Mapping the Careersof the Future in the
United Kingdom,France and Germany

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Table of Contents
2

Introduction

3

Executive Summary

4France3
56United Kingdom
Germany

Cross-Country Comparisons

8

Background & Methods

9

Brief Methodology

8

Background10

United Kingdom

12Best-Scoring Jobs for Which Most Workers Do Not Have a Bachelor's Degree

10
13
14
16

Best-Scoring Jobs Overall
IT Jobs in the U.K.

Gender Differences in Teens' Expected Careers

Differences in Teens' Expected Careers Based on Language Spoken at Home

18

France20

Best-Scoring Jobs for Which Formal Higher Education Is Not Required

18
22
23

Best-Scoring Jobs Overall
IT Jobs

Gender Differences in Teens' Expected Careers

25

Germany

27

Best-Scoring Jobs for Which Most Workers Do Not Have a Higher Education Qualification

25
28
30
32

Best Scoring Jobs Overall
IT Jobs

Gender Differences in Teens' Expected Careers

Differences in Teens' Expected Careers, Based on Language Spoken at Home

34

Conclusion

35

Methodology

44

About AFE, Amazon and Gallup
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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Introduction

Gallup has partnered with Amazon Future Engineer, Amazon’s childhood-to-career
programme to bring Careers of the Future and Computer Science literacy to young
people with a focus on students historically underrepresented in technology, tocreate the Careers of the Future Index (CFI).
The public database aims to provide teens, young adults and theiradvisers with transparent and useful data about the economic
prospects of careers in the United Kingdom, France and Germany —and to inform educational and other stakeholders looking to invest
in young adults' career pathways.
The CFI utilises national occupational classifications to provide a summary
measure of the economic prospects of each career. The CFI combines themost recent career-level data on four key job attributes: income; job growthover the previous six or seven years; job vacancies per worker; and capacity
to withstand automation. A more detailed description of the methods used
to construct the index is provided in the background section of this reporton Page 39.
The goal is to highlight careers that both pay well and are likely to be available
to applicants now and in the future. The CFI provides scores ranging from 1
to 100 for hundreds of occupations in each country. Higher scores on the CFI
generally indicate higher pay, a high and growing level of job openings and/or
better prospects that the job will remain a viable option in the face of changes
in technology. This study also examines top careers for which most workers
do not have a bachelor's degree or comparable level of education, as well as
top IT careers. IT jobs are associated with new technologies and innovation,such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, and likely will have expanded
opportunities for well-paying jobs in the future.
The economic viability of specific occupations according to the CFI is comparedwith the occupation's popularity with secondary-school students. The careerinterests of 15-year-old students are calculated using data from the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA), part of the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD). As part of its background data collection
for the PISA exam, the OECD asked respondents, "What kind of job do you expect
to have when you are about 30 years old?" Framed this way, the career question
taps into not only students' personal interests, but also their beliefs about what is
possible. Data on career preferences are analysed separately for boys and girls ineach country, and the popularity of career clusters in management, engineering,
computer science, healthcare, teaching and sport is compared with the viabilityof careers in these broad categories for each country.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Executive Summary
United Kingdom
Marketing, information technology and financial directors tie with chief
executive officers, generally, as ranking highest in the CFI in the United
Kingdom. However, none of these careers appear in students' top
career choices.
U.K. youth's preferred careers tend to have relatively high CFI scores,
particularly among boys, suggesting solid career-goal alignment even withthe top U.K. jobs covering a diverse number of fields. Six of boys' top 10
careers have CFI scores of 75 or higher, while four of the top 10 careers
identified by girls rank that high.  Boys name engineering and software
careers among their top careers, but girls do not.
About four in 10 U.K. teens are unable to name a career they would
like to have at the age of 30. Those who speak a language otherthan English at home (66%) are twice as likely as English
speakers to (33%) not be able to mention a preferred career.
The most popular careers are not those with the highest
CFI. Careers in sport, healthcare and law have lower CFI
rankings than careers in management, engineering or
information technology.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

FranceMore than 35% of French 15-year-olds are unable to name a career they
imagine themselves having in 15 years. Among the most popular career
choices, just four of girls' top 10 choices and three of boys' top 10 choices
have CFI job scores of 75 or higher, suggesting a misalignment or incomplete
knowledge of promising careers of the future.
Ten of the French careers with the highest CFI scores are engineering-related jobs.
In fact, in the past 12 months, 30% of job vacancies in France have mentioned theneed for IT skills, such as coding, programming, software or design. We estimate thatthese represent 3.3 million job vacancies advertised during the year-long period.
Overall, French youth are more likely to imagine themselves working in healthcare andlaw than engineering, management or information technology, yet the latter scorehigher on the CFI index than the former. French boys do rank engineering among
their top 10 career choices, but their most preferred jobs — armed forces officers
and athletes — have middling CFI scores. Most of French girls' top careers are in
the medical field, with two — medical doctor and psychologist — having high
CFI scores, while French girls do not list engineering careers among their
top 10 career choices.
The French jobs with the highest CFI scores are air traffic controllers,
financial market executives, engineers and executives in building
and public works, and engineers and executives in mechanics
and metalworking.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Germany
Half of the highest scoring jobs in Germany, and six of seven with a maximum
CFI score of 100, are management positions in various fields, including inmedicine and technology. Management jobs as a category do not rank highly
in young people's career expectations.
However, their ranking shows that the combination of promising sector selection,and the "future skills" that allow one to rise to management (e.g., analytical thinking,problem-solving and leadership qualities) can offer career paths that rank highlyin the CFI.
About half of German 15-year-olds (49%) do not have a clear career goal inmind when imagining their future self at the age of 30. Many more German
teens who do not speak German at home (59%, compared with 31% who
speak German at home) cannot identify a preferred future career.
German girls are more likely than German boys to name high ranking
CFI jobs as their top careers — six of girls' top 10 most popular career
choices and four of boys' top 10 choices have CFI job scores ranking
in the top quarter of jobs. The top three preferred careers forGerman girls — doctor, psychologist and teacher — have high CFIscores of 86 or above, suggesting their most preferred career
choices align well with future job prospects in those fields.  
None of their preferred careers have technology angles.
Two of German boys' four most desired careers,
auto mechanic and agricultural/industrial
machine mechanic, have CFI scores in the 20s,
suggesting many German boys' career goals do
not align to promising future careers.
The average career in information technology
or management ranks in the top quintile of
the CFI score (84 for both). These career
viability rankings exceed those for careers inlaw, healthcare or sport, despite being lesspopular among German youth.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Cross-Country Comparisons

Alongside the CFI career trends based on labour data, the international PISA data
illustrate how well today's students' future job preferences align with their likely future
job prospects.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Critically, a large portion of 15-year-olds in the U.K., France and Germany not only
overlook high-scoring careers, but at least four in 10 in each country cannot
envision what career they might have at the age of 30.
Students with high scores on the PISA are more likely to name a career
than those with low scores. This indicates a need to encourage youth — andparticularly lower academic achievers — to begin thinking about their future jobs
and for educators and employers to find ways to expose young people to high CFI
careers that will be available to them as adults.
Doctors, lawyers, athletes and teachers dominate the top career mentions
from students, which indicates these careers are most top-of-mind for students.
While doctors and lawyers are high-scoring careers, athletes are consistently
low-scoring careers.
Other top scoring careers outside of doctors and lawyers are rarely
mentioned by students, including professions in IT, management and finance aswell as aviation-related roles such as pilots. This suggests a disconnect between
what students envision for their future career and the top careers in their country
by pay, growth, vacancies and capacity to withstand automation.
Various occupations in the IT industry are present in the top career lists inall three countries as well, including IT business analysts, programmers andsoftware developers. Note that because this analysis is based on the most recent
nationally available statistics, some of the newest job categories in disruptive
technologies like AI are not singled out in the data.
Almost all of the top 20 scoring jobs — all 20 in France and the U.K. and all but
one in Germany — require the equivalent of a bachelor's degree or higher.
However, there are jobs that do not require university education with relatively high
CFI scores in all countries, particularly in trades such as construction, production
and manufacturing.
In the fields of engineering, healthcare, information technology, law, management
and teaching, there are large gaps between student interest and economic
viability based on CFI score. The largest gaps are seen in engineering andmanagement (higher CFI scores, lower interest) and sport (lower CFI scores,
higher interest).

