus in the Taliban Cabinet, leaving
the Taliban ministers with limited power. The source further explained that the decisionmaking structure based on consensus, combined with strong internal opposites, to a large
extent resulted in ‘paralysis of action’ and slow progress.135 The United Nation’s Secretary
General (UNSG) called the decision-making ‘opaque’ and described the implementation as
oftentimes inconsistent.136 Moreover, religious clerks (mullahs) were appointed to somepositions for which they lacked proper education and professional experience137, in a time
when Afghanistan faced significant financial and humanitarian crises.138 Different factions
within the Taliban movement also impacted the decision-making, which some observers say
was evident when the Taliban turned back on repeated pledges to reopen high schools forgirls on 24 March 2022.139
The Taliban reportedly had committed to review the laws of the previous administration’sconstitution to oversee its compliance with sharia.140 Awaiting this review, a ‘legal vacuum’
emerged according to the UNSG141, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human

Lombardi, C. B. and March, A. F., Afghani Taliban Views on Legitimate Islamic Governance, USIP, February 2022,
url, p. 4; Smith, G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022,
url
132
Lombardi, C. B. and March, A. F., Afghani Taliban Views on Legitimate Islamic Governance, USIP, February 2022,
url, p. 7
133
Rahimi, H. What the Taliban may be getting wrong about Islamic governance, Al Jazeera, 24 August 2021, url;
WSJ, Taliban Commander Who Launched Bombings in Kabul Is Now a Police Chief in Charge of Security, 20
October 2021, url; CNN, Taliban's religious police instructed to be more moderate, 12 October 2021, url
134
Lombardi, C. B. and March, A. F., Afghani Taliban Views on Legitimate Islamic Governance, USIP, February 2022,
url, pp. 4, 8
135
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 7
136
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 63
137
Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2), AAN, 30 December 2021, url; EUAA, Afghanistan: Country focus,
January 2022, url, p. 14; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 9
138
Byrd, W., How to Mitigate Afghanistan’s Economic and Humanitarian Crises, 4 January 2022, url
139
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Unprecedented Differences: Rifts Within The Taliban Come Out In The Open, USIP, 2 June
2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban’s Dramatic U-Turn On Reopening Girls’ Schools Reflects Internal Divisions, 24
March 2022, url
140
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 10; AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url
141
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 6
131

24

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSRights (OHCHR) also stressed the unclarity regarding the applicable legal framework.142
UNAMA reported that the review was still ongoing by 15 June 2022.143 According to the UnitedStates Department of State (USDOS), the Taliban conveyed that the laws of the former
government were in effect unless they violated sharia.144 The legal instructions issued by the
Taliban were in the form of decrees and general guidance145 that were enforced unevenly.146 In
November 2021, an Afghan human rights expert told EUAA that the lack of clarity regarding
the prevailing legal order was one of the most prominent factors of life in Afghanistan after the
takeover.147 Other sources described difficulties in getting clear directions on which rules
applied to the current situation, as Taliban spokespersons stated different things on the same
issues.148 The Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), interviewed by DIS in
Islamabad on 18 March 2022, stated that the lack of experience within the de facto
administration was one reason to varying rules and conditions across Afghanistan. A
representative of an anonymous international organisation, also interviewed by DIS on 29
March 2022, stated that it oftentimes was unclear which entity constituted a specificauthority.149
The Taliban released announcements through a variety of channels, including on privatesocial media accounts of Taliban officials and in various state media.150 Moreover, the Afghan
media community raised concerns of slow and limited access to information151 and difficulties
for journalists to get to interview Taliban officials.152
By 1 June 2022, the Taliban had not formally enacted a constitution.153(b)

Policy implementation

The Taliban have been described as a decentralised and flexible movement, which was
successful during the insurgency, but it caused inefficiency in their governance after the
takeover.154 Policy implementation differed across the country and was dependent on local
contexts and local stakeholders.155 An international analyst told EUAA that Taliban fighters
seemed to obey their immediate commanders, although they were supposed to be under achain of command. The ‘higher up’ and ‘further away’ a superior was, the harder it got to effectUN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, p. 13
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 35
144
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 1
145
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 6
146
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 1
147
Afghan human rights expert, digital interview, 11 November 2021
148
Göteborgsregionen, Temadag om Afghanistan [Online video], 18 Mars 2022, url, 04:51:00–04:51:45; New Lines
Maazine, Is This the Future of Taliban Rule?, 13 December 2021, url
149
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 9150
van Bijlert, M., The Taleban’s Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN, 7 October 2021, url;
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
151
TOLOnews, Media: Islamic Emirate Spokespersons Not Providing Information, 23 February 2022, url
152
TOLOnews, Media Survey: Lack of Official Interviews Major Obstacle, 16 January 2022, url
153
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url
154
van Bijlert, M., The Taleban’s Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN, 7 October 2021, url; Vox,
What the Taliban’s new government reveals about how they will rule, 13 September 2021, url
155
Afghan human rights expert, digital interview, 11 November 2021; Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human
Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June
2022, url, p. 9
142
143

25

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

change at local level.156 An international organisation told DIS on 29 March 2022 that
influential individuals sometimes had more authority and impact on local level than therelevant ministry.157 In February 2022, Afghanistan analyst Timor Sharan described the Taliban
state structure as ‘exceptionally’ fragile and claimed that no actual policies on key issues were
implemented on the ground – officials rather implemented their personal opinions.158
Anonymous sources (an international organisation, a journalist, and an international
humanitarian organisation) interviewed by DIS in March and April 2022, stated that theenforcement of new rules often depended on individual Taliban soldiers and their personalviews. The journalist also said that this extended beyond issued rules and edicts, and that
personal views could be implemented on various issues.159 The Taliban Minister of Interior,
Sirajuddin Haqqani, explained to CNN that the government was in a ‘preliminary phase’, andas the Taliban assumed power when ‘everything had almost collapsed’ they were yet, as of
May 2022, to bring the situation back to normal.160(c)State structures

The Taliban used the previous government’s state structures but abolished some ministries(including the ministries for parliamentary affairs and peace, and independent election
management bodies). The Taliban Ministry of Justice abolished the departments of politicalparties, commissions overseeing human rights and the implementation of the constitution, andthe secretariats of the former Parliament’s upper and lower house.161 No appointments weremade to the former Ministry of Women’s Affairs (MoWA)162, but no formal decision was taken toabolish it.163
After the takeover, the Taliban re-established the ‘Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue andPrevention of Vice’ (MPVPV) [for more information, see section 1.3. Implemented sharia andcultural norms in everyday life]164, and established and intelligence service called the ‘General
Directorate of Intelligence’ (GDI)165. The Taliban also decided to re-establish Ulema councils inall provinces. According to Ariana News these Taliban councils were composed by religious
scholars and elders with the mandate to oversee the functioning of the local government,
advise on good governance, and handle legal disputes.166
The Taliban also started building an armed force and claimed that it would include security
personnel of the former government.167 For information about the de facto forces and theInternational analyst, digital interview, 17 March 2022
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 9158
NAC, The Taliban’s Oslo Visit: Now What? [Online video], 22 February 2022, url, 01:02:00–01:02:15
159
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, pp. 9–10
160
CNN, Afghanistan: Top Taliban leader makes more promises on women's rights [Online video], 19 May 2022, url
161
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 4; TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Dissolves 5 Inactive Institutions, 17 May 2022, url
162
Al Jazeera, Taliban replaces ministry for women with guidance ministry, 18 September 2021, url
163
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 7
164
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2
165
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban must
immediately stop arbitrary arrests of journalists, civil society activists, former government officials and those who
dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 1
166
Ariana News, Ulema Council established over Takhar provincial government, 13 June 2022, url
167
Al Jazeera, Taliban to create Afghanistan grand army with old regime troops, 22 February 2022, url
156
157

26

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

inclusion and exclusion of former security personnel, see sections 2.3. Recruitment of former
ANDSF members by Taliban forces or other armed groups and 13.1. Recruitment to the
Taliban.
Public servants of the previous administration were asked to return to work in August 2021168,
but many were already evacuated, and some did not resume despite the amnesty or due tonon-payment of salaries.169 Several sources interviewed by DIS in Islamabad in March andApril 2022 stated that civil servants of the former government had resumed work, including in
the provinces ‘below a certain rank’.170 In May 2022, International Crisis Group analysts statedthat the Taliban had largely kept the civilian workforce of the former government.171
The Taliban collected revenues, including through customs and taxation. Demonstrated
revenue collections in September–November 2021 exceeded AFN 27 billion [around EUR 290
million].172 The Taliban presented their first annual budget in May 2022, aiming to have theentire budget (AFN 231.4 billion173 [around EUR 2.5 billion]) funded by revenues, without
foreign contribution.174 Analysts described the collected revenues as considerable and notedthe crackdown on corruption as one success factor.175 Afghan public services did, however,depend heavily on foreign aid before the takeover176, which continued, for instance, byfunding salaries of employees in the public sector.177(d)Judiciary

According to OHCHR, the Taliban gradually sought to ‘resume the functioning of a countrywide justice system and courts under Islamic law’. Taliban appointments were made to the
Taliban Ministry of Justice, the Taliban Supreme Court, their primary and appeal courts, andthe Taliban Attorney General’s Office.178 69 provincial de facto judges were appointed to allprovinces except Panjsher in December 2021.179 De facto judges were reportedly appointed in
Panjsher in February 2022.180 58 judicial workers were appointed across de facto provincial
and district courts in April 2022, replacing former government personnel.181 The appointed de

Al Jazeera, Taliban announces amnesty, reaches out women, 17 August 2021, url; AA, Taliban notify Gov’t
servants to return to jobs, 21 August 2021, url
169
WSJ, Taliban Commander Who Launched Bombings in Kabul Is Now a Police Chief in Charge of Security, 20
October 2021, url; AP, The economy on the brink, Taliban rely on former technocrats, 20 October 2021, url
170
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 17
171International Crisis Group, Taliban rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url
172
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 10
173
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 6
174
RFE/RL/Gandhara, One Certainty For Afghans: The Taliban And Taxes, 16 June 2022, url
175
Byrd, W., Taliban Are Collecting Revenue — But How Are They Spending It?, USIP, 2 February 2022, url;
Economist (The), The Taliban government has proved surprisingly good at raising money, 8 June 2022, url
176
Terpstra, N., The new Taliban regime in Afghanistan, Conversation (The), 6 September 2021, url
177
Byrd, W., Taliban Are Collecting Revenue — But How Are They Spending It?, USIP, 2 February 2022, url; Ariana
News, SAO audits financials of 300 government institutions, 8 February 2022, url
178
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 60
179
TOLOnews, Supreme Court Appoints 69 Provincial Judges, 16 December 2021, url
180
Bakhtar News Agency, ‫رخی از رییسان محکمه استیناف وشهری پنجشیر معرفی شدند‬, [Some of the head of Panjshir's appeals
court were introduced], 17 February 2022, url
181
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 1016827

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

facto judges were mainly religious scholars.182 Afghanistan’s Independent Bar Association wasplaced under the Taliban Ministry of Justice in November 2021, which deprived the institutionof its independent role.183
Under Taliban rule Afghanistan’s justice system lacked an official constitution and official
laws.184 No official judicial system was announced, and according to USDOS, de facto courts
held sessions in some areas during which it was unclear ‘what system of law, procedures, andsentencing guidelines’ were used.185 UNAMA described the administration of justice in theprovinces as ‘decentralised’ and reported that it often was done in consultation with religious
scholars, elders and local communities. Moreover, the justice sector applied pre-existing laws,
sharia, and new Taliban directives, according to the same source, which led to ‘a lack of clarity
regarding the applicable legal framework on both procedure and substance’. De facto judges
were reportedly ‘empowered to lead their own investigations, without awaiting casefiles from
Prosecution offices’.186 De facto judges and police officers told media that the basis of theirjudgements and actions was sharia.187 According to the Associated Press (AP), de facto judges
worked with little transparency.188 UNSG reported on structural, resource, and capacity
constrains within the justice system, causing delays in de facto court proceedings, andincreased detention numbers.189
According to UNAMA, a Taliban military court was established to have jurisdiction over Taliban
security personnel, and members of the Taliban ministries of defence and interior, and the
Taliban GDI.190 There were, however, reports of civilians being tried in this court.191(e)

Law enforcement and misconduct by Taliban fighters

The Taliban reportedly trained new police officers, and in March 2022 around 377 persons
graduated from police training according to AP. Women were among the graduates, but theirshare was unclear.192 On 5 June 2022, the Taliban Ministry of Interior claimed that 35 000‘forces’ had been trained in the past six months.193
Persons serving in the de facto security institutions initially lacked uniforms, which made themdifficult for the public to distinguish from persons with criminal intentions.194 In April 2022, theRahimi, H., Afghanistan's laws and legal institutions under the Taliban, Melbourne Asia Review, 6 June 2022, url;
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 35
183
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Judge, Jury, And Executioner, 1 December 2021, url
184
FP, 12 Million Angry Men, 28 October 2021, url
185
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 10
186
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 35
187
FP, 12 Million Angry Men, 28 October 2021, url; DW, Afghanistan’s justice system altered under the Taliban[Online video], 6 October 2021, url; VICE News, Life in the Taliban's Afghanistan [Online video], 13 February 2022,
url
188
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url
189
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 10
190
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 35
191
Khaama Press, Taliban Tries Seven Kidnappers and Others in Military Court, 13 April 2022, url; RSF, Afghanistan :Afghan journalist tried by military court, sentenced to one year in prison, 11 May 2022, url
192
AP, Taliban official wanted by U.S. makes rare public appearance, 5 March 2022, url
193
TOLOnews, 2,000 Detained for Various Crimes in Past Month in Kabul, 5 June 2022, url
194
TOLOnews, Security Forces to Get New Uniforms Next Month, 17 April 2022, url; TOLOnews, Kabul Residents
Demand Security Forces be Given Uniforms, 11 June 2022, url
182

28

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Taliban Ministry of Interior announced that uniforms would be provided to de facto police
forces in different phases, first in Kabul and Kandahar and then in the other provinces.195 The
same type of uniform was to be provided to the de facto police officers and the de facto
security forces196, and there were only slight changes from the uniform of the previous
government’s security forces.197 According to Ariana News the new uniforms were dark blue
and were decorated with the Taliban flag, instead of the grey-blue uniform with the Afghan tricolour of the former government.198 According to Afghan media outlet Bakhtar News Agency
the distribution process had started by 8 June 2022, as 20 000 uniforms had already been
distributed and another 80 000 would be distributed in the coming two weeks.199 On 9 June
2022, a visiting journalist noted that many of those manning checkpoints or patrolling in Kabul
City wore uniforms.200 On 24 June 2022, Bakhtar News Agency cited Taliban officials claimingthat all Kabul de facto police personnel had obtained new uniforms and instructing everyone
on duty to wear uniform.201
Bakhtar News Agency further reported on Taliban security forces arresting alleged criminals
across the country. According to information from Taliban security officials commenting on
individual cases, people were arrested for alleged crimes involving, inter alia, narcotics,
robberies, and abductions.202 In several instances Taliban security officials claimed that thecases had been referred to the judiciary for further processing203 and that suspects hadconfessed during the initial investigation.204 On 5 June 2022, the Taliban Ministry of Interior

TOLOnews, Security Forces to Get New Uniforms Next Month, 17 April 2022, url; TOLOnews, MoI Identifies
Announces Police Uniform, 8 June 2022, url; TOLOnews, Kabul Residents Demand Security Forces be Given
Uniforms, 11 June 2022, url
196
TOLOnews, MoI Identifies Announces Police Uniform, 8 June 2022, url
197
TOLOnews, Security Forces to Receive Newly Designed Standard Uniform, 20 January 2022, url
198
Ariana News, Police ordered to wear new uniforms at all Kabul checkpoints, 16 June 2022, url
199
Bakhtar News Agency, ANP New Uniforms Distribution Process Starts, 8 June 2022, url
200
NPR, NPR travels to Afghanistan for the 1st time since the Taliban took over, 9 June 2022, url
201
Bakhtar News Agency [Twitter], posted on: 24 June 2022, url
202
Bakhtar News Agency, 8 People Arrested on Suspicion of Drug Trafficking in Baghlan, 23 May 2022, url;
Bakhtar News Agency, Two Drug Smugglers Arrested in Laghman, 15 May 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Two
Drug Dealers Arrested in Parwan, 9 May 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Police Arrested 16 Criminal in Herat, 4
May 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, 5 People Arrested Carrying More than 1,200kg Of Drugs in Kunduz, 7 April
2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Band of drug smugglers arrested in Balkh, 27 March 2022, url; Bakhtar News
Agency, Police Arrested 3 Men on Suspicion of Robbery, 30 April 2020, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Many Arrested
for Criminal Offenses in Kandahar Lately, 25 April 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Band of Robbers arrested by
Police in Herat, 3 March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Two people arrested in suspicion of abductions, 6 April
2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, 128 Arrested On-Charge of Crimes in Nangarhar, 21 June 2022, url
203
Bakhtar News Agency, 25 Arrested in MoI Operation, 17 June 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Police Arrested
3 Abductors in Khost, 13 June 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Band of drug smugglers arrested in Balkh, 27
March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, 128 Arrested On-Charge of Crimes in Nangarhar, 21 June 2022, url
204
Bakhtar News Agency, Robbery in Paktia, 3 Women Arrested On-charge, 4 June 2022, url; Bakhtar News
Agency, Drug Dealers’ Gang Decomposed in Herat, 14 March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Nangarhar Police
Arrested 5 In-Charge of Robbery, 27 March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Three Fugitive Thieves Arrested in
Herat-Kabul, 26 March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Helmand Police Arrested 8 Criminals, 26 March 2022, url;
Bakhtar News Agency, Two Drug Smugglers Arrested in Laghman, 15 May 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, 5People Arrested Carrying More than 1,200kg Of Drugs in Kunduz, 7 April 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency,
Nangarhar Police Arrested 5 In-Charge of Robbery, 27 March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Kunduz Police
Arrest Two Men on Suspicion of Robbery, 10 April 2022, url, Bakhtar News Agency, Many Arrested for Criminal
Offenses in Kandahar Lately, 25 April 2022, url
195

29

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

stated that 2 000 people had been arrested in Kabul City the past month due to various
crimes, and that some of them had been referred to the judiciary.205
According to AP criminal suspects, as of 1 February 2022, were increasingly brought to defacto courts206, but an anonymous international organisation told Landinfo in February andMarch 2022 that people arrested for alleged crimes were imprisoned without any
investigation or judgement. Even in cases of relatively serious crimes, there were no
investigations because the de facto police lacked resources and competence. The source
further stated that people appointed to leading positions within the de facto police and defacto prosecuting authorities did not have knowledge about investigative methods.207 The lackof competence in civilian policing and prosecuting crime was echoed by anonymous sourcesinterviewed by EUAA, the Swedish Migration Agency’s Unit for Migration Analysis, and DIS in
March 2022.208 There was also a lack of reading and writing skills within the de facto security
institutions.209
According to AP, the Taliban were trying to ‘keep discipline over thousands of young fighters’
who were ‘bringing heavy-handed methods of war into their new roles as security forces’.
During the first months after the takeover this included low-level commanders implementing
punishments for alleged crimes, ‘such as publicly humiliating thieves’.210 In October 2021, theTaliban created a ‘Commission for the Purification of the ranks’ after reported abuse by
Taliban members.211 According to USDOS, similar Taliban commissions were also formed atprovincial and local level and excluded ‘corrupt members’. USDOS noted that there was little
information available on the working methods of these Taliban commissions and theiroutcomes.212 On 21 February 2022, Taliban officials stated around 4 500 Taliban members had
been expelled from the de facto security forces.213 Patricia Gossman, Associate Asia Directorof Human Rights Watch, stated that she thought that many of the cases handled by the
Taliban commission were related to theft and corruption, and not to the reported killings ofpersons affiliated with the security forces of the former government. The Taliban claimed thatthey had disciplined Taliban members but had not responded when Human Rights Watch
asked for specific cases. Human Rights Watch had not seen any cases of disciplinary
measures within the Taliban as of 12 May 2022.214 During a graduation ceremony of new defacto police officers in March 2022, the Taliban Minister of Interior reportedly acknowledgedthat some misconduct occurred among Taliban fighters transitioning from fighting a war topolicing. Haqqani also stated that these individuals were undergoing training.215

Bakhtar News Agency, 2,000 Detained for Various Crimes in Past Month in Kabul, 5 June 2022, url
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url
207
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 13
208
International analyst in Afghanistan, digital meeting, 17 March 2022; Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit
for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, pp.
23, 43; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 9
209
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url; Norway, Landinfo,
Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 11
210
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url
211
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 59
212
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 3
213
TOLOnews, Reform Commission Expels Around 4,500 Members of Security Forces, 21 February 2022, url;
Pajhwok Afghan News, 4,350 undesired persons expelled from forces ranks, 21 February 2022, url
214
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
215
AP, Taliban official wanted by U.S. makes rare public appearance, 5 March 2022, url
205

206

30

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Taliban forces have repeatedly been urged by senior Taliban officials and the Taliban MPVPV
to respect people’s privacy, avoid harassment as well as ethnic and language discrimination.216
Calls have also been made on Taliban fighters to avoid launching unauthorised operations
and house searches.217 The Taliban Minister of Interior also called on the de facto security
forces to release people who had not committed crimes from prisons in Kabul districts.218
Taliban fighters were also repeatedly urged to respect the general amnesty of persons who
served the former government219 which was announced directly after the takeover.220 There
were reports about the killing and ill-treatment of former members of the Afghan National
Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) and government personnel, as well as their family
members.221 For more information, see sections 2. Persons affiliated with security institutionsof the former government and 4. Public officials and servants of the former government.
According to OHCHR, a directive from the Taliban Ministry of Interior called on the de facto
security forces in late February 2022, to ‘perform their duties in the presence of lawyers andin broad daylight’, and ‘refrain from harassing, insulting, and beating suspects’.222 According to
Bakhtar News, the Taliban Police Chief in Samangan Province told the de facto security forcesthat they did not have the right to beat suspects or criminals and should bring arrested
persons to de facto courts.223
In February 2022, the Taliban initiated large-scale search campaigns of private residents
across Afghanistan. The communicated purpose was to arrest criminals and to confiscate
weapons.224 Some residents claimed that homes were searched to find persons affiliated withthe former government225, and some claimed to be targeted because of their ethnicity.226 The
Taliban stated that the search operations had led to the confiscation of light and heavy
weapons, armoured vehicles and tons of explosives227 and the arrest of several kidnappers,
ISKP members and thieves.228 The operations also generated reports of misconduct229, andAriana News, IEA orders forces to respect people’s privacy, 7 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate
Leader Calls for Unity, 15 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader: Avoid Ethnic and Racial
Discrimination, 18 April 2022, url; TOLOnews, Minister Orders Police to Stop Unauthorized Operations, 18 January2022, url; TOLOnews, Mawlawi Akhundzada: General Amnesty Must Be Respected, 30 December 2021, url;
TOLOnews, Ministry of Vice and Virtue Urges Troops to Obey Orders, 16 May 2022, url
217
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Forces Ordered to Respect Privacy of Citizens, 13 January 2022, url; TOLOnews,
Minister Orders Police to Stop Unauthorized Operations, 18 January 2022, url
218
TOLOnews, Minister Orders Police to Stop Unauthorized Operations, 18 January 2022, url
219
Ariana News, IEA’s supreme leader calls on officials to adhere to amnesty orders, 30 December 2021, url;
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Issues Message for Eid, 29 April 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situationof human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 25
220France 24, Taliban declares general amnesty for Afghan government officials, 17 August 2021, url
221
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 25
222
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 27
223
Bakhtar News Agency, No Police Officer Has the Right to Beat Suspects, 12 April 2022, url
224
Washington Post (The), Taliban launches sweeping raids across Kabul, 27 February 2022, url; VICE News,
Taliban Fighters Are Conducting Door-to-Door House Searches, 3 March 2022, url
225
DW, Taliban conduct sweeping house-to-house searches [Online video], 16 March 2022, url; VOA, Taliban
Defend Door-to-door Searches in Kabul, Bar Future Evacuations of Afghans, 27 February 2022, url
226
VICE News, Taliban Fighters Are Conducting Door-to-Door House Searches, 3 March 2022, url
227
VOA, Taliban Defend Door-to-door Searches in Kabul, Bar Future Evacuations of Afghans, 27 February 2022, url
228
AP, Taliban official says dozens of criminals arrested in sweeps, 27 February 2022, url
229
Nikkei Asia, Clearing operations' bring fresh wave of restrictions on Afghans, 26 March 2022, url
216

31

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

footage circulated on social media showing Taliban fighters kicking in doors, and households
left with furniture and goods scattered around.230
In the reporting period 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, UNAMA recorded at least 118 instancesof excessive use of force by the de facto authorities. Most cases concerned the shooting ofcivilians failing to stop at checkpoints. The de facto authorities also wounded people inattempts to control crowds and during law enforcement operations.231 UNAMA reported that
the Taliban had issued a directive on the use of force by Taliban security officials.232 The
Taliban Ministry of Interior instructed the de facto security forces to take precautions in theirinteractions with the civilian population, including not firing against anyone while patrolling‘unless you are attacked and need to defend yourself’. UNAMA however continued to receive
reports, after these instructions were issued, of civilian deaths and injuries following excessive
use of force by de facto security institutions.233 On 23 February 2022, after repeated firings at
checkpoints due to miscommunication with drivers, the Taliban Ministry of Interior called on de
facto police units and de facto security commanders in Kabul City and the districts to ‘employ
professionals’, and the ministry reportedly set up a special unit to monitor checkpoints.234
According to OHCHR, the ministry also called on Taliban fighters to refrain from firing atcivilians at checkpoints.235(f)

Prison conditions

Sources reported that prisons were operative again, following the takeover.236 According to
UNAMA, the Taliban had taken over the administration of 41 prisons across Afghanistan and inearly August 2021 they managed a prison population of around 33 000 detainees andprisoners. UNAMA reported that this number ‘progressively increase[d]’ as people were being
held in detention pending investigation or trial, and as prisons were being used as facilities tohold drug addicts. Following releases in the first four months of 2022, the Taliban Office of
Prison Administration, however, claimed that the total detained population did not exceed
10 000 people. UNAMA reported that as of 19 June 2022, the overall prison population was
9 621 persons of which 75 % were pre-trail detainees. The detained included both men andwomen although men made up the vast majority.237 UNAMA did not specify on which statistics
they based these prison figures, and it was not possible to corroborate them.
UNAMA reported that the Taliban issued a ‘Code of Conduct on system reform relating toprisoners’ instructing Taliban security officials that ‘common-law’ criminals should not be held
for more than three days, after which their case needed to be handed over to a de facto court.
However, the instructions also allowed for suspects to be held for one month or more if
ordered by a de facto court.238 In January 2022, the Taliban issued guidance that detainees

VICE News, Taliban Fighters Are Conducting Door-to-Door House Searches, 3 March 2022, url
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 18
232
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 3
233
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 18
234
TOLOnews, MoI to Kabul Police: Professionals Must Run Checkpoints, 23 February 2022, url
235
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 27
236
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 13;
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 35
237
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 35–36
238
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 36 [footnote 75]
230
231

32

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

should be treated in accordance with sharia239, and established a Taliban commission toinspect prisons and detention centres, and to make sure innocent prisoners were released. 240
A number of detained persons were reportedly released in various locations.241 OHCHR
reported that some decisions seemed to derive from this guidance while other releases were
due to decisions of local de facto authorities.242 In the period January–May 2022, UNAMA
documented the release of 2 383 persons from prisons across the country and mentioned adecree by the Taliban supreme leader on the festivity Eid-ul-Fitr ‘per which prisoners anddetainees of little risk or with little time left to serve were also released.’243 In January 2022,
Ariana News reported that Taliban officials had urged members not to send people to prison
without a court order.244 In a reportage by VICE News, three imprisoned men were briefly
interviewed in a jail in Wardak Province. One man was reportedly imprisoned to pressure hisfamily to accept a court decision in his sister’s divorce case. He was released a few days later
without charges.245
According to OHCHR, the prison conditions in Afghanistan were below international standards
before the Taliban takeover, and because of a general lack of funds the conditions worsened
under Taliban rule. OHCHR reported on scarcity of food, medical care, clothing and heating. 246
The aforementioned ‘Code of Conduct on system reform relating to prisoners’ reportedly
outlined obligations aligning with the minimum standards of the Mandela Rules247 on food,accommodation, health and procedural safeguards, according to UNAMA.248 Nonetheless,prisons continued to face challenges related to overcrowding and lack of resources.249
According to an anonymous international source interviewed by Landinfo, there was nomoney to feed prisoners, so most were quickly released. The prisoner’s family could also be
asked to provide food, but if they did not have the means (e.g., because of poverty) the
prisoner was released. The source had further seen reports of victims being asked to provide
food for the perpetrator for an arrest to be made. Suspected ISKP affiliates were not released
according to the source.250 UNAMA also reported on some prison’s reliance on external
support to provide inmates with food ‘for an adequate diet’, and the lack of hygiene materials,
medical care, clothing and accommodation.251 In February 2022, Sky News reported on life
conditions in the main prison in Herat City. The prison was described as ‘crammed full’ witharound 40 men in each cell, and many had not been tried by a de facto court. One detainee
claimed that many inmates were former government workers, imprisoned without trial nor
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 30
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 30; Ariana News,
IEA’s cabinet says innocent prisoners to be released as soon as possible, 4 January 2022, url
241
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 30; Ariana News,
Over 30 prisoners released from Takhar jail, 13 January 2022, url; Ariana News, Prison review board releases 50
innocent prisoners in Kandahar, 6 January 2022, url
242
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 30
243
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 36
244
Ariana News, Over 30 prisoners released from Takhar jail, 13 January 2022, url
245
VICE News, Life in the Taliban's Afghanistan [Online video], 13 February 2022, url
246
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 29
247
UN General Assembly, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 17 December 2015, 8 January 2016, url
248
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 37
249
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 35–36; Sky News,
Afghanistan: Inside prison where children as young as 12 are held and female governor has vanished, 7 February2022, url
250
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 13
251
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 37–38
239

240

33

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

evidence. Children from 12 years of age were also reportedly imprisoned.252 UNAMA also
reported on children being held in provincial prisons, sometimes alongside adults. UNAMA
further reported that as of May 2022, juveniles were held in provincial prisons in Balkh,
Baghlan, Faryab, Jawzjan, Kandahar, Kunar, Kunduz, Laghman, Nanagarhar, Paktya, Parwan,
Sar-i-Pul and Takhar.253
The Taliban’s ‘Code of Conduct on system reform relating to prisoners’ reportedly prohibitedthe use of torture ‘at any point throughout arrest, transfer or detention’ and provided
punishments for those resorting to torture.254 Cases of detainees subjected to torture in
detention or prison included a person who was brother to a former police commander. He
claimed to have been detained in February 2022, and tortured for a week in the 3rd Police
District in Khost City.255 On 14 March 2022, Afghan media outlet TOLOnews reported that four
newly released members of a family in Paghman District, Kabul Province, had been tortured inprison by electrical shocks, hangings, and beatings.256 UNAMA recorded different forms of
torture and ill-treatment by the Taliban GDI against detainees, and the most common methods
included ‘kicking, punching and slapping, beatings with cables and pipes, and the use ofmobile electric shock devices’.257
Since the takeover, Taliban fighters have rounded up drug addicts across Afghanistan andbrought them to clinics or prisons to receive treatment. They used force, sometimes withwhips and gun barrels, and the ensuing treatment lacked methadone and oftentimes
counselling.258 On 5 June 2022, the Taliban Ministry of Interior claimed that 27 000 drug
addicts had been taken to health facilities for treatment since the takeover.259 Reports onprovinces where drug addicts were imprisoned included Kandahar260, Farah (more than 2 000
addicts had been ‘successfully treated’ as of April 2022 according to the Taliban)261, and Herat(more than 1 200 drug addicts had been imprisoned as April 2022).262 In Balkh Province, as of
May 2022, more than 3 000 persons had received medical treatment at addiction treatment
centres according to a Taliban official.263(g)

Corporal and capital punishments

According the USDOS reporting on the situation in Afghanistan in 2021, there were no reportsof Taliban representatives issuing punishments related to sharia since the takeover.264 In
Sky News, Afghanistan: Inside prison where children as young as 12 are held and female governor has vanished,
7 February 2022, url
253
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 37
254
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 37
255
TOLOnews, Brother of Former Police Commander Says He Was Tortured in Khost, 21 February 2022, url
256
TOLOnews, 4 Members of Paghman Family Freed By Security Forces, 14 March 2022, url
257
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 19
258
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Scared Straight: Taliban Treats Drug Addicts With A Heavy Dose Of Prison, 4 April 2022, url
259
Bakhtar News Agency, 2,000 People Arrested Over Past Month in Kabul: MoI, 5 June 2022, url
260
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Says Afghan Prison Offers Treatment For Drug Users, 4 January 2022, url; Ariana
News, IEA turns Kandahar Prison into treatment center for drug addicts, 25 December 2021, url; Bakhtar News
Agency, Hundreds of Addicts Received Medical Treatment in Kandahar, 6 April 2022, url
261
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Scared Straight: Taliban Treats Drug Addicts With A Heavy Dose Of Prison, 4 April 2022, url;
Bakhtar News Agency, Thousands of Addicts Received Medical Treatments in Farah, 31 March 2022, url
262
TOLOnews, Over 1,200 Drug Addicts Being Treated at Herat Prison, 20 April 2022, url
263
Bakhtar News Agency, Many Addicts Returns Home After Receiving Medical Treatment, 6 May 2022, url
264
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 1
252

34

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

November 2021, Agence France-Presse (AFP) reported that de facto judges avoided issuing
harsh punishments to avoid losing support among the population.265 After the takeover there
were, however, reports of Taliban fighters subjecting civilians to violence, for instancewhipping alleged thieves.266 UNAMA recorded cases of corporal punishments of individuals
accused of zina after the takeover, some followed ‘a judicial decision or other quasi-judicial
process’.267 As of June 2022, UNAMA had recorded extrajudicial killings of five women andtwo men accused of extramarital relationships, and at least 30 instances of ‘cruel, inhumanand degrading treatment and punishments’ including public flogging, beatings and verbal
abuse of persons failing to comply with issued directives on behavioural norms. 268
According to one local media report from October 2021, the Taliban publicly lashed a young
unmarried couple in Firozkoh, Ghor Province, for riding a motorbike together. They were
whipped 29 times each and were forced to marry.269 According to Hasht-e Subh four people
were stoned to death in Uruzgan Province in December 2021. Taliban fighters had arrested
four people accused of rape.270 According to UNAMA, a woman and her in-law were lashed in
January 2022 in Badakhshan Province. The woman had reported the man for sexual assault
but was arrested with him. They were sentenced to around 40 lashes each and were ordered
by a de facto court to marry.271 It has not been possible to corroborate these cases.
On 14 February 2022, a man and a woman accused of zina were stoned to death in Nusay
District, Badakhshan Province, according to UNAMA. The Taliban District Governor reportedly
made the decision of stoning.272 It has not been possible to corroborate this case. On 20
February 2022, a woman and a man were stoned to death for alleged adultery in Badakhshan
Province on order by a district judge.273 On 21 February 2022, a man accused of adultery was
whipped in public in Tarin Kowt, Uruzgan Province.274 According to UNAMA, the case wasbrought before a Taliban commission with officials from the Taliban MPVPV, the Taliban
ministries for justice, and information and culture, and the Taliban provincial governor. They
reportedly sentenced the man and supervised the flogging.275 According to Rukhshana Media,
an Afghan women’s media organisation, the involved woman was detained by the Taliban
MPVPV.276
On 1 April 2022, a woman, her nephew, and a male colleague riding a car together werereportedly stopped at a checkpoint in Mazar-e Sharif by officials of the Taliban MPVPV and thede facto police. They were interrogated and arrested as the woman and her colleague were
not related or married. The following day, their dead and mutilated bodies were found, but the
RFI, Justice delayed as Taliban build their legal system in Afghanistan, 13 November 2021, url
Metro, Taliban return to brutal ways as they whip and torment thief, 5 October 2021, url
267
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
268
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 34
269
Rukhshana Media, Taliban publicly lashes couple in central Ghor province, 26 October 2021, url
270
Hasht-e Subh, Four People Stoned to Death in Urozgan Over Rape Accusation, 7 December 2021, url
271
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
272
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
273
Rukhshana Media, A woman and a man were stoned to death in Badakhshan, 20 February 2022, url
274
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Publicly Flogs Afghan Man Accused Of Adultery, 22 February 2022, url; UNAMA,
Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
275
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
276
Rukhshana Media, A man was lashed in public in Uruzgan, 22 February 2022, url
265

266

35

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

nephew was returned to his family ‘unharmed’.277 It has not been possible to corroborate thisinformation.
In April 2022, seven men were flogged and sentenced to imprisonment by the Taliban
Supreme Court, inter alia for drinking alcohol.278 According to Khaama Press this was the firsttime hudud279 was applied since the Taliban takeover280, and a Taliban Supreme Court official
confirmed to AFP that it was the first time a de facto court issued flogging as a punishment.281
In June 2022, Hasth-e Subh reported on a man being arrested by the Taliban’s intelligence
service and lashed 29 times for harassing a girl.282 It has not been possible to corroborate this
case.

1.2.

Reactions to opposition and criticism

1.2.1.

Expressed opposition and criticism

The Taliban authorities arrested and detained individuals who made peaceful expressions of
opinion or dissent.283 Civil society actors were reportedly subjected to killings, enforced
disappearances, incommunicado detentions, attacks, harassment, threats and arrests.284
Victims of such reprisals included activists, journalists and members of academia.285 Victims
and their family members were discouraged to engage with media, and many were afraid totalk about their experiences.286 According to UNAMA, Taliban made efforts to ‘stifle debate,curb dissent and limit the fundamental rights and freedoms of Afghans’.287
Among those detained was Din Mohammad Azimi, former politician and member of the former
Independent Electoral Commission. Azimi was detained in January 2022, on accusations ofmaintaining relations with former politicians opposing the Taliban according to his nephew.288
In December 2021, the former director of Afghan media outlet Pajhwok Afghan News, Khaja
Khalil Fitri, was detained by the Taliban intelligence department. A relative stated that the

UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
AFP, Grim Reminder of Taliban Past: Seven Afghan Men Flogged on ‘First Such’ Supreme Court Order, 20 April
2022, url; Khaama Press, Criminal Flogged in Taliban’s Supreme Court, 21 April 2022, url
279
Fixed punishment for ‘crimes against God’. See: RFE/RL/Gandhara, Public Executions, Floggings Inevitable
Under Taliban Court Rulings, Says Scholar, 8 September 2021, url
280
Khaama Press, Criminal Flogged in Taliban’s Supreme Court, 21 April 2022, url
281
AFP, Grim Reminder of Taliban Past: Seven Afghan Men Flogged on ‘First Such’ Supreme Court Order, 20 April
2022, url
282
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک جوان در غور به اتهام مزاحمت به یک دختر دره زده شد‬A young man in Ghor was lashed for the crime ofharassment of a girl], 20 June 2022, url
283
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 44
284
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 52
285
AI, Afghanistan: The Taliban must immediately release Professor Faizullah Jalal, 10 January 2022, url
286
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban must immediately stop arbitrary arrests of journalists, civil society activists, former
government officials and those who dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 3; Sharharzad Akbar, email, June 2022
287
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 3
288
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban must immediately stop arbitrary arrests of journalists, civil society activists, former
government officials and those who dissent, 21 March 2022, url, pp. 2–3
277

278

36

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

ground for the arrest was unclear, but that he had ‘heard’ from Taliban authorities in Balkh
Province that Fitri was accused of a political crime. Fitri was released in January 2022.289
A representative of an anonymous international organisation in Afghanistan told DIS on 29
March 2022 that there were ‘several examples of individuals belonging to the well-educatedclass and members of the intelligentsia being targeted’.290 An anonymous international
humanitarian organisation told DIS that some of the well-educated class and members of theintelligentsia remained in detention by 31 March 2022. The same source stated that someawaited trials, and that they were charged with promoting values not in line with sharia or
violating ‘the principle of the Quran’. The source also mentioned people being killed or being
under house arrest.291 Cases that received media attention included university professor
Faizullah Jalal who was arrested on 8 January 2022. An unnamed source told TOLOnews that
Jalal was interrogated by the Taliban’s intelligence service in Kabul.292 Jalal is a prominent
professor of political science and law at Kabul University, and is married to the former Ministerof Women Affairs. He is also a well-known, outspoken critic of successive Afghan regimes293
and had previously openly criticised the Taliban government, including on television.294 A
Taliban spokesperson confirmed Jalal’s arrest by Taliban intelligence, due to statements onsocial media that were against the Taliban government, and that ‘spread bigotry’. The
spokesperson also accused Jalal of having connections with groups and bands disrupting
security.295 The series of social media statements in question turned out not to be Jalal’s,296 hisfamily claimed that the account was fake, and Jalal was released on 11 January 2022.297
According the RFE/RL, reporting in March 2022, Jalal had stayed silent since his release298
but, according to Khaama Press, he gave an early interview to Radio Free Afghanistan inwhich he said that he had been ‘well treated’, ‘did not feel as being in prison during his
detention’ and that most Taliban members at the detention facility were ‘educated’ and‘behaved with him very well’, and that he ‘felt like being a guest’ [neither this information nor
these statements’ validity could be corroborated].299 Another university professor, Sayed Baqir
Mohseni, disappeared on 4 March 2022, days after accusing the Taliban of ‘stifling freespeech’ on television. Mohseni was released two days later and told media that he had been
kept at an unknown location by intelligence officials but had been ‘treated well’.300 In June

AFJC, AFJC welcomes the release of former Pajhwok managing director in Mazar-e-Sharif, 9 January 2022, url
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 32
291
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 32
292
TOLOnews, Professor, Analyst Faizullah Jalal Arrested In Kabul, 8 January 2022, url
293
WSJ, Taliban Detain Prominent Critic, Intensifying Crackdown on Dissent in Afghanistan, 9 January 2022, url;
Guardian (The), Calls for release of Kabul University professor detained by Taliban, 10 January 2022, url; AP,
Taliban arrest popular Afghan professor critical of govt, 9 January 2022, url
294
Al Jazeera, Taliban releases prominent Afghan professor from custody: Family, 11 January 2022, url
295
TOLOnews, Detention of Professor Faizullah Jalal Sparks Reactions, 9 January 2022, url
296
WSJ, Taliban Detain Prominent Critic, Intensifying Crackdown on Dissent in Afghanistan, 9 January 2022, url;
Guardian (The), Calls for release of Kabul University professor detained by Taliban, 10 January 2022, url; AP,
Taliban arrest popular Afghan professor critical of govt, 9 January 2022, url
297
DW, Taliban release prominent Afghan academic Faizullah Jalal | News, 11 January 2022, url
298
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan-Canadian Aid Worker Reappears After Weeks In Taliban Detention, 9 March 2022, url
299
Khaama Press, I didn’t feel like being in prison while in Taliban’s detention: Afghan university professor, 12January 2022, url
300
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan-Canadian Aid Worker Reappears After Weeks In Taliban Detention, 9 March 2022, url
289

290

37

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2022, the Taliban Minister of Higher Education ordered a professor from Kunar University toapologise after posting content on social media seemingly critical of the Taliban.301
Four activists were detained on 18 January 2022 after trying to organise a protest against the
Pakistani national security adviser’s visit to Kabul.302 One activist, Azeem Azeemi, announced
the intention to protest on social media, and an anonymous source interviewed by Amnesty
International claimed that he was arrested right before the protest’s start. The three otheractivists were detained when trying to get Azeemi released according to the same source.303
One local media report stated that the Taliban GDI arrested Azeemi, and a spokesperson said
that Azeemi had confessed that he wanted to stage an illegal demonstration for the purposeof fleeing to the West, and to disrupt national security under the dictate of the former
administration.304 As of 15 June 2022, Azeemi’s whereabouts remained unknown.305
An Afghan human rights activist from southern Afghanistan told EUAA on 2 December 2021
that her relative had recently been murdered after questioning the Taliban’s ability to feed thepeople on social media.306 Arrests following criticism on social media included Nadima Noor, afemale comedian and aid worker. Noor was arrested in February 2022 for unclear reasons,but she had uploaded satirical videos on social media, sometimes critical of the Taliban.307 A
few days before, Noor uploaded a video in which she ‘admonished’ heavily armed young
Taliban fighters.308 Noor was released on 9 March 2022 without charges.309 In May 2022,
journalist Khalid Qaderi was reportedly sentenced to imprisonment by the Taliban military
court after criticising the Taliban on social media.310 This was denied by Taliban spokesperson
Zabihullah Mujahid, who stated that the case had been processed by a de facto civil court in
Herat and that Qader had been sentenced for criminal misconduct. Mujahid further stated thatthe case was unrelated to Qader’s journalistic work.311 According to UNAMA two civil society
activists were also involved and were sentenced to two years imprisonment. 312

1.2.2.

Demonstrations and protests

Peaceful protests took place across Afghanistan after the Taliban takeover, and focused on
issues such as women’s rights, economic sanctions, unpaid salaries, and the distribution ofhumanitarian assistance.313 On 8 September 2021, the Taliban issued an instruction prohibiting
unauthorised assemblies.314 Taliban forces used force to disperse some crowds, including by
Mohsin Amin [Twitter], posted on: 4 June 2022, url
VOA, Taliban Detain Human Rights Activists Planning Protest of Pakistan Official's Visit, 18 January 2022, url
303
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban must immediately stop arbitrary arrests of journalists, civil society activists, former
government officials and those who dissent, 21 March 2022, url
304
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, ‫[ کابل ته د پاکستان د ملي امنیت سالکار د سفر معترض ال هم د طالبانو په بند کې دی‬Protestor of the Pakistan
National Security Adviser’s visit to Kabul is still in Taliban’s Detention], 18 March 2022, url
305
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 25
306
Afghan human rights activist, digital interview, 2 December 2021
307
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan-Canadian Aid Worker Reappears After Weeks In Taliban Detention, 9 March 2022, url
308
Tesha De Waday [Facebook], posted on: 9 February 2022, url
309
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan-Canadian Aid Worker Reappears After Weeks In Taliban Detention, 9 March 2022, url
310
RSF, Afghanistan : Afghan journalist tried by military court, sentenced to one year in prison, 11 May 2022, url
311
VOA, Taliban Court Sentences Afghan Journalist to Prison, 12 May 2022, url
312
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 28
313
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 49
314
OHCHR, Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 10 September 2021, url; New York Times (The), As Taliban Crush
Dissent, New Leaders Face Cascading Challenges, 8 September 2021, url
301

302

38

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

using live ammunition, electroshock weapons, tear gas, whips, and beatings.315 Some
protesters were subjected to arbitrary detention, house-raids, ill-treatment and torture.316
According to OHCHR, protests coordinated with the de facto authorities on endorsed issues‘did not face restrictions’.317 After raised concerns over women activists disappearing inJanuary 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid told AFP that the de facto authorities
had the right to arrest and detain dissidents and did not allow illegal activities. He also statedthat no one should ‘cause turmoil’ since it ‘disrupts peace and order’, and that other countries
would arrest ‘such people’ in similar situations.318
Especially protests on women’s rights were met with violence or intimidation by the Taliban.319
Despite the prohibition of unsanctioned rallies, women protested almost daily in the firstweeks after the takeover, but as women protesters were met with violence from the Taliban
on several occasions such protests waned.320 Many resorted to organising smaller protests inprivate homes, sharing videos on social media321 and writing messages on walls around Kabul
City during night-time.322 According to ACLED data, reported by SIGAR, women protests madeup the majority of protests in the first quarter of 2022. After peaking in January 2022, they
declined in the two following months. SIGAR connected this decline to the Taliban’s use of
pepper spray during a protest and arrests of protesters at home.323 Demonstrations continued,
but additional women activists were arrested, the ‘ringleaders’ according to RFE/RL. They
were kept in custody while the Taliban denied their detentions.324 On 21 February 2022, theTaliban Ministry of Interior released a video of several detained women ‘confessing’ that they
had been encouraged by women abroad to protest against the Taliban. A Taliban
spokesperson repeated this message and stated that the protesters regretted their actions,and that there was ‘no threat to their lives’ at the moment.325 In an interview with CNN, theTaliban Minister of Interior repeated that women protests were provoked ‘from outside’.326 For
more information on these arrests, see section 8. Human rights defenders and activists.
Throughout the reference period, protests occurred in Kabul City with women protesters
demonstrating for women’s right to education, work, and political representation.327 For more
information on such demonstrations, see section 5.2.4. Freedom of expression and assembly.

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 49; AI, Afghanistan
2021, 29 March 2022, url
316
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 49
317
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 49
318
AFP, Taliban warn against dissent, women’s rights activism, 22 January 2022, url
319
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 49; UN Security
Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url,para. 9320
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Kabul Women Stage Rare Protest For Jobs, Food, And Freedom, 16 December 2021, url
321
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women Move Protests To Social Media To Evade Violent Taliban Response, 7
December 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown, Afghan Women Take Their Protests
Home, 7 December 2021, url
322
TOLOnews, Kabul Women Write Protest Slogans on City Walls at Night, 10 January 2022, url
323
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, pp. 73–74
324
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Dozens Rally In Kabul To Protest Taliban Ban On Girls Attending School, 26 March 2022, url
325
TOLOnews, MoI-Detained Female Protesters in Video Claim Outside Influence, 21 February 2022, url
326
CNN, Top Taliban leader makes more promises on women's rights, 19 Mary 2022, url
327
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Kabul Women Stage Rare Protest For Jobs, Food, And Freedom, 16 December 2021;
TOLOnews, Kabul Protesters Call for Inclusive Govt, 6 December 2021, url; TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Demand
315

39

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMWomen activists and university teachers were able to gather on international women’s day (8March 2022) in Kabul City to call on the Taliban not to ignore basic women’s rights.328 On 31
March 2022, dozens of civil society activists gathered for a two-day event in Kabul City to
discuss women’s right to employment and education.329 According to TOLOnews, more than283 representatives of civil society, Islamic scholars, tribal elders, and war victim families
participated. The Taliban Ministry of Information and Culture said they welcomed thegathering and asked the participants to cooperate with the de facto government.330 On 21
April 2022, civil society groups, political parties and ethnic councils held a press conference in
Kabul, calling for secondary education for girls and demanding an explanation of the decision
to not reopen the schools.331 On 15 June 2022, the Taliban deputy Prime Minister, Abdul Kabir,reportedly received civil society members from all of Afghanistan’s provinces.332
Other demonstrations included employees of the former government staging protests in Kabul
City over unpaid salaries, including employees of Sardar Mohammad Dawood Khan Hospital,
the former ministries of urban development and land333 and public works334, and the former
Supreme Court335 as well as employees of the organisation Women for Afghan Women.336
Retired government employees and veterans protested over unpaid pensions337, as well as
former judicial workers who also called on the Taliban to let them resume work.338 On 2 March
2022, such a demonstration was reportedly ‘disturbed’ by Taliban forces.339 On 20 March
2022, former judges held a press conference during which they repeated their demands andclaimed that around 2 000 former magistrates were part of a suit against the de facto
government. RFE/RL cited the German news agency DPA stating that the Taliban allowed thenews conference on the condition that they did not ‘complain directly about the Taliban’.340
There were also reports on occasional demonstrations on other issues, including residents
protesting in Panjsher Province on 26 December 2021, over the killing of a resident by Taliban
fighters. The Taliban head of the provincial security department confirmed the death andstated that it was due to misinformation. According to him, the protest ended after local
Taliban officials talked to the protesters.341 Another demonstration occurred after the arrest ofan Uzbek Taliban commander in Maymana City, Faryab Province, on 13 January 2022.342 Hast-

Govt Jobs, Representation, 12 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Call for Right to Work, End of
Restrictions, 9 June 2022, url
328
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Call for Basic Rights and Govt, Social Inclusion, 8 March 2022, url
329
TOLOnews, Activists Meet to Discuss Current Situation, Women's Rights, 31 March 2022, url
330
TOLOnews, Civil Society Gathering Calls for Trust-Building, 31 March 2022, url
331
TOLOnews, Activists, Political Parties Demand Reopening of Girls’ Schools, 21 April 2022, url
332
Bakhtar News Agency, Sapedar Hosted Country's Civil Society Activists, 16 June 2022, url
333
TOLOnews, Govt Employees Protest Unpaid Wage in Kabul, 18 December 2021, url; TOLOnews, Workers at the
Urban Development Ministry Demand to Be Paid, 5 February 2022, url
334
TOLOnews, Public Works Employees Hold Protest Over Unpaid Salaries, 27 February 2022, url
335
TOLOnews, Supreme Court Employees Protest Over Unpaid Salaries, 28 December 2021, url
336
TOLOnews, Employees of Women's Outreach Organization Demand Unpaid Salaries, 16 April 2022, url
337
TOLOnews, Afghan Govt Retirees, Veterans Call for Pensions to Be Paid, 31 January 2022, url; TOLOnews,
Veterans, Govt Retirees Set Protest, Demand Pensions, 11 June 2022, url; TOLOnews, Govt Retirees, Veterans Hold
Protest to Demand Pensions, 16 June 2022, url
338
TOLOnews, Former Govt Judges Hold Protest to Demand Salaries, 20 March 2022, url
339
TOLOnews, Former Judges Hold Protest Over Their Uncertain Fate, 2 March 2022, url
340
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Hundreds Of Fired Afghan Judges Demand Jobs, Pay From Taliban, 20 March 2022, url
341
TOLOnews, Panjshir Residents Protest Killing of Innocent Youth, 26 December 2021, url
342
National (The), Taliban faces internal battles in northern province, 13 January 2022, url

40

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSe Subh reported on ‘hundreds’ participating343 but a local reporter told the National that theprotests had been quelled the same evening.344 On 22 April 2022, the Taliban violently
dispersed a crowd calling for increased security for Shia Hazaras following an ISKP attack
against education centres in West Kabul.345
In April 2022, social media footage of Afghans being ill-treated in Iran caused several
protests.346 Protests in Herat were dispersed by the de facto security forces firing warning
shots, after the Iranian consulate in Herat had been attacked by protesters.347 UNAMA
reported that 26 persons were detained in Herat before staging a protest in support of Iran.348

1.3.

Implemented sharia and cultural norms ineveryday life

1.3.1.

General implementation and the nature of restrictions

The Taliban MPVPV is mandated to enforce the Taliban’s interpretation of sharia.349 According
to UNAMA the mandate consists of ‘a mix of policy setting, advice, monitoring, complaints
management, and enforcement authority on a range of issues’.350 An internationalorganisation told Landinfo in March and April 2022 that there was little concrete information
about how the ministry operated.351 Ministry inspectors wear gown-like white uniforms352 and,according to Sabawoon Samim, political analyst and guest author of the Afghanistan Analysts
Network (AAN), it consists of three directorates. The first directorate has staff in each police
district and provides advice to individuals at checkpoints, as well as at ceremonies, shops andother public places. The second directorate provides ‘amnesty’ or ‘pardon’ cards to former
government officials and is tasked with ensuring their safety. The third directorate is a military
unit that monitors the Taliban’s own ranks and addresses complaints against members.353 An
international analyst told EUAA that the ministry has formal roles in education, mentoring andtraining of the military.354
According to Samim, the ministry is not fully operational, and its staffing is incomplete. In June
2022, some provinces lacked directors and other provinces lacked staff. In many areas
Taliban commanders and other officials still intervened ‘in matters of behaviour and dress’.
Moreover, the ministry was stronger and more organised in the cities stated Samim.355 The
Hasht-e Subh, The End of Unrest in Faryab: Taliban Fails to Quell Protests, 16 January 2022, url
National (The), Taliban faces internal battles in northern province, 13 January 2022, url
345
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 25
346
France 24, Afghans protest after videos allegedly show Iranians beating refugees, 11 April 2022, url; DW, Alleged
Iranian abuses of refugees spark protests across Afghanistan, 15 April 2022, url
347
Al Jazeera, Iran summons Afghan envoy after diplomatic mission attacks, 12 April 2022, url
348
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 25
349
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2
350
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url
351
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 13
352
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: Policing faces, bodies andbeards on Kabul streets, 22 May 2022, url
353
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url
354International analyst, digital meeting, 17 March 2022
355
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url
343

344

41

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

international analyst also mentioned staffing issues, and said that the ministry is authorised torecruit 15 000 persons, but could not reach this number since they could not afford it.356
The Taliban stated that decrees issued by the Taliban MPVPV were only recommendations,but they were enforced in many areas, sometimes violently.357 In an interview to CNN, theTaliban Minister of Interior said that hijab is not compulsory, and that the Taliban do not force
women to wear it, but solely advise and preach. But he also said that wearing it is ‘an Islamicorder that everyone should implement’.358
There were guidelines for ministry staff to make recommendations and not to use force.359
These guidelines, however, set different stages for how to respond to prohibited acts, which
included the use of force.360 According to Samim, the Taliban acting minister, Sheikh
Muhammad Khalid Hanafi, is ‘less conservative’ and ministry staff members suggested that heaims to recruit individuals well-trained in sharia and enforcing it by advising or ‘gentle
cajoling’. This is a ‘softer’ approach than in the ministry’s previous versions, but Samim alsoemphasised different views within the ministry and the Taliban in general on how some
restrictions shall be implemented. Regional norms continued to impact attitudes ‘significantly’,
according to Samim, who mentioned southern Afghanistan as an area where social norms
have changed less in the past 20 years, in contrast to parts of eastern, south-eastern, central
and northern Afghanistan.361
The UNSG reported in June 2022 that the Taliban MPVPV had increased the enforcement ofa wide range of directives related to extramarital relationships, dress code, attendance atprayers and music. As of 15 June 2022, UNAMA had recorded at least 30 instances of ‘cruel,inhuman and degrading treatment and punishments’ including public flogging, beatings andverbal abuse of persons failing to comply with issued rules and directives since thetakeover.362 For information on corporal and capital punishments, see section 1.1.4(g) Corporaland capital punishments.
USDOS reported that apostasy is a crime defined by sharia and includes conversion andproselytising to convince individuals to convert from Islam. According to USDOS, ‘appropriate’
punishments for apostates in Sunni Hanafi jurisprudence are beheading for men and life
imprisonment for women, ‘unless the individual repents’. Property may also be confiscatedand apostates can be prevented from inheriting property. Blasphemy was reportedly also a
capital crime according to Sunni Hanafi jurisprudence and could include ‘anti-Islamic writingsor speech’.363 According to the US Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF),
apostasy is punishable by death according to the Taliban’s interpretation of sharia. The same
source stated that Afghans converting to Christianity were considered apostates and faced
International analyst, digital meeting, 17 March 2022
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url;
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
358
CNN, Top Taliban leader makes more promises on women's rights [Online video], 19 May 2022, url
359
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 13
360
Guardian (The), We don’t want people to be in a panic, says chief of Taliban morality police, 19 September 2021,
url; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Vice Handbook Abusive, 29 October 2021, url
361
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url
362
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 34
363
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url
356
357

42

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS‘ostracization and the threat of honour killings by family and village members’.364 On 7 June
2022, social media influencer Ajmal Haqiqi and three colleagues were arrested by the Taliban
GDI365 for ‘insulting Islam’ in a recent video on the video-sharing site YouTube in which Haqaqi
laughs while his colleague recites Koranic verses in a comical voice. They later appeared in a
confession video, released by the Taliban, wearing handcuffs, prison uniforms and withbruises. Haqaqi apologised for ‘insulting’ the Koran and said that his channel promoted ‘moral
corruption’ and was supported by the former government.366 The video had been criticised byreligious scholars and other YouTubers, and two days before the arrest Haqiqi apologised inanother video.367 On 29 June 2022, one of the four was reportedly released.368

1.3.2.

Restrictions issued at national levelAt national level the following restrictions were reportedly issued:
In September 2021, gender segregation was imposed at private universities. A decree by the
Taliban Ministry of Education instructed classes to be divided at least by a curtain, and women
to be taught by female teachers, or in the lack thereof, elderly men with ‘good character’.369
In November 2021, the Taliban issued media restrictions, which barred women from appearing
in television dramas, soap operas and entertainment shows. Women news presenters “must”
wear headscarves when appearing on screen, and men “must” wear proper clothes according
to the guidelines. The guidelines did not define “proper clothes”.370
On 26 December 2021, the Taliban MPVPV issued instructions saying that women travelling
more than 72 km should not be offered transport unless accompanied by a close male
relative. Vehicle drivers were also instructed to refrain from playing music in their cars, and not
to pick up female passengers without a hijab covering their hair.371 According to RFE/RL, theministry erected checkpoints in Kabul to inspect taxi drivers’ compliance with the orders not topick up unaccompanied women372, and buses were also controlled according to RFE/RL’s
Radio Azadi.373

USCIRF, Afghanistan, April 2022, url, p. 13
Reporterly, After Traditional Media, Taliban Launches War On New Age Media and Its Users In A Bid To Curb
Freedom Of Expression, 7 June 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: The Taliban must immediately release YouTuber Ajmal
Haqiqi and his colleagues, 8 June 2022, url
366
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Video Confession Of Popular Afghan YouTuber Prompts Outrage, 9 June 2022, url
367
Reporterly, After Traditional Media, Taliban Launches War On New Age Media and Its Users In A Bid To Curb
Freedom Of Expression, 7 June 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: The Taliban must immediately release YouTuber Ajmal
Haqiqi and his colleagues, 8 June 2022, url
368
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, ‫[ استخبارات طالبان غالم سخی را از بند رها کرد‬Taliban Intelligence released Ghulam Sakhi fromprison], 29 June 2022, url
369
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Resurrects Gender Segregation In Public Offices, 16 March 2022, url
370
CNN, Taliban bans women from solo, long-distance road trips, 29 December 2021, url
371
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women Banned From Making Trips Unless Escorted, 26 December 2021, url
372
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
373
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, Is He Your Husband? Why The Taliban Is Restricting Women’s Travel, 1 April 2022, url
364

365

43

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In March 2022, the Taliban Health Ministry was ordered to gender-segregate employees by
separating male and female offices. The instruction also read that female patients withouthijab should be denied healthcare, according to RFE/RL.374
In March 2022, foreign drama series were prohibited.375
On 27 March 2022, the Taliban MPVPV reportedly issued an instruction to airlines not to let
women board without a male chaperone. Women were reportedly denied boarding.376
According to AFP, the instruction was directed to the two Afghan airlines Ariana and Kam Air
and concerned both domestic and international flights.377 UNAMA reported that travel
agencies had been instructed ‘not to sell plane tickets to women without a guardian’.378 On 8
May 2022, AP reported that women arrived unaccompanied at Kabul International Airport, andboarded small buses alone.379
On 3 April 2022, the de facto government issued a decree banning poppy cultivation, a plant
which is, inter alia, used to produce opium. The decree reads that crops should be burned,
and farmers punished under sharia. It further banned the production, use or transportation ofother illicit drugs.380 According to TOLOnews, this included alcoholic beverages, heroin,‘Tablet L’, and hashish.381 On 6 June 2022, Bakhtar News Agency reported that several
hectares of poppy fields had been destroyed in Kajaki District, Helmand Province.382 On 27
June 2022, Ariana News cited Taliban officials claiming that around 2 000 hectares of poppy
fields had been destroyed in Herat Province during the past months.383
On 15 April 2022, the Taliban Ministry of Education recommended female teachers to wear
hijab and called on male students and teachers not to wear ties.384
On 21 April 2022, the de facto government instructed the Taliban Ministry of Communications
and Information Technology to restrict access to the social media platform TikTok and theonline game PlayerUnknown’s Battleground, and to close channels with ‘immoral programs’.385
On 7 May 2022, the Taliban’s supreme leader, Hibatullah Akhundzada, issued a decree
instructing women to cover their faces. The decree read that failure to comply would result in
the woman’s father or closest male relative facing reprimands, imprisonment or being fired
from his employment386, and that women should not leave their homes unless ‘necessary’.387
According to UNAMA, the instruction specified that women government employees could be

RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Resurrects Gender Segregation In Public Offices, 16 March 2022, url
TOLOnews, TOLOnews Presenter Freed After Night in Detention, 18 March 2022, url
376
Independent (The), Taliban ban Afghan women from flying without male chaperone, 28 March 2022, url
377
France 24, Taliban ban Afghan women flying alone in latest setback on rights, 28 March 2022, url
378
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 22
379
AP, Afghanistan's Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May 2022, url
380
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghanistan's Taliban Issues Ban On Opium Poppy Cultivation, 3 April 2022, url
381
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Announces Ban on Poppy Cultivation, 3 April 2022, url
382
Bakhtar News Agency, A Large Area of Poppy Fields Eradicated in Helmand, 20 June 2022, url
383
Ariana News, 2,000 hectares of land cleared of poppies in Herat: officials, 27 June 2022, url
384
TOLOnews, MoE: Male Students, Teachers Should Not Wear Ties, 15 April 2022, url
385
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Bans TikTok, Popular Video Game in Afghanistan, 21 April 2022, url
386
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Taliban Orders Women To Wear Burqa Coverings In Public, 7 May 2022, url
387
AP, Afghanistan's Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May 2022, url
374

375

44

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

dismissed if failing to comply.388 Bakhtar News Agency reported that the decree indicated thatany garment covering a woman’s body was considered a hijab, as long as it was not too tightor too thin to reveal body parts.389
On 19 May 2022, the Taliban ordered all female television presenters to cover their faces
while presenting.390 According to TOLOnews, the verdict was issued to all media outlets, andwhen sharing the information with MOBY group (the largest media company in Afghanistanthat also runs TOLOnews391), the Taliban MPVPV stated that the decision was ‘final’ and ‘notup for discussion’.392 Many female television presenters initially defied the order, but on 22
May 2022 they all wore veils disclosing nothing but their eyes.393 For more information on
women’s dress codes, see sections 5.1.2. Dress codes and behavioural norms and 5.2.5.
Implemented dress codes and behavioural norms.
According to RFE/RL, reporting on 17 June 2022, the Taliban allowed body building butordered athletes to cover ‘abdominal muscles and limbs with loose-fitting garments’.394

1.3.3.

Provincial and local variations

The enforcement of issued restrictions varied across Afghanistan.395 Local Taliban officials
enforced decrees on gender segregation, dress codes, men’s beards, unaccompanied
women, music396 and attendance at prayers.397 According to UNAMA the interpretation of theministry’s broad mandate varied ‘greatly’ between different provinces and noted an increase
in issued instructions. Furthermore, the instructions seemed to be ‘purposefully vague’according to UNAMA.398 An international analyst told EUAA in March 2022, that some local
branches of the Taliban MPVPV had enforced regulations more extensively than envisaged by
the ministry in Kabul.399 An anonymous international NGO, consulted by the Swedish Migration
Agency’s Unit for Migration Analysis in March and April 2022, described Takhar Province andBadakhshan Province as examples of areas in which the ministry had enforced their rules in aparticularly violent way. The same source stated that the requirement for women to beaccompanied by a male chaperone had been strictly implemented in Mazar-e Sharif, and thatwomen were beaten if they did not abide to this rule.400 In Mazar-e Sharif, public bathhouses

UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
Bakhtar News Agency, Islamic Emirate Stressed for Islamic Hijab in the Country, 7 May 2022, url
390
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Reportedly Issues Order Requiring Female TV Presenters To Cover, 19 May 2022, url
391
OSAR, Afghanistan: Profils à risqué, 31 October 2021, url p. 17
392
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 19 May 2022, url
393
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Free Her Face: Male Afghan Journalists Don Masks, Express Solidarity With Female
Colleagues, 25 May 2022, url; AP, Taliban enforcing face-cover order for female TV anchors, 22 May 2022, url
394
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Bodybuilders Fear Taliban Restrictions, 17 June 2022, url
395
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2; Sweden, Swedish
Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter talibanrörelsens
maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, pp. 23–24
396
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2
397
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 34
398
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 22
399International analyst, digital interview, 17 March 2022
400
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, pp. 23–24
388

389

45

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

were also shut for women.401 The international NGO stated that women in cities such as Mazare Sharif and Herat, as well as in some Hazara dominated areas, experienced greater
differences in their lives in comparison to their situation before the takeover. In moreconservative cities and rural areas there were fewer notable changes as wearing burqa andbeing accompanied by a mahram (a close male relative) were required already before thetakeover.402 An Afghan human rights activist, interviewed by the EUAA on 2 December 2021,
stated that the dress code in southern Afghanistan and Kandahar was ‘the least of the
problems’ after the Taliban takeover, as many had already worn black hijab covering ‘fromhead to toe’ before. Instead, the source stressed the Taliban’s closure of girls’ schools, barring
women from work and not accepting Afghan women in public spaces.403 Samim also statedthat society in southern Afghanistan saw ‘much less change’ during the past two decades asregards social norms, in contrast to eastern, south-eastern, central and northern Afghanistan.
According to Samim, Taliban members from the eastern, south-eastern, and northern areas
showed greater acceptance for changes in local norms.404
In Kabul City, the demand for traditional clothing for men and women increased after the
takeover405 and many women initially did not dare to go outside.406 In later reports from 2022,
women had reportedly returned to the streets although they were fewer in numbers, and moreof them dressed conservatively.407 Some men reportedly still trimmed their beards408 and wore
Western-style clothes, although the Taliban advised men not to wear such attire.409 Men withsuch appearance were also fewer in numbers than before the takeover.410 According to an
anonymous Afghan analyst and an anonymous international organisation, consulted in
February and March 2022 by Landinfo, there were women both with and without burqa in
Kabul City. The sources were not aware of any crackdowns on women’s clothing by the
Taliban MPVPV, but noted that the situation could be different in rural areas.411 According tofreelance journalists Hizbullah Khan, the Taliban stopped women with coloured scarves fromentering a university in Kabul on 18 May 2022, saying it was ‘not allowed’.412 Women residing
in Kabul told Rukhshana Media in May 2022 that the Taliban MPVPV interrogated, mistreatedand harassed women on the streets. One woman claimed to have been lashed twice on her
back for sitting in the front seat of a taxi, another woman claimed that the Taliban had cut her
12-year-old cousin’s hair as it was not fully covered. A third woman claimed to have been

RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, pp. 23–24
403
Afghan human rights activist, digital meeting, 2 December 2021
404
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url
405
Pajhwok Afghan News, Hijab, turban prices soar in Kabul with Taliban’s return, 22 August 2021, url
406
Washington Post (The), Taliban faces a new hurdle in Afghanistan: Protecting public from Islamic State, 18
October 2021, url; AFP, Anxiety and fear for women in Taliban stronghold, 9 October 2021, url
407
International Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url; International analyst, digitalinterview, 17 March 2022; NPR, NPR travels to Afghanistan for the 1st time since the Taliban took over, 9 June
2022, url
408
AP, Six months of Taliban: Afghans safer, poorer, less hopeful, 15 August 2022, url; International analyst, digitalinterview, 17 March 2022; International Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url
409
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Bodybuilders Fear Taliban Restrictions, 17 June 2022, url
410International Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url
411
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 13
412
Hizbullah Khan [Twitter], posted on: 18 May 2022, url
401

402

46

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

threatened with flogging for wearing short and bright coloured clothing.413 These cases could
not be corroborated.
Citizens celebrated Valentine’s Day on 14 February 2022 in Kabul City. Taliban fightersreportedly marched through the streets but did not stop Valentine’s sales, although
shopkeepers were asked to keep a low profile.414 Nonetheless, there were instances of
Taliban fighters popping balloons, ransacking flower shops and closing celebration venues.415
According to AP, the Taliban also detained young men selling heart-shaped flowers.416
In Kabul, all venues with rides and games were instructed to gender-segregate men andwomen by separate opening days. There were no exceptions for families.417 According to
TOLOnews, who referred to a spokesman of Kabul municipality, a government decision calledon the municipality to remove all photos of women from signboards in shops and businesscentres.418 In parts of Kabul, the Taliban reportedly fined residents not attending
congregational prayers at mosques. A Kabul resident told RFE/RL that clerics had beenordered to take roll calls and report persons who failed to show up at the mosques.419
According to one media report there were also restrictions on men’s shaving in Kabul City.420
In Herat City, shop owners were ordered to remove the heads of mannequins in December
2021, as they were considered ‘idols’ and thus ‘un-Islamic’. Some shopkeepers complied withthe orders and sawed off the heads of their mannequins.421 The Taliban order on women to
cover their faces on 7 May 2022 did not impact the way women dressed in Herat City
significantly, according to women interviewed by the AAN. The same sources stated that the
Taliban MPVPV was not active around the city.422
In Helmand Province, Taliban officials reportedly banned barbers from shaving or cutting
beards in late September 2021, and warned that those violating the rule would be punished.423
According to Wall Street Journal (WSJ), the Taliban authorities in Kabul ‘overruled’ decisions inHelmand on cutting hair and shaving beards.424 UNAMA recorded cases of physicalpunishment of individuals not attending prayers, including the beating of shopkeepers in
Lashkar Gah City, Helmand Province.425 According to UNAMA officials of the Taliban MPVPV
verbally abused a group of unaccompanied women shopping at a bazar in Lashkar Gah City,
Helmand Province, in April 2022. Male shopkeepers were beaten for allowing the women to
Rukhshana Media, Women face verbal and physical abuse in the streets by the Taliban’s religious police, 15 May
2022, url
414
News International (The), Here's how Afghanistan celebrated first Valentine's Day under Taliban rule, 15 February2022, url
415
Fuller Project (The), Dating in the time of the Taliban, 4 March 2022, url
416
AP, Six months of Taliban: Afghans safer, poorer, less hopeful, 15 February 2022, url
417
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Gender-Segregates Kabul Fun Parks, Compounding Cutoffs For Girls And Women, 27
March 2022, url; Bakhtar News Agency, Days of Public Park Visits Determined, 27 March 2022, url
418
TOLOnews, Kabul Municipality Forbids Images of Women on Advertising, 21 December 2021, url
419
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
420
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban ban Helmand barbers from trimming beards, 26 September 2021, url
421
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
422
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, 1 June 2022, url
423
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban ban Helmand barbers from trimming beards, 26 September 2021, url; Bilal
Sarwary, [Twitter], posted on: 26 September 2021, url
424
WSJ, Strange Quiet Arrives in Afghanistan After Decades of War, 11 October 2021, url
425
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17413

47

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

enter their stores without a mahram, and the de facto police arrested 12 male shopkeepers.
The shopkeepers were later released.426
In Badakhshan Province, UNAMA recorded the beating of a group of university students notattending prayers in Faizabad in April 2022.427 UNAMA also reported on restrictions on
trimming beards in the province.428
In Takhar Province, the Taliban reportedly fined residents for not attending congregational
prayers. RFE/RL reported that locals had witnessed arrests or beatings of repeat offenders.429
According to one media report there were also restrictions on shaving.430 According to
UNAMA, officials of the Taliban MPVPV verbally abused three women at a bazar in Taloqan
City for leaving their homes without a mahram.431
In Uruzgan Province, the Taliban banned shaving beards and trimming hair in late September
2021, and barbers were ordered to halt their work.432 In January 2022, male employees of
Taliban officials in the province were reportedly ordered to stop trimming and wear a turban atwork.433 There were also reports on similar restrictions in the provinces Ghor434 and Kapisa435.
In Jawzjan, small bank loans were reportedly regulated. Private banks using usury and interestby giving small loans were stopped from lending, according to Bakhtar News Agency.436
In Bamyan Province, the local Taliban in Kahmard District, issued a directive in March 2022
that women could not visit health centres without a mahram, according to the Fuller Project.
The source claimed that similar restrictions emerged ‘all over’ Afghanistan. In Ghazni, a
midwife stated that the Taliban had prevented doctors from examining women without amahram since November 2021. In one instance two unaccompanied women coming to theclinic with a sick child had been forced outside and beaten with rifle butts by the Taliban.437(a)Music and musicians

The Taliban did not officially ban music after the takeover but disapproved of it at weddings
and other public events.438 On 26 December 2021, the Taliban MPVPV instructed vehicle
drivers to refrain from playing music in their cars.439 According to OHCHR, reporting in March
2022, the Taliban showed ‘intolerance’ for music and art, which spread an ‘atmosphere offear’. The same source reported on intimidations, violence and threats forcing musicians and

UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 17
428
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
429
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
430
TOLOnews, Taliban: Some Restrictions in Provinces Not Official, 27 September 2021, url
431
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 23
432
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
433
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Regional Taliban Officials Ban Beard Trimming, 17 January 2022, url
434
Hast-e Subh Daily, Taliban Banned Beard Shaving in Ghor, 1 November 2021, url
435
TOLOnews, Taliban: Some Restrictions in Provinces Not Official, 27 September 2021, url
436
Bakhtar News Agency, Bank Loans Regulate Based on Islamic Values in Jawzjan, 5 April 2022, url
437
Fuller Project (The), The Taliban are harming Afghan women’s health, 2 March 2022, url
438
CNN, Three wedding guests reportedly shot dead in Afghanistan, 1 November 2021, url
439
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women Banned From Making Trips Unless Escorted, 26 December 2021, url
426
427

48

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

artists to go into hiding or flee the country.440 According to Samim, most forms of music had
been banned in Andar District, Ghazni Province, but the traditional drum duhool was permitted
again after the Taliban district governor and Taliban police chief were replaced. In Khost
Province, a local radio station continued to play music.441
A representative of an anonymous international organisation, interviewed by DIS on 29 March
2022, stated that some musicians had been physically attacked, publicly humiliated, arrested
and got their instruments destroyed. Sporadic instances occurred across all of Afghanistan,both in conservative and more liberal communities.442 Cases reported in media included thehumiliation of local musicians in Zazai Aryub District, Paktia Province, in January 2022.443
Taliban fighters burned the musicians’ instruments and members of the Taliban MPVPV had
reportedly shaved their heads. According to RFE/RL, the musicians appeared to have been
beaten.444 Hasht-e Subh reported on house searches and ‘crackdowns’ on artists in Kapisa
Province by the Taliban in March 2022. Representatives of the local department of the Taliban
MPVPV was cited as saying that playing music was ‘strongly forbidden’ and considered acrime. The ministry’s local director, Jamaluddin Mazhari, was quoted saying that artists singing
in the province would be ‘dealt with harshly’. Local artists stated that both their financial andsecurity concerns had ‘multiplied’ since the Taliban takeover. One of them told Hasht-e Subhthat he fled to Iran amid the takeover, fearing to be killed. In March 2022, he had recently
returned and was worried about the ‘artistic productions’ in Afghanistan, as artists were told tochange career. The same source reported on ‘soldiers’ opening fire on a convoy of weddingcars playing music in Shigal District, Kunar Province, killing the groom’s brother, and of ayoung man being killed for listening to music in Badakhshan Province.445

1.4.

Crackdowns on ISKP and suspected affiliates

The Taliban launched operations to restrain ISKP446, and killings were mainly reported from
Nangarhar Province in October and November 2021447. OHCHR reported on three additional
extrajudicial killings of suspected Islamic State (IS) affiliates in the second week of February
2022. According to the same source, many cases involved enforced disappearances, torture,and ill-treatment by the Taliban.448 In the reporting period 15 August 2021–15 June 2022
UNAMA recorded 59 extrajudicial killings, 22 arbitrary arrests and detentions, 7 incidents of
torture and ill-treatment of accused ISKP affiliates. All incidents were carried out by the
Taliban, and most took place in Chaparhar District and Jalalabad City, Nangarhar Province.
Records of such abuses in October and November 2021 followed a similar pattern: the victims’
bodies were found one or two days after the were arrested by the Taliban, often beheaded
and dismembered, and ‘sometimes hanging from trees’. The incidents provided as examples
by UNAMA included a tribal elder who was arrested by the Taliban at a mosque, allegedly for
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 47
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url
442
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 33
443
Abdulhaq Omeri [Twitter], 15 January 2022, url
444
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Outrage Stoked By Video Of Taliban Humiliating Musicians, 18 January 2022, url
445
Hasht-e Subh, Playing Music Is Fiercely Forbidden, 6 March 2022, url
446
Express Tribune (The), No place for ISIS in Afghanistan, say Taliban, 9 December 2021, url
447
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 26
448
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 26
440
441

49

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMISKP affiliation. His body was found one day after, severely mutilated.449 According to Ariana
News, reporting on 6 February 2022, at least 50 ISKP fighters in Nangarhar had surrendered
to the Taliban after mediation with tribal elders. The same source reported that over 500 ISKP
members had surrendered to the Taliban since the takeover.450 According to Human Rights
Watch’s Patricia Gossman, whole Salafist communities in the provinces Kunar and Nangarhar
were subjected to night raids, and detentions of men and sometimes boys, even if they had
nothing to do with ISKP. Although not having precise numbers, many ended up as victims ofsummary executions or were forcibly disappeared.451 An anonymous organisation, interviewed
by the Finnish and Swedish migration services for this report on 31 May 2022, human rights
violations against individuals accused of ISKP affiliation still occurred in Nangarhar, although
the frequency was less than the previous year. The organisation still received reports, as of 31
May 2022, about persons being detained for a few days, and then being killed, because they
were accused of links to the ISKP.452 For information on Salafists, see section 6.6.6. Salafists.

1.5.

Leaving and returning to Afghanistan

1.5.1.

Taliban attitudes and public statements

Sources interviewed in November 2021 described a negative narrative among Taliban
members, and in parts of Afghan society, regarding Afghans who leave Afghanistan.453
According to an Afghan human rights expert, people leaving were seen as lacking Islamicvalues or being on the run from things they had done. On the other hand, the source noted,
the Taliban prioritised passports for labourers working abroad, indicating that they mightunderstand the economic aspect, although they are also aware of the fact that many abroad
disagree with them.454 An Afghan law professor described two narratives of the Taliban on
persons leaving Afghanistan to live in Western countries. In one narrative people fled due topoverty and it had nothing to do with fearing the Taliban, but they were attracted by the
economically better life in the West. The other narrative was about the elites that left, they
were not seen as ‘Afghans’, but as corrupt ‘puppets’ of the ‘occupation’, and as opposed tothe population. They were considered to lack ‘roots’ in Afghanistan, so as soon as ‘theforeigners’ left, they took this group with them. This narrative could also include, for example,
activists, media workers and intellectuals, and not only former government officials. According
to the source, these narratives also existed among the general population, as there was ananger towards the previous government and elites due to corruption and failures.455
The Afghan law professor further stated that the Taliban often said that a ‘good Muslim’ would
not leave and that many who left for the West were not ‘good enough Muslims’. They could

UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 15
Ariana News, Dozens of Daesh militants surrender to IEA in Nangarhar: Officials, 6 February 2022, url
451
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
452
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
453
Afghan human rights expert, digital interview, 11 November 2021; Afghan law professor, digital interview, 9November 2021; Chiovenda, A. (Dr.) and Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr.), professors at Zayed university, digital interview, 9November 2021
454
Afghan human rights expert, digital interview, 11 November 2021
455
Afghan law professor, digital interview, 9 November 2021
449

450

50

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

further state that people might leave out of poverty, but if anyone is unhappy with the situation
it is due to a weakness of those people’s faith and so they do not want to live under Islamic
rule.456 Dr. Andrea Chiovenda and Dr. Melissa Kerr Chiovenda, anthropologists at Zayed
University, described a similar narrative of people wanting to leave not being ‘the right kind of
person’ and not perceived as ‘good Muslims’. However, they separated the tradition of
Pashtun men going abroad for periods to work, which is an old tradition, from people who goabroad and stay in non-Muslim countries – which is not ‘the right way to do it’. They further
stated that in rural Pashtun areas a person wanting to leave for Europe or the US would ingeneral be perceived with suspicion, and also persons having Western contacts.457 An
independent analyst stated that he had seen a social media post from a prominent Talibansocial media influencer that people who left for the West, did so because they were Westernminded and did not like an Islamic system. The analyst had, however, not seen anything in the
Taliban statements that a person seeking asylum in the West should be prosecuted, but
added that the Taliban were sceptical of the West.458 In a report based on interviews with
Afghans returning to Afghanistan from Sweden before the Taliban takeover in 2021, theresearchers noted several accounts of a stigma of being returned, and a common perceptionthat a person must have committed a crime to be deported, or that people returning from
Europe were ‘loaded with money’. Out of fear of being harassed or robbed, some did notdisclose that they were returnees. Another perception was that ‘returnees could becontaminated with Western ideas and values’, undermining the Islamic faith and generating
mistrust.459
Taliban officials repeatedly called on Afghans to return to Afghanistan460, including former
politicians461, military and civil leaders462, university lecturers463, businessmen and investors.464
Taliban senior officials further called on the thousands of Afghans who fled after the takeover
to return465, as well as all Afghans living abroad466 and former opponents to the Taliban.467

Afghan law professor, digital interview, 9 November 2021
Chiovenda, A. (Dr.) and Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr.), professors at Zayed University, digital interview, 9 November
2021
458
Independent Afghan Analyst, digital interview, 8 November 2021
459
Vera-Larrucea, C. and Malm Lindberg, H., Return to Afghanistan: The perils of returning to unstable and insecurecountries, Migration Policy Practive, Vol. XI, No. 4, December 2021 – April 2022, url, p. 45
460
Bakhtar News Agency, Delawar Called on All Afghan Political Figures to Return Home, 21 May 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Afghan UN Mission Announces It Will Host Gathering, 14 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Anas Haqqani
Calls on Unqualified Officials to Step Down, 27 December 2021, url; TOLOnews, At Hajj Ceremony, Official Calls forBrotherly Intl Relations, 12 June 2022, url; Ariana News, Defense ministry urges Afghan military students abroad toreturn home, 15 February 2022, url
461
TOLOnews, Minister of Repatriation Calls for Political Leaders to Return, 31 May 2022, url
462
TOLOnews, Ex-Military, Civil Leaders Should Return, Says Corps Commander, 5 January 2022, url; Ariana News,
Defense ministry urges Afghan military students abroad to return home, 15 February 2022, url
463
TOLOnews, MoHE Urges Professors to Return to Afghanistan, 10 February 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA urges
Afghan professors in exile to return home, 11 February 2022, url
464
Ariana News, IEA urge Afghan businessmen, investors abroad to return home, 18 May 2022, url
465
AP, Taliban official wanted by U.S. makes rare public appearance, 5 March 2022, url
466
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Issues Message for Eid, 29 April 2022, url
467
TOLOnews, Mullah Hanafi Calls for Unity Among Afghans, 26 April 2022, url
456
457

51

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In March 2022468, The Taliban established a ‘Commission for the Return and Communications
with Former Afghan Officials and Political Figures’ which started operating in May 2022.469 In alist of 15 articles470, it ensured that those returning would ‘have their legitimate demands met’,and presented a procedure which, inter alia, provided short-term accommodation for politicalfigures and former military personnel.471 Article 2 on the list reportedly stated that the Taliban
commission could collect information about those who left Afghanistan before or after the
Taliban takeover, or remained in the country but opposed the Taliban government.472 The
head of the Taliban commission stated in May 2022 that the Taliban government would
provide safety to returning government officials.473 This was repeated by the Taliban
commission in June 2022474 as well as by the Taliban Foreign Minister.475
On 8 December 2021, the Taliban supreme leader issued a statement in which he addressed
difficulties facing persons who left Afghanistan. According to TOLOnews, he stated that these
persons’ ‘beliefs ethics, and ways of thinking’, were jeopardized ‘based on some biased
programs’ and that they were obliged ‘to create scandals against Islam and the Islamic
System’ to receive asylum.476 On 27 February 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahidstated that persons leaving Afghanistan had ‘no excuse’ and that the Taliban were preventing
them from leaving. On 1 March 2022, Mujahid clarified on social media that he had meant that
persons with legal documents and invitations could travel from and return to Afghanistan. On
the same day, the Taliban deputy Minister for Refugees and Repatriations, however, statedthat it was not ‘appropriate’ for Western nations to facilitate Afghans’ departure by inviting
them and promising asylum. The Taliban deputy minister called this an ‘interference’ withinternational law and stated that the Taliban condemned it.477
During an interview with AP in December 2021, the Taliban Minister of Foreign Affairs insisted
that poverty and the dream of a better life, not fear, drove thousands of Afghans to try to get
evacuated in August 2021.478 In late May 2022, a number of Afghan asylum seekers protested
outside UNHCR’s office in Islamabad, Pakistan. According to Bakhtar News Agency, theTaliban Ministry of Foreign Affairs released a statement calling the protesters ‘economic
asylum seekers’479 According to Ariana News, the ministry stated that many of the protesters
had lived in Pakistan for years and ‘used the opportunity to try to get asylum in Western

Arab News, Former government officials return to Kabul at Taliban invitation, 8 June 2022, url
TOLOnews, Political Figures in Country Ask for Kabul's Engagement, 23 May 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA
approves working process to bring exiled Afghan politicians home, 17 May 2022, url
470
Khaama Press, The Taliban Drafts a 15-Article Bill for the Return of the Afghan Political And Military Figures, 21
May 2022, url
471
TOLOnews, Political Figures in Country Ask for Kabul's Engagement, 23 May 2022, url
472
Afghan Analyst [Twitter], posted on: 21 May 2022, url
473
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Pledges Safety for Returning Afghans, 21 May 2022, url
474
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Reiterates Pledge of Safety for Returning Afghans, 9 June 2022, url
475
TOLOnews, Muttaqi at Gathering Recounts Achievements of Islamic Emirate, 4 June 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA
commits to ensuring safety of ex-officials who return to Afghanistan: Muttaqi, 21 June 2021, url
476
TOLOnews, Fears, Needs of Fleeing Afghans Must Be Addressed: Akhundzada, 8 December 2021, url
477
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Rows Back Comments Saying Afghans Barred From Leaving, 2 March 2022, url
478
NPR, Taliban seek ties with U.S. and other ex-foes, Afghan foreign minister says, 13 December 2021, url
479
Bakhtar News Agency, No Citizen Live Is in Danger in Afghanistan: MoF, 25 May 2022, url
468

469

52

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

countries’.480 On 30 December 2021, Akhundzada released a decree instructing Taliban
members to encourage Afghans not to flee the country.481

1.5.2.

Treatment of persons trying to leave and returnees

Between 1 December 2021–30 April 2022, IOM documented an average monthly outflow ofapproximately 424 000 individuals from Afghanistan to Pakistan and Iran. In the same period
the average monthly inflow to Afghanistan from the same countries was approximately
357 000 individuals. In May 2022, the flows were lower, with around 255 000 individuals
leaving for Pakistan or Iran, and 292 000 returning from these countries.482 According toaccounts of human smugglers, reported by Der Spiegel, more than 3 000 persons arrived
daily in Nimruz Province, bordering Iran and Pakistan, ‘on their way to the West’.483 The
Taliban Ministry of Refugees and Repatriations claimed that 700 000 had returned since thetakeover by 20 June 2022.484 In April 2022, the ministry told media that they had received
thousands of Afghans forcibly deported from Iran during the past months.485 There were also
reports of forced deportations from Turkey.486 According to media reports, Turkey repatriatedover 18 000 Afghans to Afghanistan between 27 January and early June 2022.487
According to SIGAR, who refers to information obtained from USDOS, the Taliban did not
systematically restrict migration at overland crossings, although vehicles were regularly
checked and at times stopped at checkpoints. After announcing that Afghans would not be
permitted to leave Afghanistan unless their destinations were known, the Taliban appeared tostop Afghans trying to flee abroad by road, according to SIGAR. On the main highway from
Kabul to Pakistan the Taliban reportedly stopped all cars at numerous checkpoints, and‘sometimes pulled aside families with suitcases’.488 According to the Pakistani newspaper
Dawn, some national and international NGOs still made evacuation efforts in January 2022,
but the Taliban increasingly interfered. On 24 January 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah
Mujahid posted on social media that 40 individuals had been arrested when trying to leave
Afghanistan ‘illegally’ by air from Mazar-e Sharif. Most had been released, but some women
awaited male relatives to collect them.489 In February 2022, Hasht-e Subh claimed that the
Taliban had ordered border forces to prevent American and NATO collaborators from leaving
the country.490

Ariana News, IEA assures Afghan protesters in Pakistan they will be safe at home, 25 May 2022, url
Ariana News, IEA’s supreme leader calls on officials to adhere to amnesty orders, 30 December 2021, url
482
IOM, Movement in and out of Afghanistan, 2022, url
483
Der Spiegel, The Last Way Out of Afghanistan, 13 May 2022, url
484
Ariana News, IEA marks World Refugee Day, calls for Afghan migrants to be treated fairly, 21 June 2022, url
485
Bakhtar News Agency, Thousands of other Refugees Headed Back Home from Iran, 18 April 2022, url
486
AMASO [Twitter], posted on: 27 June 2022, url; Khaama Press, Turkey Deports 136 Undocumented Afghan
Migrants to the Taliban-Controlled Afghanistan, 25 June 2022, url; AMASO [Twitter], posted on: 11 June 2022, url
487
Media Line (The), Tukey Has Deported 18,256 Migrants to Afghanistan Since January, 9 June 2022, url;
Xinhuanet, Turkey repatriates more than 18,000 migrants back to Afghanistan, 8 June 2022, url
488
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 87
489
Dawn, Taliban detain 40 people trying to illegally leave Afghanistan by air, 26 January 2022, url
490
Hasht-e Subh, US, NATO’s In-Country Employees Cannot Leave Afghanistan, Says Taliban’s Interior Ministry, 28
February 2022, url
480
481

53

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

On 18 January 2022, Azeem Azeemi and three other activists were detained after trying toorganise a protest against the Pakistani national security adviser’s visit to Kabul.491 One local
media report cited a spokesperson of the Taliban GDI saying that Azeemi had confessed theintention to stage an illegal demonstration for the purpose of fleeing to the West, and to
disrupt national security under the dictate of the former government.492
Several officials linked to the former government returned, but all did not leave Afghanistan
amid the Taliban takeover but several years ago.493 The returned persons included a former
ambassador, who told AP that he had encountered ‘no rancour’ from the Taliban494, and theformer Minister of Education who returned from Turkey.495 He has previously been accused ofcorruption and embezzling international aid.496 Other returned figures were the former
Minister of State for Peace and later Special Representative for Peace under Ashraf Ghani497,
the former deputy Minister of Transport498, the former police chief of Qaisar District (Faryab
Province)499, five Afghan air force pilots500, academics501, the former mayor of Wardak
Province502, the former Minister of Religious Affairs, the former police cooperative head503
and the former Senate’s second deputy and a former president’s adviser.504 On 6 March 2022,
TOLOnews reported on Afghan experts returning to Kabul from ‘overseas’ to participate in a
conference to discuss ways of countering the crises in Afghanistan. The participating womenexperts called on the Taliban to reopen the former MoWA and other women’s institutions.505
The de facto authorities in Uruzgan Province claimed that as of May 2022, among the Islamic
Republic personalities who had returned to Afghanistan, were several ANDSF officials (‘headsof police stations, districts’ police chiefs and head of the intelligence’).506 According to the
Taliban’s return commission, 150 former government officials and political figures had returned
as of 26 June 2022.507 It has not been possible to corroborate this figure.
In April 2022, the speaker of the former government’s senate returned after a visit to the UAE
and explained to TOLOnews that he had met with political figures and former government
officials. Upon his return the former speaker called on the Taliban to engage in dialogue with
their opponents.508 In June 2022, Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of the High Council

VOA, Taliban Detain Human Rights Activists Planning Protest of Pakistan Official's Visit, 19 January 2022, url
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, 18, ‫ابل ته د پاکستان د ملي امنیت سالکار د سفر معترض ال هم د طالبانو په بند کې دی‬, [Protestor of the Pakistan
National Security Adviser’s visit to Kabul is still in Taliban’s Detention], March 2022, url
493
TOLOnews, Ex-Deputy Minister of Transport Returns to Kabul, 5 June 2022, url
494
AP, Six months of Taliban: Afghans safer, poorer, less hopeful, 15 February 2022, url
495
Bakhtar News Agency, Farooq Wardak, Former Minister of Education Head Back Home, 8 June 2022, url
496
Khaama Press, Former Minister of Education aka Founder of “Ghost Schools” Returns to Afghanistan, 8 June
2022, url
497
TOLOnews, Ghani’s Special Envoy for Peace Returns to Kabul, 13 February 2022, url
498
TOLOnews, Ex-Deputy Minister of Transport Returns to Kabul, 5 June 2022, url
499
TOLOnews, Kabul Should Create Inclusive Govt: Qaisari, 26 June 2022, url
500
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Welcomes Return of Afghan Pilots, 6 February 2022, url;
Ariana News, Pilot who fled to the United States returns home to Afghanistan, 19 April 2022, url
501
Ariana News, Afghan academics living abroad for years return home, 30 May 2022, url
502
TOLOnews, Former Mayor Zarifa Ghafari Returns to Afghanistan, 27 February 2022, url
503
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former religious affairs minister also returns home, 13 June 2022, url
504
TOLOnews, Habibullah Ahmadzai, Ex-Ghani Adviser, Returns to Country, 29 June 2022, url
505
TOLOnews, Afghan Experts Return From Abroad to Help Avert Crisis, 6 March 2022, url
506
Pajhwok Afghan News, Return of ex-officials to Uruzgan accelerated, 15 May 2022, url
507
TOLOnews, Kabul Should Create Inclusive Govt: Qaisari, 26 June 2022, url
508
TOLOnews, Muslimyar: Islamic Emirate Must Talk With Opponents, 2 April 2022, url
491

492

54

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

for National Reconciliation, returned to Kabul after a month’s visit to India.509 Former president
Hamid Karzai was, however, stopped from travelling to the UAE in May 2022.510
Ariana News reported on the first Afghan evacuee deported back to Afghanistan on 13
February 2022 from the US. This person reportedly had a criminal record.511 The Middle East
Eye reported on commercial flights going from Istanbul to Kabul in June 2022, carrying ‘a mix
of families from nearby European nations visiting family, businesspeople, NGO workers
returning from quick R&R trips abroad’ and deportees. One of the travellers had lived in the
UK for the past 10 years and returned to visit his birth family.512
An anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan stated that sometimes people weretargeted when they returned to Afghanistan, but the source did not see any clear connections
simply to the fact that these individuals had left the country. Rather it seemed to be connectedto their ‘original status’, such as leaving because they were affiliated with the former
government, particular fears related to their ethnic background or some other reasons. If aperson belonged to one of these categories, their risk was independent of the fact that they
had left the country, as they would be targeted by the Taliban anyway.513 Similarly, a
representative of DACAAR noted, during an interview with DIS on 18 March 2022, that ‘it was
not his impression that Afghans returning from the West would be subject to targeting by the
Taliban, unless it was a result of a personal dispute or vendetta.514

TOLOnews, Abdullah Returns to Country After 43-Day Personal Visit to India, 11 June 2022, url
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former President Karzai stopped from travelling to UAE, 15 May 2022, url
511
Ariana News, US deports first Afghan back to Afghanistan, 1 March 2022, url
512
MEE, On an Istanbul-Kabul flight, refugees and emigres prepare to see a new Afghanistan, 1 June 2022, url
513
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
514
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 38
509
510

55

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2.

