N I D S

C H I N AS E C U R I T Y

R E P O R T

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy
Published by
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Copyright © 2016 by the National Institute for Defense Studies, JapanAll rights reserved.
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This publication is a translation of the Japanese version originally published in March 2016.
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Printed in Japan

NIDS China Security Report 2016

Contents
Preface· ································································································································ iii
Chapter Summary············································································································· v
Acronyms and Abbreviations····················································································· viii
Introduction························································································································· 1
Chapter 1: Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas
—The PLAN··································································································· 5
1. China’s Changing Naval Strategy············································································· 6
2. Increasingly Active Naval Operations over a Wider Area································· 10
3. Future Development of the PLAN·········································································· 16

Chapter 2: Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities—The PLAAF······························································································ 21
1. PLAAF Strategy: From Territorial Air Defense to Integrated Aerospace
Capabilities and Simultaneous Offense and Defense······································· 22
2. Modernization of Air Force Equipment· ······························································· 26
3. Looking to the Chinese Air Force of the Future·················································· 32
Column               TheGaoxin Project······················································································· 35

Chapter 3: Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force—The PLASAF··························································································· 37
1. Nuclear Force Aiming at Assured Second-Strike Capacity····························· 38
2. Development of Conventional Missiles································································ 45
3. The Future of the PLASAF······················································································· 51
Column            Developmentof Hypersonic Glide Vehicles············································ 53

Chapter 4: Enhancement of the PLA’s Joint Operational Capabilities······· 55
1. Aiming to Win Informationized Local Wars·························································· 56
2. Enhancing Capabilities for System-versus-System Operations····················· 58
3. The Direction of Reforms of Command and Force Structures························ 61

Conclusions······················································································································ 65
Endnote······························································································································ 70iPreface
Preface

The NIDS China Security Report published by the National Institute for Defense
Chapter Summary

Studies (NIDS) is widely distributed in Japan and abroad to provide analysis conducted by
NIDS researchers on China’s military affairs and security from a mid- to long-term perspective. Since its first publication in March 2011, the NIDS China Security Report has beenoffered annually in Japanese, English, and Chinese editions and has attracted significant in-

Introduction

terest from research institutions and the media in Japan and overseas. The analysis offeredin these reports has allowed NIDS to promote exchange and dialogue with research institutions and interested parties in a variety of countries, including China.

Chapter 1

The current NIDS China Security Report 2016 is the sixth annual edition, and as indicated by its subtitle, “The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy,” itexamines the major influence the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) exerts on security in theregion through the PLA Navy (PLAN), Air Force (PLAAF), and Second Artillery Force

Chapter 2(PLASAF; reorganized into the PLA Rocket Force at the end of December 2015). Each ofthese services has its own basic strategy, and the Report analyzes the overall trend toward
greater military strength accompanying efforts to put those strategies fully into effect. It also
analyzes the implications for security in East Asia represented by the PLA’s current situation

Chapter 3

as well as the trend toward the joint operation of these various services. The Report’s authors
had the opportunity to engage in an exchange of opinions with researchers and other specialists in China and other countries and drew on the views provided to assist in their efforts topresent an objective analysis. The endnotes provide information on the specific primary andChapter 4

secondary materials referred to in the Report’s writing.
The NIDS China Security Report 2016 has been written solely from the viewpoints ofConclusions

the individual researchers and does not represent an official view of the Japanese Government,
the Ministry of Defense, or NIDS. Writing was conducted by Masafumi Iida, who was thelead author and responsible for Chapters 1 and 4, and Shinji Yamaguchi, who authored
Chapters 2 and 3. Editing was conducted by editor-in-chief Tetsuo Murooka and Koichi
Arie, Sukeyuki Ichimasa, Keiko Kono, Haruhiko Takada, Hideo Tomikawa, and Rira Momma.
The title of the previous edition was the NIDS China Security Report 2014, which was
published in March 2015 and indicated the Japanese fiscal year, but beginning with this edition, the NIDS China Security Report 2016, the title will reflect the actual year of
publication.

iii

Preface

The authors of the NIDS China Security Report 2016 hope that it will promote policy
discussions concerning China in Japan and other countries, and at the same time they hopethat the Report will contribute to a deepening of dialogue and exchange as well as cooperation between Japan and China regarding security.
March 2016
Tetsuo Murooka
Director, Security Studies Department
The National Institute for Defense Studiesiv

Chapter Summary
Preface

Chapter 1 S
 trengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas
Chapter Summary—The PLAN
Since its establishment, the People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) has changed its
strategy from “coastal defense and inshore defense” to “offshore defense” and later to a
combination of “offshore defense and open seas defense (protection).” At the same time, it

Introduction

has been expanding its area of operations from the coastal areas of the Chinese continent to
the East China Sea and South China Sea, and even further to the Western Pacific and Indian
Ocean. The PLAN is constructing a new indigenous aircraft carrier and taking other steps to
rapidly modernize its surface combatants, submarines and aircraft, while steadily enhancing

Chapter 1

its operational capabilities in open seas. From now on, it can be expected to strengthen its
presence in the offshore waters and airspace with the aim of establishing superiority in disputes over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests. In order to prevent interference by the United States in China’s “core interests,” it will probably deploy new

Chapter 2

nuclear-powered submarines and destroyers equipped with high-performance anti-ship missiles, as well as strengthening its intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities in the Western Pacific. It is also expected to advance into the Indian Ocean to protect
Chinese companies and citizens overseas and important sea lines of communication.

Chapter 3

Chapter 2 R evising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities
—The PLAAFThe PLA Air Force (PLAAF) is transitioning from its traditional role of territorial air

Chapter 4

defense to a stance which covers a wider range of responsibilities, foremost of which is preparing for simultaneous offensive and defensive roles. The PLAAF is becoming more active
over the open seas and in 2015 carried out its first training exercises over the Western PacificConclusions

when it passed through the Bashi Channel. Such an expansion of PLAAF activities is supported by the modernization of its equipment. It is moving forward with emphasis on adoption of fourth-generation jet fighters, mainly through import from Russia, and introductionof combat aircraft capable of air-to-ground attack. It is also seeking to increase the range ofbombers which can be mounted with long-range cruise missiles. Other areas for emphasis
include expansion of ISR capabilities and introduction of a variety of combat support aircraft, including airborne early warning, command, and control systems. Trends for futureemphasis will likely include expansion of large transport and refueling planes, an area where
the PLAAF has been weak; strengthening its attack capabilities by using for example stealthaircraft and unmanned attack aircraft; introduction of air defense and missile defense sys-v

Chapter Summary

tems; and development of the ability to direct attacks against targets in space.

Chapter 3 E
 xpanding and Strengthening Its Missile Capabilities—The PLASAFThe PLA Second Artillery Force (PLASAF; reorganized into the PLA Rocket Forceat the end of December 2015) has moved from a military branch dealing only with nuclear
weapons to a service which possesses both nuclear and conventional forces. China’s nuclear
strategy can be characterized by preeminence of the political, a declaration of no first use, agradual increase in the number of warheads, and removal and separate storage of nuclear
warheads during peacetime. It seeks to maintain a reliable second strike capability and is
working to make qualitative improvements in its nuclear force. It is converting its reservesof ballistic missiles to solid fuel, is transitioning to vehicle-borne mobile launch capacity,and is making progress in introduction of multiple independently-targetable reentry vehicles(MIRVs). Future matters for international attention will include whether China can maintainits adherence to the no-first-use principle.
The PLASAF’s most conspicuous trend since the 1990s has been the great expansion
in its conventional missile force. Unlike nuclear missiles, conventional missiles are premisedon being used in strikes, with the emphasis on taking the initiative in conducting precision
strikes on the enemy where he is vulnerable, on the nodes of the enemy’s command, control,
communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (C4ISR) and force
projection systems. The PLASAF is seeking to fill out its short-range and intermediate-range
ballistic missile reserves and is improving its precision strike capabilities with conventional
missiles. International attention is also being directed at PLASAF increases in its cruise missiles capable of being mounted on sea-borne and air-borne platforms. Such improvement in
its missile force preparedness is key to China’s anti-access and area denial (A2AD) capabilities and is a focus of international attention. Such development in China’s missile force
further complicates the regional security environment, and close attention must be directed
to its future directions.

Chapter 4 Enhancement of the PLA’s Joint Operational Capabilities
In a defense white paper discussing military strategy, the PLA has clearly indicatedthe posture of focusing on “winning informationized local wars” and “maritime military
struggle.” The PLA is enhancing its “capabilities for system-versus-system operations basedon information systems” with the aim of gaining victory in “informationized warfare” inwhich the use of information plays a decisive role and which differs from “mechanized warfare,” in which material factors such as weapons, equipment, ammunition and fuel decide theoutcome. Regarding information systems, the PLA is promoting the efficient military use ofviChapter Summary

outer space with the aims of improving its ISR capabilities, realizing efficient command andPrefacecontrol, and enhancing its network and electromagnetic combat capabilities. In order to enhance its system-versus-system operational capabilities, it is aiming to dramatically improvecombat effectiveness through joint operations by the Army, Navy, Air Force and Second

Chapter Summary

Artillery Force. To realize these strategies, Xi Jinping is promoting reforms in the commandand force structures of the armed forces, including the establishment of the PLA Army general command, the PLA Rocket Force, and the PLA Strategic Support Force, as well as thereorganization of the Central Military Commission. Close attention will be paid to whether

Introduction

or not these reforms proceed smoothly from now on.

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Conclusionsvii

Acronyms and Abbreviations

viii

AIP

air-independent propulsion

ASW

anti-submarine warfare

A2AD

anti-access and area denial

SSBN

nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine

CCP

Chinese Communist Party

CEP

circular error probability

CMC

Central Military Commission

C4ISR

command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance,and reconnaissance

EU

European Union

HALE

high-altitude long-endurance

HGV

hypersonic glide vehicle

ICBM

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

INF

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces

ISR

intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissanceIT

information technology

JSDF

Japan Self-Defense Forces

MIRV

multiple independently-targetable reentry vehicles

PLA

People’s Liberation Army

PLAAF

People’s Liberation Army Air Force

PLAN

People’s Liberation Army Navy

PLASAF

People’s Liberation Army Second Artillery Force

PMS

preparation for military struggle

PRC

People’s Republic of China

R&D

research and development

RIMPACRim of the Pacific Exercise

SAR

synthetic aperture radar

SLBM

submarine-launched ballistic missile

SSN

nuclear-powered attack submarine

TEL

transporter erector launcher

UAV

unmanned aerial vehicle

UN

United Nations

US

United States

USSR

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

Introduction

Introduction
The Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has made itself very clearly a role
player on the seas and in the skies of East Asia. Its Air Force, primarily its fighters, is making
ever more frequent flights over the East China Sea, and Japan’s Air Self-Defense Forcescrambles to Chinese aircraft have increased at a rapid pace as well, from thirty-eight in2009 to 464 in 2014. China’s Navy has conducted repeated live-fire exercises and amphibious landing training in the South China Sea from around 2010. In the Western Pacific, the
PLA Navy (PLAN) has regularly carried out fleet exercises beginning in 2008, and more
recently it has raised the level of training exercises by including military aircraft. The rangeof PLA activities has also been expanding beyond East Asia: beginning in 2009, the PLAN
has taken part in anti-piracy activities in the Gulf of Aden and off Somalia, and conductedjoint exercises with Russia in the Mediterranean in 2015.
The PLA has thus been increasing the quantity and the range of its activities. In doing
so it has increased the danger of unintentional accidents or collisions, and some of its activities have appeared threatening to other countries, arousing international concerns. For example, in the East China Sea, Chinese naval vessels have locked onto a Japan Self-Defense
Forces (JSDF) destroyer with fire control radar, and Chinese fighters at times have flown
inordinately close to JSDF aircraft. In the South China Sea, Chinese naval craft have obstructed the course of US Navy vessels, while Chinese fighters have at times drawn dangerously close to US patrol aircraft. In May 2014, China unilaterally conducted drilling activities
in the sea near the Paracel Islands, which are claimed by Vietnam, and in response, Vietnam
dispatched patrol boats to the vicinity; Chinese naval vessels in return directed threateningpressure against Vietnam by sending warships to the area. Such oppressive actions by the
PLA have been particularly marked in East Asia.
At the same time that it has been expanding its activities, the PLA has pushed forwardwith rapid modernization of its equipment. China’s announced national defense expenditures from its national budget for fiscal 2015 were 889.6 billion yuan (approximately $140
billion), some 3.6 times the level of ten years earlier. Against such huge national defense
expenditures, which dwarf the spending of other countries in East Asia, the PLA has developed and introduced a series of new weapons and systems, including aircraft carriers, newmodels of bombers, stealth fighters, and ballistic and cruise missiles, steadily increasing its
force projection capabilities and ability to conduct long-range precision strikes. In addition,
China has also devoted efforts to informationization of its military, for example strengthening its military information systems by bolstering its ability to operate in space and cyberspace. Perhaps the most obvious characteristic of the security environment in East Asia in