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Careers of the Future Index (CFI) Score, Compared With 15-Year-Olds' Career Preferences,by Country and Occupational Category
Data points reflect average centile ranking. Where the CFI score is significantly higher than the student ranking,it indicates students' lack of interest in a rewarding future career.
Student popularity

Careers of the Future score

Engineering careers
United Kingdom

91.9

56.1

France43.5

Germany

44.5
20

90.0
62.4

40

60

80

100

Information technology careers
United Kingdom

82.7

58.1

France79.1

66.2

Germany

84.2

57.9
20

40

60

80

100

Law
United Kingdom

87.3

68.8

France73.3

Germany

73.1
20

40

60

86.0
81.9
80

100

Sport
United Kingdom

85.9

30.7

France69.2

42.0

Germany

63.6

52.3
20

40

60

80

100

Teaching
United Kingdom

78.3

56.5

France51.4

Germany

57.8
79.7

54.3
20

40

60

CFI score is weighted by the number of jobs in each detailed occupation within the larger category.

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80

100

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Background & Methods
BackgroundChoosing a career is a complex decision. It involves, among other things,
personal and cultural interests, a sense of alignment with one's abilities, andmany practical considerations. These considerations may include whether
the career pays well enough to sustain a family at a comfortable standard ofliving, whether jobs are readily available, whether job prospects are shrinking
or expanding and whether the tasks performed in the jobs have the capacity
to withstand automation in the coming years. Prospective entrants mustalso consider the educational requirements for the career, including the
likely time and effort associated with pursuing the necessary acquisition ofskills, academic degree or related credentials.
The primary goal of the Careers of the Future Index (CFI) is toprovide teens, young adults and their advisers with empiricallysupported guidance about the economic prospects of careers
in the United Kingdom, France and Germany. A secondary
goal is to understand which careers are promising but
less understood by students.
The CFI is constructed using best-practice methods,
reliable sources and full transparency. It allows users
the flexibility to analyse the data in different ways,
depending on how much they value pay, job growth,job vacancies and capacity to withstand automation
as factors in determining viable career paths. See
the methodology section on Page 35 for moredetails about the CFI database construction. Clickthe links to view the full database of careers inFrance, Germany and the United Kingdom.
Amazon Future Engineer commissioned the CFI andhas published a similar report and jobs database for
the United States.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Brief Methodology

In constructing the CFI, the highest weight (50% of the total) is given to income.
Income is often considered the primary goal of work in modern society. It has been
widely established that income is an important driver of job satisfaction.1 A highincome is also predictive of better physical health and subjective wellbeing, and themost common stated goal of students who pursue higher education.2
Though important, income is not the sole indicator of job quality or career opportunity.
A high-paying career with no vacancies cannot provide employment, and a high‑paying
job for which there is no market demand may be eliminated, along with its income. The
other index elements pertain more directly to job availability (number of positions), andthe capacity to withstand automation or job growth.
There is no right or wrong way to determine the relative weights of each job
characteristic, and the elements are somewhat overlapping. Jobs that are difficult
to automate have a higher capacity to withstand automation and are therefore more
likely to have future job growth and vacancies. No matter how high-paying a job is,job vacancies are needed for new entrants, and positive job growth trends make it
more likely that vacancies today will be followed by vacancies in the future. For thesereasons, one-third of the 50% index weight (about 16.7%) was assigned to each ofthese three components.

CFI Characteristic Weighting

50.0%
Income12

16.7% 16.7% 16.7%
Job Growth

Job Vacancies
Per Seeker

Capacity toWithstand
Automation

Rothwell, Jonathan and Steve Crabtree, "Not Just a Job: New Evidence on the Quality of Work in the United States",
Gallup 2019, https://www.gallup.com/education/267590/great-jobs-lumina-gates-omidyar-gallup-report-2019.aspx
Diego-Rosell, Pablo, Robert Tortora and James Bird. "International determinants of subjective well-being: Living
in a subjectively material world." Journal of Happiness studies 19 (2018): 123-143; Gallup "The State of Higher
Education 2022 Report, " https://www.gallup.com/analytics/391829/state-ofhigher-education-2022.aspx; Chetty
R, Stepner M, Abraham S, et al. The Association Between Income and Life Expectancy in the United States, 20012014. JAMA. 2016;315(16):1750–1766. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.4226

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

United Kingdom
Best-Scoring Jobs Overall

Four jobs in the United Kingdom have the maximum CFI score: marketing,sales and advertising directors; chief executive officers and senior officials;
information technology directors; and financial managers and directors.
Because of the way jobs are classified in the U.K., "executive" and "director" arehighlighted as promising job roles, even though they correspond to a level ofadvancement and not an industry path. So, employees who distinguish themselvesin a chosen field, such as information technology, marketing, advertising or finance,
are successful business entrepreneurs, or have skills that lend themselves to upper
management positions, can ascend to some of the best future jobs in the U.K.
While the top jobs span a range of industrial sectors, IT and finance jobs are the mostplentiful among the CFI top 20. As of 2022, the information technology field included
close to half a million highly rated careers in the U.K. across the three career types inthat field that ranked in the top 20 U.K. jobs of the future: IT directors, programmers andsoftware developers and IT business analysts, architects and system designers.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Top Careers in U.K., Based on CFI Score
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+
CFI ScoreMedianAnnual Pay(GBP)

Numberof Jobs(2022)

1Marketing, sales and advertising directors

100£74,224

173,000

2

Chief executives and senior officials

100£72,62183,0003

Information technology directors

100£68,91235,0004

Financial managers and directors

100£58,079

344,000

5

Public relations and communications directors

99£65,703

10,0006Elected officers and representatives

99£67,026NA

7

Aircraft pilots and air traffic controllers

99£66,144

10,0008Electrical engineers

99£50,539

39,0009Functional managers and directors(not elsewhere classified)98£56,972

71,00010

Programmers and software development
professionals

98£44,559

296,000

11

Senior police officers

98£59,141NA

12

Senior officers in fire, ambulance, prison andrelated services

98£57,179

NA

13

Head teachers and principals

97£64,304

54,00014

Specialist medical practitioners

97£64,026

139,000

15

Research and development (R&D) managers

97£48,242

61,00016

IT business analysts, architects andsystems designers

97£49,845

132,000

17

Civil engineers

96£43,767

62,00018

Chartered architectural technologists, planning
officers and consultants

96£33,946

15,00019

Barristers and judges

96£46,830

15,00020

Professional/chartered company secretaries

96£41,257

NA

IT careers are highlighted in bold.

NA indicates where the U.K.'s ONS suppressed estimates with a coefficient of variation greater than 20% on quality grounds.
The coefficient of variation of 20% has a confidence interval of approximately 40% of the estimate and is considered unreliable.
Estimates are also suppressed when there is a risk of disclosure of individual employees or employers.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Best-Scoring Jobs for Which Most Workers Do Not Have a
Bachelor's Degree
While all of the top 20 U.K. jobs according to the CFI require the equivalent of a bachelor's
degree, job seekers who do not have nor wish to obtain a higher degree can still find jobs
that promise to be rewarding in the future. Production and process engineers, health andsafety managers/officers, electronics engineers, construction project managers and related
professionals, and residential, day and domiciliary care managers and proprietors are the
top-ranking jobs that generally do not require a bachelor's degree.

Many of the other top roles for non-university-educated workers involve some type ofmanagement position, such as construction supervisor, production manager and property
manager. Non-management positions on the list include electronics engineers, accountants,
quality assurance and regulatory personnel, police officers and firemen.  