Persons affiliated with security
institutions of the former government

2.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

On 17 August 2021, the Taliban announced a general amnesty for all government workers,
asking them ‘to restart [their] routine life with full confidence’.515 Thereafter, several Taliban
officials – up to the Taliban supreme leader and the Taliban Minister of Interior – publicly
called on fighters to abide by the amnesty. The latter added that he had met with former
officials of the Islamic Republic and assured them that they would not be harmed, ‘unless they
commit a crime’.516 The Taliban Minister of Defence, Mohammad Yaqoob, also reminded
Taliban fighters that they were ‘not allowed to take revenge or settle personal scores’.517 In
May 2022, the head of the Taliban’s return commission518 reiterated that the general amnesty
was granted to those ’involved in the war for 20 years’.519 Taliban authorities in Uruzgan
Province claimed that, as of May 2022, among the Islamic Republic figures who had returned
to Afghanistan, were several ANDSF officials (‘heads of police stations, districts’ police chiefs
and head of the intelligence’).520 For more information on returning individuals, see section
1.5.2. Treatment of persons trying to leave and returnees.
According to Iranian Radio Zamaneh, in early 2022, the Taliban consulted religious scholars
on the treatment to be reserved for former Islamic Republic officials guilty of corruption. The
clerics reportedly answered that the general amnesty could not apply to them and that theywould have to be prosecuted and punished. Since the term ‘corruption’ was not precisely
defined, Hasht-e Subh read it as a way to ’harass, persecute and physically eliminate’ civilian
and military servants of the former government.521
Nevertheless, several substantial reports claimed that, on the ground, this amnesty was not
systematically enforced nor fully respected by the Taliban. First, in terms of timeline, Human
Rights Watch and USIP’s senior expert Andrew H. Watkins underlined that a rise in targetedkillings of military and civilian former government personnel had been observed as early as
mid-2020. During summer 2021, the Taliban committed killings of ANDSF members who hadsurrendered or were detained – notably in Malistan, Ghazni Province, and Spin Boldak,
Kandahar Province.522 Nine members of the ANDSF of Hazara ethnicity were killed while

France 24, Taliban declares general amnesty for Afghan government officials, 17 August 2021, url
Pajhwok Afghan News, Respect amnesty for ex-officials: Taliban chief, 30 December 2021, url; Khaama Press,
Sarajudin Haqqani asks Taliban commanders not to seek revenge on previous officers, 19 January 2022, url
517
New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April
2022, url, 07:58–08.23
518
For more information on this commission and persons returning to Afghanistan, see sections 1.5 and 4.3.
519
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Pledges Safety for Returning Afghans, 21 May 2022, url
520
Pajhwok Afghan News, Return of ex-officials to Uruzgan accelerated, 15 May 2022, url
521
Radio Zamaneh, ‫[ افغانست پیشین نظامیان کشتن برای دینی جواز صدور‬Issuing a religious license to kill former Afghansoldiers], 17 January 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, The Taliban Justify the Persecution of Former Security Officers by
Seeking a Religious Permission, 26 March 2022, url
522
HRW, Afghanistan, Events of 2021, n.d., url
515

516

56

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

fleeing or surrendering to the Taliban, ‘execution-style’, in Daykundi province, on 30 August2021.523 Human Rights Watch separated the immediate aftermath of the Taliban takeover inAugust 2021 – characterised by ‘more opportunistic killings’ – from the following period, whensuch killings ‘[appeared] to have become more deliberate’. In the later period, the de facto
authorities had gained access to more informants and information regarding their targets.524 In
December 2021, journalist Bilal Sarwary noted a ‘growing’ countrywide trend of former ANDSF
members being abducted from their homes and later found dead.525 Human Rights Watch’s
Patricia Gossman analysed the arrests and killings as ‘a combination of revenge-seeking in theaftermath of war, Taliban intolerance of any dissent or criticism, and the group’s control ofmore territory, leaving those under threat fewer places to hide’.526
Research conducted by Human Rights Watch indicated that, in the period 15 August–30
October 2021, more than 100 former security forces members (encompassing military, police,
intelligence units and militias) had been summarily executed or forcibly disappeared acrossfour provinces (Ghazni, Helmand, Kandahar and Kunduz), after surrendering or being
apprehended by Taliban forces. Relatives of former ANDSF personnel were also reportedly
targeted. 527 The Taliban’s elite forces, or ‘Red units’, were thought to be tasked with searchingfor former ANDSF personnel during night raids.528 In an interview with EUAA, Gossman
reckoned that former ANDSF members were the primary target of Taliban violence.529 UNAMA
indicated a ‘clear pattern’ with regards to targeting taking place 15 August 2021–15 June 2022
and identified former ANDSF members as one of the groups having been ‘particularly at risk ofexperiencing human rights violations’. UNAMA recorded human rights violations against
former ANDSF and government officials throughout their reporting period, which included 160
extrajudicial killings (including 10 women), 178 arbitrary arrests and detentions, 23
incommunicado detentions, and 56 instances of torture and ill-treatment. All these instanceswere carried out by the de facto authorities and occurred in almost all parts of Afghanistan.530
In an earlier report from March 2022, OHCHR and UNAMA demonstrated figures of the killingof more than 130 former ANDSF members, government personnel and their family members.
More than 100 of these events were attributed to the Taliban and their affiliates, and OHCHR
expressed concern about a continuing practice of ‘arrest, incommunicado detention andalleged torture and ill-treatment’ of former ANDSF members, government personnel andsuspected affiliates.531 An international organisation, interviewed by DIS in April 2022, pointed
out that the time for these killings was unclear as well as if the trend was increasing or
decreasing.532 Lastly, in a documentary released in April 2022, the New York Times stated that
AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban responsible for brutal massacre of Hazara
men – new investigation, 19 August 2021, url
524
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url; Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
525Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 19 December 2021, url
526
Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against former members of Afghan security
forces, 30 November 2021, url
527
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url, p. 1
528
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url, p. 10529
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
530
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 13–14
531
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 25, 31
532
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 14523

57

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

during the first semester of Taliban rule, it had documented the killing or enforced
disappearance of 490 former government officials and members of the ANDSF across thecountry. Many other killings likely occurred but remained unverified, due to the victims’
relatives often being too afraid of retribution to speak out. The New York Times concluded
that despite their denials, the Taliban were ‘on a campaign of revenge killings’.533 Afghanistan
expert Michael Semple and Hasht-e Subh echoed this conclusion, the latter deeming the
Taliban’s general amnesty as ’a cover for the violations of human rights that the group has
been committing so far’ and ’a lie and trap for the security forces and former government
affiliates’.534
Watkins noted that the extent of this wave of extrajudicial searches, detentions and killings
was ‘impossible to measure’ and varied ‘widely from one area to the next’.535 Anonymous
sources interviewed by EUAA, the Swedish Migration Agency’s Unit for Migration Analysis andLandinfo respectively, concurred that it was difficult to see a general pattern, an Afghan law
professor described it as ‘scattered’.536 A human rights expert claimed in November 2021 thatthe targeting and killing of former ANDSF members seemed more prevalent in southern,south-eastern and eastern Afghanistan.537 The representative of an international organisationin Afghanistan, cited by DIS, listed the same regions and added Kabul.538 Most of the killings
compiled by the New York Times in an April 2022 documentary took place in north-eastern
province Baghlan (86 – due to the presence of many members of the former special forces
there), and the provinces Farah (27), Nangarhar (17), Helmand (14), Badakhshan (13), Daykundi(12) and Balkh (11). Provinces most affected by enforced disappearances included Kandahar(114), Uruzgan (28), Badakhshan (14) and Kabul (14).539 From October 2021 and onwards,
UNAMA noted that the targeting of former ANDSF members generally focused on individuals
rather than groups and that killings often were carried out like quick executions. Furthermore,
arbitrary arrests and detentions appeared to be ‘widespread’, according to UNAMA’s
assessment.540
Anonymous sources consulted by the Swedish Migration Agency’s Unit for Migration Analysis
in March-April 2022 remarked that it was difficult to determine whether extrajudicial
executions and abductions were driven by local revenge motives or approved by the Taliban
government. One of them thought that attacks against former government affiliates wereprimarily the result of local Taliban initiatives, since they were ‘sporadic’ and not a systematic‘hunt’.541 US Defence Intelligence Agency pointed to ‘localized small-scale reprisal killings,
New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April
2022, url
534
Hasht-e Subh, Widespread Violations of General Amnesty – Former Soldiers Are Not Safe, 16 April 2022, url;Feroz, E., Ein Jahr unter den Taliban, Republik.ch, 21 June 2022, url
535
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
536
EUAA, Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 47; Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime –situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 21; Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration
Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 19
537
EUAA, Afghanistan – Chttps://reliefweb.int/attachments/d24264f7-1208-3646-bb25-8f13e3514bb5/EN.pdfountry
Focus, January 2022, url, p. 47
538
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 15
539
New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April
2022, url
540
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 14
541
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis. Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 19
533

58

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

violence, and intimidation’ as well.542 This view was seemingly shared by other analysts suchas journalist Franz J. Marty543 and Quincy Institute of Responsible Statecraft’s Anatol Lieven,who ‘expected far more revenge killings’.544 An Afghan law professor interviewed by EUAA
also reasoned that, if the Taliban were to go after and punish anyone who worked against
them, the number of targeted attacks would be significantly higher than the records inNovember 2021.545 In November 2021, Watkins deemed the pattern of targeting specificindividuals ‘as-yet undiscernible’, but he added that based on anecdotal evidence, ‘efforts
were made to track former special forces, commando, and intelligence personnel’.546 In
contrast, Habib Khan, founder of Afghan Peace Watch, an NGO collaborating with ACLED tomonitor political violence, affirmed that ‘the Taliban [were] systemically targeting’ ANDSF
personnel.547 In April 2022, journalist Lynne O’Donnell, in an interview conducted by DIS,
observed that ‘people who had worked in any capacity for the former government [were]targeted, detained, kept in secret prisons, beaten, tortured and in some cases killed’.548 Last,
Human Rights Watch expressed similar concerns over revenge killings ‘becoming the basis fora deliberate policy to seek out and execute targeted former government’s security officials
and others’. Based on ‘increasing evidence’, Human Rights Watch wrote, these killings were‘carried out by senior Taliban leadership at the district or provincial level’ and the Taliban’s
intelligence.’549 While acknowledging that some of the former ANDSF members’ executions
may be the consequence of private conflicts, the New York Times denounced ‘the Taliban’s
revenge campaign’ as ‘deliberate’, ‘widespread’ and ‘ongoing’, forcing many former security
personnel to remain in hiding.550
According to an anonymous international source, interviewed by Landinfo in February 2022,
ethnicity, local communities, as well as economic and social position played an important rolein an individual’s vulnerability.551 An Afghan law professor told EUAA that there was a patternof local and tribal rivalry, as some tribes aligned with either the Taliban or the former
government. After the takeover, previous dynamics have changed, which has aggravatedsome ethnic tensions as a predominantly Pashtun group is in power. Such local conflicts
played a part in the revenge killings, because the local Taliban could take advantage of theirpower to carry out revenge.552 An international humanitarian organisation, interviewed by DIS,
concurred that the targeting depended ‘on the individual’s employer, their position as well as
on other types of background affiliation’.553 Watkins too remarked that some of the
documented summary executions had taken place ‘in areas where intra-tribal animosities,

SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 79. Additional information on
reprisals against former ANDSF and government employees obtained by SIGAR were classified (p. 75)
543
Marty, F. J., Vive la Résistance in Afghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022, url
544
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url
545
EUAA, Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 47
546
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
547
SkyNews, Afghanistan: The Taliban had promised amnesty for all - but they are responsible for most violenceagainst civilians, 16 June 2022, url
548
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 81
549
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url, pp. 2, 4
550
New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April
2022, url
551
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 23
552
EUAA, Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 48
553
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 14542

59

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

land/water disputes, ethnic tensions, and track records of violence and vengeance havespanned four decades of war’.554 Consulted by the Swedish Migration Agency’s Unit for
Migration Analysis, an anonymous international NGO and an Afghan human rights activist
pointed out that the Taliban had more systematically targeted former government members
affiliated with a certain tribe considered to be pro-Islamic Republic. Such communities
included the Tani tribe in Khost Province and the Achakzai tribe in Kandahar Province, whose
members were respectively recruited to the Khost Protection Force (KPF) and the former
police forces.555 Another source interviewed by Landinfo, also singled out Khost Province as
an area where targeted attacks against former security personnel were somewhat more
systematic, but did not mention a tribal dimension.556 A human rights activist interviewed by
EUAA in December 2021 suggested regional variations, reckoning that in the southern
provinces Kandahar, Zabul, Nimroz, Uruzgan, and Helmand, most acts were ‘structural’ as they
had the provincial leaderships’ blessing. The activist further stated that individual fighters
would not act on their own as they risked their life for the jihad and obeying the supremeleader. Thus, a fighter would not act alone, but ‘it has come from a leader’.557
Retaliation could often be traced back to private disputes linked to the unfolding of the armed
conflict at a local level. In such situations, the trigger was not the formal position, rank or
profile of the individuals involved, but their relationships.558 Sources consulted by DIS alsostressed the importance of ‘personal grudges and previous disputes’ in targeting incidents. In
such cases, ‘one’s previous occupation could be used against the person in question if they
have a dispute with a Taliban-member’. A journalist added that an ANDSF member could betargeted because of his ‘deeds rather than his rank’.559
In a September 2021 report, AAN’s Martine van Bijlert noted that ‘as in previous regimechanges, there will be room for relationships and expediency to trump revenge andaccountability. This outsized influence of relationships and personal grudges makes it difficult
to determine or understand who is in real danger and who might be all right’. 560 In that regard,
among the ANDSF members subjected to summary executions by the Taliban, Human Rights
Watch identified ‘lower-leve[l] security force members who were less well-known or lacked theprotection of tribal leaders, especially in the south’.561 Referring specifically to Kandahar
province, Patricia Gossman further explained to EUAA that, right after the takeover, theTaliban had executed many lower-ranked ANP figures, while occasionally releasing senior
officials (probably, she added, after warning them not to carry on with any other resistanceactivities). She assessed that these killings were the result of Taliban calculations, based upon
local context: they may have thought that in some cases going after prominent figures would
have excessive consequences in terms of local political dynamics and generate instability.562
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, pp. 19–20
556
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 21
557
Afghan human rights activist, digital interview, 2 December 2021
558
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 22
559
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, pp. 15–16
560
van Bijlert, M., The Moment in Between: After the Americans, before the new regime, AAN, 1 September 2021,
url
561
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You. Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, 30 November 2021, url
562
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
554

555

60

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

A well-informed journalist cited by DIS also singled out ‘mid- and low-level officers’ among themost targeted ANDSF elements. He shared the same reasoning as Gossman and noted that,in addition, these lower-ranked officers were prone to accept bribes.563 A representative for an
anonymous international organisation, consulted by Landinfo in February and March 2022,
stated that higher-ranking ANDSF members were most vulnerable, while foot soldiers‘probably’ could be forgiven more easily.564 According to UNAMA individuals on ‘differing levelof affiliation to the former government’ fell victim to targeting acts, ‘from senior officials todrivers, bodyguards and relatives.’565 UNAMA further stated that it was ‘evident’ that
individuals that did not hold senior roles within the ANDSF were also targeted, such as former
pro-government militia members and relatives.566
The Taliban have denied any systematic screening policy and attributed the killings anddisappearances to ‘rogue commanders’567 or to some ‘miscreants and notorious former
soldiers’ within Taliban units.568 Reacting to findings of Human Rights Watch in their November
2021 report ‘No Forgiveness for People like you’569, the de facto authorities assured that they
had arrested individuals not for ‘past deeds, but [because] they [were] engaged in new
criminal activities… [and] create problems and plots against the de facto administration, [and]keep contacts with notorious individuals who fled the country’.570
In November 2021, the de facto government set up a Taliban commission to purge ‘people ofbad character’ who had joined their ranks and were detrimental to the group’s reputation.571 A
similar announcement was made in September 2021.572 On 21 February 2022, Taliban officials
stated that the Taliban commission had expelled around 4 500 Taliban members from the defacto security forces.573 However, in May 2022, Gossman told EUAA that she thought that thecases handled by the Taliban commission were related to theft and corruption, and not to thereported killings of persons affiliated with the former security forces.574 In addition, Dr. Andrea
Chiovenda, adjunct assistant professor of anthropology at Zayed University, reckoned that the
Taliban could not enforce the amnesty575, which Watkins echoed by remarking that ‘there isreally nothing to check [the fighters’] behaviour’, fuelled by protracted grievances towards theformer administration, perceived as abusive and corrupt. Watkins noted that the Taliban werereluctant to acknowledge the extent of these incidents and unwilling or unable to reform themilitant mind-set of their fighters who, by default, ‘hunt down, seek out and eliminate theDenmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 16
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 21
565
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 13–14
566
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 15
567
AFP, Taliban reject claims of summary killings of ex-security forces, 5 December 2021, url; New York Times(The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April 2022, url
568
Reuters, Afghan Taliban defence minister orders crackdown on abuses, 24 September 2021, url
569
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You. Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, 30 November 2021, url
570
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url
571
Reuters, Taliban to purge people of bad character from ranks, 23 November 2021, url
572
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url
573
TOLOnews, Reform Commission Expels Around 4,500 Members of Security Forces, 21 February 2022, url;
Pajhwok Afghan News, 4,350 undesired persons expelled from forces ranks, 21 February 2022, url
574
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
575
EUAA, Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 47
563

564

61

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

enemy’.576 This view was shared by an Afghan law professor who told EUAA that he‘absolutely believed’ that the Taliban systematically targeted people perceived as potential
threats. Among them, he singled out intelligence officials or elite forces of the previous
administration who could potentially join anti-Taliban movements.577 In December 2021, Bilal
Sarwary attributed a ‘growing trend’ of destroying the graves of former ANDSF members tothe ‘younger generation of Taliban [fighters]’.578
The Christian Science Monitor (CSM) conjectured that the de facto authorities may condone
these acts to appease fighters eager to get revenge and booty, in the midst of an economiccrisis and a volatile situation where other militant groups could recruit frustrated Taliban
fighters. The article noted that ‘going after senior district and provincial personalities [stymied]
the chances of organized resistance’.579
The New York Times wrote that ‘[Taliban] lower-rank commanders and foot soldiers’ were
thought to be responsible for the majority of the executions and disappearances.580 In thatregard, a senior security official told AAN that he was wary of the rank-and-file fighters, not of
the leadership.581 According to an Afghan human rights expert interviewed by EUAA, theTaliban fighters, now victorious, felt like they were ‘entitled’ to commit such killings.582
Michael Kugelman, Deputy Director and Senior Associate for South Asia at the Wilson Center,stressed that the Taliban were ‘probably’ not responsible for all the documented killings andharassment of former personnel of the Islamic Republic.583 Afghans interviewed in late 2021 by
AAN remarked that ‘ordinary people, former government officials, old rivals – often used thechaos or the cover of the Taliban to settle scores or grab what they could’.584
Anecdotal evidence collected by AAN suggest that in Jaghori District, Ghazni Province, thelocal religious authorities were able to convince the Taliban to stop searching houses looking
for former government officials in the midst of the takeover, as it would prompt resistanceamong the population.585 The Washington Post yet noted that the involvement of local
informal de facto authorities was not always enough to obtain the release of prisoners – in theexample given, the Taliban refused to free a former senior police commander as he was‘accused of arresting and torturing Taliban fighters’.586 Moreover, in Helmand Province, aCSM, The Taliban won. So why, and who, are they still fighting?, 2 December 2021, url
EUAA, Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 47
578
RFE/RL/Gandhara, The Taliban Wages War Against Its Dead Rivals, 29 December 2021, url
579
CSM, The Taliban won. So why, and who, are they still fighting?, 2 December 2021, url
580
New York Times (The), Dozens of Former Afghan Security Forces Dead or Missing Under Taliban, Report Says,
30 November 2021, url
581
van Bijlert, M., The Moment in Between: After the Americans, before the new regime, AAN, 1 September 2021, url
582
EUAA, Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 48
583
Le Figaro, En Afghanistan, les talibans incapables de faire régner l’ordre et la justice, 9 January 2022, url
584
van Bijlert, M., Afghanistan’s Conflict in 2021 (1), AAN, 28 December 2021, url
585
van Bijlert, M., Afghanistan’s Conflict in 2021 (1): The Taleban’s sweeping offensive as told by people on the
ground, AAN, 28 December 2021, url
586
Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against former members of Afghan security
forces, 30 November 2021, url
576
577

62

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

former ANDSF commander surrendered to the Taliban on 15 August 2021, and was later taken
away by the Taliban’s intelligence service, even though his nephew was a Taliban fighter.587
In January 2022, based on unspecified Afghan media sources, Rukhshana Media warned that
Pakistani security forces had been ‘hunting down’ former security agents of the Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan, in Pakistan. Several of them were said to have disappeared after they
entered the country, while others were reportedly detained incommunicado. Some of theirrelatives have seemingly been arrested too.588
Last, as regards ANDSF members’ relatives, sources consulted by DIS stated that they were‘generally not a target’ but that it depended on the specific occupation of their relative and on
the existence of anterior, unresolved conflict with the Taliban. Journalist Lynne O’Donnell
affirmed that some Taliban fighters shot relatives or neighbours of the individual whom they
were tracking down.589 On the other hand, UNAMA stated that it was ‘evident’ that individuals
that did not hold senior roles within the ANDSF were also targeted, including relatives.590

2.2.

Taliban capabilities in identifying their targets

Human Rights Watch stressed that it was easier for the Taliban to track down former Islamic
Republic agents in smaller villages and towns, where ‘residents tend to know each otherwithin communities and established neighbourhoods’. In their report from November 2021
they pointed out that many killings had been ordered by lower-ranked commanders, who
often were aware of local political dynamics.591 As soon as August 2021, the de facto
authorities took action to expand their informants’ network, prompting district officials,
moneychangers, students and heads of mosques to provide them with names of ANDSF
members and former government employees.592 A journalist interviewed by DIS stressed the‘systematic effort’ made by the Taliban to obtain information, more particularly on Kabul
residents (professional occupation, affiliations, etc.).593
Furthermore, after they had taken over certain provinces, the Taliban demanded former
security personnel to register with them to obtain an ‘amnesty letter’ and hand over their
weapons.594 According to AAN analyst Sabawoon Samim, one of the three directorates of the
MPVPV was tasked with providing these amnesty cards to officials of the former government

HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, 30 November 2021, url
588
Rukhshana Media, These women were looked down on when they worked in the army. Now they’ve beenabandoned in a “dungeon”, 17 January 2022, url
589
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 22
590
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 15
591
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url, p. 10
592
New York Times (The), Hunted by the Taliban, U.S.-Allied Afghan Forces Are in Hiding, 19 August 2021, url; Bilal
Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 28 December 2021, url; Le Figaro, En Afghanistan, le règne des talibans, entre
exécutions et pauvreté, 24 January 2022, url
593
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 15
594
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, 30 November 2021, url, p. 2
587

63

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

and ensuring their safety.595 Yet, some reports suggest that these registrations were used as alure to identify officials of the previous government – and potentially detain and summarily
execute them, sometimes weeks after they collected the protection letter. Moreover, theTaliban resorted to threats and abuses against relatives of former security forces members
who had gone into hiding, to learn about their whereabouts.596 While the Washington Post
cited examples where former soldiers had applied for amnesty and not been harmed or
threatened, one of them (in Kunduz Province) said that the Taliban occasionally showed up at
his house ‘to check again for weapons or government cars’, describing these visits as a formof harassment and as ‘unnerving’.597 Conversely, the Taliban reportedly detained people who
had not registered with them out of fear of reprisal or ignorance of the process.598
In March 2022, Human Rights Watch expressed concern over databases that the de facto
authorities could access, as some contained ’sensitive biometric data’ such as iris scans,fingerprints, photographs, addresses, names of relatives. Human Rights Watch notably listed
the e-tazkera599 database, which has been compiling private information on Afghan citizens
since 2010, the payroll system of the National Directorate of Security (NDS) and databases
funded and/or built by Western donors and international institutions.600 Human Rights Watch’s
Patricia Gossman told EUAA that there were no evidence that the Taliban actually use these
databases.601 However, a former NDS collaborator and engineer told French newspaper Le
Figaro that the Taliban had ordered him to fix a tracking and listening system which he hadsabotaged to prevent them from using it. He was detained for refusing to comply.602
From February 2022 onwards, the de facto authorities launched a wide-ranging search
operation throughout several areas of Kabul and other provinces, officially to improve security.
Anecdotal information from residents suggested that some homes were searched to findpersons affiliated with the former government.603 According to SIGAR and Hasht-e Subh, suchindividuals had been arrested as well as former government officials.604 Hasht-e Subhreported on such search operations taking place in Daykundi Province.605 Sources interviewed
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality, AAN, 15 June 2022, url
Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against former members of Afghan security
forces, 1 December 2021, url; New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They ExecutedThem, [Online video], 12 April 2022, url, 08:30–10:00; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the
population, June 2022, url, p. 14
597
Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against former members of Afghan security
forces, 1 December 2021, url; New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They ExecutedThem, [Online video], 12 April 2022, url, 08:30–10:00
598
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, 30 November 2021, url, p. 2; Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against
former members of Afghan security forces, 30 November 2021, url
599
The tazkera is the main identification document in Afghanistan. Under the Islamic Republic, all Afghan citizens
were required to have one, however such a provision was not implemented in practice. The first e-tazkeras (with anelectronic chip containing biometric information) were issued in 2018. For more information, see: Norway, Landinfo,
Afghanistan: Tazkera, passports and other ID documents, 22 May 2019, url, pp. 5–12
600
HRW, New Evidence that Biometric Data Systems Imperil Afghans, 30 March 2022, url
601
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
602
Le Figaro, À Kaboul, la terreur talibane jusqu'au bout du désespoir, 14 March 2022, url
603
DW, Taliban conduct sweeping house-to-house searches [Online video], 16 March 2022, url; VOA, Taliban
Defend Door-to-door Searches in Kabul, Bar Future Evacuations of Afghans, 27 February 2022, url
604
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 73; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forces
Imprison, Torture Daikundi Residents As Staging Massive House-to-House Sweep, Reports, 1 March 2022, url
605
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forces Imprison, Torture Daikundi Residents As Staging Massive House-to-House Sweep,
Reports, 1 March 2022, url
595

596

64

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

by DIS noted the ‘varying treatment’ received by individuals affiliated with the former
government during this campaign: some were released after being detained for a couple ofdays or being questioned, while others were held incommunicado.606 In May-June 2022,
according to information only reported by Hasht-e Subh, the Taliban were still conducting
house searches in Herat Province, to identify former soldiers and extort them money, while inPanjsher Province, they set up checkpoints and used biometric devices to the same end.607

2.3.

Recruitment of former ANDSF members by Taliban
forces or other armed groups

In March 2022, USDOS affirmed that ‘most former ANDSF personnel [had] returned to civilian
life and many others [had] departed the country’.608
In December 2021, the de facto authorities set up a special committee to create a new regulararmy. The Taliban Minister of Foreign Affairs said it would include ‘faithful and patriotic
people’, and thus not retain ‘all ANDSF personnel’, who were trained by ‘foreign occupiers’.609
Although the Taliban Minister of Defence stated in February 2022 that ‘90 percent of theemployees of the ministry [were] former officers’610, a UNSG report from June 2022 noted that‘the security personnel of the former government [had] been largely dismissed, except fortechnical staff and specialized military personnel’.611 AP observed that the Taliban had had little
success in convincing former military personnel to join their army, due to fears of retribution.612
The US Defence Intelligence Agency added that ‘some ANDSF and civilians [had] joined thede facto security forces at lower levels, likely for personal gain’.613 According to anecdotal
evidence, some former ANDSF members were prepared to join the de facto security forces toease the economic hardships that they faced since losing their job.614
As listed by a Taliban official, rehired professionals included ‘pilots and engineers, service
persons, logistical and administrative staff’.615 As of March 2022, according to a Taliban
source, 4 300 former Air Force members (including 33 pilots) had joined the military aviationof the de facto authorities. One of them told the New York Times that he had enrolled toDenmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 15
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Identifies Former Security Affiliates Using Biometric Devices Across Panjshir Routes, 15
May 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Restarts House-to-House Search Operations in Herat, 21 May 2022, url;
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Launches House-to-House Searches in Herat, Asking Money and Weapons from Former
Regime Members, 16 June 2022, url
608
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 70
609
Nikkei Asia, Taliban quietly forming regular army to make Afghanistan a state, 12 December 2021, url; Ariana
News, IEA appoints committee to review the Afghan army, 11 December 2022, url
610
Khaama Press, Afghanistan will initially have a-110,000-member army: acting Defense Minister, 15 February2022, url
611
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 11
612
AP, Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February 2022, url
613
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 70
614
AFP, Ex-government workers mine for salvation in Afghan mountains, 28 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Former
Afghan Security Forces in Afghanistan Report Challenges, 28 February 2022, url
615
Al Jazeera, Taliban to create Afghanistan grand army with old regime troops, 22 February 2022, url
606
607

65

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

support his family. At this time, though, pilots from the elite ‘Special Mission Wing’ were still
moving from house to house because they placed no trust in the Taliban’s reassurances, who
had killed several pilots before they took over Kabul.616 In June 2022, the Taliban alsoannounced that Afghan cadets sent to India by the previous administration to complete theirmilitary training were to be hired to the Taliban armed forces.617 For more information on
recruitment to the Taliban, see section 13.1. Recruitment to the Taliban.
While USDOS stated that rehired individuals were not allowed to serve in the leadership of thede facto security forces618, Al Jazeera reported on the nomination of two senior Afghanistan
National Army (ANA) officers (specialist surgeons) to ‘top posts in the Defence ministry’.619
In November 2021, Professor Barnett Rubin, an expert on Afghanistan, expressed concern
over former ANDSF personnel – especially Tajik individuals and members of the former
military and intelligence services – joining ISKP and providing the group with their expertise.620
Their motivations did not appear to be ideological.621 Instead, they saw the group as powerfulenough to protect them from the Taliban. ISKP was also said to offer them ‘significant amountsof cash’.622 In a report of May 2022, the UN Analytical Support and Monitoring Team assessed
the number of ANDSF employees joining ISKP ‘for protection from or revenge against the
Taliban’ as low.623 In an earlier assessment, the US Defence Intelligence Agency stated thatANDSF former agents ‘almost certainly [had] not joined violent extremist organizations within
Afghanistan’. Nevertheless, a former prominent general quoted by SIGAR noted thatcommandos and intelligence officers unable to be evacuated were ‘especially vulnerable’ to
ISKP recruitment624 and USIP’s Andrew H. Watkins warned that the Taliban ‘war on terror’ may
become a smokescreen for retribution against former government forces’.625
Lastly, many of the NRF fighters were thought to be ‘low-ranking officers’ of the Islamic
Republic.626 An NRF official told local Afghan media outlet Etilaat-e Roz that former ANDSF
personnel – especially former special forces officers – were the ‘backbone’ of the
movement.627 According to online magazine Guernica, some former soldiers (namely inAndarab District, Baghlan Province) had first taken the initiative to get together to ‘build
rudimentary fortifications and weapons caches’ before coming under the NRF. 628 Among theother resistance groups, the Afghanistan Islamic National & Liberation Movement wasreportedly headed by a former special forces commander, while the Afghanistan Freedom
New York Times (The), Afghan Aviators Hide as Taliban Urge Them to Return to Duty, 13 March 2022, url
Pajhwok Afghan News, Foreign-trained cadets to be inducted into military: MoI, 25 June 2022, url
618
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 70
619
Al Jazeera, Taliban to create Afghanistan grand army with old regime troops, 22 February 2022, url
620
Rubin, B., The Once and Future Defeat in Afghanistan, War On The Rocks, 1 November 2021, url
621
Independent Afghan analyst, digital interview, 8 November 2021; WSJ, Left Behind After U.S. Withdrawal, Some
Former Afghan Spies and Soldiers Turn to Islamic State, 31 October 2021, url
622
WSJ, Left Behind After U.S. Withdrawal, Some Former Afghan Spies and Soldiers Turn to Islamic State, 31
October 2021, url
623
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022,
url
624
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 January 2022, url, p. 72
625
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
626
New York Times (The), Taliban Search Operation Echoes Resented U.S. Tactics, 2 March 2022, url
627
Etilaat-e Roz, ‫سیگار‬: ‫[ اند پیوسته »مقاومت جبهه« به افغانستان پیشین ارتش ویژه نیروهای‬SIGAR: Special forces of the former
Afghan army have joined the "Resistance Front"], 3 April 2022, url
628
Guernica, Inside the Afghan Resistance, 24 May 2022, url
616
617

66

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Front certified that it had rallied ‘the majority of generals and other officers of the former
republican security forces’.629 VOA noted that General Yasin Zia, previously serving as Chief ofGeneral Staff of the armed forces and former deputy Minister of Defence630, was thought to be
one of the Afghanistan Freedom Front’s leaders.631 In April 2022, another prominent general,Sami Sadat, announced that he was preparing for war against the Taliban, along other former
soldiers. BBC pointed out that Sadat had been previously accused of violence against civilians
in Helmand Province, where he commanded Afghan forces in 2021.632
For more information on recruitment to the Taliban and armed groups, see section
13. Recruitment to armed groups.

2.4.

Persons who served in former military units

In December 2021, in Kabul City, the Taliban took the former deputy commander of the 2017
Pamir Corps in Kunduz Province to an undisclosed location. A relative told TOLOnews that the
Taliban came to the commander’s house and took vehicles and weapons, but did not provide
any clear reason for the arrest.633 In May 2022, according to uncorroborated information onsocial media, the Taliban intelligence directorate arrested a retired general at the Kabul
International Airport, while he was trying to seek medical treatment abroad.634
Hasht-e Subh also reported on detentions and killings of rank-and-file ANA members. For
instance, in December 2021, in Kabul, the Taliban arrested a former 205th ANA Corps member
along with his brother-in-law. He was accused of not handing over weapons that he claimed
had already been seized. Hasht-e Subh added that his family was not allowed to visit him in
detention and that the officer had been identified through information provided by a friend ofhis, after the Taliban had detained him.635 In June 2022, the Taliban allegedly arrested‘dozens’ of former soldiers in Kapisa Province on the charges of affiliation to the NRF.636
As regards the treatment of former ANA members while in detention, in December 2021,
journalist Bilal Sarwary shared a video on social media of Taliban fighters beating a detainee
identified as a former ANA battalion commander.637 Two days later, the de facto authorities
announced that the individuals torturing the man had been arrested and were underinvestigation. Yet they did not release the commander.638 In January 2022, Bilal Sarwary
reported on social media about an arrest of two brothers who had served in the ANDSF,
during a night raid in Khiva/Kuzkunar District, Nangarhar Province. One of them reportedly
died ‘under severe torture’.639 Other sources on the social media and microblogging service

Marty, F. J., Vive la Résistance in Afghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022, url
Adili, A. Y., Still Preoccupied by Who Gets What, AAN, 5 August 2020, url
631
VOA, Afghan Fighting Season Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 27 April 2022, url
632
BBC News, Afghanistan: Former army general vows new war against Taliban, 29 April 2022, url
633
TOLOnews, Former Military Officer Detained by Islamic Emirate: Family, 21 December 2021, url
634
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 11 May 2022, url
635
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrest an Officer of the 205th Corps in Kabul, 28 December 2021, url
636
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests Former Government Soldiers and Youths in Kapisa, 29 June 2022, url
637
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 27 December 2021, url
638
TOLOnews, Men Torturing Former Military Official on Video Detained, 29 December 2021, url
639
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022, url
629
630

67

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMTwitter noted that the Taliban had then arrested eight individuals linked to the case, including
the former district governor.640 In March 2022, the Taliban arrested, allegedly tortured andthen murdered a former soldier in Taloqan City, Takhar Province.641 In April 2022, Etilaat-e Roz
also reported that at least two former security forces member, a former soldier from Daykundi
Province and a former policeman from Helmand Province respectively, had been tortured –the latter to death.642
There were also cases of non-fighting army personnel being detained and killed. For instance,
a finance officer of an ANA brigade was killed in Kunduz Province in December 2021. His
relatives accused the Taliban for the attack, who had asked him to resume his job forweeks.643 In May 2022, the Taliban arrested the protocol manager of the former Ministry of
Defence during a house search in Kabul.644
Other killings remained unclaimed. In Khanabad District, Kunduz Province, two brothers (onewas a former soldier) were allegedly killed by gunmen ‘in military uniforms’ in January 2022.645
Hasht-e Subh documented similar events in Firozkoh City, Ghor Province, where a former ANA
member was killed under unclear circumstances in March 2022646, and in Parwan Province
where a former soldier was shot on his doorstep in May 2022.647 The same source reported
on unidentified men killing five relatives (two were military personnel) of a former commander
in Kapisa Province in February 2022.648 In May 2022, in Dehrawud District, Uruzgan Province,
the former commander of a military base and his son were killed. The Taliban claimed that thisevent was due to ‘personal enmity’ and that they had arrested three suspects.649 Last, inFebruary 2022, Bilal Sarwary reported on Twitter that hand grenades had been thrown at aformer ANA officer’s house in Sarkani District, Kunar Province, but did not cause casualties.650
In June 2022, Hasht-e Subh and RFEL/RL’s Radio Azadi reported that in provinces such as
Herat, Farah and Zabul, the Taliban had evicted former soldiers (including high-ranking
members) and their families from their homes, claiming that their houses were ‘government
properties’. The properties were reportedly distributed to Taliban fighters. Some residents
stressed that they had built the houses on land allocated to them by the former government
and that they had nowhere to go. In Herat, some tenants said that they had received death
threats and sent two delegations to Kabul to find a solution, to no avail.651 In Uruzgan Province,
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 20 January 2022, url
Hasht-e Subh, Local Sources: Taliban Militants Murder a Former Army Soldier in Takhar Province, 27 March
2022, url
642
Etilaat-e Roz, ‫[ طالبان گاهایبازداشت در شکنجه ادعای‬Allegations of torture in Taliban detention centres] 6 April 2022, url
643
Tajuden Soroush [Twitter], posted on: 15 December 2021, url; Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 15 December
2021, url
644
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Detains a Former Army Soldier in Kabul, 20 May 2022, url
645
Hasht-e Subh, Gunmen in Military Uniforms Kill Two Brothers in Kunduz, 29 January 2022, url
646
Hasht-e Subh, Local Sources: A Former National Army Solider Mysteriously Murdered in Ghor Province, 13
March 2022, url
647
Hasht-e Subh, Anonymous Gunmen Shot Dead a Former Army Soldier in Parwan, 5 May 2022, url
648
Hasht-e Subh, 2 Soldiers, 3 Civilians Killed in Kapisa, 16 February 2022, url
649
Hasht-e Subh, Two Former Soldiers Mysteriously Killed in Urozgan, 6 May 2022, url
650Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 10 February 2022, url
651
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forcibly Evict Former Soldiers From Their Houses, Confiscate Their Properties, 8 June
2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Orders Former Herat Army Corps Members to Evacuate Their Apartments by Eidul-Adha, 9 June 2022, url; RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, ‫[ فراه والیت در طالبان سوی از سابق نظامیان اجباری کوچ‬Forced relocation offormer troops by the Taliban in Farah province], 22 June 2022, url
640
641

68

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

the Taliban reportedly turned houses of former soldiers into military bases, checkpoints orresidences for their own fighters.652

2.5.

Persons who served in former police units

As of June 2022, the new de facto police force was said to have retained ‘some’ former
personnel ‘but had largely inducted Taliban fighters’.653 A couple of months earlier, Amina
Khan, Director of Centre for Afghanistan, Middle East & Africa (CAMEA) at the Islamabadbased Institute of Strategic Studies (ISSI), told DIS that ‘many former Afghan National Police(ANP) and Afghan Local Police (ALP) officers [were] still working’ but not receiving salaries.654
In that regard, about 30 agents in Balkh Province reportedly quit their jobs in February 2022
because they had not been paid in seven months.655 According to the Guardian, before the
Taliban takeover, about 4 000 women were serving in the former police. As of April 2022,‘most of them [had] lost their jobs. A fraction was retained to manage women’s prisons’.656 A
former female police officer claimed she was the target of several threats because she had
been in charge of recruiting other women and had worked alongside men.657
In May 2022, the Taliban were deemed responsible for the murder of a former police officer in
Takhar Province.658 In June 2022, they reportedly killed a former border police agent in Kabul
City, even though he had been provided with an amnesty letter.659 The perpetrators of otherkillings remained unknown. In January 2022, in Herat City, unidentified gunmen shot dead theformer police chief of Taywara District, Ghor Province.660 In April 2022, a former officer of the
Afghan National Civil Order Police (ANCOP) was killed in Dara-i Nur District, Nangarhar
Province. The local de facto authorities described the incident as an honour killing, and linked
it to an intrafamilial conflict.661
Sources also reported on arrests and disappearances of former police members. Human
Rights Watch and Amnesty International expressed concerns over the disappearance of theformer head of the women’s prison in Herat, in October 2021. ANP’s Alia Azizi – also amember of the Hazara community – was given a protection letter and, at the request of the defacto authorities, resumed working after the Taliban takeover. On 2 October 2021, she neverreturned home after work. As of April 2022, her whereabouts were still unknown, and the
Taliban were yet to launch a ‘credible’ investigation of the case.662 As of March 2022, a former
police officer in Kabul City had been detained for a month without the Taliban providing any

Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Rebels Occupy Former Soldiers’ Houses in Urozgan Province, 18 April 2022, urlReuters, Afghan Taliban unveils new uniforms for reconstituted police force, 8 June 2022, url
654
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 77
655
Hasht-e Subh, Non-payment of Salaries to Traffic Police in Balkh, 18 February 2022, url
656
Kumar, R., We had 4,000 policewomen in Afghanistan. Let them get back to work, The Guardian, 21 April 2022,
url
657
Guardian (The), The Taliban hate us: a former senior female police officer, 20 January 2022, url
658
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Shot Dead a Former Police Officer Along With Three Civilians in Takhar, 15 May 2022, url
659
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 8 June 2022, url
660
Ariana News, Former district police chief in Ghor gunned down, 25 January 2022, url
661
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former security official gunned down in Nangarhar, 30 April 2022, url
662
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban authorities must reveal Alia Azizi’s whereabouts, 21 January 2022, url; HRW,
Afghanistan: Herat Women’s Prison Head Missing 6 Months, 20 April 2022, url
652
653

69

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

reason to his family.663 Hasht-e Subh reported on arrests of high-ranked former police officers
in the provinces Takhar and Kandahar.664 In late June 2022, the Taliban arrested a retired
former police commander of Bagram District, Parwan Province and two of his male relatives.665
In early 2022, the mother of a former policeman was taken by Taliban fighters and later killedin Mazar-e Sharif. The family had been harassed for some time, the Taliban demanding themto vacate their property and to hand over weapons they did not own.666 In Khost Province, thebrother of a former police special forces unit commander claimed that he had been detained
and tortured for four days by the Taliban, who demanded him to bring them his brother. They
released him after he found somebody to vouch for him.667

2.6.

Persons who served in the former NDS

In a December 2021 article, the New York Times quoted a Taliban commander stating that thegeneral amnesty extended to the NDS special units, or ‘Zero Units’668, described as the
Taliban ‘mortal enemies’.669 However, the Taliban have targeted people linked to the NDS.670
Anecdotal evidence gathered by USIP’s Andrew H. Watkins suggested that ‘efforts were madeto track former special forces, commando, and intelligence personnel’. 671 The Washington Postechoed this view, noting in November 2021 that former ‘members of Afghanistan’s special
forces and many prominent commanders [feared] they [were] at greater risk of revenge killings
because they were more likely to have killed, imprisoned, or interrogated Taliban members
than the Afghan military’s rank-and-file’. In the first weeks following the Taliban takeover, mostof the killings of former intelligence officers reportedly took place in the south and the east ofAfghanistan, where the Taliban have their ‘strongest source networks and where the Afghan
intelligence was most active in the public, most exposed’.672 ISSI’s Amina Khan stated thatwhile the extent of the targeting of former NDS agents is unknown, the de facto authorities
focused on mid- and high-ranked officer. Many were ‘outspoken critics’ of the Taliban.673
Moreover, an anonymous Afghan source told journalist Lynne O’Donnell that former special
forces and commando members were ‘easy to identify from their physiques’.674
In March 2022, Le Figaro quoted a Taliban dignitary saying that the former NDS agents who
refused to cooperate with the de facto government were to be executed.675 As of October
TOLOnews, Ex-Police Officer Detained for 25 Days: Family, 12 March 2022, url
Hasht-e Subh, Local Sources: Taliban Militants Murder a Former Army Soldier in Takhar Province, 27 March
2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests Ex-Police Chief of Ghorak District, Kandahar, 29 May 2022, url
665
TOLOnews, Former Military Official in Parwan Detained: Family, 29 June 2022, url
666
Times (The), Afghanistan’s disappeared women: an arrest by the Taliban, then a bullet-riddled body, 27 January2022, url
667
TOLOnews, Brother of Former Police Commander Says He Was Tortured in Khost, 21 February 2022, url
668
For more information on these units and the raids they conducted, see, for instance: Quilty, A. and Cole, M., The
CIA’s Afghan Proxies, Accused of War Crimes, Will Get a Fresh Start in the U.S., The Intercept, 6 October 2021, url
669
Aikins, M., Inside the Fall of Kabul, New York Times (The), 10 December 2021, url
670
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 17
671
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021, url
672
Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against former members of Afghan security
forces, 30 November 2021, url
673
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 17
674
O’Donnell, L., Afghan kidnappings leave families in the dark, The New Statesman, 30 March 2022, url
675
Le Figaro, À Kaboul, la terreur talibane jusqu'au bout du désespoir, 14 March 2022, url
663

664

70

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

2021, most of the ‘fraction’ of former ANDSF personnel who had resumed work under the
Taliban, were reportedly NDS agents.676 An anonymous international source, interviewed byLandinfo in February 2022, stated that former NDS instructors actively participated in trainings
of Taliban members.677 Hasht-e Subh nevertheless reported on such an NDS agent who had
started working for the Taliban as a trainer: they seemingly remained suspicious of him andended up killing him.678 According to unverified information published on Twitter, in Ghazni
Province, the Taliban intelligence directorate reportedly instructed its members to identify intheir ranks and report, among others, ‘mercenaries’ belonging to the former government.679
During the reporting period, journalist Bilal Sarwary documented the killing of several former
NDS officers, some of them carried out by unidentified gunmen: the former NDS district chiefof Orgun, Kunar Province680, a former intelligence officer in Kandahar Province681 and a former
employee of the directorate 64 (D64) in Gardez, Paktya Province.682 Later on, in May 2022,
Sarwary reported on Twitter about the son of the former NDS chief of the Bahrak District,Takhar Province, being tortured to death by the Taliban.683 In mid-June 2022, the Taliban
reportedly tortured and then shot a former senior executive of the NDS in Zabul Province.
Hasht-e Subh claimed that several of his relatives were tortured as well.684
Hasht-e Subh reported on other former NDS members being arrested by the Taliban (orindividuals presenting themselves as such) and taken to unknown locations: for instance, inFebruary 2022, in Kabul City685, in April 2022 in the provinces Bamyan and Ghor686, and in
May 2022, a former member of the NDS special forces in Kunduz Province.687 According to
the same media source, in May 2022, Taliban forces visited several former NDS agents’houses during a search operation in Kandahar Province and took them away.688
Journalist Bilal Sarwary reported on social media, in March 2022, on unknown gunmen
shooting the brother of a former NDS commander in Kunar Province.689 The following month,
Hasht-e Subh reported on the Taliban arresting and torturing the brother of another former
intelligence officer in Kabul City.690 An anonymous international humanitarian organisation told
DIS that family members of former NDS employees ‘would be interrogated’ about theirrelative’s whereabouts.691 UNAMA also reported on a case of a former NDS officer who was

WSJ, Left Behind After U.S. Withdrawal, Some Former Afghan Spies and Soldiers Turn to Islamic State, 31
October 2021, url
677
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 21
678
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Murders a Former Soldier in Herat Province, 2 May 2022, url
679
Dr. Ahmad Waqas [Twitter], posted on: 15 September 2021, url
680
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 14 December 2021, url
681
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 20 December 2021, url
682
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022, url
683
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 21 May 2022, url
684
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Shot Dead a Former Member of NDS in Zabul, 18 June 2022, url
685
Hasht-e Subh, Armed Men Arrest Former Security Officer in Kabul, 13 February 2022, url
686
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests Two Former Forces of NDS in Bamiyan Province, 6 April 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh,
Taliban Arrests the Former Regional Manager of National Directorate of Security for Ghor Province, 26 April 2022,
url
687
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Rebels Kill an Ex-Local Commander in Kunduz, 31 May 2022, url
688
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Raids the Former Government Security Affiliates’ Residents in Kandahar, 11 May 2022, url
689
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 29 March 2022, url
690
Hasht-e Subh, Widespread Violations of General Amnesty–Former Soldiers Are Not Safe, 16 April 2022, url
691
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 22676

71

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

detained on 27 December 2021 in Faryab Province by the Taliban GDI. He had reportedly
been beaten and subjected to electric shocks in detention.692

2.7.

Persons who served in former local defence forces
and pro-government militias

Human Rights Watch listed former ALP and pro-government militias (also known as arbaki or‘uprising forces/groups’693) among the Taliban’s targets, mainly because many Taliban andformer militiamen knew each other on local level, which left room for personal enmities andsettling of scores. Killings of local defence forces members were documented in the provinces
Helmand, Kunduz and Ghazni, between August and October 2021.694
In December 2021, a former commander reportedly died in Kabul ‘under severe torture’, after
several weeks’ detention.695 During a night operation the following month, the Taliban killed
the head of a former uprising group in Rostaq District, Takhar Province. Hasht-e Subh claimed
that he had renounced armed struggle after the Taliban announced their general amnesty.696
In May 2022, again in Takhar Province (Khwajaghar District), three former members of an
uprising group were shot dead by the Taliban.697 In another instance, the Taliban arrested the
young sons of a former uprising group commander in Badakhshan Province.698 In December
2021, a former ALP commander in Eastern Afghanistan was reportedly killed in front of his
house – although the reporting journalist, Bilal Sarwary, did not specify the perpetrators.699
According to Hasht-e Subh, other former commanders and their relatives were arrested in
April–June 2022, accused of affiliation with NRF in Badakhshan, Ghor and Takhar
provinces.700
On 25 June 2022, in Lal Wa Sarjangal District, Ghor Province, the Taliban reportedly killed theformer chief of an uprising group. He was said to have joined the Hazara Taliban commander
Mehdi Mujahid701 who had recently broken off from the movement, prompting clashes.702

UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 15
For more information on uprising groups, see, for instance: Clark, K. and Osman, B., Enemy Number One: How
the Taleban deal with the ALP and uprising groups, AAN, 19 July 2018, url
694
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url, pp. 10–11
695
Tajuden Soroush [Twitter], posted on: 3 December 2021, url
696
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Shot Dead a Former Uprising Commander in Takhar, 13 January 2022, url
697
Hasht-e Subh, Three Members of Former Anti-Taliban Forces Shot Dead by Taliban Fighters While Harvesting
Wheat in Takhar, 18 May 2022, url; Tajuden Soroush [Twitter], posted on: 18 May 2022, url
698
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Rebels Arrest Two Sons of a Local Former Commander in Badakhshan, 12 April 2022, url
699
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 14 December 2021, url
700
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests a Former Local Commander and His Nephew in Ghor, 29 April 2022, url; Hasht-e
Subh, Taliban Arrests an Ex-Local Commander in Takhar, 21 June 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, An Ex-Police Officer
Shot Dead by Taliban in Kishim, Badakhshan, 24 June 2022, url
701
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Kill Former Anti-Taliban Commander Along With His Wife and Daughter in Ghor Province,
26 June 2022, url
702
DW, ‫ سرپل والیت بلخاب ولسوالی در جنگ آغاز احتمال از مردم نگرانی‬, [People are worried about the possibility of a war in
Balkhab district of Sar-e-Pul province], 18 June 2022, url
692
693

72

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Meanwhile, in June 2022, Ariana News announced the return of a former commander of an
uprising group in Faryab, through the Taliban’s return commission.703 For more information,
see sections 1.5.1. Taliban attitudes and public statements and 4.3. High-ranking former
officials and diplomats.

2.8.

Women who served in ANDSF

In December 2021, the Taliban Ministry of Interior announced working on ‘a mechanism forhiring or retaining female [former] police officers’ who, at this time, had been assigned toadministrative services.704 In June 2022, the UNSG reported that the Taliban had only retained
ANDSF female employees of detention facilities and helping with body searches.705
In December 2021, the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) interviewed several former female ANDSF
workers (representing about 2 % of the security personnel, or 6 300 women). They stated thatthey had ‘become the target of a witch hunt’, led by the Taliban or their own relatives.
According to one source, these women had angered the ‘deeply conservative’ society
surrounding them by enlisting, and they could be given away to the Taliban by their own
communities.706 Rukhsana Media made similar findings in January 2022, noting that ‘women inuniform who joined the [former] security forces were often seen as “prostitutes” rejected andsidelined by society’. Human Rights Watch’s Associate Director of the Women’s Rights
Division, Heather Barr, was also quoted as saying that high-profile women were at ‘particularrisk’.707 In May 2022, Human Rights Watch’s Patricia Gossman also mentioned a confluence ofthe perception that women should not have been in such roles and their involvement in theformer security forces operating against the Taliban, and added that Human Rights Watch had
heard about a few cases of female ANDSF members being targeted.708
In May 2022, Hasht-e Subh collected consistent testimonies of former ANDSF women
employees in hiding in Samangan Province. Some claimed that the Taliban had harassed themby subjecting them to ‘harsh’ interrogations and detaining their relatives to make them handover weapons from their previous employment. Other noted that they had not received theirsalaries in months, although they were working for the de facto authorities.709
For more information on women’s access to employment, see section 5.2.2. Access toemployment

Ariana News, Former commander of Faryab’s uprising forces returns to Afghanistan, 26 June 2022, url
Hasht-e Subh, The Ambiguous Fate of Women in Afghanistan’s Armed Forces, 28 December 2021, url
705
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 11
706
WSJ, Afghanistan’s Former Female Troops, Once Hailed by the West, Fear for Their Lives, 28 December 2021,
url
707
Rukhshana Media, These women were looked down on when they worked in the army. Now they’ve beenabandoned in a “dungeon”, 17 January 2022, url
708
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
709
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forces Female Officers to Buy Them Guns or Face Consequences, 29 May 2022, url
703

704

73

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

3.

Persons affiliated with foreign forces

3.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

According to the American news publication Foreign Policy (FP), by September 2021, the US
intelligence agency CIA had managed to evacuate most of its Afghan spies and informants –amounting to several thousand people when including relatives. CIA reportedly conductedevacuation operations throughout Afghanistan.710 Nonetheless, in December 2021, the USDOS
said that over 60 000 Afghan interpreters and other US forces collaborators remained in
Afghanistan.711 According to earlier estimates by the Association of Wartime Allies (AWA), a
non-profit advocacy group quoted by the New York Times, Afghans with ‘a direct connection
with official America’ remaining in Afghanistan were twice as many. The NGO International
Rescue Committee assessed that they were 263 000 Afghans of this profiles. AWA too wrotethat ‘it [was] reasonable that nearly 1 percent of the Afghan population [est. 40 million] has insome way worked for, or are family members of those who worked for, the United States’.712
According to AWA’s most recent survey on their conditions of life (about 2 000 respondents),
published in June 2022, 94 % of the Special Immigrant Visas (SIV) programme applicants weremen, with an average age of 35 years old and 4 years of service. Over 70 % of the
respondents were then located in Kabul, with significant groups in other major urban areas(Herat, Kandahar, Mazar-e Sharif). AWA noted that SIV applicants in more remote areas were
harder to reach.713
As of April 2022, according to the British Ministry of Armed Forces, more than 1 000 Afghans
who had supported the UK military effort (‘former interpreters and other local staff’) andeligible to relocation remained in Afghanistan. The total number amounted to 4 000 when
including family members.714
Right after their return to power, the Taliban announced that they would ’[assure] the safety of
all those who have worked with the United States and allied forces’ and that they would ’notpose any risk to them, to their property and to their life’. Among the approximate 500 cases ofkillings and enforced disappearance of former soldiers and government officials collected by
the New York Times, one case concerned a former police chief who had collaborated with the
US. He had been tortured for 49 days and then hanged by the Taliban.715 For more informationon the amnesty and its enforcement, see section 2.1. General situation under Taliban rule.
An international humanitarian organisation interviewed by DIS conjectured that individuals
who had worked for the US military were ‘more vulnerable compared to Afghans who worked
FP, The CIA Secretly Evacuated Most of Its Spies From Afghanistan, 3 September 2021, url
WSJ, More Than 60,000 Interpreters, Visa Applicants Remain in Afghanistan, 16 December 2021, url
712
New York Times (The), Afghans With Ties to U.S. Who Could Not Get Out Now Live in Fear, 3 September 2021,
url; Le Monde, Dix bases américaines mobilisées dans les opérations d’évacuation, 27 August 2021, url
713
AWA, The Left Behind Afghans – Focus on Women, 1 June 2022, url, pp. 1–2
714
Independent (The), We’ve been forgotten: Thousands of Afghans accepted for relocation to UK still stranded
eight months on, 21 April 2022, url
715
New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April
2022, url
710
711

74

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

for other government forces’.716 Other anonymous DIS sources assessed that non-fighting,
low-ranked personnel of foreign military facilities were not likely to be targeted ‘solely basedon their previous jobs’– although another anonymous interlocutor thought that the foreign
troops’ collaborators were ‘a risk profile’.717
DIS mentioned, among risk factors, the actual involvement of a former foreign forces’
collaborator in fighting with the Taliban, the public’s knowledge of his previous occupation(with cases of villagers reporting on former interpreters of foreign units who ‘had behaved
poorly towards the local community’), or personal circumstances, such as the family
background, which could make them more prone to be targeted. Besides, in personal
vendettas, past collaboration with foreign troops could be used against a person.718
According to an international humanitarian organisation interviewed by DIS, the targeting wasmore prevalent in urban areas as high profile and senior figures tend to live there.719
As early as August 2021, French news website Mediapart alleged that, in Ghazni Province,
local Taliban were drawing up lists of foreign forces’ former collaborators.720 Journalist Lynne
O’Donnell later reported on foreigners held hostage by the Taliban (including an American
engineer and Navy veteran held since 2020, and a previous war cameraman) and claimed that
the Taliban were using them to ‘track down Afghan people who associate with them’.721
Moreover, the Taliban could potentially use the HIIDE (Handheld Interagency Identity
Detection Equipment) system – a biometric device designed by US forces in order to, interalia, identify Afghans working for the coalition – that was seized during the last week of the
Taliban’s 2021 offensive.722 For more information on the Taliban capabilities in identifying theirtargets, see section 2.2. Taliban capabilities in identifying their targets
In October 2021, Dutch public television Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) reported that
the Taliban had summoned Afghan interpreters previously working for the Netherlands toappear in court. Their families were informed that they might be held responsible if theinterpreters, then in hiding, failed to comply.723 That same month, news magazine the Diplomat
wrote that the Taliban had detained, questioned and violently beaten at least four interpretersthat had worked for the Turkish army.724 In December 2021, the Taliban allowed about 30
former collaborators with Turkey (‘interpreters or technical staff at Kabul's military airport’) holda protest in front of the Turkish embassy.725 In October 2021, Taliban fighters killed an former
army officer previously working as an interpreter for the Australian Defence Forces. His wifeand children were reportedly in hiding.726 In regard with Australia’s Afghan collaborators, anofficial report stated in January 2022 that ‘a significant number’ of them had not been able toDenmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 15
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 18
718
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 18
719
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 18
720
Mediapart, Survivre sous le régime des talibans, 21 August 2021, url
721
O’Donnell, L., Afghan kidnappings leave families in the dark, The New Statesman, 30 March 2022, url
722
Intercept (The), The Taliban Have Seized U.S. Military Biometrics Devices, 18 August 2021, url
723
France 24, Taliban summon Afghan interpreters who worked for Dutch, threaten families, 5 October 2021, url
724
Diplomat (The), The Afghan Interpreters Turkey Left Behind, 22 October 2021, url
725
AFP, Abandoned by Turkey, Afghan airport staff protest in Kabul, 22 December 2021, url
726
ABC, Interpreter who assisted ADF executed by Taliban, 20 October 2021, url
716
717

75

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

evacuate in August and that, since then, some of them had ‘been injured or killed by the
Taliban, with others currently in hiding’.727
In late February 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid announced travel restrictions
on all Afghans ‘unless they had a clear destination’. He confirmed that these restrictions would
extend to former NATO and US collaborators, which prompted fears that they would not beallowed on evacuation flights.728 Days later, he made clear that Afghan citizens ‘with legal
documents and invitation’ were allowed to travel abroad.729 Earlier, according to Hasht-e Subh,the Taliban had nevertheless ordered their border forces to prevent American and NATOcollaborators from leaving the country.730 More information on persons leaving Afghanistan isavailable in section 1.5.2. Treatment of persons trying to leave and returnees.
According to AWA’s June 2022 survey conducted among Afghan interpreters and other US
forces collaborators remaining in Afghanistan, half of the respondents declared that the
Taliban had questioned or detained them at some point. Almost all of them said they wereafraid of leaving their house (97 %), even to seek medical treatment (86 %).731
In March 2022, RFE/RL reported on a former security guard who had worked for US andNATO special forces for almost 10 years. While waiting for the processing of his SIV
application, he lived in hiding and relocated several times. He said that he had left Kabul tohide among his relatives, in a remote area.732
In April 2022, a former worker for the British military told the British newspaper the
Independent that, although he had been accepted under the UK relocation program, he could
not obtain travel documents: not only were they expensive, but visiting the passport office
could put him at risk. He added that three of his colleagues had been assassinated earlier,before they could be relocated to the UK.733

3.2.

Interpreters

In a November 2021 article for Rolling Stone magazine, photojournalist Andrew Quilty listed’former interpreters for international militaries’ among the professionals who lived in hiding,‘sheltering in small groups of trusted friends and colleagues’, because they were wary of thegeneral amnesty.734
In March 2022, the British Forces Broadcasting Service released a short report on two former
interpreters for the UK army. They were able to flee to Pakistan after enduring Taliban death
Guardian (The), Dishonourable: report says Afghans left behind at high risk of brutal reprisals due to links with
Australia, 21 January 2022, url
728
Reuters, Taliban restrict Afghans going abroad, raises concern from U.S. and UK, 1 March 2022, url
729
Al Jazeera, Afghans with correct legal documents may travel abroad, 2 March 2022, url
730
Hasht-e Subh, US, NATO’s In-Country Employees Cannot Leave Afghanistan, Says Taliban’s Interior Ministry, 28
February 2022, url
731
AWA, The Left Behind Afghans – Focus on Women, 1 June 2022, url, p. 4
732
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Battle Red Tape, Taliban In Hope Of Evacuation To United States, 14 March 2022, url
733
Independent (The), We’ve been forgotten: Thousands of Afghans accepted for relocation to UK still stranded
eight months on, 21 April 2022, url
734
Quilty, A., Where the Taliban Rule, Rolling Stone, 28 November 2021, url
727

76

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

threats and staying in hiding with their families for a while. One of them reportedly jumped
from a three-stories building to escape a Taliban search operation.735
In April 2022, a group of former Afghan interpreters for the Canadian army explained that theirrelatives remaining in Afghanistan were ’running from safe house to safe house to escape
Taliban reprisals’.736 A former translator for US, UK and Australian forces, now living inAustralia, stressed that his family’s situation had grown increasingly precarious, because thepeople that he used to pay to hide his family were now scared of Taliban’s reprisals.737
A representative of an international organisation in Afghanistan quoted by DIS in March 2022,
deemed ‘unclear’ the reasons behind the targeting of some interpreters who had beenarrested or killed ‘without an apparent motivation or legal ground’.738

BFBS, Former Afghan interpreters who face Taliban persecution risk being forgotten, 10 March 2022, url
Globe & Mail (The), Afghan interpreters press Ottawa to rescue their families, 11 April 2022, url
737
Sydney Morning Herald (The), Defence interpreters live in limbo and fear for families left behind in Afghanistan,
21 March 2022, url
738
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 70
735

736

77

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

4.

Public officials and servants of theformer government

4.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

On 17 August 2021, the Taliban announced a general amnesty for all government workers,
asking them ‘to restart [their] routine life with full confidence’.739 For more information on theamnesty and its enforcement, see section 2.1. General situation under Taliban rule.
According to the Afghanistan experts Gilles Dorronsoro and Adam Baczko, the Taliban
needed to grant amnesty for public servants of the former republic to get the administration
up and running again.740 The latter added that the Taliban were likely to integrate the ’least
politicised’ categories of the Afghan middle classes into their administration – as they had
done with some public servants of the communist regime in the 1990s.741
A New York Times article indicated that, as soon as the Taliban took over Kunduz during their2021 offensive, they asked the local public staff to resume work and restore basic services.
They reportedly resorted to ‘terror’, going from house to house to locate municipal servants in
hiding. At the general hospital, they put up posters warning absentees that they would bepunished.742 Human Rights Watch noted that former high-ranked civilian agents of theprevious government were required to obtain an ’amnesty letter’ from the Taliban, just as
former military personnel. Unaware of this, some of them – such as civil servants in the
judiciary – did not do so and, as a result, were beaten and detained.743
According to Taliban sources cited in 2022 by International Crisis Group analyst Graeme
Smith, the de facto authorities claimed to have retained all former public servants willing tokeep working and appointed only 4 000 new staff. Smith, on the other hand, assessed thatthe actual number of new appointees was higher.744 DIS sources reckoned that 80 % of civil
servants of the former administration had returned to work, including those ‘below a certain
rank’ in local administrations.745 Journalist Stefanie Glinski stressed that some employees ofthe former government had chosen to stay in Afghanistan, as many did not have the contacts
to flee the country and, while wary of the Taliban, needed to make a living.746 As of February2022, however, salaries had seemingly not been paid in months within some offices.747

France 24, Taliban declares general amnesty for Afghan government officials, 17 August 2021, url
Le Monde, Le mouvement taliban est paradoxalement dans une situation de faiblesse, le moment est propicepour négocier avec lui, 25 August 2021, url
741
Mediapart, Adam Baczko: La matrice idéologique des talibans est restée inchangée, 17 August 2021, url
742
New York Times (The), A Week Into Taliban Rule, One City’s Glimpse of What the Future May Hold, 15 August
2021, url
743
HRW, No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced Disappearances in Afghanistan under the
Taliban, November 2021, url
744
Smith, G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022, url
745
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 17
746
Glinski, S., I Wanted to Stay for My People, FP, 9 February 2022, url
747
TOLOnews, Public Works Employees Hold Protest Over Unpaid Salaries, 27 February 2022, url
739

740

78

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSReturning from a trip to Afghanistan in spring 2022, Smith and another International Crisis
Group analyst, Ibraheem Bahiss, described Afghan institutions as ‘hybrids of old and new’.
While the cooperation between former and new officials was ‘not always easy’, they seemingly
managed to work side by side. Smith noted that, although some former civil servants lived infear, revenge killings had mostly targeted former military personnel, and stated that life under
the Taliban for most civil servants was ‘more about adapting to the new bosses and worrying
about keeping their salaries’.748 In June 2022, assistant law professor Haroun Rahimi madesimilar findings: ‘in terms of staffing, on the national level, the Taliban seems to have kept mostof the staff in technical ministries who remained in the country but put Taliban members inleadership roles’.749 The Washington Post, however, reported on the former deputy financeminister who was allowed to retain his position.750 Rahimi also noted that the staff in ministries
dealing with security affairs or issues seen as ‘sensitive’ (such as the Taliban Ministry of
Education) had been largely replaced. Many Taliban were also appointed in local
administrations but the de facto authorities seemingly retained most of the teachers.751
The New York Times observed that the Taliban were filling civilian positions at all levels with‘soldiers and theologians’. Some former public servants reportedly fled the country or did notresume work, causing ‘widespread vacancies’ in the administration. In interviews with the New
York Times, some stated that they did not resume work because they were not being paid, or
did not ‘want to taint their pending asylum cases’ in the US or Europe.752 In a June 2022
report, the UNSG stated that the Taliban were continuing to replace former administrative
personnel with their affiliates.753 According to Hasht-e Subh, in early June 2022, the de facto
authorities restricted government jobs to individuals with ‘a fighting background in the ranksof the Taliban’.754 Throughout the reporting period, Hasht-e Subh also reported on the Taliban
laying off hundreds of public agents in various administrations and provinces (or asking themto stay at home), often for unclear reasons: municipal employees in Herat; provincial agents in
Takhar and Farah provinces; executives of the Ministry of Labour. In some cases, the Talibancommented that they had only fired absentees or corrupt individuals.755
In a September 2021 report, AAN analyst Martine van Bijlert noted that among the people
hiding because of ‘specific, targeted, personalised threats’ were former government andsecurity officials, judges, local politicians and community leaders.756 Human Rights Watch’s
Patricia Gossman concurred that some former civil servants had been targeted, but to a lesser
extent than former ANDSF personnel. Gossman underlined that the Taliban had a narrower
Smith, G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022, url
Rahimi, H., Afghanistan’s laws and legal institutions under the Taliban, Melbourne Asia Review, 6 June 2022, url
750
Washington Post (The), Afghanistan desperately needs aid. One technocrat from the former government is key
to the Taliban’s efforts, 18 January 2022, url
751
Rahimi, H., Afghanistan’s laws and legal institutions under the Taliban, Melbourne Asia Review, 6 June 2022, url
752
New York Times (The), The Taliban Have Staffing Issues. They Are Looking for Help in Pakistan, 13 January2022, url
753
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 4754
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Defines Fighting Background as Recruitment Criteria in Public Posts, 5 June 2022, url
755
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Fires 300 Staff of Herat Municipality, 20 January 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Shirin Agha
Lives a Hard Life After Losing His Job, 17 February 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Regime Expels 10s of theFormer Government Employees in Farah Province, 6 April 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Continue Ethnic Based
Expulsions of Former Government Employees, 25 March 2022, url
756
van Bijlert, M., The Moment in Between: After the Americans, before the new regime, AAN, 1 September 2021,
url
748

749

79

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

definition of ‘civilian’ than humanitarian law. For instance, they were prone to see individuals
who used to hold positions of power (government and ministries officials, for instance) andnon-combatant persons working for the former security institutions as non-civilians.757
During the reference period, sources mentioned violent abuses of former civil servants –sometimes by unidentified perpetrators: in December 2021, CSM reported on former
employees of the Ministry of Finance in Nangarhar Province and a former district governor
from Helmand Province (also described as a close collaborator of the US Army) being either
hunted down, beaten or accused of being ’infidels’ and ’puppets of America’. The Taliban
seemingly seized their properties and violently went after some of their relatives to learn of
their whereabouts.758 In January 2022, a former employee of the Ministry of Agriculture wasshot in Takhar Province. In March 2022, after a wave of killings or abductions of Taliban
members in Helmand Province, the local de facto authorities threatened to take retaliatory
measures against former government officials.759 In April 2022, the de facto security forces
arrested a former human resources manager at the Ministry of Interior, who had resumed work
after the Taliban takeover. His body – with visible signs of torture – was returned to his family
four days later.760
As mentioned UNAMA’s monitoring indicated a ‘clear pattern’ regarding targeting taking placein the period 15 August 2021–15 June 2022 and identified former government officials as oneof the groups having been ‘particularly at risk of experiencing human rights violations’. Figuresconcerning former government officials was demonstrated together with former ANDSF
members, which included 160 extrajudicial killings (including 10 women), 178 arbitrary arrestsand detentions, 23 incommunicado detentions, and 56 instances of torture and ill-treatment.
All these instances were carried out by the de facto authorities and occurred in almost allparts of Afghanistan. According to UNAMA individuals on ‘differing level of affiliation to theformer government’ fell victim to such acts, ‘from senior officials to drivers, bodyguards andrelatives.’761 From October 2021, UNAMA noted that the targeting of former government
officials generally focused on individuals rather than groups. Killings were often carried out
like quick executions and arbitrary arrests and detentions appeared to be ‘widespread’. 762
In February 2022, SkyNews reported on living conditions in a prison in Herat. Many detainees
were presented as former government workers, imprisoned without trial or evidence.763
Regarding female civil servants, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid stated in January2022 that they were working ‘in the health and education sector and at Kabul International
airport in customs and passport control’.764 According to the New York Times, only a ‘handful’of education and health public workers had actually been allowed to resume work. The
Taliban were then preventing the majority of female government workers from returning toGossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
CSM, The Taliban won. So why, and who, are they still fighting?, 2 December 2021, url
759
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threaten Revenge Killings, 22 March 2022, url
760
TOLOnews, Body of MoI Officer, Showing Torture, Handed Over to Family, 18 April 2022, url
761
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 13–14
762
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 14
763
SkyNews, Afghanistan: Inside prison where children as young as 12 are held and female governor has vanished,
7 February 2022, url
764
AP, The AP Interview: Taliban pledge all girls in schools soon, 15 January 2022, url
757

758

80

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

work. The New York Times reported on one woman who was required to sign in at work oncea month, which the newspaper called ‘a fiction that allows the Taliban to deny that they havefired female government workers’.765 In May 2022, a Taliban official told VOA that ‘the majorityof female civil servants, 120 000 persons, were back at work’. According to the breakdown
figures that he provided, 108 000 of them were hired by the Taliban ministries of educationand public health.766 The Guardian collected testimonies of two former female employees ofthe Ministry of Women Affairs. As of January 2022, they were regularly changing residence toescape the Taliban. One of them stated that the Taliban were hunting down the former headsof the provincial offices of the Ministry, such as herself.767 For more information on women’s
access to employment, see section 5.2.2. Access to employment.
Last, as regards relatives of former government personnel, one anonymous journalist,
interviewed by DIS, stated that they were ‘generally not a target’ but that it depended on thespecific occupation of their relative and on pre-existing, unresolved conflict with the Taliban.768
UNAMA, on the other hand, stated that it was ‘evident’ that individuals that did not hold senior
roles within the former government were also targeted, and gave relatives as an example.769

4.2.

Former judicial workers

In March 2022, although a Taliban spokesperson quoted by TOLOnews assured that ‘anumber’ of judiciary personnel ‘not involved in corruption’ had retained their positions770,
OHCHR stated that ‘former judges, prosecutors and defence lawyers have remained mostly
excluded from the de facto justice system and remain in limbo regarding their return towork’.771 Also in March 2022, Taliban forces had reportedly ‘disturbed’ a protest of dozens offormer judges complaining of their ‘uncertain fate’.772 Assistant law professor Haroun Rahimi
stated that they had been replaced with clerics versed in Hanafi school of Islamic
jurisprudence.773
In September 2021, the Los Angeles Times reported on a former judge who had been
voluntarily rehired by the Taliban to work for them in the same capacity.774 However, inNovember 2021, according to Bilal Sarwary, the Taliban Ministry of Justice released a directive
restricting provincial positions to individuals who had a religious background and had notworked for the previous administration.775 In late 2021, the de facto authorities announced that
only Taliban-approved lawyers could work in their courts, which in practice could beinterpreted as the about 2 500 existing lawyers were stripped from their licenses. Moreover,765

New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022,

url
VOA, Taliban Rebuff UN Calls for Reversing Rules on Afghan Women, 27 May 2022, url
Guardian (The), We are struggling: two former officials at Afghan women’s affairs ministry, 16 January 2022, url
768
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 22
769
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 15
770
TOLOnews, Former Govt Judges Hold Protest to Demand Salaries, 20 March 2022, url771
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 61
772
TOLOnews, Former Judges Hold Protest Over Their Uncertain Fate, 2 March 2022, url
773
TOLOnews, Supreme Court Appoints 69 Provincial Judges, 16 December 2021, url; Rahimi, H., Afghanistan’slaws and legal institutions under the Taliban, Melbourne Asia Review, 6 June 2022, url
774
LA Times (The), More Judge Judy than Cops: A first look at the Taliban’s new police, 9 September 2021, url
775
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 24 November 2021, url
766
767

81

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

they placed the Afghanistan’s Independent Bar Association under the supervision of the
Taliban Ministry of Justice. The bar association was previously the competent authority to
grant lawyers with licenses, in order to ‘prevent bribery and corruption’.776
In October 2021, a Taliban official assured that the general amnesty announced in August2021 extended to former judges and lawyers.777 Nevertheless, in September 2021, in a jointstatement, two professional organisations of Afghan judges warned that revenge killings
might occur, and that former judges had been subjected to house-searches, threatening
messages and physical harassment, and had had their bank accounts suspended. Their family,
friends and neighbours were said to have been under pressure to reveal their whereabouts.778
Later on, former judges and prosecutors gave similar accounts.779 Some noted that along
recently released ISKP members and criminals780, some Taliban fighters were pursuing‘personal vendettas’ against former judges, and could not be controlled by the Taliban
leadership.781 According to another judge, as of October 2021, five of his colleagues had been
killed since the takeover.782 The New York Times also documented the killing of a former
prosecutor and his brother in October 2021, while they were driving in Kabul.783
In December 2021, OHCHR deemed ‘the safety of Afghan [former] judges, prosecutors, andlawyers – particularly women legal professionals – a matter for particular alarm’.784 OHCHR
later expressed concern over former law and court personnel who were still living in hiding asof March 2022, or were subjected to threats and intimidation.785 The Taliban had reportedly
gained access to the payroll system of the former Supreme Court and used it to identify
former judges – in Bamyan Province, one former judge was arrested in December 2021 while
he was trying to renew his passport.786 In February 2022, Afghan news media Reporterly andEtilaat-e Roz wrote about the killing of a former prosecutor by unidentified gunmen in Gardez,
Paktya Province.787
In particular female former judges and prosecutors and their families reportedly lived in hiding
and feared for their lives, as some had ruled in favour of women in divorce and/or domestic
violence cases, and against Taliban members as well as released prisoners. As stated by aJurist, Afghanistan bar association head pleads for international help as armed Taliban take over offices,displace leadership, 24 November 2021, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4March 2022, url, para. 61; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Judge, Jury, And Executioner, 1 December 2021, url
777
New York Times (The), Afghan Women Who Once Presided Over Abuse Cases Now Fear for Their Lives, 20
October 2021, url
778
IAJ and IAWJ, Joint IAJ and IAWJ Statement on the Current Situation in Afghanistan, 22 September 2021, url
779
VOA, Afghan Prosecutors Who Worked at Bagram Prison Fear Taliban’s Reprisals, 19 October 2021, url; San
Francisco Chronicle, His relatives are being hunted in Afghanistan, 19 October 2021, url
780
Hasht-e Subh, Afghan Prosecutors Are Concerned, Saying That They Live in Hiding, 5 October 2021, url
781
Business Insider, Hunted by the Taliban, Afghanistan’s former judges are disguising themselves and goingunderground, 2 October 2021, url
782
Hasht-e Subh, Afghan Prosecutors Are Concerned, Saying That They Live in Hiding, 5 October 2021, url
783
New York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them [Online video], 12 April
2022, url
784
Reuters, Taliban rule marked by killings, denial of women's rights – UN, 14 December 2021, url
785
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 61
786
HRW, New Evidence that Biometric Data Systems Imperil Afghans, 30 March 2022, url
787
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022, url; Etilaat-e Roz, ‫مخ پټو وسلهوالو ګردېز کې یو څارنوال په ډزو وژلی‬[Unidentified gunmen shot dead a prosecutor in Gardez], 22 February 2022, url
776

82AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

source of the New York Times, ‘women judging men is anathema to the Taliban’. As of
October 2021, 200 female former judges remained in Afghanistan.788

4.3.

High-ranking former officials and diplomats

AAN analyst Martine van Bijlert noted that, in the immediate weeks after the Taliban takeover,some high or middle ranked public officials, who had been detained following their surrender,
had been released789 – such as the former governor of Laghman Province, as reported by
Pajhwok Afghan News.790 As of February 2022, among the former civil servants who resumed
working for the de facto authorities, were ‘at least two deputies at the Ministry of Finance, twoat the Ministry of Transport and Aviation, and one in Kabul's municipal government’.791
In April 2022, the Taliban Minister of Interior was quoted saying that former high-ranking
officials could live in Afghanistan ‘with dignity’ and that the de facto government would fully
defend their ‘honour, dignity and property’.792 To that end, the Taliban set up a return
commission in March 2022 and officially launched it in May 2022. It was tasked withcontacting exiled political and military personalities and addressing their concerns.793 The
head of the Taliban commission stressed that returning former politicians would be provided
with documents assuring their safety, but did not specify whether they would be allowed toresume their political activities.794 Another member of the Taliban commission said that theywould be able to do so ’under the structure of the current Afghan government’795, while
Reuters wrote that the Taliban commission would ’ensure work in the private sector’.796
Several political figures expressed scepticism, criticising the Taliban commission’s lack oftransparency and for overlooking politicians who remained in Afghanistan. Others said that
the Taliban had not offered them sufficient guarantees of safety.797 By June 2022, several
former ministers and deputy ministers had returned, along with a former presidential advisor, aformer Member of Parliament, the former head of the national electricity supplier, a former
ambassador and a member of the former National Security Council.798 For more information,
see section 1.5. Leaving and returning to Afghanistan.

New York Times (The), Afghan Women Who Once Presided Over Abuse Cases Now Fear for Their Lives, 20
October 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghanistan's Former Prosecutors Hunted By Criminals They Helped Convict,
21 September 2021, url
789
van Bijlert, M., The Moment in Between: After the Americans, before the new regime, AAN, 1 September 2021,
url
790
Pajhwok Afghan News, Taliban release 4 former officials of Laghman, 28 August 2021, url
791
Glinski, S., I Wanted to Stay for My People, FP, 9 February 2022, url
792
Ariana News, Haqqani calls on former officials to return home, assures them of their security, 25 April 2022, url
793
TOLOnews, Commission to Contact Former Afghan Officials Begins Activities, 22 March 2022, url; Ariana News,EA reassures returning Afghan politicians and military figures of their security, 22 May 2022, url
794
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Pledges Safety for Returning Afghans, 21 May 2022, url
795
TOLOnews, Kabul Says Some Politicians Responded Positively to Return Offer, 1 June 2022, url
796
Reuters, Former Afghan minister returns to Kabul at Taliban invitation, 8 June 2022, url
797
TOLOnews, Ex-Deputy Minister of Transport Returns to Kabul, 5 June 2022, url
798
AP, Six months of Taliban: Afghans safer, poorer, less hopeful, 15 February 2022, url; Pajhwok Afghan News,
Former Defence Ministry spokesman returns to Kabul, 5 June 2022, url; TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Reiterates
Pledge of Safety for Returning Afghans, 9 June 2022, url; Pajhwok Afghan News, Former NSC official Khadim
returns to Afghanistan, 26 May 2022, url; Pajhwok Afghan News, Former education minister returns to Afghanistan,
28 June 2022, url; Ariana News, Two political figures and one doctor return to country, 29 June 2022, url
788

83EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

In January 2022, the Taliban arrested the former deputy head of the former Electoral
Complaints Commission in Kabul (also a former member of parliament and deputy governor of
Ghor Province).799 Sources also reported attacks on prominent officials by unknown assailants,
such as a former member of parliament shot to death in Kabul City in January 2022.800 In
February 2022, five relatives of another former member of parliament and ‘former jihadi
commander’ were killed by unknown armed men in Kapisa Province, identified as Taliban by
his family.801 Also in February 2022, unidentified gunmen raided the home of the former
deputy of the former Chief Executive of Afghanistan, killing one of his sons and a bodyguard.
The Taliban ascribed the event to a private conflict.802
As for the highest dignitaries of the former government, former President Hamid Karzai andformer Chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation, Abdullah Abdullah, are still in
Afghanistan but were ‘essentially’ put under house arrest soon after the takeover.803 In thatregard, President Karzai was reportedly prevented from flying to the UAE in May 2022804,
while Abdullah Abdullah could visit his family in India for six weeks in May/June 2022.805
According to journalist Franz J. Marty, ‘several former members of Parliament and cabinet
ministers’ of the former government have joined the Afghanistan Freedom Front.806 The NRF
too claimed that some former civil servants were fighting in its ranks.807
After the Taliban takeover, most incumbent diplomatic personnel continued to represent theformer government and kept on working independently. However, due to a lack of funds, the45 embassies and 20 consulates had to close or scale down their activities.808 For instance, inMarch 2022, following the closure of Afghan diplomatic missions in the US, the 100 Afghan
diplomats were given 30 days ‘to apply for residency or temporary humanitarian parole’. They
were reportedly not at risk of being deported to Afghanistan.809 Some countries accepted
Taliban accredited diplomats [see section 1.1.3. Recognition and international relations].810
According to a former diplomat, the Taliban pushed ‘disgruntled, fired and laid off’ diplomats
to join them. AFP and FP reported on a former diplomat attacking the Afghan ambassador in
Italy in January 2022, claiming that he had been appointed ambassador by the Taliban. Other
diplomats expressed concern about being targeted by Taliban supporters in Europe.811

Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrest Former Deputy Head of the Electoral Complaints Commission, 7 January 2022, url
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 16 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Abdul Hadi Safi Wounded by Unknown
Gunmen, 8 January 2022, url
801
TKG, Armed Men Gun down Relatives of Former MP, 16 February 2022, url
802Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 12 February 2022, url; Khaama Press, Armed attack on former Afghan
government deputy CE left two dead in Kabul, 12 February 2022, url
803
Glinski, S., I Wanted to Stay for My People, FP, 9 February 2022, url
804
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former President Karzai stopped from travelling to UAE, 15 May 2022, url
805
Ariana News, Abdullah returns to Afghanistan after 6 weeks in India, 11 June 2022, url
806
Marty, F. J., Vive la Résistance in Afghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022, url
807
Arte, Afghanistan : la résistance s’organise, 20 May 2022, url
808
New York Times (The), Unpaid and Potentially Stateless, Afghan Diplomats Seek Permission to Remain in U.S.,
13 February 2022, url; AFP, Afghan diplomats under pressure from Taliban regime, 14 March 2022, url;
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghanistan's Embassies Remain In Limbo As Most Staff Still Loyal To Toppled Government, 17
January 2022, url
809
New York Times (The), Afghan Embassy, Now Out of Money, Will Shut Down, U.S. Says, 11 March 2022, url
810
Khaama Press, Kabul Optimistic about Formal Recognition amid Heightened Situation, 27 June 2022, url
811
AFP, Afghan diplomats under pressure from Taliban regime, 14 March 2022, url; FP, You’re Very Vulnerable:
Afghan Diplomats Fear Violent Taliban Reprisals, 11 January 2022, url
799

800

84

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

5.

Gender-based targeting

5.1.

General societal situation of women and girls

5.1.1.

Position of women and girls in society

As described in EASO COI Report Afghanistan – Individuals targeted under societal and legal
norms from 2017, women and girls generally have a lower societal status than men in
Afghanistan, oftentimes leading to restrictions of their basic rights and to gender-based
violence.812 The extent of the societal restriction of women’s rights varies significantly acrossthe country as a woman’s position in society is defined by her direct social environment (family
and village or neighbourhood), their socio-economic situation, and in some cases by ethnic or
tribal customs.813
An example for the different factors defining women’s position in society is the role of thecustomary code Pashtunwali in women’s daily life: Lutz Rzehak, a linguist and expert on
Afghanistan, portrays Pashtunwali as a description of ‘the way of the Pashtuns’, ‘an ethnic selfportrait’, and a ‘code of honour’.814 According to the Austrian Bundesamt für Fremdwesen und
Asyl (BFA) respect for women is a central element of Pashtunwali, since the code holds
women as symbols of honour. Men should protect women’s honour by keeping them within
the private sphere and not mentioning their names in public. Violations, or perceived
violations, of women’s dignity can lead to deadly conflicts.815 At the same time, Pashtunwali
legitimises forced marriage to resolve a conflict816 and levirate marriages within the patrilineal
family to ensure the protection and livelihood of women.817 However, the norms formulated by
Pashtunwali should not be understood as all-encompassing and static. In her book on Afghan
women, Elaheh Rostami-Povey points out that the relevance of Pashtunwali differs for
Pashtuns in eastern and western provinces of Afghanistan.818 Also, changes have taken place
during the past decades: according to Pashtunwali, women used not to be allowed to attend
jirgas (a specific form of council defined by Pashtunwali) but during the time of the Islamic
Republic (2004–2021)819, women participated in Loya Jirgas [grand assemblies] and special
jirgas for women were established.820 One of the most famous examples of Afghan womentaking public positions during the Islamic Republic, Zarifa Ghafari, the former mayor of Maidan
Wardak, was Pashtun.821 Girls in southern and eastern provinces were less likely to attend

EASO, Afghanistan – Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, p. 33
Germany, BAMF, Länderreport 48 Afghanistan: Die Situation von Frauen, 1996 – 2022, January 2022, url, p. 2
814
Rzehak, L., Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns,
January 2011, url, p. 1
815
Austria, BFA, AfPak: Principals of the tribal & clan structure, 5 April 2017, url, pp. 32, 51–53
816
Austria, BFA, AfPak: Principals of the tribal & clan structure, 5 April 2017, url, p. 42
817
Rzehak, L., Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns,
January 2011, url, p. 10
818
Rostami-Povey, E., Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion, 2007, url, p. 5
819
Britannica, Afghanistan: Facts & Stats, n.d., url
820
Austria, BFA, AfPak: Principals of the tribal & clan structure, 5 April 2017, url, p. 32
821
New York Times (The), Afghan Town’s First Female Mayor Awaits Her Assassination, 4 October 2019, url
812
813

85

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

schools than girls in other provinces.822 These provinces are mainly inhabited by Pashtuns.823
For example, in 2015 less than 10 % of girls attended secondary school in Kandahar andPaktika Provinces, whereas more than 30 % of girls attended secondary school in northern
provinces such as Jawzjan, Faryab and Badakhshan.824 However, United Nations Children’s
Emergency Fund (UNICEF) found that the school attendance rates were closely related tosecurity and the economic situation in the respective provinces as well as to a rural-urban
divide.825 Other ethnicities, especially Hazara, were seen as more liberal with regards towomen’s position in society than Pashtuns.826
During the time of the Islamic Republic, the possibilities for some girls to obtain education andfor women to pursue a career increased significantly in comparison to the 1990s. 827 With the
Taliban takeover in August 2021, the position of women and girls in society has changed.
Restrictions in education, work, movement and freedom of speech have strongly limited
women’s and girls’ possibilities to participate in social life. Human Rights Watch’s Heather Barr
described women in Afghanistan as ‘virtual prisoners in their homes’. The arbitrariness in theimplementation of Taliban rules, the Human Rights Watch report continues, has frequently led
to self-restriction or restrictions by the social environment.828 A former university teacher andwomen’s rights activist interviewed for this report highlighted that with the restrictions
imposed by the Taliban and the resulting disappearance of women from public positions, thegeneral respect for women has decreased. As a consequence, the source said, women felt
less secure and were less likely to stand up for their rights, which made them more vulnerable
to public harassment and domestic violence.829 Correspondingly, the author of an article in theConversation estimated that violence against women was increasing.830 Research conductedby Human Rights Watch has shown that many women were facing mental health issues since
the Taliban takeover, ‘including fear, anxiety, hopelessness, insomnia, and a deep sense ofloss and helplessness’.831 According to Hasht-e Subh, the number of suicides among women
has increased since the takeover.832
Women have been disproportionately affected by the humanitarian crisis according to World
Food Programme’s (WFP) Afghanistan Director Mary-Ellen McGroarty.833 As many women werebarred from work, widows and other women heading a household as well as women who had
been sole breadwinners were struggling to feed their families and to pay rent.834 Additionally,
the media initiative Alive in Afghanistan reported that when men lost their jobs, women were
UNICEF, Afghanistan: Education Equity Profile for Adolescent Girls, December 2019, url, 4MRG, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Afghanistan: Pashtuns, December 2021, url
824
UNICEF, Afghanistan: Education Equity Profile for Adolescent Girls, December 2019, url, 5
825
UNICEF, Afghanistan: Education Equity Profile for Adolescent Girls, December 2019, url, pp. 10, 12
826
MRG, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Afghanistan: Hazaras, December 2021, url827
Germany, BAMF, Länderreport 48 Afghanistan: Die Situation von Frauen, 1996 – 2022, January 2022, url, p. 7
828
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
829
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022
830
Conversation (The), Afghan women face increasing violence and repression under the Taliban after international
spotlight fades, 4 February 2022, url
831
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
832
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک دختر جوان در تخار شلیک گلوله خودش را کشت‬A young girl in Takhar committed suicide with a gun] 29
June 2022, url
833
Mary-Ellen McGroarty, World Food Programme Country Director for Afghanistan, in interview with Christiane
Amanpour (CNN) [Twitter], posted on: 17 May 2022, url
834
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara,
Afghan Widows Struggle To Survive Amid Humanitarian Disaster, 25 March 2022, url
822
823

86

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

forced to do informal work such as cleaning, washing and cooking for other families on top of
their own household chores.835 In some areas it is common for women to eat after the male
household members have finished their meal. The Guardian quoted a representative of
UNOCHA explaining that, in times of food shortage, this practice leaves women without food.
Similarly, the article continues, baby girls are more likely to suffer of malnutrition because insome families (especially in southern provinces) breast feeding and food is reserved forboys.836

5.1.2.

Dress codes and behavioural norms

According to two women’s rights activists interviewed by the German Federal Office forMigration and Refugees (Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge – BAMF) for this report, thedress codes of women have changed slightly after the Taliban takeover but still depended on
the province, city, or even the neighbourhood a woman lived in.837 A report published by the
AAN explains that women’s dress codes also reflected the sense of safety and the socioeconomic background, in areas where women felt safer and/or were wealthier they tended touse more colourful and tighter-fitting clothing and revealed more of their face and hair.838 The
women’s rights activists explained the general dress code of women according to the different
regions of the country: in many areas, women would cover the hair with a headscarf and wear
a long-sleeved dress or coat reaching at least the knees and long trousers. Headscarf anddresses used to be of different colours and covered hair and the shape of the body to avarying degree. Since the takeover, most women chose to wear dark colours and longer andwider dresses to avoid harassment by the Taliban. In Herat City and the surrounding areas
most women would wear the chador or chador namaz, a fabric wrapped around the entire
body showing the face only (usually black or brown, sometimes white). The chadri or burqa,
the mostly blue cloth covering the entire body including the face, was most frequently used in
the southern and eastern provinces. Especially since the takeover, the women’s rights activists
agreed, the use of the burqa had increased in all parts of the country.839 Protests by both men
and women, against the Taliban’s order for women to cover their faces have been covered byinternational media.840 There were no general rules for when girls should begin wearing ahijab but most girls would start covering their hair between the age of seven and twelve.841
In the southern and mainly Pashtun dominated provinces, many women live in purdah, thecomplete segregation of women from all men except their direct relatives.842 In many families

Alive in Afghanistan, The Woman that is Worth a Thousand Men, 13 April 2022, url; Alive in Afghanistan, HomeBased Restaurant Gives Afghan Woman Purpose and Pay, 11 May 2022, url
836
Guardian (The), We exist but it is not a life: Afghan women face bleak prospects under Taliban, 13 June 2022, url
837
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 16 May 2022; Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May
2022
838
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, 1 June 2022, url
839
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 16 May 2022; Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May
2022; Der Freitag, In Afghanistan beginnt jeder Tag mit Tränen, 5 March 2022, url; Le Monde, In Afghanistan, theTaliban want to restrict women’s activities into oblivion, 17 May 2022, url
840
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women Protest New Burqa Decree Despite Taliban Threats, 10 May 2022, url;
Guardian (The), Male Afghan TV presenters mask up to support female colleagues after Taliban decree, 24 May
2022, url
841
World’s Children’s Prize (The), Burka, chador or headscarf?, n.d., url
842
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, 1 June 2022, url
835

87EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

it is unacceptable for women to go to a restaurant.843 According to a report by RukhshanaMedia, the fear of harassment of women in public had increased since the takeover as reportsof Taliban fighters verbally and physically abusing women spread.844 Other women highlighted
that verbal harassment by non-Taliban individuals has decreased. Under the previous
government, it was common for women to be verbally harassed in public, but because of thebrutal punishments by the Taliban, men were less bold.845 An article by Hasht-e Subh reported
that a man was arrested by the Taliban’s secret service and then lashed 29 times forharassing a girl. According to the article, no information regarding details of the harassment
was available.846
According to RFE/RL’s Radio Azadi, some women reported that following the Taliban’s order
for women to cover their faces, their relatives did not allow them to leave the house. The
article interpreted this as a consequence of the Taliban’s announcement that men would bepunished for their female relatives not following the Taliban’s rules for hijab.847 Even in Kabul,
where women used to move around relatively freely before the takeover, fewer women could
be seen on the streets.848

5.1.3.

Women in public roles

As discussed in the 2017 EASO COI Report Afghanistan on individuals targeted under societal
and legal norms, women in public roles have frequently been harassed, both on the streets
and at their workplaces.849 There were no women in the Taliban’s cabinet or in other key defacto government positions.850 According to a women’s rights activist interviewed by BAMF forthis report, the combination of limitations for women imposed by the Taliban, growing power
given to conservative members of society, restrictions imposed by worried family members,
and self-restrictions by women, banned women from society and forced them to exclusively
take care of children and the household.851
Many of those women who had held public positions before the takeover were in hiding.852
Some of them not only received threats by the Taliban but also by other members of society.
One report showed that a woman, who had previously worked in a government position,changed her place of residence frequently and did not share her address with friends, as she
received threatening calls by the Taliban as well as non-Taliban individuals.853 For more

Alive in Afghanistan, Badakhshan’s First Restaurant for Women Struggles to Keep Doors Open, 18 February2022, url
844
Rukhshana Media, Women face verbal and physical abuse in the streets by the Taliban’s religious police, 15 May
2022, url
845
BBC News, Five Afghan women who refuse to be silenced, 18 February 2022, url
846
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک جوان در غور به اتهام مزاحمت به یک دختر دره زده شد‬A young man in Ghor was lashed for the crime ofharassment of a girl], 20 June 2022, url
847
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, ‫[ صدور فرمان حجاب اجباری از سوی طالبان سبب افزایش خشونت های خانوادگی شده است‬The Taliban’s order ofobligatory hijab is the reason for increasing domestic violence], 17 May 2022, url
848
Der Freitag, In Afghanistan beginnt jeder Tag mit Tränen, 5 March 2022, url
849
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, pp. 36–37
850
Washington Post (The), Taliban tells Kabul’s female city government employees not to come to work, 21 October
2021, url
851
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022.
852
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url853
Zeit Online, Ein Leben in Unsicherheit und Verzweiflung, 18 February 2022, url
843

88AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

information on women in certain positions, see sections 2.8. Women who served in ANDSF,
4.2. Former judicial workers, and 7. Journalists and media workers.

5.1.4.