2

Introduction

recent years has been the rapidly expanding military might of the PLA and the growing scale
Prefaceof its activities, part of which seem to be inviting friction with the surrounding countries.
As the PLA expands both the level and the range of its activities, what influence will
its actions and the friction they could cause with China’s neighbors have on future security

Chapter Summary

in East Asia? To answer this question, it is indispensable to consider what kind of goals the
PLA has set for itself and how it proposes to go about achieving those goals. In other words,
it is important to seek to identify what kind of strategy the PLA has set for itself. Identifying
the PLA strategy will make it easier to interpret the intentions behind its actions, which in

Introduction

turn should be helpful in controlling possible crises caused by accidents and unintentional
confrontations and in considering what stance should be taken toward China in order tomaintain order in the regional security environment in the middle to long term.
With the above considerations in mind, this report seeks to analyze the strategy of the

Chapter 1

PLA and the resultant development of its equipment and the content of its activities, in order
to examine the PLA’s trends for the future and consider what influence it could have on the
future of security in East Asia. The specific targets for analysis are the various services ofChina’s military which exercise a strong direct influence on East Asian security. Chapter 1

Chapter 2

deals with the PLAN, Chapter 2 with the PLA Air Force (PLASAF; reorganized into the
PLA Rocket Force at the end of December 2015), and Chapter 3 with the PLA Second
Figure 0-1: Examples of PLA’s Expanding Operations
May 2015
Yuan-class submarine
docks in Karachi

December 2014
PLAN ships passthrough Soya Strait

TurkeyJuly 2014
Four ships take part in
RIMPAC

People’s Republicof China

Japan
October 2013
Implementation of Maneuver-5
training exercises

India

Conclusions

Egypt

September 2015
Five ships passthrough US waters

Chapter 4

July 2015
Implementation of joint
live-fire exercises

Chapter 3

May 2015
Participation in joint
exercises with Russiannavy

March 2015
Chinese air force bombers
conduct exercises
January 2009 –Participation incounter-piracy operations
September 2014
Song-classsubmarine docks in
Colombo, Sri Lanka

Australia
March 2015
Participation in MH370
search operations

December 2014
Chinese ships sail around Japanafter joint three-fleet exercises

January 2014
Ships pass through Sunda Strait
and conduct exercises

Source: Compiled from various media sources.

3

Introduction

Artillery Force (PLASAF: reorganized into the PLA Rocket Force at the end of December2015). Drawing on Chinese public documents and on a variety of research results as well,this report examines the strategies of the various services, analyzes the characteristics oftheir equipment development and activities, and considers where the services could head in
the future. Chapter 4 first examines the overall strategy of the PLA and then looks at thetrend toward joint operations of the various services and branches, finally dealing with topics
of reforming its overall command and force structures.
The authors of this report hope it will respond to the growing interest in Japan andabroad regarding the activities of the PLA and also facilitate dialogue with China regarding
the maintenance and reinforcement of stability in East Asia.
(Author: Masafumi Iida)

4

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

Chapter 1
Strengthening Operational
Capabilities in Open Seas
—The PLAN

Chapter 1

1. China’s Changing Naval Strategy
The People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) was established on April 23, 1949. In
1950, Mao Zedong made a speech calling for the construction of a powerful navy.1 In 1952,
he outlined the three strategic missions of the PLAN: (1) To eliminate interference by “seabandits” (Nationalists) and ensure safe navigation for China’s maritime traffic; (2) To recover Taiwan when the time was ripe and prepare for its ultimate reunification with China;
and (3) To build up sufficient strength to resist imperialist invasion from the sea.2
The strategy of the PLAN has gradually changed since the time of its establishment.
According to the 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy, a comprehensive research
report on China’s military strategy compiled by the Department of War Theory and Strategic
Research of the PLA Academy of Military Science, the changes in China’s naval strategy
can be divided into three periods.3
The first period was from 1949 to the end of the 1970s. Naval strategy during thisperiod is described as “coastal defense and inshore defense.” For the Chinese Communist
Party (CCP) government, which had just founded the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in
1949, the main threats to maritime security were infiltration by the Nationalist Army and theblockade of sea lines of communication. Until the mid-1950s, however, the PLAN still
lagged behind in both equipment and capabilities. Incapable of conducting independent missions, it was confined to operating in coastal regions in coordination with the army and airforce. During this period, “coastal defense” strategy meant no more than the limited extension of land engagements to coastal areas. However, as the PLAN’s equipment gradually
improved and it became able to conduct independent sea operations, a slight shift in strategy
occurred from “coastal defense” limited to an extension of land engagements to “inshore
defense” based on the assumption of independent maritime engagements.
The second period was from the 1980s until the beginning of the 21st century. Naval
strategy during this period is described as “offshore defense.” In July 1979 Deng Xiaoping,
who had just wrested power from Mao Zedong’s named successor, Hua Guofeng, and wasin the process of consolidating his position as China’s supreme leader, announced that “offshore defense” was to be the strategy of the PLAN. In response to this statement, the navy
studied this new strategy under the direction of its commander, Admiral Liu Huaqing, andthe offshore defense strategy was officially established at the end of 1985.4 This offshore
defense strategy can be divided into five main points. Firstly, offshore defense is a regional
defense strategy that differs from far seas invasion or coastal defense. Secondly, offshore
defense is essentially of a defensive nature, and this is not subject to change in the future.
Thirdly, the PLAN’s area of operations is mainly the waters around the first island chain5,6

Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

and the Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South China Sea within this chain of archipelagos.
Preface

Fourthly, the objectives of this strategy are national unification, protection of territories,
safeguarding of maritime rights and interests, and deterrence and defense against imperialistor hegemonist invasion by sea. Fifthly, the navy’s operations are divided into missions in

Chapter Summary

peacetime and ones in wartime. In peacetime, the navy’s main missions include realizing
national unification, protecting China’s territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests, contributing to national diplomatic policies, deterring invasion by sea, and responding
to maritime conflicts. In wartime, its main missions include effectively combating enemy

Introduction

invasion by sea, protecting sea lines of communication, and taking part in counter-offensive
operations using nuclear weapons.
The third period is from 2004 to the present day. While maintaining its strategy ofoffshore defense, the PLAN added open seas defense to adopt a strategy of both offshore

Chapter 1

defense and open seas defense. The background to this new emphasis on open seas defense
seems to be the expansion of important maritime interests that China considers necessary toprotect. With the rapid development of the Chinese economy, it is becoming important for
China to safeguard maritime rights and interests such as the stability of sea lines of com-

Chapter 2munication essential for the import and export of raw materials and products, and the development of seabed oil and gas resources. Now that the scope of China’s maritime interests has
expanded to sea areas beyond its “offshore” waters, it is considered necessary for the PLAN
to be capable of responding to military threats to China’s national interests in sea areas out-

Chapter 3

Table 1-1: Changes in PLAN Strategy
Outline1950s to1970s

Coastal defense /Inshore defense

Main area of operations: coastal and inshore areas
not far from the mainland. Main objectives: supporting land engagements, preventing enemy infiltrationfrom sea, etc.

1980s tobeginning of
2000s

Offshore defense

Main area of operations: Yellow Sea, East China Sea
and South China Sea. Main objectives: prevention ofenemy invasion, national unification, safeguarding ofterritory, protection of sea lines of communication,
protection of maritime rights and interests.

Beginning of
2000s –

Offshore defense /Open seas
defenseMain area of operations: open seas in addition to
offshore waters. Main objectives: While maintaining
and strengthening offshore defense strategies,
safeguarding China’s interests overseas and being
ready to counterattack with nuclear weapons, participating in international security cooperation, etc.

Conclusions

Strategy

Chapter 4

PeriodSource: Based on 军事科学院军事战略研究部 [Department of War Theory and Strategic Research,
PLA Academy of Military Sciences], ed., 战略学 (2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013
Edition], 军事科学出版社 [Military Science Press], 2013, pp. 207-209.

7

Chapter 1

side its “offshore” waters in order to protect these interests.6
Based on this strategy of offshore defense and open seas defense, The Science ofMilitary Strategy lists the following eight main missions that the PLAN should perform.7(1) Participation in large-scale strategic operations

In the event of war, using various operations to prevent incursion by a powerful
enemy, such as striking with its firepower and establishing sea and air blockades, the PLAN
will be required to resolutely defend China’s national unity by seizing overall domination of
the theater of war, controlling the war situation, and gaining victory.
(2) Deterring and stopping military invasion by sea

Since modern times, almost all invasions of China have come from the sea. Preventing
invasion from the sea by an external enemy is considered to be a fundamental strategic mission of the PLAN. Since it is assumed that any future invasion of the Chinese mainland by aforeign country will involve a precise large-scale attack from medium to long range, thenavy will be expected to actively deploy its forces forward, extend its forces in depth to holdor attack the enemy, and exert strategic deterrence and strike capability.
(3) Protecting the sovereignty of islands and maritime rights and interests

China takes the view that a sea area of about 1.5 million square kilometers over which
it claims jurisdiction is in effect controlled by foreign nations, that more than 50 of its islands are occupied by foreign nations, that this sea area has been divided up, and that its
resources are being seized. Based on this understanding, it is the PLAN’s mission to effectively protect China’s sovereign interests in these waters, prevent infringement of its interests and illegal activities in these waters, and ensure the normal operation of China’s maritime
production, development, and scientific research activities.
(4) Ensuring the safety of navigation and maritime transportation

The Chinese economy is more than 60 percent dependent on trade, more than 50 percent dependent on imports for crude oil and iron ore, and over 90 percent of its trade depends
on maritime transportation. Since sea lines of communication are lifelines for China’s economic and social development, it is feared that they could be severed if a maritime crisis or
war were to occur. Therefore, protecting sea lines of communication and ensuring the safetyof navigation and maritime transportation are viewed as an important mission for the PLAN.
(5) Protecting overseas interests and citizens’ interests

With the globalization of the Chinese economy, Chinese organizations, personnel and

8

Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

assets are being rapidly deployed overseas. As a result, safety issues overseas are coming
Prefaceincreasingly to the fore, and cases of Chinese assets being violated or Chinese citizens’ lives
being put in danger are tending to increase. The protection of the nation’s overseas interestsand its citizens’ interests is becoming one of the responsibilities of the PLAN.

Chapter Summary(6) Implementing nuclear deterrence and counterattack

Sea-based nuclear capability is an important element of China’s nuclear capability
and its capacity is said to be increasing constantly. The possibility of a nuclear threat or

Introduction

attack against China in the future by another nuclear state cannot be denied. Making full use
of submarine nuclear capability with a large operational range, a high level of secrecy, andoutstanding strike capability, the PLAN is expected to actively demonstrate its readiness touse nuclear weapons and implement a nuclear counterattack and to crush any enemy threats

Chapter 1

or intent to attack using nuclear weapons.
(7) Providing support in military conflicts on land

Although China’s land borders are generally secure, elements of insecurity remain
Chapter 2

and there are possibilities of a crisis occurring or even leading to a military clash or war. In
such circumstances, providing support for operations on land by the army, etc. by actively
deploying threats and operations from the sea is also viewed as a mission of the PLAN.

Chapter 3(8) Protecting the security of international maritime areas

The sea is rich repository of precious resources for humankind as well as providing
vital traffic routes. As a major power with global influence, the part China plays in the security of maritime areas not only contributes to its own national interests but also serves to

Chapter 4

fulfill its international responsibilities. The PLAN is therefore expected to undertake themission of protecting international maritime security.

Conclusions

According to China’s Military Strategy, China’s defense white paper published in
May 2015, the PLAN is shifting its focus from offshore defense to the combination of offshore defense and open seas protection.8 The background to the change of wording from“open seas defense” to “open seas protection” may be the wish to emphasize the aspect ofinternational cooperation in the far seas operations of the PLAN in view of its operations toprotect commercial shipping off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden.