Best Careers in Which Most Workers Do Not Have an Academic Credential
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+

CFI Rank Title

CFI ScoreMedianAnnual Pay(GBP)

Numberof Jobs(2022)

31

Production and process engineers

93£41,20254,00034

Health and safety managers and officers

92£37,081

51,00041

Construction project managers and related professionals

91£37,760

28,00090£37,626

45,000Electronics engineers

89£48,134

13,00047

Production managers and directors in construction

89£46,678

87,00049

Production managers and directors in mining and energy

89£45,000

NA

50

Chartered and certified accountants

88£41,185

99,00053

Managers in transport and distribution

88£39,91255,00054

Business, research and administrative professionals‡

87£47,664

68,00057

Quality assurance and regulatory professionals

87£41,01491,00062Social services managers and directors

85£38,025

11,00067

Police officers (sergeant and below)

84£43,867

302,000

78

Brokers

81£35,431

12,00079

Natural and social science professionals‡

81£40,863

34,00080

Production managers and directors in manufacturing81£41,545

541,000

81

Construction and building trades supervisors

81£38,391

51,00085

Fire service officers (watch manager and below)

80£35,82163,00090

Property, housing and estate managers

79£35,834

84,00095

Protective service associate professionals‡

77£35,462

24,00045
46

Residential, day and domiciliary care managers
and proprietors‡

Indicates not elsewhere classified.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

IT Jobs in the U.K.

Over the past year, about a quarter of U.K. job vacancies mentioned the need for someIT skills, such as programming or engineering. These represent an estimated 3.1 million
vacancies. The top-scoring IT careers show a range of CFI scores, from 100 for IT directors
to 50 for IT operations technicians.
As noted previously, the programmers and software developers' CFI score of 98 is one of
the highest in the U.K. and has more positions in the U.K. (nearly 300,000) than any othertop-ranking job of any field. In total, there are over 1.3 million workers currently employed in
IT roles.3
In addition to IT directors and software programmers/developers, three other IT jobs have CFI
scores above 90 in the U.K.: IT business analysts, IT project managers and IT managers.

IT Careers in the U.K.
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank3

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+
CFI ScoreMedianAnnual Pay(Euros)Numberof Jobs(2022)

3

Information technology directors

100£68,91235,00010

Programmers and software development
professionals

98£44,559

296,000

16

IT business analysts, architects and systems
designers

97£49,845

132,000

32

IT project managers

93£47,732

25,00037

IT managers

91£49,026

200,000

52

Information technology professionals (notelsewhere classified)88£40,665

96,00069

Web design professionals

84£38,080

NA

70

Cybersecurity professionals

83£45,141

15,00098

IT quality and testing professionals

77£39,764

15,000104

IT network professionals

75£39,064

53,000112

Information technology trainers

73£34,230

N/A

118

CAD, drawing and architectural technicians

72£30,073

37,000167

Graphic and multimedia designers

60£26,886

NA

169

IT user support technicians

59£29,395

155,000

201

Data analysts

51£30,678

46,000203

Database administrators and web content
technicians

51£29,831

24,000207

IT operations technicians

50£28,545

82,000This is calculated by summing three-digit IT jobs in the 214 category (web design professionals and graphic and multimedia
designers) using aggregated U.K. data with no suppressions and adding that number to the total for IT jobs with no data
suppressions.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Gender Differences in Teens' Expected Careers

About four in 10 U.K. 15-year-olds interviewed in the PISA survey, including 38% of girls
and 44% of boys, do not indicate a desired career. Girls' top careers are medical doctors,
lawyers, psychologists and nursing professionals. Most of the top choices for girls in the
U.K. are in the field of medicine or education.
Boys' top choices are engineering professionals, athletes and lawyers. Boys' favoured
occupations span a larger number of fields and include professional trades such as
carpenters and mechanics.
For the most part, U.K. youth with career preferences are interested in jobs that will set
them up well for the future, as the expected occupations of U.K. youth generally have
above-average CFI scores. The most notable exception is athletes and sport players, a
top choice among boys but a profession with a low score of 4. Six of the other top desired
professions for U.K. boys have CFI scores exceeding 80, with four above 90, including
engineers, lawyers, software developers and airline pilots.
Three of the top professions for girls have CFI scores of at least 80, while three others
have scores in the 70s. Girls' lowest scored profession in the top 10 is teachingprofessional, at 39. All of the top 10 careers for U.K. girls generally require a bachelor's
degree equivalent or higher.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Most Popular Expected Careers of U.K. Girls and the
CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-old U.K. girls expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not name career

37.9%

--

Medical doctors

5.1%

Lawyers5.0%

Psychologists

2.9%

Nursing professionals

2.5%

Teaching professionals

2.1%

Primary school teachers

1.7%

Veterinarians

1.6%

Social work and counselling professionals

1.5%

Biologists, botanists, zoologists and related professionals

1.5%

Career

88
94
74
60
39
75
93
72
58

Most Popular Expected Careers of U.K. Boys and the
CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-old U.K. boys expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not name career

44.4%

--

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology)

3.6%

Athletes and sport players

2.7%

Lawyers

2.1%

Medical doctors

1.9%

Mechanical engineers

1.6%

Carpenters and joiners

1.5%

Software developers

1.5%

Motor vehicle mechanics and repairers

1.1%

Aircraft pilots and related associate professionals

1.1%

Career15

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92
4

94
88
87
44
98
48
99

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Differences in Teens' Expected Careers Based on
Language Spoken at Home

The top two chosen careers for U.K. teens who speak English at home, versus those
who speak other languages at home are the same: lawyers and medical doctors.
Psychologists, engineers, nurses and athletes also rank among the top career
preferences for both groups.
Most U.K. teens who do not speak English at home do not express a preferredcareer (66%). That figure is twice as high as those who speak English athome (33%).
For home English speakers, four of the top careers have scores of 80 or higher,
including two above 90.
Six of home non-English speakers' most preferred careers have CFI scores of 80 or
better, and four exceed 90 (lawyers, engineers, architects and software developers).

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Most Popular Expected Careers of 15-Year-Olds Who SpeakEnglish at Home and the CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-olds who speak English at home expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not mention career

32.6%

--

Lawyers

4.1%

Medical doctors

3.5%

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology)

2.4%

Psychologists

2.0%

Athletes and sport players

1.7%

Teaching professionals

1.7%

Nursing professionals

1.5%

Biologists, botanists, zoologists and related professionals

1.5%

Mechanical engineers

1.2%

Career

94
88
92
74
4

39
60
58
87

Most Popular Expected Careers of 15-Year-Olds Who Do Not SpeakEnglish at Home and the CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-olds who do not speak English at home expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not mention career

66.8%

--

Medical doctors

3.4%

Lawyers

1.8%

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology)

1.7%

Psychologists

1.0%

Athletes and sport players

0.9%

Building architects

0.8%

Software developers

0.8%

Nursing professionals

0.7%

Accountants

0.6%Career17

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88
94
92
74
4

90
98
60
88

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

FranceBest-Scoring Jobs Overall

Half of the top 20 careers in France involve engineering of some kind, and thesehigh-scoring engineering jobs represent nearly 300,000 current workers. These jobs
may require some level of coding skills.
The jobs in France with the highest CFI scores are air traffic controllers,
technical-commercial engineers and executives in building and public works,
financial market executives, and mechanics and metalworking engineersand executives.
Commercial executives of small and medium-sized enterprises and IT managers are
the most plentiful jobs among France's 20 top-rated careers. Air traffic controllers andtechnical navigating officers and executives of the merchant navy have the fewest
number of jobs.
Two of the top-ranked jobs in France are information technology careers. A third— technical directors of large companies — includes IT directors, but also otherdirector-level positions that are not related to IT, so it is not considered an IT job
for this analysis.4

4

See https://www.insee.fr/fr/metadonnees/pcs2003/professionRegroupee/380a?champRecherche=true formore detail.