Harmful traditional practices

As discussed in the 2017 EASO COI Report Afghanistan on individuals targeted under societal
and legal norms, forced marriages is a widespread phenomenon in Afghanistan. Legally, thereport points out, women above the age of 16 were allowed to marry and Islamic law requires
the consent of women in marriage decisions. Nevertheless, girls and women were given toother families as brides in return for goods or money, were exchanged between families, orwere victims of arranged marriage in the context of conflict resolutions. Forced marriages andmarriages with a bride under the age of 16 was forbidden under the previous government but
were widely practiced.854 As child marriages were not officially registered and forced
marriages not reported, no official data on the development of these practices is available.855
A decree issued by the Taliban on 3 December 2021 bans forced marriages. However, in thedecree, no legal mechanisms to enforce this rule or to protect victims of forced marriage aredefined. The decree does not mention a minimum age for marriage.856 Most shelters for
women have been closed.857
Although no data is available, reports indicated that the bad security situation and the collapseof the economy after the takeover have contributed to an increase in forced marriages,
especially child marriages.858 Several sources refer to cases in which families forced theirdaughters into marriage out of fear that otherwise they would be taken by a Taliban fighter.
This fear is rooted in experiences from the 1990s and has not been confirmed since August2021.859 In other instances, women were forced to marry due to the fact that living without amahram, a male family member serving as chaperone, has become impossible under Taliban
rule.860 The local news outlet Etilaat-e Roz reported a case in which a 32 years old woman
hanged herself in a village in Takhar Province on 23 May 2022. She divorced her firsthusband and her family had engaged her with another man without her consent.861 Widows
and divorced women usually remarry (forced or voluntarily, oftentimes within the family)
because living alone bares a social stigma.862 A women’s rights activist interviewed by BAMF
for this report attributed a resurge of forced remarriages within the family to insecurity and therestrictions of women’s rights.863 On 21 June 2022, Rukhshana Media reported that a few days
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, p. 39-40
OECD, Social Institutions & Gender Index, 2019, url, p. 2856
Al Emarah English: Special Decree Issued by Amir-ul-Momenin on Women’s Rights, 3 December 2021, url
857
AI, Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover – new research, 6
December 2021, url
858
Washington Post (The), Through child marriage or paid adoption, Afghan girls bear brunt of crisis, 14 April 2022,
url; Rukhshana Media, Forced marriages increased in Afghanistan, activists say, 16 April 2022, url; VOA,
Afghanistan Poverty Bears More Child Brides, 4 May 2022, url
859
Rukhshana Media, Forced marriages increased in Afghanistan, activists say, 16 April 2022, url; Zeit Online, Mein
Leben in Kabul, 12 July 2022, url
860
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
861
Etilaat Roz, ‫[ یک زن در تخار به دلیل نامزدی اجباری خودکوشی کرد‬A woman in Takhar committed suicide because of forced
engagement], 24 May 2022, url
862
Al Jazeera, Taliban bans forced marriage of women in Afghanistan, 3 December 2021, url; Denmark, DIS,
Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 26
863
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022.
854

855

89

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

earlier in a village in Bamyan Province a young woman died the night before her engagement
to which she had not consented. The circumstances of her death remained unclear.864 UNAMA
reported on cases where the de facto authorities upheld forced marriages or denied womenthe freedom of choosing their partners.865
In a statement from November 2021, UNICEF estimated that 28 % of women aged 15–49 years
got married before reaching 18 years of age.866 The age at which girls were sold into marriage
has decreased since the Taliban takeover, due to the humanitarian crisis. According to the
Washington Post parents were not only forced to marry their daughters in exchange formoney because of the economic crisis, but also the habit of leaving the child brides with theirown families until their teens was broken frequently.867 The Guardian published a similarreport, indicating that daughters were given away at an early age as their families were notable to feed them. Internally displaced families were most vulnerable to such practices.868
As discussed in EASO COI Report Afghanistan – Individuals targeted under societal and legal
norms, divorces were legally possible by 2017, but almost impossible to obtain. Additionally,
divorced women were looked upon negatively by society and sometimes their own family,leaving them without a home to return to.869 No explicit rules for divorces issued by the
Taliban could be found. The women’s rights activist from Herat interviewed by BAMF for thisreport pointed out that women used to have the right to take care of their children at least
until they reached seven years of age. With nobody protecting women’s rights, she observed
that, since the Taliban takeover, in the case of a conflict between the parents, children weretaken away from their mothers by their fathers or their father’s family at an early age. The fearof losing the children restrained women from considering a divorce.870

5.1.5.

Sexual and gender-based violence

Since 2009 until the Taliban takeover, women were legally protected by the Law on
Elimination of Violence against Women (EVAW): it defined 22 forms of violence against
women, including sexual harassment and abuse, forced prostitution, forced marriage, childmarriage, as well as the exclusion of women from work, education, and healthcare. The law
defined institutions responsible for implementing women’s rights and punishments for theviolation of these rights.871 The law slightly increased the reporting and prosecution of violenceagainst women. However, due to societal pressure on the victims, police officers of that time
refused to file cases or to arrest the perpetrators and, due to the lack of knowledge about or
ignorance of the law by prosecutors, it was only partially enforced.872 The Taliban closed the
Rukhshana Media, ‫[ خبر های ضد و تقیض در مورد مرگ یک دختر جوان در ولسوالی سیغان بامیان‬Contradictory news about thedeath of a young girl in Sighan District, Bamyan], 21 June 2022, url
865
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 31–32
866
UNICEF, Girls increasingly at risk of child marriage in Afghanistan, 12 November 2021, url
867
Washington Post (The), Through child marriage or paid adoption, Afghan girls bear brunt of crisis, 14 April 2022,
url
868
Guardian (The), I’ve already sold my daughters; now, my kidney: winter in Afghanistan’s slums, 23 January 2022,
url
869
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, pp. 57–58
870
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022
871
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Justice, Law on the Elimination of Violence against Women (EVAW), 1
August 2009, url
872
HRW, I Thought Our Life Might Get Better, August 2021, url
864

90AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

former MoWa873 and Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC)874, both ofwhich had provincial branches responsible for supporting victims of SGBV together withshelters and police stations.875 Additionally, under the de facto administration there are nolaws in place protecting women from SGBV.876 The Taliban thus ended institutional and legal
support for women facing SGBV.877
SGBV is reported to be a widespread problem in Afghanistan: a 2008 Global Rights reportstates that 87.2 % of women in Afghanistan were victims of ‘physical, sexual or psychologicalviolence or forced marriage’ at least once in their lives.878 No data and statistics on SGBV
since the Taliban takeover could be found. A report published by DIS indicated thatmonitoring of SGBV has stopped since the takeover. However, the report pointed out that
SGBV has increased for reasons such as unemployment and drug abuse by returnees from
Iran.879 Likewise, Amnesty International estimated that violence against women has increased
since the takeover.880
Under the previous government, SGBV was underreported because women did not trust theauthorities and feared to be stigmatised and/or accused of moral offences themselves.881
Human Rights Watch reported before the takeover that family pressure often resulted inwomen not bringing incidents of domestic violence before a court.882 An article published by
TOLOnews in May 2022 suggested that rising numbers in suicides committed by women in
Badakhshan Province were related to increasing levels of domestic violence.883 A women’s
rights activists interviewed by BAMF for this report explained that, additionally to the absenceof a legal framework for the protection of women, women lacked legal support. Prior to the
Taliban takeover, women addressing SGBV should have been provided with a (female) lawyer
free of charge, she explained. Under the Taliban, female lawyers are not allowed, and most
women could not afford to pay a lawyer.884
Some cases of domestic violence leading to death have been reported mostly by thenewspaper Hasht-e Subh:•

On 19 February 2022 a woman was killed in Zaranj, Nimruz Province. Her husband was
accused of being the perpetrator but the husband accused the son.885

Al Jazeera, Taliban replaces ministry for women with ‘guidance’ ministry, 18 September 2021, url
Guardian (The), Taliban dissolves Afghanistan’s human rights commission as ‘unnecessary’, 17 May 2022, url
875
AI, Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover – new research, 6
December 2021, url
876
Sirat, F., Violence Against Women: Before and After the Taliban, 15 March 2022, url. Fahima Sirat is a former
judge at the Afghan Anti-Corruption Justice Center and wrote the article as an academic visitor in the Oxford Law
Faculty.
877
AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url
878
Global Rights, Living with Violence. A National Report on Domestic Abuse in Afghanistan, March 2008, url, p. 1
879
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, pp. 27–28
880
AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url
881
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, pp. 42–43
882
HRW, I Thought Our Life Might Get Better, August 2021, url, pp. 18–19
883
TOLOnews, Attempted Suicide Cases, Mostly of Women, Rise in Badakhshan, 16 May 2022, url
884
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022
885
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ کشته شدن یک زن در نیمروز؛ همسر قاتل است یا پسر؟‬Killing of a woman in Nimruz; Is the husband or the son
the killer?] 1 March 2022, url
873

874

91

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

•
•
•

•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•

On 28 February 2022 a woman was killed by her husband in the capital of Badghis
Province.886
On 14 May 2022 a woman died in hospital in Sar-e Pol Province after she was beaten
by her husband.887
On 19 May 2022 two women were killed in Tarinkot, the capital of Uruzgan Province. In
one case the perpetrator was the woman’s husband. The other case is referred to as acase of domestic violence but no information on the perpetrator was available.888
On 20 May 2022 a woman was stabbed by her husband in Aybak, the capital of
Samangan Province.889
The newspaper Rukhshana Media reported a case in which a nine-year-old girl was
beaten to death by her fiancé in Kandahar Province on 20 May 2022.890
In late May 2022, two young women hanged themselves in Sheberghan, Jawzjan
Province. They are reported to have committed suicide because of domestic
violence.891
According to a Taliban press release referred to by Rukhshana Media, on 6 June 2022
a man strangled his wife in Ghor Province. He confessed and explained that his wife
‘did not listen to his words’.892
On 12 June 2022, a woman and her three-months-old child were beheaded by thehusband and father in a village in Helmand Province.893
On the same day, a man shot his two wives, four children and three sisters-in-law in
Zaranj, Nimruz Province.894
On 13 June 2022, a 19-year-old pregnant woman was stabbed by her husband inMaymana, Faryab Province.895
On 28 June 2022, a woman was suffocated by her husband after a verbal argument inMaymana, Faryab Province.896

Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک زن از سوی شوهرش در بادغیس کشته شد‬A woman was killed by her husband in Badghis], 12 March
2022, url
887
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک مرد در غزنی پس از در یافت پاسخ رد در خواستگاری دختر مورد عالقه و مادر او را به گولوله بست‬After being
rejected in courtship a man shot the girl he was interested in and her mother in Ghazni], 14 May 2022, url
888
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دو زن در ارزگان کشته شد‬Two women were killed in Urozgan], 20 May 2022, url
889
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در سمنگان زنش را کشت و دو کودکش را زخمی کرد‬A man killed his wife and injured his two children],
21 May 2022, url
890
Rukhshana Media, ‫ ساله از سوی نامزادش در قندهار کشته شد‬۹ ‫[ یک کودک دخر‬A 9-year-old girl was killed by her fiancé in
Kandahar], 21 May 2022, url
891
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دو دختر جوان و یک مرد کهن سال در شبرغان خود را خلق آویز کردند‬Two young girls and an old man hanged
themselves in Sheberghan], 5 June 2022, url
892
Rukhshana Media, ‫ خفه اش کردم‬،‫ خانمم به حرفهایم گوش نداد‬:‫[ مردی در غور‬A man in Ghor: My wife did not listen to me, I
suffocated her], 8 June 2022, url
893
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در هلمند همسر و کودک سه ماهه اش را سر برید‬A man in Helmand beheaded his wife and his threemonth-old child], 13 June 2022, url
894
Hasht-e Subh, ‫ عضو خانواده اش را کشت‬۹ ‫[ مردی در نیمروز‬A man in Nimruz killed 9 members of his family], 13 June
2022, url
895
Hasht-e Subh, ‫یک زن حامله از سوی شوهرش در فریاب کشته شد‬, [A pregnant woman was killed by her husband in Faryab]
14 June 2022, url
896
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در فریاب همسرش را کشت‬A man in Faryab killed his wife], 28 June 2022, url
886

92AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

In most of these cases, the respective articles mentioned that the Taliban have arrested the(assumed) perpetrators or claimed to be looking for them.897 No further information onconsequences were available.
In an unverified video of an interview, which was shared in social media in April 2022, a
woman who had just reported a case of domestic violence to a Taliban police station, claimed
that she was treated with respect and the case was immediately taken care of.898 In anothercase discussed on social media a woman was turned away by the security guard of a de facto
court who told her to return to her abusive husband as otherwise she should be imprisoned. 899
An article by Hasht-e Subh based on anonymous local sources stated that women in Herat
Province who approached the local de facto court to file a case of domestic violence against
their husbands were generally turned away by the Taliban.900
No information on the Taliban’s treatment of rape could be found. According to sharia,
extramarital rape is considered an act of zina, sexual relations outside of marriage. No
differentiation is made between perpetrator and victim.901 A brief report by Hasht-e Subhstated that on 7 December 2021 four men were arrested and stoned to death by local Taliban
fighters in Gizab District, Urozgan Province, after being accused of raping two women. The
case was not decided before a de facto court and Taliban central authorities did not commenton it.902 News outlets including the Guardian and the Conversation reported on a group of
Taliban fighters in Mazar-e Sharif gang-raping eight women they had previously arrested.903
No information on the Taliban’s treatment of marital rape could be found. Even before thetakeover, marital rape was legally not a crime.904 One of the women’s rights activists
interviewed by BAMF for this report gave the view that the exclusion of women fromeducation and public life increases the risk that women themselves do not consider marital
rape to be a crime.905

Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ کشته شدن یک زن در نیمروز؛ همسر قاتل است یا پسر؟‬Killing of a woman in Nimruz; Is the husband or the son
the killer?], 1 March 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک زن از سوی شوهرش در بادغیس کشته شد‬A woman was killed by herhusband in Badghis], 12 March 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, ‫یک مرد در غزنی پس از در یافت پاسخ رد در خواستگاری دختر مورد عالقه و‬‫[ مادر او را به گولوله بست‬After being rejected in courtship a man shot the girl he was interested in and her mother inGhazni], 14 May 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دو زن در ارزگان کشته شد‬Two women were killed in Urozgan], 20 May 2022,
url; Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در سمنگان زنش را کشت و دو کودکش را زخمی کرد‬A man killed his wife and injured his two children],
21 May 2022, url; Rukhshana Media, ‫ ساله از سوی نامزادش در قندهار کشته شد‬۹ ‫[ یک کودک دخر‬A 9-year-old girl was killed byher fiancé in Kandahar], 21 May 2022, url; Rukhshana Media, ‫ خفه اش کردم‬،‫ خانمم به حرفهایم گوش نداد‬:‫[ مردی در غور‬A man in
Ghor: My wife did not listen to me, I suffocated her], 8 June 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, ‫مردی در هلمند همسر و کودک سه ماهه‬‫[ اش را سر برید‬A man in Helmand beheaded his wife and his three-month-old child], 13 June 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh,‫[ یک زن حامله از سوی شوهرش در فریاب کشته شد‬A pregnant woman was killed by her husband in Faryab], 14 June 2022, url;
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در فریاب همسرش را کشت‬A man in Faryab killed his wife], 28 June 2022, url
898
Ramzy Noor [Twitter], posted on: 26 April 2022, url
899
Sirat, F., Violence Against Women: Before and After the Taliban, 15 March 2022, url
900
Hasht-e Subh, ‫ زنان حق ندارند علیه شوهرشان در دادگاه شکایت کنند‬:‫[ طالبان در هرات‬Taliban in Herat: Women don’t have theright to complain about their husbands in court], 16 June 2022, url
901
Schweizerische Flüchtlingshilfe, Afghanistan: Zina, ausserehelicher Geschlechtsverkehr, 2 October 2012, url, p. 7
902
Hasht-e Subh, Four People Stoned to Death in Urozgan Over Rape Accusation, 7 December 2021, url
903
Conversation (The), Afghan women face increasing violence and repression under the Taliban after international
spotlight fades, 4 February 2022, url; Guardian (The), The media spotlight on Afghanistan is fading fast – but theagony of its people is far from over, 18 March 2022, url
904
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, p. 42
905
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022
897

93EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Before the Taliban takeover, about 30 shelters for women existed, spread unevenly
throughout the country.906 According to Torunn Wimplemann, author of a thorough study of
SGBV in Afghanistan from May 2017, these shelters had a negative connotation in large partsof society because they were mostly financed by Western donors.907 The New York Times
wrote that the shelters were frequently labelled as ‘brothels’ as they allowed women to stayaway from home over night.908 With the Taliban’s closure of the Ministry of Women, which ran
many of the shelters, most of them were shut down. During the advance of the Taliban,
shelters were looted and their staff harassed.909 According to a report by Human Rights
Watch, some of the women who lived in the shelters were moved to prisons in 2021. 910
Amnesty International reported in December 2021, that many women were returned to theirfamilies, ‘forcibly removed by family members’ or had to ‘live with shelter staff, on the street, orin other unsustainable situations’. Former staff was in hiding with one of them telling Amnesty
International that she was frequently threatened by ‘Taliban, ISIS, perpetrators and the[victims’] family members.’911 Few private shelters continued to operate in Kabul and someprovincial capitals but did not take in any newly arriving women. Staff of these shelters
reported visits by the Taliban and the resulting uncertainty of how long they would be allowed
to operate.912

5.1.6.

Moral offences and adultery

Sharia does not differentiate between consensual sexual relations outside marriage and rape.
Both is defined as zina.913 According to sharia, zina is punished with stoning or lashing,depending on whether or not the perpetrators are married. The crime should be witnessed byfour men or be confessed by the perpetrator.914 The November 2017 penal code of the Islamic
Republic drew a line between rape and consensual zina, with a maximum punishment for zina
of five years of imprisonment and for rape of 16 years of imprisonment.915
No information on the Taliban’s legal treatment of rape and adultery could be found. Some
media reports on incidents of Taliban prosecuting adultery or other moral offences included
the following:

RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women’s Shelters Vanishing Under Taliban Rule, 26 September 2021, urlWimpelmann, T., The Pitfalls of Protection, University of California Press, Oakland, 2017, p. 3
908
New York Times (The), Threats and Fear Cause Afghan Women’s Protections to Vanish, 4 September 2021, url909
Guardian (The), I don’t know where to go: uncertain fate of the women in Kabul’s shelters, 1 October 2021, url; AI,
Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover – new research, 6
December 2021, url
910
HRW, Afghanistan: Events of 2021, n. d. (2022), url
911
AI, Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover – new research, 6
December 2021, url
912
AI, Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover – new research, 6
December 2021, url; France 24, Nowhere to hide: Abused Afghan women find shelter dwindling, 2 January 2022,
url; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 36
913
Schweizerische Flüchtlingshilfe, Afghanistan: Zina, ausserehelicher Geschlechtsverkehr, 2 October 2012, url, p.
7; For a more detailed definition of zina see: EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal
norms, December 2017, url, pp. 43–44
914
Wimpelmann, T., Adultery, rape, and escaping the house: The protection and policing of female sexuality in
Afghanistan, December 2017, url, p. 5
915
Wimpelmann, T., Adultery, rape, and escaping the house: The protection and policing of female sexuality in
Afghanistan, December 2017, url, p. 10
906
907

94

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

•

•

•

•

•

•
•

On 11 December 2021, Afghan newspaper Hasht-e Subh reported on the arrest of 18
people, including nine women, who were accused of immoral behaviour, namely
prostitution.916
On 20 January 2022, a de facto court in Badakhshan Province sentenced a man and awoman to 39 and 40 lashes for alleged sexual relations outside of marriage. Observers
report that the de facto court wanted to stone them, but another de facto judge
decided on lashing.917
In early February 2022, an unmarried woman delivered a baby in a health clinic in
Ghazni Province. Fearing punishment for sexual relations outside of marriage, she fled
after giving birth. Three days later the Taliban arrested the midwife and her husband.918
On 14 February 2022, a woman and a man were stoned publicly for alleged sexual
relations outside of marriage in Badakhshan Province. The order came from a local
Taliban commander.919
On 22 February 2022, a man was accused of having committed adultery in Uruzgan
Province. He was whipped publicly but it remained unclear if and how the woman
involved was punished.920
On 24 February 2022, Rukhshana Media reported the case of a man and a woman
being accused of zina in Ghor Province. They were lashed 39 times each.921
On 6 June 2022, a woman was shot by the Taliban in Samangan Province as theyaccused her of sexual relations outside of marriage. Inhabitants of her village
reportedly said that her husband was living in Iran and the man she was accused ofhaving sexual relations with accompanied her as she lacked another mahram, a male
relative serving as chaperone.922

According to a report published by DIS, most cases of sexual relations outside of marriage areresolved within the families with no authorities being involved. 923 In the first half of 2022 only
one newspaper report could be found, in which relatives punished a couple accused of sexual
relations outside of marriage: on 13 May 2022, a boy and a girl were shot by a relative of thegirl for having sexual relations outside of marriage in Ghazni Province. The Taliban claimed
that they were looking for the culprit to arrest him.924 In another case, a woman and a man
were shot dead in Ghor Province on 12 March 2022. Local residents claimed that they wereshot by de facto security forces, but the local Taliban commander stated that they were shotby the woman’s relatives.925

Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Detain 18 Civilians, Including 9 women, in Herat for Prostitution, 11 December 2021, url
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دادگاه صحرایی؛ طالبان در بدخشان یک زن و مرد را به اتهام «روابط نامشروع» دره زدند‬Public trial; in Badakhshan the
Taliban lashed a woman and a man for the crime of “illicit relations”], 20 January 2022, url
918
Fuller Project (The), The Taliban are harming Afghan women’s health, 2 March 2022, url
919
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک مرد و یک زن در بدخشان محکمه صحرایی شدند‬A man and a woman were tried publicly in Badakhshan],
14 February 2022, url
920
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Publicly Flogs Afghan Man Accused of Adultery, 22 February 2022, url
921
Rukhshana Media, A man and a woman was [sic] lashed for adultery in Ghor, 24 February 2022, url
922
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ طالبان یک زن را در ولسوالی دره صوف پایین والیت سمنگان در مقابل فرزندانش تیرباران کردند‬Taliban shot a woman infront of her children in Dara-e Suf District, lower Samangan], 6 June 2022, url
923
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 34
924
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک دختر و یک پسر جوان در شهر غزنی به قتل رسیدند‬A young girl and a young boy were killed in Ghazni
City], 13 May 2022, url
925
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک مرد و یک زن در غور تیرباران شدند‬A man and a woman were shot in Ghor], 12 March 2022, url
916
917

95

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Sources reported on strong social stigmatisation and shame around sexual activities outsideof marriage.926 USDOS reported on mothers facing ‘severe’ social stigma for having children
out of wedlock, ‘even if the pregnancy was a result of rape’. USDOS further reported on a‘cultural stigmatisation’ of some women even spending just one night outside their home,which prevented them from seeking services, such as legal assistance for domestic or sexual
abuse, available before the takeover.927 Research by the University of Melbourne, based oninterviews with 10 women and a group discussion on the practice of bacha posh (girls living
like boys), one identified reason for the practice was the fear of men targeting girls forpremarital relations, ‘tainting their “pure” status’ and dishonouring the family.928 An eyewitnessof the previously mentioned lashing of a man being accused of adultery in Uruzgan Province
was quoted saying that the man had been ‘humiliated’ and would not ‘be able to live a
dignified life’. 929

5.1.7.

Honour violence

Honour violence usually occurs when the action of a family member is perceived as shameful.
In this perception, honour killings (usually by men against women) can restore the honour ofthe family.930 Prior to the Taliban takeover, honour had, for a long time, been a mitigating
factor in the judiciary for murder cases. This changed with a new penal code in 2018.
However, it was estimated that only one-third of the cases related to honour violence wereprosecuted and in even less cases perpetrators were convicted.931
No information could be found on the Taliban’s legal treatment of honour violence and on thepunishment of assumed perpetrators they arrested.
Recently reported incidents of honour violence include the following:••

In January 2022, Taliban fighters reportedly gang-raped eight women they had
previously arrested in Mazar-e Sharif. A journalist writing for the Guardian referred to‘friends in Kabul’ who heard that some of the women were killed by their families after
being released from custody, ‘in the name of “honour”’.932
On 16 June 2022, Ruskhshana reported that a man shot three members of a family:
father, mother, and daughter, in Maywand District, Kandahar Province. Several months
earlier he had killed his own daughter because she ‘ran away’ with a son of this family.
The perpetrator fled to Pakistan after killing his daughter and had returned to
Kandahar Province shortly before violently entering the house of this man’s family. He
fled after killing the family members.933

USDOS, 2021 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 12 April 2022, url; Pursuit, Girls forced toact as boys in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url
927
USDOS, 2021 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: Afghanistan, 12 April 2022, url
928
Pursuit, Girls forced to act as boys in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url
929
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Publicly Flogs Afghan Man Accused of Adultery, 22 February 2022, url
930
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted under societal and legal norms, December 2017, url, pp. 51–52
931
HRW, I Thought Our Life Might Get Better, August 2021, url, pp. 24–25
932
Guardian (The), The media spotlight on Afghanistan is fading fast – but the agony of its people is far from over,
18 March 2022, url
933
Rukhshana Media, ‫[ در یک دعوای ناموسی در قندهار مردی دخترش و سه عضو یک خانواده دیگر را کشت‬In an honour fight in
Kandahar, a man killed his daughter and three other family members], 18 June 2022, url
926

96AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

5.2.

Situation of women and girls under Taliban rule

Since their takeover, the de facto authorities have repeatedly expressed their commitment torespect women’s and girl’s rights within the framework of sharia.934 Women’s active
participation in political and economic life and their contribution to Afghan society have,
however, been largely curtailed in comparison to their situation under the previous
government.935 Several practices, regulations and instructions have been issued by the
Taliban since 15 August 2021, impacting women’s and girl’s freedom of movement, expression
and behaviour, as well as their access to education, employment, healthcare and social
protection.936
On 3 December 2021, the Taliban issued a decree on women’s rights, setting out rules
governing marriage and women’s ownership. The decree bans forced marriage (although it
did not address the minimum age of marriage), stated that women should not be consideredas ‘property’ and granted inheritance rights to widows. This decree did not, however, refer towider women’s and girls’ rights, such as access to education and employment, freedom of
movement and participation in public life.937
Some sources suggested that restricting women’s rights and freedoms seemed to be not only
an ideological matter but also a political Taliban tactic to demonstrate power,938 to show
compromise in an effort to receive international aid,939 and to use the threat of violenceagainst women as a ‘bargaining chip’ in their engagement with Western governments.940
According to Obaidullah Baheer, lecturer in transitional justice at the American University ofAfghanistan the Taliban’s position and policy regarding women in Afghan society has been‘elusive and confusing’, with decisions often made at provincial level. This caused confusion

Al Jazeera, Transcript of Taliban’s first news conference in Kabul, 17 August 2021, url; Al Jazeera, Afghanistan:
Women’s Rights [Online video], 15 December 2021, url; VICE News, Life in the Taliban's Afghanistan [Online video],
13 February 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA says it’s committed to addressing women’s issues, 8 March 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Haqqani Tells Tribal Elders to Respect Women's Rights, 30 March 2022, url
935
FIDH, Broken promises: Civil society under siege after 100 days of Taliban takeover, 23 November 2021, url; UN
Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28 January2022, url, para. 3; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 66;
Republik, A year under the Taliban, 21 June 2022, url
936
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 66; HRW, Afghan Women Watching theWalls Close In, 2 March 2022, url; AI, There is a window of opportunity to negotiate for the rights of Afghan women,
but it is rapidly closing, 1 April 2022, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications forinternational peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 38–39
937
Al Jazeera, Taliban bans forced marriage of women in Afghanistan, 3 December 2021, url; New York Times(The), Taliban Decree an End to Forced Marriages in Afghanistan, 3 December 2021, url; CNN, Taliban decree on
women's rights, which made no mention of school or work, dismissed by Afghan women and experts, 4 December
2021, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security,
28 January 2022, url, para. 6; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022,
url, para. 34; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 2
938
New York Times (The), Why Taliban’s Repression of Women May Be More Tactical Than Ideological, 4 October
2021, url
939
NPR, The Taliban give back some rights to women, but it may be all a political strategy, 21 November 2021, url
940
Fair Observer, The Taliban Use Violence Against Women as a Bargaining Chip, 11 February 2022, url
934

97EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

among Taliban fighters on how orders should be enforced in practice, resulting in arbitrary
implementation.941
As stated by the UNSG, engagement of the de facto authorities with Afghan women remained
limited, both on central level and on provincial and district level.942 At the end of June 2022, a‘grand assembly’ (loya jirga) was organised by the Taliban in Kabul to discuss various topics ofnational importance. The gathering was attended by over 3 000 religious scholars, tribal
elders, intellectuals and influential figures. Women, however, were excluded from the meeting,with the Taliban Deputy Prime Minister, Abdul Salam Hanafi, declaring that ‘male delegates
would speak on their behalf’.943 This caused widespread outcry, with national and international
voices calling on the Taliban to make such decision-making gatherings inclusive.944
Violence against women reportedly increased under Taliban rule.945 As reported by OHCHR
and Amnesty International, the Taliban takeover and change in national authority had an‘adverse impact’ on Afghan women’s access to protection and support when faced withgender-based violence. The closure of specific institutions dealing with violence against
women (such as the former MoWA and former specialised courts) and the fall out of qualified
female personnel handling complaints (for example in the former police forces and former
judicial departments) has hindered access to justice for women.946 Most women shelters haveclosed or are no longer operational947 out of fear of threats and repercussions or because oflimited financial resources. This forced many women and girls to return to their abusers or
remain in situations where they were at risk of experiencing gender-based violence.948 Two
women protection centres have reportedly reopened in Kabul, although under a ‘redesigned
model’, where women who were relocated from shelters across the country found refuge.949
For more information on gender-based violence, see section 5.1.5. Sexual and gender-based
violence.

Al Jazeera, Afghan women face hardship as Taliban struggles to revive economy, 12 January 2022, url
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 9943
Khaama Press, Men to Represent Women in the Taliban’s Grand Assembly: Taliban Leader, 29 June 2022, url
944
Khaama Press, Human Rights Watch: Taliban’s Jirga Lacks Legitimacy If It Excludes Women, 27 June 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Clerics in Kabul Called for Inclusion of Women in Coming Gathering, 28 June 2022, url; TOLOnews,
Women Demand Inclusion in Clerics' Gathering, 30 June 2022, url
945
Conversation (The), Afghan women face increasing violence and repression under the Taliban after international
spotlight fades, 4 February 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url; UN Security Council, The situationin Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 40
946
AI, Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover, 6 December 2021,
url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 39
947
New York Times (The), Threats and Fear Cause Afghan Women’s Protections to Vanish Overnight, 4 September
2021, url; Guardian (The), I don’t know where to go: uncertain fate of the women in Kabul’s shelters, 1 October 2021,
url; VOA, Taliban Closure of Domestic Abuse Shelters Leaves Thousands at Risk, Experts Say, 10 December 2021,
url; New Humanitarian (The), Protections for women facing violence have vanished under the Taliban, 20 April
2022, url
948
AI, Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned following Taliban takeover, 6 December 2021,
url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 39
949
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 40
941

942

98

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

5.2.1.

Access to education

Shortly after the Taliban takeover, at the end of August 2021, primary schools for both boys
and girls re-opened.950 In February 2022, the Taliban’s Ministry of Education announced a
new primary education plan. Boys and girls in grades 1 up to 6 were instructed to follow
classes separately, with male teachers for boys and female teachers for girls, and at different
times.951
In mid-September 2021, the Taliban authorities announced that secondary education (above
grade 6) would resume for boys. Access to secondary education for girls was not mentioned
in this announcement.952 Some sources called this a ‘de facto ban’ on secondary education forgirls.953 However, it was not applied uniformly across the country.954 Exceptions have beenreported in several provinces (such as Balkh955, Jawzjan,956 Kunduz957, Samangan andUruzgan958, Zabul959, Herat960, Sar-e Pul961, Ghazni962 and Faryab963). As reported by AAN, anumber of secondary schools for girls in these provinces were allowed to remain open, oftenwith the support of local Taliban leaders or because of strong pressure from parents andteachers in the community.964 In mid-November 2021, the Taliban’s Ministry of Education
announced that girls above grade 6 would pass to the next grade without examinations andthat female students in grade 12 would not have to pass exams to graduate.965 In midDecember 2021, the Taliban Foreign Minister declared to AP that girls were attending
secondary school classes in 10 provinces, without specifying which provinces.966 Many private

Clark, K. and AAN Team, Who Gets to Go to School? (1), AAN, 26 January 2022, url; Kazemi, S. R., Clark, K., Whogets to go to school? (2), AAN, 31 January 2022, url
951
TOLOnews, Education Ministry Prepares New Plan for Grades 1-6, 22 February 2022, url
952
Al Jazeera, Taliban says classes resume for Afghan boys, no mention of girls, 17 September 2021, url;
Washington Post (The), Taliban reopens high school for boys, but makes no mention of female students, 17
September 2021, url; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12
April 2022, url, pp. 53–54
953
Shaharzad Akbar [Twitter], posted on: 16 October 2021, url; HRW, Taliban Close Girls’ Secondary Schools in
Afghanistan, Again, 23 March 2022, url; Jackson, A., The Ban on Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives
ascendant and a leadership in disarray, AAN, 29 March 2022, url
954
BBC News, Afghanistan girls' tears over chaotic Taliban schools U-turn, 23 March 2022, url; AP, Taliban breakpromise on higher education for Afghan girls, 24 March 2022, url
955
TOLOnews, Schools Reopen for Girls in Grades 7-12 in Balkh Province, 8 October 2021, url; Guardian (The), We
have never given up: how Afghan women are demanding their education under the Taliban, 10 February 2022, url;
HRW, Dress Restrictions Tighten for Afghanistan Girls’ Schools, 27 April 2022, url
956
AP, UN official: Taliban to announce secondary school for girls, 16 October 2021, url
957
France 24, Girls return to schools in Afghan province, remain barred elsewhere, 5 October 2021, url
958
AP, UN official: Taliban to announce secondary school for girls, 16 October 2021, url959
Rukhshana Media, The Taliban opened secondary schools for girls in Zabul province, 24 November 2021, url;
Washington Post (The), Along Afghanistan’s highway of dead, the bombs are gone but suffering has deepened, 20
December 2022, url; Guardian (The), We have never given up: how Afghan women are demanding their education
under the Taliban, 10 February 2022, url
960
TOLOnews, Girls’ Schools for Grades 7-12 Reopen in Herat, 8 November 2021, url; Guardian (The), We havenever given up: how Afghan women are demanding their education under the Taliban, 10 February 2022, url
961
TOLOnews, Girls Attend Schools in Kunduz, Balkh, Sar-e-Pul, 9 October 2021, url
962
France 24, Girls with rare chance to study under Taliban rule dare to dream, 7 December 2021, url
963
Clark, K. and AAN Team, Who Gets to Go to School? (1), AAN, 26 January 2022, url
964
Clark, K. and AAN Team, Who Gets to Go to School? (1), AAN, 26 January 2022, url; Jackson, A., The Ban on
Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray, AAN, 29 March 2022, url
965
Radio Azadi, Taliban: 12th grade female students will graduate without an annual exam, 15 November 2021, url;
Clark, K. and AAN Team, Who Gets to Go to School? (1), AAN, 26 January 2022, url
966
AP, The AP Interview: Taliban seek ties with US, other ex-foes, 14 December 2021, url
950

99

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

secondary schools and universities kept running, even in places where public secondary
schools for girls remained closed.967 As indicated by USDOS, the Taliban’s lack of a clear anduniform policy regarding education for girls, in combination with teachers not being paid theirsalaries, caused low enrolment rates even in areas where schools were open.968 A decline in
the quality of education was also reported, with a ban on male teachers for female students
causing the loss of specialists.969 Medical professionals, cited by the Guardian, indicated a risein depression among teenage girls, confronted with an uncertain future as they were denied
education and employment opportunities.970
In an interview in mid-January 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid, declared that
the Taliban hoped to open all schools for girls across the country after the start of the Afghan
New Year on 21 March 2022. Mujahid added that education for women and girls ‘is a questionof capacity’, referring to the challenge to find enough buildings, dorms and hostels to assure acomplete gender segregation.971 The Taliban authorities formulated a plan to segregate allschools by gender, with schools only for boys and schools only for girls. In areas where thiswould not be possible, boys and girls would go to the same school but at different timings.972
In February and March 2022, in the weeks and days leading up to the start of the new school
year, the Taliban Ministry of Education insisted several times that all schools would reopen, forboys as well as girls.973
However, on 23 March 2022, the Taliban announced the abrupt decision to keep all
secondary schools closed for girls974, reportedly affecting an estimated 1.1 million Afghan girls
across the country.975 This announcement caused widespread indignation among female
students (with many of them already present at the school gates or in their classrooms when
the decision was proclaimed)976, and it also provoked strong criticism from the international
Al Jazeera, Taliban says all Afghan girls will be back in school by March, 17 January 2022, url; Clark, K. and AAN
Team, Who Gets to Go to School? (1), AAN, 26 January 2022, url; Jackson, A., The Ban on Older Girls’ Education:
Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray, AAN, 29 March 2022, url; AP, Taliban break promiseon higher education for Afghan girls, 24 March 2022, url
968
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 53
969
Guardian (The), We have never given up: how Afghan women are demanding their education under the Taliban,
10 February 2022, url
970
Guardian (The), Robbed of hope: Afghan girls denied an education struggle with depression, 10 March 2022, url
971
AP, The AP Interview: Taliban pledge all girls in schools soon, 15 January 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Taliban says all
Afghan girls will be back in school by March, 17 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Girls' Schools May Open in New
Year: Mujahid, 16 January 2022, url
972
Ariana News, Afghan schools to be segregated by gender, 6 March 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: Girls
return to school in amidst hope and fear, 21 March 2022, url
973
Ariana News, Education minister says schooling will be provided to all children, 11 February 2022, url;
TOLOnews, MoE Says All Schools to Open, 18 March 2022, url; Ariana News, Afghan schools to reopen after ahiatus of 186 days, 22 March 2022, url
974
New York Times (The), Taliban Renege on Promise to Open Afghan Girls’ Schools, 23 March 2022, url; Al
Jazeera, The Taliban closes Afghan girls’ schools hours after reopening, 23 March 2022, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan: Taliban backtrack on reopening high schools for girls, 23 March 2022, url; HRW, Taliban Close Girls’
Secondary Schools in Afghanistan, Again, 23 March 2022, url; AP, Taliban break promise on higher education for
Afghan girls, 24 March 2022, url
975
UNICEF and Save the Children, Afghanistan: Back to School - Situation Update (April 2022), 21 April 2022, url, p.
2; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 38
976
BBC News, Afghanistan girls' tears over chaotic Taliban schools U-turn, 23 March 2022, url; Guardian (The), Is ita crime to study?: outcry as Taliban bar girls from secondary schools, 23 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, Afghan Girls
Recount Experience of Being Turned Away From School, 23 March 2022, url; HRW, Afghan Girls Grieve After
967

100

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

community.977 The Taliban, initially mentioned several reasons for this decision, such as ashortage of female teachers and a lack of consensus about an appropriate school uniform forgirls.978 Eventually, the Taliban officially announced that secondary schools would remain
provisionally closed for girls ‘until a comprehensive plan has been prepared according to
Sharia and Afghan culture’.979 In the following weeks and months, the US980, the EU981,
numerous other countries982, UN agencies983 and international organisations984, as well as
former Afghan political leaders985, school teachers986, religious clerics987 and women’s rights
activists988 expressed their deep concern on the Taliban’s decision and called on the de facto
government to reopen schools for all girls.
As stated by the UNSG, there were reports (although unverified) of public high schools for girls
that did reopen in some provinces, with a ‘tacit consent’ of the local Taliban authorities.989 In
Herat Province, female students above grade 6 were reportedly allowed in class on the two
first days of the new school year, however the schools closed from the third day onwards.990 In
School Ban Reinstated, 24 March 2022, url; Take (The), The uncertain future of girls’ schools in Afghanistan[Podcast], 28 March 2022, url; Time, Is Gaining Knowledge a Sin? Afghan Girls Contemplate a Future Without
Schools After the Taliban Backtracks, 29 March 2022, url
977
Ariana News, IEA’s move to extend ban on teenage girls from going to school sparks outcry, 23 March 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Outcry Raised as Afghan Girls Over Grade 6 Barred From School, 23 March 2022, url; AP, Many baffledby Taliban reneging pledge on girls’ education, 24 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, Intl Criticism of Closed Girls'
Schools Remains Strong, 6 April 2022, url
978Jackson, A., The Ban on Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray,
AAN, 29 March 2022, url; New York Times (The), Taliban Renege on Promise to Open Afghan Girls’ Schools, 23
March 2022, url; Guardian (The), Taliban U-turn over Afghan girls’ education reveals deep leadership divisions, 25
March 2022, url
979
BBC News, Afghanistan girls' tears over chaotic Taliban schools U-turn, 23 March 2022, url; Guardian (The),
Taliban U-turn over Afghan girls’ education reveals deep leadership divisions, 25 March 2022, url; Jackson, A., The
Ban on Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray, AAN, 29 March 2022,
url
980
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url; TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url;
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url981
Khaama Press, EU deplores Taliban’s restriction on girls’ schools, 24 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, EU: Decisionon Girls’ Schools Impacts Engagement, 29 March 2022, url
982
Khaama Press, US, UK, European countries slam Taliban’s decision over suspending girls’ schools, 25 March
2022, url; Ariana News, IEA’s move to ban teenage girls from schools came as a shock: Qatar FM, 27 March 2022,
url; TOLOnews, 15 Foreign Ministers Issue Statement on Afghan Women's Rights, 15 May 2022, url
983
UNAMA, Statement by the Secretary-General on Afghanistan, 23 March 2022, url; UN News, Taliban’s
backtracking on girls’ education, deeply damaging, 23 March 2022, url; Khaama Press, UN Secretary-General:
postponement of girls’ schools is deeply damaging for Afghanistan, 24 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, UNAMA:
Closing of Girls’ Schools Discriminatory, 7 April 2022, url
984
NRC, Statement in response to the suspension of girls’ return to secondary school in Afghanistan, url; OIC[Twitter], posted on: 24 March 2022, url; Ariana News, Make girls’ education red line in talks with IEA, Amnesty tells
int’l community, 29 March 2022, url
985
TOLOnews, Prominent Afghans React to Closed Girls' Schools, 23 March 2022, url
986
TOLOnews, Political Party Calls for Reopening of Girls' Schools, 25 March 2022, url; Ariana News, Clerics,
teachers, activists call on IEA to reopen girls’ schools, 7 April 2022, url
987
TOLOnews, Afghan Clerics Call to Reopen Girls' Schools, 31 March 2022, url; Khaama Press, Religious Scholars
Urge Taliban to Reopen Girls’ Schools, 11 April 2022, url; NPR, Afghans who want teen girls back in school havenew allies: Taliban-affiliated clerics, 5 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Islamic Scholars in Badghis Call to Reopen Girls’
Schools, 14 June 2022, url
988
TOLOnews, [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Political Party Calls for Reopening of Girls' Schools, 25 March 2022, url; Ariana News, Clerics, teachers,
activists call on IEA to reopen girls’ schools, 7 April 2022, url
989
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 38
990
TOLOnews, Herat Girls Over 6th Grade Now Banned From School, 27 March 2022, url

101EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Balkh, a number of secondary schools for girls were reportedly still open at the end of April
2022991 and in May 2022992 and June 2022.993 However, some of these schools were
threatened with closure if their female students did not comply with the strict dress code(hijab) rules,994 resulting in some girls dropping out of school, as reported by Human Rights
Watch.995 As stated by Heather Barr, associate director of Human Rights Watch’s Women's
Rights Division, the Taliban adapted the curriculum in schools that remained open, withsubjects such as science, literature and sports largely replaced by religious studies.996 In April
and May 2022, several prominent figures of the de facto authorities declared that secondary
education for girls would resume soon, with a committee of clerics and scholars formed toaddress the issue.997 In June 2022, a Taliban spokesman declared to VOA that public
secondary schools for girls were open in ‘about a dozen provinces’ and private schools acrossthe country from the first grade up to university level.998 In some areas, such as Pamir Districtin Badakhshan Province, girls’ schools remained closed due to a lack of female teachers.999
The Taliban Ministry of Education announced the recruitment of 7 000 teachers andadministrative personnel, of which more than 2 000 vacancies reportedly were reserved for
women.1000
According to researcher Ashley Jackson, who has written several books on the Taliban and on
the conflict in Afghanistan, the Taliban’s abrupt decision to keep secondary schools for girls
closed ‘may have had less to do with religion than the unpredictable nature of Taliban policy’,and indicated ‘the movement’s broader failure to create a clear mechanism for making
national policy decisions’. Jackson also referred to the importance of a small circle of very
conservative clerics in the process of shaping Taliban policy. She described leader
Haibatullah Akhundzada as ‘unwilling to take controversial decisions’ and ‘personally
opposing female education’. Instead of following a more moderate consensus within the
movement, that was thought to be in favour of secondary schooling for girls, he acted inaccordance with a minority of influential conservatives that were against.1001 In line with
Jackson referring to tensions between pragmatic political leaders and hard-line religious
clerics1002, several sources suggested that the decision to keep secondary schools for girls

HRW, Dress Restrictions Tighten for Afghanistan Girls’ Schools, 27 April 2022, url
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url
993
Modaser Islami [Twitter], posted on: 1 June 2022, url
994
Ariana News, IEA imposes strict dress codes on the few girls schools still open, 28 April 2022, url
995
HRW, Dress Restrictions Tighten for Afghanistan Girls’ Schools, 27 April 2022, url
996
Take (The), The uncertain future of girls’ schools in Afghanistan [Podcast], 28 March 2022, url
997
Khaama Press, Baradar Gives Hope on Girls Education in Afghanistan, 16 April 2022, url; TOLOnews, Haqqani:
Clerics' Gathering Will Solve School Issue, 4 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Assembly on Girls’ Schools to Be Held in
Kabul: Officials, 7 May 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA says girls’ schools will reopen soon, 16 May 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Committee Formed to Reopen Girls' Schools: Islamic Emirate, 26 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, No Details
Yet from Committee on Girls' Schooling: Spokesperson, 31 May 2022, url
998
VOA, Taliban Rebuff UN Calls for Reversing Rules on Afghan Women, 27 May 2022, url
999
TOLOnews, Schools Remain Closed In Pamir District Of Badakhshan, 17 June 2022, url
1000
TOLOnews, Over 7,000 Vacancies Announced for School Teachers, 8 June 2022, url; UN Security Council, The
situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 38
1001
Jackson, A., The Ban on Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray,
AAN, 29 March 2022, url
1002
Jackson, A., The Ban on Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray,
AAN, 29 March 2022, url
991

992

102

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

closed is related to problems of internal division within the Taliban movement.1003 On social
media, some Taliban figures criticised the decision and voiced their support for all girls
returning to school.1004
A Taliban external relations and donor representative declared that ‘the leadership has notdecided when or how they will allow girls to return to school’, adding that people in urban
centres were mostly supportive of secondary education for girls but much of rural Afghanistan,in particular tribal Pashtun regions, were opposed to it.1005 In February 2022, AAN researcher
Sabawoon Samim referred to a ‘relatively new trend’ in the view on girls’ education within the
Taliban movement. His research suggested that one part of the current generation of Taliban
members, who had a certain degree of education themselves and had been familiar with city
life and its modern services, ‘appears to be changing its attitude towards schooling’, searchingfor education opportunities for their own sons and daughters.1006
Several local and international initiatives providing alternative forms of education for girls after
grade 6 have been reported.1007 In October 2021, Reuters reported on hundreds of girls andwomen continuing to learn through secret online schooling or in hidden makeshift classrooms.
For example in Herat, students of Code to Inspire, Afghanistan's first all-female coding
academy, received laptops and internet packages to follow online courses in encrypted virtual
classrooms.1008 Also in Herat, an exiled teacher founded the Online Herat School, offering
more than 170 online courses ranging from mathematics to music, cooking and painting tonearly 1 000 female students. The classes were delivered via the communication services
Telegram or Skype by a group of nearly 400 volunteer teachers, mainly from Iran.1009 Further,several sources have reported on initiatives of underground schooling in Kabul and in otherparts of the country, where female teachers meet in private homes or at unknown clandestine
locations to teach girls.1010 Students reportedly take different routes to join their classes atdifferent times during the day, to avoid being noticed by the Taliban authorities.1011 Other
initiatives reported were an underground book club in Kabul where girls read and wrote their
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban backtrack on reopening high schools for girls, 23 March 2022, url; AP, Taliban
break promise on higher education for Afghan girls, 24 March 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban’s Dramatic UTurn On Reopening Girls’ Schools Reflects Internal Divisions, 24 March 2022, url; DW, Afghanistan: Taliban restrict
women's rights as isolation looms, 30 March 2022, url; New Lines Magazine, Why the Taliban View Education as a
Weapon, 4 April 2022, url; Khaama Press, School closure might create friction among Taliban: Rina Amiri, 6 April
2022, url; International Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url
1004
Grame Smith [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url; Afghan Analyst [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, url;
Abdul salam zaeef. [Twitter], posted on: 24 March 2022, url; Guardian (The), Taliban U-turn over Afghan girls’
education reveals deep leadership divisions, 25 March 2022, url
1005
Guardian (The), Is it a crime to study?: outcry as Taliban bar girls from secondary schools, 23 March 2022, url;AP, Taliban break promise on higher education for Afghan girls, 24 March 2022, url
1006
Samim, S., Who Gets to Go to School? (3), AAN, 7 February 2022, url
1007
DW, Afghan girls set up secret school amid Taliban restrictions, 22 October 2021, url; Times (The), Huddled insecret schools, Afghan girls refuse to give up on education, 5 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, Prevented from
Attending School, Afghan Girls Learn Handicrafts, 13 May 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: The secret girls school
defying the Taliban, 17 May 2022, url
1008
Reuters, Afghan girls learn, code underground to bypass Taliban curbs, 28 October 2021, url
1009
BBC News, The teacher defying the Taliban on girls' education, 3 November 2021, url
1010
WSJ, Afghan Teachers Defy Taliban by Secretly Schooling Teenage Girls, 25 November 2021, url; TOLOnews,
Banned From School, Afghan Girls Gather in Homes to Learn, 13 December 2021, url; Times (The), Huddled insecret schools, Afghan girls refuse to give up on education, 5 February 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: The
secret girls school defying the Taliban, 17 May 2022, url; Pajhwok Afghan News, Many girls gather at Ghazni home
to continue their studies, 9 June 2022, url
1011
DW, Afghan girls set up secret school amid Taliban restrictions, 22 October 2021, url
1003

103

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

own stories1012, literacy and vocational training courses (such as tailoring, hand-knitting,weaving and handicrafts) in Kabul City1013, Herat Province1014, and Badghis Province1015, a
makeshift cave school run by a female university graduate in Bamyan Province1016, lessons forgirls offered by a charity foundation in Kabul City1017, and in a free educational centre(facilitated by a foreign organisation and supported by the provincial department of education)
in Balkh Province.1018
In the beginning of September 2021, the Taliban Ministry of Education issued a decree
stipulating rules for female university students. The order defined that classes had to begender segregated, mixed classes were only allowed with less than 15 female students, andmen and women were to be separated by a curtain. Furthermore, male and female students
had to enter university through separate entrances or during different times, and female
students could only be taught by female teachers or elderly men known for being‘trustworthy’. Lastly, female students, teachers and educational staff had to comply with theIslamic dress code according to sharia, specified as a black abaya robe and niqab covering
the hair, body and most of the face, as well as gloves covering the hands.1019 These regulations
came into effect as private universities reopened their doors for male and female students on
6 September 2021. Public universities remained closed, with the Taliban authorities referring
to financial constraints and a lack of separate classrooms and safe transportation systems forfemale students.1020
In mid-January 2022, the Taliban Ministry of Higher Education announced that all 40 public
universities would soon reopen for male and female students.1021 On 2 February 2022, public
universities in warm climate provinces reopened, more specifically in Nimroz, Nangarhar,
Khost, Paktya, Laghman, Paktika and the southern provinces Kandahar and Helmand.1022
Public universities in other southern provinces, such as Uruzgan and Zabul remained
closed.1023 Public universities in cold climate provinces (except for Panjsher Province)
reopened on 26 February 2022.1024 The Taliban authorities assured that the enrolment for
women in higher education could continue, however female students had to respect thecompulsory Islamic dress code and were only allowed to follow lessons in gender segregated
Al Jazeera, Afghan students run underground book club to keep dreams alive, 9 May 2022, url
TOLOnews, Afghan Woman Runs Home-Based School for 600 Girls, 11 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, 60
Women Graduate from Trade School in Kabul, 21 May 2022, url
1014
TOLOnews, Prevented from Attending School, Afghan Girls Learn Handicrafts, 13 May 2022, url
1015
TOLOnews, Facing Closed Schools, Badghis Girls Learn Tailoring, 6 June 2022, url
1016
Al Jazeera, In remote Bamiyan, a school run by an Afghan woman offers hope, 20 February 2022, url
1017
Take (The), The uncertain future of girls’ schools in Afghanistan [Podcast], 28 March 2022, url
1018
TOLOnews, Free Education Center Established for Girls in Balkh, 8 June 2022, url
1019
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Imposes New Dress Code, Segregation Of Women At Afghan Universities, 6
September 2021, url; CNN, Curtains separate male and female students as new term begins under Taliban rule, 7September 2021, url
1020
NPR, Kabul University chancellor says female students will be allowed, but segregated, 2 October 2021, url;
VOA, All Public Universities in Afghanistan Open to Male, Female Students, 26 February 2022, url
1021
TOLOnews, Public Universities to Reopen, Female Students Included: Minister, 12 January 2022, url; Ariana
News, Higher education will be open to men and women based on Sharia: Deputy PM, 19 January 2022, url; VOA,All Public Universities in Afghanistan Open to Male, Female Students, 26 February 2022, url
1022
TOLOnews, Afghan Public Universities Opened in Warm Zones, 2 February 2022, url; Arab News, Afghan
universities reopen with trickle of women attending, 2 February 2022, url
1023
Guardian (The), Afghan universities reopen with strict rules for female students, 3 February 2022, url
1024
VOA, All Public Universities in Afghanistan Open to Male, Female Students, 26 February 2022, url; Al Jazeera,
Afghan public universities reopen with gender segregated classes, 26 February 2022, url
1012
1013

104

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

classrooms. As reported by several media sources, only a limited number of female university
students returned to their classrooms.1025 A shortage of female university lecturers has beenreported, since many educated professionals left the country after the Taliban takeover.1026
Female students coming from the provinces to study in Kabul indicated a lack of appropriate
accommodation.1027 In mid-June 2022, Hasht-e Subh reported on Taliban raids on girls’
hostels of Takhar University, with students being harassed and 30 female students beingarrested for leaving the university without asking permission from the Taliban. 1028
As indicated by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, concerns remained that a strict
gender segregation at universities could severely constrain women’s access to higher
education, as well as their teaching and learning quality.1029 At the end of April 2022, theTaliban Ministry of Higher Education announced the scheduling of a new gender segregatedtimetable for university students, with separate weekdays allocated for male (Sunday, Tuesday
and Thursday) and female (Saturday, Monday and Wednesday) students.1030 And, as indicatedby USAID in SIGAR’s January 2022 Quarterly Report, even if female students were allowed toenrol in higher education, their inability to access secondary education would mean they wereeffectively banned from reaching university level.1031 Furthermore, many female students havereportedly dropped out of higher education due to financial pressures, in the context of theongoing economic crisis.1032
During the reference period, several protests and demonstrations for access to education forgirls and women have been reported in Kabul and other parts of the country.1033 For more
information, see section 1.2.2. Demonstrations and protests.

5.2.2.

Access to employment

Since 15 August 2021, Afghan women have been largely excluded from political life and thegeneral workforce. No uniform policy related to women’s access to employment was

Arab News, Afghan universities reopen with trickle of women attending, 2 February 2022, url; Reuters, Female
students join male peers as Afghan universities reopen, 2 February 2022, url; Guardian (The), Afghan universities
reopen with strict rules for female students, 3 February 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Afghan public universities reopenwith gender segregated classes, 26 February 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan women: I felt anxious going backto university, 4 February 2022, url
1026
VOA, All Public Universities in Afghanistan Open to Male, Female Students, 26 February 2022, url; Al Jazeera,
Afghan public universities reopen with gender segregated classes, 26 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, Students
Concerned With Shortage of Public University Professors, 27 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, University Students’Class Time Limited, Told to Self-Study, 7 March 2022, url
1027
TOLOnews, Students Concerned With Shortage of Public University Professors, 27 February 2022, url
1028
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Soldiers Harass Female Students at Takhar University Girl’s Hostels, 19 June 2022, url1029
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 19
1030
TOLOnews, New Timetable Scheduled for Kabul University Students, 23 April 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA
unveils segregation plan for male and female university students, 24 April 2022, url; Khaama Press, IEA Separates
Weekdays for Male, Female University Students, 24 April 2022, url
1031
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 January 2022, url, p. 111
1032
Reuters, College dreams dashed as young Afghan women fight to keep poverty at bay, 25 February 2022, url
1033
Rukhshana Media, Women protestors call on the Taliban: Stop politicizing the education system, 1 December
2021, url; Al Jazeera, Afghan girls stage protest, demand Taliban reopen schools, 26 March 2022, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan: Protesters urge Taliban to reopen girls' schools, 26 March 2022, url; Guardian (The), Open theschools: Afghan girls protest in Kabul for right to education, 26 March 2022, url; Khaama Press, The Taliban
Suppresses the Women’s Protest in front of Laisa Maryam, 26 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Afghan Women Protest
Over Closed Girls' Schools, 29 May 2022, url
1025

105

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

announced by the Taliban and rights and working conditions for women have remained
uncertain.1034 The de facto authorities repeatedly claimed their commitment to maintain
women’s right to access employment, within the framework of sharia.1035 Since their takeover,they have announced several restrictions on women’s participation in the Afghan labour
market.1036
In mid-September 2021, the Taliban did not make any appointments to the former MoWA,
which was founded in 2001 with a mandate to promote gender equality under the previous
government. In practice, this led to the closure of the ministry’s functioning. The former
MoWA’s offices in Kabul were allocated to the Taliban MPVPV.1037 This decision provokedprotests from the former MoWA’s female employees, urging the Taliban to let them return towork.1038 Also in January 2022, women protests for the former MoWA’s reactivation werereported.1039 As stated by the UNSG, there has been no formal decision announced on theformer MoWA or its provincial departments.1040
Up to June 2022 reporting did not show any official political appointments for women in thede facto cabinet and women have not been included in political decision-making.1041 In
January and February 2022, the appointment of a few women in ‘symbolic government
positions’ was reported, including Dr. Malalai Faizi as director of Malalai Maternity Hospital in
Kabul1042 and Nisa Mobarez as women’s representative in Badakhshan.1043 In an interview with

VOA, Taliban-run Kabul Municipality to Female Workers: Stay Home, 19 September 2021, url; CNN, Taliban
decree on women's rights, which made no mention of school or work, dismissed by Afghan women and experts, 4
December 2021, url; New Yorker (The), The Taliban Confront the Realities of Power, 21 February 2022, url; UN
Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 33–34; van Bijlert, M.,
Food Aid in a Collapsed Economy: Relief, tensions and allegations, AAN, 23 May 2022, url
1035
New York Times (The), The Taliban wants to forget the past, a leader tells The Times, but there will be some
restrictions, 25 August 2021, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022,
url, para. 34
1036
AI, They are the revolution Afghan women fighting for their future under Taliban rule, 25 November 2021, url,
pp. 4–5; DW, Taliban are revoking Afghan women's hard-won rights, 2 January 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Afghan
women face hardship as Taliban struggles to revive economy, 12 January 2022, url; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban
Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url; PBS News Hour, Many Afghan women forced to quit
careers, country in hopes of better life for their kids, 25 January 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Gulf envoys stress women’s
rights in meeting with Taliban FM, 14 February 2022, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April
2022, url, p. 3
1037
New York Times (The), Taliban Seize Women’s Ministry Building for Use by Religious Police, 17 September 2021,
url; AP, Taliban replace ministry for women with virtue authorities, 18 September 2021, url; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 33; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human
Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 39
1038
Al Jazeera, Taliban replaces ministry for women with guidance ministry, 18 September 2021, url
1039
TOLOnews, Women Protestors in Kabul Urge US to Release Bank Assets, 17 January 2022, url
1040
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 7
1041
AP, Taliban form all-male Afghan government of old guard members, 8 September 2021, url; UN Women, Expert:
Gender equality is critical for Afghanistan’s future, long-term development, and sustained peace, 12 October 2021,
url; Reuters, Taliban appoint members as 44 governors, police chiefs in Afghanistan, 7 November 2021, url; UN
Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28 January2022, url, para. 5; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 33;
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June
2022, url, para. 4
1042
Ariana News, IEA makes first senior female appointment, 1 February 2022, url
1043
International Crisis Group, Crisis Watch, February 2022, url
1034

106

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Ariana News in February 2022, Taliban spokesperson Shuhail Shaheen stated that ‘it is notnecessary for any women to be in the cabinet of the caretaker government’.1044
Shortly after the takeover, the Taliban leadership announced that female government
employees could continue their work, but were not guaranteed senior positions.1045 In midSeptember 2021, women former workers in the Kabul City government administration wereadvised to stay at home, and only women in positions that could not be replaced by men wereinvited back to work.1046 At the end of 2021, many female former government employees werestill not working.1047 In December 2021, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid declaredthat ‘no women had been fired from public-sector jobs and that they continued to receive
salaries at home’.1048 In some Taliban public administration offices, female employees
reportedly had to show up once a month to register, although they were not receiving theirsalaries.1049 The attendance sheets gave a false impression of the number of women being
back at work, which could be used by the Taliban to disclose the amount of, in practice,dismissed female government workers.1050 Some female government workers indicated they
had received a reduced amount of their salaries.1051 In January 2022, dozens of women held aprotest in Kabul, calling on the Taliban to not exclude women from the Taliban government’s
structure.1052 According to Obaidullah Baheer, lecturer at the American University ofAfghanistan, there were provincial differences, with women being discouraged to go to workby Taliban fighters on the roads in some provinces and women still active in de facto
government jobs in other provinces (such as in the mayor’s office of Faryab’s provincial
capital, Maymana1053).1054 In March 2022, the Taliban MPVPV issued national guidelines
instructing gender segregation in Taliban government ministry offices and prohibiting female
employees from entering their office without wearing hijab.1055 According to a Pakistani analyst
with good knowledge of Afghanistan, interviewed by Landinfo, this gender segregation at theworkplace meant there must be separate entrances, working spaces, living and dining rooms
for men and women.1056 Women who previously served in the former national security sector

Ariana News, Shaheen says no women will be appointed to cabinet, 13 February 2022, url
Guardian (The), Women can continue working in Afghan government, say Taliban, 1 September 2021, url
1046
Guardian (The), Kabul government’s female workers told to stay at home by Taliban, 19 September 2021, url;
ABC News, Taliban tells female Kabul government workers not go to work as a deadly blast rocks Jalalabad, 19
September 2021, url; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url
1047
WSJ, After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face Old Pressures From Fathers, Brothers, 15 December 2021, url
1048
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 66
1049
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Recent Events, December 2021, url, p. 19; New York Times (The), Threatened andBeaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022, url; New Yorker (The), The Taliban Confront
the Realities of Power, 21 February 2022, url
1050
New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022,
url
1051
Guardian (The), We are worse off: Afghanistan further impoverished as women vanish from workforce, 16 May
2022, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security,
15 June 2022, url, para. 5
1052
TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Demand Govt Jobs, Representation, 12 January 2022, url
1053
Channels Television, Taliban Top Sniper Appointed Mayor In Afghanistan, 15 February 2022, url1054
Al Jazeera, Afghan women face hardship as Taliban struggles to revive economy, 12 January 2022, url
1055
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Females Can’t Enter the Ministries without
Islamic Hijab, Ministry of Ethics Says, 3 March 2022, url; DW, Afghanistan: Taliban restrict women's rights as
isolation looms, 30 March 2022, url
1056
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Situasjonen for afghanske kvinner etter Talibans maktovertakelse, 22 June
2022, url, p. 5
1044

1045

107

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

have been excluded from service1057, except for women serving in female detention facilities
and assisting with body searches.1058
Although many Afghan women who used to be part of the country’s workforce have been athome since 15 August 20211059, exceptions have been reported.1060 Since the end of August
2021, female staff members within the public healthcare sector were allowed to resume
work.1061 However, many women were reportedly afraid to return1062 and restrictions on theirfreedom of movement (such as midwives having to be accompanied by a male guardian
during home visits) and working conditions (such as salaries not being paid) have hindered
their professional activities.1063 In May 2022, the Taliban Ministry of Health pledged to provide
more employment opportunities for women in the health sector, mainly to prevent maternalmortality.1064 As of mid-September 2021, Kabul airport employees, including female employees(such as women working at passport control and customs) reportedly resumed work.1065 There
were also reports of female primary school teachers1066, women working in the Taliban
Ministry of Education1067, women employed as street cleaners1068, and women working in defacto passport offices1069, post offices1070, police stations1071 and prisons1072 that have resumed
their professional activities. Late May 2022, a Taliban spokesman stated that the majority offemale civil servants were back at work, referring to 120 000 women employees, including
94 000 working at the Taliban Ministry of Education, 14 000 at the Taliban Ministry of Healthand 12 000 working in other departments such as the passports and immigration offices of the
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 9; Guardian (The), We had 4,000 policewomen in Afghanistan. Let them get back to work,
21 April 2022, url
1058
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 11
1059
WSJ, After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face Old Pressures From Fathers, Brothers, 15 December 2021, url
1060
AP, Taliban announcement a clear sign girls returning to school, 21 March 2022, url; Time, We Have to Fight
Back. Afghan Women Are Losing Their Hard-Won Right to Work Under the Taliban, 17 May 2022, url
1061
Reuters, Taliban say Afghan women health service staff should go back to work, 27 August 2021, url; AA,
Taliban asks women healthcare workers to resume duties, 28 August 2021, url; UN Security Council, The situationin Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 39
1062
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url
1063
BMJ, Staring into the darkness: women health workers in Afghanistan, 6 September 2021, url; CSM, How
Afghan midwives are challenging Taliban strictures on women, 7 October 2021, url; Guardian (The), The Talibanknow they need us: the Afghan hospitals run by women, 9 May 2022, url; Guardian (The), We are worse off:
Afghanistan further impoverished as women vanish from workforce, 16 May 2022, url; Guardian (The), We exist but
it is not a life: Afghan women face bleak prospects under Taliban, 13 June 2022, url
1064
TOLOnews, Health Ministry Pledges to Hire More Midwives, 16 May 2022, url
1065
TOLOnews, Kabul Airport Employees, Including Women, Return to Work, 13 September 2021, url; AI,
Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications forinternational peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 39
1066
Netherlands, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Afghanistan, March 2022, url, p. 121
1067
AP, Taliban announcement a clear sign girls returning to school, 21 March 2022, url; Suhail Shaheen [Twitter],posted on: 24 May 2022, url
1068
Ariana News, UNDP and Balkh Municipality launch street cleaning job program for 200 women, 21 December
2021, url
1069
Reuters, Afghanistan to start issuing passports again after months of delays, 5 October 2021, url; TOLOnews,
Passport Processing to Begin Countrywide on April 5th: Officials, 29 March 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29
March 2022, url
1070
Netherlands (The), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Afghanistan, March 2022, url, p. 121
1071
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 65–66; Ariana News, Balkh police
headquarters recruits 1,800 female officers, 9 June 2022, url
1072
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 39
1057

108

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Taliban Ministry of Interior.1073 However, these numbers could not be verified.1074 As reported
by Human Rights Watch and USDOS, Taliban rules and severe restrictions hindered female
aid workers from doing their jobs effectively.1075 The safety of female aid workers1076 andinterference in their activities providing key services for women and girls reportedly remained
important concerns.1077 In March 2022, AAN pointed at the lack of a clear and unified Taliban
policy regarding women’s participation in humanitarian aid delivery. Provisional agreements(partial agreements in 16 provinces and full agreements in 18 provinces) were made across thecountry that allowed female participation in humanitarian response. However, AAN indicatedthat this could change in the future, in the light of recent Taliban policies concerning
women.1078 For more information on the situation of female healthcare professionals andhumanitarian workers, see section 9. Healthcare professionals.
In November 2021, the Taliban MPVPV issued guidelines banning female actors fromappearing in television dramas and soap operas.1079 The work of female journalists and media
workers has been severely hindered and restricted1080, with reportedly 84 % of women in the
media sector having lost their jobs or left their positions since the Taliban takeover.1081 For
more information on the situation of female journalists and media workers, see section
7. Journalists and media workers.
At the end of November 2021, the Taliban Ministry of Justice seized authority from theAfghanistan’s Independent Bar Association (AIBA) declaring that only Taliban-approved
lawyers could work in the de facto courts. According to the Brussels-based Council of Barsand Law Societies of Europe (CCBE), this resulted in all Afghan women working in legal
professions being excluded from their occupation.1082 As reported by the UNSG in January2022, the Taliban Ministry of Justice communicated to UNAMA that ‘women lawyers would beallowed to work in line with the necessary requirements’, but no further clarification on these‘requirements’ was given.1083 Female former judicial workers (such as judges, prosecutors andlawyers) have reportedly faced threats, intimidation and harassment, preventing them from

VOA, Taliban Rebuff UN Calls for Reversing Rules on Afghan Women, 27 May 2022, url
Ruttig, T., Afghanische Frauen in (und ohne) Arbeit, 10 June 2022, url
1075
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Blocking Female Aid Workers, 4 November 2021, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021
Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 24
1076
ACAPS, Humanitarian Access Overview, 9 December 2021, url
1077
UN Security Council, Protection of civilians in armed conflict - Report of the Secretary-General, 10 May 2022, url,
p. 13
1078
Clark, K. and Shapour, R., A Pledging Conference for Afghanistan… But what about beyond the humanitarian?,
AAN, 31 March 2022, url
1079
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban unveil new rules banning women in TV dramas, 21 November 2021, url; DW,
Afghanistan: Taliban issue guidelines against women actors, 21 November 2021, url
1080
Guardian (The), We see silence filled with fear: female Afghan journalists plead for help, 16 August 2021, url;
TOLOnews, Afghan Female Reporters Fear Increased Restrictions, 9 January 2022, url; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban
Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March 2022, url
1081
RSF, Since the Taliban takeover, 40% of Afghan media have closed, 80% of women journalists have lost theirjobs, 20 December 2021, url
1082
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Judge, Jury, And Executioner, 1 December 2021, url
1083
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 35
1073

1074

109

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

continuing their professional activities.1084 For more information on the situation of female
former judicial workers, see section 4.2. Former judicial workers.
Sources indicated that women have not been officially barred from private sector jobs.1085 As
reported by USDOS, the Afghanistan Women Chamber of Commerce and Industry (AWCCI)
could not get a formal meeting with the Taliban’s Ministry of Economy to obtain clarity on thefate of the private businesses led by women in the country, but was assured informally thatwomen would be allowed to work ‘if that work conformed with Islamic law’. 1086 In April 2022,
the Taliban Deputy Minister of Commerce and Industry declared the Taliban’s support for
female entrepreneurs.1087 However, women’s economic participation as entrepreneurs
remained limited.1088 Several women-owned/led businesses (especially restaurants and cafes),
reportedly closed their doors, out of fear of violating Taliban edicts, due to the ongoing
economic crisis or because they were shut down by the Taliban.1089 In some provinces, suchas Herat, Kabul and Balkh, there were reports of women entrepreneurs (such as beauty salon
owners, handicraft workers and market traders) that were able to resume their professional
activities.1090 However, some of them indicated restrictions imposed by the Taliban authorities
have hindered their work.1091
As reported by the International Labour Organization (ILO), female employment was reduced
by an estimated 16 % in the third quarter of 2021 and this reduction is expected to reach 21 %by mid-2022.1092 Restrictions on their right to employment impacted women’s economic

Reuters, Hunted by the men they jailed, Afghanistan's women judges seek escape, 3 September 2021, url; BBC
News, Female Afghan judges hunted by the murderers they convicted, 28 September 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara,
After Realizing Dream, Disabled Afghan Prosecutor Finds Herself Jobless And In Danger Under Taliban, 12 January2022, url; Guardian (The), The Taliban want revenge: Afghanistan’s female judges in exile in Australia, 19 February2022, url; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url
1085
FT, Afghan women resist the return of Taliban’s segregation, 20 October 2021, url; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan
Recent Events, December 2021, url, p. 19; AP, Taliban announcement a clear sign girls returning to school, 21 March
2022, url
1086
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 50
1087
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 2 April 2022, url
1088
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 39
1089
TOLOnews, Kabul Restaurants Owned, Staffed by Women Now Closed, 22 September 2021, url; USDOS,
Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 47; Guardian (The), We are worse off: Afghanistan
further impoverished as women vanish from workforce, 16 May 2022, url; Wazhma Tokhi [Twitter], posted on: 30
May 2022, url; Afghan Witness [Twitter], posted on: 8 June 2022, url
1090
VICE News, I Must Face the Taliban: The Women in Kabul Keeping Their Beauty Salons Open, 14 December
2021, url; Wadsam, Markets For Women’s Products To Open In Capital & Provinces of Afghanistan, 22 December
2021, url; Reuters, Afghan women losing jobs fast as economy shrinks and rights curtailed, 20 January 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Women-Made Handicrafts Showcased in Herat, 5 March 2022, url; Salaam Times, Heratbusinesswomen return to work, showcase goods at trade fair, 28 April 2022, url; Ariana News, Balkhbusinesswomen hold expo to promote their products, 8 June 2022, url; TOLOnews, Women at Kabul Exhibition
Display Handmade Products, 8 June 2022, url; TOLOnews, Businesswomen Form Friday's Market in Herat, 12 June
2022, url; TOLOnews, Women's Market in Kabul Creates Opportunities, 30 June 2022, url
1091
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Artisans Struggling With Lack of Work, 24 February 2022, url; Rukhshana Media,
Recession hits the only women market in Herat, 1 March 2022, url
1092
ILO, Employment prospects in Afghanistan: A rapid impact assessment, January 2022, url, p. 1
1084

110

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

security and financial independence.1093 Especially women-headed households could face anincreased risk of poverty due to their limited ability to work.1094
As indicated by the UNSG and the Centre for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), thecombination of a dire economic situation with a persistent countrywide unemployment and the
majority of Afghan women confined to their homes, could contribute to a rise in domestic
violence.1095 The precarious socio-economic and humanitarian situation has forced anincreasing number of Afghan families to resort to negative coping strategies such as sellingyoung girls into marriage, raising concerns for the protection of women from exploitation andabuse.1096

5.2.3.

Freedom of movement

After their takeover, the de facto authorities have imposed several restrictions limiting
women’s freedom of movement.1097
At the end of August 2021, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid announced a ‘temporary
policy’ instructing women to stay home until a new procedure to ensure their safety would bein place, referring to the leadership’s concern that some of their militants ‘who were new andhad not been yet trained very well may mistreat women’.1098 Mujahid clarified that ‘longer-term
women would be free to resume their daily routines’, calling concerns about women’s
restrictions ‘baseless’ and noting that ‘the mahram (close male relative: either a husband or amale relative whom a women cannot marry, such as a brother, father, son or uncle)1099 would
only apply to journeys of three days or longer’. He stated that for going to school, to the office,to university or to the hospital, women did not need a mahram.1100 Since the takeover, sources
reported on a reduction in the number of women seen in public.1101 On the one hand, there
were reports of women being stopped on the street, being intimidated and told to go home by

AI, They are the revolution, Afghan women fighting for their future under Taliban rule, 25 November 2021, url; Al
Jazeera, Afghan women face hardship as Taliban struggles to revive economy, 12 January 2022, url; HRW,
Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council,
Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 39
1094
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 38; Republik, A
year under the Taliban, 21 June 2022, url; Moradi, M., Violence against women under the Taliban in Afghanistan,
OMCT & PAHRA, May 2022, url, p. 135
1095
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 37; CSIS, Struggling to Survive: Gender, Displacement, and Migration in Taliban-Controlled
Afghanistan, 23 February 2022, url
1096
UNICEF, Girls increasingly at risk of child marriage in Afghanistan, 12 November 2021, url; UN Security Council,
The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28 January 2022, url, para. 37;
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 12
1097
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 36
1098
New York Times (The), A Taliban spokesman urges women to stay home because fighters haven’t been trained
to respect them, 24 August 2021, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban tell working women to stay at home, 24
August 2021, url
1099
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url
1100
New York Times (The), The Taliban wants to forget the past, a leader tells The Times, but there will be some
restrictions, 25 August 2021, url
1101
VICE News, Life in the Taliban's Afghanistan [Online video], 13 February 2022, url; International analyst, digitalinterview, 17 March 2022; International Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url; Smith,G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022, url
1093

111

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Taliban guards when travelling alone in cities like Kabul and Herat.1102 On the other hand,sources reported on women moving around in public spaces in both cities without amahram.1103
According to sources interviewed by DIS in November 2021 and in March and April 2022,
women’s freedom of movement varied on provincial level and was context specific,
depending on regional customs, with a married women in Herat still able to visit restaurants
and walk around in public, but most women in provinces such as Kandahar and Helmand
confined to their homes.1104 The need for a woman to be accompanied by a mahram has beenpart of local customs in more conservative regions in Afghanistan, but was not common
practice for women in Kabul under the previous government. ISSI’s Amina Khan, interviewed
by DIS in March 2022, pointed at ‘mixed signals’ for women in Kabul on how to behave andmove around in the city. Although several beauty shops were reportedly still open, women
were no longer able to visit cafes without being accompanied by a mahram.1105
At the end of December 2021, the Taliban MPVPV issued a new guideline for transport
operators across the country preventing women from travelling long distances (more than 72
kilometres or 45 miles), unless accompanied by a male relative. This guidance also instructedtaxi drivers to only transport female passengers who were respecting the Islamic dress code
(wearing a hijab covering the hair).1106 Checkpoints were reportedly established in Kabul toensure these orders were properly followed,1107 with women travelling alone being stopped
and taxi drivers who transported them being punished.1108
Further restrictions on women’s freedom of movement applied at provincial level werereported, with women moving around in public spaces without a mahram in some provinces
being detained by the Taliban authorities.1109 In the beginning of January 2022, women werebanned from entering public bathhouses in Balkh and Herat provinces, limiting them to theuse of private bathhouses.1110 However, not all Taliban officials in both provinces supported
this decision.1111 In March 2022, the Taliban MPVPV announced the introduction of a gendersegregation regulation for amusement parks in Kabul. Men and women had to visit Kabul’s
recreational areas on different days, with Sundays, Mondays and Tuesdays reserved for
women and Wednesdays, Thursdays, Fridays and Saturdays reserved for men and Taliban
forces. The statement added that women had access to other touristic areas in Kabul
BBC News, Life in Kabul under Taliban: Where is your male escort?, 3 September 2021, url; HRW, Afghanistan:
Taliban Abuses Cause Widespread Fear, 23 September 2021, url; WSJ, After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face
Old Pressures From Fathers, Brothers, 15 December 2021, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12
April 2022, url, pp. 33–34; Al Jazeera, Shrinking public space for Afghan women as Taliban expands curbs, 6 April
2022, url
1103
New Lines Magazine, Is This the Future of Taliban Rule?, 13 December 2021, url; Netherlands, Ministry ofForeign Affairs, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Afghanistan, March 2022, url, p. 125; International analyst, digital interview,
17 March 2022; AP, Afghanistan’s Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May 2022, url
1104
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan Recent Events, December 2021, url, pp. 20, 25
1105
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 25
1106
Al Jazeera, No long-distance travel for women without male relative: Taliban, 26 December 2021, url; CNN,
Taliban bans women from solo, long-distance road trips in Afghanistan, 29 December 2021, url
1107
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
1108
Al Jazeera, Shrinking public space for Afghan women as Taliban expands curbs, 6 April 2022, url
1109
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 36, 38
1110
Khaama Press, Taliban close women baths in northern Afghanistan, 3 January 2022, url
1111
Guardian (The), Taliban stop Afghan women from using bathhouses in northern provinces, 7 January 2022, url
1102

112

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSProvince, such as Paghman, Shakardara and Istalif, but they should avoid mixing withstrangers and foreigners.1112 As reported by the New York Times, women were banned fromentering the capital’s amusement parks and city zoo on the day of the Muslim festival of Eid,celebrating the end of the month of Ramadan.1113 In May 2022, driving instructors in Heratdeclared to have been verbally ordered to stop offering driving lessons and issuing driving
licences to women. However, they added that they were not directed to prevent women fromdriving around the city.1114 In mid-May 2022, also in Herat, a gender segregation plan wasreportedly implemented by the local Taliban authorities in the province’s restaurants andpublic parks, with men not permitted to dine together with their female family members andwomen only allowed in the city’s parks on Thursday, Friday and Saturday.1115 A few days later,
however, these reports were rejected by Herat’s Taliban MPVPV.1116 At the end of May 2022,
the Provincial Directorate of the Taliban MPVPV in Kandahar issued an order prohibiting
unaccompanied women from being transported by the city’s public transportation system.1117
As indicated by OHCHR and Human Rights Watch Director of Women’s Rights, Heather Barr,
limitations on their freedom of movement can also negatively impact other aspects ofwomen’s lives, such as accessing medical care and being able to flee their home when facing
domestic violence.1118 For example, in mid-December 2021, Afghan media outlet Etilaat-e Rozreported on women without a mahram being prevented from entering health centres in
Ghazni Province.1119 In March 2022, a midwife in Ghazni Province declared to FP that the
Taliban had been preventing doctors from examining women who were not accompanied by amahram, since November 2021.1120 Moreover, not all women had a mahram available toaccompany them.1121 Unmarried women interviewed by Human Rights Watch in Ghazni
indicated the potential need to have a mahram may increase the pressure to marry.1122
Sources additionally reported on a sense of ‘self-censorship’ among urban Afghan women1123
and families imposing restrictions on the mobility of women and girls as a protection
measure.1124
At the end of February 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid declared that women
would not be able to leave the country unless accompanied by a male relative, adding that the

Ariana News, IEA designates days for women and men to visit Kabul amusement parks, 27 March 2022, url;
Khaama Press, Afghan women restricted to three days entertaining in parks, 27 March 2022, url
1113
New York Times (The), Eid Under the Taliban Shows a Changed Afghanistan, 8 May 2022, url
1114
Times of India, Taliban tells driving teachers to stop issuing licenses to women: Report, 4 May 2022, url;
Independent (The), Taliban regime stops issuing driving licences to women, reports say, 5 May 2022, url
1115
Khaama Press, Gender Segregation Plan of Taliban in Restaurants, 12 May 2022, url
1116
Ariana News, Virtue and Vice Ministry reject claims of ordering gender segregation in restaurants, 15 May 2022,
url
1117
Khaama Press, Taliban Orders Kandahar City Transportation to Not Transport Women Without a Male
Chaperone, 30 May 2022, url
1118
Al Jazeera, No long-distance travel for women without male relative: Taliban, 26 December 2021, url; UN Human
Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 38–39
1119
Etilaatroz, ‫[ ریاست امر به معروف طالبان ورود زنان بدون محرم به مراکز صحی را در غزنی ممنوع کرد‬The Taliban's directorate
banned women from entering health centres in Ghazni], 15 December 2021, url
1120
FP, The Taliban Are Harming Afghan Women’s Health, 2 March 2022, url
1121
Guardian (The), We exist but it is not a life: Afghan women face bleak prospects under Taliban, 13 June 2022, url
1122
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
1123
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Recent Events, December 2021, url, p. 21
1124
WSJ, After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face Old Pressures From Fathers, Brothers, 15 December 2021, url
1112

113

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

situation for female students studying abroad would still need to be considered. 1125 According
to an international organisation and a human rights activist interviewed by DIS in April 2022,
some women without a mahram were reportedly allowed to cross land borders to Iran andPakistan in March 2022, others were returned with the instruction to be accompanied by alegitimate mahram.1126 At the end of March 2022, AP reported that dozens of women wereprevented from boarding several (domestic and international) flights at Kabul Airport because
they were travelling without a mahram. According to an airport official, the order came fromthe Taliban leadership.1127 A few days later, ABC News reported that some unaccompanied
women had been allowed to board airplanes in Kabul. According to two Taliban officials, theorder banning women from flying abroad alone was being ignored by some members of the
movement.1128 In May 2022, AP reported on women arriving unaccompanied at Kabul
International Airport.1129 Also in May 2022, a female student declared to BBC that she wasstopped from boarding a plane to take up a study scholarship in Iran, because she was notaccompanied by a male relative.1130
Since the Taliban takeover, dozens of female sports athletes (soccer, basketball and cricket
players) went into hiding1131 or left the country.1132 In September 2021, the Taliban Cultural
Commission announced that women would not be allowed to play sports exposing theirbodies, or exposing them to media, adding that ‘sport is not seen as something important for
women’.1133 In an interview in October 2021, the newly appointed Afghanistan Cricket Board(ACB) chairman indicated to have clarified with the Taliban that there is no official ban on
women’s sport, especially cricket, and that the Taliban have no problem with women taking
part in sports as long as their cultural and religious norms and dress codes are respected.1134
On 24 November 2021, the ACB chairman declared that female cricket players could continue
playing and that the ACB will provide for their basic needs and facilities.1135 The International
Cricket Council (ICC) announced the setup of a working group to review the future of the
Afghan cricket programme under Taliban rule and indicated its continued commitment tosupport the development of Afghanistan’s cricket for both men and women.1136 In January2022, a female member of the Afghan national boxing team declared to The Guardian that

TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate's Mujahid Comments on House-to-House Searches, 27 February 2022, url; France
24, Taliban ban Afghans from evacuating amid massive security sweep, 28 February 2022, url; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 37
1126
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 25
1127
AP, Officials: Taliban blocked unaccompanied women from flights, 26 March 2022, url
1128
ABC News, Afghan women traveling alone boarding flights despite ban, 29 March 2022, url
1129
AP, Afghanistan’s Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May 2022, url
1130
BBC News, Afghanistan face veil decree: It feels like being a woman is a crime, 15 May 2022, url
1131
BBC News, Afghanistan women's cricket team: Players hiding in Kabul fear Taliban rule, 1 September 2022, url;
Al Jazeera, Ban? No ban? Afghan cricket chief offers hope to women athletes, 13 October 2021, url
1132
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Dozens More Afghans Linked To Women’s Soccer, Basketball Are Evacuated From
Afghanistan, 21 October 2021, url; BBC News, Rescuing the Afghanistan girls' football team, 24 November 2021, url;
CNN, Afghan women footballers who fled Taliban want to be a voice for the voiceless, 28 April 2022, url; National(The), Escape to victory: the Afghan women loving football again after fleeing the Taliban, 27 May 2022, url; BBC
News, Afghanistan women's team: They escaped the Taliban but face uncertain football future, 13 June 2022, url
1133
SBS News, Taliban say women won't be allowed to play sport, 8 September 2021, url
1134
Al Jazeera, Ban? No ban? Afghan cricket chief offers hope to women athletes, 13 October 2021, url
1135
TOLOnews, Afghan Official Says Women Can Continue Playing Cricket, 24 November 2021, url
1136
VOA, Official: Afghan Women to Continue Playing Cricket, 24 November 2021, url; Ariana News, ICC expecting
findings of study into women’s cricket in Afghanistan, 8 April 2022, url
1125

114

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

along with her sister and other boxing women she had faced threats and was ordered by the
Taliban to stop practicing boxing.1137

5.2.4.

Freedom of expression and assembly

As indicated by the UNSG and Amnesty International, the rights to freedom of opinion,
expression, peaceful assembly and association have been significantly constrained under
Taliban rule, with increasing restrictions and any form of opposition or dissent met withviolence, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and unlawful detentions. The situation is
described as ‘particularly grim’ for women protesting against the reversal of their rights.1138
During the first weeks after the takeover, several women demonstrations were organised andhundreds of female protesters gathered in the streets of Kabul and other urban centres todemand their rights.1139 However, many of these demonstrations were violently dispersed andsuppressed by Taliban foot soldiers,1140 threatening and beating protesters,1141 firing warning
gunshots,1142 and using tear gas and pepper spray,1143 and whips and batons transmitting
electric shocks.1144
When the Taliban announced in September 2021 that unauthorised assemblies would beprohibited and protests without government approval would not be allowed, the frequency ofthese women street rallies reportedly lessened.1145 The combination of these restrictions andthe sometimes heavy-handed reactions to demonstrations increased the protester’s fear of
reprisals for expressing their dissent in public.1146 As stated by female activists to RFE/RL and
Reuters, many women renounced the street marches in October 20211147, after the Taliban sent

Guardian (The), I am losing my skills: female boxer who was on Afghan national team, 20 January 2022, url
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 38; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil
Society Activists, Former Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 1; UN Security
Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url,para. 9, 39
1139
AP, Afghan women demand rights as Taliban seek recognition, 3 September 2021, url; BBC News, Afghanistan:
Women protest against all-male Taliban government, 8 September 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women At
Forefront Of Nonviolent Resistance To Taliban, 10 September 2021, url; Guardian (The), Afghan women stage
protest in Kabul after Taliban crack down on women's rights - video report, 19 September 2021, url; USDOS,
Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 31–32
1140
New York Times (The), Taliban Fighters Crush a Women’s Protest Amid Flickers of Resistance, 4 September
2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Militants Used Force To Disperse Rally For Women's Rights In Northern
Afghanistan, 7 September 2021, url; National (The), Protests against all-male Taliban Cabinet met with violence inAfghanistan, 8 September 2021, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 31–32
1141
BBC News, Afghanistan: Women beaten for demanding their rights, 8 September 2021, url
1142
France 24, Taliban disperse women protesters with gunfire in Kabul, 30 September 2021, url
1143
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban break up women's rights protest in Kabul, 5 September 2021, url
1144
BBC News, Afghanistan: Women beaten for demanding their rights, 8 September 2021, url
1145
Reuters, Protests get harder for Afghan women amid risks and red tape, 4 October 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara,
Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown, Afghan Women Take Their Protests Home, 8 December 2021, url; UN
Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28 January2022, url, para. 38
1146
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 50
1147
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown, Afghan Women Take Their Protests Home, 8
December 2021, url
1137

1138

115

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

letters warning they had made a list of the protesters and would conduct house searches forthem.1148
From November 2021, the number of female activists protesting on the streets reportedly
decreased as Taliban forces were accelerating their crackdown on women rights defenders,
infiltrating and intimidating women groups by appearing on private addresses and calling
women activists on their phones, warning them to stay silent.1149 An activist, cited by the
Guardian, declared she used to organise protests in online groups of hundreds of women
opposing Taliban rule in the first months after the takeover, but had to change her way ofoperating to a more clandestine and disguised tactic, limiting the demonstrations to a selected
few participants. According to a university professor and women’s activist, the Taliban’s
requirement that slogans used at protests should first be approved was used as a tactic to
identify active members of women’s movements.1150 Another female protester declared to the
New York Times that when permission to demonstrate was asked to the Taliban authorities forprior approval, it was never allowed.1151 The crackdown on women’s demonstrations has raised
concerns among human rights organisations, with Human Rights Watch depicting it as‘an alarming and unlawful escalation of efforts to suppress peaceful protest and free speech in
Afghanistan’.1152
As reported by RFI in February 2022, small groups of female protesters have subsisted, but
indicated to organise their activities more and more underground by communicating throughencrypted phone applications and coordinating manifestations from a dedicated telephone
number that was deactivated after to avoid tracking. Newcomers wanting to join the networks
were subjected to a ‘meticulous’ selection process to make sure they can be trusted and are
passionate enough for the cause. On protest days, the women gathered in small groups
pretending to be ordinary shoppers in the street and then suddenly flocked together
unfolding banners and chanting slogans. The group’s members indicated that they learned toadapt quickly to possible threats from Taliban fighters while demonstrating. If one of theprotesters was hurt, two others took care of her, allowing the demonstration to proceed.1153

Reuters, Protests get harder for Afghan women amid risks and red tape, 4 October 2021, url
Guardian (The), They stayed to fight the Taliban. Now the protesters are being hunted down, 4 November 2021,
url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown, Afghan Women Take Their Protests Home, 8
December 2021, url; Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 23 December 2021, url; New York Times (The), Threatened andBeaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: Evidence
mounts of Taliban reprisal arrests and killing, 10 February 2022, url
1150
Guardian (The), They stayed to fight the Taliban. Now the protesters are being hunted down, 4 November 2021,
url
1151
New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022, url
1152
HRW, Taliban Use Harsh Tactics to Crush Afghan Women’s Rights Protest, 18 January 2022, url
1153
RFI, My heart and body shake: Afghan women defy Taliban, 15 February 2022, url
1148

1149

116

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

From 1 December 2021 to 30 June 2022, women protests were reported in the capital
Kabul1154, and in other provinces such as in Balkh1155, Badakhshan1156, Bamyan1157, Kapisa1158 and
Parwan1159. These demonstrations were mostly directed against restrictions on women’s lives
imposed by the Taliban, (such as limitations on dress codes and freedom of movement) andcentred around the general demand for women’s rights (such as the right to access educationand employment and the right to women’s political and social participation).1160 However,sometimes the protests also related to specific events, such as a rally criticising the killing offormer government soldiers in Kabul in December 20211161, the violent death of two women in
Kabul in January 20221162, the claim that humanitarian aid was distributed based on ethnic andlinguistic affiliation in Daykundi Province, also in January 20221163, and the demand to release
Afghanistan’s frozen funds and assets in Kabul, in January and February 2022.1164 There werenumerous reports of these demonstrations being dispersed by Taliban fighters, using violenceagainst women protesters and women being detained while or after protesting.1165 In January2022, the Taliban’s Deputy Minister of Culture and Information stated that the movement had‘the right to suppress dissidents’ and ‘arrest protesters’, since they ‘trigger chaos’ and ‘intrude
the tranquillity of cities’.1166 A Taliban spokesperson in Kabul declared to the New York Times
TOLOnews, Women Call for Political, Social Inclusion, 5 December 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Kabul Women
Protesters Brave Taliban Shooting, 29 December 2021, url; Guardian (The), Taliban forces pepper-spray women’s
rights protesters in Kabul, 16 January 2022, url; Al Jazeera, In Afghanistan, Taliban diktat sparks debate about
women’s attire, 26 January 2022, url; Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 10 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, Protestors
Call for Women’s Access to Education, Work, 12 March 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Afghan girls stage protest, demand
Taliban reopen schools, 26 March 2022, url; Khaama Press, Protester Women: The Taliban Intervenes Private
Affairs of the People Instead of Addressing Economic Issues, 29 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Callfor Right to Work, End of Restrictions, 9 June 2022, url
1155
TOLOnews, Kabul Protest Spotlights Recent Killing of 2 Women, 16 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, We haveright to suppress dissidents and imprison protestors: Mujahid, 23 January 2022, url; Times (The), Afghanistan’s
disappeared women: an arrest by the Taliban, then a bullet-riddled body, 27 January 2022, url
1156
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 6 January 2022, url
1157
Pajhwok Afghan News, Some women tear down meeting banners in Bamyan, 5 April 2022, url
1158
Mohammad Natiq [Twitter], posted on: 10 January 2022, url
1159
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 17 January 2022, url
1160
TOLOnews, Women Call for Political, Social Inclusion, 5 December 2021, url; TOLOnews, Afghan Women Protest
Over New Restrictions, 28 December 2021, url; TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Demand Govt Jobs, Representation,
12 January 2022, url; New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests,
24 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Protestors Call for Women’s Access to Education, Work, 12 March 2022, url; Al
Jazeera, Afghan girls stage protest, demand Taliban reopen schools, 26 March 2022, url; New York Times (The),The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url; Khaama Press, The Taliban Intervenes
Private Affairs of the People Instead of Addressing Economic Issues, 29 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Women in
Kabul Call for Right to Work, End of Restrictions, 9 June 2022, url
1161
Al Jazeera, Afghan women call for rights, protest alleged Taliban killings, 28 December 2021, url;
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Kabul Women Protesters Brave Taliban Shooting, 29 December 2021, url
1162
TOLOnews, Kabul Protest Spotlights Recent Killing of 2 Women, 16 January 2022, url
1163
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 24 January 2022, url
1164
TOLOnews, Women Protestors in Kabul Urge US to Release Bank Assets, 17 January 2022, url; Khaama Press,
Afghan women protest for release of Afghanistan’s frozen funds, 26 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Afghan Women
Criticize Biden’s Afghan Assets Decision, 17 February 2022, url
1165
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown, Afghan Women Take Their Protests Home, 8
December 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Women Protesters Injured In Stampede After Taliban Militants Fire In The
Air, 28 December 2021, url; TOLOnews, Kabul Protest Spotlights Recent Killing of 2 Women, 16 January 2022, url;
TOLOnews, MoI-Detained Female Protesters in Video Claim Outside Influence, 21 February 2022, url; CSIS,
Struggling to Survive: Gender, Displacement, and Migration in Taliban-Controlled Afghanistan, 23 February 2022,
url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 49–51; Intercept(The), Women and journalists are targets of violence in Taliban-rules Afghanistan, reports says, 14 April 2022, url;
New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url
1166
TOLOnews, We have right to suppress dissidents and imprison protestors: Mujahid, 23 January 2022, url
1154

117

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMthat the de facto security forces were ordered to arrest ‘anyone who disrupts the public’ and‘bring them to justice’.1167 After a particularly harsh oppression by Taliban forces of a women’s
demonstration in front of Kabul University on 16 January 20221168 and the disappearance ofseveral female human rights activists (see section 8.2. Incidents targeting human rights
defenders and activists), women’s street protests decreased in February and March 2022.1169
There have also been reports of journalists and media workers being prevented from covering
women’s protests and being beaten and detained.1170
As reported by several sources, alongside public demonstrations, women have increasingly
developed alternative ways of protesting, such as activities organised in private homes,
wearing face masks, painting slogans on walls at night and relying more on social media tospread their advocacy messages.1171 In mid-September 2021, an online campaign was
launched with Afghan women around the world sharing pictures of themselves on Twitter
wearing traditional colourful dresses, using the hashtag #DoNotTouchMyClothes.1172 In midDecember 2021, a group of women activists gathered in Kabul for a 16-day campaign to ‘end
violence against women’.1173 In December 2021 and February 2022, media sources reported
on small groups of women gathering in private houses, holding signs and recording
statements while speaking on camera, to share with journalists and on their social media
accounts. They also wrote articles and attended debates on audio apps such as Clubhouseand Twitter, in the hope their stories would be picked up and spread by social media.1174 In
January 2022, members of the Afghan Powerful Women’s Movement held a brief clandestinenews conference in a private home, attended by a small group of journalists.1175 As analternative to staging protest, women activists initiated a blood donation campaign to markInternational Women’s Day in Kabul in March 2022. However, the initiative was halted by a
Taliban-appointed hospital director.1176 In April 2022, Amnesty International reported on a1167

New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022,

url
Guardian (The), Taliban forces pepper-spray women’s rights protesters in Kabul, 16 January 2022, url;
Rukhshana Media, The Taliban pepper-sprayed and beat the protesters calling for justice, 17 January 2022, url;
HRW, Taliban Use Harsh Tactics to Crush Afghan Women’s Rights Protest, 18 January 2022, url
1169
Washington Post (The), Faced with disappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights
activists go quiet on the streets, 8 February 2022, url; SIGAR, Quarterly Report to the US Congress, 30 April 2022,
url, pp. 73–74
1170
Süddeutsche Zeitung, Kopf hoch, Schwester, 21 December 2021, url; Al Jazeera, Afghan women call for rights,
protest alleged Taliban killings, 28 December 2021, url; RFI, My heart and body shake: Afghan women defy Taliban,
15 February 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url,para. 49; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security,
15 June 2022, url, para. 37
1171
TOLOnews, Kabul Women Write Protest Slogans on City Walls at Night, 10 January 2022, url; UN Security
Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28 January 2022, url,para. 39; RFI, My heart and body shake: Afghan women defy Taliban, 15 February 2022, url; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 50; Intercept (The), Women andjournalists are targets of violence in Taliban-ruled Afghanistan, reports says, 14 April 2022, url; UN Security Council,
The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 39
1172
Guardian (The), #DoNotTouchMyClothes: Afghan women’s social media protest against Taliban, 15 September
2021, url
1173
TOLOnews, Activists in Kabul Decry Violence Against Women, 13 December 2021, url
1174
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown, Afghan Women Take Their Protests Home, 8
December 2021, url; RFI, My heart and body shake: Afghan women defy Taliban, 15 February 2022, url
1175
New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022,
url
1176
AP, Blood drive to mark Women’s Day halted, Afghan activists say, 8 March 2022, url
1168

118

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

social media campaign ‘#StandAfghanWithWomen’ launched by Afghan women’s groups,
asking the international community to support their engagement in restoring their rights andfreedoms.1177 In May and June 2022, female artists in Kabul and Herat held an exhibition andpainting competition with artworks showing their opposition to the Taliban’s restrictions
imposed on women.1178
During the reference period, one report was found of a women’s demonstration in support of
Taliban rule. In mid-January 2022, a group of pro-Taliban women from an elite women’sfoundation gathered in Kabul stating that the Taliban government ‘guarantees national andIslamic interest’ and ‘is in favour of all’ and that ‘Afghanistan will not surrender to any kind ofpressure from the world’. At the same time, they asked the de facto authorities to reactivate
the Women’s Ministry, hire female teachers and appoint female deputy ministers for the
Taliban ministries of education and higher education. As reported by Khaama Press, this kindof pro-Taliban women demonstration was rare, as most protests organised by women havebeen criticising and opposing the Taliban.1179
According to a survey published by UN Women in December 2021, women’s civil society has
notably changed in the aftermath of the Taliban takeover, with the activities of manyorganisations significantly reduced. Many women leaders who campaigned for women’s rights
in recent years also left the country. 65 % of the survey’s respondents stated that women’s
civil society organisations were no longer active in their areas, mainly due to Taliban
restrictions, a lack of financial resources and security concerns. Women’s organisations
themselves indicated provincial differences in the enforcement of Taliban rules andrestrictions, with some being forced to stop their work and others able to continue theiractivities in some areas. Most obstacles were faced in sectors directly challenging the
Taliban’s view on women’s rights. A lack of clarity and ambiguous Taliban policies made itdifficult for women’s civil society organisations to operate, with fear often leading to selfcensorship, also due to the ‘vivid memories’ of the previous Taliban era in 1996-2001.1180
For more information on female human rights defenders and activists, see section 8. Humanrights defenders and activists.