9Chapter 1

2.	Increasingly Active Naval Operations over a
Wider Area
In line with the strategy of offshore defense and open seas defense (protection), thePLAN has been extending its operational range into far seas in recent years, and its activities
have been expanding in both quantity and quality. In offshore waters, it is strengthening its
operations particularly in the South China Sea. In July 2010, vessels of the South Sea Fleet,
together with destroyers from the North Sea Fleet and East Sea Fleet, conducted large-scale
joint live-fire exercises in the South China Sea. Observed by the then PLA Chief of General
Staff, General Chen Bingde, these exercises included air-defense, anti-ship and anti-submarine operations, in which 16 types of missiles were fired a total of 71 times.9
In July 2015, the PLAN again conducted large-scale live-fire exercises in the South
China Sea. More than 100 warships and several dozen aircraft, the Second Artillery Forcemissile battalions, and the electronic countermeasures unit of the Guangzhou Military
Region took part in these exercises, in which the participants were divided into friendly andhostile forces and conducted live-fire combat exercises. It is reported that, in these exercises,
various types of missiles and torpedoes were fired several dozen times and that several thousand shells and bullets were fired.10 In view of a PLAN spokesperson’s statement that “wewill continue to conduct similar drills and exercises in the future,”11 it seems likely that suchlarge-scale combat exercises in the South China Sea will be repeated.
In recent years the PLAN has repeatedly conducted large-scale island recapture exercises in the South China Sea. In March 2013, for example, a fleet led by the flagship
Jinggangshan, a large dock landing ship, patrolled the South China Sea islands controlled
by China, performed exercises in coordination with early-warning aircraft, fighters andbombers, and conducted an island landing exercise.12 In July 2015, the naval landing ship
detachment of the South Sea Fleet conducted joint exercises in the South China Sea together
with the Marine Corps, Helicopter Corps, and Army Amphibious Corps. The new Pomornikclass amphibious landing hovercraft recently imported by the PLAN took partfor the first time in these landing exercises. By landing troops of the Marine
Corps and assault amphibious vehicles
together with helicopters, the exercises
were successful in gaining supremacy
Pomornik-class LCAC (IHS Jane’s [online news
module])10

over the “enemy.”13
Among its far seas operations

Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

beyond offshore defense, China’s advances into the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean are
Prefaceconspicuous. From 2008, formations consisting of multiple warships of the PLAN haveregularly advanced through the Miyako Strait and Bashi Channel into the Western Pacific,
where they have conducted various open seas exercises. In April 2010, ten PLAN vessels

Chapter Summary

including Sovremenny-class destroyers and Kilo-class submarines entered the Western
Pacific from the East China Sea via the Miyako Strait and conducted drills including shipbased helicopter flights and refueling at sea. During these drills, a Chinese helicopter flew
dangerously close to the destroyer Suzunami of Japan’s Maritime Self-Defense Force,

Introduction

which was engaged in surveillance activities.14
The PLAN’s exercises in the Western Pacific seem to be evolving into more advanced
exercises with actual battle conditions in mind. In October 2013, the People’s Liberation
Army (PLA) conducted large-scale joint field training exercises in the Western Pacific called

Chapter 1

Maneuver 5. Vessels of the North Sea Fleet and the East Sea Fleet coming from the Miyako
Strait and vessels of the South China Fleet from the Bashi Channel both “broke through” thefirst island chain into the Western Pacific and conducted combat drills with the participationof early-warning aircraft and bombers from the Chinese mainland.15 In December 2014, theChapter 2

PLAN again conducted large-scale exercises in the Western Pacific involving vessels of all
three fleets, intelligence-gathering aircraft, early-warning aircraft, and bombers.16 After the
exercises had been completed, some of the participating ships sailed north from the Western
Pacific, through the Soya Strait and into the Sea of Japan, where they sailed around the

Chapter 3

Japanese archipelago.17
In July 2014, at the invitation of the United States (US) as the organizing nation, thePLAN took part in the Rim of Pacific Exercise (RIMPAC) conducted around the Hawaiian
Islands. A four-vessel Chinese flotilla consisting of a destroyer, frigate, supply ship, andChapter 4

hospital ship joined fleets from the US, Japan, Australia, and other nations in exercises that
included firing, helicopter take-off and landing, maritime inspections, and search and rescue.
After the completion of the RIMPAC, the hospital ship passed through the Panama Canal

Conclusions

and provided medical assistance for certain Latin American countries.
The scope of the PLAN’s operations is also expanding through the Strait of Malacca to
the Indian Ocean and to the Middle East and Africa. Since January 2009, the PLAN has been
taking part in international counter-piracy operations in the seas off the coast ofSomalia and in the Gulf of Aden. As of
September 2015, China has dispatched
21 task forces to this sea area. Vessels of
the PLAN have been increasing theirpresence not only off the coast of Somalia

Sovremenny-class destroyer (Joint Staff Office ofJapan)

11

Chapter 1

and in the Gulf of Aden but also in the sea lines of communication in the Indian Ocean between this area and the Chinese mainland. While successfully enhancing its international
image as a “responsible nation” through the PLAN’s continuous counter-piracy operations inthe seas off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden, China has also succeeded in strengthening its open seas operational capabilities by, for example, enhancing far seas command andlogistical capabilities and verifying the performance of various weapons and equipment.18
The PLAN is also expanding its operations beyond the first island chain in theSouth China Sea to the sea area around Australia in the Indian Ocean. In January 2014, a
training formation of three vessels of the South Sea Fleet, including a destroyer, crossed
the South China Sea and advanced into the Java Sea and, after passing through the Sunda
Strait, conducted exercises in the Indian Ocean to the north of Australia. The training formation then sailed north through the Lombok Strait and returned to port via the Western
Pacific.19 In March 2014, in response to the disappearance of Malaysian Airlines Flight370, the PLA conducted large-scale search operations in the Indian Ocean to the north ofAustralia, deploying nine vessels, six ship-based helicopters, five fixed-wing aircraft andmore than ten satellites.20
In these ways the PLAN has steadily expanded the scope of its operations. The background to this ability to strengthen operations both quantitatively and qualitatively is thesteady modernization of the navy’s vessels, fighters and other equipment since the mid1990s.21 In 1994, it commissioned the first Luhu (Type 052)-class destroyer in place of the
Luda (Type 051)-class destroyer that had been the navy’s main destroyer up to then (a second
Luhu-class destroyer was commissioned in 1996). In 1999, a Luhai (Type 051B)-class destroyer and a Sovremenny-class destroyer purchased from Russia were commissioned into
service. Equipped with SS-N-22 Sunburn supersonic ship-to-ship missiles, the Sovremennyclass destroyer possesses powerful anti-ship assault capabilities. By 2006, the PLAN had
four Sovremenny-class destroyers in service. In 2004, it commissioned two Luyang I (Type052B)-class destroyers, the successor of the Luhu-class destroyer. In 2005, it commissioned
the Luyang II (Type 052C)-class destroyer (nicknamed the “Chinese Aegis”), which enhanced the Type 052B’s defensive capabilities by equipping it with phased array radar and a
vertical missile launch system. By 2014, six Luyang II-class destroyers were in service. In
both 2006 and 2007, one Luzhou (Type 051C)-class destroyer, the successor of the Luhaiclass destroyer, was commissioned into service. And in 2014, the PLAN commissioned its
first Luyang III (Type 052D)-class destroyer, which is equipped with a highly advanced air
defense system and a multipurpose vertical missile launch system.
The PLAN is also promoting the modernization of its frigates. In 1991 it commissioned the Jiangwei I (Type 053H2G)-class frigate, a new type of frigate that enabled thedeployment of an anti-submarine helicopter. By 1994, four Jiangwei I-class frigates were12

Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

in service. In 1998, the PLAN introduced
Prefacean improved model, the Jiangwei II(Type 053H3)-class frigate, ten of whichwere in service by 2005. In 2005, thewas commissioned, followed by anotherLuyang II-class destroyer (Joint Staff Office ofJapan)

Chapter Summary

first Jiangkai I (Type 054)-class frigate
in 2006. In 2008, the Jiangkai II (Type054A)-class frigate, featuring improve-

Introduction

ments such as a vertical missile launchsystem, was introduced, and by 2014
twenty vessels were in service. These
new types of destroyer and frigate havecises in the Western Pacific and in its

Luyang III-class destroyer (IHS Jane’s [online news
module])Chapter 1

actively participated in the PLAN’s exercounter-piracy operations off the coast ofSomalia. Together they constitute its
The modernization of submarines

Chapter 2

core strength in far seas operations.
Luzhou-class destroyer (Joint Staff Office of Japan)

has also proceeded steadily. The PLAN
purchased from Russia four Kilo-class
Chapter 3

submarines, a conventionally powered
submarine with outstanding acoustic quietness, commissioning the first into service in 1995. In the mid-2000s, it

Jiangkai II-class frigate (Joint Staff Office of Japan)
Chapter 4

introduced an improved Kilo-class submarine with further enhanced acoustic quietness and capable of firing SS-N-27 Sizzler antiship cruise missiles, increasing its Kilo-class fleet to 12 submarines. In 1999, the PLAN also

Conclusions

introduced the new Chinese-built Song (Type 039 and Type 039G)-class diesel-electric attack
submarine and 13 of them were in service by 2006, when it commissioned its new Yuan-classdiesel-electric attack submarines (Type 041). The Yuan-class attack submarine is even quieter
than the Song-class, is equipped with an air-independent propulsion (AIP) system, and is said
to have the ability to stay underwater even longer. Twelve Yuan-class attack submarines werealready in service by 2014, and the fleet is expected to increase to about 20 vessels.22
The PLAN has also been deploying new nuclear-powered submarines. In 2007, it
commissioned the Jin (Type 094)-class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN).
The Jin-class SSBN was developed to replace the Xia (Type 092)-class submarine, which
had been introduced in the mid-1980s and was becoming obsolete. It is believed to be

13

Chapter 1

Fig. 1-1: Trend in Numbers of New-type Destroyers and Frigates(number of vessels)
50

49

40

30

20

10

0

0
1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

2014

 otal numbers of Luhu-class, Luhai-class, Sovremenny-class, Luyang-class and Luzhou-classT
destroyers and Jiangwei-class and Jiangkai-class frigates.
Source: Based on Japan Ministry of Defense, China’s National Defense Budget 2014 and International
Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), Military Balance 2015 (London: IISS, 2015).
Note:equipped with the new Julang-2 (JL-2)
submarine-launchedballistic

missile(SLBM), which is said to have a range of
8,000 kilometers. If this Jin-class submarine can be operated stably, it is expected
to greatly improve China’s nuclear deterrent capability.23 By 2007, the PLAN had
also commissioned two Shang (TypeJin-class ballistic missile nuclear submarine (IHS
Jane’s [online news module])093)-class nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSN) in place of its Han (Type091)-class submarines. The PLAN is

also expected to increase its number of an improved type, 093A, the first of which was put
into service in 2014.
In 2012, the PLAN commissioned into service its first aircraft carrier, the Liaoning.
This was originally the Varyag, an ex-Soviet navy aircraft carrier that was being built in
Ukraine. A Macau-based company purchased the carrier, and subsequently China conducted
its own research and development on the vessel, and completed its construction at the Daliannaval shipyard. China has also developed and deployed carrier-based J-15 fighter planes, andhas already conducted repeated carrier takeoff and landing exercises with the J-15 on the

14

Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

Fig. 1-2: Trend in Numbers of New-type Submarines
Preface(number of vessels)
50

45

Chapter Summary

40

30

20
Introduction

10

0

0
1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

2014

Chapter 1

1991

Note: Total numbers of Jin-class, Shang-class, Song-class, Yuan-class and Kilo-class submarines.
Source: Based on Japan Ministry of Defense, China’s National Defense Budget 2014 and International
Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS), Military Balance 2015 (London: IISS, 2015).

Chapter 2

Liaoning. It is also reported that the PLAN is developing a new indigenous aircraft carrier;several military personnel have recently made statements acknowledging that such an aircraft
Chapter 3

carrier is under construction, and photos have been released showing what appears to be an
aircraft carrier being built by China.24 At the end of 2013, the Liaoning sailed from the Yellow
Sea through the East China Sea to the South China Sea, where it took part in formation training exercises with consort ships in the seas around Hainan Island. However, in the course ofChapter 4

these exercises, an incident occurred in which a PLAN landing ship got in the way of theguided missile cruiser USS Cowpens.25 On December 31, 2015, a Defense Ministry spokesperson announced that China was constructing a new indigenous aircraft carrier in Dalian.26

Conclusions

The PLAN has also been augmenting its force of surface combatants that are smaller
than frigates. In 2004 it started commissioning the Houbei (Type 022)-class surface combatant, a twin-hulled fast attack craft that can move at very high speed. Sixty Houbei-class fastattack craft, each equipped with eight anti-ship missiles, have already been deployed. In
2013, the navy also began deploying the 1,500-ton Jiangdao (Type 056)-class corvette.
Although it is a small vessel, the Jiangdao-class corvette is equipped with anti-ship missiles
and torpedoes, has high versatility including on-board helicopter takeoff and landing capability, and is well suited for various missions in offshore waters. Twenty Jiangdao-classcorvettes are already operational and it has been reported that the force will be augmented to30-60 units.27

15

Chapter 1

At the same time, the PLAN is enhancing its air power.28 In addition to aforce of more than 100 fourth-generation
jet fighters made up of J-10s, J-11s, andSu-30s, it has 30 H-6 bombers equippedwith air-to-ship missiles. It is also
H-6 bomber (Joint Staff Office of Japan)

thought to have early-warning aircraftmodified from the Y-8 and Y-9 transport

aircraft, as well as intelligence-gathering aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The
PLAN already has several anti-submarine helicopters, and it is reported that it has deployed
the fixed-wing Gaoxin-6 anti-submarine aircraft, a modification of the Y-8 as it strives tofurther enhance its anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capabilities.29