18

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Top Careers in France, Based on CFI Score
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+
CFI Score

Mean Annual
Pay (Euros)

Numberof Jobs(2021)

1

Air traffic control engineers

100€69,6203,816

2Technical-commercial engineers andexecutives in building, public works

100€62,105

25,764

3

Financial market executives

100€122,760

15,612

4

Engineers and executives of study, researchand development in mechanics andmetalworking

100€62,451

61,056

5

IT project managers, IT managers

99€57,141

169,188

6

Banking operations executives

99€64,680

25,296

7

Technical-commercial engineers andexecutives in professional electrical orelectronic equipment

99€60,720

15,276

8

Engineers and executives of study, researchand development in electricity, electronics

99€62,486

54,696

9

Commercial executives of small andmedium-sized enterprises (excluding retail)98€66,000

184,60810

Technical-commercial engineers andexecutives in IT and telecommunications

98€64,680

32,42411

Technical-commercial engineers andexecutives in professional mechanicalequipment

98€54,120

16,224

12

Engineers and technical executives oftransport operations

98€54,120

40,50013

Technical directors of large companies

97€105,600

19,236

14

Environmental engineers and technicalexecutives

97€47,520

20,48415

Product managers, buyers in commerce andother marketing executives

97€61,50960,32416

Dental surgeons

97€92,400

8,196

17

Real estate executives

97€58,080

39,70818

Engineers and executives of study, researchand development in energy distribution, water

96€63,057

25,06819

Technical navigating officers and executives ofthe merchant navy

96

€63,360

4,836

20Administrative, financial, commercial
executives of large companies

96€70,595

36,228*France has only mean annual pay data available, whereas the U.K. and Germany present median annual pay. IT careers arehighlighted in bold.

19

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Best-Scoring Jobs for Which Formal Higher Education Is
Not Required
Looking specifically at the top 20 careers in France that do not necessarily require
formal higher education,5 supervisory and technician roles in maintenance,
manufacturing, electricity, agriculture, water, forest and the environment make up
most of the list. Drivers, firefighters and artisans are also among the top 20.

The CFI scores for careers on this list range from 69 to 87. While all of the top
20 French jobs according to the CFI require the equivalent of a bachelor's
degree, job seekers who do not have nor wish to obtain a higher degree canstill find jobs that promise to be rewarding in the future.

5

The percentage of workers with an undergraduate degree or less was not available in the French data.

20

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Best Careers in Which Most Workers Do Not Have an Academic Credential
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+

CFI Score

Mean Annual
Pay (Euros)

Numberof Jobs(2021)

59

Supervisory agents in maintenance, installation
in mechanics

87€41,262

27,972

60

Supervisors in manufacturing: agri-food,chemistry, plastics, pharmacy

87€44,016

35,86870

Supervisors in mechanical construction,
metalworking

84€48,339

15,70882

Supervisors in manufacturing of other industries(printing, flexible materials, furniture and wood)81€40,604

9,948

83

Supervisors in manufacturing: metallurgy, heavymaterials and other transformation industries

81€43,11118,31287

Work drivers (non-executives)80€35,640

36,936

91

Supervisory agents in maintenance, installationin electricity and electronics

79€43,980

13,272

95

Manufacturing technicians and quality control inelectricity, electromechanics and electronics

78€40,206

28,98097

Firefighters (including military firefighters)

78€34,320

43,11699

Site managers (non-executives)

77€35,640

65,628100

Artisans employed by their company

77€30,360

39,816

109

Environmental technicians and pollution
treatment

75€31,680

21,036112

Research-development technicians andmanufacturing methods in electricity,
electromechanics and electronics

74€38,407

25,584114

Study technicians and consultants in agriculture,
water and forest

74€36,207

11,748

117

Technicians for the operation and control ofproduction in agriculture, water and forest

73€34,849

4,524

119

Supervisors and technicians in production anddistribution of energy, water, heating

73€45,208

37,608120

Foremen and supervisory agents(non-executives) in agriculture, forestry

73€37,969

2,628

126

Salaried technician level experts, various
technicians

71€34,990

85,308134

Restaurant management: establishment
management69€30,360

13,992

137

Qualified electricians, electronics technicians
in maintenance, servicing: non-industrial
equipment

69€29,646

8,952

21

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

IT Jobs

In the past 12 months, 30% of job vacancies in France have mentioned the need for IT
skills, such as coding, programming, software or design. These positions include IT careers
such as web developers and software developers, but also a large variety of engineering
careers and more.
The French dataset identifies 10 careers as being in the information technology field. These
careers have CFI scores ranging from 38 for computer operators to 99 for IT managers.
Three of the careers have CFI scores above 90, and two others have scores above 80.
Computer science engineers and executives of study, research and development are by
far the most plentiful jobs, with IT managers a distant second. The total number of workers
currently employed in IT careers in France is approximately 828,000.

IT Careers in France
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+
CFI Score

Mean Annual
Pay (Euros)

Numberof Jobs(2021)

5

IT project managers, IT managers

99€57,141

169,188

10

Technical-commercial engineers andexecutives in IT and telecommunications

98€64,680

32,42421

Telecommunications specialist engineers andexecutives

96€55,440

24,91275

Engineers and executives of study, research anddevelopment in computer science83€52,139

315,192

79

Engineers and executives of administration,
maintenance, support and user services incomputer science82€60,085

62,340162

Telecommunications and network computer
technicians

63€30,360

42,576173

Computer production, operation technicians

60€32,242

27,108197

Installation technicians, maintenance, supportand user services in computer science55€30,832

48,924203

Computer study and development technicians

53€31,680

61,260267

Employees and computer operations operators

38€26,400

44,30422

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Gender Differences in Teens' Expected Careers

Data from the 2022 OECD PISA exam reveal that many 15-year-olds in France areuncertain about their future careers. When asked what career they expect to have at theage of 30, 35.4% of girls and 42.2% of boys in France could not name one.
French girls are most likely to name potential careers in the medical field, including doctors,
nursing professionals, psychologists and veterinarians, along with lawyers and architects.
These occupations have CFI scores ranging from 59 to 86.
The job with the highest CFI score on the girls' list, 97, is real estate agents and property
managers, while the lowest-scoring job is childcare workers (47).

Most Popular Expected Careers of French Girls and the
CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-old French girls expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not name career

35.4%

--

Medical doctors

5.6%

Lawyers

4.1%

Nursing associate professionals

3.2%

Psychologists

3.0%

Building architects

2.1%

Veterinarians

1.9%

Sales workers

1.6%

Real estate agents and property managers

1.5%Childcare workers

1.4%

Career23

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79
86
69
83
59
67
63
97
47

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Teen boys in France are less focused on the medical field than their female counterparts,
as only one medical career is among their top choices. Boys' top career choices are noncommissioned armed forces officers and athletes. These occupations have middling CFIscores of 56 and 42, respectively, and are significantly lower than teen girls' most popular
career expectations.

Most Popular Expected Careers of French Boys and the
CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-old French boys expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not name career

42.2%

--

Non-commissioned armed forces officers

2.3%

Athletes and sport players

2.2%

Medical doctors

1.9%

Engineering professionals (excluding electrotechnology)

1.6%

Police officers

1.6%

Armed forces occupations

1.5%

Building architects

1.3%

Electronics engineers

1.3%

Systems analysts

1.3%

Career

56
42
79
93
63
56
59
98

N/A

Note: Average CFI for careers associated with armed forces or military were calculated as the average of the CFI scores for all
armed forces or military occupation in France. N/A for CFI score indicates there was not a sensible match between the PISA
occupation and the country-specific occupation coding system.

24

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Germany

Best Scoring Jobs Overall

There are six careers in Germany with a CFI score of 100, including medical doctors andmanagerial-level positions in a variety of fields, including medicine, computer science andlaw. These fields are also represented in careers with CFI scores of 97 to 99.
Occupations in medicine and business — medical and dental practitioners,
managing directors/executive board members and business consultants —are by far the most abundant among Germany's top-rated careers.