5.2.5.

Implemented dress codes and behavioural norms

A few days after their takeover in August 2021, the Taliban leadership announced that the allcovering burqa would not be compulsory for women in public, but different types of hijab
would be possible to wear, without mentioning which specific types.1181 As indicated by AAN,
during their first months as the new de facto authorities, the Taliban gave mixed messages
regarding their intention to regulate women’s clothing and appearance, leaving space for local

AI, There is a window of opportunity to negotiate for the rights of Afghan women, but is rapidly closing, 1 April
2022, url
1178
TOLOnews, Artists Protest Over Restrictions on Women, 23 May 2022, url; TOLOnews, Herat Artists Hold
Exhibition to Protest Restrictions on Women, 2 June 2022, url
1179
Khaama Press, Women in Kabul ask IEA to reopen women’s ministry, 17 January 2022, url
1180
UN Women, Women’s rights in Afghanistan: Where are we now, December 2021, url, p. 41181
Al Arabiya, Taliban say burqa not compulsory for women, hijab is as they take over Afghanistan, 17 August 2021,
url
1177

119

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

variations.1182 As reported by several sources, an increased number of women in Kabul andother cities have been dressing more conservatively1183 and started wearing the burqa since
the Taliban takeover.1184 However, many urban women in the capital reportedly continued towear different hijab versions, often only covering their hair and leaving most of their faces
visible.1185 In November and December 2021, sources reported on women in Kabul1186, Mazar-e
Sharif1187 and Herat1188 walking out in public without wearing a burqa. Also in December 2021,
the Taliban’s Kabul municipality ordered the removal of all images of women from signboards
and advertisements of shops and other businesses in the capital.1189
In mid-January 2022, the Taliban MPVPV put up posters around Kabul ordering women to
cover up and wear hijab. The posters showed an image of a woman wearing the facecovering burqa and a woman wearing a black chador (commonly worn in Iran), accompaniedby the text ‘according to Sharia law, a Muslim woman must observe the hijab’. According to a
spokesperson for the ministry, the posters were meant as ‘an incentive’ to ‘advice andencourage’ women to cover themselves up in public but would not be strictly enforced inpractice.1190 However, despite the lack of an official policy to punish women who do notcomply with the advisory, Al Jazeera mentioned sporadic reports of local Taliban foot soldiers
trying to enforce the rule. As indicated by Obaidullah Baheer, lecturer at the American
University of Afghanistan, this ‘tends to become problematic in the absence of clear
guidelines and training for fighters’. The poster campaign was protested against by several
women in the streets of the capital.1191 At the end of February 2022, a statement from the
Taliban MPVPV advised female de facto government employees to wear the hijab, otherwise
they would be fired.1192 As reported by RFE/RL in March 2022, the Taliban MPVPV orderedhealthcare institutions to deny medical assistance to female patients without a hijab.1193
According to an international humanitarian organisation interviewed by DIS in March 2022,
the Taliban authorities were not applying a uniform reaction towards women not adhering to
the dress code perceived by them as correct, but their response depended on ‘the situationand the personality of the Talib in charge at the given place and time’.1194

Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, urlInternational Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022, url; Smith, G., A Short Visit to the
Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022, url
1184
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan Women Disappear Under Burqas Amid Taliban Advance, 13 August 2021, url;
Bloomberg, As Kabul Falls, the Burqa Shops of Afghanistan Get Busy, 15 August 2021, url; New York Times (The),
Taliban Impose Head-to-Toe Coverings for Women, 7 May 2022, url
1185
Al Jazeera, In Afghanistan, Taliban diktat sparks debate about women’s attire, 26 January 2022, url; New YorkTimes (The), Taliban Impose Head-to-Toe Coverings for Women, 7 May 2022, url
1186
Rolling Stone Magazine, Where the Taliban rule, 28 November 2021, url
1187
Business Insider, A murder, a warning, and now Afghans worry that they could be next, 19 November 2021, url
1188
New Lines Magazine, Is This the Future of Taliban Rule?, 13 December 2021, url
1189
TOLOnews, Kabul Municipality Forbids Images of Women on Advertising, 21 December 2021, url
1190
France 24, Taliban religious police issue posters ordering women to cover up, 7 January 2022, url;
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Religious Police Erect Banners Ordering Women To Wear Islamic Hijab, 10 January2022, url; Khaama Press, Taliban stuck banners across Kabul to recommend hijab for women, 10 January 2022, url
1191
Al Jazeera, In Afghanistan, Taliban diktat sparks debate about women’s attire, 26 January 2022, url
1192
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022, url; Salam Watandar, Women public servants asked to wear
hijab or quit, 22 February 2022, url; Khaama Press, Beardless government employees prevented entry to offices byTaliban, 28 March 2022, url
1193
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Resurrects Gender Segregation In Public Offices, Transport In Afghanistan, 16 March
2022, url
1194
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 27
1182
1183

120

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

On 7 May 2022, the Taliban MPVPV announced a new decree instructing women that theyshould not leave the house without ‘real need’ and if they do to respect a strict dress code
regulation. The ministry stated that women must cover themselves from head to toe,suggesting the burqa as ‘the good and complete hijab’ preferred for covering a woman’s hair,face and body. However, the burqa was not prescribed as mandatory, as long as women
would cover themselves with a hijab or garment (defined as ‘customary black clothing andshawl that is not too short, thin or tight’) obscuring the outlines of their body. Officials were
instructed by the ministry to put up posters in public places with visual instructions ofgarments that would be approved for women. The ministry also encouraged ‘the importanceand benefits of the hijab’ to be discussed in mosques and spread through the media.1195 A
Taliban morality police chief indicated to WSJ that the Taliban understand the word hijab as areference to ‘female clothing that covers the body in accordance with Sharia’ and ‘a religious
code that mandates women to cover their body in a loose fitting garment that ideally obscuresthe face as well’.1196
As prescribed by the order, a woman’s male guardian was legally responsible for policing her
clothing. He should ensure she adheres to the correct dress code and will be punished for any
violations. With a first violation, the family would receive a visit from the Taliban MPVPV
officials with a warning and advice. A second and third violation would lead to the male headof the family being summoned to the ministry and being imprisoned for three days. With a lastand fourth violation, the woman’s male guardian would have to appear in front of a religious
court for further punishment.1197 Additionally, the decree mentioned that male de facto
government employees whose female family members did not comply with the order would
be suspended or dismissed from their work and that working women (such as medical staff
and teachers) could be fired if they did not obey the new guideline.1198 The Taliban’s new dress
code rule provoked widespread international reactions1199 and was protested against bydozens of women demonstrating in the streets of Kabul City.1200
As reported by the New York Times and BBC, women’s compliance with the new decree was
mixed on the streets of Kabul City and women with their faces uncovered were still a common
sight.1201 In city areas like Dasht-e Barchi, predominantly inhabited by the Hazara minority, few
women reportedly covered their faces, while in the Pashtun neighbourhood of Kart-e Naw
New York Times (The), Taliban Impose Head-to-Toe Coverings for Women, 7 May 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Talibanorders Afghan women to cover their faces in public, 7 May 2022, url; Guardian (The), Taliban order all Afghan
women to cover their faces in public, 7 May 2022, url; BBC News, Taliban to force Afghan women to wear face veil,
7 May 2022, url; Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url; UN Security Council, The
situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 39
1196
WSJ, Taliban Crack Down on Social Freedoms With Even Stricter Policing, 5 April 2022, url
1197
New York Times (The), Taliban Impose Head-to-Toe Coverings for Women, 7 May 2022, url; Clark, K. and
Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url
1198
New York Times (The), Taliban Impose Head-to-Toe Coverings for Women, 7 May 2022, url
1199
UNAMA, UNAMA statement on the hijab directive by Taliban authorities, 7 May 2022, url; Ariana News,
Mandatory burqa decision by IEA sparks widespread reaction, 8 May 2022, url; Khaama Press, The Taliban’s Edict
for Women to Wear the Hijab Alarmed the UN Secretary-General, 9 May 2022, url; Khaama Press, U.S. Envoy Dubs
Taliban New Policy Affront to Human Rights, 9 May 2022, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan andits implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 39
1200
Khaama Press, Women’s Movement for Justice and Freedom: We Do Not Accept Forced Hijab and Dictatorship,
9 May 2022, url; New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url
1201
New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan: Policing faces, bodies and beards on Kabul streets, 22 May 2022, url
1195

121

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

most women covered their faces with a hijab or headscarf.1202 Some Taliban members
reportedly described the new regulation as a compromise, with variations1203 of dresses otherthan the burqa allowed.1204 In mid-May 2022, the Taliban Minister of Interior declared that‘women are not forced but advised to wear the hijab’.1205 However, enforcement of the new
dress code rule was reported in Kabul1206, with large numbers of religious Taliban officers
purportedly deployed to ensure obedience.1207 Some women in Kabul declared to have beenharassed and scolded by men when they were walking on the street with their faces
uncovered.1208 Some bus drivers declared they had been warned by officials from the Taliban
MPVPV not to transport women with tight-fitting clothes, but women with their faces
uncovered had not been prevented from travelling with them.1209 Outside Kabul, most womenreportedly followed the new regulation, with some declaring to have been ordered(sometimes violently) by Taliban guards to cover up. According to a spokesperson of the
Taliban MPVPV, patrolling personnel ‘had not forced women to cover themselves but had
merely explained the decree to encourage full compliance’.1210
In the weeks following the circulation of the new decree in the media, AAN conductedinterviews with women in 10 provinces (Balkh, Badghis, Baghlan, Bamyan, Farah, Herat,
Jawzjan, Kabul, Kandahar and Panjsher) to investigate to what extent the new order was
enforced and how it was responded to by women and their families. The interviews indicatedthat the impact of the Taliban’s new regulation differed across the country. In provinces like
Kandahar, Badghis and Farah, enforcement was not necessary since women’s local dress
largely coincided with the new rules. In other provinces like Kabul and Herat, where women
have been used to greater freedom and clothing variety, women declared to have felt forced
to adjust their clothing to avoid potential problems for themselves and their male relatives, but
indicated a reluctance to cover their faces completely when going outside. Taliban guards
imposing the order at checkpoints were reported, mostly referring to the new guideline as anadvice but sometimes shouting at women to obey it. In several provinces, the Taliban
reportedly disseminated messages advising women to observe the hijab, such as notices
placed at the entrance of apartment blocks in Kabul, cars with speakers driving through thestreets of Daykundi’s provincial capital and notifications threatening legal action against
violators in Bamyan. AAN did not receive reports of public punishments of women notcomplying with the order, nor of male relatives of women without a hijab being contacted or
punished. As indicated by AAN, it was still further to be seen how the enforcement of this neworder would be applied across the country, if there would be enough backing for it within the
Taliban movement itself and how it would be received and complied with by the Afghan
population in the long-run. AAN’s legal expert Ehsan Qaane pointed out that ‘it is a matter of

New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url
Taliban, Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice [Twitter], posted on: 10 May 2022, url
1204
Smith, G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022, url
1205
TOLOnews, Haqqani: We Are Not Forcing Women to Wear Hijab, 18 May 2022, url
1206
Guardian (The), We exist but it is not a life: Afghan women face bleak prospects under Taliban, 13 June 2022,
url
1207
Smith, G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9 June 2022, url
1208
New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url
1209
BBC News, Afghanistan: Policing faces, bodies and beards on Kabul streets, 22 May 2022, url
1210
New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May 2022, url
1202
1203

122

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

how individual Taliban officials interpret the order and whether and indeed how they decide to
execute it’.1211
On 19 May 2022, the de facto authorities ordered local media outlets to ensure that female TV
presenters and other women working on screen in local stations would cover their faces whileon air.1212 After the order was announced, only a few outlets reportedly complied, but on 22
May 2022 most female presenters covered their faces on screen after the Taliban MPVPV
began enforcing the decree.1213 The order evoked strong reactions on national andinternational level, with the EU and human rights organisations asking for its reversal.1214 A
campaign called ‘#FreeHerFace’ started on social media and male TOLOnews presenters
appeared on air wearing face masks in solidarity with their female colleagues.1215
The de facto authorities introduced several other restrictive measures concerning women’s
dress codes on provincial level. At the end of March 2022, Hasht-e Subh reported on a new
decree banning women without a burqa from entering public institutions, government offices
and schools in the provinces of Balkh and Bamyan.1216 In April 2022, the news agency
reported on the same rule ordered for female students at Ghazni University.1217 Also in April
2022, Human Rights Watch reported on increasingly harsh dress code regulations imposed by
the Taliban in secondary schools that remained open in Balkh Province, with informants
recording and reporting female students and teachers who did not adhere to the rules. One
school was reportedly closed for several days after some female students had their faces
uncovered. In other schools female teachers were fired and female students expelled for notcomplying with the prescribed dress code.1218 In May 2022, students at Badakhshan University
declared to TOLOnews that the provincial Taliban MPVPV instructed them to wear black
clothes and cover their faces with masks inside the university.1219 In June 2022, Hasht-e Subhreported on a Taliban order instructing female teachers and students from the fourth to thesixth grade in Ghazni Province to wear black clothes and to cover their faces with a mask
when attending school, adding they would be expelled if not respecting the order.1220 Also in
June 2022, the Taliban MPVPV Department of Kandahar Province reportedly disseminatedposters containing the message that women who do not wear a hijab ‘are likening themselves

Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url
Al Jazeera, Taliban say female Afghan TV presenters must cover faces on air, 19 May 2022, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan's female TV presenters must cover their faces, say Taliban, 19 May 2022, url; Guardian (The), Talibanorders female Afghan TV presenters to cover faces on air, 19 May 2022, url
1213
Al Jazeera, Taliban enforces order for Afghan women TV anchors to cover faces, 22 May 2022, url; Guardian(The), Taliban enforce face coverings for Afghanistan’s female news presenters, 22 May 2022, url; DW,
Afghanistan: Women TV presenters cover faces one day after defying edict, 22 May 2022, url
1214
TOLOnews, Order for Female TV Presenters to Cover Faces Sparks Reaction, 25 May 2022, url
1215
TOLOnews, Twitter FreeHerFace Campaign Gained Intl Attention, 28 May 2022, url; Guardian (The), Male
Afghan TV presenters mask up to support female colleagues after Taliban decree, 24 May 2022, url
1216
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Issue New Decrees, Banning Hijabless Women’s Entrance into Public Institutions, 24
March 2022, url
1217
Hasht-e Subh, Female Students Must Wear Burqas While Attending Classes, Urges Taliban’s Religious Police inGhazni Province, 27 April 2022, url
1218
HRW, Dress Restrictions Tighten for Afghanistan Girls’ Schools, 27 April 2022, url
1219
TOLOnews, Girls at Badakhshan University Say Covering Faces Unhealthy, 28 May 2022, url
1220
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban in Ghazni: Female Students from 4th Grade to 6th Must Cover Their Faces, 1 June 2022,
url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Imposes New Dress Code on Female Teachers in Ghazni, 19 June 2022, url
1211

1212

123

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

to animals’. The content of the banners sparked widespread national and international
reactions.1221

5.3.

Incidents targeting women and girls

For information on targeting of women in public roles and certain positions, see sections 2.8.
Women who served in ANDSF, 4.2. Former judicial workers, 7. Journalists and media workers,
8. Human rights defenders and activists, 9. Healthcare professionals and 10. Humanitarian
workers.
Taliban restrictions on women’s freedom of movement, possibilities to study and work, andgender segregation in health facilities had a strong impact on women’s mental and physicalhealth.1222 In the period 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, UNAMA recorded 87 cases of murder,
rape, suicide, forced marriages, child marriages, assault and battery, and 2 cases of honour
killings. None of the cases had reportedly undergone a formal judicial process.1223
Reported instances of violence and other targeting of women and girls by the Taliban
included the following:•••

On 13 January 2022, Taliban fighters shot at a car at a checkpoint in an area mainly
inhabited by Hazaras. One woman, Zeinab Abdulahi, was killed. The Taliban later
explained that she was ‘killed by mistake’ and that they arrested the perpetrator.
Abdulahi’s death caused protests by women’s rights activists in Kabul who said they
were afraid to leave the house because of Taliban checkpoints.1224
On 27 January 2022, the Times reported that a woman was shot dead in Mazar-e
Sharif after following a Taliban fighter. He had approached her saying he could help
her son, who had worked for the army prior to the Taliban takeover. The report refers
to interviews with medical staff in the city and argues that Taliban fighters bringroughly 15 corpses monthly with the majority of them being female.1225
On 15 February 2022, a woman along with her brother were summed to a de facto
court in Uruzgan Province regarding a marriage offer the woman repeatedly had
refused. The de facto judges of the Taliban Primary Court reportedly tried to force her
to accept, and beat the woman and her brother ‘severely’. These individuals wereforced to flee their home, and another brother who stayed was detained by the Taliban
to make the woman accept the proposal.1226

Hasht-e Subh, Woman Without a Head-to-Toe Cover Resembles an Animal, Say Taliban’s Virtue Promoters in
Kandahar, 17 June 2022, url; TOLOnews, Banners in Kandahar City Spark Reactions, 19 June 2022, url
1222
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url; Fuller Project (The),The Taliban are harming Afghan women’s health, 2 March 2022, url
1223
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 34
1224
Rukhshana Media, Taliban checkpoint shot dead a young woman in Kabul, 15 January 2022, url; Al Jazeera,
Taliban arrests fighter who shot dead Hazara woman at checkpoint, 19 January 2022, url
1225
Times (The), Afghanistan’s disappeared women, 27 January 2022, url
1226
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 31–32
1221

124

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

•

•

•

•

•
•

On 19 February 2022, Taliban fighters shot on a riksha in Kandahar. One woman was
killed and two wounded. According to the fighters, the riksha had not stopped on theircommand.1227
On 20 February 2022, an unverified video on social media showed a group of men
marching with a corpse. The post claimed that a woman was shot by the Taliban in
Kandahar the day before and that cases occurring outside of Kabul do not receive any
attention.1228
The female aid-worker and comedian Nadima, also known as Patingara Kakai, wasarrested by the Taliban in February without any publicly known charges. She wasreleased almost a month later on 9 March 2022.1229
On 27 April 2022, a 15-year-old girl told UNAMA that she had been sold to an olderman, but she had run away with another man whom she married. The father filed acomplaint with the de facto authorities and the girl was arrested and told by the defacto police that she should divorce her husband and marry the old man. She was kept
in prison awaiting an investigation.1230
In early June 2022 a married woman in Ghazni Province was reportedly kidnapped by
the Taliban. She reappeared in Uruzgan Province roughly a week later.1231
On 25 June 2022 the Taliban killed two young women and their father, a former
military commander, in a village in Ghor Province. The Taliban accused the father of
supporting Mawlawi Mehdi’s resistance.1232

Hasht-e Subh, ‫ دست به اعتراض زدند‬،‫[ باشندهگان قندهار در پی کشته شدن یک زن‬Residents of Kandahar protested after awoman was killed], 1 March 2022, url
1228
Emroo [Twitter], posted on: 20 February 2022, url
1229
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghan-Canadian Aid Worker Reappears After Weeks In Taliban Detention, 9 March 2022,
url
1230
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 32
1231
Hasht-e Subh, ‫البان یک زن متاهل را از غزنی ربوده و به ارزگان برده اند‬, [Taliban kidnapped a woman from Ghazni and took
her to Urozgan], 9 June 2022, url
1232
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Kill Former Anti-Taliban Commander Along With His Wife and Daughter in Ghor Province,
26 June 2022, url
1227

125

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

6.

Targeting based on ethnicity andreligion

6.1.

Ethnic and religious composition of Afghanistan

The term ‘Afghan’ is sometimes used as synonymous with ‘Pashtun’, hence denoting one of
the ethnic groups of Afghanistan. The word ‘Afghan’, however, is also commonly used todenote a citizen of Afghanistan.1233 There has never been a reliable census in Afghanistan.1234
Hence, reliable demographic data is scarce, and the exact ethnic composition unknown.1235
Furthermore, statistics relating to ethnicity have been a contentious issue in Afghanistan.1236
The 2004 constitution of the former government explicitly recognises 14 ethnic groups:
Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkman, Baluch, Pachaie, Nuristani, Aymaq, Arab, Qirghiz,
Qizilbach, Gujur, Brahwui ‘and other tribes’.1237 According to the Swedish Committee for
Afghanistan, an aid organisation with long time experience in the country1238, ‘there are some
10 larger and more than 30 smaller ethnic groups’.1239 There are various estimates of therelative sizes of the ethnic groups. Estimates of the share of Pashtuns ranged from 40 to 50 %of the population, Tajiks 25–27 %, Hazaras 9–18 %, Uzbeks 6–15 % and Turkmen 1.5–3 %.1240
The predominant religion in Afghanistan is Islam.1241 More than 99 % of the population are
estimated to be Muslims.1242 A majority of the people are Sunni of the Hanafi School ofjurisprudence.1243 10–15 % of the population are Shia.1244 The majority of Afghanistan’s Shia
Muslims are Hazara, and vice versa, the majority of the Hazaras are Shia.1245 There are,however, Hazaras who are not Shia and members of other ethnic groups who are Shia.1246
Most Shiites in the country adhere to the Jafari School of jurisprudence, but there is also asmall community of Ismaili Shias.1247

Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, pp. 15–16
Lieven, A., An Afghan Tragedy: The Pashtuns, the Taliban and the State, 25 May 2021, url, p. 7; Rubin, B.R.,
Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 171
1235
MRG, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous People – Afghanistan, December 2021, url
1236
Guardian (The), Afghan census dodges questions of ethnicity and language, 3 January 2013, url
1237
Afghanistan, Constitution of Afghanistan, 3 January 2004, url
1238
SCA, Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, n.d., url
1239
SCA, The Afghan Population, n.d., url
1240
MRG, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous People – Afghanistan, December 2021, url; US, Library ofCongress, Afghanistan, 1997, archived page from 10 January 2009, url, accessed 19 May 2022; SCA, The Afghan
Population, n.d., url; NPR, Afghans Confront Sensitive Issue Of Ethnicity, May 8 2013, url
1241
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 13
1242
US, CIA, The World Factbook – Afghanistan, October 2021, url
1243
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 13
1244
US, CIA, The World Factbook – Afghanistan, October 2021, url
1245
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, pp. 13–14; MRG, World Directory of Minorities
and Indigenous People – Afghanistan - Hazaras, December 2021, url
1246
SCA, Religion in Afghanistan, n.d., url
1247
SCA, Religion in Afghanistan, n.d., url; Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan– What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, pp. 13–14
1233

1234

126

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

6.2.

Representation in the de facto government

The de facto government announced the first appointments to what they designate to be acaretaker cabinet on 7 September 2021.1248 New rounds of appointments to the cabinet and ofother senior officials were announced on 21 September 2021 and 4 October 2021,
respectively.1249 Of the 33 cabinet members and senior officials appointed in the first round, all
but 3 were Pashtuns, the exceptions being two Tajiks and one Uzbek.1250 The Taliban second
deputy Prime Minister, Abdul Salam Hanafi, is an ethnic Uzbek.1251 The Taliban Minister of
Economy Qari Din Muhammad Hanif and the Army Chief Qari Fasihuddin are both Tajiks. 1252
Noorudin Azizi, an ethnic Tajik from Panjsher, was appointed Taliban Minister of Commerce inthe second round of appointments.1253 When announcing the second round of appointments,
Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid stated that the cabinet included appointments of
ethnic minorities, such as the Hazaras.1254 Furthermore, the appointments of Taliban deputy
ministers included Tajiks and Uzbeks.1255 The only Shiite and Hazara appointed in the second
round was the Taliban Deputy Minister of Public Health.1256 In December 2021, anothermember of the Hazara community was appointed as Taliban Deputy Minister of Economy.1257
The Taliban have been criticised by the international community for a lack of diversity ingovernment.1258 Commenting on the criticism, a spokesperson for the Taliban said that
ethnicity ‘did not matter to the new government’ but pointed to the appointments of Tajiks andUzbeks. Furthermore, he said that foreign governments had a responsibility to recognise thede facto government.1259 Also responding to such criticisms, Taliban Minister of Foreign Affairs
said that the Taliban had formed an inclusive government that included representatives fromall ethnic groups. However, he dismissed the idea of including opposition figures in thegovernment, pointing to the fact that this was uncommon in other countries.1260

Al Jazeera, Taliban announces new government in Afghanistan, 7 September 2021, url
van Bijlert, M., The Taleban’s Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN, 7 October 2021, url
1250
van Bijlert, M., The Focus of the Taleban’s New Government: Internal cohesion, external dominance, AAN, 12
September 2021, url
1251
Economic Times (The), Once wanted terrorists, now Taliban are prominent members of 2021, 28 August 2021,
url
1252
Hindustan Times (The), Taliban forms 33-member cabinet in Afghanistan: Full list, 8 September 2021, url
1253
Hasht-e Subh, The Taliban Announce Remaining Cabinet Members, 21 September 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara,
Taliban Expands Afghan Cabinet List But Again Fails To Include Women, 21 September 2021, url; WSJ, Taliban Add
Minorities, Technocrats to Afghan Government, but No Women, 21 September 2021, url
1254
Al Jazeera, Taliban names deputy ministers, double down on all-male cabinet, 21 September 2021, url
1255
New York Times (The), Taliban Complete Interim Government, Still Without Women, 21 September 2021, url
1256
WSJ, Taliban Add Minorities, Technocrats to Afghan Government, but No Women, 21 September 2021, url; NewYork Times (The), Taliban Complete Interim Government, Still Without Women, 21 September 2021, url
1257
Khaama Press, A none-Taliban figure, Abdul Latif Nazari appointed as Deputy Minister of economy, 25
December 2021, url
1258
New York Times (The), Taliban Complete Interim Government, Still Without Women, 21 September 2021, url;
VOA, Taliban Reject Fresh US Criticism of Kabul Government, 21 February 2022, url; AA, Taliban have all-inclusive
government in Afghanistan, claims acting foreign minister, 12 November 2021, url
1259
New York Times (The), Taliban Complete Interim Government, Still Without Women, 21 September 2021, url
1260
AA, Taliban have all-inclusive government in Afghanistan, claims acting foreign minister, 12 November 2021, url
1248

1249

127

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

6.3.

Religious freedom under Taliban rule

Shortly after the takeover, the Taliban stated, although not specifying religious freedom, thathuman rights in general would be respected in Afghanistan ‘within the framework of Islamic
law’.1261 However, the Taliban did not elaborate on what such limits would look like in practice,and during the reporting period the situation remained unclear.1262 USCIRF reported that‘religious freedom conditions in Afghanistan worsened´ after the Taliban takeover and claimed
that ‘Afghans who do not adhere to the Taliban’s harsh and strict interpretation of Sunni Islamand adherents of other faiths or beliefs are at risk of grave danger.’1263
Sharia allows for different interpretations and varies between different schools of thought. The
Taliban’s view of sharia is based on the Sunni Hanafi school of jurisprudence and rooted in
the late-19th -century Deobandi movement.1264 It is also influenced by local traditions and tribal
codes making it different from the interpretation and implementation of sharia in othercountries with justice systems under Islamic law.1265 During the peace negotiations held in2020–2021 between the government of Afghanistan and the Taliban there was disagreement
over which interpretation of sharia should be followed in cases of any potential disputes. The
Taliban insisted Sunni Hanafi school to be used as a sole source of interpretation.1266 This wascontradictory to the 2004 constitution of Afghanistan that provided as reference points bothSunni Hanafi and Shia Jafari jurisprudence.1267 Shia jurisprudence was applicable only in family
law, however.1268 According to analyst Ali Yawar Adili, this dispute continued throughout thenegotiations and the Taliban never accepted the use of Shia jurisprudence.1269 They
announced after the takeover that they will refer to some provisions of the 1964 constitution of
Afghanistan that does not recognise Shia jurisprudence.1270 However, they have not provided
any written constitution during the reporting period1271, instead they have relied on rulings from
Hanafi fiqh [figh refers to jurisprudence of Islamic scholars].1272 Likewise, a representative of ananonymous organisation interviewed by EUAA for this report was not aware of any specific
Taliban policies targeting minority or religious communities as such. However, thepresentative noted that the current situation, as of May 2022, might not stay the same aspolicies may change. The source further explained that because the decision making of the
Taliban is not ‘particularly transparent’, the situation could ‘be different in six months or one
Rehman, R., Taliban 2021: Mujahid, Munafiq? - Protecting Islam or undermining it?, Human Rights in Context, 26
August 2021, url
1262
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url
1263
USCIRF, Annual Report 2022 – Country Chapters: Afghanistan, April 2022, url, p. 12
1264
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Tribal Version: Shari’a Is Not The Same Everywhere, 2 October 2021, url; Mandaville,P., Whither Islam in Afghanistan’s Political System After the Taliban Talks?, USIP, 7 October 2020, url
1265
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Tribal Version: Shari’a Is Not The Same Everywhere, 2 October 2021, url
1266
Adili, A. Y., Intra-Afghan Talks (1), AAN, 3 January 2021, url; Mandaville, P., Whither Islam in Afghanistan’s
Political System After the Taliban Talks?, USIP, 7 October 2020, url
1267
Adili, A. Y., Intra-Afghan Talks (1), AAN, 3 January 2021, url
1268
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, pp. 158–160
1269
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1270
Shamshad, P., Afghanistan’s Unwritten Constitution under the Taliban, Blog of the International Journal ofConstitutional Law, 17 May 2022, url; Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN,
digital interview, 16 May 2022
1271
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too, AAN, 1 June 2022, url; Shamshad, P., Afghanistan’s Unwritten
Constitution under the Taliban, Blog of the International Journal of Constitutional Law, 17 May 2022, url
1272
Shamshad, P., Afghanistan’s Unwritten Constitution under the Taliban, Blog of the International Journal ofConstitutional Law, 17 May 2022, url
1261

128

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

year, or even one month’. If there were new policies enacted in this regard, they will be foundin action, according to the source, rather than being officially announced.1273
According to Javid Ahmad, a senior fellow with the Atlantic Council, in the Taliban’s view ofIslam, the religion dictates every aspect of daily life, and saw a need of ‘re-Islamization’ of the
Afghan society as it was ‘insufficiently Islamic’ under the rule of the republic. 1274 Obaidullah
Baheer, a Kabul-based academic and grandson of Afghan warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, 1275
described to RFE/RL that the Taliban have been seeing ‘any challenge to [its] policies as achallenge to the faith itself.’ Although many of the decrees issued by the Taliban, have been
claimed to be only recommendations, its fighters have enforced them sometimes violently.1276
Furthermore, the religious clerics who serve as the movement’s source of interpretation were
described to be originalists, seeing Islam as their vanguard and the Quran as theirconstitution, rather than pragmatists.1277 The Taliban also reinstated the Taliban MPVPV in
September 2021, which has been enforcing policies based on their interpretation of Islamic
law.1278
USCIRF reported in April 2022 that ‘the Taliban continue to persecute religious minorities andpunish residents in areas under their control in accordance with their extreme interpretation ofIslamic law.’ USCIRF also reported, although not providing details, that they had obtained
credible reports on the Taliban harassing and desecrating houses of worship of religious
minorities, including nonbelievers and Muslims that do not adhere to the Taliban’s
interpretation of Islam.1279
According to an article by RFE/RL of 6 January 2022, the Taliban have required all men toattend congregational prayers at mosques in parts of Kabul and Takhar provinces. A Kabul
resident told RFE/RL that the requirement to attend prayers was ‘recently’ announced by
officials from the Taliban MPVPV at the Abu Hanifa Mosque located in central Kabul. In Kabul
mosques, the Taliban have ordered clerics to hold a roll call and report those who did notshow up. First absence reportedly could be sanctioned with a fine, and a repeat offender
could be ‘punished’. Moreover, residents of Takhar’s Rustaq District reported that ‘those who
do not attend prayers are fined and beaten’ and referred to a recent incident where two men
who had failed to attend prayers were beaten by Taliban fighters.1280 These incidents could
not be corroborated by other sources.
During Ramadan 2022, the Taliban interpretation of when the Ramadan should end was
different than in other Sunni-majority countries, like Saudi Arabia, and as observed by Shias.
According to an article by the New York Times of 10 May 2022, Shias in Kunduz Province held
Eid al-Fitr prayers (following Ramadan) on the day the Taliban had declared, but ‘they

Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
Ahmad, J., The Taliban’s religious roadmap for Afghanistan, MEI, 26 January 2022, url
1275
Democracy Now!, Grandson of Notorious Warlord: My Family Is Celebrating the Taliban, But I Fear for My
Friends’ Lives, 26 August 2021, url
1276
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
1277
Ahmad, J., The Taliban’s religious roadmap for Afghanistan, 26 January 2022, url
1278
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url;
USCIRF, Annual Report 2022 – Country Chapters: Afghanistan, April 2022, url, p. 121279
USCIRF, Annual Report 2022 – Country Chapters: Afghanistan, April 2022, url, p. 12
1280
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, url
1273

1274

129

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

continued their daylong Ramadan fast and refrained from celebrating in their homes’, out offear of possible repercussions from the Taliban.1281 Asian News International (ANI), an Indian
news agency covering South Asian affairs, reported, based on a social media statement by
Afghan journalist Mossoud Houssaini, that the Taliban had ‘prohibited’ several Shia mosquesfrom holding prayers in Herat and Kabul during Eid al-Fitr holiday in May 2022. The journalist
also claimed that the Taliban had forced ‘some Shia followers’ to break their Ramadan fastprior to the Shia clerics’ announcement of its end.1282

6.4.

Hazaras and other Shia groups

6.4.1.

Background on Hazaras

The Hazara people originate from a region in Central Afghanistan known as Hazarajat.1283
Hazarajat is not an official entity, and hence, has no official or exact borders. 1284 Historically,
the region encompassed the provinces of Bamyan, Ghor and Uruzgan, and parts of the Herat,
Farah, Kandahar, Ghazni, Parwan, Baghlan, Balkh and Badghis provinces.1285 In 2004, theDaykundi Province was created from Hazara dominated parts of Uruzgan.1286 The Hazara
constitutes the majority population in Bamyan and Daykundi1287, as well as in several districts
and parts of other provinces in Hazarajat.1288 There are also major Hazara populations in thecities of Kabul, Herat and Mazar-e Sharif.1289 The Hazara population of major cities tend to begeographically concentrated.1290 In Kabul, for example, the Hazara population is concentrated
to areas in western Kabul.1291
Up until the late 19th century, Hazarajat was largely autonomous.1292 Amir Abdur Rahman Khan
violently incorporated Hazarajat in Afghan state structures. Among other things, he enabled
the enslavement of Hazaras, engaged in mass killings and redistributed Hazara lands to
Pashtuns.1293 It is estimated that more than half of the Hazara population were killed or left

New York Times (The), Eid Under the Taliban Shows a Changed Afghanistan, 8 May 2022, url
ANI, Taliban forces prohibit Shia mosques from holding Eid prayers: Reports, 5 May 2022, url
1283
Britannica, Hazara, n.d., url
1284
Mousavi, S. A., The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political study, 1998, pp. 65–
69, 106
1285
Mousavi, S. A., The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political study, 1998, p. xiii
1286
Norway, Landinfo, Respons Afghanistan: Gizab-distriktet, 11 December 2014, url
1287
NPS, Bamyan Provincial Overview, March 2017, url; NPS, Dai Kundi Provincial Overview, March 2017, url; Adili, A.
Y., Afghanistan’s 2019 election (18): How the people of Bamyan, Daikundi and Lal wa Sarjangal voted, AAN, 16
October 2019, url; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 93
1288
Examples include the Jaghori and Malistan districts of Ghazni, the Behsud districts of Wardak and the Tala Wa
Barfak district of Baghlan. CPAU, Conflict Analysis: Jaghori and Malistan districts, Ghazni province, April 2009, url,
p. 4; Australia, Refugee Review Tribunal, Country Advice Afghanistan: AFG36222 – Wardak Province – Hezb-I
Wahdat Khalili, February 2010, url, pp. 3–4, 17; UNHCR, District Profile [Baghlan – Tala-wa-Barfak], 9 April 2002, url
1289
SCA, The Afghan Population, n.d., url
1290
La Prensa Latina, Afghanistan’s Hazaras live in the shadow of fear as attacks increase, 11 December 2021, url
1291
Finland, Finnish Immigration Service, Afghanistan: Fact-Finding Mission to Kabul in April 2019, 15 October 2019,url, p. 23
1292
Ibrahimi, N., Divide and Rule: State Penetration in Hazarajat (Afghanistan) from the Monarchy to the Taliban,
2009, url, p. 5; Britannica, Hazara, n.d., url1293
Ibrahimi, N., Divide and Rule: State Penetration in Hazarajat (Afghanistan) from the Monarchy to the Taliban,
2009, pp. 4–6, url
1281

1282

130

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Afghanistan during these times.1294 Among the beneficiaries of the Amir’s actions in Hazarajat
were the Kuchis – Pashtun nomads. Kuchis were given grazing rights on Hazara land, which
has led to recurrent violent conflicts between Hazara communities and Kuchis, even in recent
times.1295
Up until the Saur revolution of 1978, the Hazara were systematically discriminated against in
most spheres of public life.1296 After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, there was anuprising against the Soviet forces and the Soviet-backed People’s Democratic Party ofAfghanistan (PDPA) regime, and Hazarajat regained de facto autonomy.1297 Initially, local
Hazara leaders organised themselves politically in Hazarajat, and, among other things,
provided public services.1298 Soon thereafter, however, disagreements within the political elite
led to intra-fighting and the formation of competing political groups in the area.1299 In 1989,
most of these groups united in the Hazara-based mujahidin party Hezb-e Wahdat.1300 While
political leaders in the autonomous Hazarajat stood in opposition to the PDPA regime, otherHazaras, mainly in the cities, joined the regime and gained political influence, as well as
representation within state structures.1301
After the exit of the Soviet military and the ensuing fall of the PDPA regime, a civil war brokeout in Afghanistan in the early 1990’s.1302 Hezb-e Wahdat were among the warring parties.1303
Like Hezb-e Wahdat, most mujahidin groups were dominated by a single ethnic and/or
religious group.1304 Due to the ethnic profile of the various mujahidin factions, fighting took an
ethnic character, resulting in ‘ethnic hatreds’.1305 Civilians were heavily impacted by the
conflict, collaterally as well as by direct targeting.1306 Mujahidin groups engaged in collective
punishment of communities based on a perceived affiliation with competing mujahidin groups.
An example where this affected the Hazara community is the Afshar operation in Kabul 1993,
resulting in, inter alia, the deaths of civilian Hazaras, looting and mass arrests.1307 Hezb-e
Wahdat, like other groups, also committed atrocities towards civilians.1308
While underway to negotiate with the Taliban in 1995, Hezb-e Wahdat leader, Abdul Ali
Mazari, along with other senior Wahdat officials, were killed by the Taliban.1309 After themurder of Mazari, relations between the Taliban and the Hazara community were generally

Mousavi, S. A., The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political study, 1998, p. 136
Norway, Landinfo, Report: Hazaras and Afghan insurgent groups, 3 October 2016, p. 18, url1296
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, p. 101
1297
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, pp. 117–119
1298
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, pp. 119–120
1299
Rubin, B. R., The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2002, pp. 222–223
1300
Mousavi, S. A., The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political study, 1998, p. 185;
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, pp. 180–182
1301
Mousavi, S. A., The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political study, 1998, pp. 171,
176; Norway, Landinfo, Report: Hazaras and Afghan insurgent groups, 3 October 2016, url, p. 9
1302
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, pp. 83–90
1303
HRW, Blood-Stained Hands: Past atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan’s Legacy of Impunity, 2005, url, p. 22
1304
Rubin, B. R., The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2002, pp. 212–223
1305
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 86
1306
HRW, Blood-Stained Hands: Past atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan’s Legacy of Impunity, 2005, url, p. 35
1307
HRW, Blood-Stained Hands: Past atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan’s Legacy of Impunity, 2005, url, pp. 74–97
1308
HRW, Blood-Stained Hands: Past atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan’s Legacy of Impunity, 2005, url, pp. 110–111
1309
Ibrahimi, N., Divide and Rule: State Penetration in Hazarajat (Afghanistan) from the Monarchy to the Taliban,
2009, url, p. 13
1294

1295

131

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

hostile.1310 There were divisions within the Hazara community during the first Taliban rule(1996-2001)1311, and Hezb-e Wahdat was splintered. The main Wahdat group stood in
opposition to the Taliban and engaged in armed confrontations.1312 Collective punishment
against civilians was a recurrent aspect of the conflict.1313 During this time, the Taliban engaged
in massacres of Hazara civilians. One of these instances was the massacre in Mazar-e Sharif in
1998. The massacre was partly a revenge for the killing of captured Taliban fighters by armed
Hazara and Uzbek groups, but there was also a more blatant sectarian aspect. In conjunction
with the massacre, a senior Taliban official referred to Hazaras as infidels and ‘threatenedthem with death if they did not convert to Sunni Islam or leave Afghanistan’. 1314
Following the US led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the Bonn agreement(s) laid thefoundation for the new state. Hazaras were represented in the process. Along with otherethnic groups, they gained political representation.1315 According to Afghan scholar
Niamatullah Ibrahimi, Hazaras were among the most passionate supporters of the post-2001
political process.1316 A new constitution came into force in 2004. The constitution recognized
the rights of minorities, including the Hazaras.1317 The Hazaras made many gains during theperiod 2001-2021, they were represented politically and in the bureaucracy, and the educationlevel among Hazaras rose sharply.1318 Various forms of discrimination against the group still
occurred, however,1319 such as discrimination within education and public sector
employment1320, and general ‘societal discrimination’1321. Ethnic discrimination was not limited
to Hazaras. As stated by Freedom House: ‘Ethnic-based patronage practices affect different
groups’ access to jobs depending on the local context.’1322
Generally, Hazara dominated parts of the country were among those areas that were the least
impacted by the internal conflict between the former Government and the Taliban in 20012021.1323 Beginning in 2016, ISKP has been conducting attacks targeting Hazaras and otherShia Muslims.1324

Barfield, T., Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History, 2012, p. 259
The Taliban regime 1996–2001 generally lacked international recognition and never controlled the wholecountry.
1312
Australia, Refugee Review Tribunal, Background Paper Afghanistan: Political Parties and Insurgent Groups 19782001, March 2014, url, pp. 28–29
1313
HRW, World Report 2002: Afghanistan, 2002, url, pp. 186–187
1314
HRW, Afghanistan: Massacres of Hazaras in Afghanistan, February 2001, url1315
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, pp. 215–216
1316
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, p. 215
1317
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, pp. 158–160
1318
Norway, Landinfo, Report: Hazaras and Afghan insurgent groups, 3 October 2016, p. 12, url; New York Times(The), Hazaras Hustle to Head of Class in Afghanistan, 3 January 2010, url
1319
AIHRC, Assessing the Extent of the Implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination in Afghanistan, 2018, p. 34, url
1320
MRG, Hazaras, n.d., url
1321
USDOS, Afghanistan 2019 Human Rights Report, 11 March 2020, url, pp. 39–40
1322
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2020 – Afghanistan, 2020, url
1323
Examples of such areas include the provinces Bamyan and Daykundi, see: EASO, Afghanistan Security
Situation, 28 September 2020, url, pp. 102–114
1324
UNAMA, Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict: Attacks against Places of Worship, Religious Leaders andWorshippers, 7 November 2017, url; UNAMA, Afghanistan – Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict – Annual
Report 2020, February 2021, url, pp. 43, 51, 55-56; UNAMA, Afghanistan – Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict– Midyear Update: 1 January to 30 June 2021, July 2021, url, pp. 5–6
1310
1311

132

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

6.4.2.

General situation under Taliban rule

For an overview of the situation of Hazaras after the Taliban takeover up until 1 December
2021, see the EASO COI report: Afghanistan – Country Focus (January 2022).
As was stated in the previous EASO report in January 2022, there seemed to be no policies inplace against the Hazara. The same source cited then (an Afghan human rights expert) also
described Taliban behaviour as contextual. An announced policy from the leadership does nottranslate into uniform implementation in the provinces; rather implementation depends on
local dynamics and those in charge there.1325 Another source, an anonymous organisation withpresence in Afghanistan, reiterated in May 2022 that there was no evidence of Taliban
policies specifically or directly targeting Hazaras.1326
Several sources believed that there was an anti-Shia and/or an anti-Hazara sentiment in atleast some circles of the Taliban.1327 Furthermore, there is a widespread belief within the
Hazara community that the Taliban holds an anti-Hazara sentiment.1328
In its 2021 report about the human rights situation in Afghanistan, the USDOS repeated what
had been reported in their previous annual reports1329: ‘Societal discrimination against Hazaras
continued in the form of extortion of money through illegal taxation, forced recruitment andforced labour, physical abuse, and detention.’1330 Without providing details, Freedom House
stated in their annual report on political rights and civil liberties in 2021, that the Taliban haveengaged in discrimination against members of ethnic minority groups, particularly Tajiks,
Hazaras, and Uzbeks.1331 An international humanitarian organisation consulted by the COI unitof DIS stated in March 2022 that it was hard to assess whether the level of societal
discrimination against Hazaras had changed after the Taliban takeover.1332 Only limited
information on concrete examples of discrimination of Hazaras in the referencing period could
be found. In an article by the Human Rights Watch from January 2022, a concrete example
was provided. A female Hazara healthcare worker in Ghazni Province who was interviewed
stated that Hazara staff members were ignored and threatened by the Taliban.1333 An
anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan interviewed for this report stated in
May 2022 that they were not aware of any specific instances of discrimination, other than thecases of forced evictions (see section 6.4.3. Incidents targeting Hazaras and Shia Muslims),
Afghan human rights expert, digital interview, 11 November 2021
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1327
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Recent events, December 2021, url, pp. 28, 53–54, 58; Adili, A. Y., programme
coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022; Afghan human rights expert,
digital interview, 11 November 2021; Chiovenda, A. (Dr.) and Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr.), professors at Zayed
University, digital interview, 9 November 2021; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population,
June 2022, url, p. 84
1328
Sky News, Afghanistan: Orphaned and terrified – persecuted Hazara minority whose hard lives have just got
harder under the Taliban, 31 January, url; Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen ettermaktovertakelsen, 9 March 2022, url, p. 25; AP, Despite mistrust, Afghan Shiites seek Taliban protection, 16
November 2021, url; Kabul Press, An Appeal to the World Concerning the Dire Situation of the Hazara Ethnic Groupin Afghanistan, 23 November 2021, url
1329
See e.g. USDOS, Afghanistan 2019 Human Rights Report, 11 March 2020, url, pp. 39–40
1330
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 50
1331
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2022 – Afghanistan, 28 February 2022, url
1332
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 55
1333
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
1325

1326

133

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

but that there was a history of discrimination of Hazaras and that they could ‘imagine’ that it
occurred to some extent, for example at checkpoints.1334
In December 2021, the Taliban held a series of meetings with Shia Hazara leaders fromvarious parts of the country. In the meetings, the Taliban promised to provide security for all
citizens and expressed a desire to avoid sectarian divisions.1335 The Taliban have reportedly
maintained communications with several political parties associated with the former republic
after their takeover. Among them the predominantly Hazara party Hezb-e Wahdat, despite thesenior leadership of the party having left Afghanistan.1336
According to an anonymous source with presence in Afghanistan, the main perpetrators of
atrocities against Shia Hazaras have been ISKP.1337 Human Rights Watch’s Patricia Gossman
stated in an interview held in May 2022 that one of the main concerns for the Hazara
community are violent attacks by ISKP, and the fact that the Taliban are unlikely to protect
them.1338
Ali Yawar Adili, a researcher associated with the AAN and the think tank New America, statedin an interview in May 2022 that people in the Hazara-dominated provinces of Bamyan andDaykundi were harassed and arrested due to baseless accusations of having worked for theformer government. There were instances where the Taliban have accused local people ofkeeping weapons, and then forced them to hand over the (non-existent) weapons. This has
led to people borrowing money to buy weapons that they could hand-over to the Taliban.1339
While this information could not be corroborated further, Afghan news outlet Hasht-e Subhreported about similar occurrences in Samangan in May 2022.1340 In February 2022, theTaliban reinforced its military presence in Bamyan, a Hazara dominated province1341, bysending 1 500 troops to the province. A spokesperson for the de facto security forces claimed
that the reinforcement was a response to ‘foreign gangs’ trying to destabilize the province,
without specifying further.1342 No more detailed information about the reinforcements could befound.
An international humanitarian organisation consulted by DIS stated in March 2022 that the
Taliban sought to impose a culture of fear among the Hazaras, but that it was generally more
about a threat of violence rather than acts of violence. The situation was reported to be worse
in predominantly Hazara provinces such as Bamyan than elsewhere, according to the source
consulted by the DIS.1343
Experts within the international community have raised concerns about the situation of the
Hazara community following the Taliban takeover. In a letter dated 26 May 2022 to theRepresentatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 51
1336
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 38
1337
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1338
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1339
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1340
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forces Female Officers to Buy Them Guns or Face Consequences, 29 May 2022, url
1341
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Hazara In Afghanistans Bamiyan Region Fear Repeat Of Taliban Atrocities, 31 July 2021, url
1342
Salam Watandar, 1500 fresh troops deployed to Bamyan, 22 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, Groups Seek to
Destabilize Bamiyan, Says Commander, 21 February 2022, url
1343
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 55
1334

1335

134

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSPresident of the UN Security Council, the chair of the Security Council Committee, establishedpursuant to resolution 19881344, expressed concerns with regard to the Shia Hazara
community: ‘The Taliban might not expend effort preventing attacks that do not target them,
particularly if they advance Taliban interests. Attacks on Shia Hazara do not offend the Taliban
and may be exploited by them as proof they are needed for counter-terrorism and that they, inturn, need international assistance for this.’1345 In a statement in January 2022, a large group of
experts appointed by the UN Human Rights Council criticised the Taliban for their treatment of
women and minorities. The experts expressed concern over ‘the reports of extrajudicial
killings and forced displacement of ethnic and religious minorities, such as the Hazara, which
would suggest deliberate efforts to target, ban, and even eliminate them from the country’.
Furthermore, they stated that the far-reaching discrimination of women was exacerbated incases of women from ethnic minorities, such as the Hazara.1346
As mentioned in section 6.4. Hazaras and other Shia groups, Hazaras were reported to be
meagrely represented at the national political level. According to Ali Yawar Adili, the Taliban
were keen to showcase the existence of Hazara representation to appease the international
community, but he called it symbolic acts that has not translated into any real representationof Shia’s or Hazaras, neither at the national level, nor the local level.1347 A source consulted for
the EASO report in January 2022 expressed a similar viewpoint.1348 Under the years of the
Republic (2001-2021), Hazara-dominated provinces such as Daykundi and Bamyan, had somelevel of political autonomy and Hazara representatives governed at both the provincial anddistrict level. Since the Taliban takeover, the local administration in those provinces have been
run by the Taliban, who installed mainly Pashtuns as office holders. There were some Hazaras
on the local level working with the Taliban, however.1349 The Taliban governors of Bamyan andDaykundi were Pashtuns, as of May 2022.1350 According to an article from November 2021,
however, there were several Hazaras holding posts at the provincial level. Those Hazara
officeholders joined the Taliban a long time ago and were not widely recognized within the
Hazara community.1351 According to an anonymous representative of an internationalorganisation in Afghanistan consulted by DIS in March 2022, some of the Taliban foot soldiersin Bamyan and Daykundi are Shia Muslims.1352
Mawlawi Mehdi, one of the few Hazaras in the Taliban ranks, was ousted from his position ashead of intelligence in Bamyan in May 2022.1353 Mehdi gained attention in 2020 when the
Taliban appointed him shadow district governor for the Balkhab district in the Province of SarResolution 1988 (2011) established a committee of the UN Security Council to oversee the sanctions regime
targeting the Taliban: UN Security Council, Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988
(2011), n.d., url
1345
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022,
url, p. 19
1346
UN News, Experts decry measures to steadily erase Afghan women and girls from public life, 17 January 2022,
url
1347
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1348
Chiovenda, A. (Dr.) and Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr.), professors at Zayed University, digital interview, 9 November
2021
1349
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022;
Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr), professor at Zayed University, digital interview, 9 November 2021
1350
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1351
AP, Despite mistrust, Afghan Shiites seek Taliban protection, 16 November 2021, url
1352
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 72
1353
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban to Clear Its Ranks From Non-Pashtun Commanders, 31 May 2022, url
1344

135

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

e Pul. He was the first known Hazara and Shia Muslim to be appointed to an official position
within the Taliban.1354 Mehdi assumed the position of head of intelligence in Bamyan after the
Taliban takeover.1355 According to media reports in June 2022, he has since taken up arms
against the Taliban and captured the Balkhab district (Sar-e Pul). The Taliban reportedly
responded by sending troops from other parts of the country to combat him.1356 In June 2022,
the Taliban were accused of carrying out extrajudicial executions and other human rights
abuses in conjunction with military operations against Mehdi and his fighters in Balkhab. The
Taliban denied the accusations.1357 UNAMA and Amnesty International have expressed
concerns about the allegations.1358 However, Richard Bennett, the UN special rapporteur on
the situation on human rights in Afghanistan, commented on Twitter that verification of theallegations, regrettably, was ‘hampered by info blackout, internet cuts & denial of access tomedia & HR [human rights] monitors.’1359 According to news reports, AIHRC confirmed in June
2022, that the Taliban had killed civilians in an attack on the Balkhab district.1360
Sources consulted for the EASO COI report: Afghanistan – Country Focus (January 2022) did
not report on any significant Hazara’ based resistance against the Taliban.1361 In a blog post
about resistance groups in Afghanistan by the Swiss Institute for Global Affairs from April
2022, the institute mentions two Hazara-based resistance groups; ‘the Unknown Soldiers ofHazaristan’ and ‘the Freedom and Democracy Front’. The groups announced their existencein short videos on social media, but had since not made any news which, according to theinstitute, raised doubts whether the groups actually existed.1362 The Armed Conflict Location &Event Data Project (ACLED) had not recorded any violent incidents involving these groups
since the Taliban takeover up until 17 June 2022.1363

6.4.3.
(a)

Incidents targeting Hazaras and Shia Muslims
Land grabbing

Forced evictions of minority groups, including Hazaras, reportedly took place after the Taliban
takeover in August 2021, and were apparently facilitated or tolerated by the de facto
authorities.1364 The evictions took place in several locations in September and October 2021,
affecting Hazara communities in Helmand, Balkh, Daykundi, and Uruzgan provinces.1365 For
instance, according to UNAMA/OHCHR, reportedly at least 400 Hazara families were evicted
and displaced in Daykundi Province. However, most of these families were reportedly allowed
Ruttig, T., The case of Mawlawi Mehdi and Balkhab District: Are the Taleban attracting Hazaras?, AAN, 23 May
2020, url
1355
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban to Clear Its Ranks From Non-Pashtun Commanders, 31 May 2022, url
1356
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Deploys Troops to Arrest Mawlawi Mehdi, 13 June, 2022, url
1357
VOA, Taliban’s Alleged Extrajudicial Killings in Afghan District Worry UN, Rights Groups, 27 June, url
1358
UNAMA News [Twitter], posted on: 29 June 2022, url; Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 27
June 2022, url
1359
UN Special Rapporteur Richard Bennett [Twitter], posted on: 27 June 2022, url
1360
ANI, Afghan Human rights Commission confirms reports of civilian shooting in Balkhab, 30 June 2022, url
1361
EUAA, Afghanistan Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 41
1362
Marty, F., J., Vive la Résistance in Afghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022, url
1363
ACLED, Data Export Tool, Incident data covering the period 16 August 2021–17 June 2022, extracted on 22
June 2022, url
1364
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 39, 64; HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Forcibly Evict Minority Shia, 22 October 2021, url
1365
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Forcibly Evict Minority Shia, 22 October 2021, url
1354

136

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

to return to their properties by February 2022.1366 According to analyst Ali Yawar Adili there
were people who left Daykundi for Kabul or other big cities who had not returned, as of May
2022, only those who were displaced within Daykundi had returned.1367 According to arepresentative of an anonymous organisation interviewed for this report there were ‘somemedia reports’ about destruction of houses of those who had been evicted, but theorganisation had not been able to confirm such reports.1368 Moreover, the legal disputeconcerning the evictions between the local Hazaras and Pashtuns in Daykundi was stillongoing in May 2022.1369 For more detailed description of land grabbing in 2021, see EASO
COI report: Afghanistan – Country Focus (January 2022).
Sources noted that there has been a long history of land and property conflicts in Afghanistan,and particularly provinces affected by the forced evictions in 2021.1370 For instance, according
to an anonymous organisation interviewed for the report, the above mentioned dispute in
Daykundi even dated back 40 years in time.1371 Gossman described that it is hard to single outthat the land grabbing particularly targets Hazaras without an understanding of the larger land
grabbing crisis in Afghanistan since at least 2001, and even predating that.1372 Ali Yawar Adili
noted that the opposite party from the Hazaras in the land conflicts have mainly been Taliban
supporters who have had connections that they can use anytime to evict Hazaras.1373 Dr.
Andrea Chiovenda and Dr. Melissa Kerr Chiovenda also stated that people in support of the
Taliban usually did not have a positive perception of the Hazaras. Thus, the Taliban’s strive togain support could be at the expense of the Hazaras, for example taking sides in favour of
non-Hazaras in land disputes. In the past, the Taliban usually took the side of Pashtun nomads
in land disputes.1374
Sources interviewed for the report said that they were not aware of other similar evictions
specifically targeting Hazaras than those in 2021 happening during the reporting period [1December 2021–30 June 2022].1375 Nevertheless, in Spring 2022 there were reports onconflicts between the Hazaras and Kuchi nomads, as the Kuchis brought their livestock to
pastures in the Hazara-claimed lands.1376 For instance, Hasht-e Subh news agency reported on
30 April 2022 about disputes between local Hazara residents and Kuchis in the two Behsud
districts of Wardak Province, after the Kuchis reportedly set their camp on Hazara-claimed
lands. According to the same article similar incidents were reported in Malistan and Jaghori
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 56
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1368
Representative of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 30 May 2022
1369
Representative of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 30 May 2022;
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1370
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022;
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; UN Human Rights
Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 56
1371
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 30 May 2022
1372
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1373
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1374
Chiovenda, A. (Dr.) and Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr.), professors at Zayed University, digital interview, 9 November
2021
1375
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; Representatives ofan anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1376
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022;
Hasht-e Subh, Tensions Escalate Between Nomads and Villagers in Behsud District, Maidan Wardak Province, 30
April 2022, url
1366
1367

137

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

districts of Ghazni Province earlier in the Spring 2022.1377 Pajhwok Afghan News reported on
25 June 2022 that the de facto authorities have stationed ‘security units’ in Wardak andBamyan Provinces in order to prevent conflict escalating between the Hazaras and theKuchis.1378 Sources interviewed for the report acknowledged that this dynamic between the
Hazaras and the Kuchis existed long before the Taliban takeover, but after the takeover there
has been a possibility that the Taliban supports the Kuchis in their demands.1379(b)

Major attacks and incidents

After the Taliban takeover of Kabul on 15 August 2021, there was a month-long break fromattacks targeting Hazaras in Dasht-e Barchi, a Hazara-dominated neighbourhood in west
Kabul. After 18 September 2021 when an attack was committed in Dasht-e Barchi, several
attacks have followed in Hazara-dominated areas of Kabul.1380 According to Gossman, theviolence against Shia Hazaras had already been rising for some time before the Taliban
takeover, and ‘it has certainly not been quelled by the takeover.’ 1381
Analyst Ali Yawar Adili described in an article that there have been two patterns of attacks
targeting Shia Hazaras after the Taliban takeover.1382 The first pattern was attacks mainly
targeting civilian passenger vehicles, particularly public transport minivans favoured by‘young, educated and professional Hazaras’ such as government employees, journalists, andNGO staff.1383 Furthermore, Adili mentioned that ‘Hazaras have been stopped and singled out
when travelling on the highways’. The second pattern was large-scale complex attacks, whichhave targeted Shia mosques, and hospitals and schools in Hazara dominated areas. Theselarge-scale attacks targeting Hazaras have mainly taken place in the cities of Kabul, Herat,
Mazar-e Sharif, Kandahar, and Kunduz.1384 Representative of an anonymous organisation withpresence in Afghanistan noted that the large-scale attacks took place in crowded placescausing significant civilian harm and targeting minorities.1385
ISKP has performed several attacks that have targeted in particular Shia minorities in urban
areas.1386 However, there was also a tendency that mass casualty attacks targeting places
such as hospitals and schools in Hazara neighbourhoods, were not claimed by anyone.
Because of that, analyst Ali Yawar Adili explained that he had three assumptions on theperpetrators of attacks against Hazaras. Adili’s primary suggestions were ISKP or some circles
within the Taliban who wanted to target the community to keep them under control, see themas apostates, or make them support the Taliban. On the other hand, there was also the
Hasht-e Subh, Tensions Escalate Between Nomads and Villagers in Behsud District, Maidan Wardak Province,
30 April 2022, url
1378
Pajhwok Afghan News, Security units being stationed to prevent Kuchi-Hazara clashes, 25 June 2022, url1379
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; Representatives ofan anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1380
Adili, A. Y., A Community Under Attack: How successive governments failed west Kabul and the Hazaras wholive there, AAN, 17 January 2022, url
1381
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1382
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1383
Adili, A. Y., A Community Under Attack: How successive governments failed west Kabul and the Hazaras wholive there, AAN, 17 January 2022, url1384
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1385
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1386
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 18
1377

138

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

possibility that some anti-Taliban elements used the attacks as an opportunity to incite theHazaras against the Taliban.1387
Representative of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan stated that, while
the mass casualty attacks against Hazaras were not, in their knowledge, committed by the
Taliban but by ISKP, the Taliban’s ability to prevent these attacks happening could bequestioned. The source did not believe that the Taliban would have an interest in facilitatingor silently approving these attacks. Instead, the representative believed that the Taliban wasprobably quite distressed about the attacks, because they show that there is a certain lack ofcontrol when it comes to security.1388 Gossman stated that ‘one of the principal concerns of the
Hazara community is violence from ISKP’, while mentioning that there may be some violencealso conducted by the Taliban.1389 Gossman further described ISKP as ‘very decentralised’, andmany of its cells as urban based and operating without knowing what other cells were doing.
Therefore, it was ‘not surprising’ that sometimes unclaimed attacks followed the same pattern
as attacks claimed by ISKP.1390
Several attacks targeting Shia Hazaras took place during the reporting period.1391 On 10
December 2021, a series of explosions targeting passenger vehicles was reported in west
Kabul. The first attack hit a minivan in front of a building for large religious and politicalgatherings in Dasht-e Barchi, called Shahid Mazari Musalla. The second explosion occurred
later the same day in Mazari Square in Pul-e Sokhta area and a third one in Dehburi area. AAN
reported that a representative of the de facto authorities told reporters that two civilians had
been killed and three others wounded in the attack targeting a minivan in Dasht-e Barchi, andone other civilian was wounded in one of the explosions in the area. ISKP claimed
responsibility for the attacks.1392 On 25 December 2021, an assailant attacked the Imam Ali
Shia mosque in Kandahar City wounding the mullah of the mosque and three others with aknife. AAN stated that the de facto authorities reportedly arrested the assailant andinvestigations were underway.1393 Another attack targeting a minivan was reported in the cityof Herat on 22 January 2022, in which at least six or seven people were killed and nine or tenothers wounded.1394 It took place in Herat’s Haji Abbas, which is described as a Shia Hazaraneighbourhood.1395 According to Reuters, the attack was later claimed by ISKP.1396

Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1389
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1390
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1391
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 18; Diplomat (The), It Doesn’t Matter If We Get Killed, 27 May 2022, url
1392
Adili, A. Y., A Community Under Attack: How successive governments failed west Kabul and the Hazaras wholive there, AAN, 17 January 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Two Killed, Four Wounded After Blasts Hit Kabul Shi’ite
Neighborhood, 10 December 2021, url
1393
Adili, A. Y., A Community Under Attack: How successive governments failed west Kabul and the Hazaras wholive there, AAN, 17 January 2022, url
1394
Al Jazeera, Several killed in bus blast in western Afghanistan, 22 January 2022, url; Reuters, Islamic State
claims responsibility for attack in Herat, Afghanistan, 23 January 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, ISKP Claims
Responsibility for a Deadly Attack in Herat, 24 January 2022, url
1395
Hasht-e Subh, ISKP Claims Responsibility for a Deadly Attack in Herat, 24 January 2022, url
1396
Reuters, Islamic State claims responsibility for attack in Herat, Afghanistan, 23 January 2022, url
1387

1388

139

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Analyst Ali Yawar Adili explained that ‘a second wave’ of attacks after the Taliban takeover
started in April 2022.1397 On 2 April 2022, an explosion killed 5 and injured 23 others in the
Hazara-dominated Jibraiel Township in Injil District, Herat Province. ISKP claimed
responsibility for the explosion.1398 On 19 April 2022, two bomb blasts at Abdul Rahim Shahid
high school in Kabul’s Dasht-e Barchi neighbourhood killed at least six people and wounded
more than 20 others.1399 However, the reliability of these casualty figures has beenquestioned; Mohammad Mohaqiq, the leader of the Hezb-e Wahdat, said to Hasht-e Subhnews agency that up to 126 were killed and 73 others were wounded in the blasts.1400 There
was no immediate claim of responsibility for the attack, although many articles commented
that ISKP has previously claimed similar attacks in Dasht-e Barchi.1401 On 21 April 2022, at least
31 people were killed and 87 wounded in an explosion carried out using ‘a remotely
detonated booby-trapped bag’ targeting a Shia Mosque in Mazar-e Sharif during prayers. ISKP
claimed responsibility for the attack.1402 The mosque targeted reportedly belonged to theHazara community.1403 On 26 April 2022, five Hazara coal mine workers were robbed andkilled by unidentified gunmen in Samangan Province while they were travelling to Balkh
Province.1404 According to Adili, another mine worker was killed later the same day, while thefive others were shot on the site.1405 On 28 April 2022, a series of two IEDs targeted civilian
vehicles in Mazar-e Sharif. The estimates of causalities ranged from nine to 11 killed and 13 to
18 injured.1406 The attack was claimed later by ISKP. According to a de facto police
representative quoted by Khaama Press, the attacks were ‘apparently’ targeting Shias.1407
According to Hasht-e Subh news agency, the explosions took place in Hazaraneighbourhoods, the first near the Imam Ali Shrine and the second in the Sajjadia area.1408 On
30 April 2022 an attack targeting a minivan in Kabul killed three and wounded two others. The
attack occurred in Police District 3 of Kabul,1409 which is a Shia and Hazara-majority area.1410
According to RFE/RL, the attack was claimed by ISKP.1411 On 25 May 2022 another series ofattacks targeting three minibuses in Mazar-e Sharif was claimed by ISKP. The blasts killed at

1397
1398

Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
Hasht-e Subh, The Death Toll of Explosion in Jibraiel Townhship, Anjil District, Herat Rises to Five, 6 April 2022,

url
New York Times (The), Blasts at Schools in Shiite Area of Kabul Kill at Least 6, 19 April 2022, url; BBC News,
Kabul blasts kill six and wound 20 at boys' school, 19 April 2022, url
1400
Hasht-e Subh, Suicide Attacks on Hazara Community Escalate Alarmingly As Taliban Rejects ISKP Threat in
Afghanistan, 29 April 2022, url
1401
New York Times (The), Blasts at Schools in Shiite Area of Kabul Kill at Least 6, 19 April 2022, url; BBC News,
Kabul blasts kill six and wound 20 at boys' school, 19 April 2022, url
1402
BBC News, Afghanistan: Blood and fear everywhere after deadly IS blast, 21 April 2022, url
1403
Hasht-e Subh, Mohaqiq Considers Taliban to Be Accountable for Recent Brutal Attacks on Hazara Community,
27 April 2022, url
1404
Khaama Press, Five Coal Miners gunned Down in Samangan province, 27 April 2022, url
1405
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1406
Hasht-e Subh, Suicide Attacks on Hazara Community Escalate Alarmingly As Taliban Rejects ISKP Threat in
Afghanistan, 29 April 2022, url; Khaama Press, ISIS Claims Responsibility for Twin Blasts in Mazar-e-Sharif, 29 April
2022, url
1407
Khaama Press, ISIS Claims Responsibility for Twin Blasts in Mazar-e-Sharif, 29 April 2022, url
1408
Hasht-e Subh, Suicide Attacks on Hazara Community Escalate Alarmingly As Taliban Rejects ISKP Threat in
Afghanistan, 29 April 2022, url
1409
Hasht-e Subh, Blast Hits a Bus in Western Kabul, Killing 3 Women and Injuring 2 Others, 1 May 2022, url
1410
Foschini, F., Kabul Unpacked: A geographical guide to a metropolis in the making, AAN, 19 March 2019, url, p. 7
1411
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Islamic State Claims Responsibility For Afghanistan Bus Bombing, 1 May 2022, url
1399

140

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

least 10 and wounded 15 others.1412 According to a Taliban spokesman interviewed by the AP,
all the victims were Shias.1413
Various sources also stated that the attacks against Shia Hazaras were challenging the
Taliban’s narrative to provide security to all Afghans, why they might have wanted to tone
down or even conceal the nature of these attacks.1414 Gossman stated that ISKP posed a verysignificant threat to the Taliban’s ability to uphold control, and referred to the Taliban
constantly saying that they had defeated ISKP, ‘but the more they say it, the more obvious it isthey have not.’ 1415 The Taliban have also restricted journalists’ access to sites of attacks andinstructed hospitals not to reveal the numbers of casualties.1416 Ali Yawar Adili also stated thatthe Hazara community has called for investigations of these attacks, but there has been no
one to investigate them.1417

6.4.4.
(a)Other Shia groups
Background

There are two main Shia communities in Afghanistan: the mainstream Shia branch Ithna
Ashariya (‘the Twelvers’)1418 and the smaller Ismaili branch (‘the Seveners’)1419.1420 As is the casewith the Twelvers,1421 the Ismailis are also primarily Hazara. Most of the Ismailis live in thenortheast of the country, in the provinces of Baghlan and Badakhshan.1422 According to
Analyst Ali Yawar Adili, there are also Ismailis living in other provinces, such as Kabul, Bamyan,
Kunduz, Takhar and Parwan.1423
There are some Shia Tajiks and Pashtuns in the country,1424 even though these two ethnic
groups are predominantly Sunni.1425 Renowned American anthropologist Louis Dupree has

France 24, Four bombs kill at least 12 in Afghanistan, 25 May 2022, url
AP, Blast in Kabul mosque, IS bombs in north Afghanistan kill 14, 25 May 2022, url
1414
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022;
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022;
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1415
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1416
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 18
1417
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1418
The Twelvers recognise twelve imams after the Prophet. The Twelfth Imam, Imam Mahdi, is believed to be in astate of hiding and will return to the world, close to the day of Judgement.: Larsson, G. and Thurfjell, D., Shiamuslimer i Sverige – en kortfattad översikt, 2013, url, p. 14
1419
The Ismailis are sometimes called Seveners and they originally split from the main stream Twelvers because of adisagreement over the seventh Imam. The Ismailis of Afghanistan belong to the Nizari branch of Ismailism andrecognize the living prince Karim al-Husayni as their Agha Khan (spiritual leader) and 49th Imam. Sweden, Swedish
Migration Agency, Lifos, Afghanistans ismailiter – en shiaminoritet, 20 June 2017, url, pp. 4, 6
1420
GlobalSecurity.org, Afghanistan – Religion – Shia, 17 August 2012, url; SAK, Förstå Afghanistan, 2018, p. 179
1421
EASO, Afghanistan: Individuals targeted by armed actors in the conflict, December 2017, url, p. 53
1422
SCA, Religion in Afghanistan, n.d., url; Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with
AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1423
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1424
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, pp. 3–4; SCA, Religion in Afghanistan, n.d., url1425
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State, 2017, pp. 3–4
1412
1413

141

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

furthermore pointed out the Qizilbash, the Farsiwan and some of the Pamiris as groups thatadhere to Shia Islam in Afghanistan.1426
The Qizilbash are Dari-speakers of Turkish descent, primarily populating urban centres.1427 In
Kabul, they are concentrated in the old city. Chindawal, in Police District 1, is traditionally a
Qizilbash area. Many Qizilbash still live there,1428 as well as in Murad Khani in Police District
2.1429The Farsiwan (meaning ‘Farsi speakers’) have principally lived near the border to Iran and insouthern and western Afghan towns, according to Dupree. In literature, they have, often
mistakenly, been referred to as Tajiks.1430 Dr. Fabrizio Foschini, analyst for the AAN, noted inAugust 2018 that the Farsiwan nowadays mostly fall within the category of ‘Tajik’, apart fromthe ones that adhere to Shia Islam.1431 According to Dr. Foschini, the term ‘Farsiwan’, more thanbeing an ethnonym used by members of a group to define themselves, is a category into
which Pashtun-speakers (and following them, foreign observers) have lumped together
different social groups and separate communities living in various parts of the country. There
are for instance Dari/Farsi-speaking communities in the heartland of the Pashtun people, suchas Paktia, Paktika, and Kandahar that are labelled ‘Farsiwan’ by their Pashtun neighbours. In
Herat, on the other hand, there has been a long time Shia-Sunni divide between the
Dari/Farsi-speakers, and the Herati Sunnis tend to identify as Tajiks while the Herati Shia do
not necessarily identify as Farsiwan even though others may label them that.1432
The Pamiris have also been referred to as ‘mountain Tajiks’, according to Dupree in his book
Afghanistan from 1997.1433 They primarily live in the mountainous areas of Badakhshan
province.1434 Some of them are Ismaili Shia while others are Sunni, according to Dupree.1435
Analyst Ali Yawar Adili stated in May 2022 that there was a contemporary struggle amongsome Tajik Ismailis in Badakhshan as they wanted to reintroduce themselves as ‘Pamiris’. The
Pamiris were not mentioned as an ethnic group in the 2004 constitution, but the Pamiri
language was, and this has probably created an incentive for their current struggle according
to Adili.1436
In addition to the Hazara and Tajik Ismailis there is also a small number of Pashtun Ismailis insome parts of the country, according to Adili.1437 More information about these Pashtun Ismailis
could not be found within the scope of this report.

Dupree, L., Afghanistan, 1997, pp. 59–61
Barfield, T., Afghanistan. A Cultural and Political History, 2012, p. 29; Dupree, L., Afghanistan, 1997, p. 59
1428
Representative of an international NGO (a), digital interview, 31 May 2022; Foschini, F., Kabul Unpacked: Ageographical guide to a metropolis in the making, AAN, 19 March 2019, url, p. 5
1429
Foschini, F., Kabul Unpacked: A geographical guide to a metropolis in the making, AAN, 19 March 2019, url, p. 6
1430
Dupree, L., Afghanistan, 1997, p. 59
1431
Foschini, F., Hitting Gardez: A vicious attack on Paktia’s Shias, AAN, 18 August 2018, url
1432
Foschini F., AAN analyst, email, 9 June 2022.
1433
Dupree, L., Afghanistan, 1997, p. 61
1434
Dupree, L., Afghanistan, 1997, p. 61; Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with
AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1435
Dupree, L., Afghanistan, 1997, p. 61
1436
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1437
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1426
1427

142

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSAnother group in Afghanistan that may1438 adhere to Shia Islam is the Sadat (singular Sayyed).
According to Landinfo, the Sadat do not generally seem to be categorised as a specific ethnic
group but rather as part of the majority people in the areas where they live.1439 However, someyears ago, Sadat tribal elders called on then President Ashraf Ghani to make it possible for all
ethnic groups in the country, including Sadat, to have their ethnicity stated in the National
identity card.1440 The Sadat claim descent from the family of the Prophet,1441 and their claimed
ancestry usually gives them a certain religious importance. They have often provided religious
leadership for other Shias.1442

6.4.5.

Targeting of other Shia groups

As a majority of the Shia Muslims in Afghanistan belong to the Hazara ethnic group, theHazaras have been the main victims of sectarian targeting against Shias.1443 The targeting has
not been limited to Hazaras, however. Other Shia groups have also become victims oftargeted attacks, both before and after the Taliban takeover.1444 For instance, some of thesectarian attacks against Shia Muslims have been carried out in areas that are not Hazara
dominated.1445 According to Adili, the victims of the publicised attack on a Shia mosque in
Kandahar in October 2021 were not primarily Hazaras.1446 The targeted mosque in Kandahar
was reported to be a place frequented by Qizilbash as well as Shias of other ethnicities.1447 An
example of an attack targeting non-Hazara Shiites that took place before the Taliban takeoveris the attack against a Shia Mosque in Gardez, Paktia in 2018. ISKP claimed the attack and thetarget was a small community of Shia Sadat, living in the outskirts of Gardez. 1448 UNAMA,
however, did not specify the group affiliation in its reporting about civilian casualties from this
attack,1449 indicating that specific Shia group affiliation of victims has not always been specified
in reports on sectarian attacks.1450
Different sources assessed ISKP to be the main perpetrator behind the sectarian violenceagainst Shias in Afghanistan.1451 ISKP claimed many of these attacks,1452 and their intention to
According to Afghan writer Hafizullah Emadi, as referred to by Landinfo in 2015, Sadat can be Shia as well as
Sunni.: Landinfo, Afghanistan: Sadat/sayyed, 4 September 2015, url, p. 1
1439
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Sadat/sayyed, 4 September 2015, url, pp. 1-2
1440
TOLOnews, Government Has No Legal Authority to Scrap Our Identity: Sadat Elders, n.d., url
1441
Foschini, F., Hitting Gardez: A vicious attack on Paktia’s Shias, AAN, 18 August 2018, url; NPS, Ethnic Identity andGenealogies, Website updated March 2017, url
1442
Foschini, F., Hitting Gardez: A vicious attack on Paktia’s Shias, AAN, 18 August 2018, url
1443
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1444
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1445
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1446
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1447
Open Democracy, Kunduz to Kandahar: two explosions, one wounded community, 21 October 2021, url
1448
Foschini, F., Hitting Gardez: A vicious attack on Paktia’s Shias, AAN, 18 August 2018, url
1449
UNAMA, Afghanistan Annual Report on Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict: 2018, 23 February 2019, url, p.
24
1450
Other examples include the following reports: UNAMA, Afghanistan – Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict
Midyear Update: 1 January to 30 June 2021, July 2021, url, p. 5; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12
April 2022, url, p. 50; Al Jazeera, At least 16 killed as explosions rock Afghan cities, 21 April 2022, url
1451
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkerhetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 43; Representatives of an anonymous organisation withpresence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022; Representative of an international NGO (a), digitalinterview, 31 May 2022
1452
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022;
HRW, Afghanistan: Surge in Islamic State Attacks on Shia, 25 October 2021, url
1438

143

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

target Shias from ‘Baghdad to Khorasan’ has been stated in Telegram channels run by theIslamic State.1453 ISKP consider Shia Muslims to be apostates and, hence, a legitimate target
for killing.1454

6.5.

Tajiks

6.5.1.

Background

For a large part of history, the term Tajik has been ambiguous in the context of Afghanistan.1455
According to Professor Barnett Rubin, an expert on Afghanistan, the term Tajik has beenvaguely defined historically. During the soviet occupation, the term Tajik came to refer to ‘allsettled, Persian [Dari]-speaking, nontribal populations’. There are, however, Pashto-speaking
Tajiks in Pashtun areas, and for example Persian-speaking Pashtuns in Tajik areas.1456 The
Tajik identity was generally strengthened as the mujahidin groups that arose in opposition to
the Soviets took on an ethnic character.1457 According to scholar Ryan Brasher, the term ‘Tajik’and other related terms have often been used to describe ‘the other’ in Afghanistan.1458
Historically, the Tajiks have distinguished themselves as a sedentary population, rather thanbeing nomadic.1459 Unlike Pashtuns and many other ethnic groups in Afghanistan, the Tajik
community lacks a tribal structure.1460 A majority of the Tajiks are Sunni Muslims, but there arealso those adhering to the Shia branch of Islam (see section 6.4.4. Other Shia groups).1461
Tajiks live in various areas of the country, but are mainly concentrated in northern, northeastern and western Afghanistan, and in and around Kabul.1462 Several provinces are believed
to have a majority Tajik population: Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Kapisa, Panjsher, Parwan
and Samangan.1463 Furthermore, there are at least sizeable Tajik populations in several otherareas, such as Kabul (both the province and the city), Balkh, Ghor, Takhar, and Herat

Adili, A. Y., A Community Under Attack: How successive governments failed west Kabul and the Hazaras wholive there, AAN, 17 January 2022, url
1454
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Wages Deadly Crackdown On Afghans Salafists As War With IS-K Intensifies, 22
October 2021, url; CSIS, Backgrounder: Islamic State Khorasan (IS-K), 9 November 2018, url, p. 3; France 24, What is
the Islamic State threat in Afghanistan?, 26 August 2021, url
1455
Brasher, R., Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan andTajikistan, in Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 2011, Vol. 55, Borders and Belonging (2011), url), p. 104
1456
Rubin, B. R., The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2002, p. 30; Rzehak, L., The Persian Dialect of the KandahariPashtuns in Afghanistan, 2015, url, p. 160
1457
Brasher, R., Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan andTajikistan, in Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 2011, Vol. 55, Borders and Belonging (2011), url, pp. 112–113
1458
Brasher, R., Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan andTajikistan, in Berkeley Journal of Sociology, 2011, Vol. 55, Borders and Belonging (2011), url, pp. 111-112
1459
Britannica, Tajik people, n.d., url; NPS, Panjsher Provinical Overview, March 2017, url
1460
MRG, Tajiks, n.d., url
1461
MRG, Tajiks, n.d., url
1462
MRG, Tajiks, n.d., url
1463
UNDP, Provincial Profile – Badakhshan, October 2006, p. 1, url; NPS, Badghis Provincial Overview, n.d., url; NPS,
Baghlan Provincial Overview, March 2017, url; Vadsaria, N., Tajik Hope: Reflections on Engaging Women in Kapisa
Province, 25 March 2013, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: The undefeated Panjshir Valley - an hour from Kabul, 26
August 2021, url; Pattanaik, S. S., Ballot Box Distress and Future of Afghanistan, 30 July 2014, url; NPS, Samangan
Provincial Review, March 2017, url
1453

144

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS(especially Herat City).1464 Tajiks usually identify with their place of residence or birth rather
than a tribe.1465 Hence, terms such as Panjshiri, Badakhshi, Kabuli and Herati are used todenote Tajiks from Panjsher, Badakhshan, Kabul and Herat, respectively.1466
During the civil war in the early 1990’s, the fighting took on an ethnic character due to theethnic profile of the various mujahedin factions, resulting in ‘ethnic hatreds’. 1467 The main
political and armed organisation associated with the Tajik population at that time was Jamiat-e
Islami and the affiliated organization Shura-e Nazar, led by Commander Ahmad Shah
Massoud.1468 When various mujahidin factions resurrected the so-called Northern Alliance in
opposition to the Taliban in 1996, Jamiat-e Islami was among the founding members of thealliance.1469 According to various sources, Tajiks/Jamiat-e Islami dominated the alliance.1470
Panjsher, the home of Massoud, was a centre for anti-Taliban resistance during the previous
Taliban regime (1996-2001).1471 After the fall of the previous Taliban regime (2001), leaders fromthe Northern Alliance came to dominate the new interim administration.1472 Panjshiri Tajiks
gained significant influence over the security sector. In the interim administration, theprominent Panjshiri Northern Alliance leader Yunous Qanouni became Interior minister.
Panjshiris headed 12 out of 15 police districts in Kabul, as well as all the directorates of thenational intelligence agency. A Panjshiri was appointed head of the army.1473 Persons
associated with Jamiat-e Islami and the Northern Alliance continued to hold important
positions in the Afghan government up until the fall of the Islamic republic in 2021. Examples
include former Vice President Amrullah Saleh and former Chief Executive Abdullah
Abdullah.1474
In conjunction with the Taliban takeover, a resistance formed.1475 UNAMA reported in June
2022, that ‘the presence of armed groups opposed to the Taliban expanded, although theirmembership and capabilities are difficult to assess’. Furthermore, UNAMA pointed to the NRF
as one of the two most active groups and identified Panjsher and Baghlan as the places withthe highest level of activity in the first half of 2022.1476 Ahmad Massoud, the son of Northern
Alliance Commander Ahmad Shah Massoud, has headed the NRF since its formation, andindividuals with a background in the Northern Alliance has joined, such as former Vice
Ali, O., You Must Have a Gun to Stay Alive: Ghor, a province with three governments, AAN, 4 August 2013, url;
Austria, Staatendokumentation, Afghanistan – Socio-Economic Survey 2021, 12 January 2022, pp. 11–12, 22, url; Ali,O., The Non-Pashtun Taleban of the North (3): The Takhar case study, AAN, 29 July 2017, url
1465
Rubin, B.R., The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2002, p.30
1466
Hanley, R., Ethnic Violence, Impact on Afghanistan, 8 April 2011, url
1467
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 86
1468
MRG, Tajiks, n.d., url; Rubin, B.R., The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2002, pp. 234-235
1469
United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrations Services, Afghanistan: Background on the Anti-Talibangroup, the Northern Alliance, 14 December 1999, url
1470
MRG, Tajiks, n.d., url; O’Hanlon, M.E. [Op-ed], A preliminary verdict on Afghanistan Strategy, 5 October, 2021, url;
Asia Society, Barnett Rubin: In Afghanistan, A Vicious Cycle, n.d., url
1471
BBC News, Afghan resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May, url
1472
Asia Society, Barnett Rubin: In Afghanistan, A Vicious Cycle, n.d., url; Middle East Institute (the), What Went
Wrong after Bonn, December 2009, url; Guardian (The), The Afghan interim government: who's who, 6 December
2001, url
1473
SIGAR, Police in Conflict: Lessons from the U.S Experience in Afghanistan, June 2022, p. 37, url
1474
India Today, From spy to political leader: Amrullah Saleh, the braveheart of Panjshir, 19 August 2021, url; BBC
News, Who is Abdullah Abdullah? Afghanistan's three-times presidential contender, 27 September 2019, url
1475
Guardian (The), Afghanistan resistance fighters clash with Taliban in Panjshir valley, 3 September 2021, url
1476
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 17
1464

145

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

President Saleh.1477 Both Massoud and Saleh have since fled abroad.1478 Many of the NRF’s
fighters have come from the remnants of the former security forces1479 and were dominated by
Tajiks as of April 2022.1480 NRF has claimed to have their base in Panjsher Province,
predominantly inhabited by Tajiks.1481

6.5.2.

General situation under Taliban rule

No comprehensive information about the ethnic composition of the Taliban in predominantly
Tajik provinces could be found within the scope of this report. The de facto governor of
Baghlan was reportedly Tajik, as of March 2022.1482 The de facto governors of Badghis andKapisa are reportedly Pashtuns.1483 Initially, the Taliban appointed a local Panjshiri to thegovernorship of Panjsher, but he was replaced in June 2022 by a Pashtun from Helmand.1484
Information on the ethnicity of other Taliban appointed governors of Tajik majority provinces
could not be found. RFE/RL reported in January 2022 that tensions were building up between
mainly Pashtun fighters and Uzbek, Turkmen and Tajik communities in northern
Afghanistan.1485 The UN Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution
19881486 reported in May 2022 that southern Pashtuns had replaced several key Tajik andUzbek Taliban commanders in the north.1487
In May 2022, Human Rights Watch received a growing number of reports of reprisal killings
and attacks on civilians in areas associated with resistance groups (such as the NRF). The
killings and attacks on civilians have reportedly been a Taliban response on NRF attacks. In
May, Human Rights Watch had not been able to verify all the reports, but subsequently wasable to confirm a number of detentions of civilians apparently accused of supporting the NRF
or other resistance groups.1488 In June 2022, Human Rights Watch reported on their websitethat Taliban forces had engaged in the beating and arbitrary arrests of civilians in Panjsher
who were accused of supporting the NRF. Human Rights Watch concluded that this amounted
to collective punishment.1489 Citing local sources, BBC reported in May 2022 that civilians in
BBC News, Panjshir – the valley trying to hold off the Taliban, 2 September 2021, urlFrance 24, Afghan resistance has sanctuary in Tajikistan, but fighting Taliban a non-viable prospect, 4 October
2021, url
1479
VOA, Anti-Taliban Group Registers with US to Try to Build Afghan Resistance, 1 November 2021, url; BBC News,
Afghan resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May 2022, url; SIGAR Quarterly Report to theUnited States Congress, 30 April 2022, url, p. 70
1480
New York Times (The), Taliban Search Operation Echoes Resented U.S. Tactics, 2 March 2022, url; SIGAR,
Quarterly Report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, p. 70, url
1481
VOA, Anti-Taliban Group Registers with US to Try to Build Afghan Resistance, 1 November 2021, url
1482
Afghan Bios, Qari Bakhtiar Muaz, 21 March 2022, url1483
Afghan Bios, Maulvi Abdul Sattar Sabir, 10 February 2022, url; Afghan Bios, Qari Ehsanullah Baryal, 30 May
2022, url
1484
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Appoints New Pashtun Governor for Panjshir Province, 8 June 2022, url; EASO,
Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022, url, p. 16
1485
RFE/RL, Taliban's Arrest Of Ethnic Uzbek Commander Sparks Clashes In Northern Afghanistan, 29 January2022, url
1486
Resolution 1988 (2011) established a committee of the UN Security Council to oversee the sanctions regime
targeting the Taliban: UN Security Council, Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988
(2011), n.d., url
1487
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022,
url, p. 8
1488
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1489
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Torture Civilians in Panjshir: Collective Punishment Over Armed Group’s Actions Is
Unlawful, 10 June 2022, url
1477

1478

146

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Panjsher had been killed and arrested. Reportedly, fighting between the NRF and the Taliban
had erupted over a religious dispute. The Taliban had attempted to arrest a local cleric who
had disagreed with the Taliban over when Eid was to be celebrated. NRF fighters thenambushed Taliban fighters and the Taliban sent reinforcements. The victims appeared to havebeen killed in the Taliban’s search for NRF fighters. Furthermore, BBC reported similar
incidents taking place in adjacent Tajik-dominated areas in Baghlan and Takhar. The Taliban
denied the accusations.1490
UNAMA also recorded human rights violations of individuals suspected or accused of NRF
affiliation. In the reporting period 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, UNAMA recorded 18
extrajudicial killings, 54 instances of torture and ill-treatment, 113 arbitrary arrests anddetentions, and 23 incommunicado detentions. The majority of these cases took place inBaghlan and Panjsher provinces, ‘where NRF are known to be most active’ according to
UNAMA. The same source recorded arbitrary arrests of large groups of civilians in these areas
related to accusations of supporting NRF, which were carried out by the de facto authorities.
In the cases outlined as examples the Taliban arrested large groups of civilian men and someboys, some were released following mediation by community elders while others were kept in
detention.1491 Furthermore, UNAMA noted an increase in reported extrajudicial killings
individuals accused of affiliation with the NRF in the first half or 2022.1492 Moreover, UNAMA
reported that the Taliban had redeployed forces from the south to Panjsher, Baghlan andTakhar in the context of active engagements between the Taliban and resistance forces inthose provinces.1493
In June 2022, there were news reports about the forced evictions of residents in the districtsof Pol-e Hesar, Deh Salah and Andarab, in Baghlan province. Reportedly, the seized homes
were turned into military installations in many cases.1494
According to AAN analyst Martine van Bijlert, there were uncorroborated reports early on after
the Taliban takeover of young Panjshiri men being rounded up in Tajik dominated areas ofKabul.1495 In February and March 2022, the Taliban conducted house-to-house searches in
Kabul and other provinces.1496 The stated purpose was to arrest criminals and to confiscate
weapons.1497 According to a report by the New York Times, the Taliban were on the outlook
for persons connected to the armed resistance. Reportedly, the search operation was initially
focused on neighbourhoods in the North of Kabul city, mainly inhabited by ethnic Tajiks andwhere the flag of the so-called Northern Alliance was a common occurrence in the past.
BBC News, Afghan resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May, url
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 16
1492
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 33
1493
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 17
1494
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Accused Of Forced Evictions As Fighting Intensifies In Northern Afghanistan, 7 June
2022, url
1495
van Bijlert, M., The Focus of the Taleban’s New Government: Internal cohesion, external dominance, AAN, 12
September 2021, url
1496
New York Times (The), Taliban Search Operation Echoes Resented U.S. Tactics, 2 March 2022, url; Washington
Post (The), Taliban launches sweeping raids across Kabul, 27 February 2022, url; VICE News, Taliban Fighters Are
Conducting Door-to-Door House Searches, 3 March 2022, url
1497
Washington Post (The), Taliban launches sweeping raids across Kabul, 27 February 2022, url; VICE News,
Taliban Fighters Are Conducting Door-to-Door House Searches, 3 March 2022, url
1490
1491

147

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

According to the same news report, the Taliban forces only conducted cursory searches insome homes, while in other homes the search was performed more thoroughly and morebrutally. Reportedly, the more brutal searches were performed in ‘neighborhoods belonging to
ethnic minorities’.1498 A representative of an international NGO in Kabul, whose own house wassearched and who has intimate knowledge of the Khair Khana neighbourhood [inhabited
mainly by Tajiks], did not see any evidence of ethnic targeting during the house searches. All
houses in the source’s area were searched and in many cases it was done respectfully. The
Taliban did engage in harsh treatment in some instances but, as far as the source knew, thiswas only the case in homes to families with known links to e.g. criminality or oppositiongroups.1499 Commenting on the house searches in Kabul, Ali Yawar Adili stated that the Taliban
acted more harshly and engaged in harassment in Tajik dominated areas in northern Kabul.1500
An anonymous representative of an international organisation in Afghanistan consulted by DIS
stated in March 2022 that house searches were more thorough in Tajik homes and that it waspossibly linked to a perceived threat of a spring offensive by the NRF. The same source statedthat there was a higher level of perceived threat towards Panjshiris in Kabul at the time.1501
Other sources consulted by DIS stated that the Taliban treated Panjshiris with more suspicion
than Tajiks in general due to the connection between Panjsher and Panjshiris, and the NRF.1502
There have been allegations on social media that the Taliban ‘persecuted’ ethnic Tajiks askillings and other atrocities took place in Tajik dominated areas of the country. 1503 This claim
has also surfaced in some Afghan media outlets.1504 According to a representative of aninternational NGO in Kabul, the Taliban have engaged in killings and arrests of civilians in
Tajik-dominated areas in the northeast. The source specifically pointed to the provinces of
Badakhshan, parts of Baghlan (Andarab) and Parwan, Panjsher and Takhar. The source
believed that the purpose of the Taliban’s actions was to intimidate the local population sothat they would not support the NRF.1505 Without providing details, Freedom House stated intheir annual report on political rights and civil liberties in 2021, that the Taliban have engaged
in discrimination against members of ethnic minority groups, including Tajiks. 1506

New York Times (The), Taliban Search Operation Echoes Resented U.S. Tactics, 2 March 2022, url
Representative of an international NGO (a), digital interview, 31 May 2022
1500
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digital interview, 16 May 2022
1501
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, pp. 71–72
1502
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, pp. 84, 94
1503
BBC Monitoring, Briefing: Videos showing killings by Afghan Taliban cause outcry, 17 March 2022, url
1504
Hasht-e Subh, Deported Refugees in Islam Qala Border: Taliban Filters Refugees from Panjshir During theInvestigation, 10 May 2022, url
1505
Representative of an International NGO (b), digital interview, 1 June 2022
1506
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2022 – Afghanistan, 28 February 2022, url
1498

1499

148

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

6.6.

Other ethnic groups and religious minorities

6.6.1.

Sufis

Sufism1507 has existed in Afghanistan for almost as long as Islam itself, and many cities andtowns in Afghanistan have remained among the most important centres of Sufism for morethan a thousand years. Many Afghans, although not necessarily being Sufis themselves,
respect learnings of Sufism and believe that the Sufi elders possess a spiritual power, orkaramat, that enable them ‘to perform acts of generosity and bestow blessings.’1508 Sufism is
not a type of jurisprudence but a form of belief that put emphasis on inner contemplation ofIslam,1509 which is in sharp contrast to the Taliban’s and ISKP’s views of following literalinterpretation of Islam.1510 There are two major Sufi orders in Afghanistan, the Qadiri and the
Naqshbandi.1511 In addition to those, an article by Newlines Magazine mentioned that there are
the Chishti and the Suhrawardi orders ‘in Afghanistan and the wider region’.1512 The Qadiri
order has had followers in Pashtun tribes of eastern Afghanistan, while the Naqshbandi has
been spread out around Afghanistan.1513 The Chishti order originated near Herat.1514
During the Taliban rule in the 1990s the movement adopted policies that included bans ofseveral Sufi practices, such as playing music during their rituals, stormed their gatherings, andissued punishments to those involved in their activities. After being targeted, many Sufis thendecided to go into exile or hiding.1515 Nevertheless, an article by RFE/RL mentioned that some
Taliban members have been former followers of Sufism.1516 According to an article by Newlines
Magazine, after the Taliban takeover the movement has had a complex relationship with theSufi community, but the Taliban have not been openly hostile towards the community. Some
Sufi scholars have also publicly supported the Taliban. However, the Sufi elders who used tomove around in Kabul collecting alms and carrying out their rituals in public seem to havedisappeared from the streets after the Taliban takeover.1517 Nevertheless, ISKP considers Sufis
as ‘apostates’,1518 and according to RFE/RL, were believed to target them in order to ‘incite a
sectarian war and undermine Taliban rule’.1519

Sufism is a mystical form of Islam which followers are predominately Sunni Muslims, but there are also some
Shia Sufis. BBC News, Afghanistan: Kunduz mosque attacked during Friday prayers, 22 April 2022, url; NYT, Who
Are Sufi Muslims and Why Do Some Extremists Hate Them?, 24 November 2017, url
1508
Al Jazeera, The keeper of Afghanistan’s poetic past, 6 June 2021, url
1509
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fear Grips
Afghanistan's Sufi Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, url
1510
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fear Grips Afghanistan's Sufi Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, url
1511
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 14; South Asian Voices, The Political Role ofSufi Mystics in Afghanistan, 14 September 2021, url; Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1June 2022, url
1512
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url
1513
Rubin, B.R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, 2020, p. 14
1514
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url
1515
Schwmding, A., The Problem of Multiplicity: Deconstructing Sufism and the Taliban, Berkley Forum, 3 November
2022, url; South Asian Voices, The Political Role of Sufi Mystics in Afghanistan, 14 September 2021, url;
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fear Grips Afghanistan's Sufi Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, url
1516
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fear Grips Afghanistan's Sufi Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, url
1517
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url
1518
FP, Islamic State-Khorasan’s Reach Extends Far Beyond Afghanistan, 9 September 2021, url
1519
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fear Grips Afghanistan's Sufi Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, url
1507

149

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

At least two large-scale attacks targeting the Sufi community took place during the reporting
period. On 22 April 2022, a bomb attack targeting Khanaqa-e Malawi Sikandar Sufi mosque inKunduz killed at least 33 and wounded 43 others.1520 The attack was claimed by ISKP.1521 On
29 April 2022, an attack targeted the Khalifa Sahib Sufi Mosque in Kabul. The number ofcasualties were uncertain, but news agencies believed that more than 50 people died1522 and30 others were injured.1523 It was unclear whether the attack was a suicide attack or a bomb
explosion.1524 There was no immediate claim for the attack, but news agencies commented
that ISKP has committed similar attacks before.1525

6.6.2.