3. Future Development of the PLAN
Judging from trends such as the changes in strategy, expansion of scope of operations,nature of operations, and modernization of equipment analyzed above, the PLAN is expected
to strengthen its necessary capabilities in order to realize the following three objectives.
The first objective is to gain a position of advantage in conflicts over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests. China’s defense white paper stresses “safeguarding
territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests” as an important principle of its military strategy.30 For China, the most important issue regarding territorial sovereignty is reunification with Taiwan. In addition, China’s claims of sovereignty regarding islands in the East China
Sea and South China Sea have been growing stronger in recent years. China is already promoting the development of oil and gas fields in the East China Sea, and has also been making
stronger moves, such as trial drilling, towards the development of resources in the South China
Sea. Most of the territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests China considers it
should safeguard are in its offshore waters. With its declared strategy of offshore defense together with open seas defense (protection), the PLAN will no doubt play the central role in this.
In order to possess the advantage in conflicts over territorial sovereignty and maritime
rights and interests, the PLAN is expected to aim to build the capabilities needed to gain control of both the sea and air in wartime, while strengthening its presence in peacetime. Its
Jiangdao-class corvettes, which can be built in large quantities at relatively low cost, will no
doubt increase their patrol operations in China’s offshore waters. To strengthen the air defense
capabilities of surface vessels conducting operations in offshore waters, the PLAN can be

16Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

expected to modernize the fighter jets of its aircraft squadrons and to strengthen early-warnPreface

ing aircraft and air tankers to ensure the efficiency of their operations. It is assumed that it willuse its aircraft carriers to project air power in sea areas where air support from the mainland
is difficult, such as the southern part of the South China Sea. Once the ports and runways

Chapter Summary

China has been building on reclaimed land in the South China Sea are completed, they willcontribute to the enhancement of the PLAN’s sea and air supremacy in the surrounding
waters. In order to increase its island landing capabilities, it is reported that the navy is developing the new Type 081 landing helicopter dock, which has greatly enhanced amphibious

Introduction

landing capabilities compared to the current Yuzhao (Type 71)-class amphibious ship.31
The second objective is the strengthening of deterrence against the US. From China’s
viewpoint, regarding both its “core interest” of reunification with Taiwan and the establishment of its dominion of islands in the East China Sea and South China Sea, the greatest

Chapter 1

obstacle is the possibility that this might provoke a military response by the US. Although
the US has no diplomatic relations with Taiwan, it has a strong interest in Taiwan’s security,
selling it the weapons for defense purposes and stressing the need for a peaceful resolutionof the relationship between China and Taiwan. Japan and the Philippines, which are both

Chapter 2

engaged in disputes with China over the dominion of islands, are allies of the US. If China
were to increase military tensions over such problems, the US might interfere militarily incircumstances that are disadvantageous to China. It is therefore important for China to deter
US military intervention both to enhance the effects of its military pressure concerning these

Chapter 3

problems in peacetime and to ensure that, if a crisis does occur, it can engage in battle froma position of advantage.
In order to make the US hesitate to undertake military intervention, China muststrengthen its deterrence. One important means of doing this is to strengthen its nuclear de-

Chapter 4terrence. It is reported that China will “improve strategic deterrence and counterattack capabilities”32 through the operations of its new Jin (Type 094)-class SSBN. However, with the
JL-2 SLBM, reported to have a range of 8,000 kilometers, it is impossible for China to attack

Conclusions

the US mainland from the South China Sea where the Jin-class SSBN is deployed. The
PLAN is expected to make further forays into the Pacific via the Bashi Channel, increase therange of the JL-2 and promote the development of a new longer-range SLBM. At the sametime, it will probably develop a
new-type SSBN with improved
acoustic quietness and greater
missile operational capabilities.
Strengthening its capabilities to attack US naval forces approaching from Hawaii or the US

Yuzhao-class amphibious transport dock (Joint Staff Officeof Japan)

17

Chapter 1

mainland in waters distant from the Chinese mainland is an important means for the PLAN
to deter US interference and to reduce the effectiveness of interference. In his report given at
the National Defense University in April 1986, Admiral Liu Huaqing, who advocatedChina’s offshore defense strategy, pointed out that, while the navy’s scope of operations
should for the time being be the offshore waters of the Yellow Sea, East China Sea and South
China Sea within the first island chain, “in the future, in order to guard our country effectively against attack or invasion from the sea, we must strengthen the navy’s defense in depth
and secure the capability to block and eliminate the forces and weapons of an enemy navy
at long distance.”33 For the PLAN, strengthening its capability to attack US navy vessels
including aircraft carriers in the Western Pacific has been a longstanding challenge.
As outlined above, the PLAN has enhanced its submarines equipped with anti-ship
missiles. These submarines constitute an important force for restraining US navy actions in
the Western Pacific. While extending the range of these anti-ship missiles and improving
their speed, the PLAN may well develop and deploy nuclear-powered submarines with along underwater cruising distance. By deploying ships with enhanced air defense and antiship attack capabilities, such as the Luyang III-class destroyer, the PLAN is expected to aim
to present a threat to US surface vessels while defending attacks from the air by US carrierbased fighters. It will probably also develop and deploy air-to-ship missiles in order to attack
US vessels using aircraft, as well as strengthening its intelligence-gathering aircraft andearly-warning aircraft, including UAVs, to enhance the intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) essential for long-distance precision strikes.
The third objective is the protection and expansion of China’s national interests overseas. The European Union (EU) is China’s biggest trading partner, while countries in the
Middle East and Africa are the main sources of its resource and energy imports. Ensuring thesafety of the sea lines of communication linking these regions with China is becoming an
increasingly important national interest. Through its participation in international counterpiracy operations off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden, the PLAN already plays
the role of protecting China’s sea lines of communication from the threat of piracy. If tensions
were to rise with another country and a military clash occurred, the PLAN would be required
to protect these sea lines of communication from the military threat posed by that country.
With the increasing entry of Chinese companies in overseas markets, a growing
number of Chinese citizens are working and living overseas, and factories or mines belonging to Chinese companies are also increasing. The PLAN is also expected to protect the interests of these Chinese citizens and companies overseas in the event of political turmoil oran attack or abduction by terrorists. The navy is already engaged in evacuating refugees from
Libya and Yemen, but in the future it may have to face new challenges such as eliminating
attacks on Chinese facilities or rescuing Chinese citizens who have been abducted.

18

Strengthening Operational Capabilities in Open Seas —The PLAN

To realize such objectives, the PLAN may increase its ability to project power in far
Prefaceseas, particularly the Indian Ocean. Through their participation in counter-piracy operations,its destroyers and frigates are already increasing the PLAN’s operational capabilities andpresence in the Indian Ocean. In the future, it will probably increase the number of its supply

Chapter Summary

ships and try to secure harbors as bases for fitting and supply to enhance the logistical support that is essential for both the quantitative and qualitative expansion of operations. Chinese
submarines have started advancing into the Indian Ocean in recent years and such operations
are expected to become more frequent. Once the aircraft carrier the PLAN is said to be con-Introduction

structing comes into service, it is also likely to enter the Indian Ocean. By deploying thisaircraft carrier in the Indian Ocean, China will not only be able to secure its sea lines of communication and its overseas interests, but also augment its pressure from the seas on India,
with which it has an ongoing land border dispute.

Chapter 1

However, China faces certain problems in realizing the above-mentioned objectives.
One major challenge is the strengthening of its ASW capabilities. Submarines are a major
threat to surface vessels. Whether they are in offshore waters or far seas, China’s surface
vessels must respond to the threat from submarines in order to conduct their operations

Chapter 2

safely. Until now, the PLAN’s ASW has mainly relied on surface vessels and the anti-submarine helicopters based on them, but their patrol zones seem to be limited. In order to
conduct wide-area ASW, the operation of many fixed-wing patrol aircraft is essential, but the
PLAN has only just begun to deploy such aircraft. The accumulation of various intelligence

Chapter 3

and improvement of data analysis capabilities through training and exercises are also essential for strengthening ASW capabilities, but this will require a great deal of time and effort.
Until now the PLAN has achieved the overall improvement of various capabilities inboth offshore defense and open seas defense against the background of continuously in-

Chapter 4creasing defense budgets. However, now that a slowdown in China’s economic growth isforecast, budgetary limitations may come to be imposed on the resources available to thenavy. If this happens, the PLAN may have to determine an order of priorities for the alloca-

Conclusions

tion of resources and have to decide, forexample, between the reinforcement of
fixed-wing patrol aircraft for enhancing
its ASW capabilities in offshore waters
or the increase of the aircraft carriers thatare the basis for projecting power in far
seas. Close attention will be paid towhich areas the PLAN places priority on
for the enhancement of its capabilities.

Luzhou-class destroyer and Fuchi-class supply shipconducting refueling in the Western Pacific (Joint
Staff Office of Japan)(Author: Masafumi Iida)

19

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

Chapter 2
Revising Its Strategic
Posture and Expanding
Capabilities—The PLAAF

Chapter 2

1.	PLAAF Strategy: From Territorial Air
Defense to Integrated Aerospace
Capabilities and Simultaneous Offense andDefense(1) Changes in PLAAF Strategy
The Chinese Air Force—officially called the People’s Liberation Army Air Force or
PLAAF—was founded in 1949, and beginning with its participation in the Korean War, it
developed with support from the Soviet Union. As split between China and the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics (USSR) grew, technical assistance from Moscow came to a halt,
resulting in long-term stagnation in Chinese development of new aircraft. From the 1970s
into the 1980s, Chinese relations with the West improved, and China accordingly sought tobring in more Western technology, but the Tiananmen Incident in 1989 brought this to agrinding halt. While there was growth in the import of technology from Russia during the
1990s, China also applied such technology to greater production and development of indigenous military aircraft. During this same period from the end of the Korean War through the
1990s, the primary role of the PLAAF remained the same: territorial air defense. The emphasis was on control of the air above Chinese territory, and large numbers of interceptor
aircraft were stationed around the country for this purpose.
At present, the role of the PLAAF is shifting from the traditional territorial air defense
to an ability to conduct both offensive and defensive operations simultaneously, with theemphasis on covering a much broader area than when guarding only Chinese territory, andconducting a more flexible air defense.1
The concept of simultaneous offensive and defensive operations grew out of the
PLAAF’s study of strategy beginning in the mid-1980s. The PLAAF conducted research ininstitutions such as the PLA Air Force Command College, and the concept of “air defense of
the frontier” (kongjiang fangyu) was first raised by Dong Wenxian, a former researcher in
the PLAAF Headquarters Department, when he cited a need for the PLAAF to be able tocover a wider area than that required for territorial air defense.2 In 1997, Jiang Zemin, thenchairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), first called for a transition from territorial air defense to a posture that would permit simultaneous offensive and defensive operations.3 The 2004 Chinese Defense White Paper set the goal of transitioning to a structure
which would permit simultaneous offensive and defensive activities, stating that the PLAAF’s
responsibility was to ensure the security of the nation’s airspace and provide stable air defense. The White Paper held that the PLAAF must respond to the needs of aerial combat in

22

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF

an informationized age by achieving a steady transition from simple air defense of China’s
Preface

territory to simultaneous offensive and defensive capabilities.
The emphasis at present is on building an air force capable of integrated aerospace
operations and simultaneous offensive and defensive activities. The “space” in aerospace im-

Chapter Summary

plies attention to integrating the information technology (IT) component of China’s spacesatellite system and the air force to support PLAAF combat activities as well as expansion of
the PLAAF’s ability to project its fighting capabilities farther outside of China’s territory.
Study of integrated aerospace capabilities was conducted from the late 1990s throughIntroduction

the early 2000s at institutions such as the Air Force Engineering University and the PLA Air
Force Command College.4 Based on the results of such research, the PLAAF raised the concept of integrated aerospace operational capability with the CMC in 2004. Qiao Qingchen,then commander of the PLAAF, in 2004 was named the member of the CMC, meaning that

Chapter 1

the PLAAF was now more able to have its own views raised in that body. But while integrated aerospace operations was accepted by the CMC, the concept was still not presented
in public.5 That may have been influenced by the struggle among the PLAAF, the Second
Artillery Force (PLASAF), and the PLA General Armament Department over which would

Chapter 2

have responsibility for space. In 2009, PLAAF Commander Xu Qiliang used the celebrationof the PLAAF’s sixtieth anniversary to first publicly raise the established PLAAF strategy ofintegrated aerospace capabilities and the ability to conduct simultaneous offensive and defensive operations.6 Xu Qiliang’s selection in 2012 as vice chairman of the CMC has likely

Chapter 3given more impetus to this strategy.
In April 2014, President Xi Jinping, chairman of the CMC, called on the PLAAF tomove forward quickly with its efforts to build a large air force which was equipped to meetthe demands of a strategy of integrated aerospace operations and simultaneous offense andChapter 4

defense operations. This speech publicly authorized the concept of integrated aerospace operations as a formal strategic goal of the PLAAF. The 2015 Defense White Paper cited the
PLAAF’s ongoing efforts to transition from a force focused on territorial air defense to one