25

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Top Careers in Germany, Based on CFI Score
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+
CFI ScoreMedianAnnual Pay(Euros)Numberof Jobs(2022)

1

Managers in human medicine and dentistry

100€150,264

38,621

2

Managers in technical research anddevelopment

100€108,996

12,2293

Managers of legal services, contracts andcompliance100€120,324

1,399

4Managers in computer science

100€106,800

2,942

5Medical doctors specialised in surgery**

100€107,844

14,6996

Managers in pharmacy

100€111,600

2,182

7

Aircraft pilots

99€103,728

12,031

8

Managers in advertising and marketing

99€82,752

14,5199

Medical doctors specialised inanaesthesiology**

99€103,164

12,21011Managers in human resources management

99€88,560

18,067

12

Medical doctors specialised in dermatology,
gynaecology etc.**

99€96,672

15,77013

Managing directors and executive board
members**99€90,000

229,11815

Lawyers**

98€88,860

38,39316

Medical doctors specialised in internal
medicine**

98€96,732

18,387

17

Managers of IT-system, applications,consulting and sales

98€96,000570

19

Business consulting**

98€74,892

107,311

21

Managers of IT-network engineering,administration (not elsewhere classified)98€82,800

24,83322

Occupations in human medicine and dentistry97€91,668

307,704

23

Supervisors in environmental protectionengineering

97€85,788

1,308

97€92,412

10,93924

Medical doctors specialising in neurology,
psychiatry**

Notes: Limited to occupations with at least 500 jobs. **Indicates that the job is considered highly complex by the German
Federal Statistical Office. See Germany's methods sections for details. IT careers are highlighted in bold.

26

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Best-Scoring Jobs for Which Most Workers Do Not Have a
Higher Education Qualification

Two of the 25 top-rated occupations in Germany — aircraft pilots and environmental protectionengineering managers — are mostly held by workers without a higher education credential.
Other top-rated jobs that do not require higher education — and have CFI scores of at least 75— include managerial positions in manufacturing, production, mining and hospitality.
Careers in nursing and emergency services are by far the most abundant jobs for
those without a higher degree in Germany. Purchasing and sales occupations have thenext largest number of positions.

Best Careers in Which Most Workers Do Not Have an Academic Credential
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+

Title

CFI ScoreMedianAnnual Pay(Euros)Numberof Jobs(2022)

7

Aircraft pilots

99€103,728

12,031

23

Supervisors in environmental protection engineering

97€85,7881,308

31Managers in transportation equipment manufacturing

96€105,743

37,491

148

Managers in production planning and scheduling81€65,431

154,542

152

Managers in machine building and operating

80€67,074

25,298170

Managers in mining or blasting industry

78€74,628

2,956

174

Managers in hotels

77€51,528

24,592

188

Legislators or senior officials of internationalorganisations

75€64,980

19,591

210

Managers in nursing, emergency, obstetrics

72€55,704

39,697

230

Supervisors in mechatronics, automotive orcontrol technology

70€63,000

793

232

Occupations in purchasing and sales

69€57,984

812,466

257

Occupations in electrical engineering

66€45,252

500,180260

Occupations in nursing, emergency medical services
or obstetrics

66€45,636

1,176,472

267

Supervisors in energy technology

65€60,384

8,279

272

Supervisors in papermaking, processing, packaging

64€71,904

1,264

288

Supervisors in civil engineering

62€60,108

10,082

289

Managers in retail trade62€49,776

100,547

291

Occupations in real estate and facility management62€45,000

94,073292

Technical occupations in production planning andscheduling62€55,608

607,407296

Occupations in event technology, cinematography,
sound

61

€42,804

43,206

Note: Limited to occupations with at least 500 jobs.

27

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

IT Jobs
Thirty-seven percent of job vacancies in Germany request IT skills that range
from engineering to programming. We estimate that there were 5.8 million job
vacancies in Germany that advertised one or more IT skills over one year covering2022 to 2023.
The CFI scores of the top 10 IT careers in Germany range from 100 for computer sciencemanagers to 88 for complex database development and administration and highly complex
IT application consultants.
There are a total of 2.5 million IT jobs in Germany, with six careers totalling more than
100,000 jobs each.

28

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

IT Careers in Germany
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score
CFI Rank

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

Title

80+
CFI ScoreMedianAnnual Pay(Euros)Numberof Jobs(2022)

4

Managers in computer science

100€106,800

2,942

17

Managers of IT systems, applications and consulting

98€96,000570

21Managers IT network engineering and administration

98€82,800

24,833

27

Managers in software development andprogramming

97€84,996

4,347

65

IT network engineering**

92€65,004

1,922

68

Occupations in software development andprogramming

91€63,168

298,84975

IT coordination*

90€63,996

22,59683

Bio and medical informatics**

89€68,556

1,621

88

IT organisation*

89€63,804

24,78891

IT application consulting**

88€66,600

108,154

93

Database development and administration*

88€60,000

8,869

103

Occupations in IT network engineering,
coordination, administration

87€61,440

195,478

110

Occupations in IT system analysis,
app construction, sales

86€65,640

213,742115

IT system analysis**

85€71,448

27,996

118

Business informatics*

85€61,944

14,179131

Occupations in computer science, informationand communications

83€62,796

1,000,349

137

Computer science (not otherwise classified)*82€73,260

70,730143

IT system administration*

81€55,752

92,042

158

Occupations in computer science

79€60,456

292,280163

IT sales*

79€64,200

20,087

167

Software development†

78€53,292

30,402

173

Information, telecommunications technology*

77€62,508

40,624191

Programming*

75€56,796

34,702

209

Computer engineering†73€52,800

5,000

215

Web administration*

72€54,996852

238

Geoinformatics**

69€49,104

1,620

269

Media informatics**

65€50,004

911**Indicates that the job is considered highly complex by the German Federal Statistical Office.
*Indicates complex. See Germany's methods sections for details.
†
Indicates skilled jobs.

29

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Gender Differences in Teens' Expected Careers
PISA exam data in Germany show that roughly 49% of both 15-year-old girls
and boys are uncertain what career they expect to have at the age of 30.
German girls are most likely to name potential careers in the medical field, including
doctors, psychologists and nursing professionals, along with teachers and childcare
workers. Six of German girls' most preferred careers have CFI scores exceeding 75,
including two above 90 (medical doctors and lawyers). Childcare workers and nursing
professionals are popular careers, with average CFI scores around 50. None of the top
10 jobs named by girls are in IT or engineering fields.

Most Popular Expected Careers of German Girls and the
CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-old German girls expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not name career

48.6%

--

Medical doctors

4.4%

Psychologists

3.5%

Teaching professionals

3.4%

Childcare workers

3.2%

Nursing associate professionals

2.6%

Police officers

2.5%

Building architects

2.3%

Lawyers

2.0%

Primary school teachers

1.1%

Career30

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95
89
88
56
50
63
82
98
84

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Teen boys' expected careers include police officers, mechanics of motor vehicles
and machinery, IT professionals, non-commissioned armed forces officers, athletes,
teachers and medical doctors. German boys are less likely than German girls to choose
higher-rated careers, with four of boys' top careers having CFI scores of 75 or higher.
Two of boys' most preferred careers — motor vehicle mechanics and agricultural/industrial machine mechanics — have CFI scores in the 20s.

Most Popular Expected Careers of German Boys and the
CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-old German boys expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not name career

49.2%

--

Police officers

2.5%Motor vehicle mechanics and repairers

2.1%

Agricultural and industrial machinery mechanics and repairers

1.9%

Information and communications technology professionals

1.9%

Non-commissioned armed forces officers

1.5%

Athletes and sport players

1.4%

55

1.4%

77

Teaching professionals

1.3%

88

Medical doctors

1.3%

CareerInformation and communications technology operations
and user support technicians

31

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63
20
27
85
44

95

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Differences in Teens' Expected Careers, Based on
Language Spoken at Home

The top two expected careers of German teens, whether or not they speak German
at home, are medical doctors and police officers. There are other overlapping careersamong both groups, including teachers, childcare workers, psychologists, buildingarchitects and lawyers. Students who speak German at home also named nursing
and IT professionals in their top expected careers, while those not speaking German athome named athletes and shop sales assistants.
Teens that speak German at home are more likely to name a career aspiration(59.1%) versus non-home German speakers (30.9%).