Baha’iInformation on Baha’is in Afghanistan was scarce, and the only recent sources which
mentioned them are reports by the US government. According to the USDOS, reliable
estimates of the amount of those belonging to the Baha’i community were not available, butthey were reportedly among the ethnic and religious groups constituting less than 0.3 % of the
Afghan population. In 2007 the then Supreme Court of Afghanistan ruled that the Baha’i faith
is distinct from Islam and a form of blasphemy. According to the ruling, Muslims who convert
to it were to be considered apostates. Baha’is have also been labelled ‘infidels’ by many
Muslims in Afghanistan.1526 USCIRF reported in April 2022 that Baha’is, among other religious
minorities, ‘practiced their faith in hiding due to fear of reprisal and threats from the Talibanand separately from the Islamic State Khorasan Province’. 1527 No information on targeting of
Baha’is could be found within the reporting period.

6.6.3.

Sikhs and Hindus

For a background on the history of the Sikh community in Afghanistan and information on
developments prior to 18 March 2022, see the EUAA COI Query Response about the situationof Sikhs in Afghanistan.
There was once a substantial Sikh community in Afghanistan, but it has diminished over thelast three decades.1528 Several consulted sources assessed the remaining Sikh and Hindu
communities to be few in number.1529 Citing civil society groups, the USDOS estimated thatapproximately 150 Sikhs and Hindus remained in Afghanistan at the end of 2021, compared to

BBC News, Afghanistan: Kunduz mosque attacked during Friday prayers, 22 April 2022, url
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url
1522
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Kabul Mosque Bombing Condemned; Higher Death Count Claimed, 30 April 2022, url
1523
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Kabul Mosque
Bombing Condemned; Higher Death Count Claimed, 30 April 2022, url
1524
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url
1525
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fear Grips
Afghanistan's Sufi Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, url
1526
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url
1527
USCIRF, Annual Report 2022 – Country Chapters: Afghanistan, April 2022, url, p. 12
1528
EUAA, COI Query Response – Afghanistan – Situation of Sikhs, 23 March 2022, url, p. 2
1529
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; Representatives ofan anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022; BBC News, Afghanistan
gurdwara attack: Sikhs say We don't feel safe, 18 June 2022, url; USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious
Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, pp. 2, 5, url; New York Times (the), Several Killed in Militant Attack on a Sikh
Temple in Afghanistan, 18 June 2022, url; Representative of an international NGO (a), digital interview, 31 May 2022
1520
1521

150

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

around 400 in the beginning of the same year.1530 Out of those, fewer than 50 were reported
to be Hindus. Reportedly, all of them were male and had their families in other countries.1531 At
the time of the Taliban takeover, there were fewer than 300 Sikhs left in Afghanistan andcommunity leaders estimated the number of Sikhs to be around 140 in June 2022.1532 Anotherreport from BBC from the same date, in contrast cited a community leader saying that there
were approximately 150 Sikhs left in Jalalabad alone, compared to an estimated 1 500 Sikhs
living there at the time of a publicized attack in 2018.1533 According to the USDOS, mostmembers of the small Sikh and Hindu communities resided in Kabul, but there were also
smaller numbers in Ghazni and other provinces.1534 As of 2022, there was only one functioning
Gurdwara1535 in Kabul, called Dashmesh Pita, located in the Kart-e Parwan neighbourhood.1536
In conjunction with the Taliban takeover, many Sikhs and Hindus sought resettlement outside
Afghanistan1537 and large parts of the remaining Sikh and Hindu communities have continued
to leave Afghanistan since then.1538
ISKP have conducted attacks against the Sikh and Hindu communities in Afghanistan in recent
years.1539 An armed attack was carried out on a Sikh Gurdwara in Kabul on 18 June 2022.1540 At
least two persons were killed – a Sikh worshipper and a member of the de facto security
forces, and seven others were injured.1541 An anonymous source cited by the New York Times,
however, claimed that six Sikhs were killed in the attack.1542 ISKP claimed the attack andfurthermore stated that the attack was a response to a political debacle in India, where apolitician previously had made remarks interpreted as an insult to the Prophet Mohammed.
The de facto security forces intervened and tried to protect the Gurdwara.1543 No further
information could be found on the occurrence of similar attacks against Sikhs or Hindus in thereferencing period.
After their takeover, the Taliban have promised to protect the rights of Sikhs and Hindus.1544
There have been concerns, however, in the Sikh and Hindu communities over their physicalsecurity since the Taliban takeover.1545 The USDOS cited Sikh community leaders as having
said ‘they believed the Taliban’s violent persecution of them would be inevitable.’1546 ThereUSDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 5
1532
BBC News, Afghanistan: Deadly explosion rocks Sikh site in Kabul, 18 June 2022, url
1533
BBC News, Afghanistan gurdwara attack: Sikhs say We don't feel safe, 18 June 2022, url
1534
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, p. 5, url
1535
Gurdwara is a Sikh place of worship.
1536
AFP, Afghanistan’s last Sikhs in a dilemma: To stay or leave, January 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: Deadly
explosion rocks Sikh site in Kabul, 18 June 2022, url
1537
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 10
1538
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url , p. 50; EUAA, COI Query Response,
Afghanistan – Situation of Sikhs, 23 March 2022, url, pp. 2-3; Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights
Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; Representative of an international NGO (a), digital interview, 31 May 2022
1539
EUAA, COI Query Response – Afghanistan – Situation of Sikhs, 23 March 2022, pp. 6–7, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan gurdwara attack: Sikhs say We don't feel safe, 18 June 2022, url
1540
BBC News, Afghanistan gurdwara attack: Sikhs say We don't feel safe, 18 June 2022, url
1541
Reuters, Islamic State claims attack on Sikh temple in Kabul that killed two, 20 June 2022, url
1542
New York Times (The), Several Killed in Militant Attack on a Sikh Temple in Afghanistan, 18 June 2022, url1543
Reuters, Islamic State claims attack on Sikh temple in Kabul that killed two, 20 June 2022, url
1544
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2
1545
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 12
1546
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 10
1530
1531

151

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

were reports in the fall of 2021 that armed Taliban members had harassed Sikhs at theircentral temple in Kabul.1547 Senior representatives of the Taliban met with Sikh and Hindu
community leaders in December 2021. The Taliban gave security assurances and welcomed
the communities to return to Afghanistan. The USDOS cited a Sikh meeting participant who
stated that the commitment seemed genuine and contrasted it with the situation during theprevious Taliban regime.1548
In its annual report on religious freedom for 2021, the USDOS reported that Sikhs and Hindus
faced verbal harassment from other members of society.1549

6.6.4.

Uyghurs

The presence of foreign fighters such as the Uyghurs1550 in Badakhshan Province, bordering
China, can been traced back to 2014,1551 but information about their group affiliations andnumbers has been ambiguous over the years.1552 According to Sean R. Roberts, an associate
professor of George Washington University who has published a book on Uyghurs, there wasa small group of Uyghur fighters in Afghanistan also during the first Taliban rule in the late
1990s, but most of them were later expelled to China by the Taliban, while others weredetained by the US forces after the US invasion of Afghanistan in 2001.1553
In February 2022, UN sanction monitors reported of member states’ assessments of hundredsof fighters of the Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM/TIP) present in northern
Afghanistan.1554 According to the US Congressional Research Service (CRS), ETIM/TIP is an
insurgency group that seeks independency for the Muslim Uyghurs in western China.1555
However, according to Sean R. Roberts, it is highly questionable whether ETIM actually exists
as a distinct insurgency group, but the Chinese government labels them as a terrorist group as
they perceive Uyghur fighters in general as a potential threat to the Chinese government.
Nevertheless, Roberts recognises that there was still, as of 2020, some Uyghur fighters in
Afghanistan, although there was no reliable information about their numbers and locations.1556
In the time following the Taliban takeover, the de facto authorities seemed to have taken
China’s security concerns seriously, thus moving Uyghur militants from Badakhshan Province
and areas near the Chinese border to the provinces of Baghlan and Takhar in order to monitor
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 12; Economic Times(The), Afghanistan's Sikhs to make choice between converting to Islam or leaving country: Report, 22 October
2021, url
1548
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 12
1549
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, p. 2
1550
The Uyghurs are a mostly Muslim people speaking a Turkic language and primarily inhabiting the north-west
region of China. Roberts, S. R., The War on the Uyghurs: China’s Internal Campaign against a Muslim Minority,
2020, p. 7
1551
EASO, Afghanistan: Security situation, June 2021, url, p. 104
1552
Marty, F. J. and Callahan, T., Tilting at Windmills: Dubious US claims of targeting Chinese Uyghur militants in
Badakhshan, AAN, 19 March 2018, url1553
Roberts, S. R., The War on the Uyghurs: China’s Internal Campaign against a Muslim Minority, 2020, pp. 100,
109-1121554
UN Security Council, Twenty-ninth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 3 February2022, url, pp. 16–17
1555
US, CRS, Terrorist Groups in Afghanistan, 19 April 2022, url, p. 2
1556
Roberts, S. R., The War on the Uyghurs: China’s Internal Campaign against a Muslim Minority, 2020, pp. 11, 9095, 100, 241–242
1547

152

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

their activities. According to some reports, the Taliban’s effort to control these fighters is
instead pushing them towards ISKP.1557 When ISKP claimed an attack against a Shia mosque inKunduz in October 2021, they also stated that their bomber was a Uyghur Muslim and that theonslaught was aimed at targeting Shias as well as the Taliban because of their alleged
willingness to expel Uyghurs in response to Chinese demands.1558
Apart from the presence of Uyghur foreign fighters there was also a small Uyghur community
in Afghanistan, living in cities such as Kabul and Mazar-e Sharif,1559 and in Badakhshan
Province.1560 They are thought to number about 2 000-3 000 people, and many of them weresecond generation immigrants whose parents fled from China decades ago.1561 These Uyghurs
were Afghan citizens but their identity cards also stated that they were ‘Uyghurs’ or ‘Chinese
refugees’, which reportedly caused some worries within the community that they could beeasy to track if the Taliban should decide to do so.1562 After the Taliban takeover, theseUyghurs have expressed fears that they may be arrested by the Taliban and expelled toChina.1563 There have been reports of deportations of Uyghurs from Afghanistan to China over
the years and one case was confirmed by the Uyghur Human Rights Project1564 in 2014.1565
Apart from the Taliban’s removal of Uyghurs from areas near the Chinese border, information
about other targeting of Uyghurs by the Taliban or deportations to China could not be foundwithin the scope of this report.

6.6.5.

Ahmadiyya

The Ahmadiyya1566 movement is an Islamic messianic movement that emerged in British India
in the late 19th century. The Ahmadiyya community consider themselves to be Muslims, but are
widely seen as heretical by Sunnis and Shia alike.1567 Only limited information could be foundabout the Ahmadiyya community in Afghanistan.
USCIRF reported in 2022 that estimates of the size of the Afghan Ahmadiyya community
ranged from 450 to 2 500.1568 The USDOS estimated the number to be ‘in the hundreds’ at theCarnegie Endowment for International Peace, China’s Activities and Influence in South and Central Asia, 17 May
2022, url1558
Al Jazeera, Afghanistan: Dozens killed in suicide bombing at Kunduz mosque, 8 October 2021, url
1559
BBC News, Afghanistan’s Uyghurs fear the Taliban, and now China too, 27 August 2021, url; VOA, Uyghurs
From Afghanistan Fear Deportation to China, 1 September 2021, url
1560
VOA, Uyghurs From Afghanistan Fear Deportation to China, 1 September 2021, url
1561
BBC News, Afghanistan’s Uyghurs fear the Taliban, and now China too, 27 August 2021, url; New York Times(The), Afghan Uyghurs Fear Deportation as Taliban Cozy Up to China, 9 November 2021, url
1562
Uyghur Human Rights Project, Nets Cast from the Earth to the Sky, 2021, url, p. 16; New York Times (The),
Afghan Uyghurs Fear Deportation as Taliban Cozy Up to China, 9 November 2021, url
1563
BBC News, Afghanistan’s Uyghurs fear the Taliban, and now China too, 27 August 2021, url; VOA, Uyghurs
From Afghanistan Fear Deportation to China, 1 September 2021, url
1564
Uyghur Human Rights Project is an US-based human rights group that ‘promotes the rights of the Uyghur
people through research-based advocacy’. Uyghur Human Rights Project, Nets Cast from the Earth to the Sky,
2021, url, p. II
1565
Uyghur Human Rights Project, Nets Cast from the Earth to the Sky, 2021, url, p. 26; New York Times (The),
Afghan Uyghurs Fear Deportation as Taliban Cozy Up to China, 9 November 2021, url
1566
Ahmadiyya is sometimes referred to as ‘Ahmadi’.
1567
Australia, DFAT, Thematic Report Afghanistan Political and Security Developments August 2021 to January2022, January 2022, url, p. 14; USCIRF, Factsheet: Ahmadiyya Muslims, October 2021, url, p. 1
1568
USCIRF, Annual Report 2022, url, p. 13
1557

153

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

end of 2021 and reported that around 100 Ahmadiyya Muslims had left the country since the
Taliban takeover. According to the same report, the community was concentrated in Kabul.1569
According to USCIRF, Ahmadiyya Muslims have faced a long history of persecution in
Afghanistan and have neither been recognised by the Sunni nor Shia faith. Furthermore,
USCIRF stated that Ahmadiyya Muslims who express their faiths openly face direconsequences, including death, if discovered by the Taliban or ISKP.1570 Ahmadiyya Muslims
could not exercise their religion openly, neither before, nor after the Taliban takeover.1571
There were instances of targeted violence against the Ahmadi community in November andDecember 2021.1572 In its report on religious freedom in Afghanistan 2021, the USDOS
reported that the Taliban detained 28 members of the Ahmadiyya community in Kabul in
November and December 2021, falsely accusing them of being members of ISKP. According
to cited international Ahmadiyya organisations, the Taliban physically abused the detainees
and forced confessions. Some of them were reported to still be detained at the end of 2021.
Some of those who were released claimed that their release was conditioned. They were
instructed to repent their beliefs and attend a Taliban-led madrassa [Islamic religious
school].1573

6.6.6.

Salafists

Salafism1574 in Afghanistan can be traced back to the nineteenth century although it firstflourished during the anti-Soviet Jihadi era in the 1980s,1575 when Saudi Arabia among others
supported ‘salafisation’ of the Afghan mujahidin. Despite the efforts to teach and spread
Salafism, resistance from traditional religious leaders and communities largely confined Salafi
influence to a few enclaves in eastern and northern Afghanistan.1576
There are variants of Salafism ranging from ‘quietist Salafism’, which shuns politics and focus
on purity and preaching, to Jihadi-Salafism whose followers advocate for violent Jihad.1577
According to Afghanistan expert Borhan Osman the variants may overlap and those currently
representing the quietist tendency may have been jihadists in the past and vice versa.1578
When the Taliban came to power in the 1990s, they inherited a traditional hostility towards
Salafism. Consequently, Salafi teachings were banned, and the Taliban took other measures

USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, pp. 5, 22
USCIRF, Annual Report 2022, url, p. 13
1571
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, pp. 4, 20–22, url; USDOS,
Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 52
1572
Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview, 31 May 2022
1573
USDOS, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, url, pp. 1, 11
1574
Salafism is a sub-sect of Sunni Islam originating from Saudi Arabia in the eighteenth century. It preaches areturn to Islam as practised by the first generations of Muslims and reject Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) and otherinterpretations of Islam. USIP, Bourgeois Jihad. Why Young, Middle-class Afghans Join the Islamic State, June
2020, url, p. 6
1575
Hudson Institute, Making Sense of the Islamic State’s War on the Afghan Taliban, 25 January 2022, url
1576
USIP, Bourgeois Jihad. Why Young, Middle-class Afghans Join the Islamic State, June 2020, url, p. 6
1577
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, Salafism, 5 August 2016, url; USIP, Bourgeois Jihad. Why Young,
Middle-class Afghans Join the Islamic State, June 2020, url, p. 27
1578
USIP, Bourgeois Jihad. Why Young, Middle-class Afghans Join the Islamic State, June 2020, url, p. 27
1569
1570

154

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

to prevent its spread. This contributed to a strong resistance from Salafi communities in somepockets of eastern Afghanistan when the Taliban conquered their areas.1579
When ISKP emerged in Afghanistan in early 2015, Afghan Salafis were reportedly initially
positive believing that the group could strengthen Salafism in the country, at least in theeastern provinces Kunar and Nangarhar. This changed however due to the extremism andbrutal violence perpetrated by ISKP in Afghanistan, and the Salafi ulema called on Salafis todefect from ISKP’s ranks.1580 Even though the Afghan Salafi community has been a recruitment
ground for ISKP, many Salafis in the country were opposing the group. Despite this, theTaliban have generally acted harshly against Salafi communities since their takeover in August2021.1581 With the Taliban back in power, Afghanistan’s Salafis have faced ‘severe challenges
and insecurities’ according to analyst Abdul Sayed, due to their perceived ties to ISKP. One of
the most influential Afghan Salafi scholars, Shaikh Abu Obaidullah Mutawakil, was abductedby the Taliban soon after the takeover and later he was killed under unclear circumstances.1582
According to some analysts, the ISKP has tried to provoke the Taliban to pursue indiscriminate
security policies towards the Afghan Salafi communities to gain from this in the long run. This
has allegedly already resulted in ill-conceived policies of the Taliban, including collective
punishment and brutal targeting of Salafis suspected of ties to ISKP.1583 In Kunar Province, theTaliban governor closed down all Salafi mosques and madrassas. This caused a major
backlash in the local community and the Taliban leadership decided to take the governor
down and reverse his order.1584 Other sources also noted that there was ongoing targeting ofAfghan Salafis even though they may have nothing to do with ISKP. Salafi communities in theeast, in for example Nangarhar and Kunar, have been targeted. Although the numbers areunclear, the targeting has included both disappearances and summary executions.1585

USIP, Bourgeois Jihad. Why Young, Middle-class Afghans Join the Islamic State, June 2020, url, pp. 6-7
Jamestown Foundation, The Taliban’s Persistent War on Salafists in Afghanistan, 24 September 2021, url
1581
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkerhetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, p. 48
1582
Jamestown Foundation, The Taliban’s Persistent War on Salafists in Afghanistan, 24 September 2021, url
1583
Hudson Institute, Making Sense of the Islamic State’s War on the Afghan Taliban, 25 January 2022, url
1584
Giustozzi, A., The Taliban’s Homemade Counterinsurgency, RUSI, 4 January 2022, url
1585
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022; France 24, Fearstalks city in Islamic State's Afghan heartland, 21 January 2022, url
1579

1580

155

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

7.

Journalists and media workers

7.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

Numerous journalists fled from Afghanistan after the takeover or went into hiding, and theclosure of media outlets left thousands of journalists jobless, forcing many to find other
employment.1586 Salaries for journalists also reportedly decreased, one journalist claimed that
he earned a salary corresponding to around EUR 52, in contrast to the previous salaries ofjournalists before the Taliban takeover ranging from EUR 132–440.1587 According to AAN
analyst Ehsan Qaane, Afghan media was still, as of March 2022, impacted by financial
problems, as well as by restrictions imposed by the Taliban, and violence.1588 Statistics fromInternational Federation of Journalists (IFJ) and Afghanistan National Journalists’ Union (ANJU)
show that 2 735 journalists had lost their jobs as of February 20221589, while statistics from theAfghan Association of Free Journalists, as reported by Khaama Press, indicated that nearly
6 000 journalists had lost their jobs as of May 2022.1590
Most female media workers lost their jobs after the Taliban takeover.1591 According to RSF,
around 25 % of women journalists working at the start of August were still working as ofJanuary 2022.1592 Statistics from IFJ and ANJU similarly indicated that around 24.8 % of female
journalists were still working as of February 2022.1593 TOLOnews worked against the trend ofunemployment among female journalists by hiring women to fill in the gaps after staff
members were evacuated in August 2021, and by February 2022 TOLOnews had more
female than male journalists. 1594 According to media reports, many of Afghanistan’s provinces
completely lacked active female reporters.1595
After the takeover, many media outlets closed1596 mainly due to financial issues1597. Qaane
noted that it was difficult to estimate exactly how many media outlets had closed, as figures ofthe outlets existing before the takeover were not fully clear.1598 For instance, figures provided
by the Afghanistan Federation of Journalists and Media (AFJM) indicated that 507 media
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Severely Restrict Media, 1 October 2021, url; Columbia Journalism Review, What
happened to Afghanistan’s journalists after the government collapsed, 17 March 2022, url
1587
France 24, Thousands of Afghan journalists out of a job since Taliban takeover, 25 November 2021, url
1588
Qaane, E., Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to the Afghan
media?, AAN, 7 March 2022, url
1589
IFJ and ANJU, Statistics Report, February 2022, url, pp. 3–4
1590
Khaama Press, Afghan Reporter Goes Missing in Kabul Province, 28 May 2022, url
1591
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March 2022, url
1592
DW, Afghanistan: How press freedom has crumbled since the Taliban takeover, 7 January 2022, url
1593
IFJ and ANJU, Statistics Report, February 2022, url, pp. 3–4
1594
AP, Fear runs through Afghanistan's hazardous media landscape, 17 February 2022, url
1595
DW, Afghanistan: How press freedom has crumbled since the Taliban takeover, 7 January 2022, url; Qaane, E.,
Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to the Afghan media? , AAN, 7
March 2022, url
1596
New York Times (The), New Taliban Guidelines Stir Fear About the Future of Press Freedom, 23 September
2021, url
1597
Ariana News, Crippling economy closing Afghan media outlets, 11 October 2021, url; TOLOnews, Afghan Media
Face Budget Issues, Lack of Access to Information, 21 September 2021, url
1598
Qaane, E., Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to the Afghan
media?, AAN, 7 March 2022, url
1586

156

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

outlets had closed since the takeover until June 2022, including 38 television stations, 91
radio stations, 16 online media outlets, 10 news agencies, 11 media outlets and media content
providers, and 18 newspapers.1599 In contrast to these figures, statistics by IFJ and ANJU
indicated that already by February 2022, 318 outlets had stopped operating, including 51
television stations, 132 radio stations, 94 printing press outlets, and 41 online outlets.1600
Meanwhile, data from the Afghan Association of Free Journalists, as reported by Khaama
Press, indicated that 287 outlets had closed as of May 2022.1601
Immediately after their takeover, the Taliban claimed to be committed to media, and allowed
private media to continue their activities, but they also requested that Islamic values weretaken in account and urged Afghan media not work to against national values or unity.1602 In
September 2021, the Taliban issued guidelines for journalists, including rules against
addressing topics in conflict with Islam or ‘insulting national personalities’, and instructing
media to produce reports in coordination with the Taliban government’s media office.1603 On 2
February 2022, Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid stated that the Taliban had studied
the mass media law of the former government and found no issues with it.1604 According to
RSF this meant that the 2015 law remained in force.1605 Mujahid further stated that media
coverage should consider ‘national interests, Islamic values and national unity’, and that the
Taliban were working on re-establishing the Media Violation Commission to prevent”misunderstandings” and to take action against problems.1606 This commission was notestablished as of June 2022, according to UNAMA.1607 In March 2022, Mujahid claimed that
the Taliban were seeking foreign aid to support Afghan media outlets.1608 AP reported that
there seemed to be some room for critical reporting, referring to local media airing a clip ofTaliban fighters beating a former solder. A few days later the Taliban supreme leader,
Hibatullah Akhunzada ‘warned Taliban fighters against excesses, saying they would bepunished’.1609 On 21 May 2022, the Taliban MPVPV issued instructions for women presenters
to cover their faces while presenting on television. A spokesperson of the ministry told
TOLOnews that it was a final decision which they would not be willing to discuss.1610
The issued restrictions on media were vague, and difficult for media workers to follow inpractice.1611 According to OHCHR, the Taliban’s restrictions were enforced unevenly across thecountry, especially on provincial level.1612 Journalists furthermore received directives fromdifferent parts of the Taliban’s de facto authorities (including the Taliban Ministry of Culture
and Information, the Taliban GDI, the Taliban MPVPV, the Taliban Government Media and
TOLOnews, IFJ: 'Arbitrary Detentions of Journalists' Must Halt, 12 June 2022, url
IFJ and ANJU, Statistics Report, February 2022, url, p. 2
1601
Khaama Press, Afghan Reporter Goes Missing in Kabul Province, 28 May 2022, url
1602
Al Jazeera, Transcript of Taliban’s first news conference in Kabul, 17 August 2021, url
1603
New York Times (The), New Taliban Guidelines Stir Fear About the Future of Press Freedom, 23 September
2021, url
1604
Ariana News, IEA says it’s happy with former government’s media law, 2 February 2022, url
1605
RSF, Afghanistan, 2022, url
1606
Ariana News, IEA says it’s happy with former government’s media law, 2 February 2022, url
1607
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 27
1608
Ariana News, IEA seeks foreign aid for Afghan media outlets, 6 March 2022, url
1609
AP, Fear runs through Afghanistan's hazardous media landscape, 17 February 2022, url
1610
TOLOnews, Ministries Repeat Call for Female News Presenters to Cover Faces, 21 May 2022, url
1611
LA Times, Many of Afghanistan’s journalists have fled. Those who remain face a harsh new world, 22 October
2021, url; DW, Afghanistan: Journalists encounter tough times under Taliban rule, 7 October 2021, url1612
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 41
1599

1600

157

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMInformation Centre), causing confusion among journalists according to RSF.1613 In June 2022,
the Herat Journalists Association and the provincial department of the Taliban Ministry of
Culture and Information established a committee to prevent ‘unwarranted arrests of journalists
and media workers’. According to the Taliban committee head, the three main aims of thecommittee were to regulate the broadcasting of audio and video media, to support andadvocate for media rights, and investigate violations committed by media.1614
According to Qaane, the Taliban’s policy on female journalists was unclear1615 and a female
journalist told TOLOnews in March 2022 that the Taliban increasingly restricted their work.1616
Female journalists reported that they were sometimes barred from attending Taliban-heldpress conferences.1617 A TOLOnews representative told AP that female staff members had notbeen threatened by the Taliban, but at times they were denied access ‘because of theirgender’.1618 Al Jazeera also reported on female journalists in Herat Province being barred fromentering a press conference by the Taliban provincial director of information and culture. One
female journalist also described increased difficulties in travelling far distances for journalistic
work, as officials from the MPVPV stopped women journalists and questioned them about not
being accompanied by a mahram. Other female journalists also told Al Jazeera about Taliban
officials refusing to answer their questions or participate in interviews with womenjournalists.1619 In a survey by ANJU published on 9 March 2022, 87 % of Afghan womenjournalists had experienced gender discrimination under Taliban rule. Furthermore, 79 %stated that they had been insulted and threatened since the Taliban takeover, including
physical threats and abuse, as well as written and verbal threats, by Taliban officials.1620
According to Human Rights Watch, female journalists working in Afghanistan’s provinces
faced ‘particularly devastating’ restrictions. Compared to female journalists in the capital,
provincial-based female journalists reportedly encountered more barriers, including security
issues and sexism. In the provinces of Ghor, Kapisa, Kandahar, and Zabul female journalists
were no longer working. In Nangarhar Province and Herat Province, female reporters were nolonger allowed in newsrooms, and their voices were not part of audios. In Balkh Province,
female media workers were reportedly no longer allowed to ‘attend seminars and events heldby the journalists themselves.’1621
After the takeover, the media that were still operating reportedly adjusted their reporting in
general by decreasing potentially provocative content, while content praising the Taliban
increased.1622 There was also a tendency to self-censorship1623. IFJ reported on journalists
RSF, Afghanistan, 2022, url
Ariana News, Media monitoring and support committee launched in Herat province, 23 June 2022, url
1615
Qaane, E., Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to the Afghan
media?, AAN, 7 March 2022, url
1616
TOLOnews, Afghan Female Reporters Fear Increased Restrictions, edited 7 March 2022, url
1617
TOLOnews, Afghan Female Reporters Fear Increased Restrictions, edited 7 March 2022, url
1618
AP, Fear runs through Afghanistan's hazardous media landscape, 17 February 2022, url
1619
Al Jazeera, Afghan female journalists defiant as Taliban restrictions grow, 24 May 2022, url
1620
IFJ, Afghanistan: 87% of women journalists have suffered discrimination under Taliban rule, 9 March 2022, url
1621
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March 2022, url
1622
RSF, RSF seeks UN Security Council meeting on plight of journalists in Afghanistan, 18 August 2021, url; BBC
News, How Afghanistan's media is changing under Taliban rule, 21 August 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Fewer
women, No Entertainment: Kabul’s Media Scene Transforms After Taliban Takeover, 18 August 2021, url
1623
New York Times (The), Everything Changed Overnight: Afghan Reporters Face an Intolerant Regime, 11
September 2021, url
1613

1614

158

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

battling censorship daily, especially in the provinces1624, and according to the Free Speech
Hub (FSH) the Taliban’s Intelligence Department systematically censored media, including byusing force, threats and psychological pressure.1625 Research by Oslo Metropolitan University
demonstrated a culture of pre-censorship being ‘institutionalised’ in Afghanistan, which
impacted self-censorship, as well as threats and interference by Taliban officials. Oslo
Metropolitan University concluded that the Taliban MPVPV had replaced the Taliban Ministryof Information and Culture as the main body handling media, and also mentioned Taliban
intelligence officers interfering by entering newsrooms ‘to check on and threaten journalists
and editors who do not abide by their rules'.1626 Human Rights Watch reported on journalists inthe provinces feeling ‘compelled’ to self-censor after threats, detentions and beatings ofmedia personnel. Many claimed to have been beaten while trying to cover subjects that ‘cast
Taliban officials in bad light’, including anti-Taliban protests and arbitrary detentions. The
Taliban reportedly compelled journalists to share reports prior to publication, and regularly
told media organisations what to publish, and warned them about contradicting policies andreport on violence by Taliban officials.1627
Some sensitive topics were difficult for media to cover.1628 According to RSF topics related toreligion, women’s status, and human rights were ‘off limits’.1629 According to an anonymousinternational NGO in Kabul, interviewed by the Swedish Migration Agency’s Unit for Migration
Analysis on 16 March 2022, there were three main themes the Taliban did not want to talkabout openly as it could put them in a bad light: ISKP, resistance, and the production of
narcotics.1630 Oslo Metropolitan University stated that there were ‘typical no-go areas’ forjournalists, which included women’s protests, human rights activities, resistance, and ISKP.
They further stated that media workers may need to refrain from reporting in these topics, toavoid ‘being bullied, and/or arrested’.1631 RSF also reported on arrests and intimidation ofjournalists covering women’s protests.1632

7.2.

Incidents targeting journalists and media workers

By 30 June 2022, no journalist or media worker had been killed in Afghanistan in 2022
according to RSF, and no journalists or media workers were in prison.1633 In May 2022, ajournalist was however reportedly sentenced to one years’ imprisonment in a Taliban military
court. RSF called both the trial and sentence ‘illegal’ and ‘disproportionate’. The journalist wasreportedly not defended by a lawyer and was forced to renounce his right to appeal.1634
Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid denied that the journalist had been tried in a military
IFJ, Afghanistan, Under the Taliban, 2022, url
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Systematically Censors Media Outlets, 18 January 2022, url; Free Speech Hub [Twitter],posted on: 17 January 2022, url
1626
Oslo Metropolitan University, Afghan Journalism – Slowly Dying?, 9 June 2022, url, pp. 2, 84
1627
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March 2022, url
1628
RSF, Afghanistan, 2022, url
1629
RSF, Afghanistan, 2022, url
1630
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget efter
talibanrörelsens maktövertagande, 29 April 2022, url, pp. 10–11
1631
Oslo Metropolitan University, Afghan Journalism – Slowly Dying?, 9 June 2022, url, p. 85
1632
RSF, Afghan journalists increasingly harassed by Taliban intelligence and new ministry, 4 February 2022, url
1633
RSF, Afghanistan, 2022, url
1634
RSF, Afghanistan : Afghan journalist tried by military court, sentenced to one year in prison, 11 May 2022, url
1624

1625

159

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

court and said that the case was not related to his journalistic work. Mujahid claimed that a defacto civil court in Herat had sentenced the journalist for ‘criminal misconduct’.1635
Journalists were interrogated or arrested by de facto police forces and the de facto security
service1636 and faced intimidation, violence and arbitrary detention.1637 According to ACLED
data, violence targeting journalists in general spiked in August 2021 with around 9 recorded
events, and violence towards journalists during demonstrations spiked in September 2021.1638
ACLED recorded 24 cases of violence against journalists by Taliban forces between 17 August2021 and 15 April 2022. 12 of the instances took place in Kabul City.1639 UNAMA records
demonstrated 163 violations against journalists and media workers carried out by the de facto
authorities. This included 122 arbitrary arrests (including 1 female), 12 incommunicado
detentions, 58 cases of torture (including 1 female), and 33 cases of threats or intimidation(including 3 females). UNAMA furthermore called Kabul City the ‘epicentre’ of such
violations.1640 The Asia Programme Director of the Committee to Protect Journalists stated that
it was unclear whether attacks against Afghan journalists were systematic or “semi-random
events” initiated by Taliban members holding “a grudge”. The representative described theAfghan media landscape as “full of hazards” that were not “fully predictable”.1641 AAN on theother hand called the violence against Afghan journalists ‘systematic’ and accused the Taliban
intelligence agency and de facto police of increasingly controlling the media.1642 Arbitrary
detentions were reportedly used to keep the media within accepted lines.1643
The IFJ announced on 19 January 2022, that ‘several Afghan journalists had been attacked
and detained in the first weeks of 2022.’ And pointed out that a ‘disturbing trend’ of arrests
and attacks against journalists and media workers continued to grow under the Taliban.1644
UNAMA also raised concerns over forced disappearances and instances of violence against
Afghan media workers.1645 In February 2022, RSF estimated that at least 50 journalists had
been arrested or detained by the de facto police or intelligence. According to the same
source, the duration of detention varied from hours to days, and violence often occurred.1646
According to an anonymous journalist and a representative of an anonymous internationalorganisation, interviewed by DIS in Islamabad in March and April 2022, ill-treatment ofjournalists occurred while in detention. Another source, the Director of Centre for Afghanistan,

VOA, Taliban Court Sentences Afghan Journalist to Prison, 12 May 2022, url
RSF, Afghanistan, 2022, url
1637
UNAMA, Statement by friends of Afghan Women Ambassadors’ group on world press freedom day, 3 May
2022, url; HRW, Taliban Intensify Attacks on Afghan Media, 30 March 2022, url
1638
ACLED and APW, Tracking Disorder During Taliban Rule in Afghanistan, April 2022, url, p. 2
1639
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. Kabul as Admin 1 and Admin 2, all Taliban forces as
ACTOR 1 and ACTOR 2 and search for ‘journalist’ in the notes-column. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan,data covering 15 August 2021 to 1 June 2022, as of 17 June 2022, url
1640
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 26
1641
AP, Fear runs through Afghanistan's hazardous media landscape, 17 February 2022, url1642
Qaane, E., Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to the Afghan
media?, AAN, 7 March 2022, url1643
Qaane, E., Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to the Afghan
media?, AAN, 7 March 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists,
Civil Society Activists, Former Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 1
1644
IFJ, Afghanistan: Attacks and detainments of journalists continue to escalate, 19 January 2022, url
1645
TOLOnews, UN Says Equal Rights Must Become Everyday Reality in Afghanistan, 10 December 2021, url
1646
RSF, Afghan journalists increasingly harassed by Taliban intelligence and new ministry, 4 February 2022, url
1635

1636

160

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Middle East & Africa (CAMEA) and the Institute of Strategic Studies in Islamabad stated that
abduction and physical punishment of journalists occurred.1647
According to Al Jazeera, the Taliban often were behind assaults against journalists, justifying
their actions by calling Afghan journalists ‘spies’. Al Jazeera further described a history oftargeting journalists, not just by the Taliban but also by criminal elements, who perceived
journalists working with foreigners as wealthy and connected to the West. According to a local
source, who ran a media service company providing services to foreign journalists there had
always been dangers while working with foreigners, including robberies, kidnappings andkillings by armed groups and criminals. The source further claimed that journalists had beenarrested by local authorities and subjected to torture, abuse, and prosecution.1648 In April
2022, an Afghan journalist reported on social media that one of his colleagues had beenarrested, badly beaten and tortured by Taliban intelligence officials.1649
Recorded events targeting journalists and media workers during the reference period
included several detentions.1650 In some instances journalists were detained after reporting onprotesters criticising the Taliban1651 and after hosting guests in television shows criticising the
Taliban.1652 On 17 March 2022, three TOLOnews employees were detained by the Taliban,
reportedly for sharing news about the Taliban’s prohibition of foreign drama series. They werereleased after 21 hours.1653 On 19 April 2022, an Afghan journalist was arrested while reportingon a bombing at the Abdul Rahim Shahid school in western Kabul. He was accused of being‘complicit in organising the attack’ and was severely beaten before being released two hours
later.1654 On 24 May 2022, Taliban intelligence officials reportedly detained the former ownerand editor of Radio Aftab at a checkpoint in Herat City, after detecting journalistic posts on his
social media accounts while searching his phone. They detained him and accused him ofworking as a journalist for NRF. No official charges were however brought against him.1655 In
some instances, journalists were detained by the Taliban while trying to cover women’s
protests.1656 An anonymous human rights defender, interviewed by DIS, stated that a journalist
he knew had been executed by the Taliban in Helmand Province in January 2022. The source
stated that the journalist ‘wrote critically on Facebook’.1657

Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 20
Al Jazeera Media Institute, Kill the rented journalists’ - the reality of life for local journalists and fixers left behindin Afghanistan, 1 April 2022, url
1649
Sharif_Hassanyar [Twitter], posted on: 17 April 2022, url
1650
TOLOnews, 22 Cases of Mistreatment of Media in Past Month: Watchdog, 30 March 2022, url; HRW, Taliban
Intensify Attacks on Afghan Media, 30 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, TOLOnews Presenters Freed After Night in
Detention, 18 March 2022, url
1651
IFJ, Afghanistan: Attacks and detainments of journalists continue to escalate, 19 January 2022, url
1652
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Detains Two Kabul Journalists, Colleagues And Relatives Say, 1 February 2022, url
1653
HRW, Taliban Intensify Attacks on Afghan Media, 30 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, TOLOnews Presenters Freed
After Night in Detention, 18 March 2022, url
1654
IFJ, Afghanistan: Journalist beaten and arrested by Taliban militants, 10 June 2022, url
1655
CPJ, Taliban intelligence agents detain four media workers in Kabul, Herat and Paktia provinces, 31 May 2022,
url
1656
Germany, BAMF, Briefing Notes Group 62 – Information Centre for Asylum and Migration, 16 May 2022, url, p. 1;
CPJ, Taliban intelligence agents detain four media workers in Kabul, Herat and Paktia provinces, 31 May 2022, url;
Salam Watandar, Salam Watandar reporter detained by intelligence forces for hours, 29 May 2022, url
1657
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 20
1647

1648

161

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

On 28 March 2022, the Taliban GDI raided four radio stations in Kandahar City, after they had
violated a ban on music. Six journalists were detained but were released after promising not
to broadcast music again.1658
On 4 May 2022, three journalists were reportedly ‘charged with criminal insult.’1659 On 6 May
2022, the Committed to Protect Journalists (CPJ) accused the Taliban of sentencing ajournalist to a year in prison in a Taliban military court.1660
ACLED also recorded five incidents impacting journalists committed by unidentified armed
groups between December 2021 and May 2022. All of them occurred in Kabul City. The
recorded attacks included an attack against a journalist in the area Dasht-e Barchi on 19
December 2021. On 11 January 2022, the Deputy Director of Salam Watandar Radio Station in
Police District 4 was attacked and injured by unidentified militants in January 2022. On 15
January 2022, a journalist (also former director of Khawar TV) was attacked by two
perpetrators identifying themselves as police, in his home in Kabul City. One of theperpetrators hit the victim with an object while the other tried to stab him in the neck. The
perpetrators were not identified, but the victim claimed he was harassed by ‘the Taliban andtheir supporters’. On 16 April 2022, a journalist (also director of a private television station)
was beaten by unidentified militants in the area Qala-e-Fathullah. The final case concerned
the aforementioned disappearance of a journalist on 24 May 2022, which ACLED classified asabduction/forced disappearance by unidentified armed groups.1661
UNAMA also recorded the killing of five journalists (including two women) by ISKP.
Furthermore, one killing could not be attributed and four male journalists were injured byunknown armed men.1662 On 10 January 2022, the deputy director of Salam Afghanistan Media
Organisation, was attacked by three unidentified men in his vehicle.1663

HRW, Intensify Attacks on Afghan Media, 30 March 2022, url; Khaama Press, Afghan Journalists Face EverIncreasing Restrictions, 18 April 2022, url
1659
IFJ, Afghanistan: Journalist beaten and arrested by Taliban militants, 10 June 2022, url
1660
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Media Watchdog Demands Release Of Afghan Journalist Held By Taliban, 7 May 2022, url
1661
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. Kabul as Admin 1 and Admin 2, ‘unidentified armed
groups’ as ACTOR 1 and ACTOR 2 and search for ‘journalist’ in the notes-column. ACLED, Curated Data Files,
Afghanistan, data covering 15 August 2021 to 1 June 2022, as of 17 June 2022, url
1662
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 26
1663
IFJ, Afghanistan: Attacks and detainments of journalists continue to escalate, 19 January 2022, url
1658

162

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS8.

Human rights defenders and activists

8.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

The de facto authorities frequently expressed a commitment to respect human rights within
the framework of sharia. However, since the Taliban takeover, Afghanistan’s civil society
narrowed down significantly.1664 According to UNAMA, civil society actors and human rights
defenders largely halted their activities in most provinces, out of fear of repercussions.1665 As
reported by several sources since 15 August 2021, civil society actors, such as human rights
defenders and women’s rights activists, have experienced intimidation, harassment, illtreatment and threats and have been subjected to attacks, arbitrary arrests, enforced
disappearances, incommunicado detentions and killings.1666 The Taliban authorities
responded to these reports by saying that they were ‘incorrect’, based on ‘false information’and that the human rights situation has improved compared to previous years.1667 As reportedby the Human Rights Memorial, Afghanistan was one of the countries in which most humanrights defenders (19 individuals) were killed in 2021.1668
As indicated by the former chairwoman of AIHRC, Shaharzad Akbar, in interviews in May andJune 2022, there has been ‘a closure of civic space’ in Afghanistan since the Taliban regained
power, with new policies and structures put in place by the de facto authorities ‘to actively
silence dissent, punish criticism and completely close the space for human rights activism’.
According to Akbar ‘the situation has become increasingly difficult for activists and humanrights defenders inside the country’, with a trend of an increased Taliban focus on targetingand hunting down activists and media workers since November 2021.1669
Based on information from around a hundred online testimonies, UN Special Rapporteur Mary
Lawlor reported in November 2021 on ‘a climate of fear, intense insecurity and growing
desperation’ among human rights defenders in Afghanistan. According to her report, people‘most at risk’ were those documenting alleged war crimes, female criminal lawyers, culturalrights defenders and others from minority groups. In their testimonies, respondents detailed
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 52
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, p. 20
1666
AI, Afghanistan: The fate of thousands hanging in the balance: Afghanistan’s fall into the hands of the Taliban,
21 September 2021, url, pp. 12–15; UN News, Climate of fear prevails for human rights defenders in Afghanistan, 3November 2021, url; Asia Pacific Forum, Afghanistan: AIHRC Chairperson's statement to Human Rights Council, 20
December 2021, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peaceand security, 28 January 2022, url, para. 33; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4March 2022, url, para. 52; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil
Society Activists, Former Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, pp. 1–2; AI, Afghanistan
2021, 29 March 2022, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 21, 43; UN Human
Rights Council, Statement by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights, Richard
Bennett, following his visit to Afghanistan from May 15-26, 2022, 26 May 2022, url, p. 3; UN Security Council, The
situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 33
1667
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Denies Claims in HRW Report on Afghanistan, 14 January 2022, url; Khaama Press,
Taliban Denies US Report over Violation of Human Rights, 15 April 2022, url
1668
Front Line Defenders, Front Line Defenders Global Analysis 2021, 9 February 2022, url, p. 5
1669
Aspen Institute UK, The Future of Afghanistan [Podcast], 20 May 2022, url; Strength and Solidarity, Afghanistan:Can the Taliban tame the hunger for rights? [Podcast], 6 June 2022, url
1664

1665

163

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

specific tactics used against them by the Taliban, such as raiding offices of human rights andcivil society organisations to search for contact details of people who worked there. Some
activists indicated they erased or modified their online presence and data history to minimize
the risk of being identified. Several human rights defenders from rural areas declared to have
moved to bigger cities, as they were often well known in their local communities, but even
there they had been forced to change locations frequently. The fact that many activists havealso lost their source of income has reportedly further curtailed their options to ‘find safety’.1670
Since the takeover, sources reported on Taliban fighters conducting house searches in Kabul
and other parts of the country, looking for human rights defenders and activists.1671 There werereports of human rights defenders receiving calls and WhatsApp messages, asking them fortheir personal details and instructing them to hand over their organisation’s equipment andmoney and come to specific locations.1672 Others described the Taliban’s tactics of questioning
people at local mosques and using the former police’s resources and records to obtain
personal information on activists.1673 Women’s rights activists reported threats by phone,harassment on social media and intimidation by being followed by Taliban militants on thestreet.1674
Female human rights activists in the northern city of Mazar-e Sharif reported in November
2021 that they received phone calls, messages and emails from unknown suspicious numbers,offering to help them to leave the country by asking for personal information and inviting themto come to specific locations.1675 Also in November 2021, the Taliban reportedly issued awarning to human rights activists and civil society workers in Panjsher Province. The noticeindicated the work of individuals or organisations operating under the name of civil society or
human rights activists as ‘illegal’ and that the Taliban were therefore ‘instructed to seriously
find and pursue them and arrest them as soon as possible to stop their false and anti-religious
activities’. Anyone violating or resisting this warning, would be ‘dealt with seriously in order tobe a lesson for others’.1676 In March 2022, activists in Helmand declared to Human Rights
Watch that the Taliban had increased their surveillance of ‘individuals and groups they accuseof being “opposed to the Islamic Emirate”’, with threats to retaliate against activists and former

UN News, Climate of fear prevails for human rights defenders in Afghanistan, 3 November 2021, url; OHCHR,
Afghanistan: Human rights defenders living under climate of fear - UN expert, 3 November 2021, url
1671
France 24 Observers, I knew they’d come for us: Afghan journalists, activists report Taliban reprisals, 20 August
2021, url; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban wasting no time in stamping out human rights says new briefing, 21 September
2021, url; CIVICUS, Ongoing threats and attacks against civil society, media in Afghanistan while protests restricted,
21 October 2021, url; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12
April 2022, url, p. 43
1672
AI, Afghanistan: The fate of thousands hanging in the balance: Afghanistan’s fall into the hands of the Taliban,
21 September 2021, url, pp. 12–15
1673
France 24 Observers, I knew they’d come for us: Afghan journalists, activists report Taliban reprisals, 20 August
2021, url
1674
New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24 January 2022,
url; Washington Post (The), Faced with disappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights
activists go quiet on the streets, 8 February 2022, url
1675
France 24, Four women slain in Afghanistan after phone call to join evacuation flight, 6 November 2021, url;
ABC News, Women's rights activists feared for their lives, now they are disappearing, 21 November 2021, url
1676
Jurist, Afghanistan dispatches: Taliban warning calls rights activists in Panjshir province infidels and calls fortheir immediate arrest, 25 November 2021, url
1670

164

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

government officials in response to recent abductions and killings of Taliban commanders in
the province.1677
Several human rights activists declared to media sources to have been forced to live in hiding
or to move between places out of fear of reprisals from the Taliban.1678 As reported by the
UNSG, civil society actors and human rights defenders have halted their activities in mostprovinces, out of fear of repercussions from the Taliban.1679 Although opportunities to leave
the country were scarce and challenging,1680 a number of human rights defenders fledabroad.1681 In March 2022, the Dublin-based NGO Frontline Defenders declared to VOA that it
helped more than 1 000 human rights defenders and their immediate family members
evacuate from Afghanistan in 2021. According to the NGO’s head of communications, 2 000
more human rights activists were still waiting to be taken out of the country. 1682
Also in March 2022, Human Rights Watch reported on the Taliban controlling systems
containing sensitive biometric data left behind by Western donor governments andorganisations when they evacuated after the takeover. Afghan citizen’s personal andbiometric data (including iris scans, fingerprints, photographs, occupation information, homeaddresses, and names of relatives) that were stored in these digital identity and payroll
systems, could be used by the Taliban to target dissidents. As suggested by Human Rights
Watch’s research, the Taliban have possibly already used these data in some cases. A Talibancommander cited by Human Rights Watch, declared that his unit was using US-made scanners‘to tap into Interior Ministry and other national biometric systems to gather data, including onjournalists and so-called human rights people’.1683
At the end of January 2022, a closed-door meeting was held in the Norwegian capital Oslo in
which several Afghan women’s rights defenders engaged with officials from the de facto
authorities. During the meeting, the representatives of Afghan women’s rights called for thereopening of all girl’s schools, women’s right to access employment, women’s inclusion in thegovernment, the right to enjoy freedom of speech, the release of all women protesters that
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Threaten Revenge Killings, 22 March 2022, urlFrance 24 Observers, Lay low and stay home: The only option for Afghans targeted by Taliban, 23 August 2021,
url; CIVICUS, Ongoing threats and attacks against civil society, media in Afghanistan while protests restricted, 21
October 2021, url; Guardian (The), They stayed to fight the Taliban. Now the protesters are being hunted down, 4November 2021, url; ABC News, Women's rights activists feared for their lives, now they are disappearing, 21
November 2021, url; New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24
January 2022, url; Business Insider, The Taliban faces questions about missing women activists as they seek
access to $9 billion in frozen assets, 26 January 2022, url; RFI, My heart and body shake: Afghan women defy
Taliban, 15 February 2022, url; Washington Post (The), Faced with disappearances, beatings andintimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights activists go quiet on the streets, 8 February 2022, url; Washington Post
(The), Taliban arrests Canadian aid worker amid widening crackdown on activists and foreigners, 7 March 2022, url
1679
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 37
1680
France 24 Observers, Lay low and stay home: The only option for Afghans targeted by Taliban, 23 August 2021,
url; AI, Afghanistan: The fate of thousands hanging in the balance: Afghanistan’s fall into the hands of the Taliban,
21 September 2021, url, pp. 12–15; Guardian (The), They stayed to fight the Taliban. Now the protesters are being
hunted down, 4 November 2021, url
1681
TOLOnews, UN's Bachelet Asks All States to Support Afghan Human Rights, 19 January 2022, url; VOA, Taliban
Uncertainty Prompts Bid for Afghan Rights Body in Exile, 10 March 2022, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human
Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 43; Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022,
url, p. 21
1682
VOA, Taliban Uncertainty Prompts Bid for Afghan Rights Body in Exile, 10 March 2022, url
1683
HRW, New Evidence that Biometric Data Systems Imperil Afghans, 30 March 2022, url
1677

1678

165

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

were allegedly detained by the Taliban, the formation of an independent council by the UN tomonitor human rights in Afghanistan and the Taliban authorities’ commitment to theconstitution.1684 At the end of March 2022, a two-day Afghan civil society consultative
gathering was held in Kabul, the first meeting of this kind since the Taliban takeover. The
meeting was reportedly attended by more than 280 representatives of Afghan civil society(including Islamic scholars, tribal elders, families of war victims and dozens of civil society
activists), discussing human rights issues such as access to education and employment for
women and calling for trust-building between the de facto authorities and civil society. As
reported by TOLOnews, the gathering was welcomed by the Taliban’s Ministry of Information
and Culture, calling for ‘cooperation of the participants with the government to find a solution
to the Afghan crisis’.1685
Amnesty International reported that most detentions of human rights defenders and activists
were carried out by the Taliban GDI, with male activists mostly arrested from public spaces
and female activists often arrested during home raids. Amnesty International indicated thesearrests and detentions as arbitrary, since the detainees were not charged or brought before ade facto court and were denied access to legal support in most cases. As stated by Amnesty
International ‘the ongoing arbitrary arrests and detention, cases of enforced disappearancesof particularly women protesters, and lack of clear accountability within the Taliban rank andfile have created an intimidating environment for the victims’ families and others to openly
report violations and advocate for redress and change’. Sources declared to Amnesty that
relatives of detainees have been discouraged from publicly sharing information or talking to
the media and that victims and their families have been reluctant to talk due to fear of
reprisals. Detainees were reportedly allowed to inform their families they were in Taliban
custody and that they might be released after investigation, but they had to instruct theirrelatives to avoid engaging with the media.1686
On 18 September 2021, the AIHRC issued a statement declaring it had not been able tooperate since 15 August 2021, with its premises (offices across the country and theheadquarters in Kabul) occupied, its assets (such as cars and computers) used by Taliban
forces and its staff unable to fulfil their duties.1687 AIHRC’s nine commissioners, including its
then chairwoman Shaharzad Akbar, left the country, fearing retribution from the
Taliban.1688 However, Akbar has continued to advocate for the situation of human rights in
Afghanistan from exile.1689 According to an anonymous source interviewed by the Dutch
Ministry of Foreign Affairs in November 2021, several of the former employees of the AIHRC
TOLOnews, Oslo Talks: Afghan Women Activists Meet With Islamic Emirate, 24 January 2022, url; Al Jazeera,
Taliban, Western officials meet in Oslo to discuss Afghanistan, 24 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, Women Submit
Demands to Kabul Delegates, Intl Envoys, 25 January 2022, url
1685
TOLOnews, Activists Meet to Discuss Current Situation, Women's Rights, 31 March 2022, url; TOLOnews, Civil
Society Gathering Calls for Trust-Building, 31 March 2022, url
1686
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil Society Activists, Former
Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, pp. 2-3
1687
AIHRC [Twitter], posted on: 18 September 2021, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its
implications for international peace and security, 28 January 2022, url; para. 40; UN Human Rights Council,
Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 52; AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url
1688
VOA, Taliban Uncertainty Prompts Bid for Afghan Rights Body in Exile, 10 March 2022, url
1689
Asia Pacific Forum, Afghanistan: AIHRC Chairperson's statement to Human Rights Council, 20 December 2021,
url; VOA, Taliban Uncertainty Prompts Bid for Afghan Rights Body in Exile, 10 March 2022, url; Strength andSolidarity, Afghanistan: Can the Taliban tame the hunger for rights? [Podcast], 6 June 2022, url
1684

166

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

left Afghanistan. This source was aware of three violent incidents directed against AIHRC
employees after 15 August 2021, two of which involved drivers being beaten by Taliban
soldiers.1690 At the end of December 2021, the office of the de facto cabinet announced thedecision to retain AIHRC but with the intention to modify its name.1691 In March 2022, OHCHR
stated that the Taliban authorities had not yet issued a ‘specific policy concerning the future
status or mandate of the AIHRC’.1692 As reported by VOA in the same month, no newcommissioners had been appointed to the organisation and its 400 employees had not been
instructed to resume their work.1693 In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved five departments of theformer government, including the AIHRC, as they were not considered ‘necessary’ and were
not included in the new annual national budget.1694
As stated by human rights defenders cited by the OHCHR, it has become difficult for humanrights NGOs to operate in most provinces. Out of fear of repercussions and because ofrestrictions imposed by the Taliban, many organisations have been merely focussing theiractivities on the humanitarian situation. A lack of financial resources was also indicated as animportant challenge hindering civil society organisations’ operations.1695 Several sources
reported on NGOs and civil society groups’ offices being raided and searched by the Taliban,
having their accounts frozen, their material confiscated and their staff interrogated on
personal details of directors and senior staff members.1696 According to Human rights Watch’s
Patricia Gossman, it was not clear if the Taliban actually obtained that kind of information andif they had made use of it. As further indicated by Gossman, human rights groups andorganisations have not been able to carry out as much documentation and data collection
since the Taliban takeover. When still active, they have been working remotely or resorted tohidden and very careful ways to organise their activities.1697 For more information on women’s
freedom of expression and assembly and women’s civil society organisations, see section
5.2.4. Freedom of expression and assembly.

Netherlands (The), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Afghanistan, March 2022, url, p. 84
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 7
1692
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 55
1693
VOA, Taliban Uncertainty Prompts Bid for Afghan Rights Body in Exile, 10 March 2022, url
1694
Guardian (The), Taliban dissolves Afghanistan’s human rights commission as unnecessary, 17 May 2022, url;
Hasht-e Subh, The Abolition of AIHRC Is a Massive Setback, says Richard Bennett, 19 May 2022, url; TOLOnews,
UN's Bachelet Deeply Concerned by Closing of AIHRC, 20 May 2022, url; Khaama Press, Rina Amiri Expresses
Concern About the Dissolution of Human Rights Commission, 22 May 2022, url; UN Security Council, The situationin Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15 June 2022, url, para. 4
1695
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 54
1696
OHCHR, Oral update on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 13 September 2021, url; CIVICUS, Activists
and journalists at risk, crackdown on protests in Afghanistan following Taliban takeover, 15 September 2021, url; AI,
Afghanistan: The fate of thousands hanging in the balance: Afghanistan’s fall into the hands of the Taliban, 21
September 2021, url, pp. 14–15; CIVICUS, Ongoing threats and attacks against civil society, media in Afghanistan
while protests restricted, 21 October 2021, url
1697
Gossman, P., Associate Director for the Asia division of HRW, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1690
1691

167

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

8.2.

Incidents targeting human rights defenders andactivists

As reported by the OHCHR in March 2022, 10 civil society activists were killed since 15 August
2021, of which five deaths were attributed to the Taliban. A further 36 activists were reportedly
threatened, beaten, or arrested by the de facto authorities.1698 As reported by the UNSG, somedeadly attacks on human rights defenders were also attributed to ISKP.1699 In other cases, theperpetrators were not known. According to the OHCHR there were no reports indicating that
the Taliban authorities have investigated the incidents targeting human rights defenders or
have taken any action against the perpetrators.1700 In the period 15 August 2021–15 June
2022, UNAMA recorded the killings of 10 civil society activists (including 2 women), 5 werecarried out by the Taliban, 3 by ISKP and 2 could not be attributed. UNAMA further recorded
abuses against 65 human rights defenders, including 47 arbitrary arrests (including 11 women),
17 cases of incommunicado detention (including 10 women), 10 cases of torture and illtreatment (including one woman), and 17 cases of threats and intimidation (including 6
women). UNAMA noted that most cases occurred in Kabul City, especially during theincreased number of women protests in January and February 2022.1701
Other reports included activists being killed included an activist being shot dead by the
Taliban on 7 September 2021, while protesting against the group in Herat province.1702 In two
separate incidents in October 2021, two activists were shot dead in Nangarhar Province1703,
and Khost Province. There was no claim of responsibility for both attacks.1704 On 4 November
2021, a women’s rights activist and lecturer was found dead, her body covered with bullet
wounds, in Mazar-e Sharif, Balkh Province.1705 Three other women were also killed after
disappearing a couple of weeks before. They had all reportedly received a call from someone
pretending to offer them assistance to leave the country.1706 Later in November 2021, theTaliban reportedly arrested a civil society activist in his home in Lashkargah, Helmand
Province. His dead body, with signs of ill-treatment, was found three days later.1707 On 19
January 2022, unknown gunmen reportedly killed a civil society activist in Baghlan

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 53
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 33
1700
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 53
1701
UNAMA, Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15 August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, url, pp. 28–29
1702
AI, Afghanistan: The fate of thousands hanging in the balance: Afghanistan’s fall into the hands of the Taliban,
21 September 2021, url, p. 15
1703
Asia Pacific, Prominent rights activist gunned down in Afghanistan, 12 October 2021, url
1704
CIVICUS, Ongoing threats and attacks against civil society, media in Afghanistan while protests restricted, 21
October 2021, url
1705
Guardian (The), Women’s rights activist shot dead in northern Afghanistan, 5 November 2021, url
1706
France 24, Four women slain in Afghanistan after phone call to join evacuation flight, 6 November 2021, url;
ABC News, In Afghanistan, women's rights activists feared for their lives, now they are disappearing, 21 November
2021, url; Guardian (The), More rights defenders murdered in 2021, with 138 activists killed just in Colombia, 2March 2022, url
1707
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 53
1698

1699

168

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSProvince1708 and a female activist in Balkh Province, who had participated in a protest against
the Taliban’s restrictions on women’s rights a month earlier.1709
Reports on detentions and/or abductions included family members of a female civil society
activist in Kandahar Province on 12 September 2021. They were abducted by Taliban
members who broke into their home according to the activist.1710 On 25 September 2021, an
activist was reportedly detained for 18 days in Kabul after being accused of organisingdemonstrations against the Taliban and in support of NRF.1711 On 18 January 2022, the Taliban
detained human rights activist Azeem Azeemi together with three other activists for organisinga protest against the visit of Pakistan’s national security adviser Moeed Yusuf to Kabul.1712 For
more information on this incident, see section 1.2.1. Expressed opposition and criticism.
On 19 January 2022, a female activist and her brother-in-law were abducted while travelling in
Kabul.1713 Later that same day, another female activist and her three sisters were arrested andtaken from their house in Kabul. The activist reportedly belonged to a women’s rights groupknown as ‘Seekers of Justice’, which had organised several protests advocating for women’s
rights in Kabul City since the Taliban takeover. Both these activists had also participated in thedemonstration in front of Kabul University on 16 January 20221714, which was harshly pushed
back by Taliban forces (see section 5.2.4. Freedom of expression and assembly).1715 Since
then, there were several reports of house searches targeting women having participated inprotests.1716 An anonymous witness declared to AP that the raid against the home of one of theaforementioned activists was carried out by ‘about 10 armed men, claiming to be from the
Taliban intelligence department’.1717 A Taliban spokesperson denied the arrest of these
activists but indicated at the Taliban ‘had the right to detain and imprison opponents or those

Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022, url
Massoud Hossaini [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022, url; Usman Sharifi [Twitter], posted on: 19 January2022, url; UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security,
15 June 2022, url, para. 36
1710
Pajhwok Afghan News, Taliban attack Fahima house, arrest family members, 12 September 2021, url
1711
CIVICUS, Ongoing threats and attacks against civil society, media in Afghanistan while protests restricted, 21
October 2021, url
1712
VOA, Taliban Detain Human Rights Activists Planning Protest of Pakistan Official's Visit, 18 January 2022, url;Munaza Shaheed [Twitter], posted on: 18 January 2022, url; AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop
Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil Society Activists, Former Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21
March 2022, url, p. 3
1713
OHCHR, Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 1 February 2022, url; Washington Post (The), Faced withdisappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights activists go quiet on the streets, 8
February 2022, url; UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 51
1714
AP, Taliban storm Kabul apartment, arrest activist, her sister, 20 January 2022, url; Guardian (The), Taliban
launch raids on homes of Afghan women’s rights activists, 20 January 2022, url; BBC News, Afghan women takenfrom their homes after speaking out, 21 January 2022, url; Business Insider, The Taliban faces questions about
missing women activists as they seek access to $9 billion in frozen assets, 26 January 2022, url; Washington Post
(The), Faced with disappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights activists go quiet on thestreets, 8 February 2022, url
1715
HRW, Taliban Use Harsh Tactics to Crush Afghan Women’s Rights Protest, 18 January 2022, url
1716
Guardian (The), Taliban launch raids on homes of Afghan women’s rights activists, 20 January 2022, url;
OHCHR, Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 1 February 2022, url; Washington Post (The), Faced withdisappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights activists go quiet on the streets, 8
February 2022, url
1717
AP, Taliban storm Kabul apartment, arrest activist, her sister, 20 January 2022, url
1708

1709

169

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

who violate the law’.1718 A Taliban intelligence spokesperson, cited by AP, neither confirmed
nor denied the arrests.1719
Beginning February 2022, two additional female activists were reported missing afterparticipating in demonstrations demanding equal rights for women. Also in these cases the
Taliban authorities denied detaining the women.1720
The disappearance of these female activists provoked widespread reactions of indignation.
The UN, EU, international human rights organisations and several Afghan women and humanrights defenders expressed their concerns on the whereabouts and well-being of the activists
and urged the Taliban to investigate the cases, ensure the women’s safety and allow them toreturn home.1721 The Taliban repeatedly declared that they were investigating the cases.1722 On
12 and 13 February 2022, the four Afghan women activists, as well as their relatives who went
missing with them, were reportedly released by the Taliban authorities.1723 Relatives of theactivists confirmed their release to TOLOnews, but indicated that the women were ‘pressured’
to not publicly share any details about their detention. In the same article, reference was madeto the arrest of another two female activists at their homes in Kabul by the Taliban.1724
A day before their release, on 11 February 2022, the Taliban raided a house and detained 29
women’s rights activists and their relatives, as reported by US Special Envoy for Afghan
Women, Girls and Human Rights, Rina Amiri. 1725 On 21 February 2022, the Taliban Ministry ofInterior released a video in which several women of this group were filmed stating that they
were encouraged by foreign-based human rights activists to take to the streets and protest, asYalda Hakim [Twitter], posted on: 20 January 2022, url; Khaama Press, Taliban deny arrest of female protestor in
Kabul, 22 January 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Taliban: We Have the Right to Detain the Regime’s Opponents, 23
January 2022, url; TOLOnews, We have right to suppress dissidents and imprison protestors: Mujahid, 23 January2022, url
1719
AP, Taliban storm Kabul apartment, arrest activist, her sister, 20 January 2022, url
1720
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban takes another women's rights protester, 3 February 2022, url; TOLOnews[Twitter], posted on: 3 February 2022, url; Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 3 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, UN,
Afghan Women Demand Answers Over More Missing Activists, 3 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, Calls Mount For
Answers Over Missing Women Activists, 4 February 2022, url
1721
UNAMA [Twitter], posted on: 22 January 2022, url; DW, Afghanistan: UN pressures Taliban over missing
women's activists, 22 January 2022, url; HRW, Afghan Women’s Rights Activists Forcibly Disappeared, 24 January2022, url; AI [Twitter], posted on: 25 January 2022, url; Ariana News, UN asks IEA to probe issue of missing Afghan
women, 25 January 2022, url; Afghanistan Times, Afghan women activists meet Taliban in Oslo, 25 January 2022,
url; Business Insider, The Taliban faces questions about missing women activists as they seek access to $9 billion
in frozen assets, 26 January 2022, url; TOLOnews, UN Human Rights Office Raises Alarm Over 6 Kabul Abductees,
1 February 2022, url; OHCHR, Press briefing notes on Afghanistan, 1 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, Calls Mount
For Answers Over Missing Women Activists, 4 February 2022, url; Zahra Rahimi [Twitter], posted on: 5 February2022, url; TOLOnews, UN Reiterates Concerns Over Missing Afghan Women Activists, 9 February 2022, url;
TOLOnews, Protesters Call for Release of Female Activists, 12 February 2022, url
1722
TOLOnews, Probe Launched Over Missing Female Activists: Islamic Emirate, 29 January 2022, url; BBC News,
Afghanistan: Taliban takes another women's rights protester, 3 February 2022, url; Washington Post (The), Facedwith disappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's women's rights activists go quiet on the streets, 8
February 2022, url; Ariana News, IEA says it’s investigating the disappearance of women activists, 10 February2022, url
1723
Khaama Press, Taliban release Afghan women activists, foreigners, 12 February 2022, url; UNAMA [Twitter],posted on: 13 February 2022, url; Al Jazeera, Missing Afghan women activists released: UN, 13 February 2022, url;
BBC News, Afghan woman activist released after arrest in January, 13 February 2022, url
1724
TOLOnews, Freed Activists Feel Pressure to Not Share Details: Relatives, 13 February 2022, url
1725
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 12 February 2022, url; Guardian (The), Taliban have detained 29 women andtheir families in Kabul, says US envoy, 12 February 2022, url
1718

170

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

it could offer them and their families a chance to leave the country. The women reportedly
also declared ‘they were not treated harshly’ by the Taliban. In the same video, a Taliban
spokesman claimed that the women ‘regretted their actions’.1726 However, as reported byAmnesty International, the circumstances in which this video clip was filmed remained
unclear.1727 On 23 February 2022, Reporterly cited one of the women activists stating that ‘theTaliban took their confession by force’.1728 The Taliban authorities reportedly released many of
the group of women activists and their families on 28 February 2022.1729 Referring to thisincident, an international organisation interviewed by DIS in April 2022, distinguished two
types of Taliban responses to female protesters and activists: coordinated operations such as
this arrest of a group of women and their family members, and isolated responses driving
protesters and activists apart with some level of violence.1730
As indicated by OHCHR and Gossman, it was very difficult to verify information on thedetention conditions and the release of these female human rights activists and protesters,
due to reported threats and restrictions on their ability to speak publicly about theirexperiences.1731 Related to the above-mentioned cases, Amnesty International reported on ‘awell-established pattern of reprisals against and intimidation of women activists, including
reports of torture’.1732 According to information received from the former AIHCR chairwoman
Shaharzad Akbar, most of these female activists and protesters were harassed or tortured
during their detention. One woman was allegedly subjected to gang rape, and another had
her fingernails pulled out. After their release, the women were asked to sign ‘commitment
letters’, pledging that they would not participate in protests anymore nor engage with media
or human rights organisations. Some of the women were reportedly still in Kabul in June
2022, others had been able to leave the country and were evacuated to Pakistan.1733 In aninterview with DIS in April 2022, journalist Lynne O’Donnell indicated that many women
protesters and activists refrained from publicly talking about their time in detention because of
the risk of assumptions that they might have been raped, which is perceived as shameful andlinked to the perception of a woman losing her honour.1734 For more information on reactions
on women right’s demonstrations, see section 5.2.4. Freedom of expression and assembly.
Also in February 2022, civil society activist and former government official Fayaz Ghouri wasarrested in Herat City.1735 According to sources interviewed by Amnesty International, Ghouri
was arrested by the Taliban’s Provincial Directorate of Intelligence on 1 February 2022, but the
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Detained Women Activists In Afghanistan Apparently Forced To Confess Before Release, 23
February 2022, url
1727
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil Society Activists, Former
Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 2
1728
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 23 February 2022, url
1729
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 51; AI, Afghanistan:
Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil Society Activists, Former Government Officials
and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 2
1730
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 21
1731
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 51; Gossman, P.,
Associate Asia Director of Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022
1732
AI, There is a window of opportunity to negotiate for the rights of Afghan women, but it is rapidly closing, 1 April
2022, url
1733
Akbar, S., former AIHRC chairperson, emails, 22 and 24 June 2022
1734
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 21
1735
Etilaat-e Rooz, ‫[ بازداشت یک فعال مدنی در هرات از سوی طالبان‬Detention of a civil activist in Herat by the Taliban], 3
February 2022, url
1726

171

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Taliban denied his arrest for several days. A month later, on 2 March 2022, Ghouri wasreportedly transferred to Herat’s central prison, where his family could see him once. As
stated by the same sources, Ghouri had been involved with the Herat Civil Society Institution
Activist Solidarity and had criticised some of the Taliban’s policies on social media.1736 In March
2022, the Washington Post reported on ‘20 female Afghan activists remaining in prison
despite repeated international pressure for their release’.1737

AI, Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests of Journalists, Civil Society Activists, Former
Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21 March 2022, url, p. 3
1737
Washington Post (The), Taliban arrests Canadian aid worker amid widening crackdown on activists andforeigners, 7 March 2022, url
1736

172

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

9.

Healthcare professionals

9.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

After the Taliban takeover, the number of healthcare professionals was reported to have ‘most
likely’ decreased due to several factors: the inability of the Taliban to pay salaries to healthsector workers, and uncertainty around security conditions. The clashes of 2021 and the
Taliban takeover reportedly forced many health sector professionals, including women1738(also midwifes1739 and women working at maternity hospitals1740) to flee Afghanistan.1741 In
October 2021, France 24 reported that many healthcare workers feared to return to work,
despite the Taliban’s calls that they should resume their duties.1742
In a mid-January 2022 report, Human Rights Watch noted that in Ghazni Province the Taliban
were calling healthcare workers ‘in the middle of the night’ to ask for medical help for ‘theirpatients and families’ and entering the hospital ‘with their guns’, making it ‘difficult for the
doctors and nurses to manage’.1743

9.1.1.

Employment of women in the health sector

On 27 August 2021, a Taliban spokesperson stated that all women healthcare workers in
Kabul and the provinces should return to work.1744 In September 2021, BBC News reported
that female patients were allowed to be attended only by women healthcare professionals.1745
The same month, representatives of the Afghanistan Nurses Association (ANA) stated that thesituation of women employment was ‘unclear’ and mentioned cases where some patientswould not accept a female nurse and where ‘armed soldiers’ were entering hospital wards,
making some nurses flee their workplace.1746 In October 2021, the Taliban announced thatthey would allow the involvement of women frontline workers in a nationwide polio
vaccination campaign, committing ‘to provide security and safety for all frontline healthworkers’.1747 In November 2021, Human Rights Watch noted that women health sector
employees might not be able ‘to comply with Taliban requirements for a male family member
to escort women to and from work.’1748
In a December 2021 report, UNDP noted that healthcare and education were two fields inwhich employment of women was not restricted after the Taliban takeover.1749 In December
New York Times (The), Afghanistan’s Health Care System Is Collapsing Under Stress, 14 February 2022, url
CSM, How Afghan midwives are challenging Taliban strictures on women, 7 October 2021, url
1740
BBC News, Giving birth under the Taliban, 20 September 2022, url
1741
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to Congress, 30 January 2022, url, p. 120;
1742
France24, Under years of Taliban rule, women nurses work alongside men, 13 October 2021, url
1743
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
1744
Reuters, Taliban say Afghan woman health service staff should go back to work, 27 August 2021, url
1745
BBC News, Giving birth under the Taliban, 20 September 2022, url
1746
ICN, Afghan nurses report on extreme challenges and need for international support, 21 September 2021, url
1747
AI, Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022, url
1748
HRW, Afghanistan Facing Famine, 11 November 2021, url
1749
UNDP, Afghanistan: Socio-Economic Outlook 2021-2022 - Averting a Basic Needs Crisis, 1 December 2021, url,
p. 30
1738

1739

173

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

2021, the Taliban Minister of Foreign Affairs said that all women who worked in the healthsector before the takeover had returned to their places of employment.1750 In correspondencewith SIGAR in mid-December 2021, the United States Agency for International Development(USAID) stated that policies on the return of women healthcare workers were not ‘consistentamong provinces’ and that their partners in Afghanistan advised women health sector
employees ‘to work from home until it is clear that they can return to the office safely.’ At thesame time, ‘some female staff’ reportedly returned ‘to the office, health facilities, and fieldvisits.’1751 According to a report of the UNSG, published on 15 June 2022, women’s
employment was allowed in healthcare, education, and humanitarian sectors. 1752
According to a September 2021 report by the New York Times from Chak-e Wardak District,
Wardak province, women constituted 14 out of 65 employees at a local hospital; a midwife
working in the hospital stated that the Taliban had visited the hospital, but she did not feel any
threat.1753 A midwife in Paktika Province, interviewed for CSM reporting at the beginning of
October 2021, quoted a Taliban commander, who had entered her hospital with two otherfighters, railing that women “have no right to go out or work at all” and that “midwives are notnecessary in society, because death is in the hands of God, and only God can save mothers’
lives.”1754 According to AFP reporting in October 2021, local Taliban leaders perceived women
employment as necessary in Day Mirdad District, Wardak Province, which is a mountainous
and remote area. Seven women – a nurse, a vaccine specialist, two midwives, a nutritionist,
and two cleaners – were reported to work side by side with men in the district’s only hospital,
staffed by 28 healthcare workers in total.1755 A government worker in Ghazni Province,interviewed by Human Rights Watch for a mid-January 2022 report, noted that female doctors
continued working in private hospitals and clinics in the province, but became ‘harder to find.’
The report also noted that most female healthcare workers were not receiving salaries
because of the continuing financial crisis.1756
In May 2022, women were reported to run several hospitals in Kabul City. One of suchhospitals, a maternity hospital, was employing at least 140 women while several men, who had
been employed at the hospital, were forced to leave their employment after the Taliban
takeover.1757 In June 2022, the medical staff of a maternity hospital in Khost, operated by
Doctors Without Borders (MSF), was reported to consist ‘almost entirely’ of women.1758 In July
2022, WSJ reported that ‘[m]idwives say dozens of staff have fled the country, and more plan
to leave because of the Taliban’s ban on girls’ education and curbs on women’s freedom.’1759

Diplomat (The), We Are Committed in Principle to Women Participation, Says Taliban Minister, 13 December
2021, url
1751
SIGAR, Quarterly Report to Congress, 30 January 2022, url, p. 117
1752
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 34
1753
New York Times (The), This Is Life in Rural Afghanistan After the Taliban Takeover, 15 September 2021, url
1754
CSM, How Afghan midwives are challenging Taliban strictures on women, 7 October 2021, url
1755
France 24, Under years of Taliban rule, women nurses work alongside men, 13 October 2021, url
1756
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
1757
Guardian (The), The Taliban know they need us: the Afghan hospitals run by women, 9 May 2022, url
1758
MSF, A hospital of women, for women, 20 June 2022, url
1759
WSJ, Maternity Care, Once a Sign of Hope in Afghanistan, Is Faltering Under the Taliban, 18 July 2022, url
1750

174

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

9.1.2.

Incidents targeting healthcare professionals

For 2021, the Safeguarding Health in Conflict Coalition (SHCC) and Insecurity Insight reported
that 20 incidents of violence against healthcare or obstruction of healthcare were recorded in
Afghanistan after 15 August 2021, compared to 87 incidents recorded in the previous monthsof 2021. According to the report, violence against healthcare and/or obstruction of healthcare
was committed by the Taliban (seven incidents) and ISKP (one incident); in 11 instances, theperpetrators remained unclear.1760 As of 26 July 2022, no data for 2022 were published.1761
In 15 August 2021–1 June 2022, ACLED recorded 16 incidents in which health sector workers
were targeted, consisting of attacks and abductions or enforced disappearances. Nine ofthese incidents were attributed to the Taliban.1762 These cases included the killing of four
doctors, of which three killings were attributed to the Taliban. One doctor was reportedly wellknown and had treated both NRF and Taliban fighters. He was killed in September 2021 alongwith some of his family members in Baghlan Province. Another case concerned a doctor of
Hazara origin who reportedly had worked for ANSF. He was killed around 31 March 2022, inKibrail area, Herat City. Another case concerned Taliban member’s torturing a doctor in Kishm
District, Badakhshan Province on 25 November 2021, his brother was reportedly a former
ANDSF member.1763 Other reports included the killing of a nurse, who was also advocating for
women’s rights, soon after the Taliban takeover1764 and the beating of a female doctor, also a
civil society activist in Kandahar Province, in September 20211765 during a ‘night raid on her
home’.1766 Other reports included the Taliban torturing and killing a midwife of Hazara origin1767
in Mazar-e Sharif, Balkh Province, on 1 April 2022.1768 She was reportedly stopped by the
Taliban for sitting in a car without a mahram.1769
Other individual reports indicated that ‘doctors who criticised the Covid-19 vaccination policyof the Taliban, expressed fear for their safety’1770, and that such individuals had been
threatened by the Taliban.1771 Other reports included a male doctor in Nangarhar Province who
was beaten by the Taliban ‘for trying to assist women at a medical centre1772, a doctor and an
SHCC and Insecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022, url,
pp. 13, 15–17
1761
HDE, Afghanistan: Attacks on Aid Operations, Education, Health and Protection, url, accessed 1 June 2022
1762
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June
2022
1763
ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022
1764
France 24 Observers, Out Observers recount life under Taliban rule in 2021, 21 September 2021, url
1765
Khaama Press, Female doctor in Kandahar claims to be beaten by Taliban, 12 September 2022, url
1766
SHCC and Insecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022, url,
p. 15
1767
UN, Amid Plummeting Humanitarian Conditions in Afghanistan, Women, Girls Are Being Written Out of Society
by De Facto Authorities, Briefers Warn Security Council, 23 June 2022, url
1768
Rawa News, Taliban tortured and killed midwife in Mazar-e Sharif, 2 April 2022, url; UN, Amid Plummeting
Humanitarian Conditions in Afghanistan, Women, Girls Are Being Written Out of Society by De Facto Authorities,
Briefers Warn Security Council, 23 June 2022, url
1769
Rawa News, Taliban tortured and killed midwife in Mazar-e Sharif, 2 April 2022, url
1770
Insecurity Insight, Attacks on Health Care, Bi-Monthly News Brief, 25 August – 7 September 2021, 7 September
2021, url, p. 2
1771
SHCC and Insecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022, url,
p. 15
1772
SHCC and Insecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022, url,
p. 15
1760

175

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

ambulance driver being ‘severely beaten’ by Taliban members while transferring a patient ofKuchi origin, injured in a clash, to a hospital in Shinwari District, Parwan Province 1773, and a Shia
healthcare worker in Ghazni Province being threatened by a patient’s family with assumed
connections to the Taliban.1774
Several health sector professionals were reported to have been killed by the Taliban whilecrossing checkpoints1775, some seemingly because the driver failed to stop.1776
On 2 November 20211777, an ISKP-affiliated suicide bomber on a motorcycle targeted theentrance of Sardar Mohammad Daud Khan Military Hospital in Kabul City, after which a larger
second explosion occurred.1778 At least 19 people were reportedly killed and 43 injured.1779
Reports on attacks against healthcare workers by unknown gunmen1780 included the killing ofeight health workers, including four women1781 in February 2022.1782 They were engaged in thepolio vaccination programme and were killed in the districts Kunduz and Emamsaheb, Kunduz
Province, and Taloqan District, Takhar Province.1783 On 27 April 2022, unknown gunmen fatally
shot a doctor and injured his companion while driving a car in the 3rd security district ofJalalabad City, Nangarhar Province.1784
Since the Taliban takeover sources have reported on an increase in abductions across thecountry.1785 Reports included unidentified armed men abducting and killing a prominent
psychiatrist on 20 September 2022 in Mazar-e Sharif, Balkh Province1786, and a doctor in KartEUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June
2022
1774
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
1775
ANI, Afghanistan: Driver, doctor killed in firing by Taliban affiliates, 18 January 2022, url; ACLED, Curated Data
Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022
1776
Pajhwok Afghan News, Doctors gunned down in Herat, 26 November 2021, url; ACLED, Curated Data Files,
Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022
1777
Al-Jazeera, Afghanistan: Deadly blasts, gunfire hit Kabul military hospital, 2 November 2021, url
1778
SHCC and Insecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022, url,
p. 15
1779
Al-Jazeera, Afghanistan: Deadly blasts, gunfire hit Kabul military hospital, 2 November 2021, url; SHCC andInsecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022, url, p. 15
1780
UN, United Nations mourns the death of health workers and halts polio vaccination campaign in Kunduz and
Takhar Provinces of Afghanistan, 24 February 2022, url; Insecurity Insight, Attacks on Health Care, Bi-MonthlyNews Brief (23 February – 8 March 2022), 22 March 2022, url
1781
TOLOnews, 8 Health Workers in Vaccination Campaign Killed in Takhar, Kunduz, 24 February 2022, url
1782
UN, United Nations mourns the death of health workers and halts polio vaccination campaign in Kunduz and
Takhar Provinces of Afghanistan, 24 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, 8 Health Workers in Vaccination Campaign
Killed in Takhar, Kunduz, 24 February 2022, url; Salam Watandar, UN mourns killing of 8 polio vaccinators in
Kunduz, Takhar, 25 February 2022, url
1783
UN, United Nations mourns the death of health workers and halts polio vaccination campaign in Kunduz and
Takhar Provinces of Afghanistan, 24 February 2022, url; TOLOnews, 8 Health Workers in Vaccination Campaign
Killed in Takhar, Kunduz, 24 February 2022, url; Salam Watandar, UN mourns killing of 8 polio vaccinators in
Kunduz, Takhar, 25 February 2022, url
1784
Hasht-e Subh, Unknown Gunmen Shot Dead a Doctor in Nangarhar, 28 April 2022, url
1785
TOLOnews, Kidnapping Cases Surge in Afghanistan, 28 October 2021, url; Salaam News, Abductions, murdersof Afghan businessmen highlight Taliban security failures, 3 November 2021, url; Pajhwok Afghan News,
Kidnapping incidents must stop: Ghazni residents, 12 December 2021, url; The Print, Killings, kidnappings ofbusinessmen have increased in Afghanistan: Chamber of Commerce, 10 March 2022, url
1786
Hasht-e Subh, Nader Alemi, a Kidnapped Psychotherapist, Was Killed in Balkh Last Night, 19 November 2022,
url; Guardian (The), Fears for Afghan psychiatrist abducted by armed men, 27 September 2021, url; AP, Prominent
Afghan doctor kidnapped, killed in northern city, 20 November 2022, url; Hasht-e Subh, Nader
1773

176

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSe Naw area, Kabul City, on 23 December 2021.1787 On 26 March 2022, armed gunmenreportedly abducted a dermatologist and owner of two clinics in Kabul and Nangarhar on the
Kabul-Jalalabad highway.1788 On 4 April, TOLOnews reported that a doctor from Parwan
Province had allegedly been detained by ISKP five months ago and remained missing.1789

ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022
Central Asia News.Net, Doctor abducted by unknown gunmen on Kabul-Jalalabad highway, 28 March 2022, url;
Insecurity Insight, Attacks on Health Care, Bi-Monthly News Brief (23 March – 4 April 2022), 19 April 2022, url
1789
TOLOnews, Family Says Doctor Went Missing 5 Months Ago, 4 April 2022, url
1787

1788

177

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

10.

Humanitarian workers

10.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

After the Taliban takeover, some humanitarian aid workers were evacuated fromAfghanistan.1790 In September 2021, the de facto authorities stated its guarantees for ‘thesafety and security of humanitarian staff’ and freedom of movement of humanitarian workers,
including women.1791 The pledges ‘to safeguard humanitarian aid workers’ were repeated in
February 2022.1792
According to reporting by AP on 2 February 2022, the de facto administration did not interfere
in the work of the WFP in Logar Province and provided ‘security at distribution sites.’1793 As of
March 2022, UNOCHA reported that its humanitarian partners in Afghanistan were able totravel to hard-to-reach areas more easily compared to the pre-takeover period; however,provincial de facto authorities were reportedly interfering in the work processes ofhumanitarian actors, including the selection of beneficiaries and/or distribution process.
According to UNOCHA, ‘violence and/or threats against humanitarian personnel, assets,
and/or facilities’ were reported in 57 % of Afghanistan’s districts.1794 A representative of aninternational organisation in Afghanistan, interviewed by DIS in March 2022, noted that‘recently’ the Taliban had tried to interfere in which areas local NGOs should serve and said
that there were ‘examples of assaults on NGO employees’ distributing aid.1795
In the period from 1 January 2022 to 30 April 2022, UNOCHA reported on 134 instances of‘violence against humanitarian personnel, assets and facilities,’ 70 of which were reportedlycommitted by armed criminal groups (ACG), 47 by Taliban forces, 10 by Taliban authorities, 3
by community members, and 3 by ISKP. In April 2022, humanitarian workers in Kabul, Herat,
and Jalalabad cities were affected by ACG-conducted series of robberies, in which two
humanitarian workers were injured.1796 In June 2022, UNOCHA recorded five incidents ofthreats against humanitarian workers, assets and facilities, nine incidents of robberies and/or
thefts affecting humanitarian facilities, two attacks on humanitarian workers, and twoarrests/detentions of humanitarian workers.1797

10.1.1.

Employment of women in the humanitarian sector

In November 2021, Human Rights Watch reported that UNOCHA had mapped agreements
between aid agencies and the Taliban on the provincial level, ‘showing where female staff
DW, Afghanistan: Aid workers in need, 24 August 2021, url; FAO, A humanitarian worker in Afghanistan, throughthick and thin, 9 November 2021, url
1791
UN, Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General – on Afghanistan, 5 September 2021,
url
1792
AP, Swiss group: Taliban make pledges on education, aid workers, 11 February 2022, url
1793
AP, In freezing Afghanistan, aid workers rush to save millions, 2 February 2022, url
1794
UNOCHA, Afghanistan – Humanitarian Access Severity Overview, 26 April 2022, url, pp. 2–3
1795
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 71
1796
UNOCHA, Afghanistan – Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 January 2022 – 30 April 2022), 19 May 2022, url
1797
UNOCHA, Afghanistan – Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 June – 30 June 2022), 17 July 2022, url
1790

178

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

members will be permitted to function’. According to the report, Taliban officials provided awritten agreement that ‘unconditionally’ permitted women aid workers to fulfil their job ‘in only
three provinces.’ As noted by Human Rights Watch, ‘in over half the country’ women
humanitarian workers were restricted from fulfilling their work duties because of therequirement of male guardianship.1798 The same month, a humanitarian worker employed withan NGO assisting farmers and herders affected by drought noted that his female colleagues
were not permitted to work since the Taliban takeover. However, the source mentioned that‘some agencies’ in his area received ‘verbal permission for women to come back to work’
from the Taliban authorities.1799 As of 25 December 2021, nine Afghan provinces had ‘only
partial agreements for women humanitarian staff,’ which limited women’s employment to theareas of health and education. Even when allowed to work, the engagement of women
humanitarian workers was reported to remain ‘conditional’ due to the requirement to beaccompanied by a mahram.1800
According to an international NGO worker in Ghazni province, interviewed by Human Rights
Watch for the report published in January 2022, international organisations continued to workin Ghazni. However, under the Taliban requirements, particularly in what concerned arequirement to be accompanied by a mahram while being outside home, their operation was
effectively possible only in the health sector.1801 A female employee at International Rescue
Committee (IRC) noted in a letter, published in March 2022, that women continued theiremployment at IRC.1802 An international humanitarian organisation, interviewed by DIS in
March 2022, stated that employment with NGOs was one of the main types of employment for
women, besides in the education and healthcare sectors.1803 Similarly, the UNSG mentioned
the humanitarian sector as a sector in which the employment of women was permitted in his
June 2022 report.1804 In April 2022, an international organisation noted in an interview with
DIS that some female staff employed with national NGOs were not able to resume work in‘certain locations’, while in some places, where they were able to work they could ‘face
problems at checkpoints’ with Taliban checking ‘where or who is the mahram’.1805 UNOCHA
reported that two female humanitarian workers ‘were not allowed to go to the office at thecheckpoint’ as they had no mahram with them.1806 In its report on humanitarian access forJune 2022, UNOCHA noted that 2 of 17 directives issued by the de facto authorities enforced
the requirements of wearing hijab and having mahram for female humanitarian workers.1807

10.1.2.

Incidents targeting humanitarian workers

In the period between 15 August 2021 and 25 July 2022, Aid Worker Security Database(AWSD) recorded seven ‘major attacks’ on aid workers in Afghanistan. On 27 August 2021,
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Blocking Female Aid Workers, 4 November 2021, url
FAO, A humanitarian worker in Afghanistan, through thick and thin, 9 November 2021, url
1800
UNHCR and UN Women, Afghanistan Crisis Update: Women and Girls in Displacement, 28 February 2022, url
1801
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18 January 2022, url
1802
IRC, An Afghan woman and aid worker speaks out, 6 March 2022, url
1803
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 59
1804
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 39
1805
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 50
1806
UNOCHA, Afghanistan – Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 January 2022 – 30 April 2022), 19 May 2022, url
1807
UNOCHA, Afghanistan – Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 June – 30 June 2022), 17 July 2022, url
1798

1799

179

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

during the attack on Kabul Airport, ISKP fatally shot a woman staff member of an International
non-governmental organisation (INGO) ‘while in her car on the road,’ as reported by a focal
point source to AWSD. On 29 August 2021, a local staff of an INGO was killed with nine
members of his family, including children, in a US drone strike in Kabul City. 1808 On 21
September 2021, unidentified armed men reportedly abducted and interrogated an UN
agency worker in Herat City. The person was released the next day. On 25 December 2021,
an INGO staff member was stabbed during a robbery in Jawzjan Province.1809 Three ‘major
attacks’ recorded by AWSD in 2022 were conducted on the members of the polio vaccination
teams in the provinces Kunduz and Tahkar.1810
Between 15 August 2021 and 1 June 2022, ACLED recorded four incidents, in whichhumanitarian workers were targeted by the Taliban or by an unidentified armed group.1811 On
22 August 2021, the Taliban reportedly stopped a vehicle of an Afghan UN staff member who
was trying to reach Kabul airport, and beat the person.1812 On 24 December 2021, five Afghan
Development Agency (ADA) employees ‘were insulted and severely beaten’ by the Taliban in
Nili City, the capital of Daykundi Province; some employees of the agency were also
reportedly detained for several hours. Around 24 January 2022, the Taliban reportedly‘assaulted and arrested’ four NGO workers at a checkpoint in Sayyid Abad District, Wardak
Province. The arrested NGO employees were later released, and the Taliban fightersarrested.1813 On 9 May 2022, according to local and international media, a UN vehicle was hit
by a bomb in Kunar Province.1814
On 26 April 2022, Taliban GDI temporarily detained four humanitarian workers, including one
woman, in Kandahar Province during their monitoring visit.1815

Guardian (The), US drone strike mistakenly targeted Afghan aid worker, investigation finds, 11 September 2022,
url; AWSD, Filter: 2021-2022, Afghanistan, accessed 25 July 2022, url
1809
AWSD, Filter: 2021-2022, Afghanistan, accessed 25 July 2022, url
1810
AWSD, Filter: 2021-2022, Afghanistan, accessed 25 July 2022, url
1811
EUAA analysis based on publicly available ACLED data. ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June
2022
1812
Reuters, EXCLUSIVE Internal UN document says Taliban threatened, beat staff, 25 August 2021, url; ACLED,
Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022
1813
ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022
1814
ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022; West Australian (The), Bomb hits UN car in
Afghanistan: Taliban, 10 May 2022, url
1815
UNOCHA, Afghanistan – Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 January 2022 – 30 April 2022), 19 May 2022, url
1808

180

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

11.

LGBTIQ1816 persons

11.1.

General situation under Taliban rule

In January 2022, Human Rights Watch reported that the Taliban ‘echoed the previous
government’s support for the criminalisation of same-sex relations’, with some Taliban leaders‘vowing to take a hard line’ against the rights of the ‘LGBT’ community.1817 According to amanual issued by the Taliban MPVPV in 2020 and revised in February 2021, same-sex
relations were prohibited, while “strong allegations” of homosexuality were to ‘be reported tothe ministry’s district manager for further action, presumably punishment.’1818 In October 2021,
a spokesperson for the Taliban Ministry of Finance said that ‘gay rights’ would not be included
into human rights respected within the framework of sharia and that ‘LGBT’ were ‘against our
Sharia law.’1819
In its annual report covering 2021, USDOS reported on human rights violations in relation to
LGBTIQ community members in Afghanistan as violence by different actors and the ‘existence
and use of laws criminalizing consensual same-sex sexual conduct’.1820 In June 2022, theUNSG noted that the Taliban MPVPV had ‘increased the enforcement of a wide range of rules
and directives’ on extramarital relations and dress code, next to other spheres.1821
Following the Taliban takeover, members of the LGBTIQ community were reported to have
faced attacks, direct threats by the Taliban,1822 arrests1823, detentions, torture, killings,1824 sexualassaults, and rapes.1825 Sources reported on street attacks and threats over the phone to
LGBTIQ persons.1826 Various sources reported that LGBTIQ persons were forced into hiding,This term is used in accordance with the EU policy strategy, available at url, which refers to sexual and genderminorities as: lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, non-binary, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) persons. In line with EASO COI
Research Guide on LGBTIQ, available at url, other acronyms (GBT, LGBT, LGBT+, etc.) are used when referencing
sources that use these acronyms.
1817
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1818
HRW, Afghanistan: Taliban Vice Handbook Abusive, 29 October 2021, url
1819
Thomas Reuters Foundation, Taliban say gay rights will not be respected under Islamic law, 29 October 2021,
url
1820
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 2–3
1821
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 15June 2022, url, para. 34
1822
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1823
FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url; Pink News, Taliban using
monkeypox as an excuse to round up and arrest LGBTQ+ Afghans, 3 June 2022, url
1824
FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url
1825
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url; FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee.
LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url; Pink News, Taliban using monkeypox as an excuse to round up andarrest LGBTQ+ Afghans, 3 June 2022, url
1826
ABC, LGBT Afghans are on the run, afraid they could be stoned to death under Taliban law, 2 September 2021,
url; DW, Afghanistan: LGBTQ people fear for their lives under Taliban rule, 10 September 2021, url; CNN, Angry andafraid, Afghanistan's LGBTQ community say they're being hunted down after Taliban takeover, 18 September 2021,
url; DW, Trans in Afghanistan: A mortal danger under the Taliban, 2 October 2021, url; Thompson Reuters
Foundation, LGBT+ Afghans fear being forgotten 100 days since Taliban takeover, 23 November 2021, url
1816

181

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

fearing for their lives and safety.1827 As reported by FP in May 2022, ‘dozens of cases ofharassment, beatings, burning, and killings of young people’ of the LGBT community were
documented by activists since 15 August 2022.1828 A report by Human Rights Watch noted that
LGBT people feared to leave their homes for work or shopping even if they received no direct
threats from the Taliban.1829
In a telephone interview with France24, the Executive Director of Rainbow Railroad, the onlyinternational LGBTIQ organisation in Afghanistan, claimed that the Taliban had a ‘kill list’ formembers of the LGBTIQ community, initially based on ‘information sharing’ by theinternational human rights groups to identify people to be evacuated after the takeover andcomplemented ‘through active persecution, by means of “entrapment” and data leaks.’1830 In
June 2022, the UK-based queer media outlet Pink News referred to two gay men living in
Kabul City, who claimed that targeting of LGBTQ+ community by the Taliban have intensified
after detection of monkeypox in Europe.1831
As reported by Human Rights Watch, after the Taliban takeover, many members of the LGBT
community left bigger cities and returned to their families in rural areas; many reportedly
changed their phone numbers and discontinued contact with other community members.1832
FP reported that some LGBT persons were suffering under ‘severe mental health problems,’
while many found themselves on the streets, after leaving their homes, with no means ofsubsistence.1833 In September 2021, the Guardian reported on rumours that the Taliban tried totrick gay men by contacting them on social media and offering ways to leave Afghanistan.
According to the same source, transgender women were forced to hide their gender identity,
and lesbian women to act ‘more feminine’.1834‘Gender nonconforming individuals’ interviewed by Human Rights Watch said they feared to
go to a passport office or to pass through checkpoints on public roads. It was also reported
that Taliban members had assaulted people wearing non-traditional clothes and searchedtheir phones and personal belongings to find evidence that they were members of LGBT
community. For lesbian and bisexual women, difficulties in moving around were reported dueto the Taliban’s requirement to have a male relative accompanying them.1835‘The half dozen queer Afghans,’ interviewed by FP and the Fuller Project in April 2022, said
the Taliban was ‘actively searching for them.’ One of the interviewed persons stated they were
tortured by the Taliban when the Taliban identified them as a member of the queer community
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 31; USDOS, Afghanistan
2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 48; HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January2022, url; FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url; BBC News, LGBT in
Afghanistan: I could be killed on the spot, 20 August 2021, url; ABC, LGBT Afghans are on the run, afraid they could
be stoned to death under Taliban law, 2 September 2021, url; CNN, Angry and afraid, Afghanistan's LGBTQ
community say they're being hunted down after Taliban takeover, 18 September 2021, url; Guardian (The), The
Taliban will have no mercy: LGBTQ+ Afghans go into hiding, 20 September 2021, url
1828
FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url
1829
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1830
France 24, The Taliban has a kill list for the Afghan LGBT community, NGO says, 2 November 2021, url
1831
Pink News, Taliban using monkeypox as an ‘excuse’ to ’round up’ and arrest LGBTQ+ Afghans, 3 June 2022, url
1832
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1833
FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url
1834
Guardian (The), The Taliban will have no mercy: LGBTQ+ Afghans go into hiding, 20 September 2021, url
1835
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1827

182

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

after checking their phone at a checkpoint in Kabul.1836 A member of civil society in
Afghanistan, interviewed by DIS in May 2022, noted that the Taliban were ‘very harsh’ on
checkpoints and some transgender people were beaten and detained for hours. 1837
As reported by DIS, there were ‘no regional differences concerning the treatment of LGBT
people by Taliban’ and LGBT people were often escaping their families and settling in major
cities, for instance Kabul City and Mazar-e Sharif.1838

11.2.