Conclusions

that could carry out both offensive and defensive operations, in keeping with the strategic
demands of integrated aerospace operations and simultaneous offense and defense operations. The White Paper highlighted the construction of an aerospace command and control
system needed for informationized operations.
Just what kind of force building is the PLAAF aiming for through its strategy of integrated aerospace operations and simultaneous offense and defense capabilities? In an article
written by Ma Xiaotian, member of the PLAAF command staff, and Tian Xiusi, PLAAF
political commissar, the authors maintain that emphasis in building for integrated aerospace
operations and simultaneous offense and defense capabilities is on surveillance and early
warning, air offensive campaign, air and missile defense, and strategic force projection.7

23

Chapter 2Here, salient points would in particular include (1) integration of information systems, (2)long-range projection of force and attack capability, and (3) adjustment in the balance offorce structure. All such factors seem to be closely interrelated.
Integration of information systems refers to the construction and application of a unified early warning system integrating airborne early warning craft, reconnaissance and positioning satellites in space, ground-based radar installations and similar elements.8 The 2013
edition of The Science of Military Strategy, published by the PLA’s Academy of Military
Science, argued the need to build an information system that would integrate the entire
Chinese territory, increasing both the quality and the quantity of information systems inspace, along with airborne reconnaissance, early warning, and command and control platforms, doing so to eliminate any blind spots in monitoring all of China’s territory.9
Another goal is strengthening long-range force projection capabilities. This consistsin particular of carrying out long-distance operations for early warning, reconnaissance,
attack, airspace control, and transport, so that the PLAAF can act to effectively cover theairspace over the whole of Chinese territory and over strategically important waters.10
Improvement in the ability to use air-to-ground missiles and other weapons in precision attacks will hold the key to converting the PLAAF so that it can conduct both offensive anddefensive operations.
The 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy calls for use of three approaches
toward control in the skies surrounding China, classified as: (1) Maintain thoroughgoing
control of completely secure areas. (2) In areas where there can be only limited control orwhere security cooperation is in effect, conduct early warning and reconnaissance, longrange intercept, and limited strikes on enemy forces while cooperating with friendly nations.
(3) In areas requiring long-range surveillance and where only limited deterrence is possible,
conduct surveillance on military forces and bases in the Western Pacific and maintain thenecessary deterrent posture.11 This approach demonstrates the strength of Chinese attitudes
toward the concepts of territorial control and creation of sanctuary areas.
Finally, it appears that such a transition must be accompanied by adjustment of balance in the structure of forces. The role of interceptor aircraft has been emphasized in China’s
territorial air defense, but given a strategy of simultaneous offensive and defensive operations, this emphasis shifts to multirole fighters capable of air-to-ground and air-to-air attack.
In integrated aerospace operations, combat support aircraft become all the more important to
put emphasis on Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance
and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) and the number of such craft deployed should increase.

24

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF(2) Expanding Range of Activity
Preface

Faced with such changes of the strategy, the PLAAF is expanding its range of activity.
As of August 2015, it had already conducted three training exercises in the Western Pacific. A
PLAAF spokesman announced that on March 30, PLAAF aircraft had passed through the

Chapter Summary

Bashi Channel and held exercises in the Western Pacific. It has been reported that the aircraft
involved was an H-6K bomber. Later, on May 21, PLAAF aircraft passed through the airspace between Okinawa island and Miyako and carried out the first exercises over the Western
Pacific. In addition, on August 14, it conducted further training exercises in that area.

Introduction

According to reports, the August 14 exercises included other aircraft in addition to the H-6K.12
There have been notable increases in activity in the South China Sea. During
September 2014, as part of the “Joint Action A” exercise, the PLAAF took part in joint exercises along with the PLA Navy (PLAN) and the PLASAF.

Chapter 1

China has been engaged in land reclamation and bolstering its facilities on seven features, including Johnson South Reef (Chiguajiao in Chinese, Mabini Reef in Tagalog) andFiery Cross Reef (Yongshujiao in Chinese) in the Spratly Islands (Nansha in Chinese), in theprocess generating international concern. China’s construction of a 3,000-meter-class

Chapter 2

runway which seems intended for possible use by the new H-6K bomber has attracted particular international attention.13 At the 2014 National People’s Congress, education profession representative Li Guangyu raised the proposal that an “air defense identification zone”
should be established in the South China Sea14, though the Chinese Government has re-

Chapter 3

mained ambivalent on that possibility.
In addition, the PLAAF has been active regarding protection of Chinese citizens
abroad as well as search and rescue activities. For example, during the Libyan civil war, the
PLAAF dispatched four Il-76 transports to Libya from the end of February through March

Chapter 42011 to evacuate Chinese workers. When Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 disappeared in2014, the PLAAF provided two Il-76
transports and one Y-8 transport to theConclusions

international search and rescue efforts.15
With the Il-76 transports flying out of
Pearce Air Force Base in Australia andthe Y-8 flying out of Subang Airbase in
Malaysia, this represented the PLAAF’s
first activity in the Indian Ocean.

H-6K bomber (IHS Jane’s [online news module])(3) Factors Encouraging Change
Some of the factors which have encouraged such changes in the PLAAF include the
Revolution in Military Affairs, the question of balance with Taiwan in air power, and en-

25

Chapter 2

hanced Chinese presence at sea.
First is the impact of the Revolution in Military Affairs. During the Gulf War, thebombing of Kosovo, and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, it was possible for the UnitedStates (US) Air Force to carry out long-range precision strikes thanks to its air-space intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) network, neutralizing the enemy’s air defense system. In contrast, this made clear that China’s past focus primarily on control of its
territorial airspace was no longer sufficient. The Hainan Island incident which took place in2001 when a US Navy EP-3E signals intelligence aircraft collided with a Chinese interceptor jet, was an indication that China was gravely concerned about US intelligence-gathering
operations along its coast and wanted to keep such aircraft as far away as possible. As such,the USAF, with its precision attack capability thanks to its ISR network, presented the
PLAAF with a model to emulate for the future.
Second, looking at the balance between Taiwan and the mainland in air power, Chinese
air power fell short of Taiwan’s until around the middle of the 2000s. Such an imbalance
impacted their political relations as well, with China viewing this as disadvantageous.
Third, in recent years the PLAN has been building up its presence on the high seas,
which has also increased the necessity of air cover provided by the PLAAF. Recent years
have also seen growing calls for the PLAAF to participate more vigorously in protection ofChinese interests at sea, with greater attention going to the importance of protecting Chinese
maritime sovereignty. Both trends seem to contribute to greater PLAAF activity. In April
2014, PLAAF Commander Ma Xiaotian first publicly stated that the PLAAF’s mission includes exercising control from “airspace in the sea direction.” Ma emphasized that the
PLAAF functioned to deal with the wide range of threats that could arise at sea, and that withthe transition of its role from defending China’s territorial air space to one of simultaneous
air and space defense, the PLAAF must be able to deal with the new role of fighting to protect China’s rights and interests at sea.16

2. Modernization of Air Force Equipment(1) Replacing Old Fighters with New and Increasing Multipurpose Fighters

Modernization of the PLAAF’s equipment has proceeded at a rapid pace since thelatter half of the 1990s. As of 1995, eighty percent of its combat aircraft were derivatives of
the Soviet MiG-17 and MiG-19 fighters from the 1950s. With its progress in modernization,
the PLAAF retired around 3,500 aircraft between 1990 and 2010, representing seventy percent of its combat craft.17 At present, it has about 2,620 combat craft, greatly trimming down

26

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF

the size of its fighting force.18
Preface

Viewed in terms of the structural balance of fighting power discussed above, first,
there has been a notable increase in the deployment of multirole fighter craft capable of airto-ground attack. As shown in Figure 1, the proportion of interceptor aircraft declined from

Chapter Summary

eighty percent to forty percent between 1985 and 2015. Second, there has been greater diversification of combat support craft, but despite the increase in the number of deployed combat
support craft, they still do not represent a sufficient proportion of overall total aircraft.
There has been steady progress in the deployment of fourth-generation fighters, andIntroduction

in 2010, the PLAAF’s number of fourth-generation fighter craft surpassed that of Taiwan.
The Table 2-1 shows the situation for the main varieties of fighters.
Looking at bombers, the old version of the H-6 has been in use for many years, but it
is said that the updated version, the H-6K, has an effective range of 2,000 kilometers and can

Chapter 1

carry the CJ-10 (DF-10) air-to-ground cruise missile, and the introduction of the D-30KP2
engine aims to increase its range to 3,500 kilometers.19 This could put Guam within H-6K
striking range, and attention is being paid to how, as mentioned above, it has entered the West
Pacific several times recently for training exercises. As of 2015, thirty-six H-6K bombers have

Chapter 2

been deployed with the PLAAF and this number can be expected to increase in the future.

Chapter 3

Figure 2-1: Trend in PLAAF force structure balance
100%
90%
80%

Chapter 4

70%
60%
50%

Conclusions

40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1985

1990

1995

2000
Support     

2005

2010

Ground attack     

2015InterceptionNote: aseline for categories is the 2015 edition. “Ground attack” refers to craft with ground attackBcapability; “interception” cites craft mainly used only for interception; “support” means othercombat craft for functions such as ISR, supply, or refueling.
Source: Prepared from annual editions of IISS, Military Balance.

27

Chapter 2

Table 2-1: Major fighters
Name

Generation

Type

Range (km)First flight orimport

PLAAF
deployment

J-7

3Interception

1,739-2,229

1966

1967

J-8/8II

3

Interception

1,898-2,148

1969/1984

1980/1988

JH-7A

N/A

FighterBomber

3,698

2002

2004

J-10

4

Interception

1,648

1998

2003

Su-27/J-11

4

Interception

3,530

1992/1998

1992/2000

J-11B/BS

4.5

Multirole

3,530

2004

2007?

Su-30MKK

4.5

Multirole

3,000

2000

2000

J-16

4.5

Multirole

3,000

2011?

2014

J-11D

4.5

Multirole

Unknown

2015

Under
development

J-20

5

Multirole/
stealthUnknown

2011

Under
development

J-31

5

Multirole/
stealthUnknown

2012

Under
development

Su-35

4.5

Multirole

3,600

Under
negotiation

Undernegotiation

Source: Paul Jackson ed., IHS Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft: Development and Production, 20152016 (IHS, 2015).

(2)	Combat Support Aircraft: Expansion of the Early Warning System
In order to increase its territorial control capabilities, the Chinese military must beable to identify the location and movement of aircraft, ships, and other elements in agiven area.

a. Early Warning and Control Craft
The PLAAF has at least four of the KJ-2000 (Kongjian 2000) early warning, command, and control craft currently in use. The KJ-2000 has been called the Chinese AWACS,
and using its phased-array radar, it is said to be capable of simultaneously tracking sixty toa hundred targets within a range of 470 kilometers. The original plan called for developmentof an early warning, command, and control craft based on the Il-76 transport with installation of the Phalcon phased-array radar to be obtained from Israel. In 2000, however, theUnited States pressured Israel into breaking their contract, and China developed its own version. This aircraft became capable of 24-hour operation in April 2013.20

28

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF

Despite the KJ-2000’s high-level functions, China’s inability to import large enoughPrefacenumbers of the Il-76 resulted in its development of the KJ-200 (also called the Gaoxin-5)
early warning aircraft, based on the Y-8 but with over eighty percent improvements.21 At
least four of the KJ-200 aircraft have been deployed by the PLAAF and were first publicly

Chapter Summary

displayed during the 2009 parade commemorating the sixtieth anniversary of the foundingof the People’s Republic.
A military parade in September
2015 was the stage for public introduc-

Introduction

tion of the KJ-500 early warning craft.
This was based on the Y-9, which in turn
was a further development of the Y-8,
and some media reports indicate that,

Chapter 1

like the American E-2D, the KJ-500 is athird-generation early warning craft.22

b. Variations on the Y-8
Chapter 2

China has used the Y-8 (Yun-8) transport as the basis for developing a wide range ofvariations, including early warning, reconnaissance and intelligence gathering, and electronic warfare applications. The 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy argues theneed for the PLAAF’s combat capability to shift from its traditional role of defense to a more

Chapter 3balanced form, indicating in particular the need for more combat support aircraft, including
tankers, long-range surveillance craft, and early warning, command, and control craft.23 To
achieve such variation, China is said to be taking as its model the US use of the C-130J as
the basis for development of a variety of combat support aircraft.24

Chapter 4

China started production of the Y-8 in the 1980s, based on a license for the Soviet
An-12. It has been revamped a number of times since that period primarily as a PLAN aircraft. In the 1990s it was outfitted with the Skymaster radar system imported from Great

Conclusions

Britain and used as the Y-8J maritime monitoring aircraft.25
At the end of the 1990s, China launched a high-tech development project called theGaoxin Project, and the variations on the Y-8 were developed as part of that project.
Development and use are also underway for the Y-9 transport. This model is a medium-class transport based on the civilian Y-8F-600 aircraft and went into development in2001. It is estimated to have a payload of over 20 tons. Like the KJ-200, which is based on
the same airframe and was produced simultaneously, the Y-9 is an improvement on the Y-8
and is referred to as a Third Type Platform under the Gaoxin Project.26

29

Chapter 2

Table 2-2: Gaoxin ProjectNo.
deployed

Remarks

Electronic
reconnaissance

PLAAF 4(none)Y-8JB (Gaoxin-2)

Electronic
reconnaissance

PLAN 4(none)

Y-8G (Gaoxin-3)

Electronic warfare/electronic
reconnaissance

PLAAF 7(none)

Y-8T (Gaoxin-4)

Command and control

PLAAF 3(none)

KJ-200 (Gaoxin-5)

Early warning

PLAAF 4Same as PLAN Y-8W

Y-8Q (Gaoxin-6)

Anti-submarine patrol

PLAN(Note 1)

Seen as much inferior to
P-3C and similar models inflight performance (Note 2)

Y-8XZ (Gaoxin-7)

Electronic warfare/psychological warfare

PLAAF 2(none)Y-9JB (Gaoxin-8)

Electronic warfare/electronic
reconnaissance

PLAN(Note 3)

Also called the Chinese
EP-3 (Note 4)

KJ-500 (Gaoxin-9) ?