32

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Most Popular Expected Careers of 15-Year-Olds Who Speak
German at Home and the CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-olds who speak German at home expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not mention career

40.9%

--

Medical doctors

3.0%

Police officers

2.8%

Teaching professionals

2.8%

Childcare workers

2.2%

Psychologists

2.2%

Building architects

1.9%

Lawyers

1.8%

Nursing associate professionals

1.7%

Information and communications technology professionals

1.4%

Career

95
63
88
56
89
82
98
50
85

Most Popular Expected Careers of 15-Year-Olds Who Do Not Speak
German at Home and the CFI Scores of Those Careers

Top mentions of careers 15-year-olds who do not speak German at home expect to have by the age of 30
Gallup-Amazon CFI Score

  1-19  20-39  40-59  60-79

80+% Mentions

Gallup-Amazon
CFI Score

Did not mention career

69.1%

--

Medical doctors

2.4%

Police officers

1.5%

Building architects

1.3%

Lawyers

1.3%

Teaching professionals

1.3%

Psychologists

1.2%

Athletes and sport players

1.0%

Shop sales assistants

1.0%Childcare workers

0.9%

Career33

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95
63
82
98
88
89
55
54
56

Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Conclusion
Some young people identify a preferred career early in life and take steps
throughout their teens and adult years to set themselves up to acquire a
job in that field. However, with nearly four in 10 teens in the United Kingdom,France and Germany without a particular career in mind, there is more work
to do to get young people familiar with high-potential career options.
One key to helping young people find a rewarding career is to have them identify
possible career options in their teen years, either through their studies, observing
what people they know do for a living, or by their schools hosting information
sessions with people in a variety of careers. Secondary information sources,
like the Careers of the Future Index, can highlight overlooked areas ofopportunity for teachers and students to explore the careers of the future.
The CFI attempts to provide a user-friendly resource to compare a wide rangeof careers based on their economic viability and educational requirements.
The report also identifies a number of gender gaps. Specifically, girls generally favour
professional careers requiring advanced education. However, there is a clear gender gap,
as they do not generally identify jobs in technology fields as their preferred career path.
Boys are more likely to aspire to technical professional jobs, and to a number of jobs (somewith low CFI scores) that do not require extensive formal education.
While many existing career lists identify the best paying jobs or the best paying jobs
with promising futures, none provide the same comprehensive coverage and depth of
information, the same level of transparency about how jobs are scored, or the flexibility toanalyse various jobs using different considerations, as the CFI does. Beyond the ranking ofcareers and the interactive tool to explore the CFI, this report provides useful insights about
the many great jobs that exist and what career paths are most promising for those notinterested in or able to pursue higher education. At the same time, the information ought toreinforce the broader message that higher education is an accelerator of success, thereby
motivating students to act early on to set themselves up for academic and professional
accomplishments.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Methodology

Occupation as the Unit of Analysis
A career refers to a job or series of jobs performed by an individual over time within afield of work. All jobs are classified by government statistical agencies into occupations
based on the task requirements of that job. An occupation is therefore a group of
closely related jobs and can be thought of as a career. For this reason, we report
data for careers using occupations as the basic unit. For income and job growth,
we used data from each country's national statistics office. For each country, there
were changes in the occupational coding over the period of analysis. This required
converting jobs in the old coding system to jobs in the latest coding system. This
process relied on harmonisation matrices provided by the national statistical
offices, so that career titles in the baseline year matched titles in the final
years. This process inevitably introduces errors in estimated job growthfor cases in which there were large changes to the job categorisations,but we have done our best to minimise these.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

United Kingdom National Data

U.K. data on the number of workers, pay and educational requirements by occupation wereobtained by the U.K. Office of National Statistics (ONS). The income and employment data
were available for 2014 and 2022. We used median annual pay as our baseline measure. The
underlying source for earning and jobs is the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings. To get dataon education by occupation, we used a 2019 summary table from ONS. The occupations areclassified using the U.K.'s Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system.
The employment and wage data are based on 1% samples of the workforce. ONS withholds
disclosing the number of jobs at the four-digit level when the coefficient of variation reaches acertain threshold, as would be the case for careers with relatively small numbers of total workers
in the U.K. For these cases, we do not report the number or jobs, but we calculate growth using
three-digit employment levels, which are available.
ONS also publishes data on education by occupation, based on Census data. A career isconsidered professional — or requiring a college degree — If the percentage of workers with"level 4 qualifications or higher" is 50% or higher. This is similar to a U.S. bachelor's degree.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿French National Data
French data on pay and the number of jobs were drawn from INSEE, the French statistical
office. The original data were compiled from the Nominative Social Declaration (NSD)
database, which requires all employers subject to social security taxation to report
employment and compensation information to the French authorities. Data from workers
in the public sector data are from the Information System on Public Services (Siasp),
and data on self-employed workers come from other tax sources, compiled by INSEE.
INSEE publishes microdata for one-twelfth of the French working population and includes
detailed job categorisation using the nomenclature of occupations and socio-professional
categories (PCS) system. These data are available for 2014 and 2021, but wages arereported only in categories, not precisely. To estimate precise measures of pay, we took themean of the minimum and maximum pay for each category, multiplied by 12, and divided by
the number of annual hours to estimate hourly compensation. This served as a preliminary
estimate and was used to generate a more accurate estimate, as described below. We
further eliminated employees who worked less than 1,000 hours in the previous year andless than 200 days to downward bias in compensation for occupations with many part-timeor seasonal workers. The sum of workers fitting these criteria was calculated by occupationfor 2014 and 2021, allowing us to calculate the rate of growth.
INSEE also publishes summary data on mean compensation data by PCS, adjusted for fulltime equivalent employees. These data are more accurate measures of compensation thanthose available in the microdata, since they do not rely on categorical ranges. The publishedmonthly compensation figures were adjusted to annual compensation by multiplying by
12. These data were available for 258 occupations. For 171 remaining occupations, annual
pay was estimated by regressing mean annual pay — from the aggregated INSEE database— on estimated hourly pay at the 20th, 50th and 80th percentiles using the microdata. The
adjusted R-squared in this model was 0.65, suggesting that the actual mean was well
predicted by the estimated points on the distribution. For predicted values less than 10,000
Euros, the actual mean figure based on the categorical microdata was used (affecting only
nine occupations). Finally, the reported 2021 Euros were converted into 2022 Euros bymultiplying by 1.1, reflecting growth in the Eurozone consumer price index.
We could not identify any source of published data or microdata for the educational
attainment of workers by occupation for France. As a result, we used the new PCS2020
structure to identify jobs as likely or unlikely to require a college degree. Using the first twodigits of the PCS 2020, we identified jobs as likely to require a college degree if the firsttwo digits were at or above 23 and at or below 46. Civil servants were also classified as
professionals. This analysis was informed by class distinctions made by Amossé (2019).6

6

Amossé, Thomas, Olivier Chardon and Alexis Eidelman. La rénovation de la nomenclature socioprofessionnelle (20182019): rapport du groupe de travail du Cnis. Diss. Conseil national de l'information statistique (Cnis), 2019.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

German National Data

Data on employment, skill requirements and compensation were obtained from Germany's
Federal Employment Agency (Bundesagentur fur Arbeit), and their quarterly data on
Employees by Occupation, using the German KldB 2010 classification system. These data
were available for 2014 and 2022 and included educational attainment information foreach occupation. The salary data were reported monthly and converted to annual pay bymultiplying by 12. This reports uses the median level of compensation.
A career is considered professional — or requiring a college degree — if the percentageof workers with an "academic professional qualification" is 30% or higher. We apply thislow threshold because many professional careers in Germany (e.g., pharmacist, computerscientist) can be entered with a non-academic "recognised professional qualification",
which may involve post-secondary training and education. In this way, the German data
do not clearly distinguish between tertiary education statuses. A threshold of 50% would
overstate the ease of entering many careers that require advanced education.
The German Federal Employment Agency classifies many jobs by the level of expertise
required to perform the job, in addition to the types of activities and tasks performed.7
The levels of expertise include 1) unskilled or semi-skilled, which are activities that do not
require specialised knowledge beyond general schooling 2) specialist jobs, which require
on-the-job-training or vocational training 3) complex specialist activities, which require
expertise that goes beyond short-term training or vocational schooling and may include
master craftworkers or managers 4) highly complex, which require a very high level ofknowledge that often requires a graduate degree. Several of the top-scoring jobs are
deemed highly complex.