Societal treatment

Prior the Taliban takeover, members of the LGBTIQ community were reported to have faced
threats and harassment from the general society.1839 After 15 August 2021, attacks on LGBTIQ
people by family members, neighbours, and members of general society have reportedly
increased.1840 According to a June 2022 report of FP, many LGBT people were abused bytheir families and living in fear of their neighbours. Some claimed that their neighbours
reported them to the Taliban.1841 Beatings by neighbours were also reported.1842
In its January 2022 report, Human Rights Watch noted that LGBT people were facing threats
from family members, neighbours, acquittances, romantic partners, and online contacts whoeither became supportive of the Taliban or were trying ‘to ensure their own safety’ by taking
action against LGBT people. Some of the people interviewed by Human Rights Watch said
that their family members reported them to the de facto authorities, ‘seeing a chance to settle
old scores or to win their own protection from Taliban violence.’ In one instance, a gay man
said he had received threats from the Taliban, allegedly because his father, an acquittance toa senior Taliban official, used his connections to chase him down due to his sexual identity. In
some cases, the threats were coming from former romantic partners, who had joined the
Taliban.1843
Many LGBT Afghans were reported to have conformed to social expectations to marry adifferent-sex partner and have children, as they wanted to maintain connections with theirfamilies. As reported by Human Rights Watch, lesbian women were forced to engagement or
marriage. In one instance, a lesbian woman’s male relatives, who had joined the Taliban,
threatened her by saying that now ‘they had the power to kill’ her.1844

FP, What the Taliban Mean for Queer Afghans, 20 April 2022, url; Fuller Project (The), Queer Afghan lives are at
risk under the Taliban, 20 April 2022, url
1837
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 89
1838
Denmark, DIS, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population, June 2022, url, p. 31
1839
FP, What the Taliban Mean for Queer Afghans, 20 April 2022, url; Fuller Project (The), Queer Afghan lives are at
risk under the Taliban, 20 April 2022, url; USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 60
1840
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 60; HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies,
We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url; FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022,
url
1841
FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url
1842
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url; FP, Millions of Afghans Want to Flee.
LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022, url
1843
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1844
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1836

183

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

After the attack on a transgender person in Herat Province in December 2021, transgenderpeople residing in the province told TOLOnews that they were abandoned by their families
and rejected by the Afghan society.1845
In its 2021 report, USDOS noted that since 15 August 2021 it had become more difficult for
LGBTIQ people to gain access to reproductive healthcare due to ‘widespread discrimination
and abuse.’ At the same time, the previously existing support network of LGBTIQ people‘largely disintegrated’ as the members of the community either fled Afghanistan or went into
hiding.1846

11.3.

Incidents targeting LGBTIQ persons by the Taliban
and armed groups

As noted by Human Rights Watch in January 2022, the extent of violence against LGBT
people by the Taliban after the takeover remained unclear. The Taliban have denied theirinvolvement in extrajudicial killings, trying to gain international recognition, while the ability ofAfghan media to report on the instances of violence was undermined by the restrictions
imposed by the de facto authorities on the media and the impact of financial crisis on the
sector. Moreover, ‘documenting killings of people suspected of being LGBT’ have become‘especially difficult’ as people who know the victims either fear or are too ashamed toreport.1847
In the reference period, ACLED recorded two violations against LGBTIQ persons. Around 30
August 2021 in Kabul city, a gay man was reportedly stopped by two Taliban members, who
searched his phone and beat him after discovering content related to homosexuality. The
Taliban attempted to arrest the person, but he managed to escape. On 28 December 2021, a
65-year-old1848 transgender person was reportedly beaten and tortured by three men in Heratcity who tried ‘to have relations’ with the person.1849
On 2 September, ABC News referred to a 26-year-old man who stated that his boyfriend ‘hadbeen dragged from his house, beaten, and beheaded in the street’ on 15 August 2021.1850 In
an article on LGBT+ community on Afghanistan, published in November 2021, Thomas Reuters
Foundation News stated that ‘one gay man contacted by email said a friend had been killed
after gay material was found on his mobile phone during a checkpoint search.’ The article
noted further that killings of LBGT+ community members in Afghanistan had not been
independently verified, and a Taliban spokesman did not give any comments when contacted
by journalists.1851 As noted by Human Rights Watch in January 2022, some LGBT persons
TOLOnews, Transgender Person Attacked by Unknown Individuals in Herat, 29 December 2021, url
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 48
1847
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1848
TOLOnews, Transgender Person Attacked by Unknown Individuals in Herat, 29 December 2021, url
1849
ACLED, Curated Data Files, Afghanistan, as of 6 June 2022; TOLOnews, Transgender Person Attacked by
Unknown Individuals in Herat, 29 December 2021, url
1850
ABC, LGBT Afghans are on the run, afraid they could be stoned to death under Taliban law, 2 September 2021,
url
1851
Thompson Reuters Foundation News, LGBT+ Afghans fear being forgotten 100 days since Taliban takeover, 23
November 2021, url
1845

1846

184

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

indicated that several people they knew had gone missing since 15 August 2021, and they
believed they had been killed. In one case, a male couple claimed that their ‘several gay
friends’ had been killed, allegedly by the Taliban in targeted killings that were motivated bytheir sexuality and/or participation in anti-Taliban protests.1852
In August 2021, a gay man was reported to have been ‘tricked into a meeting by two Taliban
members’, who beat and raped him.1853 Two gay men interviewed for the January 2022 reportof Human Rights Watch said that ‘they were raped or blackmailed into sex’ by the members of
the Taliban.1854

HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 60
1854
HRW, Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022, url
1852
1853

185

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

12.

Education personnel

12.1.

BackgroundThe enrolment of children increased from approximately 1 million students to 10 million in
2001–2018. In the same period, female pupils rose from almost zero to around 2.5 million.1855
In the years before the Taliban takeover, some schools and other parts of the education
system were targeted by the Taliban.1856 Based on a Human Rights Watch report covering thefirst six months of 2021, explosive weapons were used to attack about 40 schools. 185
students and teachers were killed or wounded in the attacks, most were girls and women.1857
Prior to the takeover, the Taliban’s increasing presence in rural areas resulted in a growing
number of public schools under their control. In some schools, continued teaching wasallowed, except for certain subjects. Other schools only provided education for males or werelimited to religious topics.1858

12.2.

General situation under Taliban rule

Following the Taliban takeover, primary and elementary school remained open1859 but girls’
secondary schools were closed.1860 Human Rights Watch noted that Taliban policies towards
education since August 2021 resulted in a ‘collection of fragmented and sometimes
incoherent policies’, and called the situation of girls’ secondary education ‘a patchwork’.1861
The lack of a clear policies regarding women teachers and girls’ education, combined with
non-payment of teachers’ salaries, led to low enrolment rates even where schools were
open.1862 Some girls and women attended secret schools to cope with the restrictions.1863
There was reportedly a shortage of female teachers1864, a longstanding issue which worsened
after the Taliban takeover as some teachers fled the country or left their jobs due to the nonpayment of salaries.1865 The lack of funds caused difficulties for the de facto authorities toensure payment of salaries to education personnel1866, and also impacted the operationality of

UNESCO, The right to education: What’s at stake in Afghanistan?, A 20 year review, 2021, url, p. 7
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url
1857
HRW, Explosive Weapons Attacks on Afghanistan Schools Increase, 7 September 2021, url
1858
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url
1859
TOLOnews, Afghan Students Anxious as Schools Remain Closed, 16 September 2021, url
1860
TOLOnews, Concerns of Afghan Girls Rise Over Closed Schools, 21 September 2021, url
1861
HRW, Four Ways to Support Girls’ Access to Education in Afghanistan, 20 March 2022, url
1862
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url
1863
FT, Secret schools keep Afghan girls learning, 28 March 2022, url; BBC News, Afghanistan: The secret girls
school defying the Taliban, 18 May 2022, url
1864
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peace and security, 28January 2022, url, para. 10
1865
HRW, Four Ways to Support Girls’ Access to Education in Afghanistan, 20 March 2022, url
1866
RFE/RL/Gandhara, We Are Hungry: Afghan Schools Left Without Teachers As Instructors Struggle To Survive,
24 November 2021, url
1855

1856

186

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

schools, purchase of learning materials and teachers’ training.1867 Foreign aid initiatives
provided cash support to some public teachers.1868 The World Bank channelled incentives
planned to financially support teachers in provinces allowing girls’ secondary education1869,
but following the Taliban’s decision to not reopen all secondary schools, the World Bank
suspended four projects in worth USD 600 million.1870
For more information on women’s and girls’ access to education, see section 5.2.1. Access to
education.

12.3.

Incidents targeting education personnel andschool facilities

In January 2022, Afghan teachers employed at the British Council (‘a public body that works
around the world to promote cultural and educational links’) in Helmand Province, reported to
BBC that they hid from the Taliban out of fear of reprisals.1871 According to more than 20
testimonies to Amnesty International from 16 September to 8 October 2021, teachers faced
intimidation and death threats.1872 A high school teacher reported to be threatened to death by
Taliban. On 18 August 2021, two students were reportedly beaten by the Taliban while
attempting to go to English classes, as considered ‘infidels language’. A secondary school
teacher said to be harassed and intimidated by the Taliban following a media interview inwhich she complained about teacher salaries and girls’ access to secondary education.1873
On 10 January 2022, UNAMA document the death of eight children, and injury of four, after an
explosive remnant of war exploded near a school in Nangarhar Province.1874 On 19 April 2022,
a twin explosion occurred in Abdul Rahim Shaheed High School, and close to the Mumtaz
Education Center. Both sites were within Hazara neighbourhoods in the area Dasht-e Barchi in
Kabul City. According to Amnesty International, the explosion killed six persons and injured atleast 11, including children.1875 At the time of writing, the death-toll is not yet definitive. In theaftermath of the attack, there was no immediate claim of responsibility, but ISKP has been
attributed previous attacks in the area.1876
There were also incidents of the Taliban arresting university professors criticising them. For
more information, see section 1.2.1. Expressed opposition and criticism.

UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 20
UNICEF, Afghanistan Humanitarian Situation Report n.3, 1-28 February 2022, url
1869
Guardian (The), West plans to tie Afghan teacher aid to girls’ education pledge, 22 January 2022, url
1870
BBC News, Afghanistan: World Bank freezes projects over girls' school ban, 30 March 2022, url
1871
BBC News, Afghanistan: Terrified British Council teachers still in hiding, 13 January 2022, url
1872
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban must allow girls to return to school immediately – new testimony, 13 October 2021, url
1873
AI, Afghanistan: Taliban must allow girls to return to school immediately – new testimony, 13 October 2021, url;Amnesty International decided to omit precise locations of incidents for security reasons
1874
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022, url, para. 24
1875
BBC News, Afghanistan: School bombings a reprehensible attack on religious and ethnic minorities, 19 April
2022, url
1876
BBC News, Kabul blasts kill six and wound 20 at boys' school, 19 April 2022, url; France 24, Several killed intwin explosions at Shiite school in Afghan capital, 19 April 2022, url
1867

1868

187

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

13.

Recruitment to armed groups

According to Omar Nuhzat, a Kabul-based political analyst, recruitment by different terroristgroups, particularly by ISKP, increased in Afghanistan following the withdrawal of international
forces.1877 In March 2022, VOA reported the following number of militants in Afghanistan:
•
•
•
•
•
•

ISKP: 4 000 fighters (half were estimated to be foreigners)
Al Qaeda in the Indian subcontinent: 400 fighters
Haqqani Network: 3 000–10 000 fighters
TTP: 3 000–5 000 (along the Pakistan–Afghanistan border)
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU): ‘several hundred fighters’
Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM): 200–700 fighters.1878

Regarding the aforementioned figures, no additional or corroborated information could befound among the sources consulted by EUAA within the time constraints of this report.
For more information on recruitment by different militant groups in Afghanistan before 2021,
see EASO COI report on Afghanistan – Anti-Government Elements (August 2020).

13.1.

Recruitment to the Taliban

13.1.1.

Overview

During spring and summer of 2021, when the US and its allied forces started withdrawing fromAfghanistan, the Taliban reportedly recruited between 5 000 and 10 000 new fighters, anumber approximately ‘10 times higher than the normal influx of Taliban recruits to
Afghanistan during other regular fighting seasons’.1879 During the same period, the group’s‘clerics and commanders’ mobilised thousands of fighters and supporters from Pakistan toenter Afghanistan and strengthen their ranks across the country. Recruitment took place inmosques, training camps and madrassas in Pakistan, and numerous newly recruited Afghan
students went to Afghanistan before completing their studies.1880
According to VOA, in August 2021, ‘the number of fighters in the Taliban group's ranks has notbeen independently confirmed’.1881 However, according to other sources, between 15 August2021 and January 2022, the de facto government reportedly had an estimated number of
80 000 members in its ranks1882, who were stationed in eight military corps throughout

Salaam Times, Terrorist attacks aim to stoke ethnic, sectarian division in Afghanistan, 25 April 2022, url
VOA, How Afghanistan’s militant groups are evolving under Taliban rule, 20 March 2022, url
1879
SIGAR, Quarterly report to the United States Congress, 30 April 2022, url
1880
Washington Post (The), Taliban recruits flood into Afghanistan from neighbouring Pakistan as the group works
to consolidate control, 18 December 2021, url
1881
VOA, Taliban seeking 110 000 – strong army after 6 months in power, 15 February 2022, url
1882
Guardian (The), A tale of two enemies; why Afghan forces proved no much for the Taliban?, 15 August 2021, url;
TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022, url
1877

1878

188

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Afghanistan.1883 In May 2022, a spokesperson for the Taliban Ministry of Defence claimed thatthe ministry had recruited 130 000 troops.1884
According to the UN Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, reporting on 26 May
2022, the Taliban government planned to have a total number of between 300 000 and
350 000 personnel for both the Taliban ministries of defence and interior, with 100 000 to
150 000 under the command of the Taliban Minister of Defence. The mentioned source
further added that around 7 000 Taliban recruits had completed their training.1885
As of 15 August 2021, the Taliban started to recruit and train new de facto police personnel for
Kabul City, which reportedly reached 4 000 individuals in October 2021. During the same
period, the Taliban ordered former government employees to return to work, including former
police officers but ‘returns were slow due to fear of retaliation and lack of salary payments’.1886
In October 2021, Mawlawi Qudratullah Abuhamza, governor of Balkh, stated that ‘soldiers fromdifferent ethnic groups have been recruited into the Balkh military corps’.1887
In December 2021, the de facto government reportedly designated a new ‘special committee’of 20 members ‘to review the Afghanistan army’. The committee was mandated ‘to work on aplan to create a “committed, disciplined, equipped, honest and responsible” army for
Afghanistan.’1888 In January 2022, the Taliban reportedly announced that the group will recruit‘professional people’ in their army.1889 According to Bakhtar News, the Taliban planned ”torecruit experienced military officers”1890, including officers and soldiers who served during theformer regime.1891 According to Taliban spokesperson Zabihullah Mujahid, ‘women will be
recruited based on need, and troops with expert skills who were in the former army will also
be recruited’.1892 In an interview with TOLOnews in January 2022, a spokesperson of the
Taliban Ministry of Defence stated that the enrolment process of new army members reachedabout 80 %, and that the registration of new members would be carried out in kandaks(battalions), lewas (brigades) and in other military bases across the country.1893
According to Paikan, a Mazar-e Sharif based TV channel, the Taliban planned to recruit 143
women to serve within the 11 Police Districts, and Taliban criminal departments and Taliban
prisons of the province. The mentioned recruitment process was claimed to be almost
completed, and salaries paid to recruited female de facto police. Female de facto police
personnel were recruited for the purpose of serving in prosecution and arrest cases, inparticular during house searches, where female members of a family would be searched only

TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022, url
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate: over 130 000 soldiers recruited, 15 May 2022, url
1885
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, /2022/419, 26
May 2022, url, p. 11
1886
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, pp. 1–2
1887
TOLOnews, In Balkh, MoD official urges troops to guard the nation, 17 October 2021, url
1888
Ariana News, IEA appoints committee to review the Afghan army, 11 November 2021, url
1889
TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022, url
1890
Bakhtar News Agency, MoD: Experience military personnel to join in new army, 14 February 2022, url
1891
Al Jazeera, Taliban to create Afghanistan’s grand army with old regime troops, 22 February 2022, url
1892
Ariana News, IEA to include Istishhad battalion in new army, 4 January 2022, url
1893
TOLOnews, MoD to form 100,000-member defense force, 1 January 2022, url
1883

1884

189

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

by women in accordance with Afghan culture.1894 Some of the newly recruited women havereportedly started operating in Mazar-e Sharif.1895 In June 2022, a former female police officer
in Balkh told Ariana News that she had returned to work and continued her previous job.1896

13.1.2.

Forced recruitment

According to several sources, the Taliban planned to build a ‘regular’ army in Afghanistan.1897
As of January 2022, the Taliban Chief of Staff, Qari Fasihuddin Fitrat, reportedly announced
that the Taliban would recruit soldiers on voluntary basis to their army.1898
No information on forced recruitment to the Taliban could be found within the time constraintsof this report.

13.2.

Recruitment to Islamic State Khorasan Province

As of May 2022, ISKP reportedly had between 1 500 and 4 000 fighters in Afghanistan settled
in rural areas of Kunar, Nangarhar (probably in Nuristan) provinces, with ‘smaller covert cells’ inNorthern provinces of Afghanistan including in the provinces Badakhshan, Faryab, Jawzjan,
Kunduz and Takhar.1899 According to the Guardian, reporting in February 2022, ISKP was
broadly recruiting across the country.1900 According to an independent Afghan analyst,
interviewed by EUAA in November 2021, ISKP used to have most presence in Nangarhar,
Kunar and Kabul. Nangarhar was the first stronghold of ISKP in Afghanistan, and many rural
areas in the province were under ISKP control for almost five years, until late 2019. The group
had some tribal support, but were defeated by the former security forces supported by US
intelligence. In Kabul, university students, Salafis and other groups had joined ISKP and thegroup had ‘a lot’ of support in the capital. ISKP also had support in Kunar which used to be the‘second home’ of ISKP as they fled into the province and established a stronghold there after
being defeated in Nangarhar Province in late 2019. According to the analyst, ISKP, unlike the
Taliban, was composed of a large number of non-Pashtuns. The group was inter alia
consisting of Tajik Islamists from Badakhshan and Parwan provinces, and Uzbeks from Faryab
Province and Mazar-e Sharif. The majority were Salafis and the Pashtun-Tajik tensions ‘within
Islamic circles’ reportedly made ISKP gain support. The analyst further stated that one could
see trends on social media where non-Pashtun and anti-Taliban segments of the Northernalliance, who were part of the previous government, supported ISKP only because they werefighting the Taliban. According to the analyst, who referred to information from a former
Afghan special forces’ general, about 13–15 persons from the former security forces had
Paikan TV, ‫[ فرماندهی جلب و جذب در بلخ از آغاز روند جذب بانوان خبر میدهند‬The recruitment command in Balkh announces
the beginning of the process of recruiting women] [Online video], 7 June 2022, url
1895
Kabul24 [Twitter], posted on: 9 June 2022, url
1896
Aria News, Hiring of 1,800 police female officers in Balkh [Online video], 10 June 2022, url
1897
TOLOnews, Taliban says it will build a regular army, include former members, 15 September 2021, url; Pajhwok,
Taliban finalising plan to create new army, 16 September 2021, url; RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban turns insurgents into
commandos as it builds fully capable army, 19 January 2022, url
1898
TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022, url
1899
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022,
url, p. 18
1900
Guardian (The), Two suspect British Islamic State recruits seized by Taliban at border, 8 February 2022, url
1894

190

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

joined ISKP, while other sources indicated around 2–3 dozens. The analyst further stated thatabout 2 000–3 000 ISKP members were released during the takeover when the Taliban
opened Pul-e Charkhi Prison and Bagram Prison.1901
According to Afghan Voice Agency (AVA), a local media outlet in Afghanistan, ISKP has been
increasingly recruiting amongst ‘unhappy’ Taliban members whose salaries have not been
paid by the Taliban in the northern province of Samangan, including in Dara-i-Suf-e Payin(Lower Suf valley), Dara-I Suf-e Bala (Upper Suf valley) and Hazrat-e Sultan districts. As of
October 2021, the number of new recruits reached 50 members (in Samangan) and therecruitment has been continuing. ISKP has reportedly promised a salary of 35 000 Afghani[about EUR 375] to each of its fighters.1902 The New York Times cited a former Afghan
government employee stating that ‘the worsening economic situation in the country is […]driving the Islamic State’s recruitment’.1903 According to Azizullah Ayoubi, a military analyst in
Badakhshan Province, quoted by Salaam Times, "the increasing unemployment and poverty inthe country has been an achievement for [ISKP], as it recruits the youth and pays themmonthly salaries".1904
In Afghanistan, ISKP reportedly tried to recruit amongst Tajik1905, and also Turkmen and Uzbek
ethic groups in northern Afghanistan, and ‘to capitalize on the growing dissatisfaction among
ethnic Tajiks, Turkmen, and Uzbeks against Taliban rule in northern Afghanistan’.1906
According to Antonio Giustozzi, scholar and author of several books on the Taliban, ‘theTaliban seem to be trying to prevent [ISKP] and other opposition groups from using media
reporting as a tool in their propaganda/recruitment strategy’.1907
ISKP’s top leader, Shahab al-Muhajir, reportedly recruited members in Afghanistan including‘young individuals from influential political and warlord families’.1908 According to Jeff Seldin,
who serves as a National Security Correspondent for Voice of American, ISKP ‘increased its
recruiting of ETIM [Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement] members’.1909 On 2 April 2022,
Salaam Times reported that ISKP posted a video on social media showing its newly recruitedmembers, in an unknown area of Afghanistan, ‘pledging allegiance’ to the group’s global
leader Abu Hasan al-Hashemi al-Qurashi. The source cited a native of Panjsher Province
residing in Kabul who stated that ‘the current situation has made the ground more conducive
for [ISKP] recruitment’.1910

Independent Afghan analyst, digital interview, 8 November 2021
AVA, ‫سربازگیری داعش از میان سربازان ناراضی طالبان در سمنگان‬, [ISKP recruiting from amongst unhappy Taliban soldiers in
Samangan], 21 October 2021, url
1903
New York Times (The), ISIS poses a growing threat to new Taliban government in Afghanistan, 3 November
2021, url
1904
Salaam Times, ISIS attack worrying residence of Afghanistan’s northern provinces, 18 May 2022, url
1905
Diplomat (The), Islamic State in Afghanistan looks to recruit regional Tajiks, inflict violence against Tajikistan, 29
April 2022, url
1906
FPRI, Northern Afghanistan and the new threat to central Asia, 13 May 2022, url, p. 6
1907
Giustozzi, A., The Taliban homemade counterinsurgency, RUSI, 4 January 2022, url
1908
CTC, The Islamic State Threat in Taliban Afghanistan: Tracing the Resurgence of Islamic State Khorasan, 1January 2022, url
1909
VOA, How Afghanistan’s militant groups are evolving under Taliban rule, 20 March 2022, url
1910
Salaam Times, Fresh ISIS recruitment efforts raise concerns in Afghanistan, 11 April 2022, url
1901

1902

191

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

According to the UN Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, reporting on 26 May
2022, there was an increase in ISKP recruitment in Afghanistan, which was ‘fuelled by prison
releases [between 500 and 1 000 fighters in August 2021], tensions within the Taliban and[ISKP] financial resources’. There have been Tajik and Uzbek defections within the Taliban in
the north changing allegiance from the Taliban to ISKP.1911

13.3.

Child recruitment

United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) reported in January 2022
that, prior to the Taliban takeover, ‘the task force verified the recruitment and use of at least
47 boys, 24 of whom were recruited by the Taliban, 16 by [former] pro-government militia and7 by the [former] Afghan National Police’. According to the same source, meanwhile ‘children
in the ranks of Taliban have become more visible since its takeover, leading to perceptions
that the recruitment of children has increased, despite much of the recruitment likely having
occurred previously’.1912
According to the Taliban Layeha (code of conduct), ‘youngsters (whose beards are not visible
because of their age) are not allowed to be kept by mujahidin in residential or militarycentres’.1913 More recently on 27 March 2022, the Taliban supreme leader reportedly issued adecree instructing Taliban military officials not to recruit minors.1914
In September 2021, Human Rights Watch stated that ‘thousands of children may remain’ in
Taliban ranks. According to the article, over the past two decades, the Taliban used children
during conflict to plant and detonate IEDs, and as suicide bombers. Taliban commanders usedmadrassas ‘to train and provide children as soldiers’. In addition, the group reportedly
brainwashed boys aged 6 years old, who often were trained to use a weapon at the age of 13.
Children between the age of 13 and 17 were trained to join fighting according to Human Rights
Watch.1915 On 14 December 2021, Nada Al-Nashif, UN Deputy High Commissioner for Human
Rights expressed deep concerns about ‘the continued risk of child recruitment, particularly
boys, by both [ISKP] and the de facto authorities’.1916 On 12 January 2022, a report of UNHCHR
indicated that the economic situation increasingly deteriorated after the Taliban takeover, andthe increased poverty could led to ‘recruitment and use of children by armed groups’.1917
In a February 2022 documentary provided by VICE News in Afghanistan, there was a video
footage of young boys in the ranks of the Taliban including some holding guns. No further
information was provided whether these boys were serving the Taliban. However, in response

UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, 26 May 2022,
url, pp. 17, 18
1912
UNHCHR, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 12 January 2022, url, p. 6
1913
Taliban, ‫[ الیحه‬code of conduct], Voice of Jihad, n.d., url; Referring to an English translation of the Layeha (2010version) made by the AAN, Clark, K., The Layha: Calling the Taleban to Account, AAN, 4 July 2011, url, p. 22
1914
Bakhtar News Agency, Amir-ul-Momineen: minors are not to be recruited in ranks or bases of mujahideen, 27
March 2022, url
1915
HRW, This is our opportunity to end the Taliban’s use of child soldiers, 20 September 2021, url
1916
UN News, Afghanistan: humanitarian crisis threatens basic human rights, 14 December 2021, url
1917
UNHCHR, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, 12 January 2022, url, p. 6
1911

192

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

to the journalist, some of the young boys stated that they wished to become Talib in the
future.1918
According to USDOS, the Taliban recruited children from madrassas in Afghanistan andPakistan in 2021, where they received military training and religious studies. In addition,
sometimes, families of these children were provided with ‘cash payments or protection in
exchange for sending their children to these schools’.1919 On 13 May 2022, journalist Bilal
Sarwary stated that the Taliban used young children in their ranks. He posted an image onsocial media showing at least five children in a Taliban pick-up vehicle, where some of thechildren held weapons.1920

VICE News, Six months after the Taliban took control of Afghanistan, women’s rights are rapidly eroding [Online
video], 13 February 2022, url
1919
USDOS, Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April 2022, url, p. 22
1920
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 13 May 2022, url
1918

193

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Annex 1: Bibliography
Oral sources
Afghan human rights activist, digital meeting 2 December 2021. This source left Afghanistan
after the Taliban takeover but remains in contact with sources on the ground. The source
wishes to be anonymous.
Adili, A. Y., programme coordinator at New America and researcher with AAN, digitalinterview, 16 May 2022. Ali Yawar Adili is Programme Coordinator at the think tank New
America and a researcher associated with the AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network).
Afghan human rights expert, digital interview, 11 November 2021. This source left Afghanistan
as the Taliban took power but remains in contact with sources on the ground. The source
monitors developments within the human rights field through local sources in the country. The
source wishes to be anonymous.
Afghan law professor, digitally interview, 9 November 2021. This source is not based in
Afghanistan but remains in contact with persons on the ground. The source has extensive
experience of academic research on, inter alia, the Afghan justice system. The source wishes
to be anonymous.
Akbar, S., previous chairperson of AIHRC (Afghanistan Independent Human Rights
Commission), email contact on 22 and 24 June 2022.
Chiovenda, A. (Dr.), professor at Zayed University, digital interview, 9 November 2021. Dr.
Andrea Chiovenda is an adjunct assistant professor of anthropology at Zayed University, andfocuses on psychological anthropology, gender among Pashtuns in Afghanistan, and Afghan
refugees in Greece.
Foschini, F., AAN analyst, email, 9 June 2022. Dr. Fabio Foschini is an analyst for the AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network).
Gossman, P., Associate Asia Director for Human Rights Watch, digital interview, 12 May 2022.
Independent Afghan analyst, digital interview, 8 November 2021. The source conducts
research on militant groups in Afghanistan, mainly through open-source material. The source
is not based in Afghanistan. The source wishes to be anonymous.
International analyst, digital interview, 17 March 2022. The source is based in Afghanistan andmonitors conflict-related violence and human rights abuses.
Kerr Chiovenda, M. (Dr.), professor at Zayed University, digital interview, 9 November 2021. Dr.
Melissa Kerr Chiovenda is an assistant professor of anthropology at Zayed University, andfocuses on political anthropology, Hazaras in Afghanistan, and Afghan refugees in Greece.

194

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Representatives of an anonymous organisation with presence in Afghanistan, digital interview,
31 May 2022. The contact wishes to remain anonymous for security reasons.
Representative of an international NGO (a), digital interview, 31 May 2022. The contact haspresence in Kabul, Afghanistan. The contact wishes to remain anonymous for security
reasons.
Representative of an international NGO (b), digital interview, 1 June 2022. The contact haspresence in Kabul, Afghanistan. The contact wishes to remain anonymous for security
reasons.
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 16 May 2022. The source worked for USAID in a
project on women’s rights before the Taliban’s takeover of power. She lives in Kabul. The
source wishes to remain anonymous for security reasons.
Women’s rights activist, telephone interview, 17 May 2022. The source is a former university
professor based in Herat. The source wishes to remain anonymous for security reasons.

Public sources
AA (Anadolu Agency), Taliban asks women healthcare workers to resume duties, 28 August
2021, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/taliban-asks-women-healthcare-workers-toresume-duties/2349122, accessed 16 May 2022
AA (Anadolu Agency), Taliban have all-inclusive government in Afghanistan, claims acting
foreign minister, 12 November 2021, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/taliban-have-allinclusive-government-in-afghanistan-claims-acting-foreign-minister/2419061, accessed 30
June 2022
AA (Anadolu Agency), Taliban notify Gov’t servants to return to jobs, 21 August 2021,
https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/taliban-notify-govt-servants-to-return-to-jobs/2342480,
accessed 30 June 2022
AA (Anadolu Agency), Turkish Embassy in Kabul continues operations: Foreign minister,
https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkey/turkish-embassy-in-kabul-continues-operations-foreignminister/2336114, accessed 30 June 2022
ABC News, Afghan women traveling alone boarding flights despite ban, 29 March 2022,
https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/afghan-women-traveling-boarding-flights-ban83740517, accessed 1 June 2022
ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), In Afghanistan, women's rights activists feared fortheir lives, now they are disappearing, 21 November 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/202111-21/afghanistan-women-activists-killed-disappearing/100622994, accessed 9 June 2022
ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), Taliban tells female Kabul government workers
not go to work as a deadly blast rocks Jalalabad, 19 September 2021,

195

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-20/taliban-tells-kabul-female-workers-to-stayhome/100475228, accessed 16 May 2022
ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), Interpreter who assisted ADF executed by Taliban,
20 October 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-20/afghan-interpreter-worked-withaustralian-troops-killed-taliban/100552634, accessed 30 June 2022
ABC (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), LGBT Afghans are on the run, afraid they could bestoned to death under Taliban law, 2 September 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-0902/afghans-lgbt-community-face-stoning-under-taliban-law/100412330, accessed 17 June
2022
Abdul salam zaeef. [Twitter], posted on: 24 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/abdulsalamzaeef/status/1506917692569182212, accessed 14 July 2022
Abdulhaq Omeri [Twitter], 15 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/AbdulhaqOmeri/status/1482222803906617347?s=20, accessed 17 June
2022
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project), Data Export Tool, Incident data
covering the period 16 August 2021 – 17 June 2022, n.d. , accessed 22 June 2022
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project) and APW (Afghan Peace Watch),
Report on violence and conflict development since the Taliban takeover in August 2021
(violence against civilians; anti-Taliban actors; armed clashes between Taliban and IslamicState (IS) group; Taliban infighting), 14 April 2022, https://acleddata.com/2022/04/14/trackingdisorder-during-taliban-rule-in-afghanistan-a-joint-acled-and-apw-report/, accessed 30 June
2022
ACLED (Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project) and APW (Afghan Peace Watch),
Tracking Disorder During Taliban Rule in Afghanistan, April 2022,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2071514/ACLED_APW_JointReport_Tracking-DisorderDuring-Taliban-Rule-in-Afghanistan_WebFin2022.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
ACAPS, Humanitarian Access Overview, 9 December 2021,
https://reliefweb.int/report/world/crisisinsight-humanitarian-access-overview-december-2021,
accessed 16 May 2022
Adili, A. Y., A Community Under Attack: How successive governments failed west Kabul andthe Hazaras who live there, AAN, 17 January 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/a-community-under-attack-how-successivegovernments-failed-west-kabul-and-the-hazaras-who-live-there/, accessed 30 June 2022
Adili, A.Y, Afghanistan’s 2019 election (18): How the people of Bamyan, Daikundi and Lal wa
Sarjangal voted, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 16 October 2019,https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/afghanistans-2019election-18-how-the-hazaras-of-bamyan-daikundi-and-lal-wa-sarjangal-voted/, accessed 30
June 2022

196

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Adili, A. Y., Intra-Afghan Talks (1): Rules of procedure agreed, but still no agenda as talks
resume, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 3 January 2021, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/intra-afghan-talks-1-rules-of-procedure-agreed-but-stillno-agenda-as-talks-resume/, accessed 15 June 2022
Adili, A. Y., Still Preoccupied by Who Gets What, Afghanistan Analysts Network (AAN), 5
August 2020, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/stillpreoccupied-by-who-gets-what-100-days-of-the-new-government-but-no-full-cabinet/,
accessed 15 June 2022
Afghan Analyst [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/afghananalyst2/status/1506548437331890176, accessed 14 July 2022
Afghan Analyst [Twitter], posted on: 21 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/AfghanAnalyst2/status/1528051059326869506, accessed 30 June 2022
Afghan Bios, Maulvi Abdul Sattar Sabir, 10 February 2022, http://www.afghanbios.info/index.php?option=com_afghanbios&id=4946&task=view&total=849&start=795&Itemi
d=2, accessed 30 June 2022
Afghan Bios, Qari Bakhtiar Muaz, 21 March 2022, http://www.afghanbios.info/index.php?option=com_afghanbios&id=5072&task=view&total=696&start=635&Itemi
d=2, accessed 30 June 2022
Afghan Bios, Qari Ehsanullah Baryal, 30 May 2022, http://www.afghanbios.info/index.php?option=com_afghanbios&id=4957&task=view&total=692&start=649&Itemi
d=2, accessed 30 June 2022
Afghan Witness [Twitter], posted on: 8 June 2022,
https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1534566040318918656.html, accessed 24 June 2022
Afghanistan Times, Afghan women activists meet Taliban in Oslo, 25 January 2022,
https://www.afghanistantimes.af/afghan-women-activists-meet-taliban-in-oslo/, accessed 17
June 2022
AFJC (Afghanistan Journalists Center), AFJC welcomes the release of former Pajhwok
managing director in Mazar-e-Sharif, 9 January 2022, https://afjc.media/english/events/pressrelease/afjc-welcomes-the-release-of-former-pajhwok-managing-director-in-mazar-e-sharif,
accessed 17 June 2022
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Abandoned by Turkey, Afghan airport staff protest in Kabul, 22
December 2021, available at: https://www.geo.tv/latest/389205-abandoned-by-turkey-afghanairport-staff-protest-in-kabul, accessed 30 June 2022
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Afghan diplomats under pressure from Taliban regime, 14 March
2022, available at: https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220314-afghan-diplomatsunder-pressure-from-taliban-regime, accessed 30 June 2022

197

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

AFP (Agence France-Presse), Afghanistan’s last Sikhs in a dilemma: To stay or leave, 20
January 2022, available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/20/stay-or-go-dilemmafacing-last-afghanistan-sikhs, accessed 30 June 2022
AFP, Anxiety and fear for women in Taliban stronghold, 9 October 2021, available at:https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211009-anxiety-and-fear-for-women-in-talibanstronghold, accessed 30 June 2022
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Ex-government workers mine for salvation in Afghan mountains,
28 January 2022, available at: https://www.rfi.fr/en/ex-government-workers-mine-for-salvationin-afghan-mountains, accessed 30 June 2022
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Grim Reminder of Taliban Past: Seven Afghan Men Flogged on‘First Such’ Supreme Court Order, 20 April 2022, available at:https://www.news18.com/news/world/grim-reminder-of-taliban-past-seven-afghan-menflogged-on-first-such-supreme-court-order-5022067.html, accessed 30 June 2022
AFP (Agence France-Presse), Taliban reject claims of summary killings of ex-security forces, 5
December 2021, available at : https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211205-talibanreject-claims-of-summary-killings-of-ex-security-forces, accessed 30 June 2022
AFP, Taliban warn against dissent, women’s rights activism, 22 January 2022, available bysubscription at:https://global.factiva.com/ha/default.aspx#./!?&_suid=1656327435159041617217297003783,
accessed 30 June 2022
Ahmad, J., The Taliban’s religious roadmap for Afghanistan, 26 January 2022,
https://www.mei.edu/publications/talibans-religious-roadmap-afghanistan, accessed 15 June2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan 2021, 29 March 2022,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-asia/afghanistan/reportafghanistan/, accessed 30 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Survivors of gender-based violence abandoned
following Taliban takeover, 6 December 2021,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/12/afghanistan-survivors-of-gender-basedviolence-abandoned-following-taliban-takeover-new-research/, accessed 28 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban authorities must reveal Alia Azizi’s
whereabouts, 21 January 2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/01/afghanistantaliban-authorities-must-reveal-alia-azizis-whereabouts/, accessed 30 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban must allow girls to return to school
immediately – new testimony, 13 October 2021,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/10/afghanistan-taliban-must-allow-girls-toreturn-to-school-immediately-new-testimony/?msclkid=5bfa38e7b71111ec921fbb57a84a6c59,
accessed 17 June 2022

198

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: The Taliban must immediately release Professor
Faizullah Jalal, 10 January 2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/01/talibanmust-release-professor-faizullah-jalal/, accessed 30 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: The Taliban must immediately release YouTuber
Ajmal Haqiqi and his colleagues, 8 June 2022,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/06/afghanistan-the-taliban-must-immediatelyrelease-youtuber-ajmal-haqiqi-and-his-colleagues/, accessed 30 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban Must Immediately Stop Arbitrary Arrests ofJournalists, Civil Society Activists, Former Government Officials and Those Who Dissent, 21
March 2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/wpcontent/uploads/2022/03/ASA1153692022ENGLISH.pdf, accessed 10 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban responsible for brutal massacre of Hazara men– new investigation, 19 August 2021,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/08/afghanistan-taliban-responsible-for-brutalmassacre-of-hazara-men-newinvestigation/?utm_source=annual_report&utm_medium=epub&utm_campaign=2021&utm_ter
m=english, accessed 30 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: Taliban wasting no time in stamping out human rights
says new briefing, 21 September 2021,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/09/afghanistan-taliban-wasting-no-time-instamping-out-human-rights-says-new-briefing/, accessed 14 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: The fate of thousands hanging in the balance:
Afghanistan’s fall into the hands of the Taliban, 21 September 2021,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa11/4727/2021/en/, accessed 15 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Afghanistan: The Taliban must immediately release YouTuber
Ajmal Haqiqi and his colleagues, 8 June 2022,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/06/afghanistan-the-taliban-must-immediatelyrelease-youtuber-ajmal-haqiqi-and-his-colleagues/, accessed 21 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), They are the revolution, Afghan women fighting for their future
under Taliban rule, 25 November 2021, https://www.amnesty.org/en/wpcontent/uploads/2021/11/ASA1149682021ENGLISH.pdf, accessed 13 May 2022
AI (Amnesty International), Reports on the Human Rights situation covering 2021, 29 March
2022, https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-asia/afghanistan/reportafghanistan/, accessed 17 June 2022
AI (Amnesty International), There is a window of opportunity to negotiate for the rights of
Afghan women, but it is rapidly closing, 1 April 2022,
https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/04/there-is-a-window-of-opportunity-tonegotiate-for-the-rights-of-afghan-women-but-it-is-rapidly-closing/, accessed 22 June 2022

199

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMAIHRC (Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission), Assessing the Extent of the
Implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination in
Afghanistan, 2018, https://www.aihrc.org.af/media/files/ENGLISH%20HAMAL.pdf, accessed 30
June 2022
AIHRC [Twitter], posted on: 18 September 2021,
https://twitter.com/afghanistanihrc/status/1439236862414098432, accessed 13 June 2022
Aikins, M., Inside the Fall of Kabul, New York Times (The), 10 December 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/10/magazine/fall-of-kabul-afghanistan.html, accessed 30
June 2022
Al Arabiya, Taliban say burqa not compulsory for women, hijab is as they take overAfghanistan, 17 August 2021, https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2021/08/17/Taliban-sayburqa-not-compulsory-for-women-hijab-is-as-they-take-over-Afghanistan, accessed 7 June
2022
Al Emarah English, Special Decree Issued by Amir-ul-Momenin on Women’s Rights, 3
December 2021, https://alemarahenglish.af/?p=49016, accessed 12 July 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghan female journalists defiant as Taliban restrictions grow, 24 May 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/24/afghan-female-journalists-defiant-as-talibanrestrictions-grow, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghan girls stage protest, demand Taliban reopen schools, 26 March 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/26/afghan-girls-protest-demanding-taliban-toreopen-schools?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 19 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghan public universities reopen with gender segregated classes, 26 February2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/26/afghan-main-universities-reopen-but-fewwomen-return, accessed 19 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghan students run underground book club to keep dreams alive, 9 May 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/9/afghan-students-run-underground-book-club-tokeep-dreams-alive?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 18 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghan women call for rights, protest alleged Taliban killings, 28 December 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/28/afghan-women-call-for-rights-protest-allegedtaliban-killings?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 10 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghan women face hardship as Taliban struggles to revive economy, 12 January2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2022/1/12/afghanwomen?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 13 May 2022
Al-Jazeera, Afghanistan: Deadly blasts, gunfire hit Kabul military hospital, 2 November 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/2/two-large-blasts-in-afghanistans-capital-kabul-atwaz, accessed 25 July 2022

200

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Al Jazeera, Afghanistan: Dozens killed in suicide bombing at Kunduz mosque, 8 October 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/8/blast-hits-a-mosque-in-afghanistans-kunduzduring-friday-prayers, accessed 27 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghanistan: Women’s Rights [Online video], 15 December 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/program/between-us/2021/12/15/afghanistan-womensrights?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 28 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Afghans with correct legal documents may travel abroad: Taliban, 2 March 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/2/afghans-with-correct-legal-documents-may-travelabroad-taliban, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, At least 16 killed as explosions rock Afghan cities, 21 April 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/21/deadly-explosion-rips-through-shia-mosque-inafghanistan, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Ban? No ban? Afghan cricket chief offers hope to women athletes, 13 October
2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2021/10/13/afghanistan-cricket-chief-on-future-ofwomen-and-sport?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Gulf envoys stress women’s rights in meeting with Taliban FM, 14 February 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/14/gulf-diplomats-urge-taliban-to-respect-womensrights?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 13 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Herat women protest against Taliban over right to work, 2 September 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/2/women-in-herat-protest-outside-governors,
accessed 8 June 2022
Al Jazeera, In Afghanistan, Taliban diktat sparks debate about women’s attire, 26 January2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/26/holdafghan-women-denounce-talibansburqa-campaign, accessed 7 June 2022
Al Jazeera, In remote Bamiyan, a school run by an Afghan woman offers hope, 20 February2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/20/hidden-away-from-taliban-a-school-cavecontinues-to-teach-kids?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 18 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Iran and Taliban forces clash in border area, 1 December 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/1/iran-and-taliban-forces-clash-in-border-areas,
accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Iran summons Afghan envoy after diplomatic mission attacks, 12 April 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/12/iran-summons-afghan-envoy-after-diplomaticmission-attacks?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Missing Afghan women activists released: UN, 13 February 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/13/four-missing-afghan-women-activists-released-byauthorities?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17 June 2022

201

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Al Jazeera, No long-distance travel for women without male relative: Taliban, 26 December
2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/26/afghanistan-long-distance-travel-womenwithout-male-escort-taliban, accessed 1 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Several killed in bus blast in western Afghanistan, 22 January 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/22/bomb-on-bus-kills-seven-in-western-afghan-cityofficials, accessed 15 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Shrinking public space for Afghan women as Taliban expands curbs, 6 April 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/6/are-the-taliban-returning-to-their-harshestruling?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban announces amnesty, reaches out women, 17 August 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/17/taliban-announces-amnesty-urges-women-to-joingovernment, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban announces new government in Afghanistan, 7 September 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/7/taliban-announce-acting-ministers-of-newgovernment, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban arrests fighter who shot dead Hazara woman at checkpoint, 19 January2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/19/taliban-arrest-fighter-who-shot-dead-hazarawoman-at-checkpoint, accessed 12 July 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban bans forced marriage of women in Afghanistan, 3 December 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/3/taliban-bans-forced-marriage-calls-for-equal-rightsfor-women, accessed 13 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban enforces order for Afghan women TV anchors to cover faces, 22 May
2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/22/afghan-women-tv-anchors-forced-to-coverfaces-under-taliban-order?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban names deputy ministers, double down on all-male cabinet, 21 September
2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/21/taliban-name-deputy-ministers-double-downon-all-male-cabinet, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban orders Afghan women to cover their faces in public, 7 May 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/7/taliban-orders-afghan-women-to-cover-their-facesin-public?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 3 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban releases prominent Afghan professor from custody: Family, 11 January2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/11/taliban-releases-afghan-professor-faizullahjalal, accessed 30 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban replaces ministry for women with guidance ministry, 18 September 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/18/taliban-replace-ministry-for-women-with-guidanceministry, accessed 12 May 2022

202

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Al Jazeera, Taliban say female Afghan TV presenters must cover faces on air, 19 May 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/5/19/taliban-say-female-afghan-tv-presenters-mustcover-face-on-air, accessed 2 June 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban says all Afghan girls will be back in school by March, 17 January 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/17/taliban-says-will-open-all-schools-for-girls-acrosscountry?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban says classes resume for Afghan boys, no mention of girls, 17 September
2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/17/taliban-says-classes-resume-afghan-boys-nomention-girls, accessed 25 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban to create Afghanistan’s grand army with old regime troops, 22 February2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/22/taliban-create-grand-army-afghanistan-oldregime-troops, accessed 1 July 2022
Al Jazeera, Taliban, Western officials meet in Oslo to discuss Afghanistan, 24 January 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/24/taliban-western-officials-meet-near-oslo-todiscuss-afghanistan, accessed 21 June 2022
Al Jazeera, The keeper of Afghanistan’s poetic past, 6 June 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/6/6/the-keeper-of-afghanistans-poetic-past,
accessed 27 June 2022
Al Jazeera, The Taliban closes Afghan girls’ schools hours after reopening, 23 March 2022,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/23/taliban-orders-girls-schools-shut-hours-afterreopening?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
Al Jazeera, Transcript of Taliban’s first news conference in Kabul, 17 August 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/17/transcript-of-talibans-first-press-conference-inkabul, accessed 27 June 2022
Al Jazeera, US freezes Afghan central bank’s assets of $9.5bn, 18 August 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/8/18/us-freezes-afghan-central-banks-assets-of-95bn#:~:text=US%20freezes%20Afghan%20central%20bank%E2%80%99s%20assets%20of%2
0%249.5bn,to%20Afghanistan%20will%20stop%20%5BFile%3A%20Victor%20J%20Blue%2FB
loomberg%5D, accessed 27 June 2022
Al Jazeera, US lays out conditions for recognising a new Afghan gov’t, 16 August 2021,
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/16/us-lays-out-condition-for-recognising-a-newafghan-govt, accessed 27 June 2022
Al Jazeera Media Institute, Kill the rented journalists’ - the reality of life for local journalists andfixers left behind in Afghanistan, 1 April 2022, https://institute.aljazeera.net/en/ajr/article/1729,
accessed 30 June 2022
Ali, O., You Must Have a Gun to Stay Alive: Ghor, a province with three governments,
Afghanistan Analysts Network (AAN), 4 August 2013, https://www.afghanistan-203

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

analysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/you-must-have-a-gun-to-stay-alive-ghor-a-provincewith-three-governments/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ali, O., The Non-Pashtun Taleban of the North (3): The Takhar case study, Afghanistan
Analysts Network (AAN), 29 July 2017, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/warand-peace/the-non-pashtun-taleban-of-the-north-the-takhar-case-study/, accessed 30 June
2022
Amaaj News Persian [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/aamajnews_FA/status/1483830037015109641?s=20, accessed 17 June
2022
Alive in Afghanistan, Badakhshan’s First Restaurant for Women Struggles to Keep Doors
Open, 18 February 2022, https://www.alive-in.org/badakhshans-first-restaurant-for-womenstruggles-to-keep-doors-open/, accessed 12 July 2022
Alive in Afghanistan, Home-Based Restaurant Gives Afghan Woman Purpose and Pay, 11 May
2022, https://www.alive-in.org/home-based-resaurant-gives-afghan-woman-purpose-and-pay/,accessed 12 July 2022
Alive in Afghanistan, The Woman that is Worth a Thousand Men, 13 April 2022,
https://www.alive-in.org/the-woman-that-is-worth-a-thousand-men/, accessed 12 July 2022
AMASO [Twitter], posted on: 11 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/AmasoOrg/status/1535695083802177541, accessed 12 July 2022
AMASO [Twitter], posted on: 27 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/AmasoOrg/status/1541363546151419905, accessed 12 July 2022
Amrullah Saleh [Twitter], posted on: 17 August 2021,
https://twitter.com/AmrullahSaleh2/status/1427631191545589772?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwc
amp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1427631191545589772%7Ctwgr%5E%7Ctwcon%5Es1_&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2Fasia-pacific%2F20210818-in-panjshirlast-free-region-in-afghanistan-saleh-claims-caretaker-presidency, accessed 30 June 2022
Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 25 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/amnestysasia/status/1485862753340628992?s=20, accessed 17 June2022
Amnesty International South Asia [Twitter], posted on: 27 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/amnestysasia/status/1541328857810161664, accessed 30 June 2022
ANI (Asian News International), Afghan Human rights Commission confirms reports of civilian
shooting in Balkhab, 30 June 2022, https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/afghan-humanrights-commission-confirms-reports-of-civilian-shooting-in-balkhab20220630044508/,
accessed 30 June 2022

204

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSANI (Asian News International), Afghanistan: Driver, doctor killed in firing by Taliban affiliates,
18 January 2022, https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/afghanistan-driver-doctor-killed-infiring-by-taliban-affiliates20220118215006/, accessed 17 June 2022
ANI (Asian News International), Taliban forces prohibit Shia mosques from holding Eid prayers:
Reports, 5 May 2022, https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/taliban-forces-prohibit-shiamosques-from-holding-eid-prayers-reports20220505061714/, accessed 15 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Afghan rights activist, 3 other women slain; 2 suspects held, 6
November 2021, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-pakistan-arrests-taliban3a64895fac038846bdea3fdec81cc7d0, accessed 22 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Afghan women demand rights as Taliban seek recognition, 3September 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-taliban9ff0ffd05b66f3e48c5871c04386c529, accessed 8 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Afghanistan's Taliban order women to cover up head to toe, 8 May
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-49b17d77d03022ad4817eeecf4f5da93,
accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Blast in Kabul mosque, IS bombs in north Afghanistan kill 14, 25 May
2022, https://apnews.com/article/islamic-state-group-afghanistan-taliban-kabul-religion1bec495632047f7de4b804ddc78ecdb6, accessed 27 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Blood drive to mark Women’s Day halted, Afghan activists say, 8 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-health-business-blood-donation-womens-rightsfd843ba80980b9d21d06883fdd418262, accessed 10 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), China's foreign minister makes surprise stop in Afghanistan, 25 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-business-china-economy-kabul93160766eb7288c59d5673c712876092, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Despite mistrust, Afghan Shiites seek Taliban protection, 16 November
2021, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-islamic-state-group-taliban-kabul-race-andethnicity-8c81cda1748fe0fc92224317a7adf92b, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Fear runs through Afghanistan's hazardous media landscape, 17February 2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-business-television-media-race-andethnicity-159062b906d3b4ab69977ebe9df74687, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), In freezing Afghanistan, aid workers rush to save millions, 2 February2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-united-nations-kabul-taliban1698fb11a337044134c440487a2cd5dc?msclkid=855ed5efa54311ec934577bdd45e384b,
accessed 29 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Many baffled by Taliban reneging pledge on girls’ education, 24 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-education-united-nations-kabul-taliban0c092db3ce630807729faa245420acdc, accessed 24 May 2022

205

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

AP (Associated Press), Officials: Taliban blocked unaccompanied women from flights, 26
March 2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-travel-business-pakistan-lifestylefebfbef58116fd063e1a5ef780762e56, accessed 1 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Pakistan sends 50-member team to Kabul to discuss cease-fire, 1 June
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-pakistan-islamabad-kabul-talibanc2533e2616c002becf7e4ce196269ad6, accessed 1 July 2022
AP (Associated Press), Prominent Afghan doctor kidnapped, killed in northern city, 2oNovember 2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-business-crime-kidnappingb29d15eb5a096ab6d0349c7d27240e3d, accessed 20 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Six months of Taliban: Afghans safer, poorer, less hopeful, 15 February2022, available at: https://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory/months-taliban-afghans-saferpoorer-hopeful-82898024, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Swiss group: Taliban make pledges on education, aid workers, 11
February 2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-coronavirus-pandemic-healthswitzerland-europe-3ea340f6f6e225d57fa351a36ec5f27a, accessed 14 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban announcement a clear sign girls returning to school, 21 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-religion-education-kabul-talibancc3dfa0cd1c099bc83ad1d30d1ab614f#:~:text=KABUL%2C%20Afghanistan%20(AP)%20%E2%8
0%94,back%20into%20power%20last%20August, accessed 12 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban arrest popular Afghan professor critical of govt, 9 January2022, available at : https://www.arabnews.com/node/2000776/world, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban break promise on higher education for Afghan girls, 24 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-education-kabul-talibandcdc0ba6768213009f69cc6e284d7f52, accessed 20 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban enforcing face-cover order for female TV anchors, 22 May
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-politics-taliban7fd9a14700480f6e1c6da206ad6d8bfc, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban form all-male Afghan government of old guard members, 8September 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-pakistan-afghanistan-arrestsislamabad-d50b1b490d27d32eb20cc11b77c12c87, accessed 12 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban free popular Afghan professor critical of government, 11
January 2022, available at: https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/taliban-freepopular-afghan-professor-critical-government-82198153, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban official says dozens of criminals arrested in sweeps, 27
February 2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-arrests-kabul-talibanc19cb130cc337d14e512ff97f5fea3b4, accessed 30 June 2022

206

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

AP (Associated Press), Taliban official wanted by U.S. makes rare public appearance, 5 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-lifestyle-police-graduation-taliban1a730eff73727418de818c0993c1f3d2, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban raised on war bring a heavy hand to security role, 1 February2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-kabul-taliban3a4f8dfad31c408b59a7d0a66952bc2e, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban replace ministry for women with virtue authorities, 18
September 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-afghanistan-womens-rights-kabultaliban-eee5a8c73dd5d58acfda008582ef77bb, accessed 12 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), Taliban storm Kabul apartment, arrest activist, her sister, 20 January2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-taliban-kabul-social-media-mediaeec3080df6a424aee6021a273f69e6cd, accessed 17 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), The AP Interview: Taliban pledge all girls in schools soon, 15 January2022, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-education-united-nations-kabul-talibanc07aefcb90b560bc82b60b17d9623833, accessed 20 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), The AP Interview: Taliban seek ties with US, other ex-foes, 14
December 2021, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-united-states-only-on-ap-kabultaliban-c0475a3370ea219aabb3ded311911cc1, accessed 25 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), The economy on the brink, Taliban rely on former technocrats, 20
October 2021, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-business-united-nations-economykabul-08db064b2e1d8986b3f731ae7f6589f4, accessed 30 June 2022
AP (Associated Press), UN official: Taliban to announce secondary school for girls, 16 October
2021, https://apnews.com/article/afghanistan-education-united-nations-kabul-taliban0b8902601da9e2b42d0386cb51159cbe, accessed 25 May 2022
AP (Associated Press), UN refugee chief in Kabul to say Afghans are not forgotten, 15 March
2022, https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-afghanistan-europe-kabul-talibane27412b611cb7b096411891514425a8e, accessed 30 June 2022
Arab News, Afghan universities reopen with trickle of women attending, 2 February 2022,
https://www.arabnews.com/node/2016701/world, accessed 19 May 2022
Arab News, Former government officials return to Kabul at Taliban invitation, 8 June 2022,
https://www.arabnews.com/node/2099631/world, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, 2,000 hectares of land cleared of poppies in Herat: officials, 27 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/2000-hectares-of-land-cleared-of-poppies-in-herat-officials/,
accessed 30 June 2022

207

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Ariana News, Abdullah returns to Afghanistan after 6 weeks in India, 11 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/abdullah-returns-to-afghanistan-after-6-weeks-in-india/, accessed
30 June 2022
Ariana News, Afghan academics living abroad for years return home, 30 May 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/afghan-academics-living-abroad-for-years-return-home/, accessed
30 June 2022
Ariana News, Afghan acting FM heads to Doha for talks with US, 29 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/afghan-acting-fm-heads-to-doha-for-talks-with-us/, accessed 30
June 2022
Ariana News, Afghan scholars issue 11-point resolution after 3-day mass gathering in Kabul, 2July 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/afghan-scholars-issue-11-point-resolution-after-3-daymass-gathering-in-kabul/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 8 July 2022
Ariana News, Afghan schools to be segregated by gender, 6 March 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/afghan-schools-to-be-segregated-bygender/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
Ariana News, Afghan schools to reopen after a hiatus of 186 days, 22 March 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/afghan-schools-to-reopen-after-a-hiatus-of-186days/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
Ariana News, Balkh businesswomen hold expo to promote their products, 8 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/balkh-businesswomen-hold-expo-to-promote-theirproducts/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 22 June 2022
Ariana News, Balkh police headquarters recruits 1,800 female officers, 9 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/balkh-police-headquarters-recruits-1800-femaleofficers/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 June 2022
Ariana News, Clerics, teachers, activists call on IEA to reopen girls’ schools, 7 April 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/clerics-teachers-activists-call-on-iea-to-reopen-girlsschools/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Ariana News, Crippling economy closing Afghan media outlets, 11 October 2021,
https://www.ariananews.af/crippling-economy-closing-afghan-mediaoutlets/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Defense ministry urges Afghan military students abroad to return home, 15February 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/defense-ministry-urges-afghan-military-studentsabroad-to-return-home/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Dozens of Daesh militants surrender to IEA in Nangarhar: Officials, 6 February2022, https://www.ariananews.af/dozens-of-daesh-militants-surrender-to-iea-in-nangarharofficials/, accessed 30 June 2022

208

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Ariana News, EA reassures returning Afghan politicians and military figures of their security,
22 May 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/ea-reassures-returning-afghan-politicians-andmilitary-figures-of-their-security/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Education minister says schooling will be provided to all children, 11 February2022, https://www.ariananews.af/education-minister-says-schooling-will-be-provided-to-allchildren/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
Ariana News, Former commander of Faryab’s uprising forces returns to Afghanistan, 26 June
2022, https://www.ariananews.af/former-commander-of-faryabs-uprising-forces-returns-toafghanistan/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Former district police chief in Ghor gunned down, 25 January 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/former-district-police-chief-in-ghor-gunned-down/, accessed 30
June 2022
Ariana News, Higher education will be open to men and women based on Sharia: Deputy PM,
19 January 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/higher-education-will-be-open-to-men-andwomen-based-on-sharia-deputy-pm/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 19
May 2022
Ariana News, Haqqani calls on former officials to return home, assures them of their security,
25 April 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/haqqani-calls-on-former-officials-to-return-homeassures-them-of-their-security/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Hiring of 1,800 police female officers in Balkh [Online video], 10 June 2022,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eKaRSwdrcx0, accessed 1 July 2022
Ariana News, ICC expecting findings of study into women’s cricket in Afghanistan, 8 April
2022, https://www.ariananews.af/icc-expecting-findings-of-study-into-womens-cricket-inafghanistan/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA appoints committee to review the Afghan army, 11 December 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-appoints-committee-to-review-the-afghan-army/, accessed 30
June 2022
Ariana News, IEA approves working process to bring exiled Afghan politicians home, 17 May
2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-approves-working-process-to-bring-exiled-afghanpoliticians-home/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA assures Afghan protesters in Pakistan they will be safe at home, 25 May
2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-assures-afghan-protesters-in-pakistan-they-will-be-safeat-home/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA commits to ensuring safety of ex-officials who return to Afghanistan: Muttaqi,
21 June 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-commits-to-ensuring-safety-of-ex-officials-whoreturn-to-afghanistan-muttaqi/, accessed 30 June 2022

209

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Ariana News, IEA deputy PM Hanafi meets Turkmenistan deputy FM, discusses TAPI Project, 9January 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-deputy-pm-hanafi-meets-turkmenistan-deputyfm-discusses-tapi-project/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA designates days for women and men to visit Kabul amusement parks, 27
March 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-designates-days-for-women-and-men-to-visitkabul-amusement-parks/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA imposes strict dress codes on the few girls schools still open, 28 April 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-imposes-strict-dress-codes-on-the-few-girls-schools-stillopen/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Ariana News, IEA makes first senior female appointment, 1 February 2022,
https://ariananews.af/iea-makes-first-senior-femaleappointment/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 12 May 2022
Ariana News, IEA marks World Refugee Day, calls for Afghan migrants to be treated fairly, 21
June 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-marks-world-refugee-day-calls-for-afghan-migrantsto-be-treated-fairly/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA orders forces to respect people’s privacy, 7 January 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-orders-forces-to-respect-peoples-privacy/, accessed 30 June
2022
Ariana News, IEA says girls’ schools will reopen soon, 16 May 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-says-girls-schools-will-reopensoon/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Ariana News, IEA says it’s committed to addressing women’s issues, 8 March 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-says-its-committed-to-addressing-womensissues/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 28 May 2022
Ariana News, IEA says it’s happy with former government’s media law, 2 February 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-says-its-happy-with-former-governments-media-law/, accessed
30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA says it’s investigating the disappearance of women activists, 10 February2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-says-its-investigating-the-disappearance-of-womenactivists/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA says resistance happening only on internet, 11 March 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-says-resistance-happening-only-oninternet/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA seeks foreign aid for Afghan media outlets, 6 March 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-seeks-foreign-aid-for-afghan-media-outlets/, accessed 30 June
2022

210

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Ariana News, IEA to hold Grand Assembly in Kabul, 28 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-to-hold-grand-assembly-in-kabul/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA to include Istishhad battalion in new army, 4 January 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-to-include-istishhad-battalion-in-newarmy/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA turns Kandahar Prison into treatment center for drug addicts, 25 December
2021, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-turns-kandahar-prison-into-treatment-center-for-drugaddicts/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA unveils segregation plan for male and female university students, 24 April
2022, https://www.ariananews.af/iea-unveils-segregation-plan-for-male-and-female-universitystudents/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 19 May 2022
Ariana News, IEA urge Afghan businessmen, investors abroad to return home, 18 May 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-urge-afghan-businessmen-investors-abroad-to-returnhome/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA urges Afghan professors in exile to return home, 11 February 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iea-urges-afghan-professors-in-exile-to-return-home/, accessed 30
June 2022
Ariana News, IEA’s cabinet says innocent prisoners to be released as soon as possible, 4January 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/ieas-cabinet-says-innocent-prisoners-to-bereleased-as-soon-as-possible/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA’s move to extend ban on teenage girls from going to school sparks outcry,
23 March 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/ieas-move-to-extend-ban-on-teenage-girls-fromgoing-to-school-sparks-outcry/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May
2022
Ariana News, IEA’s move to ban teenage girls from schools came as a shock: Qatar FM, 27
March 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/ieas-move-to-ban-teenage-girls-from-schools-cameas-a-shock-qatar-fm/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Ariana News, IEA’s recognition not on Russia’s current agenda: Kremlin, 16 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/ieas-recognition-not-on-russias-current-agendakremlin/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, IEA’s supreme leader calls on officials to adhere to amnesty orders, 30
December 2021, https://www.ariananews.af/ieas-supreme-leader-calls-on-officials-to-adhereto-amnesty-orders/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Iran accredits Afghan diplomats appointed by IEA, 25 April 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/iran-accredits-afghan-diplomats-appointed-by-iea/, accessed 30
June 2022

211

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Ariana News, Make girls’ education red line in talks with IEA, Amnesty tells int’l community, 29
March 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/make-girls-education-red-line-in-talks-with-ieaamnesty-tells-intl-community/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May
2022
Ariana News, Mandatory burqa decision by IEA sparks widespread reaction, 8 May 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/mandatory-burqa-decision-by-iea-sparks-widespreadreaction/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 3 June 2022
Ariana News, Media monitoring and support committee launched in Herat province, 23 June
2022, https://www.ariananews.af/media-monitoring-and-support-committee-launched-in-heratprovince/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Over 30 prisoners released from Takhar jail, 13 January 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/over-30-prisoners-released-from-takhar-jail/, accessed 30 June
2022
Ariana News, Pilot who fled to the United States returns home to Afghanistan, 19 April 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/pilot-who-fled-to-the-united-states-returns-home-toafghanistan/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Police ordered to wear new uniforms at all Kabul checkpoints, 16 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/police-ordered-to-wear-new-uniforms-at-all-kabul-checkpoints/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Prison review board releases 50 innocent prisoners in Kandahar, 6 January2022, https://www.ariananews.af/prison-review-board-releases-50-innocent-prisoners-inkandahar/, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, SAO audits financials of 300 government institutions, 8 February 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/sao-audits-financials-of-300-governmentinstitutions/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Ariana News, Shaheen says no women will be appointed to cabinet, 13 February 2022,
https://ariananews.af/shaheen-says-no-women-will-be-appointed-tocabinet/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 12 May 2022
Ariana News, Study finds almost 80% of Afghan girls missing out on education, 22 April 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/study-finds-almost-80-of-afghan-girls-missing-out-oneducation/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 25 May 2022
Ariana News, Two political figures and one doctor return to country, 29 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/two-political-figures-and-one-doctor-return-to-country/, accessed
30 June 2022
Ariana News, Ulema Council established over Takhar provincial government, 13 June 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/ulema-council-established-over-takhar-provincialgovernment/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022

212

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Ariana News, UN asks IEA to probe issue of missing Afghan women, 25 January 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/un-asks-iea-to-probe-issue-of-missing-afghanwomen/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17 June 2022
Ariana News, UNDP and Balkh Municipality launch street cleaning job program for 200
women, 21 December 2021, https://www.ariananews.af/undp-and-balkh-municipality-launchstreet-cleaning-job-program-for-200-women/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 18 May 2022
Ariana News, US deports first Afghan back to Afghanistan, 1 March 2022,
https://www.ariananews.af/us-deports-first-afghan-back-to-afghanistan/, accessed 30 June
2022
Ariana News, Virtue and Vice Ministry reject claims of ordering gender segregation inrestaurants, 15 May 2022, https://www.ariananews.af/virtue-and-vice-ministry-reject-claims-ofordering-gender-segregation-in-restaurants/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 1 June 2022
Arte, Afghanistan : la résistance s’organise, 20 May 2022, https://www.arte.tv/fr/videos/108011000-A/afghanistan-la-resistance-s-organise/, accessed 30 June 2022
Asia Pacific, Prominent rights activist gunned down in Afghanistan, 12 October 2021,
https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/prominent-rights-activist-gunned-down-inafghanistan/2389886#:~:text=Abdul%20Rahman%20Mawin%20shot%20dead,eastern%20Nan
garhar%20province%20bordering%20Pakistan&text=A%20prominent%20civil%20society%20
activist,an%20ongoing%20targeted%20assassination%20spree, accessed 15 June 2022
Asia Society, Barnett Rubin: In Afghanistan, A Vicious Cycle, n.d.,
https://asiasociety.org/barnett-rubin-afghanistan-vicious-cycle, accessed 30 June 2022
Asia Pacific Forum, Afghanistan: AIHRC Chairperson's statement to Human Rights Council, 20
December 2021, https://www.asiapacificforum.net/news/afghanistan-aihrc-chairpersons-videostatement-human-rights-council/, accessed 13 June 2022
Aspen Institute UK, The Future of Afghanistan [Podcast], 20 May 2022,
https://www.aspenuk.org/events/the-future-of-afghanistan/, accessed 15 June 2022
Australia, DFAT (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade), Thematic Report Afghanistan
Political and Security Developments August 2021 to January 2022, January 2022,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2067344/country-information-report-afghanistan.pdf,
accessed 30 June 2022
Australia, Refugee Review Tribunal, Background Paper Afghanistan: Political Parties andInsurgent Groups 1978-2001, March 2014,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1154721/1226_1369733568_ppig1.pdf, accessed 30 June
2022

213

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Australia, Refugee Review Tribunal, Country Advice Afghanistan: AFG36222 – Wardak
Province – Hezb-I Wahdat Khalili, February 2010,https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/505af6532.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Austria, BFA (Bundesamt für Fremdwesen und Asyl), AfPak: Principals of the tribal & clan
structure, 5 April 2017,https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/austria/PLib/ANALY_AfPak_tribal_and_clan_structur
e_2017_04_05.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022
Austria, Country of Origin Unit (Staatendokumentation), Afghanistan – Socio-Economic Survey
2021, 12 January 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/austria/PLib/AFGHANISTAN_Socio-EconomicSurvey.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
AVA (Afghan Voice Agency), ‫[ سربازگیری داعش از میان سربازان ناراضی طالبان در سمنگان‬ISKP recruitingfrom amongst unhappy Taliban soldiers in Samangan], 21 October 2021,
https://web.archive.org/web/20211021052407/https:/avapress.com/fa/241334/%D8%B3%D8%B
1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B4-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B6%DB%8C%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86, accessed 1 July 2022
AWA (Association of Wartime Allies), The Left Behind Afghans – Focus on Women, 1 June
2022,https://www.wartimeallies.co/_files/ugd/5887eb_2f0405096b9243aa9b28608ba8b3d7
56.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
AWSD (Aid Worker Security Database), Filter: 2021-2022, Afghanistan, accessed 25 July2022,
https://aidworkersecurity.org/incidents/search?start=2021&end=2022&detail=1&country=AF,
accessed 25 July 2022
Bakhtar News Agency [Twitter], posted on: 24 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/BakhtarNA/status/1540247568969568256, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, ‫رخی از رییسان محکمه استیناف وشهری پنجشیر معرفی شدند‬, [Some of the head ofpanjshir's appeals court were introduced], 17 February 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/dr/%d8%a8%d8%b1%d8%ae%db%8c-%d8%a7%d8%b2%d8%b1%db%8c%db%8c%d8%b3%d8%a7%d9%86%d9%85%d8%ad%da%a9%d9%85%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%b3%d8%aa%db%8c%d9%86%d8%a7%d9%81%d9%88%d8%b4%d9%87%d8%b1%db%8c-%d9%be%d9%86%d8%ac/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, 5 People Arrested Carrying More than 1,200kg Of Drugs in Kunduz, 7April 2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/5-people-arrested-carrying-more-then-1200kg-of-drugsin-kunduz/, accessed 30 June 2022
214

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Bakhtar News Agency, 8 People Arrested on Suspicion of Drug Trafficking in Baghlan, 23 May
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/8-people-arrested-on-suspicion-of-drug-trafficking-inbaghlan/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, 25 Arrested in MoI Operation, 17 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/25-arrested-in-moi-operations/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, 128 Arrested On-Charge of Crimes in Nangarhar, 21 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/128-arrested-on-charge-of-crimes-in-nangarhar/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, 2,000 Detained for Various Crimes in Past Month in Kabul, 5 June
2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178343, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, A Large Area of Poppy Fields Eradicated in Helmand, 20 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/a-large-area-of-poppy-fields-eradicated-in-helmand/, accessed 30
June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Amir-ul-Momineen: minors are not to be recruited in ranks or bases ofmujahideen, 27 March 2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/amir-ul-momineen-minors-are-not-berecruited-in-ranks-or-bases-of-mujahideen/, accessed 1 July 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, ANP New Uniforms Distribution Process Starts, 8 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/anp-new-uniforms-distribution-process-starts/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Bank Loans Regulate Based on Islamic Values in Jawzjan, 5 April
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/bank-loans-regulate-based-on-islamic-values-in-jawzjan/,accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Band of drug smugglers arrested in Balkh, 27 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/band-of-drug-smugglers-arrested-in-balkh/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Band of Robbers arrested by Police in Herat, 3 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/band-of-robbers-arrested-by-police-in-herat/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Days of Public Park Visits Determined, 27 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/days-of-public-park-visits-determined/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Delawar Called on All Afghan Political Figures to Return Home, 21 May
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/iea-made-the-commission-of-contact-afghan-personalitiesbill-public/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Drug Dealers’ Gang Decomposed in Herat, 14 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/drug-dealers-gang-decomposed-in-herat/, accessed 30 June 2022

215

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Bakhtar News Agency, Farooq Wardak, Former Minister of Education Head Back Home, 8June 2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/farooq-wardak-former-minister-of-education-head-backhome/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Helmand Police Arrested 8 Criminals, 26 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/helmand-police-arrested-8-criminals/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Hundreds of Addicts Received Medical Treatment in Kandahar, 6 April
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/hundreds-of-addicts-received-medical-treatment-inkandahar/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Islamic Emirate Stressed for Islamic Hijab in the Country, 7 May 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/islamic-emirate-stressed-for-islamic-hijab-in-the-country/, accessed
30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Kunduz Police Arrest Two Men on Suspicion of Robbery, 10 April 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/kunduz-police-arrest-two-men-on-suspicion-of-robbery/, accessed
30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Many Addicts Returns Home After Receiving Medical Treatment, 6 May
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/many-addicts-returns-home-after-receiving-medicaltreatment-in-balkh/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Many Arrested for Criminal Offenses in Kandahar Lately, 25 April 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/many-arrested-for-criminal-offenses-in-kandahar-lately/, accessed
30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, MoD: Experience military personnel to join in new army, 14 February2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/mod-experienced-military-personnel-to-join-in-new-army/,
accessed 1 July 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Nangarhar Police Arrested 5 In-Charge of Robbery, 27 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/nangarhar-police-arrested-5-in-charge-of-robbery/, accessed 30
June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, No Citizen Live Is in Danger in Afghanistan: MoF, 25 May 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/no-citizen-live-is-in-danger-in-afghanistan-mof/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, No Police Officer Has the Right to Beat Suspects, 12 April 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/samangan-police-chief-no-police-officer-has-the-right-to-beatsuspects/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Police Arrested 3 Abductors in Khost, 13 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/police-arrested-3-abductors-in-khost/, accessed 30 June 2022

216

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Bakhtar News Agency, Police Arrested 3 Men on Suspicion of Robbery, 30 April 2020,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/police-arrested-3-men-on-suspicion-of-robbery/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Police Arrested 16 Criminal in Herat, 4 May 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/police-arrested-16-criminal-in-herat/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Robbery in Paktia, 3 Women Arrested On-charge, 4 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/robbery-in-paktia-3-women-arrested-on-charge/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Sapedar Hosted Country's Civil Society Activists, 16 June 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/sapedar-hosted-countrys-civil-society-activists/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Thousands of Addicts Received Medical Treatments in Farah, 31 March
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/thousands-of-addicts-received-medical-treatments-in-farah/,accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Thousands of other Refugees Headed Back Home from Iran, 18 April
2022, https://bakhtarnews.af/en/thousands-of-other-refugees-headed-back-home-from-iran/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Three Fugitive Thieves Arrested in Herat-Kabul, 26 March 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/three-fugitive-thieves-arrested-in-herat-kabul/, accessed 30 June
2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Two Drug Dealers Arrested in Parwan, 9 May 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/two-drug-dealers-arrested-in-parwan/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Two Drug Smugglers Arrested in Laghman, 15 May 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/two-drug-smugglers-arrested-in-laghman/, accessed 30 June 2022
Bakhtar News Agency, Two people arrested in suspicion of abductions, 6 April 2022,
https://bakhtarnews.af/en/two-people-arrested-in-suspicion-of-abductions/, accessed 30 June
2022
Barfield, T., Afghanistan. A Cultural and Political History, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
2012
BBC Monitoring, Briefing: Videos showing killings by Afghan Taliban cause outcry, 17 March
2022, available by subscription at: BBC Monitoring
BBC News, Afghan resistance attack Taliban, sparking reprisals in Panjshir, 16 May 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61430836, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Afghan woman activist released after arrest in January, 13 February 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60362532, accessed 17 June 2022

217

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMBBC News, Afghan women taken from their homes after speaking out, 21 January 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60091003, accessed 17 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan face veil decree: 'It feels like being a woman is a crime', 15 May 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61402309?xtor=AL-72-%5Bpartner%5D%5Bbbc.news.twitter%5D-%5Bheadline%5D-%5Bnews%5D-%5Bbizdev%5D%5Bisapi%5D&at_custom3=%40BBCNews&at_custom2=twitter&at_campaign=64&at_custom1=%5Bpost+type%5D&at_custom4=A1D7B628-D3EF-11EC-8C9189BA4744363C&at_medium=custom7, accessed 2 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan girls' tears over chaotic Taliban schools U-turn, 23 March 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60848649, accessed 20 May 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan gurdwara attack: Sikhs say 'We don't feel safe', 18 June 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61852956, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan women: 'I felt anxious going back to university', 4 February 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60236826, accessed 19 May 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan women's cricket team: Players hiding in Kabul fear Taliban rule, 1September 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/58396310?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan women's team: They escaped the Taliban but face uncertain football
future, 13 June 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/61744830?at_medium=RSS&at_campaign=KARANGA&ut
m_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 22 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Blood and fear everywhere after deadly IS blast, 21 April 2022,
https://www.bbc.co m/news/world-asia-61174991, accessed 15 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Deadly explosion rocks Sikh site in Kabul, 18 June 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61850021, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Evidence mounts of Taliban reprisal arrests and killing, 10 February2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-60323638, accessed 28 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Former army general vows new war against Taliban, 29 April 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61243957, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Girls excluded as Afghan secondary schools reopen, 18 September
2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58607816
BBC News, Afghanistan: Girls return to school in amidst hope and fear, 21 March 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-60819034, accessed 28 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Kunduz mosque attacked during Friday prayers, 22 April 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61191643, accessed 22 June 2022
218

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSBBC News, Afghanistan: Policing faces, bodies and beards on Kabul streets, 22 May 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61480248, accessed 7 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Protesters urge Taliban to reopen girls' schools, 26 March 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60885200, accessed 19 May 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: School bombings a reprehensible attack on religious and ethnic
minorities, 19 April 2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61148248
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban announce new rules for female students, 12 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58537081
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban backtrack on reopening high schools for girls, 23 March
2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60845540, accessed 20 May 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban ban Helmand barbers from trimming beards, 26 September
2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58700159, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban break up women's rights protest in Kabul, 5 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58450230, accessed 8 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban takes another women's rights protester, 3 February 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-60239525, accessed 17 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban tell working women to stay at home, 24 August 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58315413, accessed 2 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Taliban unveil new rules banning women in TV dramas, 21 November
2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-59368488, accessed 16 May 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Terrified British Council teachers still in hiding, 13 January 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-59967957
BBC News, Afghanistan: The undefeated Panjshir Valley - an hour from Kabul, 26 August
2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58329527, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: The secret girls school defying the Taliban, 17 May 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61470748, accessed 18 May 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Women beaten for demanding their rights, 8 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58491747, accessed 8 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: Women protest against all-male Taliban government, 8 September
2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58490819, accessed 8 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan: World Bank freezes projects over girls' school ban, 30 March 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/business-60923196, accessed 30 June 2022

219

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMBBC News, Afghanistan's female TV presenters must cover their faces, say Taliban, 19 May
2022, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61508072, accessed 2 June 2022
BBC News, Afghanistan’s Uyghurs fear the Taliban, and now China too, 27 August 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58342790, accessed 27 June 2022
BBC News, Female Afghan judges hunted by the murderers they convicted, 28 September
2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58709353, accessed 17 May 2022
BBC News, Five Afghan women who refuse to be silenced, 18 February 2022,
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-fa29260a-3c38-44f0-99cd-e680aed7ee14,
accessed 12 July 2022
BBC News, Giving birth under the Taliban, 20 September 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58585323, accessed 13 June 2022
BBC News, Hardliners get key posts in new Taliban government, 7 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58479750, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, How Afghanistan's media is changing under Taliban rule, 21 August 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-58273011, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Kabul blasts kill six and wound 20 at boys' school, 19 April 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61148248, accessed 15 June 2022
BBC News, LGBT in Afghanistan: I could be killed on the spot, 20 August 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-58271187, accessed 17 June 2022
BBC News, Life in Kabul under Taliban: Where is your male escort?, 3 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58437713, accessed 1 June 2022
BBC News, Panjshir – the valley trying to hold off the Taliban, 2 September 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58420859, accessed 30 June 2022
BBC News, Rescuing the Afghanistan girls' football team, 24 November 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-59394170, accessed 1 June 2022
BBC News, Taliban to force Afghan women to wear face veil, 7 May 2022,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-61361826, accessed 3 June 2022
BBC News, The teacher defying the Taliban on girls' education, 3 November 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-59063624, accessed 18 May 2022
BBC News, Who is Abdullah Abdullah? Afghanistan's three-times presidential contender, 27
September 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-27138728, accessed 30 June 2022
Bloomberg, As Kabul Falls, the Burqa Shops of Afghanistan Get Busy, 15 August 2021,
https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2021-08-15/the-burqa-shops-of-afghanistan-getbusy-as-a-generation-blames-u-s-betrayal, accessed 7 June 2022

220

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSBMJ (British Medical Journal Opinion), Staring into the darkness: women health workers in
Afghanistan, 6 September2021, https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2021/09/06/staring-into-thedarkness-women-health-workers-in-afghanistan/, accessed 17 May 2022
Business Insider, A murder, a warning, and now Afghans worry that they could be next, 19
November 2021, https://www.businessinsider.com/a-murder-a-warning-and-dread-inafghanistan-2021-11?r=US&IR=T, accessed 7 June 2022
Business Insider, Hunted by the Taliban, Afghanistan’s former judges are disguisingthemselves and going underground. ’I have a lot of enemies right now,’ said one., 2 October
2021, https://www.businessinsider.in/international/news/hunted-by-the-taliban-afghanistansformer-judges-are-disguising-themselves-and-going-underground-i-have-a-lot-of-enemiesright-now-said-one-/articleshow/86703780.cms, accessed 7 June 2022
Business Insider, The Taliban faces questions about missing women activists as they seek
access to $9 billion in frozen assets, 26 January 2022,
https://www.businessinsider.com/female-protesters-are-going-missing-in-afghanistan-20221?r=US&IR=T, accessed 17 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary, [Twitter], posted on: 26 September 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1442219932956209152, accessed 1 July 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 4 October 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1445048620101820420, accessed 1 July 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 24 November 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1463352613441871878, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 29 November 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1465353238870429699, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 14 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1470782279261818896, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 15 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1471125147155316741, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 19 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1472615753291550723, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 20 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1472750502924505088, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 27 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1475407316593872897, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 28 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1475879210375860227, accessed 30 June 2022

221

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 16 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1482570561008111623, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1483811290602774531, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 10 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1491608865363922944, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 12 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1492356982581481472, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1496052325592543235, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 29 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1508860974530506766, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 11 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1524226454283857921, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 13 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1525209444652617729, accessed 1 July 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 21 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1527780786144944131, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 24 April 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1518285102911995912, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 8 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1534535449842176002, accessed 30 June 2022
Bilal Sarwary [Twitter], posted on: 13 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/bsarwary/status/1536125022108061697, accessed 30 June 2022
Brasher, R., Ethnic Brother or Artificial Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in
Afghanistan and Tajikistan, in: Berkeley Journal of Sociology, Vol. 55, Borders and Belonging,
2011, pp. 97–120, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23345249, accessed 30 June 2022
Britannica, Afghanistan: Facts & Stats, n.d., https://www.britannica.com/facts/Afghanistan,accessed 12 July 2022
Britannica, Hazara, n.d., https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hazara, accessed 30 June 2022
Britannica, Tajik people, n.d., https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tajik-people, accessed 30
June 2022

222

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSBritish Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS), Former Afghan interpreters who face Taliban
persecution risk being forgotten, 10 March 2022, https://www.forces.net/news/former-afghaninterpreters-facing-taliban-persecution-risk-being-forgotten, accessed 30 June 2022
Business Insider, Hunted by the Taliban, Afghanistan’s former judges are disguisingthemselves and going underground. ’I have a lot of enemies right now,’ said one., 2 October
2021, https://www.businessinsider.in/international/news/hunted-by-the-taliban-afghanistansformer-judges-are-disguising-themselves-and-going-underground-i-have-a-lot-of-enemiesright-now-said-one-/articleshow/86703780.cms, accessed 30 June 2022
Byrd, W., How to Mitigate Afghanistan’s Economic and Humanitarian Crises, USIP (UnitedStates Institute of Peace), 4 January 2022, https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/01/howmitigate-afghanistans-economic-and-humanitarian-crises, accessed 30 June 2022
Byrd, W., Taliban Are Collecting Revenue — But How Are They Spending It?, USIP, 2 February2022, https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/02/taliban-are-collecting-revenue-how-arethey-spending-it, accessed 30 June 2022
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, China’s Activities and Influence in South andCentral Asia, 17 May 2022, https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/05/17/china-s-activities-andinfluence-in-south-and-central-asia-pub-87146, accessed 27 June 2022
Center for the Study of Armed groups, Taliban attitudes and policies towards education,
February 2022,
https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/taliban_attitudes_towards_education.pdf
Central Asia News.Net, Doctor abducted by unknown gunmen on Kabul-Jalalabad highway,
28 March 2022, https://www.centralasianews.net/news/272431918/doctor-abducted-byunknown-gunmen-on-kabul-jalalabad-highway, accessed 18 June 2022
Channels Television, Taliban Top Sniper Appointed Mayor In Afghanistan, 15 February 2022,
https://www.channelstv.com/2022/02/15/taliban-top-sniper-appointed-mayor-in-afghanistan/,accessed 18 May 2022
CIVICUS, Activists and journalists at risk, crackdown on protests in Afghanistan following
Taliban takeover, 15 September 2021, https://monitor.civicus.org/updates/2021/09/15/activistsand-journalists-risk-crackdown-protests-afghanistan-following-taliban-takeover/, accessed 15
June 2022
CIVICUS, Ongoing threats and attacks against civil society, media in Afghanistan while
protests restricted, 21 October 2021, https://monitor.civicus.org/updates/2021/10/21/ongoingthreats-and-attacks-against-civil-society-media-afghanistan-while-protests-restricted/,
accessed 15 June 2022
Clark, K., Afghanistan’s conflict in 2021 (2): Republic collapse and Taleban victory in the longview of history, 30 December 2021, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-andpeace/afghanistans-conflict-in-2021-2-republic-collapse-and-taleban-victory-in-the-long-viewof-history/, accessed 30 June 2022

223

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Clark, K., The Layha: Calling the Taleban to Account, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 4
July 2011, http://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wpcontent/uploads/downloads/2012/10/20110704_CKlark_The_Layha.pdf, accessed 1 July 2022
Clark, K. and AAN Team, Who Gets to Go to School? (1): What people told us about education
since the Taleban took over, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 26 January 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/who-gets-to-go-to-school-1what-people-told-us-about-education-since-the-taleban-took-over/, accessed 25 May 2022
Clark, K. and Osman, B., Enemy Number One: How the Taleban deal with the ALP and uprisinggroups, AAN, 19 July 2018, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-andpeace/enemy-number-one-how-the-taleban-deal-with-the-alp-and-uprising-groups/, accessed
30 June 2022
Clark, K. and Rahimi, S., We need to breathe too: Women across Afghanistan navigate theTaleban’s hijab ruling, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 1 June 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/we-need-to-breathe-toowomen-across-afghanistan-navigate-the-talebans-hijab-ruling%ef%bf%bc/, accessed 3 June
2022
Clark, K. and Shapour, R., A Pledging Conference for Afghanistan… But what about beyond thehumanitarian?, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 31 March 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/international-engagement/a-pledging-conference-for-afghanistan-butwhat-about-beyond-the-humanitarian/, accessed 17 May 2022
CNN, Afghan women footballers who fled Taliban want to be a voice for the voiceless, 28 April
2022, https://edition.cnn.com/2022/04/28/football/afghan-women-footballers-talibanaustralia-spt-intl/index.html, accessed 1 June 2022
CNN, Angry and afraid, Afghanistan's LGBTQ community say they're being hunted down after
Taliban takeover, 18 September 2021,
https://edition.cnn.com/2021/09/17/middleeast/afghanistan-lgbtq-evacuation-intl-hnkdst/index.html, accessed 17 June 2022
CNN, Curtains separate male and female Afghan students as new term begins under Taliban
rule, 7 September 2021, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/09/07/asia/afghan-university-malefemale-segregation-curtain-intl/index.html, accessed 19 May 2022
CNN, Taliban bans women from solo, long-distance road trips in Afghanistan, 29 December
2021, https://edition.cnn.com/2021/12/28/asia/afghanistan-taliban-women-travelintl/index.html#:~:text=The%20Taliban%20have%20banned%20women,Taliban%20official%20
speaking%20to%20CNN, accessed 1 June 2022
CNN, Taliban decree on women's rights, which made no mention of school or work, dismissed
by Afghan women and experts, 4 December 2021,
https://edition.cnn.com/2021/12/03/asia/afghanistan-taliban-decree-womens-rightsintl/index.html, accessed 28 June 2022

224

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

CNN, Taliban's religious police instructed to be more moderate, 12 October 2021,
https://edition.cnn.com/2021/10/11/asia/afghanistan-taliban-justice-cmd-intl/index.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
CNN, The media spotlight in Afghanistan is about to dim as journalists evacuate, 20 August2021,
https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2021%2F08%2F20%2Fmedia%2Fjournalists-leave-afghanistan-reliablesources%2Findex.html&data=05%7C01%7C%7C7825dcb9700c44d1502908da7799324d%7C
d19e4243f4804af5889971f10798d806%7C0%7C0%7C637953797121870351%7CUnknown%7
CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000%7C%7C%7C&sdata=4%2BkWIOOa4gSpSprWkqnZBf76npMsbq7FksjbvS6VF8A%3D&reserved=0, accessed 30 June 2022
CNN, Three wedding guests reportedly shot dead in Afghanistan, 1 November 2021,
https://edition.cnn.com/2021/10/31/asia/afghanistan-taliban-shooting-music-weddingintl/index.html, accessed 30 June 2022
CNN, Top Taliban leader makes more promises on women's rights [Online video], 19 May
2022, https://edition.cnn.com/2022/05/18/asia/amanpour-haqqani-taliban-women-interviewintl/index.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Columbia Journalism Review, What happened to Afghanistan’s journalists after thegovernment collapsed, 17 March 2022, https://www.cjr.org/analysis/afghanistan-journaliststaliban.php, accessed 30 June 2022
Conversation (The), Afghan women face increasing violence and repression under the Taliban
after international spotlight fades, 4 February 2022, https://theconversation.com/afghanwomen-face-increasing-violence-and-repression-under-the-taliban-after-internationalspotlight-fades-176008, accessed 28 June 2022
Counter Extremism Project, Qari Fasihuddin, n.d.,
https://www.counterextremism.com/extremists/qari-fasihuddin, accessed 30 June 2022
CPAU (Cooperation for Peace and Unity), Conflict Analysis: Jaghori and Malistan districts,
Ghazni province, April 2009,http://www.cpau.org.af/Research/Docs_our_publications/Ghazni%20Conflict%20Analysis%20
Apr%2009%20Final.pdf, accessed 15 June 2022
CSM (The Christian Science Monitor), How Afghan midwifes are challenging Taliban strictures
on women, 7 October 2021, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2021/1007/HowAfghan-midwives-are-challenging-Taliban-strictures-on-women, accessed 9 June 2022
CMS (The Christian Science Monitor), The Taliban won. So why, and who, are they stillfighting?, 2 December 2021, https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2021/1202/TheTaliban-won.-So-why-and-who-are-they-still-fighting, accessed 30 June 2022

225

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

CPJ, Afghan journalist Ali Akbar Khairkhah disappears in Kabul, Taliban cracks down on
women reporters, 29 May 2022, https://ifex.org/afghan-journalist-ali-akbar-khairkhahdisappears-in-kabul-taliban-cracks-down-on-women-reporters/, accessed 30 June
CPJ (Committee to Protect Journalists), Taliban intelligence agents detain four media workers
in Kabul, Herat and Paktia provinces, 31 May 2022, https://cpj.org/2022/05/talibanintelligence-agents-detain-four-media-workers-in-kabul-herat-and-paktia-provinces/, accessed
30 June 2022
CSIS (Center for Strategic and International Studies), Backgrounder: Islamic State Khorasan(IS-K), 9 November 2018, https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/181113_ISK_Backgrounder.pdf?LgtpuuPVxjdGU6g_idQlIH4cI1ILgZ0t, accessed 30 June 2022
CSIS (Center for Strategic and International Studies), Struggling to Survive: Gender,
Displacement, and Migration in Taliban-Controlled Afghanistan, 23 February 2022,
https://www.csis.org/analysis/struggling-survive-gender-displacement-and-migration-talibancontrolled-afghanistan, accessed 13 May 2022
CTC (Combating Terrorism Center), The Islamic State Threat in Taliban Afghanistan: Tracing
the Resurgence of Islamic State Khorasan, 1 January 2022, https://ctc.westpoint.edu/theislamic-state-threat-in-taliban-afghanistan-tracing-the-resurgence-of-islamic-state-khorasan/,accessed 1 July 2022
Daily Pakistan, UAE reopens embassy in Afghanistan after power change in Kabul, 22
November 2021, https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/22-Nov-2021/uae-reopens-embassy-inafghanistan-after-power-change-in-kabul, accessed 1 July 2022
DAWN, Taliban detain 40 people trying to illegally leave Afghanistan by air, 26 January 2022,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1671499, accessed 1 July 2022
Dawn, US to recognise Taliban only if they respect basic rights, says Blinken, 16 August 2021,
https://www.dawn.com/news/1640919, accessed 1 July 2022
Denmark, (DIS) Danish Immigration Service, Afghanistan – Recent events, December 2021,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/denmark/PLib/Afghanistan_RecentEvents.pdf,
accessed 30 June 2022
Denmark, (DIS) Danish Immigration Service, Afghanistan – Taliban’s impact on the population,
June 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/denmark/PLib/afghanistan_fmm_rapport_200622.p
df, accessed 27 July 2022
Democracy Now!, Grandson of Notorious Warlord: My Family Is Celebrating the Taliban, But I
Fear for My Friends’ Lives, 26 August 2021, https://www.democracynow.org/2021/8/26/
afghanistan_evacuations_obaidullah_baheer, accessed 27 June 2022

226

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Der Freitag, In Afghanistan beginnt jeder Tag mit Tränen, 5 March 2022,
https://www.freitag.de/autoren/der-freitag/afghanische-frauen-unter-dem-taliban-regime,
accessed 12 July 2022
Der Spiegel, The Last Way Out of Afghanistan, 13 May 2022,
https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/escaping-the-taliban-the-last-way-out-ofafghanistan-a-d1f4132a-bfe0-4417-8b47-69227910dca0, accessed 27 June 2022
Dr. Ahmad Waqas [Twitter], posted on: 15 September 2021,
https://twitter.com/DrWaqas63763104/status/1438354998048567297, accessed 30 June
2022
Dupree, L., Afghanistan, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1997
Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Afghanistan, March 2022,
https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten/ambtsberichten/2022/03/28/algemeenambtsbericht-afghanistan-maart-2022, accessed 16 May 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), ‫[ نگرانی مردم از احتمال آغاز جنگ در ولسوالی بلخاب والیت سرپل‬People are worried
about the possibility of a war in Balkhab district of Sar-e-Pul province], 18 June 2022,
https://www.dw.com/fa-af/%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%85-%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A2%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF-%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%84/a-62177241, accessed 30 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghan girls set up secret school amid Taliban restrictions, 22 October
2021, https://www.dw.com/en/afghan-girls-set-up-secret-school-amid-taliban-restrictions/a59588208, accessed 18 May 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Aid workers in need, 24 August 2021,
https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-aid-workers-in-need/a-58964933, accessed 29 June
2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: How press freedom has crumbled since the Taliban
takeover, 7 January 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-how-press-freedom-hascrumbled-since-the-taliban-takeover/a-60358683, accessed 30 June 2022
DW, Afghanistan: Journalists encounter tough times under Taliban rule, 7 October 2021,
https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-journalists-encounter-tough-times-under-taliban-rule/a59439857?maca=en-rss-en-asia-5133-rdf&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed
30 June 2022
DW, Afghanistan: LGBTQ people fear for their lives under Taliban rule, 10 September 2021,
https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-lgbtq-people-fear-for-their-lives-under-taliban-rule/a59144208, accessed 30 June 2022