Early warning, command,and control

PLAAF

New model based on Y-9

Name

Role

Y-8CB (Gaoxin-1)

Y-9EZ (Gaoxin-10); Y-9G (Gaoxin-11) is under development as successor to Y-8G (Note 5)(Note 1) “China Fields New Maritime Patrol and Anti-submarine Y-8/Y-9 Variant,” IHS Jane’s Defence
Weekly, June 18, 2015.
(Note 2) “深度 ：解放军反潜能力依然薄弱 ：高新6号远逊P-3C” [Seeking the Essence: PLA Still Weak in
Anti-submarine Capability: Gaoxin 6 Lacks the Range of the P-3C], 新浪 [Sina], December
14, 2013.
(Note 3) “Japan Intercepts New Chinese GX-8 ELINT Aircraft,” IHS Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 6,
2014; “Chinese Special Mission Aircraft Cross Okinawa into Pacific,” IHS Jane’s Defence
Weekly, December 8, 2014.
(Note 4) “四渡宫古反介入 ：试析我军机如何密集穿越宫古水道” [Passing Over Miyako Four Times,
Opposing Intervention: Attempting to Analyze How Our Military Aircraft Were Able to Brazenly
Pass Through the Miyako Strait], 新浪 [Sina], December 14, 2014; “解放軍新型高新8号電子偵
察機照片曝光” [Photo Released of New PLA Electronic Reconnaissance Aircraft Gaoxin-8], 凤凰电视 [Phoenix TV], January 8, 2015; “高新八号情报器曝光 ：绝非南海撞机EP-3山寨品”[Intelligence Aircraft Gaoxin-8 Introduced: This Is No Copy of the EP-3 Involved in Air Collision
over the South China Sea], 环球网 [Huanqiu.com], May 9, 2014.
(Note 5) “Focus: New Chinese EW/ECM Aircraft GX-11/Y-9G,” Air Recognition, January 5, 2015.
Source: Paul Jackson ed., IHS Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft: Development and Production, 20152016 (IHS, 2015).

30

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF

c. Large-scale Transports and In-flight Refueling Tankers
PrefaceGiven the importance of strategic force projection capability, one of China’s weak27

nesses has been the relative lack of progress in its use of large-scale transport craft. The
Ilyushin Aviation Complex has been unable to abide by the schedule for supplying the Il-76

Chapter Summary

aircraft as specified in the import contract with Russia, so that deployment of the Il-76 has
not proceeded as planned and only sixteen are in use. Designed as mid-size transports, theY-8 and Y-9 innately have limits to their transport capacity.
China has only ten of its H-6U in-flight refueling tankers, all of which are an older

Introduction

model, so that in-flight refueling capacity is pushing its limits.28 Since large-scale transportplanes can become the basis for in-flight refueling tankers, China is also placing its hopes fora solution to its in-flight refueling problem on beefing up its development of large-scaletransports.

Chapter 1

In 2011, China concluded a contract with Ukraine for the purchase of three Il-78 aircraft. Articles in the media indicate that the Il-78 were deployed in 2014.29 Using the Il-78 as
an in-flight refueling tanker has made it possible to fuel the Su-30MKK and the KJ-2000,
which is said to more than double their combat radius.

Chapter 2

In the future, the Y-20 large-scale domestic transport, currently under development,
will play an important role. The Y-20 is seen as having a payload capacity of 66 tons andachieved its maiden flight in January 2013.30 At present, however, its engines cannot produce
sufficient thrust, so it seems unlikely to go into regular use for the time being.

Chapter 3d. Unmanned Aircraft
China has been very enthusiastic regarding the military applications of unmanned aircraft, and has already been making full use of unmanned air vehicles (UAVs) for ISR pur-

Chapter 4

poses. As of the beginning of 2011, the PLAAF is said to have been using over 280 UAVs.31
China first introduced the CH-1 high altitude, long endurance unmanned air vehicle(UAV/HALE) in the 1980s. Later, in 1994, it imported the Harpy UAV fighter from Israel.

Conclusions

Particular attention is being paid atpresent to the attack capabilities of UAVs.
The CH-4 UAV fighter can be used for reconnaissance, monitoring, and attack andwas first made public as part of the “Peace
Mission 2014” exercises.32 The CH-4A canremain airborne for 30 hours and has arange of 3,500 kilometers, while the CH-4B
is said capable of fourteen hours of flightwith a range of 1,600 kilometers.33 The

CH-4 UAV (IHS Jane’s [online news module])

31

Chapter 2

CH-4 was also used in July 2015 to provide reconnaissance on the extent of damage fromthe earthquake in Xinjiang.34 The BZK-005, JWP-02, and GJ-1 were presented to the publicduring the military parade on September 3, 2015.

(3) Seeking Greater Domestic Production
China is trying to achieve greater domestic production of its combat aircraft. While
China seems to be making great strides in its technological capabilities, so far it has still
been unable to free itself from heavy reliance on Russian technology. The main bottleneck
has been engine development.35 China has continued its efforts to develop domestic engines,
but its results have still fallen short of Russian engines in such areas as reliability.
The two engines which have been developed and put into use in recent years are theWS-9 and WS-10. The WS-9, which generates 9.9 tons of thrust, has been produced underlicense for the Spey engine from Rolls-Royce, and is being used on the JH-7. The WS-10 is
produced drawing on technology for the Russian AL-31FN engine and has been used on the
J-10 and J-11B since 2009. It is said, however, to take twice as long as the AL-31FN to reachsufficient levels of thrust and still has some problems in reliability. China purchased over
200 of the AL-31FN series engines from Russia between 2006 and 2012, of which somewere used for the J-11B.36
Of the various engines currently under development, particular attention is being paid
to the WS-20 engine planned for use on the Y-20, the WS-15 to be used on the J-20, and the
WS-18, which is a derivative of the D-30KP-2 and will be used on the H-6K.

3.	Looking to the Chinese Air Force of the
FutureWhile the PLAAF has set in place its guiding concept of integrated aerospace capabilities and the ability to conduct simultaneous offensive and defensive operations as its direction for future development, it will likely require a considerable amount of time to achievethat concept. The PLAAF will most likely continue to work in that direction over the nextten years.
In the article by Ma Xiaotian and Tian Xiusi cited earlier, the authors raise stealthcapabilities, unmanned craft, adoption of artificial intelligence, and long-range, high-speed
precision operations as goals for the future. Further, according to Jiji Press, the PLA Air
Force Command College produced a report in November 2014 presenting the PLAAF’s
long-term strategy. The report is said to stress strengthening PLAAF activities in the West32

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF

Pacific through 2030, as well as the necessity of developing nine types of strategic equipspeed air-to-ship cruise missiles, heavy transports, and UAV attack aircraft.

37

Prefacement, including new strategic bombers, terminal high altitude area defense missiles, highGiven the

PLAAF’s strategic policies and topics for attention described above, it is no surprise that
Chapter Summary

such a report should appear.
The PLAAF can be expected to aim for the following types of goal in the future. First
would be progress in strengthening its combat support aircraft as a way of overcoming its
current weaknesses. Although China has rapidly expanded its variety of combat support

Introduction

aircraft, it still has deployed few of these. For example, 2015 version of The Science ofMilitary Strategy published by the PLA National Defense University indicates that the US
military maintains the ratio of attack, defense, and support in its fighting forces at 2:1:1, and
it is clear that the PLAAF has not yet attained such a balance.38

Chapter 1

To achieve that balance, it will be important to develop heavy transport and in-flightrefueling craft. To attain sufficient capability in areas such as projecting military force andin-flight refueling, some research suggests that the PLAAF will need at least four hundredadditional Y-20s.39 Emphasis will be placed on speeding up Y-20 development, and if such

Chapter 2

efforts are successful, the number of deployed Y-20s will likely grow rapidly. Developmentof early-warning and intelligence gathering aircraft will continue, as well as efforts at mass
production. It is also likely that China will sense a need to move forward with integration ofearly warning and coordinated command functions.

Chapter 3

Second, there will be efforts to increase attack capabilities, most likely through continued deployment and development of fighters capable of attacking targets on the ground.
Stealth capability and UAVs will be needed to increase the ability of fighter aircraft to penetrate the enemy’s air defense to conduct attacks. China is already engaged in such efforts,

Chapter 4

as shown by its research and development on the J-20 fighter and the Yilong and Xianglongterminal high altitude long endurance UAV craft, which are expected to reach the deployment stage in the future. Importance will likely be placed on development of supersonic orConclusions

hypersonic air-to-ground cruise missiles for ground attacks. At the aviation trade show heldin Zhuhai in 2014, a supersonic missile with a ramjet engine called the CX-1 was unveiled,and attention will be paid to future development in this area.
In addition, China is strongly aware of the need to develop long-range bombers.
During the 2014 National People’s Congress, PLAAF Equipment Department director Yuan
Qiang noted that in order to respond to China’s strategic needs as a maritime power, the
PLAAF must strengthen its production of long-range bombers, heavy transports, earlywarning, command, and control craft, and tankers, increase its ability to conduct operations
on the open seas as quickly as possible, and provide powerful strategic support to protection
40

of China’s maritime sovereignty. Since there still seem to be many problems to be resolved

33

Chapter 2

in the development of long-range bombers, including the question of engines forsuch craft, near-term answers to suchproblems may be difficult. Although emphasis is currently being placed on production of the H-6K, some parties view
this only as unavoidable compensation
for the delay in research and development on long-range bombers.41
Third, the PLAAF will seek
greater capabilities in air defense and missile defense. Discussion is being directed at theneed for integrated ballistic missiles for air, space, and ground targets, early-warning ability
dealing with cruise missiles and stealth aircraft, and defense systems to counter air defense
missiles.42 China appears to have secured some level of defense capability in terminal-phasemissile interception by importing the S-300PMU1 and S-300PMU2 and deploying the HQ-9
and HQ-15/18. It is also continuing to make progress in negotiations with Russia for purchase of the S-400, which has a range of 400 kilometers, so that it should achieve greater
capacity in this respect as well. Progress is also continuing in development of radar which
can detect stealth aircraft.43
And fourth, one longer-term concern being discussed is how to maintain the ability to
conduct and defend against air and space attacks so as to further its ability to carry out integrated aerospace operations. Such discussions assume that the big powers will find themselves in greater competition in space, meaning the need to protect one’s own space assets
while being able to attack the space assets of other countries. At present, however, the
PLAAF has neither the equipment nor the jurisdiction to deal with space, making this a topic
for further attention.
(Author: Shinji Yamaguchi)

34

Revising Its Strategic Posture and Expanding Capabilities —The PLAAF

ColumnPreface

The Gaoxin Project

Chapter Summary

The many variations on the Y-8 are the result of the Gaoxin Project. It is not completely clear how the Gaoxin Project as a whole is reflected in overall national defense,
but it appears to deal with advanced technology and in particular with the development of the technology for informationized warfare.
The Gaoxin Project appears to have started up on direction from the highest lead-

Introduction

ership ranks and to follow directions by the Party Central Committee, the StateCouncil, and Central Military Commission.44 In December 2014, speaking at an
expanded Party group meeting in the Aviation Industry Corporation of China, corporation chairman and Party secretary Lin Zuoming passed along the gist of talks given by
Xi Jinping at the Armament Work Conference and the Work Conference of the Central

Chapter 1

Gaoxin Project Leading Small Group.45 Aside from this article, there has been no otherinformation on the existence of a Central Gaoxin Project Leading Small Group, so it ishard to say that this information is definitive. Assuming that it does exist, it is still
unclear whether Xi Jinping spoke as chairman of the leading small group or whether
he simply attended the meeting. Still, the use of “Central” in its name would suggest

Chapter 2that it pertains directly to the Party Central Committee, and if the article is accurate,
this would indicate that the Party Central Committee views the Gaoxin Project as animportant matter.
While it is unclear just when the Gaoxin Project started up, we can trace it back at

Chapter 3

least to 2001, and there is some indication that it may have been launched in the late
1990s. On June 22, 2001, Party secretary for the China Aviation Industry Corporation
Liu Gaozhuo said that in development of the aviation industry, the Gaoxin Project
would speed up the development of advanced aeronautical science technology andcontribute to the Party’s efforts to build up the economy, unify the fatherland, protect

Chapter 4

world peace, and promote common development during the new century.46 On July 3,
an article in the Zhongguo Hangkong Bao [China Aviation News] depicted the Gaoxin
Project as a major undertaking which will influence the great efforts to unify the fatherland and contribute to the maintenance of world peace.47

Conclusions

The PLAAF in particular seems to be the focus of the Gaoxin Project. A 2009 article in the Jiefangjun Bao [PLA Daily] said that during 2008 alone, the PLAAF had
conducted tests covering over one hundred categories in the Gaoxin Project. The
article also held that the completion of the Gaoxin Project would ensure that the
PLAAF could carry out the multifaceted military responsibilities of an air force.48
The categories which relate to the Y-8 and Y-9 series of planes deal with early warning and control and ISR, topics which appear to play a central role in China’s goal of
informationization, and we can assume that accounts for the importance placed on theirrole. It’s very likely that a string of events—the 1999 mistaken American bombing of a
Chinese embassy, the 2000 failure of plans to purchase the Phalcon phased-array radar

35

Chapter 2

system from Israel due to pressure by
the United States, and the 2001 aerial
collision with a US military aircraft—brought home strongly to China that itneeded to conduct its own development of the most advanced technology.
This realization in turn seems to have
led to the Gaoxin Project. We can expectthat the major items relating to the Y-8
Y-9 intelligence gathering craft (Joint Staff
Office of Japan)

and Y-9 in the future will include development of aircraft for early warning andcontrol, electronic warfare, electronic
reconnaissance, in-flight refueling, andanti-submarine patrols, among others.