7

Wiebke, Paulus and Britta Matthes 2013. "The German Classification of Occupations 2010 – Structure, Coding andConversion Table" Research Data Centre of the German Federal Employment Agency, FDZ-Methodenreport 08/2013.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿Job Vacancies for Each Country

Some high-paying jobs may, nonetheless, have few vacancies, and some fast-growing
fields may have even faster growth in labour supply, through immigration or new entry
from training programmes, leading to difficulty for new entrants. To estimate the ratio of
demand to supply, we purchased data from Lightcast, which aim to scrape the universeof online job postings for each country and classify them by occupation (see below).
The data are classified to occupations using the international ISCO system. To convert
ISCO job vacancies to the national systems, Gallup downloaded correspondence tables
created by ONS and INSEE for the U.K. and France. For Germany, Gallup created its own
correspondence table to convert vacancies from ISCO to KldB 2010. Vacancies per
occupation were divided by the number of workers to calculate vacancies per worker, which
was used to estimate demand relative to supply. A limitation of these data is that Lightcast
only collects and analyses English-language posts. This is not a problem for the U.K. data,
but in Germany and France, this understates job postings. As described below, we estimate
total job postings for Germany and France — including native-language postings — basedon the number of English-language posts.
The CFI is not itself a forecast itself, but relies on trends in current and past data tomeasure future job potential. Past job growth and job vacancy rates predict current growthand vacancy rates, so current growth and vacancy rates will likely be predictive of future
demand. However, there are some job roles, such as those in disruptive technologies likeartificial intelligence, that are so new they are not reflected in the data.
Our method for calculating a career's capacity to withstand automation gives higher values
to jobs that require complex, creative tasks and less value to jobs that require routine orrepetitive tasks. This will be positively correlated with future job growth based on current
economic theory and studies of automation.

Calculating the CFI score

The CFI is calculated using the following formula:
CFI = (0.502 x income) + (0.166 x vacancies/worker) + (0.166 x growth) + (0.166 x
automation resistance index)
Since each measure uses a different scale, the underlying concept is first standardised
to have a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one within each country. This is calleda z-score and is a continuous variable with no upper or lower bound. It was clear that thisprocess, however, resulted in a few outliers (extreme growth, for example) that would give
too much weight to one of the concepts. To limit the influence of outliers and preserve
something closer to the intended weighting, we replaced the z-score described above with
one based on the centile rank of the underlying concept if the maximum z-score exceeded
6 standard deviations. For example, one career might have extreme job growth, giving it az-score of 10. Even if the career were otherwise at the mean on the other three indicators,
its CFI score would be 1.7 standard deviations above the mean, using the formula above.
Ranking job growth on a centile scale before taking the z-score limits the maximum value
to approximately 1.7 (and the minimum to -1.7). In this example, the final CFI score would fallfrom 1.7 to 0.29, which is much closer to the mean of zero and better reflective of the four
components.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿In practice, we used this centile-based z-score for the following concepts:• U.K. — vacancies per worker• France — job growth, income and vacancies per worker• Germany — job growth and vacancies per worker
Otherwise, we used the z-score of the underlying value.
Identifying IT Skills Listed in Vacancies

Lightcast data are limited to English-language job postings that were advertised between
1 October 2022 and 10 October 2023. The database includes a list of the skills referenced
in each job vacancy. To identify vacancies that require an IT skill, we tagged any jobthat mentioned one of these words as IT: machine, artificial, intelligence, software, data,
information, technology, engineering, programming, code, coding, computer, hardware,graphic, design, interface, web, internet. For France and Germany, we estimate thatapproximately 10% of job vacancies are listed in English. This is calculated by comparing
the number of vacancies per worker in the U.K. data to vacancies per worker in France andGermany. The ratio in the U.K. is roughly 10 times larger, which we interpret as evidence that
Lightcast data include only a subset of total vacancies in Germany and France, since mostjobs would be advertised in the native languages of each country.
Our focus in the analysis is on the share of total jobs that require IT skills, so the language
limitation is unlikely to be a problem for our analysis, unless English-language jobs tend to bebiased in their skill requirements toward or away from IT skills. We cannot know for sure, but
in so far as the percentage of vacancies that mentioned IT skills in the U.K. (where English
is the language for all vacancies) is similar to the percentage of vacancies in Germany andFrance, this bias is unlikely. The data indicate a small bias in favour of IT skills, since 25%
of English-language jobs in the U.K. advertise IT skills, compared to 30% of jobs in France
and 37% of jobs in Germany. Thus, English-language jobs in France and Germany may
over-represent IT skills relative to native-language job vacancies, but it may also be the casethat there is truly a higher share of job vacancies in Germany and France that require IT skills.
Capacity to Withstand Automation
We measure capacity to withstand automation as an index that summarises the level andimportance of non-automatable tasks required for each career. The details are available
in a previous Gallup report for Amazon, which uses the same method.8 Economists havelong been concerned about the potential for machines to displace humans and lower
the demand for labour for specific tasks and careers. The automation of manufacturing
plants is well known, but the effects extend much wider. To list some examples, bank ATMs,
self-checkout kiosks at grocery stores, vending machines and automated customer service
chatbots are among the tools that have specifically replaced tasks that were previously
only performed by humans. With the recent release of open-source artificial intelligence
tools like ChatGPT and DALL-E, the domain of jobs subject to competition from automation
has been expanded still further. At the same time, economic theory holds that automation
technologies expand demand for labour by enhancing the productivity of workers andproduction processes, thereby creating value that increases demand for complementarytasks, novel tasks or additional work. For example, if a law firm uses AI to streamline tedious
research, law clerks and lawyers could become more productive, take on more cases andexpand revenue, leading to higher salaries for and/or additional demand for work. Much of
the extra value would go back to the economy in the form of increased consumption.
8

Gallup. "Data-Driven Career Advice: The Gallup-Amazon Careers of the Future Index" (2023), https://www.gallup.com/
analytics/506930/amazon-future-engineer-interactive-careers.aspx