227

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Taliban issue guidelines against women actors, 21
November 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-taliban-issue-guidelines-against-womenactors/a-59895874, accessed 16 May 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Taliban restrict women's rights as isolation looms, 30
March 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-taliban-restrict-womens-rights-as-isolationlooms/a-61303513?maca=en-rss-en-asia-5133-rdf&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 18 May 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Taliban reverses order on opening schools for girls, 23
March 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-taliban-reverses-order-on-opening-schoolsfor-girls/a-61227076
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: UN pressures Taliban over missing women's activists, 22
January 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-un-pressures-taliban-over-missingwomens-activists/a-60524065?maca=en-rss-en-asia-5133rdf&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan: Women TV presenters cover faces one day after defying
edict, 22 May 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistan-women-tv-presenters-cover-facesone-day-after-defying-edict/a-61894605?maca=en-rss-en-asia-5133rdf&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Afghanistan’s justice system altered under the Taliban [Online video], 6October 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/afghanistans-justice-system-altered-under-thetaliban/av-59426569, accessed 30 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Alleged Iranian abuses of refugees spark protests across Afghanistan,
15 April 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/alleged-iranian-abuses-of-refugees-spark-protestsacross-afghanistan/av-61487174, accessed 30 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Taliban are revoking Afghan women's hard-won rights, 2 January 2022,
https://www.dw.com/en/taliban-are-revoking-afghan-womens-hard-won-rights/a-60283590,
accessed 13 May 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Taliban conduct sweeping house-to-house searches [Online video], 16
March 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/taliban-conduct-sweeping-house-to-house-searches/av61151037, accessed 30 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Taliban release prominent Afghan academic Faizullah Jalal | News, 11
January 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/taliban-release-prominent-afghan-academic-faizullahjalal/a-60391634, accessed 30 June 2022
DW (Deutsche Welle), Trans in Afghanistan: A mortal danger under the Taliban, 2 October
2021, https://www.dw.com/en/trans-in-afghanistan-a-mortal-danger-under-the-taliban/a59373800, accessed 30 June 2022

228

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Diplomat (The), Islamic State in Afghanistan looks to recruit regional Tajiks, inflict violenceagainst Tajikistan, 29 April 2022, https://thediplomat.com/2022/04/islamic-state-inafghanistan-looks-to-recruit-regional-tajiks-inflict-violence-against-tajikistan/, accessed 1 July
2022
Diplomat (The), It Doesn’t Matter If We Get Killed, 27 May 2022,
https://thediplomat.com/2022/05/it-doesnt-matter-if-we-get-killed-afghanistans-hazarasspeak-out/, accessed 12 August 2022
Diplomat (The), The Afghan Interpreters Turkey Left Behind, 22 October 2021,
https://thediplomat.com/2021/10/the-afghan-interpreters-turkey-left-behind/, accessed 30 June
2022
Diplomat (The), We Are Committed in Principle to Women Participation, Says Taliban Minister,
13 December 2021, https://thediplomat.com/2021/12/we-are-committed-in-principle-to-womenparticipation-says-taliban-minister/, accessed 8 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Agency), Afghanistan: Country Focus, January 2022,
https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/2022_01_EASO_COI_Report_Afghanist
an_Country_focus.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Agency), Afghanistan: Individuals targeted by armed actors
in the conflict, December 2017, https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/
PLib/Afghanistan_targeting_conflict.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Office), Afghanistan: Security Situation, 28 September 2020,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2021_09_EASO_COI_Report_Afghanista
n_Security_situation_update.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Agency), Afghanistan: Security situation, June 2021,
https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/2021_EASO_COI_AFG_Security_Situati
on_Report_AC_final_sized23.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Agency), Afghanistan: Security situation update, September
2021,
https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/2021_EASO_COI_AFG_Security_Situati
on_Report_AC_final_sized23.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Office), Afghanistan – Country Focus, January 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/2022_01_EASO_COI_Report_Afghanista
n_Country_focus.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
EASO (European Asylum Support Office), Afghanistan – Individuals targeted under societal
and legal norms, December 2017,https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/easo/PLib/Afghanistan_targeting_society.pdf,
accessed 30 June 2022

229

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMEUAA, COI Query Response – Afghanistan – Situation of Sikhs, 23 March 2022,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2070022/2022_03_23_EUAA_COI_Query_Response_AFG
HANISTAN_SIKH.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
EC (European Commission), Union of Equality: LGBTIQ Equality Strategy 2020 – 2025, 12
November 2020, https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/lgbtiq_strategy_20202025_en.pdf, accessed 29 June 2022
Economic Times (The), Afghanistan's Sikhs to make choice between converting to Islam orleaving country: Report, 22 October 2021,
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/afghanistans-sikhs-tomake-choice-between-converting-to-islam-or-leaving-countryreport/articleshow/87204174.cms?from=mdr, accessed 30 June 2022
Economic Times (The), Once wanted terrorists, now Taliban are prominent members of 2021,
28 August 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/oncewanted-terrorists-now-taliban-are-prominent-members-of-2021/articleshow/85712428.cms,
accessed 30 June 2022
Economist (The), The Taliban government has proved surprisingly good at raising money, 8June 2022, https://www.economist.com/asia/2022/06/08/the-taliban-government-has-provedsurprisingly-good-at-raising-money, accessed 30 June 2022
EEAS (European External Action Service), Afghanistan: Statement by the Spokesperson on theappointment by the Taliban of a de facto interim government, 9 September 2021,
https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/afghanistan-statement-spokesperson-appointment-talibande-facto-interim-government_en, accessed 30 June 2022
Emroo [Twitter], posted on: 20 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/EmrooPhotos/status/1495381724901040135, accessed 12 July 2022
Etilaat-e Roz, ‫[ یک زن در تخار به دلیل نامزدی اجباری خودکوشی کرد‬A woman in Takhar committed suicide
because of forced engagement], 24 May 2022, https://www.etilaatroz.com/142995/a-womanin-takhar-committed-suicide-due-to-forced-engagement/, accessed 12 July 2022
Etilaat-e Roz, ‫[ ادعای شکنجه در بازداشتگاهای طالبان‬Allegations of torture in Taliban detention centres],
6 April 2022, https://www.etilaatroz.com/140003/allegations-of-torture-in-taliban-detentioncenters-mullah-hebatullah-the-persecution-of-people-accused-of-oppression-is-cruel/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Etilaat-e Rooz, ‫[ بازداشت یک فعال مدنی در هرات از سوی طالبان‬Detention of a civil activist in Herat by the
Taliban], 3 February 2022, https://www.etilaatroz.com/135865/taliban-arrested-a-civil-societyactivist-in-herat/, accessed 20 June 2022
Etilaat-e Roz, ‫ نیروهای ویژه ارتش پیشین افغانستان به «جبهه مقاومت» پیوستهاند‬:‫[ سیگار‬SIGAR: Special forces ofthe former Afghan army have joined the "Resistance Front"], 3 April 2022,
https://www.etilaatroz.com/139760/sigar-special-forces-of-the-former-afghan-army-havejoined-the-resistance-front/, accessed 30 June 2022

230

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Etilaat-e Roz, ‫[ ریاست امر به معروف طالبان ورود زنان بدون محرم به مراکز صحی را در غزنی ممنوع کرد‬The
Taliban's directorate banned women from entering health centres in Ghazni], 15 December
2021, https://www.etilaatroz.com/133705/the-taliban-banned-women-from-entering-healthcenters-in-ghazni/, accessed 1 June 2022
Etilaat-e Roz, ‫[ مخ پټو وسلهوالو ګردېز کې یو څارنوال په ډزو وژلی‬Unidentified gunmen shot dead aprosecutor in Gardez], 22 February 2022,
https://www.etilaatroz.com/ps/2022/02/22/unidentified-gunmen-shot-dead-prosecutor-inpaktia-gardez/, accessed 30 June 2022
EUAA (European Union Agency for Asylum). COI Query Response – Afghanistan – Situation of
Sikhs, 23 March 2022,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2070022/2022_03_23_EUAA_COI_Query_Response_AFG
HANISTAN_SIKH.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Express Tribune (The), No place for ISIS in Afghanistan, say Taliban, 9 December 2021,
https://tribune.com.pk/story/2333034/no-place-for-isis-in-afghanistan-say-taliban, accessed 30
June 2022
Fair Observer, The Taliban Use Violence Against Women as a Bargaining Chip, 11 February2022, https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/mohammad-zaki-farasooafghanistan-taliban-violence-against-women-human-rights-security-news-26511/, accessed 28
June 2022
FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization), A humanitarian worker in
Afghanistan, through thick and thin, 9 November 2021, https://www.fao.org/faostories/article/en/c/1451161/, accessed 29 June 2022
Feroz, E., Ein Jahr unter den Taliban [One year under the Taliban], Republik.ch, 21 June 2022,
https://www.republik.ch/2022/06/21/ein-jahr-unter-den-taliban, accessed 30 June 2022
FIDH (International Federation for Human Rights), Broken promises: Civil society under siege
after 100 days of Taliban takeover, 23 November 2021,
https://www.fidh.org/en/region/asia/afghanistan/broken-promises-civil-society-under-siegeafter-100-days-of-taliban, accessed 27 June 2022
Finland, Finnish Immigration Service, Afghanistan: Fact-Finding Mission to Kabul in April 2019,15 October 2019,https://migri.fi/documents/5202425/5914056/Afghanistan_FFM_Returnees_MIG1914851.pdf/ebbe969e-aea8-768d-c10b-37fad4b2bbd2/Afghanistan_FFM_Returnees_MIG1914851.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Foschini, F., Hitting Gardez: A vicious attack on Paktia’s Shias, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts
Network), 18 August 2018, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-andpeace/hitting-gardez-a-vicious-attack-on-paktias-shias/, accessed 27 June 2022

231

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Foschini, F., Kabul Unpacked: A geographical guide to a metropolis in the making, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), 19 March 2019, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/03/Kabul-Police-Districts.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022
FP (Foreign Policy), 12 Million Angry Men, 28 October 2021,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/28/afghanistan-taliban-justice-sharia/, accessed 30 June
2022
FP (Foreign Policy), Islamic State-Khorasan’s Reach Extends Far Beyond Afghanistan, 9September 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/09/09/islamic-state-khorasan-afghanistanpakistan-central-asia-online-extremism-terrorism/, accessed 27 June 2022
FP (Foreign Policy), Millions of Afghans Want to Flee. LGBTQ Afghans Have To., 5 May 2022,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/05/05/afghanistan-taliban-lgbtq-danger/, accessed 23 June
2022
FP (Foreign Policy), The CIA Secretly Evacuated Most of Its Spies From Afghanistan, 3September 2021, https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/09/03/the-cia-secretly-evacuated-most-of-itsspies-from-afghanistan/, accessed 30 June 2022
FP (Foreign Policy), The Taliban Are Harming Afghan Women’s Health, 2 March 2022,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/02/the-taliban-are-harming-afghan-womens-health/,
accessed 15 July 2022
FP (Foreign Policy), What the Taliban Mean for Queer Afghans, 20 April 2022,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/04/20/what-the-taliban-means-for-queer-afghans/, accessed
23 June 2022
FP (Foreign Policy), You’re Very Vulnerable: Afghan Diplomats Fear Violent Taliban Reprisals,
11 January 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/11/afghan-diplomats-taliban-reprisal/,
accessed 30 June 2022
FPRI (Foreign Policy Research Institute), Northern Afghanistan and the new threat to central
Asia, 13 May 2022, https://www.fpri.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/north-afghanistan-andthe-new-threat-to-central-asia.pdf, accessed 1 July 2022
France 24, Afghan resistance has sanctuary in Tajikistan, but fighting Taliban a ‘non-viable
prospect’, 4 October 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211004-afghanresistance-has-sanctuary-in-tajikistan-but-fighting-taliban-a-non-viable-prospect, accessed 30
June 2022
France 24, Afghans protest after videos allegedly show Iranians beating refugees, 11 April
2022, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220411-afghans-protest-after-videosallegedly-show-iranians-beating-refugees, accessed 30 June 2022
France 24, Fear stalks city in Islamic State's Afghan heartland, 21 January 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220121-fear-stalks-city-in-islamic-state-s-afghanheartland, accessed 27 June 2022

232

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSFrance 24, Four bombs kill at least 12 in Afghanistan, 25 May 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220525-four-bombs-kill-at-least-12-in-afghanistan,accessed 27 June 2022
France 24, Four women slain in Afghanistan after phone call ‘to join evacuation flight’, 6November 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211106-four-women-slain-inafghanistan-after-phone-call-to-join-evacuation-flight, accessed 15 June 2022
France 24, Girls return to schools in Afghan province, remain barred elsewhere, 5 October
2021, https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211005-girls-return-to-schools-in-afghanprovince-remain-barred-elsewhere, accessed 25 May 2022
France 24, Girls with rare chance to study under Taliban rule dare to dream, 7 December
2021, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211207-girls-with-rare-chance-to-study-undertaliban-rule-dare-to-dream, accessed 25 May 2022
France 24, Nowhere to hide: Abused Afghan women find shelter dwindling, 2 January 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220102-nowhere-to-hide-abused-afghan-womenfind-shelter-dwindling, accessed 12 July 2022
France 24, Several killed in twin explosions at Shiite school in Afghan capital, 19 April 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220419-several-killed-in-twin-explosions-at-shiiteschool-in-afghan-capital, accessed 30 June 2022
France 24, Taliban ban Afghans from evacuating amid massive security sweep, 28 February2022, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220228-taliban-ban-afghans-fromevacuating-amid-massive-security-sweep, accessed 1 June 2022
France 24, Taliban ban Afghan women flying alone in latest setback on rights, 28 March 2022,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220328-taliban-ban-afghan-women-flying-alone-inlatest-setback-on-rights, accessed 1 June 2022
France 24, Taliban declares general amnesty for Afghan government officials, 17 August 2021,
https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210817-taliban-declare-amnesty-urge-women-tojoin-government-according-to-shariah-law, accessed 30 June 2022
France 24, Taliban disperse women protesters with gunfire in Kabul, 30 September 2021,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210930-taliban-disperse-women-protesters-withgunfire-in-kabul, accessed 8 June 2022
France 24, Taliban religious police issue posters ordering women to cover up, 7 January2022, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220107-taliban-religious-police-issueposters-ordering-women-to-cover-up, accessed 7 June 2022
France 24, Taliban summon Afghan interpreters who worked for Dutch, threaten families, 5
October 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211005-taliban-summon-afghaninterpreters-who-worked-for-dutch-threaten-families, accessed 30 June 2022

233

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMFrance 24, Taliban warn will reconsider policy towards US if assets not freed, 14 February2022, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220214-taliban-warn-will-reconsider-policytowards-us-if-assets-not-freed, accessed 30 June 2022
France 24, The Taliban has a kill list for the Afghan LGBT community, NGO says, 2 November
2021, https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20211102-the-taliban-has-a-kill-list-for-theafghan-lgbt-community-ngo-says, accessed 14 June 2022
France 24, Thousands of Afghan journalists out of a job since Taliban takeover, 25 November
2021, https://observers.france24.com/en/middle-east/20211125-war-correspondent-turnedstreet-vendor-thousands-of-afghan-journalists-out-of-a-job-since-taliban-takeover, accessed
30 June 2022
France 24, Under years of Taliban rule, women nurses work alongside men, 13 October 2021,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211013-under-years-of-taliban-rule-women-nurseswork-alongside-men, accessed 8 June 2022
France 24, What is the Islamic State threat in Afghanistan?, 26 August 2021,
https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210826-what-is-the-islamic-state-threat-inafghanistan, accessed 30 June 2022
France 24 Observers, I knew they’d come for us: Afghan journalists, activists report Taliban
reprisals, 20 August 2021, https://observers.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210820journalists-activists-taliban-door-to-door-searches-afghanistan, accessed 14 June 2022
France 24 Observers, Lay low and stay home: The only option for Afghans targeted by
Taliban, 23 August 2021, https://observers.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210823-kabuloptions-for-afghans-targeted-taliban-activists?ref=tw_i, accessed 14 June 2022
France 24 Observers, Out Observers recount life under Taliban rule in 2021, 21 September
2021, https://observers.france24.com/en/tv-shows/the-observers/20210921-life-under-talibanrule-2021, accessed 8 June 2022
Free Speech Hub [Twitter], posted on: 17 January 2022,
https://mobile.twitter.com/FreeSpeechHub/status/1483058708112416770, accessed 30 June
2022
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2020 – Afghanistan, 2020,
https://freedomhouse.org/country/afghanistan/freedom-world/2020, accessed 30 June 2022
Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2022 – Afghanistan, 28 February 2022,
https://freedomhouse.org/country/afghanistan/freedom-world/2022, accessed 30 June 2022
Frontier Post (The), Journalist in Kapisa goes missing, 13 June 2022,
https://thefrontierpost.com/journalist-in-kapisa-goesmissing/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=journalist-in-kapisa-goesmissing, accessed 30 June 2022

234

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Front Line Defenders, Front Line Defenders Global Analysis 2021, 9 February 2022,
https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/sites/default/files/2021_global_analysis_-_final.pdf,
accessed 12 August 2022
FT (Financial Times), Afghan women resist the return of Taliban’s segregation, 20 October
2021, https://www.ft.com/content/d320c92f-c7a4-4277-8d6c-0c998a36b411, accessed 12 May
2022
FT (Financial Times), Secret schools keep Afghan girls learning, 28 March 2022,
https://www.ft.com/content/d437fe66-f467-473f-a13b-48a1e6e0f208, accessed 30 June 2022
Fuller Project (The), Dating in the time of the Taliban, 4 March 2022,
https://fullerproject.org/story/young-afghans-dating-under-taliban-rule/, accessed 28 June
2022
Fuller Project (The), The Taliban are harming Afghan women’s health, 2 March 2022,
https://fullerproject.org/story/afghanistan-taliban-healthcare-restrictions-women/, accessed 28
June 2022
Fuller Project (The), Queer Afghan lives are at risk under the Taliban, 20 April 2022,
https://fullerproject.org/story/queer-afghan-lives-are-at-risk-under-the-taliban/, accessed 23
June 2022
Germany, BAMF (Federal Office for Migration and Refugees), Briefing Notes Group 62 –Information Centre for Asylum and Migration, 16 May 2022,
https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/Behoerde/Informationszentrum/BriefingNotes/
2022/briefingnotes-kw09-2022.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3, accessed 30 June 2022
Germany, BAMF (Federal Office for Migration and Refugees), Länderreport 48 Afghanistan:
Die Situation von Frauen, 1996 – 2022, January 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/germany/PLib/DE_BAMF_Laenderreport_48_Afghan
istan_Jan-2022.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022
Giustozzi, A., The Taliban’s homemade counterinsurgency, RUSI (The Royal United Services
Institute), 4 January 2022, https://www.rusi.org/explore-ourresearch/publications/commentary/talibans-homemade-counterinsurgency, accessed 1 July
2022
Glinski, S., I Wanted to Stay for My People, Foreign Policy, 9 February 2022,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/09/afghanistan-civil-servants-stay-taliban/, accessed 30
June 2022
Global Rights, Living with Violence. A National Report on Domestic Abuse in Afghanistan,
March 2008,https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/
files/Living%20with%20Violence%20%20A%20National%20Report%20on%20Domestic%20Violence%20in%20Afghanistan%2C%2
0Global%20Rights%2C%202008.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022

235

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

GlobalSecurity.org, Afghanistan – Religion – Shia, 17 August 2012,https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/afghanistan/shia.htm, accessed 27 June 2022
Globe & Mail (The), Afghan interpreters press Ottawa to rescue their families, 11 April 2022,
https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-former-afghan-interpreters-for-canadasmilitary-criticize-ottawa-for/, accessed 30 June 2022
Graeme Smith [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022, available at:https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1506714599013425155.html, accessed 25 May 2022
Guardian (The), #DoNotTouchMyClothes: Afghan women’s social media protest against
Taliban, 15 September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2021/sep/15/donottouchmyclothes-afghan-womens-social-media-protestagainst-taliban, accessed 8 June 2022
Guardian (The), A tale of two enemies; why Afghan forces proved no much for the Taliban?, 15
August 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/15/a-tale-of-two-armies-whyafghan-forces-proved-no-match-for-the-taliban, accessed 1 July 2022
Guardian (The), Afghan census dodges questions of ethnicity and language, 3 January 2013,https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/03/afghan-census-questions-of-ethnicity,
accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), Afghan universities reopen with strict rules for female students, 3 February2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/feb/03/afghan-universitiesreopen-with-strict-rules-for-female-students?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 19 May 2022
Guardian (The), Afghan women stage protest in Kabul after Taliban crack down on women's
rights – video report, 19 September 2021,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2021/sep/19/afghan-women-stage-protest-in-kabulafter-taliban-crack-down-on-womens-rights-videoreport?utm_term=Autofeed&CMP=twt_gu&utm_medium&utm_source=Twitter#Echobox=1632
068430, accessed 8 June 2022
Guardian (The), Afghanistan resistance fighters clash with Taliban in Panjshir valley, 3
September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/03/afghanistan-resistancefighters-clash-with-taliban-in-panjshir-valley, accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), Banned by the Taliban: the Afghan girls fighting to go to school - video, 10
February 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2022/feb/10/banned-by-the-talibanthe-afghan-girls-fighting-to-go-to-school-video?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 28 June 2022
Guardian (The), Calls for release of Kabul University professor detained by Taliban, 10 January2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jan/10/calls-for-release-ofkabul-university-professor-detained-by-taliban, accessed 30 June 2022

236

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSGuardian (The), Dishonourable: report says Afghans left behind at high risk of brutal reprisals
due to links with Australia, 21 January 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/21/dishonourable-report-says-afghans-leftbehind-at-high-risk-of-brutal-reprisals-due-to-links-withaustralia?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), Fears for Afghan psychiatrist abducted by armed men, 27 September 2021,
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/sep/27/fears-for-afghan-psychiatristabducted-by-armed-men, accessed 20 June 2022
Guardian (The), I am losing my skills: female boxer who was on Afghan national team, 20
January 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/20/i-am-losing-my-skills-femaleboxer-who-was-on-afghan-national-team?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1
June 2022
Guardian (The), I don’t know where to go: uncertain fate of the women in Kabul’s shelters, 1
October 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/oct/01/i-dont-knowwhere-to-go-uncertain-fate-of-the-women-in-kabulsshelters?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 28 June 2022
Guardian (The), Is it a crime to study?: outcry as Taliban bar girls from secondary schools, 23
March 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/23/girls-in-afghanistan-schooltaliban?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
Guardian (The), ‘I’ve already sold my daughters; now, my kidney’: winter in Afghanistan’sslums, 23 January 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jan/23/ivealready-sold-my-daughters-now-my-kidney-winter-in-afghanistans-slums, accessed 12 July
2022
Guardian (The), Kabul government’s female workers told to stay at home by Taliban, 19
September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/19/kabul-governments-femaleworkers-told-to-stay-at-home-by-taliban, accessed 16 May 2022
Guardian (The), Male Afghan TV presenters mask up to support female colleagues after
Taliban decree, 24 May 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2022/may/24/male-afghan-tv-presenters-mask-up-to-support-femalecolleagues-after-taliban-decree?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2 June
2022
Guardian (The), More rights defenders murdered in 2021, with 138 activists killed just in
Colombia, 2 March 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2022/mar/02/more-human-rights-defenders-murdered-2021-environmentalindigenous-rights-activists?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 15 June 2022
Guardian (The), Open the schools: Afghan girls protest in Kabul for right to education, 26
March 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/26/open-the-schools-afghanistangirls-protest-taliban-kabul-for-right-to-education?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 19 May 2022
237

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Guardian (The), Robbed of hope: Afghan girls denied an education struggle with depression,
10 March 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/mar/10/robbed-ofhope-afghan-girls-denied-an-education-struggle-withdepression?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 25 May 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban dissolves Afghanistan’s human rights commission as ‘unnecessary’, 17
May 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/17/taliban-dissolves-afghanistanshuman-rights-commission-as-unnecessary?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed
21 June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban enforce face coverings for Afghanistan’s female news presenters, 22
May 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/22/taliban-enforce-face-coveringsafghanistan-female-tv-news-presenters?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2
June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban forces pepper-spray women’s rights protesters in Kabul, 16 January2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/16/taliban-forces-pepper-spray-womenrights-protesters-kabul, accessed 8 June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban have detained 29 women and their families in Kabul, says US envoy,
12 February 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/12/taliban-have-detained-29women-and-their-families-in-kabul-says-us-envoy?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 17 June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban launch raids on homes of Afghan women’s rights activists, 20 January2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jan/20/taliban-arrest-afghanwomens-rights-activist-witness-says?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17
June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban name all-male Afghan cabinet including minister wanted by FBI, 7
September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/07/taliban-name-afghanistansnew-government, accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban order all Afghan women to cover their faces in public, 7 May 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/07/taliban-order-all-afghan-women-to-wearburqa, accessed 3 June 2022
Guardian (The), Taliban orders female Afghan TV presenters to cover faces on air, 19 May
2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/may/19/taliban-orders-female-afghan-tvpresenters-to-cover-faces-on-air?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2 June
2022
Guardian (The), Taliban stop Afghan women from using bathhouses in northern provinces, 7January 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/jan/07/taliban-stopafghan-women-using-bathhouses-in-northernprovinces?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022

238

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSGuardian (The), Taliban U-turn over Afghan girls’ education reveals deep leadership divisions,
25 March 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/mar/25/taliban-uturn-over-afghan-girls-education-reveals-deep-leadership-divisionsafghanistan?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Guardian (The), The Afghan interim government: who's who, 6 December 2001,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/06/afghanistan1, accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), The media spotlight on Afghanistan is fading fast – but the agony of its people
is far from over, 18 March 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/mar/19/the-media-spotlight-onafghanistan-is-fading-fast-but-the-agony-of-its-people-is-far-from-over, accessed 12 July 2022
Guardian (The), The Taliban hate us: a former senior female police officer, 20 January 2022,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/20/the-taliban-hate-us-a-former-senior-femalepolice-officer, accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), The Taliban know they need us: the Afghan hospitals run by women, 9 May
2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/may/09/taliban-afghanistanhospitals-run-by-women-doctors, accessed 18 May 2022
Guardian (The), The Taliban want revenge: Afghanistan’s female judges in exile in Australia, 19
February 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/feb/20/the-taliban-wantrevenge-afghanistans-female-judges-in-exile-inaustralia?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 16 May 2022
Guardian (The), The Taliban will have no mercy: LGBTQ+ Afghans go into hiding, 20
September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/sep/20/talibanlgbtq-afghans-go-into-hiding, accessed 17 June 2022
Guardian (The), They stayed to fight the Taliban. Now the protesters are being hunted down, 4November 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/nov/04/they-stayedto-fight-the-taliban-now-the-protesters-are-being-hunted-down, accessed 8 June 2022
Guardian (The), Two suspect British Islamic State recruits seized by Taliban at border, 8
February 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/08/two-suspected-britishislamic-state-recruits-seized-by-taliban-at-afghanistan-border, accessed 1 July 2022
Guardian (The), US drone strike mistakenly targeted Afghan aid worker, investigation finds, 11
September 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/sep/11/us-drone-strikemistakenly-targeted-afghan-aid-worker-investigation-finds, accessed 25 July 2022
Guardian (The), We are struggling: two former officials at Afghan women’s affairs ministry, 16January 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/16/we-are-struggling-two-formerofficialsafghan-women-affairs-ministry, accessed 30 June 2022
Guardian (The), We are worse off: Afghanistan further impoverished as women vanish fromworkforce, 16 May 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-

239

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

development/2022/may/16/afghanistan-further-impoverished-as-women-vanish-fromworkforce-taliban?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 18 May 2022
Guardian (The), We don’t want people to be in a panic, says chief of Taliban morality police, 19
September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/19/persuasion-first-violencelater-the-talibans-new-vice-and-virtue-approach, accessed 18 May 2022
Guardian (The), We exist but it is not a life: Afghan women face bleak prospects under Taliban,
13 June 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/13/we-exist-but-it-is-not-a-lifeafghan-women-face-bleak-prospects-under-taliban?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 22 June 2022
Guardian (The), We had 4,000 policewomen in Afghanistan. Let them get back to work, 21
April 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/apr/21/we-had-4000policewomen-in-afghanistan-let-them-get-back-towork?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 18 May 2022
Guardian (The), We have never given up: how Afghan women are demanding their education
under the Taliban, 10 February 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/10/wehave-never-given-up-how-afghan-women-are-demanding-their-education-under-thetaliban?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 25 May 2022
Guardian (The), We see silence filled with fear: female Afghan journalists plead for help, 16
August 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/16/we-see-silence-filled-with-fearfemale-afghan-journalists-plead-for-help, accessed 16 May 2022
Guardian (The), West plans to tie Afghan teacher aid to girls’ education pledge, 27 January2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/27/west-plans-to-tie-afghan-teacher-aidto-girls-education-pledge?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 25 May 2022
Guardian (The), Women can continue working in Afghan government, say Taliban, 1September 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/01/women-can-continueworking-in-afghan-government-say-taliban, accessed 16 May 2022
Guardian (The), Women’s rights activist shot dead in northern Afghanistan, 5 November 2021,
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/05/womens-rights-activist-shot-dead-innorthern-afghanistan, accessed 15 June 2022
Guernica, Inside the Afghan Resistance, 24 May 2022, https://www.guernicamag.com/insidethe-afghan-resistance/, accessed 30 June 2022
Göteborgsregionen, Temadag om Afghanistan [Online video], 18 Mars 2022,
https://play.quickchannel.com/play/r38pvhg, accessed 30 June 2022
Hanley, R., Ethnic Violence, Impact on Afghanistan, 8 April 2011,https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA559961.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022

240

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک مرد و یک زن در غور تیرباران شدند‬A man and a woman were shot in Ghor], 12
March 2022, https://8am.af/a-man-and-a-woman-were-shot-in-ghor/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک مرد و یک زن در بدخشان محکمه صحرایی شدند‬A man and a woman were tried
publicly in Badakhshan], 14 February 2022, https://8am.af/a-man-and-a-woman-went-to-courtin-badakhshan/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در فریاب همسرش را کشت‬A man in Faryab killed his wife], 28 June 2022,
https://8am.af/a-man-killed-his-wife-in-faryab/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در هلمند همسر و کودک سه ماهه اش را سر برید‬A man in Helmand beheaded his wifeand his three-month-old child], 13 June 2022, https://8am.af/a-man-in-helmand-beheads-hiswife-and-three-month-old-baby/, 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫ عضو خانواده اش را کشت‬۹ ‫[ مردی در نیمروز‬A man in Nimruz killed 9 members of his
family], 13 June 2022, https://8am.af/a-man-killed-nine-members-of-his-family-at-noon/,accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ مردی در سمنگان زنش را کشت و دو کودکش را زخمی کرد‬A man killed his wife and injured
his two children], 21 May 2022, https://8am.af/a-man-killed-his-wife-and-injured-his-twochildren-in-samangan/, 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک زن حامله از سوی شوهرش در فریاب کشته شد‬A pregnant woman was killed by herhusband in Faryab], 14 June 2022, https://8am.af/a-pregnant-woman-was-killed-by-herhusband-in-faryab/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک زن از سوی شوهرش در بادغیس کشته شد‬A woman was killed by her husband in
Badghis], 12 March 2022, https://8am.af/a-woman-was-killed-by-her-husband-in-badghis/,accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک دختر و یک پسر جوان در شهر غزنی به قتل رسیدند‬A young girl and a young boy were
killed in Ghazni City], 13 May 2022, https://8am.af/%db%8c%da%a9%d8%af%d8%ae%d8%aa%d8%b1-%d9%88-%db%8c%da%a9-%d9%be%d8%b3%d8%b1%d8%ac%d9%88%d8%a7%d9%86-%d8%af%d8%b1-%d8%b4%d9%87%d8%b1%d8%ba%d8%b2%d9%86%db%8c-%d8%a8%d9%87-%d9%82%d8%aa%d9%84-%d8%b1/,
accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک دختر جوان در تخار شلیک گلوله خودش را کشت‬A young girl in Takhar committed
suicide with a gun], 29 June 2022, https://8am.af/a-young-girl-in-takhar-shot-herself/,
accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ یک جوان در غور به اتهام مزاحمت به یک دختر دره زده شد‬A young man in Ghor was lashedfor the crime of harassment of a girl], 20 June 2022, https://8am.af/a-young-man-in-ghor-washarassed-by-a-girl/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫یک مرد در غزنی پس از در یافت پاسخ رد در خواستگاری دختر مورد عالقه و مادر او را به گولوله بست‬[After being rejected in courtship a man shot the girl he was interested in and her mother inGhazni], 14 May 2022, https://8am.af/a-man-in-ghazni-shot-his-favorite-girl-and-her-motherafter-receiving-a-rejection-in-a-courtship/, accessed 12 July 2022

241

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ کشته شدن یک زن در نیمروز؛ همسر قاتل است یا پسر؟‬Killing of a woman in Nimruz; Is thehusband or the son the killer?] 1 March 2022, https://8am.af/a-woman-was-killed-at-noon-isthe-wife-the-killer-or-the-son/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دادگاه صحرایی؛ طالبان در بدخشان یک زن و مرد را به اتهام «روابط نامشروع» دره زدند‬Public trial;
in Badakhshan the Taliban lashed a woman and a man for the crime of “illicit relations”], 20
January 2022, https://8am.af/field-court-the-taliban-beat-a-man-and-a-woman-in-badakhshanon-charges-of-illicit-relations/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫ دست به اعتراض زدند‬،‫[ باشندهگان قندهار در پی کشته شدن یک زن‬Residents of Kandahar
protested after a woman was killed], 1 March 2022, https://8am.af/residents-of-kandaharprotested-after-a-woman-was-killed/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫ زنان حق ندارند علیه شوهرشان در دادگاه شکایت کنند‬:‫[ طالبان در هرات‬Taliban in Herat: Women
don’t have the right to complain about their husbands in court], 16 June 2022,
https://8am.af/taliban-in-herat-women-have-no-right-to-sue-their-husbands-in-court/, accessed
12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ طالبان یک زن متاهل را از غزنی ربوده و به ارزگان برده اند‬Taliban kidnapped a woman from
Ghazni and took her to Urozgan], 9 June 2022, https://8am.af/the-taliban-kidnapped-amarried-woman-from-ghazni-and-took-her-to-uruzgan/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫طالبان یک زن را در ولسوالی دره صوف پایین والیت سمنگان در مقابل فرزندانش تیرباران کردند‬[Taliban shot a woman in front of her children in Dara-e Suf District, lower Samangan], 6 June
2022, https://8am.af/taliban-shoot-woman-in-front-of-her-children-in-dara-e-suf-district-oflower-samangan-province/, accessed 21 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دو زن در ارزگان کشته شد‬Two women were killed in Urozgan], 20 May 2022,
https://8am.af/two-women-were-killed-in-uruzgan/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ‫[ دو دختر جوان و یک مرد کهن سال در شبرغان خود را خلق آویز کردند‬Two young girls and an
old man hanged themselves in Sheberghan], 5 June 2022, https://8am.af/two-young-girls-andan-old-man-hanged-themselves-in-sheberghan/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, 2 Soldiers, 3 Civilians Killed in Kapisa, 16 February 2022, https://8am.af/eng/2soldiers-3-civilians-killed-in-kapisa/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Afghan Prosecutors Are Concerned, Saying That They Live in Hiding, 5 October
2021, https://8am.af/eng/afghan-prosecutors-are-concerned-about-their-safety-saying-thatthey-live-in-hideouts/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, An Ex-Police Officer Shot Dead by Taliban in Kishim, Badakhshan, 24 June
2022, https://8am.af/eng/an-ex-police-officer-shot-dead-by-taliban-in-kishim-badakhshan/,accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Anonymous Gunmen Shot Dead a Former Army Soldier in Parwan, 5 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/anonymous-gunmen-shot-dead-a-former-army-soldier-in-parwan/, accessed
30 June 2022

242

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Hasht-e Subh, Armed Men Arrest Former Security Officer in Kabul, 13 February 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/armed-men-arrest-former-security-officer-in-kabul/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Blast Hits a Bus in Western Kabul, Killing 3 Women and Injuring 2 Others, 1 May
2022, https://8am.af/eng/blast-hits-a-bus-in-western-kabul-killing-3-women-and-injuring-2others/, accessed 27 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Deported Refugees in Islam Qala Border: Taliban Filters Refugees from Panjshir
During the Investigation, 10 May 2022, https://8am.af/eng/deported-refugees-in-islam-qalaborder-taliban-filters-refugees-from-panjshir-during-the-investigation/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Female Students Must Wear Burqas While Attending Classes, Urges Taliban’s
Religious Police in Ghazni Province, 27 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/female-students-mustwear-burqa-while-attending-their-classes-urges-taliban-leaders-in-ghazni-province/, accessed
7 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Females Can’t Enter the Ministries without Islamic Hijab, Ministry of Ethics Says,
3 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/females-cant-enter-the-ministries-without-islamic-hijab/,
accessed 16 May 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Fierce Fighting Rages Between Taliban and Local Forces Led by Mawlawi
Mehdi in Balkhab, 23 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/fierce-fighting-between-taliban-andmawlawi-mehdis-forces-in-balkhab/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Four People Stoned to Death in Urozgan Over Rape Accusation, 7 December
2021, https://8am.af/eng/four-people-stoned-to-death-in-urozgan-over-rape-accusation/,
accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Gunmen in Military Uniforms Kill Two Brothers in Kunduz, 29 January 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/gunmen-dressed-in-military-uniforms-kill-two-brothers-in-kunduz/, accessed
30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, ISKP Claims Responsibility for a Deadly Attack in Herat, 24 January 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/iskp-claims-responsibility-for-a-deadly-attack-in-herat/, accessed 15 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Local Sources: A Former National Army Solider Mysteriously Murdered in Ghor
Province, 13 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/local-sources-a-former-national-army-solidermysteriously-murdered-in-ghor-province/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Local Sources: Taliban Militants Murder a Former Army Soldier in Takhar
Province, 27 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/local-sources-taliban-militants-murder-a-formerarmy-soldier-in-takhar-province/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Mohaqiq Considers Taliban to Be Accountable for Recent Brutal Attacks on
Hazara Community, 27 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/mohaqiq-considers-taliban-to-beaccountable-for-recent-brutal-attacks-on-hazara-community/, accessed 15 June 2022

243

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hasht-e Subh, Nader Alemi, a Kidnapped Psychotherapist, Was Killed in Balkh Last Night, 19
November 2022, https://8am.af/eng/nader-alemi-a-kidnapped-psychotherapist-was-killed-inbalkh-last-night/, accessed 20 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Non-payment of Salaries to Traffic Police in Balkh: 30 People Quit Their Jobs,
18 February 2022, https://8am.af/eng/non-payment-of-salaries-to-traffic-police-in-balkh-30people-quit-their-jobs/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Playing Music Is Fiercely Forbidden, 6 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/playingmusic-is-fiercely-forbidden-the-taliban-have-imposed-new-restrictions-on-local-artists-inkapisa/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Shirin Agha Lives a Hard Life After Losing His Job, 17 February 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/shirin-agha-lives-a-hard-life-after-losing-his-job/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Suicide Attacks on Hazara Community Escalate Alarmingly As Taliban Rejects
ISKP Threat in Afghanistan, 29 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/suicide-attacks-on-hazaracommunity-escalate-alarmingly-as-taliban-rejects-iskp-threat-in-afghanistan/, accessed 15 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Appoints New Pashtun Governor for Panjshir Province, 8 June 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/tag/taliban-appoints-new-pashtun-governor-for-panjshir-province/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrest an Officer of the 205th Corps in Kabul, 28 December 2021,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrest-member-of-the-205th-army-corps-in-kabul/, accessed 30 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrest Former Deputy Head of the Electoral Complaints Commission, 7January 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrest-former-deputy-head-of-the-electoralcomplaints-commission/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests a Former Local Commander and His Nephew in Ghor, 29 April
2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-a-former-local-commander-and-his-nephew-in-ghor/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests an Ex-Local Commander in Takhar, 21 June 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-an-ex-local-commander-in-takhar/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests Ex-Police Chief of Ghorak District, Kandahar, 29 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-ex-police-chief-of-ghorak-district-kandahar/, accessed 30
June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests Former Government Soldiers and Youths in Kapisa, 29 June
2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-former-government-soldiers-and-youths-in-kapisa/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests the Former Regional Manager of National Directorate of
Security for Ghor Province, 26 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-the-former244

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

regional-manager-of-national-directorate-of-security-for-ghor-province/, accessed 30 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests the Manager of the Gholghola Resort in Bamiyan, 25 April
2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-the-manager-of-the-gholghola-resort-in-bamiyan/,accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Arrests Two Former Forces of NDS in Bamiyan Province, 6 April 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-arrests-two-former-forces-of-nds-in-bamiyan-province/, accessed 30
June 2022
Hast-e Subh Daily, Taliban Banned Beard Shaving in Ghor, 1 November 2021,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-banned-beard-shaving-in-ghor/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Continue Ethnic Based Expulsions of Former Government Employees:
The Labor Ministry Expels 16 Directors, 25 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-continueethnic-based-expulsions-of-former-government-employees-the-labor-ministry-expels-16directors/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Defines Fighting Background as Recruitment Criteria in Public Posts, 5June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-defines-fighting-background-as-recruitment-criteria-inpublic-posts/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Deploys Troops to Arrest Mawlawi Mehdi, 13 June, 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-deploys-troops-to-arrest-mawlawi-mehdi/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Detain 18 Civilians, Including 9 women, in Herat for Prostitution, 11
December 2021, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-detain-18-civilians-including-9-women-in-herat-forprostitution/, accessed 12 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Detains a Former Army Soldier in Kabul, 20 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-detains-a-former-army-soldier-in-kabul/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Fires 300 Staff of Herat Municipality, 20 January 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-fires-300-staff-of-herat-municipality/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forces Female Officers to Buy Them Guns or Face Consequences, 29
May 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-forces-female-officers-to-buy-them-guns-or-faceconsequences/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forces Imprison, Torture Daikundi Residents As Staging Massive
House-to-House Sweep, Reports, 1 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-forces-detaintorture-daikundi-residents-while-looking-for-weapons-reports, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Forcibly Evict Former Soldiers From Their Houses, Confiscate Their
Properties, 8 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-forcibly-evict-former-soldiers-from-theirhouses-confiscate-their-properties/, accessed 30 June 2022

245

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Identifies Former Security Affiliates Using Biometric Devices Across
Panjshir Routes, 15 May 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-identifies-former-security-affiliatesusing-biometric-devices-across-panjshir-routes/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Imposes New Dress Code on Female Teachers in Ghazni, 19 June
2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-imposes-new-dress-code-on-female-teachers-in-ghazni/,
accessed 24 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban in Ghazni: Female Students from 4th Grade to 6th Must Cover Their
Faces, 1 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-in-ghazni-female-students-from-4th-grade-to6th-must-cover-their-faces/, accessed 27 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Issue New Decrees, Banning Hijabless Women’s Entrance into Public
Institutions, 24 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-issue-new-decrees-banning-hijablesswomens-entrance-into-public-institutions/, accessed 7 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Kill Former Anti-Taliban Commander Along With His Wife and Daughter
in Ghor Province, 26 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-kill-former-anti-talibancommander-along-with-his-wife-and-daughter-in-ghor-province/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Launches House-to-House Searches in Herat, Asking Money andWeapons from Former Regime Members, 16 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-launcheshouse-to-house-searches-in-herat-asking-money-and-weapons-from-former-regimemembers/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban mobilise localities by force to fight against NRF in Panjshir, 1 June 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-group-mobilizes-localities-by-force-to-fight-against-nrf-in-panjshir/,accessed 1 July 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Murders a Former Soldier in Herat Province, 2 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-murders-a-former-soldier-in-herat-province/, accessed 30 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Orders Former Herat Army Corps Members to Evacuate Their
Apartments by Eid-ul-Adha, 9 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-orders-former-herat-armycorps-members-to-evacuate-their-apartments-by-eid-ul-adha/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Raids the Former Government Security Affiliates’ Residents in
Kandahar, 11 May 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-raids-on-former-government-securityaffiliates-residents-in-kandahar/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Rebels Arrest Two Sons of a Local Former Commander in Badakhshan,
12 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-rebels-arrest-two-sons-of-a-local-former-commanderin-badakhshan/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Rebels Kill an Ex-Local Commander in Kunduz, 31 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-rebels-kill-an-ex-local-commander-in-kunduz/, accessed 30 June
2022

246

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Rebels Occupy Former Soldiers’ Houses in Urozgan Province, 18 April
2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-rebels-occupy-former-soldiers-houses-in-urozgan-province/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Regime Expels 10s of the Former Government Employees in Farah
Province, 6 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-regime-expels-10s-of-the-formergovernment-employees-in-farah-province/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Restarts House-to-House Search Operations in Herat, 21 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-restarts-house-to-house-search-operations-in-herat/, accessed 30
June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Shot Dead a Former Member of NDS in Zabul, 18 June 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-shot-dead-a-former-member-of-nds-in-zabul/, accessed 30 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Shot Dead a Former Police Officer Along With Three Civilians in Takhar,
15 May 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-shot-dead-a-former-police-officer-along-with-threecivilians-in-takhar/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Shot Dead a Former Uprising Commander in Takhar, 13 January 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-shot-dead-a-former-uprising-commander-in-takhar/, accessed 30
June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Soldiers Harass Female Students at Takhar University Girl’s Hostels, 19
June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-soldiers-harass-female-students-at-takhar-universityshostels/, accessed 27 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban Systematically Censors Media Outlets, 18 January 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-systematically-censors-media-outlets-fsh/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban to Clear Its Ranks From Non-Pashtun Commanders, 31 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/taliban-to-clear-its-ranks-from-non-pashtun-commanders/, accessed 30
June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Taliban: We Have the Right to Detain the Regime’s Opponents, 23 January2022, https://8am.af/eng/taliban-we-have-the-right-to-detain-dissidents/, accessed 17 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Tensions Escalate Between Nomads and Villagers in Behsud District, Maidan
Wardak Province, 30 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/tensions-escalate-between-nomads-andsedentary-community-in-behsud-district-maidan-wardak-province/, accessed 27 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, The Abolition of AIHRC Is a Massive Setback, says Richard Bennett, 19 May
2022, https://8am.af/eng/the-abolition-of-aihrc-by-the-taliban-is-a-massive-setback-saysrichard-bennett/, accessed 13 June 2022

247

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hasht-e Subh, The Ambiguous Fate of Women in Afghanistan’s Armed Forces, 28 December
2021, https://8am.af/eng/the-ambiguous-fate-of-women-in-afghanistans-armed-forces/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, The End of Unrest in Faryab: Taliban Fails to Quell Protests, 16 January 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/the-end-of-unrest-in-faryab-taliban-fails-to-quell-protests/, accessed 30
June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, The Death Toll of Explosion in Jibraiel Townhship, Anjil District, Herat Rises toFive, 6 April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/the-death-toll-of-explosion-in-jibraiel-townhship-anjildistrict-herat-rises-to-five/, accessed 15 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, The Taliban Announce Remaining Cabinet Members, 21 September 2021,
https://8am.af/eng/the-taliban-announce-remaining-cabinet-members/, accessed 30 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, The Taliban Justify the Persecution of Former Security Officers by Seeking a
Religious Permission, 26 March 2022, https://8am.af/eng/the-taliban-justify-the-persecution-offormer-security-officers-by-seeking-a-religious-permission/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Three Members of Former Anti-Taliban Forces Shot Dead by Taliban Fighters
While Harvesting Wheat in Takhar, 18 May 2022, https://8am.af/eng/three-members-of-formeranti-taliban-forces-shot-dead-by-taliban-fighters-while-harvesting-wheat-in-takhar/, accessed
30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Two Former Soldiers Mysteriously Killed in Urozgan, 6 May 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/two-former-soldiers-mysteriously-killed-in-urozgan/, accessed 30 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, Unknown Gunmen Shot Dead a Doctor in Nangarhar, 28 April 2022,
https://8am.af/eng/unknown-gunmen-shot-dead-a-doctor-in-nangarhar/, accessed 17 June
2022
Hasht-e Subh, US, NATO’s In-Country Employees Cannot Leave Afghanistan, Says Taliban’sInterior Ministry, 28 February 2022, https://8am.af/eng/us-natos-in-country-employees-cannotleave-afghanistan-says-talibans-interior-ministry/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Widespread Violations of General Amnesty – Former Soldiers Are Not Safe, 16
April 2022, https://8am.af/eng/widespread-violations-of-general-amnesty-former-soldiers-arenot-safe/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Women demonstrate in Balkh to secure their, 6 September 2021,
https://8am.af/women-demonstrate-in-balkh-to-secure-their-rights/, accessed 9 June 2022
Hasht-e Subh, Woman Without a Head-to-Toe Cover Resembles an Animal, Say Taliban’s
Virtue Promoters in Kandahar, 17 June 2022, https://8am.af/eng/woman-without-a-head-totoe-cover-resembles-an-animal-say-talibans-virtue-promoters-in-kandahar/, accessed 24 June
2022

248

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSHDE (Humanitarian Data Exchange), Afghanistan: Attacks on Aid Operations, Education,
Health and Protection, https://data.humdata.org/dataset/236c8d9b-49e2-4cb8-ac37e5831d0958e2, accessed 1 July 2022
Heather Barr [Twitter], posted on: 25 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/heatherbarr1/status/1507292186093637633, accessed 19 May 2022
Hill (The), Qatar to formally represent US interests in Afghanistan, 11 December 2021,
https://thehill.com/policy/international/middle-east-north-africa/581282-qatar-to-formallyrepresent-us-interests-in/, accessed 30 June 2022
Hindustan Times (The), Taliban forms 33-member cabinet in Afghanistan: Full list, 8 September
2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/taliban-forms-33-member-cabinet-inafghanistan-full-list-101631066722518.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Hindustan Times, Why India needs to be on the ground in Kabul, 29 June 2022,
https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/why-india-needs-to-be-on-the-ground-in-kabul101656513455750.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Hizbullah Khan [Twitter], posted on: 18 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/HizbkKhan/status/1526877834861596672?s=20&t=Kl4Hr99virkS-G-gU-xsIg,
accessed 30 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghan Girls Grieve After School Ban Reinstated, 24 March 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/25/afghan-girls-grieve-after-school-ban-reinstated,
accessed 24 May 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghan Women Watching the Walls Close In, 4 March 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/02/afghan-women-watching-walls-close, accessed 28
June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghan Women’s Rights Activists Forcibly Disappeared, 24
January 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/24/afghan-womens-rights-activists-forciblydisappeared, accessed 17 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan - Events of 2021, 2022, https://www.hrw.org/worldreport/2022/country-chapters/afghanistan, accessed 17 May 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Herat Women’s Prison Head Missing 6 Months, 20
April 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/20/afghanistan-herat-womens-prison-headmissing-6-months, accessed 30 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Massacres of Hazaras in Afghanistan, February
2001, https://www.hrw.org/report/2001/02/01/massacres-hazaras-afghanistan, accessed 30
June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Surge in Islamic State Attacks on Shia, 25 October
2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/25/afghanistan-surge-islamic-state-attacks-shia,
accessed 27 June 2022
249

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Abuses Cause Widespread Fear, 23
September 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/23/afghanistan-taliban-abuses-causewidespread-fear, accessed 2 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Blocking Female Aid Workers, 4 November
2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/04/afghanistan-taliban-blocking-female-aid-workers,
accessed 16 May 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Deprive Women of Livelihoods, Identity, 18
January 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/18/afghanistan-taliban-deprive-womenlivelihoods-identity, accessed 14 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Forcibly Evict Minority Shia, 22 October
2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/22/afghanistan-taliban-forcibly-evict-minority-shia,
accessed 30 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Severely Restrict Media, 1 October 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/01/afghanistan-taliban-severely-restrict-media, accessed 30
June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Threatening Provincial Media, 7 March
2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/07/afghanistan-taliban-threatening-provincialmedia, accessed 16 May 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Threaten Revenge Killings, 22 March 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/22/afghanistan-taliban-threaten-revenge-killings,
accessed 21 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Torture Civilians in Panjshir: Collective
Punishment Over Armed Group’s Actions Is Unlawful, 10 June 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/06/10/afghanistan-taliban-torture-civilians-panjshir, accessed
30 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan: Taliban Vice Handbook Abusive, 29 October 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/10/29/afghanistan-taliban-vice-handbook-abusive, accessed
23 June 2022
HRW (Human HRW (Human Rights Watch), Afghanistan Facing Famine, 11 November 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/11/11/afghanistan-facing-famine, accessed 9 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Blood-Stained Hands: Past atrocities in Kabul and Afghanistan’s
Legacy of Impunity, 2005,
https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/afghanistan0605/afghanistan0605.pdf, accessed 30 June2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Dress Restrictions Tighten for Afghanistan Girls’ Schools, 27 April
2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/27/dress-restrictions-tighten-afghanistan-girlsschools, accessed 24 May 2022

250

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

HRW (Human Rights Watch), Even If You Go to the Skies, We’ll Find You, 26 January 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/report/2022/01/26/even-if-you-go-skies-well-find-you/lgbt-peopleafghanistan-after-taliban-takeover, accessed 23 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Explosive Weapons Attacks on Afghanistan Schools Increase, 7
September 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/07/explosive-weapons-attacksafghanistan-schools-increase, accessed 23 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Four Ways to Support Girls’ Access to Education in Afghanistan,
20 March 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/20/four-ways-support-girls-accesseducation-afghanistan, accessed 23 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), I Thought Our Life Might Get Better: Implementing Afghanistan’s
Elimination of Violence against Women Law, August 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2021/07/afghanistan0821_web.pdf, accessed 12
July 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), New Evidence that Biometric Data Systems Imperil Afghans, 30
March 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/30/new-evidence-biometric-data-systemsimperil-afghans, accessed 15 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), No Forgiveness for People Like You, Executions and Enforced
Disappearances in Afghanistan under the Taliban, November 2021,
https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2021/11/afghanistan1121_web.pdf, accessed 30
June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Paying for the Taliban's Crimes, 2002,
https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/afghan2/afghan0402-03.htm, accessed 30 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Taliban Close Girls’ Secondary Schools in Afghanistan, Again, 23
March 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/23/taliban-close-girls-secondary-schoolsafghanistan-again, accessed 24 May 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Taliban Intensify Attacks on Afghan Media, 30 March 2022,
https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/30/taliban-intensify-attacks-afghan-media, accessed 30
June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), Taliban Use Harsh Tactics to Crush Afghan Women’s Rights
Protest, 18 January 2022, https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/18/taliban-use-harsh-tacticscrush-afghan-womens-rights-protest, accessed 9 June 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), This is our opportunity to end the Taliban’s use of child soldiers,
20 September 2021, https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/20/our-opportunity-end-talibans-usechild-soldiers, accessed 1 July 2022
HRW (Human Rights Watch), World Report 2002: Afghanistan, 2002,
https://www.hrw.org/legacy/wr2k2/pdf/afghanistan.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022

251

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Hudson Institute, Making Sense of the Islamic State’s War on the Afghan Taliban, 25 January2022, https://www.hudson.org/research/17796-making-sense-of-the-islamic-state-s-war-onthe-afghan-taliban, accessed 27 June 2022
IAJ (International Association of Judges) and IAWJ (International Association of Women
Judges), Joint IAJ and IAWJ Statement on the Current Situation in Afghanistan, 22 September
2021, https://www.iawj.org/content.aspx?page_id=5&club_id=882224&item_id=68824&,
accessed 30 June 2022
IAWJ (International Association of Women Judges), Joint IAJ and IAWJ Statement on the
Current Situation in Afghanistan, 20 September 2021,
https://www.iawj.org/content.aspx?page_id=5&club_id=882224&item_id=68824&, accessed
16 May 2022
Ibrahimi, N., Divide and Rule: State Penetration in Hazarajat (Afghanistan) from the Monarchy
to the Taliban, 2009, https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95939/WP42.2.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Ibrahimi, N., The Hazaras and the Afghan State: Rebellion, Exclusion and the Struggle for
Recognition, Hurst, London, 2017
ICN (The International Council of Nurses), Afghan nurses report on extreme challenges andneed for international support, 21 September 2021, accessed 14 June 2022,
https://www.icn.ch/news/afghan-nurses-report-extreme-challenges-and-need-internationalsupport, accessed 14 June 2022
IFJ (International Federation of Journalists), 87% of women journalists have suffereddiscrimination under Taliban rule, 9 March 2022, https://www.ifj.org/mediacentre/news/detail/category/press-releases/article/afghanistan-87-of-women-journalists-havesuffered-discrimination-under-talibanrule.html#:~:text=79%25%20of%20women%20journalists%20said,officials%2C%20written%20
and%20verbal%20threats.&text=Respondents%20also%20shared%20deep%20concerns,lack%20of%20a%20media%20law., accessed 30 June 2022
IFJ (International Federation of Journalists), Afghanistan: Attacks and detainments ofjournalists continue to escalate, 19 January 2022, https://www.ifj.org/mediacentre/news/detail/category/press-releases/article/afghanistan-attacks-and-detainments-ofjournalists-continue-to-escalate.html, accessed 30 June 2022
IFJ (International Federation of Journalists), Afghanistan: Journalist beaten and arrested by
Taliban militants, 10 June 0222, https://www.ifj.org/media-centre/news/detail/category/pressreleases/article/afghanistan-journalist-beaten-and-arrested-by-taliban-militants.html, accessed
30 June 2022
IFJ (International Federation of Journalists), Afghanistan, Under the Taliban, 2022,
http://samsn.ifj.org/SAPFR21-22/afghanistan_2021/, accessed 30 June 2022
IFJ (International Federation of Journalists), and ANJU (Afghanistan National Journalists’Union), Statistics Report, February 2022,

252

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

https://www.ifj.org/fileadmin/Statistics_Report__Newsletter__2__02Feb2022.pdf, accessed
30 June 2022
ILO (International Labour Organization), Employment prospects in Afghanistan: A rapid impact
assessment, January 2022, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---robangkok/documents/briefingnote/wcms_834525.pdf, accessed 17 May 2022
Independent (The), Taliban ban Afghan women from flying without male chaperone, 28 March
2022, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/south-asia/taliban-afghan-women-flights-maleescorts-b2045443.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Independent (The), Taliban regime stops issuing driving licences to women, reports say, 5 May
2022, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/south-asia/taliban-driving-licence-afghan-womenb2072058.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Independent (The), We’ve been forgotten: Thousands of Afghans accepted for relocation to
UK still stranded eight months on, 21 April 2022,
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/afghans-arap-taliban-afghanistan-homeoffice-uk-b2058843.html, accessed 30 June 2022
India Today, From spy to political leader: Amrullah Saleh, the braveheart of Panjshir, 19 August
2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/amrullah-saleh-braveheart-panjshir-spy-politicalleader-afghanistan-taliban-profile-1842695-2021-08-19, accessed 30 June 2022
Insecurity Insight, Attacks on Health Care, Bi-Monthly News Brief (25 August – 7 September2021), 7 September 2021, https://insecurityinsight.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/25August-07-September-2021-Attacks-on-Health-Care-Bi-Monthly-News-Brief.pdf, 8 June 2022
Insecurity Insight, Attacks on Health Care, Bi-Monthly News Brief (23 February – 8 March
2022), 22 March 2022, https://insecurityinsight.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/23February-09-March-2022-Attacks-on-Health-Care-Bi-Monthly-News-Brief.pdf, accessed 15
June 2022
Insecurity Insight, Attacks on Health Care, Bi-Monthly News Brief (23 March – 4 April 2022), 19
April 2022, https://insecurityinsight.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/23-March-05-April2022-Attacks-on-Health-Care-Bi-Monthly-News-Brief.pdf, accessed 18 June 2022
Intercept (The), The Taliban Have Seized U.S. Military Biometrics Devices, 18 August 2021,
https://theintercept.com/2021/08/17/afghanistan-taliban-military-biometrics/, accessed 30 June
2022
Intercept (The), Women and journalists are targets of violence in Taliban-rules Afghanistan,reports says, 14 April 2022, https://theintercept.com/2022/04/14/afghanistan-taliban-violencewomen-journalists/, accessed 10 June 2022
International Crisis Group, Crisis Watch, February 2022,
https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/march-alerts-and-february-trends-0, accessed 12 May
2022

253

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMInternational Crisis Group, Taliban Rule in Afghanistan [Podcast], 6 May 2022,
https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/taliban-rule-afghanistan, accessed 8
June 2022
International Crisis Group, Tracking Conflict WorldWide, Afghanistan, June 2022,
https://www.crisisgroup.org/crisiswatch/database?location%5B%5D=36&date_range=last_12_
months&from_month=01&from_year=2022&to_month=01&to_year=2022, accessed 8 July2022
IOM (International Organization for Migration), Movement in and out of Afghanistan, 2022,
https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/documents/afg-movements-in-and-out-21-31may-2022.pdf, accessed 1 July 2022
IPS (Inter Press Service), Afghanistan’s Girls’ Education is a Women’s Rights Issue, 28 March
2022, https://www.ipsnews.net/2022/03/afghanistans-girls-education-womens-rightsissue/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=afghanistans-girls-educationwomens-rights-issue, accessed 23 June 2022
IRC (International Rescue Committee), An Afghan woman and aid worker speaks out, 6 March
2022, https://www.rescue.org/article/afghan-woman-and-aid-worker-speaks-out, accessed 18
June 2022
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Constitution of Afghanistan, 3 January 2004,
https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/404d8a594.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Ministry of Justice, Law on the Elimination of Violence against
Women (EVAW), 1 August 2009, https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5486d1a34.pdf, 12 July 2022
Jackson, A., The Ban on Older Girls’ Education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and aleadership in disarray, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 29 March 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/the-ban-on-older-girlseducation-taleban-conservatives-ascendant-and-a-leadership-in-disarray/, accessed 19 May
2022
Jakarta Post (The), Indonesia reinstates embassy in Kabul, 16 January 2022,
https://www.thejakartapost.com/world/2022/01/16/indonesia-reinstates-embassy-in-kabul-butholds-off-official-recognition-of-taliban.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Jamestown Foundation, The Taliban’s Persistent War on Salafists in Afghanistan, 24
September 2021, https://jamestown.org/program/the-talibans-persistent-war-on-salafists-inafghanistan/, accessed 27 June 2022
Jurist, Afghanistan bar association head pleads for international help as armed Taliban takeover offices, displace leadership, 24 November 2021,
https://www.jurist.org/news/2021/11/afghanistan-bar-association-head-pleads-for-internationalhelp-as-armed-taliban-take-over-offices-displace-leadership/, accessed 30 June 2022

254

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSJurist, Afghanistan dispatches: Taliban warning calls rights activists in Panjshir province
infidels and calls for their immediate arrest, 25 November 2021,
https://www.jurist.org/news/2021/11/afghanistan-dispatches-taliban-warning-calls-rightsactivists-in-panjshir-province-infidels-and-calls-for-their-immediate-arrest/, acessed 20 June
2022
Kabul Press, An Appeal to the World Concerning the Dire Situation of the Hazara Ethnic Groupin Afghanistan, 23 November 2021, https://www.kabulpress.org/article240882.html, accessed
30 June 2022
Kabul Lovers, ‫[ صحبت های فیصل در مورد زندانی شدن وی و اتفاقات اخیر‬Faisal's words about his
imprisonment and recent events] [Online video], 16 January 2022,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gX9AlRYHXdc, accessed 30 June 2022
Kabul24 [Twitter], posted on: 9 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/kabul_24N/status/1534770036266631168, accessed 1 July 2022
Kazemi, S. R. and Clark, K., Who gets to go to school? (2) The Taleban and education throughtime, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 31 January 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/going-back-to-school-2-looking-at-the-taleban-andeducation-through-time/, accessed 25 May 2022
Khaama Press, A none-Taliban figure, Abdul Latif Nazari appointed as Deputy Minister of
economy, 25 December 2021, https://www.khaama.com/a-none-taliban-figure-abdul-latifnazari-appointed-as-deputy-minister-of-economy-878987/, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Afghan Journalists Face Ever-Increasing Restrictions, 18 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/afghan-journalists-face-ever-increasingrestriction/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Afghan Reporter Goes Missing in Kabul Province, 28 May 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/afghan-reporter-goes-missing-in-kabulprovince47499/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Afghan women protest for release of Afghanistan’s frozen funds, 26 January2022, https://www.khaama.com/afghan-women-protest-for-release-of-afghanistans-frozenfunds-8768656/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 10 June 2022
Khaama Press, Afghan women restricted to three days entertaining in parks, 27 March 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/afghan-women-restricted-to-three-days-entertaining-in-parks675887657/, accessed 1 June 2022
Khaama Press, Afghani Reporter Goes Missing in Kabul Province, 28 May 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/afghan-reporter-goes-missing-in-kabulprovince47499/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022

255

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Khaama Press, Afghanistan will initially have a-110,000-member army: acting Defense Minister,
15 February 2022, https://www.khaama.com/afghanistan-will-initially-have-a-110000-memberarmy-acting-defense-minister-65658/, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Ankara Gathering of Political Figures, 19 Mary 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/ankara-gathering-of-political-figures-forms-the-supreme-council-ofnational-resistance-for-the-salvation-of-afghanistan68391/, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Armed attack on former Afghan government deputy CE left two dead in Kabul,
12 February 2022, https://www.khaama.com/armed-attack-on-former-afghan-governmentdeputy-ce-left-two-dead-in-kabul-86587687/, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Baradar Gives Hope on Girls Education in Afghanistan, 16 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/baradar-gives-hope-on-girls-education-inafghanistan/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Khaama Press, Beardless government employees prevented entry to offices by Taliban, 28
March 2022, https://www.khaama.com/beardless-government-employees-prevented-entry-tooffices-by-taliban-67576/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 7 June 2022
Khaama Press, Criminal Flogged in Taliban’s Supreme Court, 21 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/criminal-flogged-in-talibans-supreme-court486576/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Khaama Press, EU deplores Taliban’s restriction on girls’ schools, 24 March 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/eu-deplores-talibans-restriction-on-girls-schools78678586/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Khaama Press, Female doctor in Kandahar claims to be beaten by Taliban, 12 September
2022, https://www.khaama.com/female-doctor-in-kandahar-claims-to-be-beaten-by-taliban45747/, accessed 15 June 2022
Khaama Press, Five Coal Miners gunned Down in Samangan province, 27 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/five-coal-miners-gunned-down-in-samangan-province-5647554/,
accessed 15 June 2022
Khaama Press, Former Minister of Education aka Founder of “Ghost Schools” Returns to
Afghanistan, 8 June 2022, https://www.khaama.com/former-minister-of-education-akafounder-of-ghost-schools-returns-to-afghanistan-67459/, accessed 15 June 2022
Khaama Press, Gender Segregation Plan of Taliban in Restaurants, 12 May 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/gender-segregation-plan-of-taliban-inrestaurants67283/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022
Khaama Press, Health Workers Safety Essential to Eradicate Polio, 27 February 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/health-workers-safety-essential-to-eradicate-polio-98797/, accessed
17 June 2022

256

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Khaama Press, Human Rights Watch: Taliban’s Jirga Lacks Legitimacy If It Excludes Women,
27 June 2022, https://www.khaama.com/human-rights-watch-talibans-jirga-lacks-legitimacy-ifit-excludes-women-58493/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 29 June 2022
Khaama Press, I didn’t feel like being in prison while in Taliban’s detention: Afghan university
professor, 12 January 2022, https://www.khaama.com/i-didnt-feel-like-being-in-prison-while-intalibans-detention-afghan-university-professor46346364/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 29 June 2022
Khaama Press, IEA Separates Weekdays for Male, Female University Students, 24 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/iea-separates-weekdays-for-male-female-university-students%db%b67658756/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 19 May 2022
Khaama Press, ISIS Claims Responsibility for Twin Blasts in Mazar-e-Sharif, 29 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/isis-claims-responsibility-for-twin-blasts-in-mazar-e-sharif-687667/,
accessed 15 June 2022
Khaama Press, Kabul Optimistic about Formal Recognition amid Heightened Situation, 27
June 2022, https://www.khaama.com/kabul-optimistic-about-formal-recognition-amidheightened-situation/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 July 2022
Khaama Press, Men to Represent Women in the Taliban’s Grand Assembly: Taliban Leader, 29June 2022, https://www.khaama.com/men-to-represent-women-in-the-talibans-grandassembly-taliban-leader-4573843/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 29
June 2022
Khaama Press, Protester Women: The Taliban Intervenes Private Affairs of the People Insteadof Addressing Economic Issues, 29 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/protester-womenthe-taliban-intervenes-private-affairs-of-the-people-instead-of-addressing-economicissues68854/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 10 June 2022
Khaama Press, Public universities to reopen in 10 days: IEA officials, 19 January 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/public-universities-to-reopen-in-10-days-iea-officials65675/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 19 May 2022
Khaama Press, Religious Scholars Urge Taliban to Reopen Girls’ Schools, 11 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/religious-scholars-urge-taliban-to-reopen-girls-schools76578578/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Khaama Press, Rina Amiri Expresses Concern About the Dissolution of Human Rights
Commission, 22 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/rina-amiri-expresses-concern-about-thedissolution-of-human-rights-commission37484/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 22 June 2022
Khaama Press, School closure might create friction among Taliban: Rina Amiri, 6 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/school-closure-might-create-friction-among-taliban-rina-amiri548755/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022

257

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Khaama Press, Sarajudin Haqqani asks Taliban commanders not to seek revenge on previous
officers, 19 January 2022, https://www.khaama.com/sarajudin-haqqani-asks-talibancommanders-not-to-seek-revenge-on-previous-officers-876767567/, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Several embassies handed over to IEA, Taliban closer to full recognition, 23
March 2022, https://www.khaama.com/several-embassies-handed-over-to-iea-taliban-closerto-full-recognition-foreign-ministry-67546856/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban close women baths in northern Afghanistan, 3 January 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/taliban-close-women-baths-in-northernafghanistan/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 1 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban Denies US Report over Violation of Human Rights, 15 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/taliban-denies-us-report-over-violation-of-human-rights7496567/#:~:text=Islamic%20Emirate%20of%20Afghanistan%20reacted,Afghanistan%20and%
20termed%20it%20incorrect., accessed 1 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban deny arrest of female protestor in Kabul, 22 January 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/taliban-deny-arrest-of-female-protestor-in-kabul87685/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban Orders Kandahar City Transportation to Not Transport Women Withouta Male Chaperone, 30 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/taliban-orders-kandahar-citytransportation-to-not-transport-women-without-a-malechaperone474384/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 2 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban release Afghan women activists, foreigners, 12 February 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/taliban-release-afghan-women-activists-foreigners765876589/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 17 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban stuck banners across Kabul to recommend hijab for women, 10
January 2022, https://www.khaama.com/taliban-stuck-banners-across-kabul-to-recommendhijab-for-women-346346/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 7 June 2022
Khaama Press, Taliban Tries Seven Kidnappers and Others in Military Court, 13 April 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/taliban-tries-seven-kidnappers-and-others-in-military-court76897687/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 7 June 2022
Khaama Press, The Taliban Drafts a 15-Article Bill for the Return of the Afghan Political And
Military Figures, 21 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/the-taliban-drafts-a-15-article-bill-forthe-return-of-the-afghan-political-and-militaryfigures45793/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, The Taliban Harshly Suppressed the Second Day of the Women’s Protest in
Kabul, 10 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/the-taliban-harshly-suppressed-the-secondday-of-the-womens-protest-in-kabul47684/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 3 June 2022

258

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Khaama Press, The Taliban Suppresses the Women’s Protest in front of Laisa Maryam, 26 May
2022, https://www.khaama.com/the-taliban-suppresses-the-womens-protest-in-front-of-laisamaryam57494/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 27 June 2022
Khaama Press, The Taliban’s Edict for Women to Wear the Hijab Alarmed the UN SecretaryGeneral, 9 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/the-talibans-edict-for-women-to-wear-thehijab-alarmed-the-un-secretary-general24784/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 3 June 2022
Khaama Press, Thomas West Meets with the Representatives of Afghan Political Parties in
Turkey, 30 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/thomas-west-meets-with-the-representativesof-afghan-political-parties-in-turkey68374/, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, Turkey Deports 136 Undocumented Afghan Migrants to the Taliban-Controlled
Afghanistan, 25 June 2022, https://www.khaama.com/turkey-deports-136-undocumentedafghan-migrants-to-the-taliban-controlled-afghanistan36723/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
Khaama Press, UN Secretary-General: postponement of girls’ schools is deeply damaging for
Afghanistan, 24 March 2022, https://www.khaama.com/un-secretary-general-postponementof-girls-schools-is-deeply-damaging-for-afghanistan675685/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
Khaama Press, US, UK, European countries slam Taliban’s decision over suspending girls’
schools, 25 March 2022, https://www.khaama.com/us-uk-european-countries-slam-talibansdecision-over-suspending-girls-schools-54875676/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter,
accessed 24 May 2022
Khaama Press, U.S. Envoy Dubs Taliban New Policy ‘Affront to Human Rights’, 9 May 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/u-s-envoy-dubs-taliban-new-policy-affront-to-humanrights/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 3 June 2022
Khaama Press, Women in Kabul ask IEA to reopen women’s ministry, 17 January 2022,
https://www.khaama.com/women-in-kabul-ask-iea-to-reopen-womens-ministry87687/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 10 June 2022
Khaama Press, Women’s Movement for Justice and Freedom: We Do Not Accept Forced Hijab
and Dictatorship, 9 May 2022, https://www.khaama.com/womens-movement-for-justice-andfreedom-we-do-not-accept-forced-hijab-anddictatorship36483/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 3 June 2022
Kumar, R., We had 4,000 policewomen in Afghanistan. Let them get back to work, The
Guardian, 21 April 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/apr/21/wehad-4000-policewomen-in-afghanistan-let-them-get-back-to-work, accessed 30 June 2022
La Prensa Latina, Afghanistan’s Hazaras live in the shadow of fear as attacks increase, 11
December 2021, https://www.laprensalatina.com/afghanistans-hazaras-live-in-the-shadow-offear-as-attacks-increase/, accessed 30 June 2022

259

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Landinfo, Afghanistan: Sadat/sayyed, 4 September 2015,
https://landinfo.no/asset/3216/1/3216_1.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022
Larsson, G. and Thurfjell, D., Shia-muslimer i Sverige – en kortfattad översikt, 2013,https://www.myndighetensst.se/download/18.373f439f14832abd2cf2d9a9/1409663377272/Nr%203,%20Shiamuslimer%20i%20Sverige_komplett.pdf,%20accessed%2027%20June%202022, accessed 27
June 2022
Le Figaro, «Nous voulons que la reconnaissance du gouvernement taliban soit une démarche
collective», 14 February 2022, https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/imran-khan-nous-voulonsque-la-reconnaissance-du-gouvernement-taliban-soit-une-demarche-collective-20220214,
accessed 27 June 2022
Le Figaro, À Kaboul, la terreur talibane jusqu'au bout du désespoir [In Kabul, Taliban terror to
the point of despair], 14 March 2022, https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/a-kaboul-la-terreurtalibane-jusqu-au-bout-du-desespoir-20220314, accessed 30 June 2022
Le Figaro, En Afghanistan, le règne des talibans, entre exécutions et pauvreté [In Afghanistan,
the Taliban’s rule, between executions and poverty], 24 January 2022,
https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/en-afghanistan-le-regne-des-talibans-entre-executions-etpauvrete-20220124, accessed 30 June 2022
Le Figaro, En Afghanistan, les talibans incapables de faire régner l’ordre et la justice [InAfghanistan, the Taliban unable to enforce order and justice], 9 January 2022,
https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/en-afghanistan-les-talibans-incapables-de-faire-regner-lordre-et-la-justice-20220109, accessed 30 June 2022
Le Monde, Dix bases américaines mobilisées dans les opérations d’évacuation d’Afghanistan[Ten U.S. bases mobilized in Afghanistan evacuation operations], 27 August 2021,
https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2021/08/27/dix-bases-americaines-mobiliseesdans-les-operations-d-evacuation-d-afghanistan_6092544_3210.html, accessed 30 June
2022
Le Monde, Le mouvement taliban est paradoxalement dans une situation de faiblesse, lemoment est propice pour négocier avec lui [The Taliban movement is paradoxically in a weak
position, the time is right to negotiate with it], 25 August 2021,
https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2021/08/25/adam-baczko-et-gilles-dorronsoro-levolution-du-regime-afghan-dans-une-mesure-limitee-mais-reelle-dependra-de-notre-attitudea-son-egard_6092255_3232.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Le Monde, In Afghanistan, the Taliban want to restrict women’s activities into oblivion, 17 May
2022, https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2022/05/17/in-afghanistan-the-talibanwant-to-restrict-women-s-activities-and-eliminate-them_5983755_4.html, accessed 12 July
2022
Lombardi, C. B. and March, A. F., Afghani Taliban Views on Legitimate Islamic Governance,
USIP (United States Institute of Peace), February 2022,
260

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/pw_183afghan_taliban_views_on_legitimate_islamic_governance.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Lieven, A., An Afghan Tragedy: The Pashtuns, the Taliban and the State, in: Global Politics andStrategy, Vol. 63, 25 May 2021, issue 3,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00396338.2021.1930403, accessed 30 June
2022
LA Times (Los Angeles Times), Many of Afghanistan’s journalists have fled. Those who remain
face a harsh new world, 22 October 2021, https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/202110-22/afghanistan-journalists-flee-taliban-media-control, accessed 30 June 2022
LA Times (Los Angeles Times), More Judge Judy than Cops: A first look at the Taliban’s newpolice, 9 September 2021,
https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:5iw7FL9rYBoJ:https://www.latimes.
com/world-nation/story/2021-09-09/how-the-taliban-governs-kabuls-newpolice+&cd=1&hl=fr&ct=clnk&gl=fr, accessed 30 June 2022
LWJ (Long War Journal), After fall of Kabul, resistance to Taliban emerges in Panjshir, 18
August 2021, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2021/08/after-fall-of-kabul-resistanceto-taliban-emerges-in-panjshir.php, accessed 30 June 2022
LWJ (Long War Journal), FDD's Long War Journal, Mapping Taliban Control in Afghanistan, 28
June 2022, https://www.longwarjournal.org/mapping-taliban-control-in-afghanistan, accessed
1 August 2022
LWJ (Long War Journal), Taliban completes conquest of Afghanistan after seizing Panjshir, 6September 2022, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2021/09/taliban-completesconquest-of-afghanistan-after-seizing-panjshir.php, accessed 30 June 2022
Mandaville, P., Whither Islam in Afghanistan’s Political System After the Taliban Talks?, USIP
(United States Institute for Peace), 7 October 2020,
https://www.usip.org/publications/2020/10/
whither-islam-afghanistans-political-system-after-taliban-talks, accessed 27 June 2022
Marty, F. J., Vive la Résistance in Afghanistan?, Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, 7 April 2022,
https://www.globalaffairs.ch/2022/04/07/vive-la-r%C3%A9sistance-in-afghanistan/, accessed
30 June 2022
Marty, F. J. and Callahan, T., Tilting at Windmills: Dubious US claims of targeting Chinese
Uyghur militants in Badakhshan, AAN, 19 March 2018, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/regional-relations/tilting-at-windmills-dubious-us-claims-of-targetingchinese-uyghur-militants-in-badakhshan/, accessed 27 June 2022
Mary-Ellen McGroarty, World Food Programme Country Director for Afghanistan, in interview
with Christiane Amanpour (CNN) [Twitter], posted on: 17 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/amanpour/status/1526613377929424897, accessed 12 July 2022

261

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMMedia Line (The), Tukey Has Deported 18,256 Migrants to Afghanistan Since January, 9 June
2022, https://themedialine.org/mideast-daily-news/turkey-has-deported-18256-migrants-toafghanistan-since-january-2/, accessed 30 June 2022
Mediapart, Adam Baczko : La matrice idéologique des talibans est restée inchangée [AdamBaczko: The ideological matrix of the Taliban has remained unchanged], 17 August 2021,
https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/170821/adam-baczko-la-matrice-ideologiquedes-talibans-est-restee-inchangee, accessed 30 June 2022
Mediapart, Survivre sous le régime des talibans [Surviving under the Taliban regime], 21
August 2021, https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/international/210821/survivre-sous-le-regimedes-talibans, accessed 30 June 2022
MEE (Middle East Eye), On an Istanbul-Kabul flight, refugees and emigres prepare to see a
new Afghanistan, 1 June 2022, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/afghanistan-istanbulkabul-flight-refugees-emigres-prepare, accessed 30 June 2022
Metro, Taliban return to brutal ways as they whip and torment thief, 5 October 2021,
https://metro.co.uk/2021/10/05/taliban-return-to-brutal-ways-as-they-whip-and-torment-thief15368199/, accessed 30 June 2022
Middle East Institute (The), What Went Wrong after Bonn, December 2009,https://www.mei.edu/publications/what-went-wrong-after-bonn, accessed 30 June 2022
Mir, A., Pakistan’s Twin Taliban Problem, USIP (United States Institute of Peace), 4 May 2022,
https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/05/pakistans-twin-taliban-problem, accessed 30 June
2022
Mohammad Natiq [Twitter], posted on: 10 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/natiqmalikzada/status/1480563586980139009, accessed 10 June 2022
Mohsin Amin [Twitter], posted on: 4 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/MohsinAminn/status/1532936963778564096, accessed 30 June 2022
Moradi, M., Violence against women under the Taliban in Afghanistan, OMCT & PAHRA, May
2022, https://www.omct.org/site-resources/legacy/Gender-based-Torture-in-Asia.pdf,
accessed 17 May 2022
Mousavi, S. A., The Hazaras of Afghanistan: an historical, cultural, economic and political
study, Routledge, 1998
MRG (Minority Rights Group International), World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
Peoples, Afghanistan: Hazaras, December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras/,
accessed 30 June 2022
MRG (Minority Rights Group International), Tajiks, n.d.,
https://minorityrights.org/minorities/tajiks/, accessed 30 June 2022

262

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

MRG (Minority Rights Group International), World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
People – Afghanistan, December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/country/afghanistan/,accessed 30 June 2022
MRG (Minority Rights Group International), World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
People – Afghanistan - Hazaras, December 2021, https://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras/,
accessed 30 June 2022
MRG (Minority Rights Group International), World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
Peoples, Afghanistan: Pashtuns, December 2021,
https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pashtuns/, accessed 12 July 2022
MSF (Doctors without Borders), A hospital of women, for women, 20 June 2022,
https://msf.org.uk/article/afghanistan-hospital-women-women, accessed 29 June 2022
Munaza Shaheed [Twitter], posted on: 18 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/MunazaShaheed/status/1483423211316518917, accessed 30 June 2022
Murtazashvili, J. B., The Collapse of Afghanistan, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 33, Issue 1,
January 2022, https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-collapse-of-afghanistan/#f24,
accessed 29 June 2022
NAC (Norwegian Afghanistan Committee), The Taliban’s Oslo Visit: Now What? [Online video],
22 February 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiM9yNPp6-c, accessed 30 June 2022
National (The), Escape to victory: the Afghan women loving football again after fleeing the
Taliban, 27 May 2022, https://www.thenationalnews.com/weekend/2022/05/27/escape-tovictory-the-afghan-women-loving-football-again-after-fleeing-the-taliban/, accessed 1 June
2022
National (The), Protests against all-male Taliban Cabinet met with violence in Afghanistan, 8September 2021, https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/asia/2021/09/08/protests-againstall-male-taliban-cabinet-met-with-violence-in-afghanistan/, accessed 9 June 2022
National (The), Taliban faces internal battles in northern province, 13 January 2022,
https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/asia/2022/01/13/taliban-faces-internal-battles-innorthern-province/, accessed 9 June 2022
NDTV (New Dehli Television), Taliban News, Afghanistan, Taliban Takeover: Taliban Fire Shots
To Disperse Woman Protesters In Kabul, 30 September 2021, https://www.ndtv.com/worldnews/afghanistan-taliban-takeover-taliban-fire-shots-to-disperse-woman-protesters-in-kabul2558728, accessed 30 June 2022
Netherlands, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Algemeen Ambtsbericht Afghanistan, March 2022,
https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten/ambtsberichten/2022/03/28/algemeenambtsbericht-afghanistan-maart-2022, accessed 16 May 2022

263

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

New Humanitarian (The), Protections for women facing violence have vanished under the
Taliban, 20 April 2022, https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/newsfeature/2022/04/20/afghanistans-empty-womensshelters?utm_source=The+New+Humanitarian&utm_campaign=db7cc7ee16RSS_EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_ENGLISH_CONFLICT&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d842d982
89-db7cc7ee16-75586365, accessed 28 June 2022
News International (The), Here's how Afghanistan celebrated first Valentine's Day under
Taliban rule, 15 February 2022, https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/933849-here-is-howafghanistan-celebrates-valentines-day-under-taliban-rule, accessed 28 June 2022
New International (The), Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara representatives included: Taliban expand
cabinet to ‘make’ it inclusive, 22 September 2022, https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/894312taliban-expand-cabinet-to-make-it-inclusive, accessed 28 June 2022
New Lines Magazine, Is This the Future of Taliban Rule?, 13 December 2021,
https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/is-this-the-future-of-taliban-rule/, accessed 2 June 2022
New Lines Magazine, Why the Taliban View Education as a Weapon, 4 April 2022,
https://newlinesmag.com/letter-from-kabul/why-the-taliban-view-education-as-a-weapon/,accessed 24 May 2022
New York Times (The), A Taliban spokesman urges women to stay home because fightershaven’t been trained to respect them, 24 August 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/24/world/asia/taliban-women-afghanistan.html, accessed 1
June 2022
New York Times (The), A Week Into Taliban Rule, One City’s Glimpse of What the Future May
Hold, 15 August 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/15/world/asia/afghanistan-talibankunduz.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Afghan Aviators Hide as Taliban Urge Them to Return to Duty, 13
March 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/13/world/asia/afghan-air-force-taliban.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Afghan Embassy, Now Out of Money, Will Shut Down, U.S. Says, 11
March 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/11/us/politics/afghan-embassyclosing.html?referringSource=articleShare, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Afghan Town’s First Female Mayor Awaits Her Assassination, 4October 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/04/world/asia/zarifa-ghafari-afghanistanmaidan-shar.html, accessed 12 July 2022
New York Times (The), Afghan Uyghurs Fear Deportation as Taliban Cozy Up to China, 9November 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/23/world/asia/afghanistan-uyghurs-chinataliban.html, accessed 27 June 2022264

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSNew York Times (The), Afghan Women Who Once Presided Over Abuse Cases Now Fear for
Their Lives, 20 October 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/21/world/asia/afghan-judgeswomen-taliban.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Afghans With Ties to U.S. Who Could Not Get Out Now Live in Fear, 3
September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/03/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-airportevacuation-refugees-asylum.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Afghanistan’s Health Care System Is Collapsing Under Stress, 14
February 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/06/world/asia/afghanistans-health-caresystem.html, accessed 29 June 2022
New York Times (The), As Taliban Crush Dissent, New Leaders Face Cascading Challenges, 8September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/08/world/asia/taliban-protestspakistan.html, accessed 8 June 2022
New York Times (The), Blasts at Schools in Shiite Area of Kabul Kill at Least 6, 19 April 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/19/world/asia/afghanistan-kabul-schools-attacked.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Death Toll From Pakistani Airstrike Rises to 45, Afghan Officials Say, 17
April 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/17/world/asia/afghanistan-airstrikespakistan.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Dozens of Former Afghan Security Forces Dead or Missing Under
Taliban, Report Says, 30 November 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/30/world/asia/taliban-revenge-killings-afghanistan.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Eid Under the Taliban Shows a Changed Afghanistan, 8 May 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/08/world/asia/afghanistan-eid-taliban.html, accessed 1
June 2022
New York Times (The), Everything Changed Overnight: Afghan Reporters Face an Intolerant
Regime, 11 September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/11/world/afghanistanjournalists-reporters.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Hazaras Hustle to Head of Class in Afghanistan, 3 January 2010,https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/04/world/asia/04hazaras.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Hunted by the Taliban, U.S.-Allied Afghan Forces Are in Hiding, 19
August 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/19/world/asia/taliban-afghanistanusa.html?smtyp=cur&smid=tw-nytimes, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), ISIS poses a growing threat to new Taliban government in Afghanistan,
3 November 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/03/world/asia/isis-afghanistantaliban.html, accessed 1 July 2022

265

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMNew York Times (The), New Taliban Guidelines Stir Fear About the Future of Press Freedom,
23 September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/23/world/asia/taliban-mediaguidelines-afghanistan.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Several Killed in Militant Attack on a Sikh Temple in Afghanistan, 18
June 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/18/world/middleeast/afghanistan-attack-sikhtemple.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Complete Interim Government, Still Without Women, 21
September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/21/world/asia/taliban-womengovernment.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Decree an End to Forced Marriages in Afghanistan, 3
December 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/03/world/asia/taliban-womenmarriage.html?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 13 May 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Fighters Crush a Women’s Protest Amid Flickers of Resistance,
4 September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/04/world/asia/taliban-women-protestafghanistan-panjshir.html, accessed 8 June 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Impose Head-to-Toe Coverings for Women, 7 May 2022,
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/07/world/asia/taliban-afghanistanburqa.html#:~:text=A%20new%20decree%20requires%20women,will%20be%20punished%2C%20it%20said.&text=As%20a%20subscriber%2C%20you%20have,articles%20to%20give%20
each%20month, accessed 3 June 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Renege on Promise to Open Afghan Girls’ Schools, 23 March
2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/23/world/asia/afghanistan-girls-schoolstaliban.html?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 20 May 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Search Operation Echoes Resented U.S. Tactics, 2 March
2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/02/world/asia/afghanistan-taliban-resistance.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Taliban Seize Women’s Ministry Building for Use by Religious Police, 17
September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/world/asia/taliban-women-ministryreligious-police.html, accessed 12 May 2022
New York Times (The), The Taliban Have Staffing Issues. They Are Looking for Help inPakistan, 13 January 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/13/world/taliban-members.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), The Taliban Pressure Women in Afghanistan to Cover Up, 21 May
2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/21/world/asia/taliban-afghanistan-womenhijab.html?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 3 June 2022

266

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSNew York Times (The), The Taliban Promised Them Amnesty. Then They Executed Them
[Online video], 12 April 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/04/12/opinion/talibanafghanistan-revenge.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), The Taliban wants to forget the past, a leader tells The Times, butthere will be some restrictions, 25 August 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/25/world/asia/taliban-spokesman-interview.html, accessed
13 May 2022
New York Times (The), This Is Life in Rural Afghanistan After the Taliban Takeover, 15September 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/15/world/Afghanistan-rural-life-underTaliban.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Threatened and Beaten, Afghan Women Defy Taliban With Protests, 24
January 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/24/world/asia/afghan-women-talibanprotests.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Threats and Fear Cause Afghan Women’s Protections to Vanish
Overnight, 4 September 2021,
https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/04/world/middleeast/afghanistan-women-sheltertaliban.html, accessed 27 June 2022
New York Times (The), Unpaid and Potentially Stateless, Afghan Diplomats Seek Permission to
Remain in U.S., 13 February 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/13/us/politics/afghanembassy-diplomats-taliban.html, accessed 30 June 2022
New York Times (The), Who Are Sufi Muslims and Why Do Some Extremists Hate Them?, 24
November 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/24/world/middleeast/sufi-muslimexplainer.html, accessed 22 June 2022
New York Times (The), Why the Taliban’s Repression of Women May Be More Tactical Than
Ideological, 4 October 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/04/world/asia/taliban-womenafghanistan.html, accessed 28 June 2022
New Yorker (The), The Taliban Confront the Realities of Power, 21 February 2022,
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/02/28/the-taliban-confront-the-realities-of-powerafghanistan, accessed 16 May 2022
Newlines Magazine, Afghanistan’s Sufis Are Under Attack, 1 June 2022,
https://newlinesmag.com/newsletter/afghanistans-sufis-are-under-attack/, accessed 22 June
2022
Nikkei Asia, Clearing operations' bring fresh wave of restrictions on Afghans, 26 March 2022,
https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Afghanistan-turmoil/Clearing-operationsbring-fresh-wave-of-restrictions-on-Afghans, accessed 22 June 2022

267

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Nikkei Asia, Taliban quietly forming regular army to make Afghanistan a state, 12 December
2021, https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Afghanistan-turmoil/Talibanquietly-forming-regular-army-to-make-Afghanistan-a-state, accessed 30 June 2022
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan, Talibans regime – situasjonen etter maktovertakelsen[Afghanistan: The Taliban regime – situation after the takeover], 9 March 2022,
https://landinfo.no/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Afghanistan-temanotat-Talibans-regimesituasjonen-etter-maktovertakelsen-09032022.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Norway, Landinfo, Afghanistan: Tazkera, passports and other ID documents, 22 May 2019,https://landinfo.no/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Afghanistan-Tazkera-passports-and-other-IDdocuments-22052019-final.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022

Norway, Landinfo, Report: Hazaras and Afghan insurgent groups, 3 October 2016,
https://landinfo.no/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Afghanistan-Hazaras-and-Afghan-insurgentgroups-03102016.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Norway, Landinfo, Respons Afghanistan: Gizab-distriktet, 11 December 2014,
https://landinfo.no/asset/3018/1/3018_1.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
NPR (National Public Radio), Afghans Confront Sensitive Issue Of Ethnicity, 8 May 2013,https://www.npr.org/2013/05/08/179079930/afghans-confront-senstive-issue-of-ethnicity,
accessed 30 June 2022
NPR (National Public Radio), Afghans who want teen girls back in school have new allies:
Taliban-affiliated clerics, 5 May 2022,
https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2022/05/05/1096634192/afghans-who-wantteen-girls-back-in-school-have-new-allies-taliban-affiliatedcl?t=1651854005946&t=1651854750382, accessed 24 May 2022
NPR (National Public Radio), Kabul University chancellor says female students will be allowed,
but segregated, 2 October 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/09/28/1041102167/afghanistanwomen-university-taliban-education, accessed 19 May 2022
NPR (National Public Radio), NPR travels to Afghanistan for the 1st time since the Taliban took
over, 9 June 2022, https://www.npr.org/2022/06/09/1104000154/npr-travels-to-afghanistanfor-the-1st-time-since-the-taliban-tookover#:~:text=In%20NPR%27s%20first%20visit%20to%20Afghanistan%20since%20the,since%2
0she%20last%20visited%20there%20in%20pre-Taliban-ruled%202020., accessed 30 June2022
NPR (National Public Radio), Taliban seek ties with U.S. and other ex-foes, Afghan foreign
minister says, 13 December 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/12/13/1063591662/taliban-seekties-with-u-s-other-ex-foes, accessed 30 June 2022

268

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSNPR (National Public Radio), The Taliban give back some rights to women, but it may be all apolitical strategy, 21 November 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/11/21/1057759719/the-talibangive-back-some-rights-to-women-but-it-may-be-all-a-political-strateg, accessed 28 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Badghis Provincial Overview, n.d.,
https://nps.edu/web/ccs/badghis, accessed 30 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Baghlan Provincial Overview, March 2017,https://nps.edu/web/ccs/baghlan, accessed 30 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Bamyan Provincial Overview, March 2017,https://nps.edu/web/ccs/bamyan, accessed 30 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Dai Kundi Provincial Overview, March 2017,https://nps.edu/web/ccs/dai-kundi, accessed 30 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Ethnic Identity and Genealogies, Website updated March
2017, https://www.nps.edu/web/ccs/ethnic-genealogies, accessed 27 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Panjsher Provinical Overview, March 2017,https://nps.edu/web/ccs/panjsher, accessed 30 June 2022
NPS (Naval Postgraduate School), Samangan Provincial Review, March 2017,https://nps.edu/web/ccs/samangan, accessed 30 June 2022
NRC (Norwegian Refugee Council), Statement in response to the suspension of girls’ return tosecondary school in Afghanistan, https://www.nrc.no/news/2022/march/statement-inresponse-to-the-suspension-of-girls-return-to-secondary-school-in-afghanistan, accessed 24
May 2022
O’Donnell, L., Afghan kidnappings leave families in the dark, The New Statesman, 30 March
2022, https://www.newstatesman.com/afghanistan/2022/03/afghan-kidnappings-leavefamilies-in-the-dark?utm_medium=Social&utm_source=Twitter#Echobox=1648643970
O’Hanlon, M.E. [Op-ed], A preliminary verdict on Afghanistan Strategy, 5 October 2021,
https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/a-preliminary-verdict-on-afghanistan-strategy/, accessed
30 June 2022
OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development), Social Institutions &Gender Index, 2019, https://www.genderindex.org/wpcontent/uploads/files/datasheets/2019/AF.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights), Afghanistan: Human rights
defenders living under climate of fear - UN expert, 3 November 2021,
https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/11/afghanistan-human-rights-defenders-livingunder-climate-fear-unexpert#:~:text=Human%20rights%20defenders%20in%20Afghanistan,response%20from%20t
he%20international%20community, accessed 14 June 2022

269

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMOHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights), Oral update on the situation ofhuman rights in Afghanistan, 13 September 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/09/oralupdate-situation-human-rights-afghanistan?LangID=E&NewsID=27445, accessed 15 June
2022
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights), Press briefing notes on
Afghanistan, 10 September 2021, https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/09/press-briefing-notesafghanistan?LangID=E&NewsID=27441, accessed 15 June 2022
OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights), Press briefing notes on
Afghanistan, 1 February 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2022/02/pressbriefing-notes-afghanistan, accessed 17 June 2022
OHCHR, Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan, n.d., https://www.ohchr.org/en/specialprocedures/srafghanistan#:~:text=Richard%20Bennett%20was%20appointed%20as,duties%20on%201%20
May%202022., accessed 30 June 2022
OIC [Twitter], posted on: 24 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/OIC_OCI/status/1506961049991405568, accessed 24 May 2022
Open Democracy, Kunduz to Kandahar: two explosions, one wounded community, 21 October
2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/kunduz-to-kandahar-twoexplosions-one-wounded-community/, accessed 30 June 2022
Open Democracy, I travelled around Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. This is what I saw, 24
November 2021, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/i-travelled-aroundtaliban-controlled-afghanistan-this-is-what-i-saw/, accessed 9 June 2022
Oslo Metropolitan University, Afghan Journalism – Slowly Dying?, 9 June 2022,
https://uni.oslomet.no/jmic/wp-content/uploads/sites/41/2022/06/LASTREPORT.pdf, accessed
30 June 2022
OSAR (Organisation Suisse d’Aide Aux Réfugiés), Afghanistan: Profils à risqué, 31 October
2021,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2068537/211031_AFG_Update_Gefaehrdungsprofile_FR.pdf,
accessed 30 June 2022
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion, Salafism, 5 August 2016,
https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore9780199340378-e-255#acrefore-9780199340378-e-255-div1-1, accessed 27 June 2022
Paikan TV, ‫[ فرماندهی جلب و جذب در بلخ از آغاز روند جذب بانوان خبر میدهند‬The recruitment command in
Balkh announces the beginning of the process of recruiting women] [Online video], 7 June
2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYnosIyxgqk, accessed 1 July 2022