36

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

Chapter 3
Expanding and Strengthening
Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

Chapter 3

The PLA’s Second Artillery Force (PLASAF; reorganized into the PLA Rocket Forceat the end of December 2015) is China’s strategic missile force. As such, its mission is toserve as a nuclear deterrent, carry out nuclear counterstrikes, and perform precision attacks
with conventional missiles. According to President Xi Jinping, the PLASAF plays a central
role in China’s strategic deterrence capabilities, provides strategic support to China’s position as a major power, and is a cornerstone in the protection of China’s security.
After deciding in the latter half of the 1950s to develop nuclear weapons and ballistic
missiles, China achieved success in missile development in the early 1960s and in October
1964 successfully conducted its first nuclear test. Against such a background, the Second
Artillery was established on July 1, 1966, as the military’s ballistic missile force to handle
China’s nuclear capabilities. Until the 1980s, the PLASAF dealt only with nuclear missiles,
but since the latter half of the 1990s, it has greatly developed its conventional missile force
in keeping with the new concept of both nuclear and conventional preparedness.
The Second Artillery is under the direct command of the Central Military Commission(CMC), and its central headquarters are in Qinghe on the outskirts of Beijing commandingits 130,000 personnel. The headquarters contain the central command, Political Department,
Logistical Department, and Equipment Department. The PLASAF’s six main missile bases
are named Base 51 through Base 56 and are operated on a par with the PLA’s group armies.
Multiple brigades are stationed at each of these bases. For training purposes, the PLASAF
has Base 22 (technical support training) and Base 28 (combat training), in addition to which
it has units for construction/production and behind-the-lines support as well as five research
centers and four education centers directly under PLASAF aegis.1

1.	Nuclear Force Aiming at Assured SecondStrike Capacity(1) Principles of Nuclear Strategy
Due to a lack of transparency regarding China’s nuclear weapons, it is difficult to analyze the number of nuclear ballistic missiles and nuclear warheads with any great degree of
reliability. It is possible, however, to highlight a number of principles applied throughout its
nuclear strategy.
First is the primacy of the political. Mao Zedong placed great weight on the politicalsignificance of possessing nuclear weapons, and since China was limited in its means ofdelivering and otherwise using such weapons, its doctrine regarding actual use of theseweapons in real warfare was far from highly elaborated. As the missile force later developed38

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

and other factors came into play, increasing study was directed to a doctrine regarding theirPrefaceuse, but the principle of political primacy has been unyielding.
Xi Jinping has characterized the PLASAF as being a strategic force directly controlled by the Party Center and the CMC and stressed that whatever the circumstances, it

Chapter Summary

must be loyal politically. The 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy, published by
the PLA’s Academy of Military Science, also stresses “centralized coordination” as a basic
principle for SAF operations, explaining that all decisions regarding warfare by the PLASAF’s
nuclear missile units are in the hands of the CMC. All decisions, it continues, are to be madeIntroduction

by the CMC, including the method of deterrence, the scale and timing of nuclear counterstrikes, and the targeting.2 The PLASAF is the military force which puts those decisions into
action through its use of nuclear missiles, but it does not itself determine nuclear strategy.
Second, China has pledged not to make first use of its nuclear weapons. Ever since it

Chapter 1

possessed nuclear weapons in 1964, China has been adhering to its declaratory policy of nofirst use. Zhou Enlai declared that China would never be the first to use nuclear weapons at
any time and under any circumstances and would not use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states.3

Chapter 2

China once again affirmed this policy as part of its first explanation of its nuclear strategy to the outside world in its 2006 Defense White Paper. This explained that China’s nuclear
strategy was one of using its nuclear weapons for self-defense, and its purpose was to prevent
other countries from using nuclear weapons against China or resorting to nuclear threats to

Chapter 3

do so. The White Paper further stated that China unconditionally assents that it will never at
any time or under any circumstances be the first to use nuclear weapons and will never use
nuclear weapons or the threat of their use against non-nuclear weapon states or regions.
The third point is that while China has a limited number of nuclear warheads, it is

Chapter 4

steadily increasing that number. It is estimated that China’s arsenal of nuclear warheads in2015 amounted to 260, clearly far less than those of Russia, 7,500, and of the United States(US), which had 7,260 nuclear warheads. Even though the Chinese arsenal has not necessar-

Conclusions

ily been growing at a rapid pace, it did roughly double over the preceding ten years.
Fourth, the nuclear warheads are not mated with missiles during peacetime and arestored separately, subject to centralized management. According to Mark Stokes, Base 22 in
Qinlingshan, Taibai County, Shaanxi Province is a centralized management facility for nuclear warheads; warheads move back and forth between Base 22 and the six missile bases,
Table 3-1: Holdings of Nuclear Warheads
Year

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

No.

130

145

176

186

240

240

240

250

250

260

Source: Yearly editions of the SIPRI Yearbook.

39

Chapter 3

so that under normal circumstance, few warheads are stored at individual missile bases.4
It is unclear how nuclear warheads for strategic nuclear submarines are handled.
When such nuclear submarines are out at sea on patrol, however, they represent little strategic value if they are not armed with warheads, so it is appropriate to assume that they normally carry the nuclear warheads.

(2) Issues regarding China’s Deterrence Strategy(a)	Nuclear Deterrence and Nuclear Counterstrikes: Seeking Assured
Second Strike Capabilities
Much attention and discussion has been directed to the question of just how China
perceives deterrence5 and what is its nuclear deterrence strategy.6 Information about China’s
nuclear forces and nuclear strategy is unclear and limited, making it hard to arrive at any
definitive conclusions. In setting forth concepts which could explain China’s nuclear deterrence strategy, past research has used phrases such as “counter-coercion,”7 “minimum deterrence,”8 “assured retaliation,”9 and “certainty of uncertainty.”10
It seems appropriate to interpret China’s nuclear deterrence strategy as a melding of“counter-coercion” dating back to the days of Mao and a form of “minimum deterrence” thathas developed since the latter half of the 1980s. One prominent feature of this concept is therelatively great weight placed on psychological and political elements.
For instance, “counter-coercion” seems to imply the ability not to be coerced against
a background of nuclear threats from another country, using China’s nuclear weapons and“people’s war” to forestall bending to another country’s demands. In terms of Mao’s view of
nuclear weapons, first, even though nuclear weapons have great value as a threat, thoseweapons alone do not determine the outcome of a war, making nuclear weapons a kind of“paper tiger.” Thus, second, China should have nuclear weapons as a means of resisting
compulsion by the major nuclear powers. Mao’s nuclear deterrence strategy was an existential deterrence whereby the existence of nuclear weapons in itself had a deterrent effect,
which can reasonably be combined with Mao’s reliance on “people’s war” to bring victoryin the end without having to yield to nuclear weapons’ use or the threat of their use.11“Counter-coercion” today remains one of China’s goals, and the Academy of Military
Sciences and various researchers continue to develop such arguments.12
Next, as China continued to build up its nuclear weaponry, it came to be thought that
China’s ability to conduct counterstrikes in response to an enemy’s nuclear attack in itself
had a deterrent effect. Today’s Chinese nuclear deterrence represents both a counterstrike
which would cause “unacceptable damage” to the enemy as well as China’s mere potential
to make such a counterstrike, meaning that the enemy would have to think twice before
conducting a nuclear attack.13 As such, this concept can be viewed as close to “minimum

40

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

deterrence.” The problem, however, is the standard for unacceptable damage. For example,
Preface

Robert McNamara set that standard at loss of twenty percent of the population and fifty percent of industrial capacity.14 If this is taken as the standard, then China’s arsenal of nuclear
warheads clearly falls short. Many Chinese researchers, however, maintain that China calcu-

Chapter Summary

lates the level of unacceptable damage as far lower than other nuclear states.15
There are definitely some doubts as to whether China’s limited nuclear capabilities
represent a credible second strike capacity. What must also be considered in this respect,however, is that China has given great weight to psychological and political factors in its

Introduction

calculations of nuclear deterrence. The 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy
maintains that the nuclear deterrence effect may vary depending on the specific circumstances faced by the other country and cannot be argued as an absolute applying to all countries; consideration must be given to such factors as the other party’s psychology, form ofChapter 1

government, and values system.16 Accordingly, how another country views “unacceptabledamage” will differ depending on that country’s politics and society.
The 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy also argues that leaving suchfactors as the actual level of China’s nuclear force somewhat ambiguous injects uncertainty

Chapter 2

into the other party’s policymaking, which in turn can elevate the effectiveness of deterrence
based on limited nuclear war capability. It further maintains that simultaneously sending out
different messages can also enhance a deterrent effect. In other words, while it is normallydesirable for a central command and lower levels to send the same message, at times, having

Chapter 3

different people send out different messages can add to the other party’s uncertainty.17
Yet another characteristic is the deliberation over how to transmit a determination.
The Science of Second Artillery Campaigns presents a variety of specific means to publicize
when an important decision has been made regarding deterrence; such means would include

Chapter 4

providing the media with news and photographs on new types of missiles, using military
parades, inspection of military units by leaders, and similar opportunities to display militarymight, troop movements, missile launch exercises, and intimidation by making it known thatConclusions

the threshold for introduction of nuclear weapons into conventional warfare is being lowered.18 Such approaches make it clear that transmission of China’s determination is seen as
a further step in propaganda operations. From the Mao Zedong years through the Deng
Xiaoping years, it was thought that hiding one’s power from the enemy would produce uncertainty in the enemy’s mind, but more recently, the view is that exposure of at least someelements of China’s military might can make plain China’s power and will.
Since the number of warheads in the Chinese nuclear arsenal is limited and since only
those surviving an enemy’s first strike could be used in retaliation, they would be directed attargets that the enemy would most fear being attacked, that China would have that capacity
to attack, and that would have a significant, across-the-board impact on strategy.19 Specific

41Chapter 3

targets seem to include the other country’s cities and important infrastructure, and in thatsense, this approach to deterrence seems close to the “counter value” addressed in deterrence
theory. The 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy also notes that while nuclear
attacks could be directed at the enemy’s military forces or at its major cities, attacking theenemy’s military is an aggressive strategy used by a state with a strong nuclear strategy; thisobservation could suggest that China is looking more at cities as targets.20 In Chinese discussion of such topics, however, it can be uncertain just where the dividing line stands between
counter value and counter force (i.e., attacks against an enemy’s nuclear forces).
So long as China advocates the principle of no first use, it supposes that the enemy
will attack China first. Its nuclear missile launch sites and other facilities thus must remain
usable after the enemy’s first strike. Given this fact, military thinkers argue the importanceof building tunnels and other facilities which make use of natural conditions, constructing
false targets and military bases, and releasing false information to protect China’s nuclear
missile bases.21(b)	Discussions on Nuclear Deterrence Strategy and Qualitative
Improvements to the Nuclear Force
The problem that has faced China since the latter half of the 1990s has been that its
ability to conduct assured second strikes can be threatened by the development of othercountries’ military technology, including precision strike weaponry and missile defense capabilities of the US and other countries, as well as their more recent conventional prompt
global strike capabilities using supersonic or hypersonic conventional missiles.22 Such trends
are related, first, to the domestic Chinese discussion of nuclear strategy and, second, to theattempts to achieve qualitative improvement in Chinese nuclear forces.
First, debate is underway in China on whether or not it should maintain its current
defensive posture. So far, at least, such debate has not come down strongly on the side ofchanging China’s nuclear strategy. Debate is also looking at whether China should continue
to adhere to the no first use principle, or whether China should make that principle conditional or even discard it. In the Chinese Defense White Paper for 2012, there was no statement of no first use. Later a Defense Ministry spokesman stated that did not represent
abandonment of no first use, but the failure of this principle to appear in the Defense White
Paper has sparked a variety of conjectures.
Discussion which seeks changes in the principle of no first use makes the following sortof points.23 First, this principle blocks a flexible deterrence policy. Second, the principle of nofirst use should not be applied to nuclear bases and other important strategic targets by conventional precision-strike weapons. And third, the principle of no first use should not be adhered to in the case of large-scale intervention against Chinese military action toward Taiwan.