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

A career of the future should be able to withstand this trend and either perform tasks thatcannot be automated or use these new technologies to make themselves more productive,
as many workers did through the introduction of computers.
The approach to measuring the capacity to withstand automation is summarised here, butreaders interested in details can see the appendix of the referenced report.9 The first step
was to identify a set of 24 constructs related to the tasks, skills, abilities and work context
of occupations. These constructs are associated with capacity to withstand automationin the economics literature, and the United States Department of Labor's O*NET databasecollects and reports these data for every occupation in the U.S. economy. These constructs
were weighted based on how well they predict worker agreement or disagreement with thestatement: "A machine, robot, computer, could do my job", using data from a 2019 Gallup
survey. The tasks performed by workers were highly predictive of their response to thisstatement. Using these data, we calculated a mean-weighted score of capacity to withstandautomation per occupation, using the U.S. Standard Occupational Classification system. We
then used a SOC-ISCO crosswalk to estimate automation risk using the ISCO system andapplied this to each country using the ISCO-national occupational coding described above.
While the task data are based on U.S. research, the set of tasks performed in theseoccupations are broadly similar across countries. A doctor, for example, performs similartasks whether in the U.K., France, Germany or the United States, and so does a softwaredeveloper. Indeed, multinational corporations employ workers around the world, and while
pay scales vary between country, the occupation-specific tasks are similar across locations.
PISA Data
The career interests of 15-year-old students are calculated using data from the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA), part of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). As part of its background data collection for the PISA
exam, the OECD asks, "What kind of job do you expect to have when you are about 30 years
old?" Data on career preferences are analysed separately by boys and girls in each country.
We also analysed data by whether the student spoke the native language of the country ora different language at home. We limited the analysis to groups with at least 100 responses
to avoid large margins of error in the estimates. The sample size is 6,116 for Germany,
6,770 for France and 12,972 for the United Kingdom.
Additionally, we classified careers references in PISA into several aggregate classes using
the ISCO-08 code that is provided by PISA: Information technology careers were identified
as careers 25, management as careers 11, 12, 13 and 14. STEM careers are codes 25
and 21. The following titles were classified as engineering: 2141-2161 and 3111-3115,
3119. A similar method of coding ISCO-88 was used by Caprile et al (2015) in a study for
the European Parliament.10 Furthermore, jobs in healthcare were based on the two-digit
code 22, which refers to "health professionals" and includes doctors, nurses, midwives,
veterinarians, dentists, pharmacists and other specialists that diagnose and treat patients.
Teaching professionals were identified with the two-digit code 23. Legal professionals,
which includes judges and lawyers, were identified with the three-digit code 261. Sport
occupations were identified using the three-digit code 342, which refers to sport andfitness workers, and includes athletes, coaches and fitness trainers.
9

Data-Driven Career Advice The Gallup-Amazon Careers of the Future Index, https://www.gallup.com/analytics/506930/
amazon-future-engineer-interactive-careers.aspx

10 Maria Caprile, Rachel Palmén, Pablo Sanz, Giancarlo Dente. 2015. "Encouraging STEM studies: Labour Market Situation
and Comparison of Practices Targeted at Young People in Different Member States" (European Parliament's Committee on
Employment and Social Affairs).

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿

Classifying aggregated job families using national data

To summarise the CFI score by larger career families (engineering, healthcare, IT, legal,management, sport and teaching) and compare the results of these careers to interest
levels among youth (using PISA), we created aggregations of the national occupational
coding systems for each country using the methods described below.
United Kingdom: The U.K. uses the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC
2020) system, which builds in hierarchical classifications with each additional
digit. STEM jobs are defined as those in the major category "science, researchand engineering professionals" (21) and associate professionals (31), plus
additional IT and engineering roles outside of those categories. Management
jobs are defined as corporate managers and directors (11) and other managers
and proprietors (12). IT and engineering jobs are a subset of the STEM jobs.
Engineering jobs are defined as the broad category 212. Information technology
jobs are category 213 (IT professionals and IT managers), plus IT directors(1137), IT associate professionals/technicians (3120, 3131, 3132, 3133), data
analysts (3544) and IT trainers (3573). Health professionals are grouped under
the two-digit SOC code 22; teaching professionals fall under code 23; legal
professionals are found within the three-digit group 241 and sport and fitness
occupations fall under 343.
 rance: Management jobs are defined as two broad occupational categories
F"business leaders of 10 employees or more" (PCS 23) and "administrativeand commercial executives of company" (PCS 37). IT jobs are listed above
and classified as such if the job title mentioned "information technology","computer(s)" or "telecommunications". Jobs were classified as engineering
careers if the job listed "engineer" in the title. STEM jobs include engineering andIT jobs as well as the detailed titles, "directors and research managers in publicresearch" (342F) and "public research fellows" (342H). Lawyers are classified
as PCS 312A. Healthcare professional jobs include the following titles: hospital
doctors without private practice (344A), non-hospital salaried doctors (344B),
interns in medicine, dentistry and pharmacy (344C), salaried pharmacists (344D),
dental surgeons (311C), psychologists, psychoanalysts, psychotherapists (nondoctors) (311D), veterinarians (311E) and all nursing occupations with code 431
in the first three digits. Careers in sport come from the title "sport instructors andeducators, professional athletes" (424A). Teaching jobs are spread across school
teachers (421A), school teachers (421B), general education teachers in colleges(422A), professional high school teachers (422B), auxiliary masters and contract
teachers in secondary education (422C) and professors and lecturers (342B).

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿ ermany: STEM jobs are defined at the two-digit KldB 2010 level, as 41, 42 andG
43, which together are called "IT and scientific service professions". Management
jobs are defined using two methods. One is to include all jobs that fall under"jobs in corporate management and organisation", which fall under the broad
KldB code of 71, with the exception of clerical and secretarial jobs that fall under
714. The second method counted all jobs as managerial if the title included
any of the words (in the English translation provided by the German statistical
office): "manager", "director" or "managing". This took advantage of the fact thatmany industry-specific managerial jobs are classified outside of the 71 family.
Jobs were classified as IT based on the broad IT family captured by KldB code
43. Additionally, one job in electronics was also classified as IT: "information,
telecomm. Technology — complex" (KldB code 2631). Careers were classified asengineering if they used engineer in the title or "mechatronics", if also complex inskill level. "Medical health professions" is identified as KldB 81. Teaching careers
were based on "teaching and training professions (Kldb 84). Legal careers are
identified as "occupations in legal services" (KldB 731) and sport-related careers
are identified as "actors, dancers, athletes and related occupations (KldB 942).

A Note About Novel Skills in Information Technology

The existing data sources used in this report, which cover the years 2014-2022, do
not identify specific jobs in the fields of artificial intelligence (AI) or machine learning(ML). Jobs in those fields that do exist currently would largely fall under computerscience or software engineering careers and related occupations. Statistical agencies
have not developed specific classifications for occupations that rely on these skills/
technologies, so the number of jobs requiring these specific skills cannot be estimatedfrom national data sources. The report does break out the highest scoring current job
titles in the field of information technology.  
Further, we provide information on the share of job vacancies that mention IT skills,
including those advertising the words "machine" and "artificial intelligence". Acrossthe three countries, we find that 5% of jobs listing IT skills (defined above) mention theword "machine" and 2% mention the phrase "artificial intelligence". These skills are not
yet nearly as common as skills involving data, software and programming.

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Mapping the Careers of the Future in the United Kingdom, France and Germany﻿About AFE, Amazon
and Gallup
About Amazon Future Engineer

Amazon Future Engineer is a childhood-to-career programme to bring Careers of
the Future and computer science literacy to young people, with a focus on students
historically underrepresented in technology. Amazon Future Engineer operates in the
United Kingdom, France, Germany, India, the United States and has a limited presence
in several other countries. The programme, collaborating with local charities, provides
resources for career exploration, classroom resources for teaching computer science,teacher training, live workshops and more. For more information, see the Amazon
Future Engineer website in your country.

About Amazon

Amazon is guided by four principles: customer obsession rather thancompetitor focus, passion for invention, commitment to operational excellence
and long-term thinking. Amazon strives to be Earth's most customer-centriccompany, Earth's best employer and Earth's safest place to work. Customer reviews,
1-Click shopping, personalised recommendations, Prime, Fulfilment by Amazon, AWS,
Kindle Direct Publishing, Kindle, Career Choice, Fire tablets, Fire TV, Amazon Echo, Alexa,
Amazon Studios and The Climate Pledge are some of the things pioneered by Amazon.
For more information, visit amazon.co.uk/about and follow @AmazonNewsUK.

About Gallup

Gallup delivers analytics and advice to help leaders and organisations solve their mostpressing problems. Combining more than 80 years of experience with its global reach,Gallup knows more about the attitudes and behaviours of employees, customers,
students and citizens than any other organisation in the world.

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