270

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Pajhwok Afghan News, 4,350 undesired persons expelled from forces ranks, 21 February2022, https://pajhwok.com/2022/02/21/4350-undesired-persons-expelled-from-forces-ranksmufti-hakimi/, accessed 1 July 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, AIJA’s deputy head goes missing in Kapisa, 13 June 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/13/aijas-deputy-head-goes-missing-in-kapisa/, accessed 30
June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Doctors gunned down in Herat, 26 November 2021,
https://pajhwok.com/2021/11/26/doctor-gunned-down-inherat/#:~:text=The%20slain%20doctor%20Amruddin%20Noori's,search%20seriously%2C%E2%80%9D%20he%20said, accessed 16 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Foreign-trained cadets to be inducted into military: MoI, 25 June 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/25/foreign-trained-cadets-to-be-inducted-into-military-moi/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former Defence Ministry spokesman returns to Kabul, 5 June 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/05/former-defence-ministry-spokesman-returns-tokabul/+&cd=1&hl=fr&ct=clnk&gl=fr, accessed 30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former education minister returns to Afghanistan, 28 June 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/28/former-education-minister-returns-to-afghanistan/, accessed
30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former NSC official Khadim returns to Afghanistan, 26 May 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/05/26/former-nsc-official-khadim-returns-to-afghanistan/, accessed
30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former President Karzai stopped from travelling to UAE, 15 May 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/05/15/former-president-karzai-stopped-from-travelling-to-uae/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former religious affairs minister also returns home, 13 June 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/13/former-religious-affairs-minister-also-returns-home/,
accessed 30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Former security official gunned down in Nangarhar, 30 April 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/04/30/former-security-official-gunned-down-innangarhar/+&cd=3&hl=fr&ct=clnk&gl=fr, accessed 30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Girls in Logar’s Kharwar district attend classes for first time, 30
December 2021, https://pajhwok.com/2021/12/30/girls-in-logars-kharwar-district-attendclasses-for-first-time/, accessed 18 May 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Hijab, turban prices soar in Kabul with Taliban’s return, 22 August
2021, https://pajhwok.com/2021/08/22/hijab-turban-prices-soar-in-kabul-with-talibans-return/,
accessed 30 June 2022

271

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Pajhwok Afghan News, Kidnapping incidents must stop: Ghazni residents, 12 December 2021,
https://pajhwok.com/2021/12/12/kidnapping-incidents-must-stop-ghazni-residents/, accessed
17 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Many girls gather at Ghazni home to continue their studies, 9 June
2022, https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/09/many-girls-gather-at-ghazni-home-to-continue-theirstudies/, accessed 27 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Respect amnesty for ex-officials: Taliban chief, 30 December 2021,
https://pajhwok.com/2021/12/30/respect-amnesty-for-ex-officials-taliban-chief/, accessed 30
June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Return of ex-officials to Uruzgan accelerated, 15 May 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/05/15/return-of-ex-officials-to-uruzganaccelerated/+&cd=88&hl=fr&ct=clnk&gl=fr&client=firefox-b-e, accessed 30 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Security units being stationed to prevent Kuchi-Hazara clashes, 25
June 2022, https://pajhwok.com/2022/06/25/security-units-being-stationed-to-prevent-kuchihazara-clashes/, accessed 27 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Some women tear down meeting banners in Bamyan, 5 April 2022,
https://pajhwok.com/2022/04/05/some-women-tear-down-meeting-banners-in-bamyan/,accessed 9 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Taliban attack Fahima house, arrest family members, 12 September
2021, https://pajhwok.com/2021/09/12/taliban-attack-fahima-house-arrest-family-members/,
accessed 15 June 2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Taliban finalising plan to create new army, 16 September 2021,
https://pajhwok.com/2021/09/16/taliban-finalising-plan-to-create-new-army/, accessed 1 July2022
Pajhwok Afghan News, Taliban release 4 former officials of Laghman, 28 August 2021,
https://pajhwok.com/2021/08/28/taliban-release-4-former-officials-of-laghman/, accessed 30
June 2022
Pakistan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Joint Statement of the Third Foreign Ministers’ Meeting, 31
March 2022, https://mofa.gov.pk/joint-statement-of-the-third-foreign-ministers-meetingamong-the-neighboring-countries-of-afghanistan/, accessed 30 June 2022
Pattanaik, S.S., Ballot Box Distress and Future of Afghanistan, 30 July 2014,
https://idsa.in/issuebrief/BallotBoxDistressandFutureofAfghanistan_PattanaikVasudeva_30071
4, accessed 30 June 2022
PBS News Hour, Many Afghan women forced to quit careers, country in hopes of better life for
their kids, 25 January 2022, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/many-afghan-womenforced-to-quit-careers-country-in-hopes-of-better-life-for-their-kidstaliban-takeover, accessed
28 June 2022

272

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Pink News, Taliban using monkeypox as an excuse to round up and arrest LGBTQ+ Afghans, 3June 2022, https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2022/06/03/taliban-afghanistan-lgbtq-monkeypox/,
accessed 17 June 2022
Print (The), Killings, kidnappings of businessmen have increased in Afghanistan: Chamber ofCommerce, 10 March 2022, https://theprint.in/world/killings-kidnappings-of-businessmenhave-increased-in-afghanistan-chamber-of-commerce/866335/, accessed 17 June 2022
Pursuit, Girls forced to act as boys in Afghanistan, 4 March 2022,
https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/girls-forced-to-act-as-boys-in-afghanistan, accessed 30
June 2022
Qaane, E. Regime Change, Economic Decline and No Legal Protection: What has happened to
the Afghan media?, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 7 March 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/regime-change-economicdecline-and-no-legal-protection-what-has-happened-to-the-afghan-media/, accessed 30 June
2022
Quilty, A., Where the Taliban Rule, Rolling Stone, 28 November 2021,
https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/afghanistan-taliban-rule-american-exitphotos-1258020/?sub_action=logged_in, accessed 30 June 2022
Quilty, A. and Cole, M., The CIA’s Afghan Proxies, Accused of War Crimes, Will Get a Fresh
Start in the U.S., The Intercept, 6 October 2021, https://theintercept.com/2021/10/05/zerounits-cia-afghanistan-taliban/, accessed 30 June 2022
Radio Azadi, ‫دی کې بند په طالبانو د هم ال معترض سفر د سالکار امنیت ملي د پاکستان د ته کابل‬, [Protestor of the
Pakistan National Security Adviser’s visit to Kabul is still in Taliban’s Detention] 18 March 2022,
https://pa.azadiradio.com/a/31757795.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Radio Azadi, Taliban: 12th grade female students will graduate without an annual exam, 15
November 2021, https://da.azadiradio.com/a/31562374.html, accessed 25 May 2022
Radio Zamaneh, ‫[ صدور جواز دینی برای کشتن نظامیان پیشین افغانستان‬Issuing a religious license to killformer Afghan soldiers], 17 January 2022, https://www.radiozamaneh.com/700275/, accessed
30 June 2022
Rahimi, H., Afghanistan’s laws and legal institutions under the Taliban, Melbourne Asia Review,
6 June 2022, https://melbourneasiareview.edu.au/afghanistans-laws-and-legal-institutionsunder-the-taliban/, accessed 30 June 2022
Rahimi, H. What the Taliban may be getting wrong about Islamic governance, Al Jazeera, 24
August 2021, https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2021/8/24/what-the-taliban-may-be-gettingwrong-about-islamic-governance, accessed 30 June 2022
Ramzy Noor [Twitter], posted on: 26 April 2022,
https://twitter.com/RamzyHawk/status/1518934627032997888, accessed 12 July 2022

273

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Rehman, R., Taliban 2021: Mujahid, Munafiq? - Protecting Islam or undermining it?, Human
Rights in Context, 26 August 2021, https://www.humanrightsincontext.be/post/taliban-2021mujahid-munafiq, accessed 15 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 23 December 2021, available at:https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1474007672395636742.html, accessed 10 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 6 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1479045684229775369, accessed 10 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 17 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1483032242180009985, accessed 10 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1483674245179789316, accessed 15 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 20 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1484049022599970816
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 24 January 2022,
https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1485617277601206277.html, accessed 10 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 3 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1489184355687804931, accessed 17 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 10 February 2022,
https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1491641215531593728.html, accesed 10 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1496015706810368004, accessed 18 May 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 22 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1496022567358021636
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 23 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1496355069343809536, accessed 17 June 2022
Reporterly [Twitter], posted on: 30 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/Reporterlyaf/status/1509164906095992836, accessed 30 June 2022
Reporterly, After Traditional Media, Taliban Launches War On New Age Media and Its Users In
A Bid To Curb Freedom Of Expression, 7 June 2022, https://reporterly.net/human-rights/aftertraditional-media-taliban-launches-war-on-new-age-media-and-its-users-in-a-bid-to-curbfreedom-of-expression/?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 21 June 2022
Republik, A year under the Taliban, 21 June 2022, https://www.republik.ch/2022/06/21/einjahr-unter-den-taliban, accessed 29 June 2022

274

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Reuters, Afghan girls learn, code underground to bypass Taliban curbs, 28 October 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-girls-learn-code-underground-bypasstaliban-curbs-2021-10-28/, accessed 18 May 2022
Reuters, Afghan Taliban defence minister orders crackdown on abuses, 24 September 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-taliban-defence-minister-orderscrackdown-abuses-2021-09-24/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Afghan Taliban unveils new uniforms for reconstituted police force, 8 June 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-taliban-unveils-new-uniforms-reconstitutedpolice-force-2022-06-08/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Afghan women losing jobs fast as economy shrinks and rights curtailed, 20 January2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-women-losing-jobs-fast-economyshrinks-rights-curtailed-2022-01-20/, accessed 27 June 2022
Reuters, Afghanistan to start issuing passports again after months of delays, 5 October 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistan-start-issuing-passports-again-aftermonths-delays-2021-10-05/, accessed 27 June 2022
Reuters, College dreams dashed as young Afghan women fight to keep poverty at bay, 25
February 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/college-dreams-dashed-youngafghan-women-fight-keep-poverty-bay-2022-02-25/, accessed 19 May 2022
Reuters, EXCLUSIVE Internal UN document says Taliban threatened, beat staff, 25 August
2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/exclusive-internal-un-document-says-talibanthreatened-beat-staff-2021-08-25/, accessed 25 July 2022
Reuters, Factbox: Evacuations from Afghanistan by country, 30 August 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/evacuations-afghanistan-by-country-2021-08-26/, accessed 27
June 2022
Reuters, Female students join male peers as Afghan universities reopen, 2 February 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/female-students-join-male-peers-afghanuniversities-reopen-2022-02-02/, accessed 19 May 2022
Reuters, Former Afghan minister returns to Kabul at Taliban invitation, 8 June 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/former-afghan-minister-returns-kabul-talibaninvitation-2022-06-08/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Fresh clashes on Pakistan-Afghanistan border kill two, wound several, 25 February2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/fresh-clashes-pakistan-afghanistan-border-kill-twowound-several-2022-02-25/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Germany won't recognise Taliban as dire Afghan conditions persist, 7 June 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/world-must-tell-taliban-its-going-wrong-directionsays-german-foreign-minister-2022-06-07/, accessed 30 June 2022

275

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Reuters, Hunted by the men they jailed, Afghanistan's women judges seek escape, 3September 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/hunted-by-men-they-jailedafghanistans-women-judges-seek-escape-2021-09-03/, accessed 16 May 2022
Reuters, Indian officials meet Taliban in Kabul in first visit since U.S. exit, 2 June 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indian-officials-visit-kabul-first-taliban-meet-sinceus-left-2022-06-02/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Islamic State claims attack on Sikh temple in Kabul that killed two, 20 June 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/blast-hits-sikh-temple-afghan-capital-kabul-templeofficial-2022-06-18/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Islamic State claims responsibility for attack in Herat, Afghanistan, 23 January 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/islamic-state-claims-responsibility-attack-heartafghanistan-2022-01-23/, accessed 15 June 2022
Reuters, Journalists working with U.N. detained in Afghanistan – UNHCR, 11 February 2022,
https://www.reuters.com/world/journalists-working-with-un-detained-afghanistan-unhcr-202202-11/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Protests get harder for Afghan women amid risks and red tape, 4 October 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/protests-get-harder-afghan-women-amid-risks-redtape-2021-10-04/?rpc=401&, accessed 9 June 2022
Reuters, Taliban appoint members as 44 governors, police chiefs around Afghanistan, 7November 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-appoint-members-44governors-police-chiefs-around-afghanistan-2021-11-07/, accessed 12 May 2022
Reuters, Taliban ban women in Afghanistan from flying without male chaperone, 27 March
2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghanistans-taliban-ban-women-flyingwithout-male-chaperone-sources-2022-03-27/, accessed 2 June 2022
Reuters, Taliban orders girls' high schools to remain closed, leaving students in tears, 24
March 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-orders-girl-high-schoolsremain-closed-leaving-students-tears-2022-03-23/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Taliban restrict Afghans going abroad, raises concern from U.S. and UK, 1 March
2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-restrict-afghans-going-abroad-drawscriticism-uk-envoy-2022-02-28/, accessed 2 June 2022
Reuters, Taliban rule marked by killings, denial of women's rights – UN, 14 December 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-rule-marked-by-killings-boy-soldiersarrests-un-2021-12-14/, accessed 30 June 2022
Reuters, Taliban say Afghan woman health service staff should go back to work, 27 August
2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-say-afghan-women-health-servicestaff-should-go-back-work-2021-08-27/, accessed 8 June 2022

276

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Reuters, Taliban say women can study at university but classes must be segregated, 13
September 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/taliban-say-woman-can-studyuniversity-classes-must-be-segregated-2021-09-12/
Reuters, Taliban to purge people of bad character from ranks, 23 November 2021,
https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-purge-people-bad-character-ranks-2021-1123/, accessed 30 June 2022
Rewa News, Taliban tortured and killed midwife in Mazar-e Sharif, 2 April 2022,
http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2022/04/02/taliban-killed-midwife-in-mazar-e-sharif.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Radio Azadi, ‫کوچ اجباری نظامیان سابق از سوی طالبان در والیت‬‫[ فراه‬Forced relocation of former troops by the Taliban in Farah province], 22 June 2022,
https://da.azadiradio.com/a/31910555.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Radio Azadi, ‫کابل ته د پاکستان د ملي امنیت سالکار د سفر‬‫[ معترض ال هم د طالبانو په بند کې دی‬Protestor of the Pakistan National Security Adviser’s visit to Kabul
is still in Taliban’s Detention], 18 March 2022, https://pa.azadiradio.com/a/31757795.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, ‫[ استخبارات طالبان غالم سخی را از بند رها کرد‬Taliban Intelligence released Ghulam
Sakhi from prison], 29 June 2022, https://da.azadiradio.com/a/31921220.html, accessed 30
June 2022
RFE/RL/Radio Azadi, ‫[ صدور فرمان حجاب اجباری از سوی طالبان سبب افزایش خشونت های خانوادگی شده است‬The
Taliban’s order of obligatory hijab is the reason for increasing domestic violence], 17 May
2022, https://da.azadiradio.com/a/31856536.html, accessed 12 July 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Radio Azadi, Is He Your Husband? Why The Taliban
Is Restricting Women’s Travel, 1 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-talibanwomen-public-transport-banned/31780223.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Bodybuilders Fear Taliban
Restrictions, 17 June 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-bodybuildingrestrictions/31902873.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Female Activists Disappear
Following Kabul Protest, 10 February 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-femaleactivists-disappear-following-kabul-protest/31697539.html, accessed 29 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Widows Struggle To Survive
Amid Humanitarian Disaster, 25 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-widowsstruggle-to-survive/31768872.html, accessed 12 July 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Libery)/Gandhara, Afghan Women Protest New Burqa
Decree Despite Taliban Threats, 10 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-womenprotest-taliban-decree-burqas/31842956.html, accessed 12 July 2022

277

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women’s Shelters Vanishing
Under Taliban Rule, 26 September 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-talibanwomen--shelters-disappearing/31477947.html, 12 July 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Taliban Orders Women To Wear
Burqa Coverings In Public, 7 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-talibanwomen-burqa-hijab/31838898.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women At Forefront Of
Nonviolent Resistance To Taliban, 10 September 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/womenresistance-afghanistan/31454337.html, accessed 9 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women Banned From Making
Trips Unless Escorted, 26 December 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-woman-bannedtravel-chaperone/31626822.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women Disappear Under Burqas
Amid Taliban Advance, 13 August 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/burqa-returns-towidespread-use-in-afghanistan/31409126/p2.html, accessed 7 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women Move Protests To Social
Media To Evade Violent Taliban Response, 7 December 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-women-rights-protests-taliban/31598129.html,
accessed 7 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women Protest Latest Taliban
Restrictions, 10 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-women-protest-burqa-rulestaliban-kabul/31843414.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan Women's Shelters Vanishing
Under Taliban Rule, 26 September 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-talibanwomen--shelters-disappearing/31477947.html, accessed 28 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghan-Canadian Aid Worker Reappears
After Weeks In Taliban Detention, 9 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-aidworker-disappeared-taliban/31745004.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Afghanistan's Embassies Remain In Limbo As Most Staff Still Loyal To
Toppled Government, 17 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-embassies-talibanlimbo/31657924.html?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghanistan's Former Prosecutors
Hunted By Criminals They Helped Convict, 21 September 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-prosecutors-targeted/31471145.html, accessed 30 June
2022

278

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghanistan's Taliban Issues Ban On
Opium Poppy Cultivation, 3 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-bansopium-poppy/31783640.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghans Battle Red Tape, Taliban In
Hope Of Evacuation To United States, 14 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistanbattling-red-tape-taliban/31752899.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Afghans Fear For Their Rights As Taliban
Resurrects Religious Policing, 6 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-talibanreligious-policing/31642688.html, accessed 15 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, After Realizing Dream, Disabled Afghan
Prosecutor Finds Herself Jobless And In Danger Under Taliban, 12 January 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-disabled-woman-prosecutor-jobless-taliban/31651273.html,
accessed 17 May 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Detained Women Activists In
Afghanistan Apparently Forced To Confess Before Release, 23 February 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-women-activists-forced-confessions/31718590.html,
accessed 17 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Dozens More Afghans Linked To
Women’s Soccer, Basketball Are Evacuated From Afghanistan, 21 October 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-women-soccer-basketball-evacuated/31522773.html,
accessed 1 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Dozens Rally In Kabul To Protest Taliban
Ban On Girls Attending School, 26 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/kabul-protest-girlsschools/31771689.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, EU Says It Will Establish Minimal
Presence In Afghanistan, 21 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-delegationhumanitarian-talks-norway/31664929.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL/Gandhara (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Fear Grips Afghanistan's Sufi
Community Following Deadly Attacks, 16 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-sufis-attacks-is-k/31853526.html, accessed 22 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Fewer women, No Entertainment:
Kabul’s Media Scene Transforms After Taliban Takeover, 18 August 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-media-restrictions/31417225.html, accessed 30
June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Free Her Face: Male Afghan Journalists
Don Masks, Express Solidarity With Female Colleagues, 25 May 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-female-tv-presenters-masks-malejournalists/31867322.html, accessed 30 June 2022

279

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Hazara In Afghanistans Bamiyan Region
Fear Repeat Of Taliban Atrocities, 31 July 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-hazarabamiyan-taliban/31386805.html, accessed 12 August 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Hundreds Of Fired Afghan Judges
Demand Jobs, Pay From Taliban, 20 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistanjudges-lawsuit-taliban/31762215.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Invisible Afghan Women Protest
Continued School Closure, 26 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-un-womeninvisible/31869639.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL/Gandhara (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Islamic State Claims Responsibility For
Afghanistan Bus Bombing, 1 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-bus-bombingislamic-state/31829182.html, accessed 27 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Judge, Jury, And Executioner: Taliban
Brings Afghanistan’s Justice System Under Its Thumb, 1 December 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-afghanistan-justice-system/31588972.html, accessed 30
June 2022
RFE/RL/Gandhara (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Kabul Mosque Bombing Condemned;
Higher Death Count Claimed, 30 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/kabul-sahib-mosquebombing-condemned/31828269.html, accessed 22 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Kabul Women Protesters Brave Taliban
Shooting, 29 December 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/kabul-afghan-womenprotest/31631010.html, accessed 9 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Kabul Women Stage Rare Protest For
Jobs, Food, And Freedom, 16 December 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/kabul-womenprotest-taliban/31612463.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Media Watchdog Demands Release Of
Afghan Journalist Held By Taliban, 7 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/adghanistanjournalist-qaderi-taliban-cpj-release/31839020.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, One Certainty For Afghans: The Taliban
And Taxes, 16 June 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-taxes-revenueservices/31901313.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Outrage Stoked By Video Of Taliban
Humiliating Musicians, 18 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-video-humiliatingafghan-musicians/31660157.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Protestor of the Pakistan National
Security Adviser`s visit to Kabul is still in Taliban’s’ Detention, 18 March 2022,
https://pa.azadiradio.com/a/31757795.html, accessed 20 June 2022

280

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Public Executions, Floggings Inevitable
Under Taliban Court Rulings, Says Scholar, 8 September 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-courts-public-executions/31449392.html, accessed 30 June
2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Regional Taliban Officials Ban Beard
Trimming, 17 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-beard-trimmingturbans/31658539.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Resettlement Of Afghanistan's Ethnic
Kazakhs To Kazakhstan, 28 December 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-ethnickazakhs-taliban/31630084.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Safe Spaces: After Taliban Crackdown,
Afghan Women Take Their Protests Home, 8 December 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-women-protests-taliban/31599551.html, accessed 30
June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Scared Straight: Taliban Treats Drug
Addicts With A Heavy Dose Of Prison, 4 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-drugaddicts-prison-/31785402.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Accused of Forced Evictions asFighting Intensifies In Northern Afghanistan, 7 June 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibanforced-evictions-northern-afghanistan/31887719.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Arrests Two In Connection With
Killing Of Four Women, Including Activist, In Afghanistan, 6 November 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-arrests-four-womenkilled/31548875.html#:~:text=Afghanistan,Taliban%20Arrests%20Two%20In%20Connection%20With%20Killing,Women%2C%20Includi
ng%20Activist%2C%20In%20Afghanistan&text=Two%20people%20have%20been%20arrested,city%20of%20Mazar%2De%20Sharif, accessed 15 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Atrocities Reported In
Crackdown On Rebel Hazara Commander, 1 July 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-crackdown-atrocities-mujahid/31923580.html,
accessed 5 July 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Bans TikTok, Popular Video
Game in Afghanistan, 21 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-bans-tiktok-videogame-pubg/31814523.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Detains Two Kabul Journalists,
Colleagues And Relatives Say, 1 February 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistanariana-journalists-detained-/31681055.html, accessed 30 June 2022

281

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Expands Afghan Cabinet List But
Again Fails To Include Women, 21 September 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibancabinet-excludes-women/31470737.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Faces Rising Armed Resistance
From Former Government Factions, 27 April 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibanresistance-former-government-factions/31823881.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Gender-Segregates Kabul Fun
Parks, Compounding Cutoffs For Girls And Women, 27 March 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-gender-segregation-amusement-parks/31772871.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Imposes New Dress Code,
Segregation Of Women At Afghan Universities, 6 September 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-dress-code-segregation-women/31446726.html, accessed
19 May 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Militants Used Force To Disperse
Rally For Women's Rights In Northern Afghanistan, 7 September 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-womens-rights-rally-afghanistan/31448044.html, accessed
8 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Publicly Flogs Afghan Man
Accused Of Adultery, 22 February 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-publicly-flogsafghan-man-adultery/31716263.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Releases Decree On Women's
Rights But Says Nothing About Education, Work, 3 December 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-decree-womens-rights/31592181.html,
accessed 13 May 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Religious Police Erect Banners
Ordering Women To Wear Islamic Hijab, 10 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibanorders-women-wear-hijab/31647808.html, accessed 7 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Reportedly Issues Order
Requiring Female TV Presenters To Cover, 19 May 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-taliban-women-tv-cover-faces/31858030.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Resurrects Gender Segregation
In Public Offices, Transport In Afghanistan, 16 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibangender-segregation-afghanistan/31756292.html, accessed 7 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Rows Back Comments Saying
Afghans Barred From Leaving, 2 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-commentsafghans-travel-ban/31732259.html, accessed 7 June 2022

282

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Says Afghan Prison Offers
Treatment For Drug Users, 4 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-says-afghanprison-offers-treatment-for-drug-users/31639155.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Says New Troops Near Central
Asian Borders Will Bring Stability. The Neighbours Are Not So Sure, 16 February 2022,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-troops-central-asia-bordersstability/31706961.html?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban Tribal Version: Shari’a Is Not The
Same Everywhere, 2 October 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-sharia-lawafghanistan/31488108.html, accessed 15 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban turns insurgents into commandos
as it builds fully capable army, 19 January 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibanafghanistan-army/31662141.html, accessed 1 July 2022
RFE/RL/Gandhara, Taliban Wages Deadly Crackdown On Afghans Salafists As War With IS-K
Intensifies, 22 October 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-crackdown-salafis-islamicstate-khorasan/31524687.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty), Taliban's Arrest Of Ethnic Uzbek Commander
Sparks Clashes In Northern Afghanistan, 29 January 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/talibanarrest-uzbek-commander-clashes/31677178.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Taliban’s Dramatic U-Turn On Reopening
Girls’ Schools Reflects ‘Internal Divisions’, 24 March 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghangirls-school-closure-taliban-divisions/31769012.html, accessed 24 May 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, The Taliban Wages War Against Its Dead
Rivals, 29 December 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-war-dead-rivals/31631721.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Turkmen Border Guards Skirmish With
Taliban, 4 January 2022, https://www.rferl.org/a/turkmenistan-border-guards-skirmishtaliban/31638582.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Two Killed, Four Wounded After Blasts
Hit Kabul Shi’ite Neighborhood, 10 December 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/31603830.html, accessed 15 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Unprecedented Differences: Rifts Within
The Taliban Come Out In The Open, 2 June 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/taliban-riftsexposed-afghanistan/31880018.html, accessed 15 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Video Confession Of Popular Afghan
YouTuber Prompts Outrage, 9 June 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-youtubercpnfession-outrage/31891015.html, accessed 15 June 2022

283

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, We Are Hungry: Afghan Schools Left
Without Teachers As Instructors Struggle To Survive, 24 November 2021,
https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/afghan-schools-left-without-teachers/31577145.html, accessed 1
July 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Women Protest In Afghan Capital
Against Taliban Rights Restrictions, 29 May 2022, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/kabul-womenprotest-taliban-restrictions/31873653.html, accessed 30 June 2022
RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty)/Gandhara, Women Protesters Injured In Stampede
After Taliban Militants Fire In The Air, 28 December 2021, https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/talibanopens-fire-women-protesters/31629544.html, accessed 10 June 2022
RFI (Radio France Internationale), Justice delayed as Taliban build their legal system in
Afghanistan, 13 November 2021, https://www.rfi.fr/en/justice-delayed-as-taliban-build-theirlegal-system-in-afghanistan, accessed 30 June 2022
RFI (Radio France Internationale), My heart and body shake: Afghan women defy Taliban, 15
February 2022, available at: https://www.rfi.fr/en/my-heart-and-body-shake-afghan-womendefy-taliban-1, accessed 9 June 2022
Roberts, S. R., The War on the Uyghurs: China’s Internal Campaign against a Muslim Minority,
Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2020
Rolling Stone Magazine, Where the Taliban rule: The conquering militants govern by fear.
Poverty deepens, and behind closed doors journalists are beaten and rumors of executions
spread. A portrait of a country on the edge, 28 November 2021,
https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/afghanistan-taliban-rule-american-exitphotos-1258020/, accessed 7 June 2022
Rostami-Povey, E., Afghan Women: Identity and Invasion, 2007,https://books.google.de/books?id=uzpOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100&lpg=PA100&dq=women+afgh
anistan+tajik+uzbek+pashtun+hazara&source=bl&ots=8tSjD2QxzI&sig=ACfU3U3q6_OLjhNP97
xYDsyx6q8iX6Gfsg&hl=de&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjGs4SEisH4AhWZR_EDHSCZCnwQ6AF6BAg
vEAM#v=onepage&q=women%20afghanistan%20tajik%20uzbek%20pashtun%20hazara&f=fal
se, accessed 12 July 2022
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Afghan journalists increasingly harassed by Taliban
intelligence and new ministry, 4 February 2022, https://rsf.org/en/afghan-journalistsincreasingly-harassed-taliban-intelligence-and-new-ministry, accessed 30 June 2022
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Afghanistan, 2022, https://rsf.org/en/country/afghanistan,accessed 30 June 2022
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Afghanistan : Afghan journalist tried by military court,
sentenced to one year in prison, 11 May 2022, https://rsf.org/en/afghanistan-afghan-journalisttried-military-court-sentenced-one-year-prison, accessed 1 July 2022

284

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSRSF (Reporters Without Borders), RSF seeks UN Security Council meeting on plight ofjournalists in Afghanistan, 18 August 2021, https://rsf.org/en/rsf-seeks-un-security-councilmeeting-plight-journalists-afghanistan, accessed 30 June 2022
RSF (Reporters Without Borders), Since the Taliban takeover, 40% of Afghan media haveclosed, 80% of women journalists have lost their jobs, 20 December 2021,
https://rsf.org/en/taliban-takeover-40-afghan-media-have-closed-80-women-journalists-havelost-their-jobs, accessed 30 June 2022
Rubin, B. R., Afghanistan – What Everyone Needs to Know, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2020
Rubin, B.R., The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Second edition, Yale University Press, 2002
[First edition printed in 1995)
Rubin, B. R., The Once and Future Defeat in Afghanistan, War On The Rocks, 1 November
2021, https://warontherocks.com/2021/11/the-once-and-future-defeat-in-afghanistan/, accessed
30 June 2022
Rukhshana Media, ‫ ساله از سوی نامزادش در قندهار کشته شد‬۹ ‫[ یک کودک دخر‬A 9-year-old girl was killed byher fiancé in Kandahar], 21 May 2022, https://rukhshana.com/a-9-year-old-girl-was-killed-byher-fiance-in-kandahar, accessed 12 July 2022
Rukhshana Media, ‫ خفه اش کردم‬،‫ خانمم به حرفهایم گوش نداد‬:‫[ مردی در غور‬A man in Ghor: My wife did notlisten to me, I suffocated her], 8 June 2022, https://rukhshana.com/man-in-ghor-my-wife-didnot-listen-to-me-i-suffocated-her, accessed 12 July 2022
Rukhshana Media, ‫[ خبر های ضد و تقیض در مورد مرگ یک دختر جوان در ولسوالی سیغان بامیان‬Contradictory
news about the death of a young girl in Sighan District, Bamyan], 21 June 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/contradictory-news-about-the-death-of-a-young-girl-in-sighan-districtof-bamyan, accessed 12 July 2022
Rukhshana Media, ‫[ در یک دعوای ناموسی در قندهار مردی دخترش و سه عضو یک خانواده دیگر را کشت‬In an
honour fight in Kandahar, a man killed his daughter and three other family members], 18 June
2022, https://rukhshana.com/man-kills-his-daughter-and-three-members-in-kandahar,
accessed 30 June 2022
Rukhshana Media, A man was lashed in public in Uruzgan, 22 February 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/en/a-man-was-lashed-in-public-in-uruzgan, accessed 30 June 2022
Rukhshana Media, A man and a woman was [sic] lashed for adultery in Ghor, 24 February2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/a-man-and-a-woman-was-lashed-for-adultery-in-ghor,
accessed 12 July 2022
Rukhshana Media, A woman and a man were stoned to death in Badakhshan, 20 February2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/a-woman-and-a-man-were-stoned-to-death-in-badakhshan,
accessed 30 June 2022

285

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Rukhshana Media, Forced marriages increased in Afghanistan, activists say, 16 April 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/en/forced-marriages-increased-in-afghanistan-activists-say, accessed
12 July 2022
Rukhshana Media, Recession hits the only women market in Herat, 1 March 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/en/recession-hits-the-only-women-market-in-herat, accessed 13 May
2022
Rukhshana Media, Taliban checkpoint shot dead a young woman in Kabul, 15 January 2022,
https://rukhshana.com/en/taliban-checkpoint-shot-dead-a-young-woman-in-kabul, accessed 12
July 2022
Rukhshana Media, Taliban publicly lashes couple in central Ghor province, 26 October 2021,
https://rukhshana.com/en/taliban-publicly-lashes-couple-in-central-ghor-province-overmotorcycle-ride, accessed 30 June 2022
Rukhshana Media, The Taliban opened secondary schools for girls in Zabul province, 24
November 2021, https://rukhshana.com/en/the-taliban-opened-secondary-schools-for-girls-inzabul-province, accessed 25 May 2022
Rukhshana Media, The Taliban pepper-sprayed and beat the protesters calling for justice, 17January 2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/the-taliban-tear-gassed-and-beat-the-protesterscalling-for-justice, accessed 10 June 2022
Rukhshana Media, These women were looked down on when they worked in the army. Now
they’ve been abandoned in a “dungeon”, 17 January 2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/thesewomen-were-looked-down-on-when-they-worked-in-the-army-now-theyve-been-abandonedin-a-dungeon, accessed 10 June 2022
Rukhshana Media, Women face verbal and physical abuse in the streets by the Taliban’s
religious police, 15 May 2022, https://rukhshana.com/en/women-face-verbal-and-physicalabuse-in-the-streets-by-the-talibans-religious-police, access 12 July 2022
Rukhshana Media, Women protestors call on the Taliban: Stop politicizing the education
system, 1 December 2021, https://rukhshana.com/en/women-protestors-call-on-the-talibanstop-politicizing-the-education-system, accessed 19 May 2022
Ruttig, T., Afghanische Frauen in (und ohne) Arbeit [Afghan women in (and out of) work], 10June 2022, https://thruttig.wordpress.com/2022/06/10/afghanische-frauen-in-und-ohnearbeit/, accessed 27 June 2022
Ruttig, T., The case of Mawlawi Mehdi and Balkhab District: Are the Taleban attracting
Hazaras?, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 23 May 2020, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/the-case-of-mawlawi-mehdi-and-balkhab-district-arethe-taleban-attracting-hazaras/, accessed 30 June 2022
Rzehak, L., Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life
among the Pashtuns, January 2011, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-

286

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

content/uploads/downloads/2012/10/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf, accessed 12 July
2022
Rzehak, L., The Persian Dialect of the Kandahari-Pashtuns in Afghanistan, in: De Chiara, M.,
and Grassi, E. (eds.), Iranian Languages and Literatures of Central Asia: From the EighteenthCentury to the Present (Cahiers de Studia Iranica), Peeters 2015,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303519010_The_Persian_Dialect_of_the_Kandahari
Pashtuns_in_Afghanistan_In_M_De_Chiara_and_E_Grassi_eds_Iranian_Languages_and_Lite
ratures_of_Central_Asia_Paris_Cahiers_de_Studia_Iranica_57_2015_159-186, accessed 30
June 2022
Salaam Times, Abductions, murders of Afghan businessmen highlight Taliban security failures,
3 November 2021, https://afghanistan.asianews.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2021/11/03/feature-01, accessed 17 June 2022
Salaam Times, Fresh ISIS recruitment efforts raise concerns in Afghanistan, 11 April 2022,
https://afghanistan.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2022/04/11/feature-01,
accessed 1 July 2022
Salaam Times, Herat businesswomen return to work, showcase goods at trade fair, 28 April
2022, https://afghanistan.asianews.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2022/04/28/feature-01, accessed 12 May 2022
Salaam Times, ISIS attack worrying residence of Afghanistan’s northern provinces, 18 May
2022, https://afghanistan.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2022/05/18/feature01, accessed 1 July 2022
Salaam Times, Terrorist attacks aim to stoke ethnic, sectarian division in Afghanistan, 25 April
2022, https://afghanistan.asianews.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_st/features/2022/04/25/feature-01, 1 July 2022
Salam Watandar, 1500 fresh troops deployed to Bamyan, 22 February 2022,
https://swn.af/en/2022/02/22/1500-fresh-troops-deployed-to-bamyan/, accessed 30 June
2022
Salam Watandar, Salam Watandar reporter detained by intelligence forces for hours, 29 May
2022, https://swn.af/en/2022/05/29/salam-watandar-reporter-detained-by-intelligence-forcesfor-hours/, accessed 30 June 2022
Salam Watandar, Women public servants asked to wear hijab or quit, 22 February 2022,
https://swn.af/en/2022/02/22/women-public-servants-asked-to-wear-hijab-or-quit/, accessed
30 June 2022
Salam Watandar, UN mourns killing of 8 polio vaccinators in Kunduz, Takhar, 25 February2022, https://swn.af/en/2022/02/25/un-mourns-killing-of-8-members-of-polio-vaccinationteams/, accessed 16 June 2022

287

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Samim, S., Who Gets to Go to School? (3): Are Taleban attitudes starting to change fromwithin?, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 7 February 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/who-gets-to-go-to-school-3-are-taleban-attitudesstarting-to-change-from-within/, accessed 25 May 2022
Samim, S., Policing Public Morality: Debates on promoting virtue and preventing vice in the
Taleban’s second Emirate, Afghanistan Analysts Network, 15 June 2022,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/rights-freedom/policing-public-moralitydebates-on-promoting-virtue-and-preventing-vice-in-the-talebans-second-emirate%ef%bf%bc/,
accessed 30 June 2022
San Francisco Chronicle, His relatives are being hunted in Afghanistan. He’s trying to bringthem to California, 19 October 2021, https://www.sfchronicle.com/california/article/Hisrelatives-are-being-hunted-in-16542987.php, accessed 30 June 2022
Saul, B., Recognition and the Taliban’s international Legal Status, ICCT, 15 December 2021,
https://icct.nl/publication/recognition-talibans-international-legal-status/, accessed 30 June
2022
SBS News, Taliban say women won't be allowed to play sport, 8 September 2021,
https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/taliban-say-women-wont-be-allowed-to-playsport/5gr52gawu, accessed 1 June 2022
SBS News, Afghanistan's cricket board signals Taliban backtrack on women’s cricket ban, 10
September 2021, https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/afghanistans-cricket-board-signalstaliban-backtrack-on-womens-cricket-ban/z5pqgjaei, accessed 1 June 2022
SCA (Swedish Committee for Afghanistan), Förstå Afghanistan, Stockholm, 2018
SCA (Swedish Committee for Afghanistan), Religion in Afghanistan, n.d.,
https://swedishcommittee.org/religion/, accessed 27 June 2022
SCA (Swedish Committee for Afghanistan), Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, n.d.,
https://swedishcommittee.org/about/, accessed 30 June 2022
SCA (Swedish Committee for Afghanistan), The Afghan Population, n.d.,
https://swedishcommittee.org/afghanistan/population/, accessed 30 June 2022
Schweizerische Flüchtlingshilfe, Afghanistan: Zina, ausserehelicher Geschlechtsverkehr, 2October 2012, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1162575/1930_1351245038_afghanistan-zinaausserehelicher-geschlechtsverkehr.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022
Schwmding, A., The Problem of Multiplicity: Deconstructing Sufism and the Taliban, 3November 2022, Berkley Forum, https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/responses/theproblem-of-multiplicity-deconstructing-sufism-and-the-taliban, accessed 22 June 2022
Sharif_Hassanyar [Twitter], posted on: 17 April 2022,
https://twitter.com/S_Hassanyar/status/1515717912862023682, accessed 30 June 2022

288

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSSHCC (Safeguarding Health in Conflict Coalition), Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against
Health Care in Conflict, 24 May 2022,
https://www.safeguardinghealth.org/sites/shcc/files/SHCC%202021%20Unrelenting%20Violen
ce2%20FINAL.pdf, accessed 8 June 2022
Shamshad, P., Afghanistan’s Unwritten Constitution under the Taliban, Int’l J. Const. L. Blog, 17
May 2022, http://www.iconnectblog.com/2022/05/afghanistans-unwritten-constitution-underthe-taliban/, accessed 15 June 2022
SIGAR (Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction), Police in Conflict: Lessons
from the U.S Experience in Afghanistan, June 2022
SIGAR (Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction), Quarterly Report to theUnited States Congress, 30 January 2022, https://www.sigar.mil/pdf/quarterlyreports/2022-0130qr.pdf, accessed 12 May 2022
SIGAR (Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction), Quarterly Report to theUnited States Congress, 30 April 2022, https://www.sigar.mil/pdf/quarterlyreports/2022-0430qr.pdf, accessed 25 May 2022
SHCC and Insecurity Insight, Unrelenting Violence: Violence Against Health Care in Conflict,
24 May 2022,
https://www.safeguardinghealth.org/sites/shcc/files/SHCC%202021%20Unrelenting%20Violen
ce2%20FINAL.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
Sirat, F., Violence Against Women: Before and After the Taliban, 15 March 2022,
https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/violence-against-women-before-and-after-the-taliban/, accessed 12
July 2022
Sky News, Afghanistan: Inside prison where children as young as 12 are held and female
governor has vanished, 7 February 2022, https://news.sky.com/story/afghanistan-insideprison-where-children-as-young-as-12-are-held-and-female-governor-has-vanished-12534928,
accessed 30 June 2022
Sky News, Afghanistan: Orphaned and terrified – persecuted Hazara minority whose hard
lives have just got harder under the Taliban, 31 January 2022,
https://news.sky.com/story/afghanistan-hazara-group-that-worked-with-foreigners-now-on-therun-and-in-hiding-from-taliban-who-want-revenge-12527650, accessed 30 June 2022
Sky News, Afghanistan: The Taliban had promised amnesty for all - but they are responsible
for most violence against civilians, 16 June 2022, https://news.sky.com/story/afghanistan-thetaliban-had-promised-amnesty-for-all-but-they-are-responsible-for-most-violence-againstcivilians-12628906, accessed 30 June 2022
Smith, G., A Short Visit to the Taliban’s Tense and Quiet Capital, International Crisis Group, 9June 2022, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/short-visit-talibans-tenseand-quiet-capital, accessed 30 June 2022

289

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMSouth Asian Voices, The Political Role of Sufi Mystics in Afghanistan, 14 September 2021,
https://southasianvoices.org/the-political-role-of-sufi-mystics-in-afghanistan/, accessed 22
June 2022
Strength and Solidarity, Afghanistan: Can the Taliban tame the hunger for rights? [Podcast], 6June 2022, https://strengthandsolidarity.org/podcast/24-afghanistan-can-the-taliban-tame-thehunger-for-rights/, accessed 13 June 2022
Suhail Shaheen [Twitter], posted on: 24 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/suhailshaheen1/status/1529041619697139712, accessed 27 June 2022
Süddeutsche Zeitung, Kopf hoch, Schwester [Cheer up sister], 21 December 2021,
https://www.sueddeutsche.de/projekte/artikel/politik/wir-hatten-traeume-wie-gehts-denfrauen-in-afghanistan-e398286/?reduced=true, accessed 9 June 2022
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Lifos, Afghanistans ismailiter – en shiaminoritet[Afghanistan’s Ismailis – a Shia minority], 20 June 2017,https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/sweden/PLib/170630554.pdf, accessed 27 June
2022
Sweden, Swedish Migration Agency, Unit for Migration Analysis, Afghanistan: Säkershetsläget
efter talibanrörelsens maktövertagande [Afghanistan, the security situation after the Taliban
movement’s takeover of power], 29 April 2022,
https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/sweden/PLib/220510300.pdf, accessed 30 June
2022
Swiss Institute for Global Affairs, Vive la Résistance in Afghanistan? (English Version), 7 April
2022, https://www.globalaffairs.ch/2022/04/07/vive-la-r%C3%A9sistance-in-afghanistan/,accessed 30 June 2022
Sydney Morning Herald (The), Defence interpreters live in limbo and fear for families left
behind in Afghanistan, 21 March 2022, https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/defenceinterpreters-live-in-limbo-and-fear-for-families-left-behind-in-afghanistan-20220315p5a4oc.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Tajuden Soroush [Twitter], posted on: 3 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/TajudenSoroush/status/1466787379914620929, accessed 30 June 2022
Tajuden Soroush [Twitter], posted on: 15 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/TajudenSoroush/status/1471114704881922048, accessed 30 June 2022
Tajuden Soroush [Twitter], posted on: 18 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/TajudenSoroush/status/1526840949824946176, accessed 30 June 2022
Taliban, ‫[ الیحه‬code of conduct], Voice of Jihad, n.d.,
https://web.archive.org/web/20190813135051/http:/www.mujali.net/?p=225, accessed 1 July
2022

290

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Taliban, Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice [Twitter], posted on: 10
May 2022,
https://twitter.com/MOPVPE1/status/1524037222399369217?s=20&t=EIU73mYU4dD4XT1Lt_4
FmQ, accessed 12 July 2022
TASS, Russia to decide whether to recognize Taliban regardless of others, 14 June 2022,
https://tass.com/world/1464677, accessed 1 July 2022
Take (The), The uncertain future of girls’ schools in Afghanistan [Podcast], 28 March 2022,
https://omny.fm/shows/the-take/the-taliban-backtracks-on-reopening-girls-schools, accessed
29 June 2022
Telegraph (The), Taliban sends daughters to school despite closing classrooms for otherfemale students, 7 February 2022, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-andsecurity/taliban-sends-daughters-school-despite-closing-classrooms-female/, accessed 25
May 2022
Terpstra, N., The new Taliban regime in Afghanistan, Conversation (The), 6 September 2021,
https://theconversation.com/the-new-taliban-regime-in-afghanistan-different-methods-but-thesame-political-goal-166793, accessed 16 June 2022
Tesha De Waday [Facebook], posted on: 9 February 2022,
https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=1352290328571543, accessed 25 May 2022
Thomas Reuters Foundation, Taliban say gay rights will not be respected under Islamic law, 29
October 2021, https://news.trust.org/item/20211029082858-jijlg/, accessed 16 June 2022
Thomson Reuters Foundation, LGBT+ Afghans fear being forgotten 100 days since Taliban
takeover, 23 November 2021, https://news.trust.org/item/20211123131325-n64w9, accessed 1
July 2022
Times (The), Afghanistan’s disappeared women: an arrest by the Taliban, then a bullet-riddled
body, 27 January 2022, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/afghanistans-disappeared-womenan-arrest-by-the-taliban-then-a-bullet-riddled-bodyzxh3jql37?fbclid=IwAR3mEEFdszUYuFAsTsx1NWn7zp7OSEFEoGWcPuuJa3YW0osLGlUbqJqahE, accessed 12 July 2022
Time, Is Gaining Knowledge a Sin? Afghan Girls Contemplate a Future Without Schools Afterthe Taliban Backtracks, 29 March 2022, https://time.com/6161647/taliban-afghanistan-girlsschools-response/, accessed 24 May 2022
Time, We Have to Fight Back. Afghan Women Are Losing Their Hard-Won Right to Work
Under the Taliban, 17 May 2022, https://time.com/6177133/afghan-women-workforcechallenges-taliban/, accessed 27 June 2022
Times (The), Commander’s arrest exposes ethnic splits in Taliban, 14 January 2022,
https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/commanders-arrest-exposes-ethnic-splits-in-talibansdg5kl50p, accessed 2 June 2022

291

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Times (The), Huddled in secret schools, Afghan girls refuse to give up on education, 5
February 2022, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/huddled-in-secret-schools-afghan-girlsrefuse-to-give-up-on-education-msw59v658, accessed 18 May 2022
Times of India, Taliban tells driving teachers to stop issuing licenses to women: Report, 4 May
2022, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/taliban-tells-driving-teachers-tostop-issuing-licences-to-women-report/articleshow/91299485.cms, accessed 1 June 2022
TKG (The Killid Group), Armed Men Gun down Relatives of Former MP, 16 February 2022,
https://tkg.af/english/2022/02/16/armed-men-gun-down-relatives-of-former-mp/, accessed 30
June 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 16 December 2021,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1471372958597844995, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 3 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1489141940172247042, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 12 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/tolonews/status/1492515167648862213, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1506540147743113220, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1506538021683970048, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1506636075535581196, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1506640435745378304, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1506587981183864839, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 23 March 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1506683990677336066, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 2 April 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1510158383004930052, accessed 18 May 2022
TOLOnews [Twitter], posted on: 19 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/TOLOnews/status/1527189629568536583, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, 4 Members of Paghman Family Freed By Security Forces, 14 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177106, accessed 30 June 2022

292

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, 8 Health Workers in Vaccination Campaign Killed in Takhar, Kunduz, 24 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176860, accessed 16 June 2022
TOLOnews, 15 Foreign Ministers Issue Statement on Afghan Women's Rights, 15 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178027, accessed 28 June 2022
TOLOnews, 22 Cases of Mistreatment of Media in Past Month: Watchdog, 30 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/attack-mediajournalists-177341, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, 60 Women Graduate from Trade School in Kabul, 21 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178111, accessed 24 June 2022
TOLOnews, 2,000 Detained for Various Crimes in Past Month in Kabul, 5 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178343, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Abdul Hadi Safi Wounded by Unknown Gunmen, 8 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176225, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Abdullah Returns to Country After 43-Day Personal Visit to India, 11 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178424, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Activists in Kabul Decry Violence Against Women, 13 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175879, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Activists Meet to Discuss Current Situation, Women's Rights, 31 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177348, accessed 21 June 2022
TOLOnews, Activists, Political Parties Demand Reopening of Girls’ Schools, 21 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177679, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Clerics Call to Reopen Girls' Schools, 31 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177351, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Experts Return From Abroad to Help Avert Crisis, 6 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176995, accessed 1 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Female Reporters Fear Increased Restrictions, 9 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/attack-mediajournalists-176237, accessed 16 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Govt Retirees, Veterans Call for Pensions to Be Paid, 31 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176535, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Girls Recount Experience of Being Turned Away From School, 23 March
2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177239, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Media Face Budget Issues, Lack of Access to Information, 21 September
2021, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174739, accessed 30 June 2022

293

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TOLOnews, Afghan Official Says Women Can Continue Playing Cricket, 24 November 2021,
https://tolonews.com/sport-175603, accessed 1 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Politicians Call for Inclusivity at Clerics’ Gathering, 30 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178727, accessed 1 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Public Universities Opened in Warm Zones, 2 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176560, accessed 19 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Schools Reopen, But Not for Girls Over Grade 6, 23 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177237, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Students Anxious as Schools Remain Closed, 16 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174679, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan UN Mission Announces It Will Host Gathering, 14 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178009, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Woman Runs Home-Based School for 600 Girls, 11 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176672, accessed 18 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Artisans Struggling With Lack of Work, 24 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/business-176853, accessed 13 May 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Call for Basic Rights and Govt, Social Inclusion, 8 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177025, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Criticize Biden’s Afghan Assets Decision, 17 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176763, acessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Protest Over Closed Girls' Schools, 29 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178230, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Afghan Women Protest Over New Restrictions, 28 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176075, accessed 8 June 2022
TOLOnews, Anas Haqqani Calls on Unqualified Officials to Step Down, 27 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176065, accessed 8 June 2022
TOLOnews, Artists Protest Over Restrictions on Women, 23 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178142, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Assembly on Girls’ Schools to Be Held in Kabul: Officials, 7 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177907, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, At Hajj Ceremony, Official Calls for Brotherly Intl Relations, 12 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-178443, accessed 30 June 2022

294

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, Attempted Suicide Cases, Mostly of Women, Rise in Badakhshan, 16 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178037, accessed 18 May 2022
TOLOnews, Banned From School, Afghan Girls Gather in Homes to Learn, 13 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175875
TOLOnews, Banners in Kandahar City Spark Reactions, 19 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178552, accessed 24 June 2022
TOLOnews, Body of MoI Officer, Showing Torture, Handed Over to Family, 18 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177631, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Brother of Former Police Commander Says He Was Tortured in Khost, 21 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176815, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Businesswomen Form Friday's Market in Herat, 12 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/business-178438, accessed 22 June 2022
TOLOnews, Calls Mount For Answers Over Missing Women Activists, 4 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176583, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, China Calls for Inclusive Government in Afghanistan, 25 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177259, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Civil Society Gathering Calls for Trust-Building, 31 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177352, accessed 21 June 2022
TOLOnews, Clerics in Kabul Called for Inclusion of Women in Coming Gathering, 28 June
2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178694, accessed 29 June 2022
TOLOnews, Clerics' Gathering to Be Held on Thursday: Hanafi, 29 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178707, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Commission to Contact Former Afghan Officials Begins Activities, 22 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177228, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Committee Formed to Reopen Girls' Schools: Islamic Emirate, 26 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178190, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Concerns of Afghan Girls Rise Over Closed Schools, 21 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174748, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Delegates Leave Kabul for Tehran, 6 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176228, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Detention of Professor Faizullah Jalal Sparks Reactions, 9 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176240, accessed 30 June 2022

295

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TOLOnews, Education Ministry Prepares New Plan for Grades 1-6, 22 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176829, accessed 25 May 2022
TOLOnews, Employees of Women's Outreach Organization Demand Unpaid Salaries, 16 April
2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177606, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, EU, Central Asian Envoys Call for Inclusive Govt in Afghanistan, 23 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176849, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, EU: Decision on Girls’ Schools Impacts Engagement, 29 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177318, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Ex-Deputy Minister of Transport Returns to Kabul, 5 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178329, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Ex-Military, Civil Leaders Should Return, Says Corps Commander, 5 January2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176189, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Ex-Police Officer Detained for 25 Days: Family, 12 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-177085, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Facing Closed Schools, Badghis Girls Learn Tailoring, 6 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178345, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Family Says Doctor Went Missing 5 Months Ago, 4 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177422, accessed 14 June 2022
TOLOnews, Family Says Journalist in Kandahar Arrested, 27 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177293, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Fears, Needs of Fleeing Afghans Must Be Addressed: Akhundzada, 8 December
2021, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175798, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Female Comedian Missing for Nearly 1 Month in Kabul, 6 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176998, accessed 21 June 2022
TOLOnews, Former Afghan Security Forces in Afghanistan Report Challenges, 28 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176915, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Former Govt Judges Hold Protest to Demand Salaries, 20 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177193, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Former Judges Hold Protest Over Their Uncertain Fate, 2 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-176937, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Former Mayor Zarifa Ghafari Returns to Afghanistan, 27 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176905, accessed 30 June 2022

296

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, Former Military Officer Detained by Islamic Emirate: Family, 21 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175981, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Former Military Official in Parwan Detained: Family, 29 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178697, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Free Education Center Established for Girls in Balkh, 8 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/provincial-178379, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Freed Activists Feel Pressure to Not Share Details: Relatives, 13 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176702, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, Ghani’s Special Envoy for Peace Returns to Kabul, 13 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176697, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Girls at Badakhshan University Say Covering Faces Unhealthy, 28 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178221, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Girls Attend Schools in Kunduz, Balkh, Sar-e-Pul, 9 October 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174966, accessed 25 May 2022
TOLOnews, Girls’ Schools for Grades 7-12 Reopen in Herat, 8 November 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175359, accessed 25 May 2022
TOLOnews, Girls' Schools May Open in New Solar Year: Mujahid, 16 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176327, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews, Government Has No Legal Authority to Scrap Our Identity: Sadat Elders, n.d.,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/govt-has-no-legal-authority-scrap-our-identity-sadat-elders,
accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Government to build 150 000 member forces, 10 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176253, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Govt Employees Protest Unpaid Wage in Kabul, 18 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175944, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Govt Praises Return of Saudis to Consulate in Kabul, 1 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175702, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Govt Retirees, Veterans Hold Protest to Demand Pensions, 16 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-178542, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Groups Seek to Destabilize Bamiyan, Says Commander, 21 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176811, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Habibullah Ahmadzai, Ex-Ghani Adviser, Returns to Country, 29 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178712, accessed 30 June 2022

297

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TOLOnews, Haqqani Tells Tribal Elders to Respect Women's Rights, 30 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177336, accessed 28 June 2022
TOLOnews, Haqqani: We Are Not Forcing Women to Wear Hijab', 18 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178068, accessed 3 June 2022
TOLOnews, Haqqani: Clerics' Gathering Will Solve School Issue, 4 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177866, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Health Ministry Pledges to Hire More Midwives, 16 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/health-178032, accessed 18 May 2022
TOLOnews, Herat Artists Hold Exhibition to Protest Restrictions on Women, 2 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178295, accessed 9 June 2022
TOLOnews, Herat Girls Over 6th Grade Now Banned From School, 27 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177296, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Herat Teachers Demand Their Salaries, 20 October 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175104, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, IFJ: Arbitrary Detentions of Journalists Must Halt, 12 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/attack-mediajournalists-178446, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, In Balkh, MoD official urges troops to guard the nation, 17 October 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175061, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Intl Community Yet to Define Inclusive Govt: Islamic Emirate, 27 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176481, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Intl Criticism of Closed Girls' Schools Remains Strong, 6 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177457, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Iranian President Calls for Inclusive Govt in Afghanistan, 13 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178001, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Clerics’ Gathering Issues 11-Point Resolution, 2 July 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-178750, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Announces Ban on Poppy Cultivation, 3 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177402, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Calls on Foreign Countries to Accept New Envoys, 18 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177166, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Denies Claims in HRW Report on Afghanistan, 14 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176302, accessed 30 June 2022

298

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Dissolves 5 Inactive Institutions, 17 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178054, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Forces Ordered to Respect Privacy of Citizens, 13 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176290, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Calls for Unity, 15 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177130, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader Issues Message for Eid, 29 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177792, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Leader: Avoid Ethnic and Racial Discrimination, 18 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177639, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Meets Envoys of Gulf States in Doha: FM, 14 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176717, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Meets With Envoys of 7 Nations, EU in Oslo, 24 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176441, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Must Ensure Inclusiveness: Kabulov, 18 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175946, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Pledges Safety for Returning Afghans, 21 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178114, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Reiterates Pledge of Safety for Returning Afghans, 9 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178403, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Says Govt is Obliged to Consider Clerics' Opinions, 30 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178725, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Urged to Reopen Schools for Girls in Grades 7-12, 24 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177251, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate Welcomes Return of Afghan Pilots, 6 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176602, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Emirate's Mujahid Comments on House-to-House Searches, 27 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176893, accessed 2 June 2022
TOLOnews, Islamic Scholars in Badghis Call to Reopen Girls’ Schools, 14 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178475, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Journalist Mohammadi Missing Since Noon Sunday: Family, 13 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/attack-mediajournalists-178460, accessed 30 June 2022

299

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TOLOnews, Kabul Airport Employees, Including Women, Return to Work, 13 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174635, accessed 16 May 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Faces Criticism for Not Yet Gaining Intl Recognition, 2 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177839, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Municipality Forbids Images of Women on Advertising, 21 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175985, accessed 7 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Protest Spotlights Recent Killing of 2 Women, 16 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176330, accessed 8 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Protesters Call for Inclusive Govt, 6 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175771, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Residents Demand Security Forces be Given Uniforms, 11 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178430, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Says Some Politicians Responded Positively to Return Offer, 1 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178274, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Should Create Inclusive Govt: Qaisari, 26 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-178666, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Restaurants Owned, Staffed by Women Now Closed, 22 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174753, accessed 13 May 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Urges Islamic Countries to Recognize Afghan Govt, 19 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176369, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kabul Women Write Protest Slogans on City Walls at Night, 10 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176249, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kazakhstan Delegation in Kabul to Discuss Trade, 25 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176037, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Kidnapping Cases Surge in Afghanistan, 28 October 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175208, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, Lavrov: We Want to Work Towards Full Diplomatic Recognition, 27 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177766, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Mawlawi Akhundzada: General Amnesty Must Be Respected, 30 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176108, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Media Survey: Lack of Official Interviews Major Obstacle, 16 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176328, accessed 30 June 2022

300

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, Media: Islamic Emirate Spokespersons Not Providing Information, 23 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176845, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Men Torturing Former Military Official on Video Detained, 29 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176100, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Minister of Repatriation Calls for Political Leaders to Return, 31 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178260, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Minister Orders Police to Stop Unauthorized Operations, 18 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176361, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Ministries Repeat Call for Female News Presenters to Cover Faces, 21 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178113, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Ministry of Vice and Virtue Urges Troops to Obey Orders, 16 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178039, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Ministry Says Schools to Open for All in Spring, 23 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/node/176425, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews, MoD to form 10 000 member-defence force, 1 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176131, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, MoE Says All Schools to Open, 18 March 2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan177153, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews, MoE: Male Students, Teachers Should Not Wear Ties, 15 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177593, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, MoHE Urges Professors to Return to Afghanistan, 10 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176663, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, MoI Identifies Announces Police Uniform, 8 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178389, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, MoI to Kabul Police: Professionals Must Run Checkpoints, 23 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176844, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, MoI-Detained Female Protesters in Video Claim Outside Influence, 21 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176814, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Mullah Hanafi Calls for Unity Among Afghans, 26 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177781, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Muslimyar: Islamic Emirate Must Talk With Opponents, 2 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177391, accessed 30 June 2022

301

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TOLOnews, Muttaqi at Gathering Recounts Achievements of Islamic Emirate, 4 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178312, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Muttaqi Discusses Major Projects with Turkmen Officials, 16 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176329, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, New Civil, Military Appointments Announced, 25 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176862, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, New Timetable Scheduled for Kabul University Students, 23 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177707, accessed 19 May 2022
TOLOnews, No Details Yet from Committee on Girls' Schooling: Spokesperson, 31 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/node/178262, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Order for Female TV Presenters to Cover Faces Sparks Reaction, 24 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178175, accessed 2 June 2022
TOLOnews, Oslo Talks: Afghan Women Activists Meet With Islamic Emirate, 24 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176440, accessed 20 June 2022
TOLOnews, Outcry Raised as Afghan Girls Over Grade 6 Barred From School, 23 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177235, accessed 20 May 2022
TOLOnews, Over 1,200 Drug Addicts Being Treated at Herat Prison, 20 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177668, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Over 7,000 Vacancies Announced for School Teachers, 8 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178377, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Pakistan NSA Arrives in Kabul for Talks with Islamic Emirate, 29 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176499, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Panjshir Residents Protest Killing of Innocent Youth, 26 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176055, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Passport Processing to Begin Countrywide on April 5th: Officials, 29 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177321, accessed 18 May 2022
TOLOnews, Political Figures in Country Ask for Kabul's Engagement, 23 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178134, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Political Party Calls for Reopening of Girls' Schools, 25 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177257, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Prevented from Attending School, Afghan Girls Learn Handicrafts, 13 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178000, accessed 18 May 2022

302

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, Probe Launched Over Missing Female Activists: Islamic Emirate, 29 January2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176508, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, Professor, Analyst Faizullah Jalal Arrested In Kabul, 8 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176224, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Prominent Afghans React to Closed Girls' Schools, 23 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177236, accessed 24 May 2022
TOLOnews, Protesters Call for Release of Female Activists, 12 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176694, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, Protestors Call for Women’s Access to Education, Work, 12 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-177078, accessed 9 June 2022
TOLOnews, Public Universities to Reopen, Female Students Included: Minister, 12 January2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176279, accessed 19 May 2022
TOLOnews, Public Works Employees Hold Protest Over Unpaid Salaries, 27 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176904, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Recognition Requires Respect for Human Rights: UN Chief, 22 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176408, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Reform Commission Expels Around 4,500 Members of Security Forces, 21
February 2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176821, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Schools Remain Closed In Pamir District Of Badakhshan, 17 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178525, accessed 27 June 2022
TOLOnews, Schools Reopen for Girls in Grades 7-12 in Balkh Province, 8 October 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174956, accessed 25 May 2022
TOLOnews, Security Forces to Get New Uniforms Next Month, 17 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177615, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Security Forces to Receive Newly Designed Standard Uniform, 20 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176384, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Senior Delegation from Uzbekistan Visits Afghanistan, 20 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/index.php/afghanistan-178566, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Students Concerned With Shortage of Public University Professors, 27 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176898, accessed 19 May 2022
TOLOnews, Supreme Court Appoints 69 Provincial Judges, 16 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175920, accessed 30 June 2022

303

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

TOLOnews, Statement Released from Afghan Politicians at Turkey Meeting, 19 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178087, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Supreme Court Employees Protest Over Unpaid Salaries, 28 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176070, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Taliban says it will build a regular army, include former members, 15 September
2021, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174664, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Taliban: Some Restrictions in Provinces Not Official, 27 September 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-174819, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Thomas West Meets Afghan Politicians, Civil Society in Istanbul, 30 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178247, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, TOLOnews Presenter Freed After Night in Detention, 18 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177167, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Transgender Person Attacked by Unknown Individuals in Herat, 29 December
2021, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176098, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, Turkey, Qatar Delegation Arrives in Kabul, 23 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176012, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Twitter FreeHerFace Campaign Gained Intl Attention, 28 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178220, accessed 2 June 2022
TOLOnews, UN Human Rights Office Raises Alarm Over 6 Kabul Abductees, 1 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176547, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, UN Reiterates Concerns Over Missing Afghan Women Activists, 9 February 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176647, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, UN, Afghan Women Demand Answers Over More Missing Activists, 3 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176573, accessed 17 June 2022
TOLOnews, UN Says Equal Rights Must Become Everyday Reality in Afghanistan, 10
December 2021, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175820, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, UN's Bachelet Asks All States to Support Afghan Human Rights, 19 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176370, accessed 20 June 2022
TOLOnews, UN's Bachelet Deeply Concerned by Closing of AIHRC, 20 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178095, accessed 13 June 2022
TOLOnews, UNAMA: Closing of Girls’ Schools ‘Discriminatory’, 7 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177470, accessed 24 May 2022

304

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSTOLOnews, University Students’ Class Time Limited, Told to 'Self-Study', 7 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177009, accessed 19 May 2022
TOLOnews, Uzbekistan Will Not Recognize Islamic Emirate Alone: Envoy, 6 May 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177892, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, Veterans, Govt Retirees Set Protest, Demand Pensions, 11 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178436, accessed 30 June 2022
TOLOnews, We have right to suppress dissidents and imprison protestors: Mujahid, 23
January 2022, https://www.khaama.com/we-have-right-to-suppress-dissidents-and-imprisonprotestors-mujahid-877679/, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Women at Kabul Exhibition Display Handmade Products, 8 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178381, accessed 24 June 2022
TOLOnews, Women Call for Political, Social Inclusion, 5 December 2021,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175754, accessed 8 June 2022
TOLOnews, Women Demand Inclusion in Clerics' Gathering, 30 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178724, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Women In Kabul Call for Reopening of Girls' Schools, 17 April 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-177618, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Call for Right to Work, End of Restrictions, 9 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-178401, accessed 22 June 2022
TOLOnews, Women in Kabul Demand Govt Jobs, Representation, 12 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176280, accessed 10 June 2022
TOLOnews, Women Protestors in Kabul Urge US to Release Bank Assets, 17 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176344, accessed 22 May 2022
TOLOnews, Women Submit Demands to Kabul Delegates, Intl Envoys, 25 January 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176461, acessed 20 June 2022
TOLOnews, Women-Made Handicrafts Showcased in Herat, 5 March 2022,
https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176971, accessed 18 May 2022
TOLOnews, Women's Market in Kabul Creates Opportunities, 30 June 2022,
https://tolonews.com/business-178731, accessed 1 July 2022
TOLOnews, Workers at the Urban Development Ministry Demand to Be Paid, 5 February2022, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-176595, accessed 1 July 2022
Tomas Niklasson [Twitter], posted on: 27 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/tomas_niklasson/status/1486770153547259909?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw,
accessed 1 July 2022

305

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

UN (United Nations), Facing critical human rights challenges, Afghanistan at a crossroads, 26
May 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/05/facing-critical-human-rightschallenges-afghanistan-crossroads-says-un, accessed 30 June 2022
UN (United Nations), Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General –on Afghanistan, 5 September 2021, https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2021-0905/statement-attributable-the-spokesperson-for-the-secretary-general-%E2%80%93afghanistan, accessed 25 July 2022
UN (United Nations), UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet visits Kabul,
Afghanistan, 11 March 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/un-highcommissioner-human-rights-michelle-bachelet-visits-kabul-afghanistan, accessed 30 June
2022
UN General Assembly, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 17 December 2015, 8January 2016, https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/443/41/PDF/N1544341.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 12 August2022
UN Human Rights Council, Statement by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on thesituation of human rights, Richard Bennett, following his visit to Afghanistan from May 15-26,
2022, 26 May 2022, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/facing-critical-human-rightschallenges-afghanistan-crossroads-says-un-expertkabul#:~:text=KABUL%20(26%20May%202022)%20%E2%80%93,to%20all%20Afghans%2C%
20especially%20women, accessed 22 June 2022
UN High Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, and technical assistanceachievements in the field of human rights, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner
for Human Rights, A/HRC/49/90, 12 January 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/situation-human-rights-afghanistan-and-technicalassistance-achievements-field-4, accessed 20 June 2022
UN Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights in Afghanistan, A/HRC/49/24, 4 March
2022, https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/situation-human-rights-afghanistan-reportunited-nations-high-commissioner-human, accessed 30 June 2022
UN News, Afghanistan: humanitarian crisis threatens basic human rights, 14 December 2021,
https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/12/1107902, accessed 1 July 2022
UN News, Amid Plummeting Humanitarian Conditions in Afghanistan, Women, Girls ‘Are Being
Written Out of Society’ by De Facto Authorities, Briefers Warn Security Council, 23 June 2022,
https://www.un.org/press/en/2022/sc14946.doc.htm, accessed 30 June 2022
UN News, Climate of fear prevails for human rights defenders in Afghanistan, 3 November
2021,
https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/11/1104822#:~:text=Human%20rights%20defenders%20in%2
0Afghanistan%20report%20that%20they%20are%20now,UN%20expert%20said%20on%20W
ednesday, accessed 14 June 2022
306

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSUN News, Experts decry measures to steadily erase Afghan women and girls from public life,
17 January 2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/01/1109902, accessed 30 June 2022
UN News, Security Council Press Statement on Afghanistan, 16 August 2021,
https://www.un.org/press/en/2021/sc14604.doc.htm, accessed 30 June 2022
UN News, Taliban’s backtracking on girls’ education, deeply damaging, 23 March 2022,
https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/03/1114482, accessed 24 May 2022
UN News, United Nations mourns the death of health workers and halts polio vaccination
campaign in Kunduz and Takhar Provinces of Afghanistan, 24 February 2022,
https://afghanistan.un.org/en/173207-united-nations-mourns-death-health-workers-and-haltspolio-vaccination-campaign-kunduz-and, accessed 16 June 2022
UN Security Council, Haqqani network, n.d.,
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1988/materials/summaries/entity/haqqaninetwork, accessed 30 June 2022
UN Security Council, Mohammad Hassan Akhund, n.d.,
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1988/materials/summaries/individual/mohammad-hassan-akhund, accessed 30 June 2022
UN Security Council, Protection of civilians in armed conflict, S/2022/381, 10 May 2022,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2073323/N2232173.pdf, accessed 24 May 2022
UN Security Council, Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988
(2011), n.d., https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1988, accessed 30 June 2022
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peaceand security, A/76/667–S/2022/64, 28 January 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/situation-afghanistan-and-its-implications-internationalpeace-and-security-66, accessed 12 May 2022
UN Security Council, The situation in Afghanistan and its implications for international peaceand security, A/76/862–S/2022/485, 15 June 2022,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/220615_sg_report_on_afghanistan_s.2022.48
5.pdf, accessed 24 June 2022
UN Security Council, Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring
Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and otherassociated individuals and entities constituting a threat to the peace, stability and security ofAfghanistan, S/2022/419, 26 May 2022, https://documents-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N22/333/77/PDF/N2233377.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 1 July2022
UN Security Council, Twenty-ninth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring
Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2368 (2017) concerning ISIL (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and307

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

associated individuals and entities, S/2022/83, 3 February 2022,
https://undocs.org/S/2022/83, accessed 27 June 2022
UN Special Rapporteur Richard Bennett [Twitter], posted on: 27 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/SR_Afghanistan/status/1541330084090548226, accessed 30 June 2022
UN Women, Expert’s take: Gender equality is critical for Afghanistan’s future, long-term
development, and sustained peace, 12 October 2021,
https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2021/10/experts-take-gender-equality-is-criticalfor-the-afghanistans-future, accessed 12 May 2022
UN Women, Women’s rights in Afghanistan: Where are we now, December 2021,
https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2021-12/Gender-alert-Womens-rights-inAfghanistan-en.pdf, accessed 8 June 2022
UN Women and UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Afghanistan Crisis
Update: Women and girls in displacement, 28 February 2022,
https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/documents/Publications/Afghanistan_factsheet.pd
f, accessed 1 June 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Afghanistan Annual Report on
Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict: 2018, 23 February 2019,https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/unama_annual_protection_of_civilians_report_2018_-_23_feb_2019_-_english.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Afghanistan – Protection of
Civilians in Armed Conflict – Annual Report 2020, February 2021,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/executive_summary__afghanistan_protection_of_civilians_annual_report_2020_english.pdf, accessed 30 June
2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Afghanistan – Protection of
Civilians in Armed Conflict – Midyear Update: 1 January to 30 June 2021, July 2021,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/unama_poc_midyear_report_2021_26_july.pd
f, accessed 30 June 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Afghanistan – Protection of
Civilians in Armed Conflict – Annual Report 2020, February 2021,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/afghanistan_protection_of_civilians_report_2
020_revs3.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
UNAMA, Armed Conflict: Attacks against Places of Worship, Religious Leaders andWorshippers, 7 November 2017,https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/unama_report_on_attacks_against_places_of_worship_7nov2017_0.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022

308

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSUNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Human Rights in Afghanistan, 15
August 2021–15 June 2022, July 2022, https://unama.unmissions.org/human-rightsmonitoring-and-reporting, accessed 27 July 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Protection of Civilians in Armed
Conflict: Attacks against Places of Worship, Religious Leaders and Worshippers, 7 November
2017,
https://unama.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/unama_report_on_attacks_against_places_of_worship_7nov2017_0.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Security Council Press Statementon Afghanistan, 28 March 2022, https://unama.unmissions.org/security-council-pressstatement-afghanistan-4?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May 2022
UNAMA, Statement by friends of Afghan Women Ambassadors’ group on world press freedom
day, 3 May 2022, https://unama.unmissions.org/statement-friends-afghan-womenambassadors%E2%80%99-group-world-press-freedom-day, accessed 30 June 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), Statement by the SecretaryGeneral on Afghanistan, 23 March 2022,
https://unama.unmissions.org/statement%E2%80%AF%E2%80%AF%E2%80%AFsecretarygeneral%E2%80%AF-afghanistan?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 24 May
2022
UNAMA, UNAMA Political Mission Mandate Renewal to 17 March 2023, 17 March 2022,
https://unama.unmissions.org/unama-political-mission-mandate-renewal-17-march-2023,
accessed 30 June 2022
UNAMA (United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan), UNAMA statement on the hijab
directive by Taliban authorities, 7 May 2022, https://unama.unmissions.org/unama-statementhijab-directive-taliban-authorities?utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter, accessed 3 June
2022
UNAMA News [Twitter], posted on: 22 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/UNAMAnews/status/1484762768796491780, accessed 17 June 2022
UNAMA News [Twitter], posted on: 13 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/UNAMAnews/status/1492847372468203521, accessed 17 June 2022
UNAMA News [Twitter], posted on: 29 June 2022,
https://twitter.com/UNAMAnews/status/1542030576613482496, accessed 30 June 2022
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), Afghanistan: Socio-Economic Outlook 20212022 - Averting a Basic Needs Crisis, 1 December 2021, https://www.asiapacific.undp.org/content/rbap/en/home/library/sustainable-development/afghanistan-socioeconomic-outlook-2021-2022.html, accessed 12 May 2022

309

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUNDP (United Nations Development Programme), Provincial Profile – Badakhshan, October
2006, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1338833/432_1197541686_badakhshan-20provincial20profile.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), Restrictions on women’s employment can
reduce Afghanistan’s GDP by an additional 5 percent, UNDP report finds, 1 December 2021,
https://www.asiapacific.undp.org/content/rbap/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2021/restrictions-onwomens-employment-can-reduce-afghanistans-gdp-by.html, accessed 12 May 2022
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), The right toeducation: What’s at stake in Afghanistan?, A 20 year review, 2021,
https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/afghanistan_v11.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees), District Profile [Baghlan – Tala-waBarfak], 9 April 2002,
https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1046398/10581_accord343_tala_wa_barfak.pdf, accessed
30 June 2022
UNHCR (United Nations High commissioner for Refugees) and UN (United Nations) Women,
Afghanistan Crisis Update: Women and Girls in Displacement, 28 February 2022,
https://data.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/documents/Publications/Afghanistan_factsheet.pd
f, accessed 25 July 2022
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund), Afghanistan Humanitarian Situation
Report n.3, 1-28 February 2022, https://www.unicef.org/media/117781/file/AfghanistanHumanitarian-SitRep-28-February-2022.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund) and Save the Children, Afghanistan:
Back to School - Situation Update (April 2022), 21 April 2022,
https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-back-school-situation-update-april-2022,
accessed 30 June 2022
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund), Afghanistan: Education Equity Profile for
Adolescent Girls, December 2019,https://www.unicef.org/rosa/media/5491/file/Afghanistan%20%E2%80%93%20Education%20E
quity%20Profile%20for%20Adolescent%20Girls.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund), Girls increasingly at risk of childmarriage in Afghanistan, 12 November 2021, https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/girlsincreasingly-risk-child-marriage-afghanistan, accessed 17 May 2022
US (United States), CIA, The World Factbook – Afghanistan, October 2021,
https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/#people-and-society, accessed
30 June 2022
US (United States), CRS (Congressional Research Service), Terrorist Groups in Afghanistan, 19
April 2022, https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/IF10604.pdf, accessed 27 June 2022

310

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSUS (United States), Library of Congress, Afghanistan, 1997, archived page from 10 January
2009, available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20090110132651/https:/lcweb2.loc.gov/cgibin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+af0037%29, accessed 19 May 2022
United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigrations Services, Afghanistan: Background on
the Anti-Taliban group, the Northern Alliance, 14 December 1999,
https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a6a7c.html, accessed 30 June 2022
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan –administrative divisions, January 2014,
https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/afg_admini
strative_divisions_201401JAN02_A0_low_res.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan –Humanitarian Access Severity Overview, 26 April 2022,
https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/
files/afg_humanitarian_access_severity_overview_april_2022_v17.pdf, accessed 25 July
2022
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan –Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 January 2022 – 30 April 2022), 19 May 2022,
https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/
files/humanitarian_access_snapshot_april_2022.pdf, accessed 25 July 2022
UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Afghanistan –Humanitarian Access Snapshot (1 June – 30 June 2022), 17 July 2022,
https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/
files/humanitarian_access_constraints_june_2022.pdf, accessed 25 July 2022
US Central Command, Posture Statement of General Kenneth F. McKenzie, Jr. commander,
CENTCOM before the Senate Armed Services Committee March 15, 2022, 16 March 2022,
https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/STATEMENTS/Statements-View/Article/2967180/posturestatement-of-general-kenneth-f-mckenzie-jr-commander-centcom-before-the/, accessed 1 July
2022
USCIRF (United States Commission for International Religious Freedom), Afghanistan, April
2022, https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2071903/2022+Afghanistan.pdf, accessed 30 June
2022
USCIRF (United States Commission for International Religious Freedom), Annual Report 2022
– Country Chapters: Afghanistan, April 2022, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/202204/2022%20Afghanistan.pdf, accessed 15 June 2022
USCIRF (United States Commission for International Religious Freedom), Factsheet:
Ahmadiyya Muslims, October 2021, https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/202110/2021%20Ahmadiyya%20Persecution%20Factsheet.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022

311

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMUSDOS (United States Department of State), 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom:Afghanistan, 2 June 2022, https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-internationalreligious-freedom/afghanistan/, accessed 15 June 2022
USDOS (United States Department of State), Afghanistan 2019 Human Rights Report, 11 March
2020, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/AFGHANISTAN-2019-HUMANRIGHTS-REPORT.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
USDOS (United States Department of State), Afghanistan 2021 Human Rights Report, 12 April
2022, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/313615_AFGHANISTAN-2021HUMAN-RIGHTS-REPORT.pdf, accessed 30 June 2022
USDOS (United States Department of State), U.S.-Europe Joint Statement on Afghanistan, 27
January 2022, https://www.state.gov/u-s-europe-joint-statement-on-afghanistan/, accessed 30
June 2022
USIP (United States Institute for Peace), Bourgeois Jihad. Why Young, Middle-class Afghans
Join the Islamic State, June 2020, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/20200601pw_162-bourgeois_jihad_why_young_middle-class_afghans_join_the_islamic_state.pdf,
accessed 27 June 2022
Usman Sharif [Twitter], posted on: 19 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/usharifi/status/1483744406607958019, accessed 15 June 2022
Uyghur Human Rights Project, Nets Cast from the Earth to the Sky, 2021, https://uhrp.org/wpcontent/uploads/2021/08/Pakistan_Formatted-FINAL_2021-08-10-1.pdf, accessed 30 June
2022
Vadsaria, N., Tajik Hope: Reflections on Engaging Women in Kapisa Province, 25 March 2013,https://www.diplomaticourier.com/posts/tajik-hope-reflections-on-engaging-women-in-kapisaprovince, accessed 30 June 2022
van Bijlert, M., Afghanistan’s Conflict in 2021 (1): The Taleban’s sweeping offensive as told bypeople on the ground, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 28 December 2021,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/afghanistans-conflict-in-20211-the-talebans-sweeping-offensive-as-told-by-people-on-the-ground/, accessed 30 June 2022
van Bijlert, M., Food Aid in a Collapsed Economy: Relief, tensions and allegations, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), 23 May 2022, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/economy-development-environment/food-aid-in-a-collapsedeconomy-relief-tensions-and-allegations/, accessed 24 May 2022
van Bijlert, M., The Focus of the Taleban’s New Government: Internal cohesion, external
dominance, AAN (Afghanistan Analysts Network), 12 September 2021,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/the-focus-of-the-talebansnew-government-internal-cohesion-external-dominance/, accessed 30 June 2022

312

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

van Bijlert, M., The Moment in Between: After the Americans, before the new regime, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), 1 September 2021, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/war-and-peace/the-moment-in-between-after-the-americans-beforethe-new-regime/, accessed 30 June 2022
van Bijlert, M., The Taleban’s Caretaker Cabinet and other Senior Appointments, AAN(Afghanistan Analysts Network), 7 October 2021, https://www.afghanistananalysts.org/en/reports/political-landscape/the-talebans-caretaker-cabinet-and-other-seniorappointments/, accessed 30 June 2022
Vera-Larrucea, C. and Malm Lindberg, H., Return to Afghanistan: The perils of returning tounstable and insecure countries, Migration Policy Practive, Vol. XI, No. 4, December 2021 –April 2022, https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/MPP-47_0.pdf, accessed 30 June
2022
VICE News, I Must Face the Taliban: The Women in Kabul Keeping Their Beauty Salons Open,
14 December 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkpgnb/taliban-kabul-undergroundbeauty-salons, accessed 12 May 2022
VICE News, Life in the Taliban's Afghanistan [Online video], 13 February 2022,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIFi_Rgm-T8, accessed 5 May 2022
VICE News, Six months after the Taliban took control of Afghanistan, women’s rights are
rapidly eroding [Online video], 13 February 2022,
https://web.archive.org/web/20220607104448/https:/www.youtube.com/c/VICENews,
accessed 1 July 2022
VICE News, Taliban Fighters Are Conducting Door-to-Door House Searches, 3 March 2022,
https://www.vice.com/en/article/m7vkap/taliban-door-to-door-searches-afghanistan, accessed
1 July 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Afghan Fighting Season Ushers in New Anti-Taliban Groups, 27 April
2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/afghan-fighting-season-ushers-in-new-anti-talibangroups/6542148.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Afghan Prosecutors Who Worked at Bagram Prison Fear Taliban’s
Reprisals, 19 October 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/afghan-prosecutors-who-worked-atbagram-prison-fear-taliban-s-reprisals-/6277931.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Afghanistan Poverty Bears More Child Brides, 4 May 2022,
https://www.voanews.com/a/afghanistan-poverty-bears-more-child-brides/6556599.html,
accessed 12 July 2022
VOA (Voice of America), All Public Universities in Afghanistan Open to Male, Female Students,
26 February 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/all-public-universities-in-afghanistan-open-tomale-female-students/6461202.html, accessed 19 May 2022

313

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUMVOA (Voice of America), Anti-Taliban Group Registers with US to Try to Build Afghan
Resistance, 1 November 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/anti-taliban-group-registers-withus-to-try-to-build-afghan-resistance-/6295339.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), How Afghanistan’s militant groups are evolving under Taliban rule,
20 March 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/how-afghanistan-s-militant-groups-are-evolvingunder-taliban-rule/6492194.html, accessed 1 July 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Official: Afghan Women to Continue Playing Cricket, 24 November
2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/official-afghan-women-to-continue-playingcricket/6326553.html, accessed 1 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Pakistan PM Stresses Inclusivity in Government in Talks With Taliban,
18 September 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/pakistan-pm-stresses-inclusivity-ingovernment-in-talks-with-taliban-/6234176.html, accessed 1 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Russia Latest Country to Establish Diplomatic Ties With Taliban, 9April 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/russia-latest-country-to-establish-diplomatic-ties-withtaliban/6521949.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Closure of Domestic Abuse Shelters Leaves Thousands at
Risk, Experts Say, 10 December 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-closure-ofdomestic-abuse-shelters-leaves-thousands-at-risk-experts-say/6349979.html, accessed 28
June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Court Sentences Afghan Journalist to Prison, 12 May 2022,
https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-court-sentences-afghan-journalist-to-prison/6569237.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Defend Door-to-door Searches in Kabul, Bar Future
Evacuations of Afghans, 27 February 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/6462043.html,
accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Detain Human Rights Activists Planning Protest of Pakistan
Official's Visit, 18 January 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-detain-human-rightsactivists-planning-protest-of-pakistan-official-s-visit-/6402892.html, accessed 15 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Further Restrict Afghan Women With New Travel Rules, 26
December 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-further-restrict-afghan-women-with-newtravel-rules/6370936.html, accessed 1 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Hold Islamic Scholars' Huddle to Show Strength, Legitimacy,
20 June 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-hold-islamic-scholars-huddle-to-showstrength-legitimacy-/6640197.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Leader Indicates Reopening Girls' Schools Depends on Dress
Codes, 17 May 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/key-taliban-leader-promises-good-news-onafghan-girls-education-/6576630.html, accessed 1 June 2022

314

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSVOA (Voice of America), Taliban order Afghan media to use group’s official name, 1 October
2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-order-afghan-media-to-use-group-s-officialname/6254019.html, accessed 1 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Rebuff UN Calls for Reversing Rules on Afghan Women, 27
May 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-rebuff-un-calls-for-reversing-rules-on-afghanwomen/6592290.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Reject Fresh US Criticism of Kabul Government, 21 February2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-reject-fresh-us-criticism-of-kabul-government/6452038.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban seeking 110 000 – strong army after 6 months in power, 15
February 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-seeking-110-000-strong-army-after-6months-in-power-/6442084.html, accessed 25 May 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban Uncertainty Prompts Bid for Afghan Rights Body in Exile, 10
March 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-uncertainty-prompts-bid-for-afghan-rightsbody-in-exile-/6479378.html, accessed 13 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban-run Kabul Municipality to Female Workers: Stay Home, 19
September 2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-run-kabul-municipality-to-femaleworkers-stay-home/6234955.html, accessed 13 May 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Taliban’s Alleged Extrajudicial Killings in Afghan District Worry UN,
Rights Groups, 27 June, https://www.voanews.com/a/taliban-s-alleged-extrajudicial-killings-inafghan-district-worry-un-rights-groups-/6635218.html, accessed 30 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Uyghurs From Afghanistan Fear Deportation to China, 1 September
2021, https://www.voanews.com/a/south-central-asia_uyghurs-afghanistan-fear-deportationchina/6210234.html, accessed 27 June 2022
VOA (Voice of America), Uzbekistan Seeks to Engage Taliban Without Alienating West, 4 May
2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/uzbekistan-seeks-to-engage-taliban-without-alienatingwest/6557338.html, accessed 30 June 2022
Vox, What the Taliban’s new government reveals about how they will rule, 13 September 2021,
https://www.vox.com/22665508/taliban-afghanistan-prime-minister-supreme-leader-hassanhaibatullah, accessed 30 June 2022
Wasdam, Markets For Women’s Products To Open In Capital & Provinces of Afghanistan, 22
December 2021, https://wadsam.com/afghan-business-news/markets-for-womens-products-toopen-in-capital-provinces-of-afghanistan/, accessed 12 May 2022
Washington Institute (The), Turkey Calls for Recognition of the Taliban’s Islamic Emirate, 17March 2022, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/turkey-calls-recognitiontalibans-islamic-emirate, accessed 30 June 2022

315

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Washington Post (The), Afghanistan desperately needs aid. One technocrat from the former
government is key to the Taliban’s efforts, 18 January 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/01/18/afghanistan-aid-finance/, accessed 30
June 2022
Washington Post (The), Along Afghanistan’s highway of dead, the bombs are gone but
suffering has deepened, 20 December 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2021/afghanistan-highway-kabulkandahar/, accessed 25 May 2022
Washington Post (The), Faced with disappearances, beatings and intimidation, Afghanistan's
women's rights activists go quiet on the streets, 8 February 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/08/afghanistan-taliban-women-protests/,
accessed 9 June 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban arrests Canadian aid worker amid widening crackdown on
activists and foreigners, 7 March 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/03/07/afghanistan-canada-nadima-noortaliban/, accessed 20 June 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban faces a new hurdle in Afghanistan: Protecting public from
Islamic State, 18 October 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/talibanpolicing-isis-afghanistan/2021/10/18/7e3dce46-26a7-11ec-8739-5cb6aba30a30_story.html,
accessed 20 June 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban launches sweeping house-to-house raids across Kabul insearch of weapons, 27 February 2022,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/27/taliban-raids-afghanistan/, accessed 30
June 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban recruits flood into Afghanistan from neighbouring Pakistan as
the group works to consolidate control, 18 December 2021,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/12/18/taliban-recruits-pakistan-afghanistan/,accessed 1 July 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban reopens high school for boys, but makes no mention of female
students, 17 September 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/09/17/afghanistangirls-school-talibantaliban-reopens-high-school-boys-makes-no-mention-female-students/,
accessed 25 May 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban tells Kabul’s female city government employees not to come towork, 21 October 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/21/taliban-womenwork-afghanistan/, accessed 12 July 2022
Washington Post (The), Taliban wages campaign of targeted killings against former membersof Afghan security forces, 30 November 2021,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/11/30/taliban-killings-security/, accessed 25 May
2022
316

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

Washington Post (The), Through child marriage or paid adoption, Afghan girls bear brunt ofcrisis, 14 April 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/04/14/afghanistan-girlschild-marriage-adoption/, accessed 12 July 2022
Watkins, A. H., An Assessment of Taliban Rule at Three Months, November 2021,
https://ctc.usma.edu/an-assessment-of-taliban-rule-at-three-months/, accessed 30 June 2022
Wazhma Tokhi [Twitter], posted on: 30 May 2022,
https://twitter.com/WazhmaTokhi/status/1531372694322683904, accessed 24 June 2022
West Australian (The), Bomb hits UN car in Afghanistan: Taliban, 10 May 2022,
https://thewest.com.au/news/conflict/bomb-hits-un-car-in-afghanistan-taliban-c-6752652,
accessed 25 July 2022
Wimpelmann, T., Adultery, rape, and escaping the house: The protection and policing of
female sexuality in Afghanistan, December 2017, https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/6404adultery-rape-and-escaping-the-house.pdf, accessed 12 July 2022
Wimpelmann, T., The Pitfalls of Protection, University of California Press, Oakland, 2017
World’s Children’s Prize (The), Burka, chador or headscarf?, n.d.,
https://worldschildrensprize.org/clothingafghanistan#:~:text=From%20the%20age%20of%207,
t%20bother%20with%20a%20burka, accessed 12 July 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Afghan Teachers Defy Taliban by Secretly Schooling Teenage Girls,
25 November 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/afghan-teachers-defy-taliban-by-secretlyschooling-teenage-girls-11637862558, accessed 18 May 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face Old Pressures From
Fathers, Brothers, 15 December 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/after-taliban-return-afghanwomen-face-old-pressures-from-fathers-brothers11639564204?st=okylxzbjrtj9ek9&reflink=desktopwebshare_twitter, accessed 16 May 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Afghanistan’s Former Female Troops, Once Hailed by the West,
Fear for Their Lives, 28 December 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/afghanistans-formerfemale-troops-once-hailed-by-the-west-fear-for-their-lives-11640696404, accessed 30 June2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), High-Ranking Afghan Officials Escaped to Luxury Homes Abroad, 13June 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/high-ranking-afghan-officials-escaped-to-luxuryhomes-abroad-11655112600, accessed 30 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Left Behind After U.S. Withdrawal, Some Former Afghan Spies andSoldiers Turn to Islamic State, 31 October 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/left-behind-afteru-s-withdrawal-some-former-afghan-spies-and-soldiers-turn-to-islamic-state-11635691605,
accessed 30 June 2022

317

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Maternity Care, Once a Sign of Hope in Afghanistan, Is Faltering
Under the Taliban, 18 July 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/afghanistan-maternity-care-isfaltering-11658136601#comments_sector, accessed 25 July 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), More Than 60,000 Interpreters, Visa Applicants Remain in
Afghanistan, 16 December 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/more-than-60-000-interpretersvisa-applicants-remain-in-afghanistan-11639689706, accessed 30 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Strange Quiet Arrives in Afghanistan After Decades of War, 11
October 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-afghanistan-us-withdraw-coalition-warafghan-airstrikes-11633964606, accessed 30 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban Add Minorities, Technocrats to Afghan Government, but No
Women, 21 September 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-add-minorities-technocratsto-afghan-government-but-no-women-11632237106, accessed 30 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban Crack Down on Social Freedoms With Even Stricter Policing,
5 April 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-crack-down-on-social-freedoms-with-evenstricter-policing-11649156657, accessed 7 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban Commander Who Launched Bombings in Kabul Is Now a
Police Chief in Charge of Security, 20 October 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/talibancommander-who-launched-bombings-in-kabul-is-now-a-police-chief-in-charge-of-security11634740097, accessed 30 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Taliban Detain Prominent Critic, Intensifying Crackdown on Dissent
in Afghanistan, 9 January 2022, https://www.wsj.com/articles/taliban-detain-prominent-criticintensifying-crackdown-on-dissent-in-afghanistan-11641744527
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Trapped in Kabul, Prominent Afghan Women Fear Retribution Under
Taliban Rule, 24 September 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/trapped-in-kabul-prominentafghan-women-fear-retribution-under-taliban-rule-11632475917, accessed 1 June 2022
WSJ (Wall Street Journal), Who Are the Taliban and What’s Next for Afghanistan?, 27
September 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/who-are-the-taliban-11628629642, accessed 1
July 2022
Xinhuanet, Turkey repatriates more than 18,000 migrants back to Afghanistan, 8 June 2022,
https://english.news.cn/20220608/426d3e7b014e4f1db0651837df2a520f/c.html, accessed 1
July 2022
Yalda Hakim [Twitter], posted on: 20 January 2022,
https://twitter.com/BBCYaldaHakim/status/1484191304133189634, accessed 17 June 2022
Zahra Rahimi [Twitter], posted on: 5 February 2022,
https://twitter.com/ZahraSRahimi/status/1489989981905072129, accessed 17 June 2022

318

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALSZeit Online, Ein Leben in Unsicherheit und Verzweiflung [A Life of Uncertainty and Despair], 18
February 2022, https://www.zeit.de/kultur/2022-02/afghanistan-frauen-fuehrungspositionenregierung-verwaltung-taliban/komplettansicht, accessed 12 July 2022
Zeit Online, Mein Leben in Kabul [My Life in Kabul], 12 July 2022,
https://www.zeit.de/kultur/2022-07/afghanistan-frauen-alltag-taliban, accessed 13 July 2022

319

EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR ASYLUM

Annex 2: Terms of Reference
The reference period should be 1 December 2021–30 June 2022. For profiles not included in
the EUAA COI report: Afghanistan – Country Focus (January 2022), the reference period
should be 15 August 2021–30 June 2022.
The report should cover targeting acts by the Taliban and other armed groups against thefollowing profiles, and outline how and, as far as it is possible, why such targeting acts occurs.
Societal violence should also be included when covering the situation of Hazaras, LGBTIQ
persons and women.
The report should also contain information on the Taliban’s perception of Afghans abroad andespecially Afghans who have sought asylum in Europe and other Western countries.
1. Background: Situation under Taliban rule for the general population
a. Political context
b. Compliance with sharia law and Taliban norms, including information on
reactions to perceived blasphemy and/or apostasyc. Persons leaving Afghanistan
i. Taliban attitudes and public statements
ii. Treatment of persons trying to leave or returning to Afghanistan
2. Persons affiliated with security institutions of the former government, and foreign
forcesa. Members of the Afghan National Security Forcesb. Persons serving in military unitsc. Persons serving in police units
d. Persons affiliated with foreign forces
i. Interpretersii. Other persons affiliated with foreign forces
3. Public officials and servants of the former governmenta. Judicial workers (judges, prosecutors, and judicial staff)
b. Other public servants
4. Gender-based targetinga. Societal targetingi. Position of women in society
ii. Dress codes and behavioural norms
iii. Women in public roles
iv. Harmful traditional practices
v. Domestic violence and sexual violencevi. Moral offences and adultery (zina)
vii. Honour violenceb. Targeting under Taliban rulei. Access to education
ii. Access to employmentiii. Freedom of movement320

AFGHANISTAN – TARGETING OF INDIVIDUALS

iv. Freedom of expression and assembly, reactions to womendemonstrations
v. Dress codes and behavioural norms
c. Attacks or acts of violence against women and girls by the Taliban and armed
groupsd. Attacks or acts of violence against women in certain public positions
5. The situation of religious and ethnic minorities
a. Representation in the interim governmentb. Hazara and Shia Muslims
i. Religious freedom under Taliban ruleii. Discriminationiii. Attacks against Mosquesiv. Other recorded attacks against Hazarasc. Situation of other minorities (incl. Tajiks, Baha’i, Ismaili, Hindus, Uyghurs, andSikhs)
6. Journalists and media workers
a. Press freedom under Taliban ruleb. Recorded attacks against journalists and media workers
c. Human rights defenders and activists
d. Restrictions under Taliban rulee. Attacks against human rights defenders and activists
7. Healthcare professionals, humanitarian workers, including individuals working fornational and international NGOs
a. Restrictions under Taliban ruleb. Attacks against healthcare professionals
8. LGBTIQ persons
a. Restrictions under Taliban ruleb. Treatment by societyc. Attacks against LGBTIQ persons by the Taliban and other actors
9. Education personnel
a. Attacks or acts of violence or threats against education personnel by the
Taliban (including any differences observed in the treatment male and female
educational personnel)b. Attacks or acts of violence or threats against educational personnel by otheractors, including ISKP or other armed groups
10. Information on forced recruitment since the Taliban takeovera. Are armed groups in Afghanistan currently engaging in (forced) recruitment?
b. Is child recruitment by the Taliban and/or other armed groups reported?

321