42

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

At present, however, this does not mean that the principle of no first use has been
Prefaceabandoned or revised. It is expected that such changes would carry a heavy cost. There could
well be strong institutional or political resistance to changing a principle that stretches backto the days of Mao. It is also possible that changes to this principle would be taken as a politi-

Chapter Summary

cal and strategic signal of changes in China’s external relations, particularly in its relationship with the US. Nuclear strategy is first of all an issue at the level of national strategy,
which is set by China’s political leadership, and such decisions are not necessarily determined by military rationale alone. It is also possible that to some extent, the political leader-

Introduction

ship may be permitting such debate as a diversionary action toward the US.
Second, a variety of measures are being taken, or at least considered, to ensure second-strike capability, which can be influenced by new military technology. Here, it is considered important to improve nuclear missiles’ ability to survive attacks and find new

Chapter 1

methods for debilitating an enemy’s missile defense system.
Some measures thought to have already been introduced to increase missiles’ survivability include switching from launching missiles from silos to primary use of mobile launchsystems such as transporter erector launchers (TEL), using solid propellants instead of liquid

Chapter 2

fuels, and concealment of missile launch bases and positions.
One matter which will likely receive more attention in future is early warning. Xi
Jinping has emphasized that China is building a tactical system whereby, in either peacetime
or wartime, a high degree of early warning and conducting attacks at any moment will be

Chapter 3

possible.24 The 2015 edition of The Science of Military Strategy by the PLA National Defense
University also stresses the importance of having a higher level of early warning capacity
and strengthening China’s capacity for rapid response.25 While China indeed appears to befortifying its ground-based early warning radar,26 it is unclear whether China does not yet

Chapter 4

have any early warning satellites or, if it does have them, is not yet putting them to use,which leaves questions regarding its capabilities.
Since China is stressing immediate response capability, it is open to argument whether

Conclusions

it is seeking “launch on warning” capabilities. (Launch on warning refers to attacking theenemy in a situation where the enemy has decided on or initiated procedures for a nuclear
attack but has not yet launched the attack, for example through launching a ballistic missile.) Nuclear warheads, however, are not mated during peacetime, and the PLASAF isunder CMC command and does not have the authority to launch nuclear missiles on its own,
so any counterstrike will likely require some time. Thus it is unlikely that China can resort
to launch on warning.
As already pointed out in the preceding chapter, China is also aware of the importanceof missile defense. If the PLASAF is involved in the process, it would likely be throughground-launched mid-course missile interception. It has been reported that China in fact

43

Chapter 3

conducted ballistic missile interception tests in January 2010, January 2013, and July 2014.27
Some countermeasures to defeat missile defense have already been introduced andresearch into other measures is underway. Some examples of such measures would include
multiple warheads, supersonic or hypersonic missiles, trajectory control, stealth technology,
and electronic interference.28(3) Trends in Delivery Means
The introduction of a new generation of mid- and long-range ballistic missiles has
been underway since the latter half of the 2000s, with the intermediate-range DF-3 missile
and the intercontinental ballistic DF-4 missile moving toward retirement.
China has achieved notable qualitative improvement in its long-range missiles, introducing the solid-fuel, TEL system DF-31 and DF-31A missiles as well as a multiple-warhead version of the DF-5A. A number of launch tests have also been conducted for thesolid-fuel, TEL system, multiple-warhead DF-41.
Regarding transportability, in the past a number of launch points have been identified
and the military moved missiles among those points, but present research is aiming for more
and wider mobility.
In addition, as already touched on in the first two chapters, other nuclear warheaddelivery means are still under development or under study. It is unclear whether the Jin-classstrategic nuclear submarine has yet embarked on patrols, and even if it is conducting patrols,
this would be only in the initial stage. There is discussion of whether strategic bombers arebeing considered for nuclear weapons, but this is likely a step for the future.

Table 3-2: Deployment of Nuclear-Mounted Ballistic Missiles
Name

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

DF-2

50

0

0

0

0

0

0

DF-3/3A

60

60

60+

30+

2

2

2

DF-4

4

6

10+

20+

20

10

10

DF-5/5A

2

2

7

20+

20

20

20

DF-5B

0

0

0

0

0

0

?

DF-21/21A

0

0

10

50+

33

80

80

DF-26

0

0

0

0

0

0

?

DF-31

0

0

0

0

6

12

12

DF-31A

0

0

0

0

0

24

30

Source: Revised and updated from Anthony Cordesman, Chinese Strategy and Military Power in 2014
(Washington D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), also using annual
editions of IISS, Military Balance.

44

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

Table 3-3: China’s Major Long-Range Ballistic Missiles

MobileLiquid1971

None5,500+

Intercontinental

Silo

Liquid1980

NoneDF-5/5A

13,000+Intercontinental

Silo

Liquid

1981

None

DF-5B

13,000Intercontinental

Silo

Liquid2015

MIRVmounted

DF-21/21A

2,150Intercontinental

Mobilelauncher

Solid

1991

None

DF-31

7,000+

Intercontinental

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2006

None

DF-31A

11,000+Intercontinental

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2007

None

DF-41

15,000?

Intercontinental

MobilelauncherSolid

Not yetdeployed

MIRVmounted

DF-26

4,000

Intermediaterange

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2015?

Nuclear andconventional

3,000

DF-4

Chapter 2

Intermediaterange

DF-3A

Chapter 1

Remarks

Introduction

Deployed

Type

Chapter Summary

Fuel

Range

Preface

LaunchsystemName

Source: James C. O’Halloran, IHS Jane’s Weapons: Strategic 2015-2016 (IHS, 2015).

Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Conclusions

2. Development of Conventional Missiles
One notable trend for the PLASAF since the 1990s is the great increase in its conventional missiles. In 1985, all of the PLASAF missiles were designed to carry nuclear warheads, but as of 2012, the number of nuclear-capable missiles had fallen to forty percent.29
Starting in 1985, the Chinese view of the inevitability of world war has transitioned
to policies in preparation for more limited local wars.30 Since the Gulf War of 1991, there has

45

Chapter 3

also been progress toward modernization of the PLA through improvement in its conventional weapons. Against this backdrop, 1993 saw the establishment of the first conventional
missile unit, the 815th Brigade (Leping, Jiangxi Province) at Base 52, which was equippedwith the DF-15 short-range ballistic missile. During the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis of 19951996, the PLASAF conducted missile launch exercises using the DF-15.31 The Taiwan issue
provided China with an occasion to concentrate on expanding its conventional ballistic missile force. Following the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis and on through the 2000s, China deployed a large number of short-range ballistic missiles as a threat to counter Taiwan’s leaning
toward independence.
As more and more facets of activity came to rely on information technology, the importance of precision strike capabilities has grown as well, and China has focused on conventional missiles and is increasing its capacity to impede US projection of force into otherregions. Its development of medium-range ballistic missiles is expanding China’s influence
beyond Taiwan and into the region as a whole.

(1) An Aggressive Conventional Missile Doctrine
Unlike nuclear missiles, conventional missiles are premised on being used in attacks.
According to The Science of Second Artillery Campaigns, conventional missile units apply theprinciple of “forestalling the enemy and striking with focus.”32 Here, “forestalling the enemy”
refers to moving before the enemy does and striking where the enemy is unsuspecting andunprepared. During the early stages of war, conventional missiles are to be used first, before
the enemy does so, and in the case of joint operations, they are to be used in advance of otherweapons. In the case of amphibious landing attacks on islands, the navy is expected to securecontrol of the waters, and for the navy to do so, the air force must secure control of the air. And
in securing control of the air, the PLASAF conventional missile forces can play a key role.
“Striking with focus” means to conduct precision strikes on important targets where
the enemy is weakest. The 2008 Defense White Paper identifies the mission of the PLASAF
conventional units as conducting precision medium- and long-range attacks on targets which
are strategically and tactically important to the enemy. The Science of Second Artillery
Campaigns defines the purpose of conventional missile attacks as disrupting the enemy’scommand structure, weakening the enemy’s military force and its ability to carry out extended operations, giving the enemy a psychological shock, and forestalling the enemy’s
military intervention. It further enumerates the types of locations to become targets of attack:command centers, radar and communication centers, missile bases, air force and naval bases,
energy facilities and electric power plants, and carrier strike groups.33
In other words, concentrating attacks on the nodes of the enemy’s command, control,
communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (C4ISR) and force

46

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

projection systems seems to be uppermost in mind for all of these discussions. The 2013 ediPreface

tion of The Science of Military Strategy posits that during joint operations, the PLASAF conventional missile units must first attack such targets as the enemy’s reconnaissance and early
warning systems, electronic countermeasure systems, air defense missile bases, and air force

Chapter Summary

bases to disrupt the enemy’s fighting structure and suppress his war-making ability. In special
circumstances, it notes, missiles should be used to attack the enemy’s military satellites.34
In such ways, the development of China’s potential to conduct precision strikes withconventional missiles has attracted the concern of the United States as an anti-access andIntroduction

area denial (A2AD) measure. That is to say, the capability to conduct precision strikes on theother party’s command and communication structure, bases, carrier strike groups and similartargets could mean that China would be able to block another party’s force projection into
East Asia. Without doubt, the development of China’s war fighting capabilities and the de-Chapter 1bates on strategy give considerable backing to such a viewpoint.
Debate on the future is being directed at something above and beyond A2AD. The
strategic significance of China’s ability to make precision strikes with conventional missiles
is receiving the recognition it deserves. According to the 2013 edition of The Science ofChapter 2

Military Strategy, the characteristics of deterrence in today’s military arena are (a) the “conventionalization” of deterrence capability (i.e., conventional missiles offer high technology,
high precision, and high flexibility); (b) turning deterrent measures into combat applications(tying displays of power to deterrence by applying conventional military power to limited

Chapter 3

actual engagements); and (c) use of multiple varieties of deterrence.35 Lora Saalman, Associate
Professor at the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies, maintains that China views longrange precision strikes by the US as involving strategic conventional weapons as a means to
reduce dependence on nuclear options while maintaining the dominant US position.36 If

Chapter 4

China is aiming for the ability to conduct long-range precision strikes on the same level as theUS, this will be even more significant than achieving A2AD.

Conclusions(2) Development of Ballistic and Cruise Missiles
China has made great strides forward, both quantitative and qualitative, in its ballistic
missiles and cruise missiles since the end of the 1990s.
In terms of quantity, China made major increases in the number of conventional ballistic missiles during the 2000s. In 1985 it had no conventional ballistic missiles, but since
the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1995-1996, China has made major increases in short-range
missiles, and since the latter half of the 2000s, it has been greatly building up its mediumrange missiles.
Turning to quality, China has greatly improved its potential to conduct precision
strikes. Hitting a target accurately is very important to operations using conventional

47

Chapter 3

Table 3-4: C hanges in the Number of Conventional Ballistic Missile Launchers
Deployed
1985

1990

1995

2000

2005
(Note 1)

2010

2015

DF-11/11A

0

0

Small
quantity

25

100-120

108

108

DF-15/15A

0

0

Small
quantity

25

70-80

96

144

DF-15B

0

0

0

0

0

0

Unknown

DF-16

0

0

0

0

0

0

12

DF-21C

0

0

0

0

0

36

36

DF-21D

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

DF-26

0

0

0

0

0

0

Unknown

DF-10A

0

0

0

0

0

54

54

Name

Note 1: For 2005, since Military Balance shows only the number of warheads, information is drawn
from Office of the Secretary of Defense, “Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security
Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2005,” p. 45.
Source: Revised and updated from Anthony Cordesman, Chinese Strategy and Military Power in 2014
(Washington D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2014), also using annual
editions of IISS, Military Balance.

missiles. According to a report by the RAND Corporation of the United States, analysis ofdifferences in efficiency according to a missile’s target accuracy and assuming that China
uses conventional short-range ballistic missiles to attack two points on a Taiwan runway
which is 3,050 meters long and 46 meters wide to render it unusable, it would require thirty
to forty missiles with a circular error probability (CEP) of 200 to 300 meters to accomplish
this goal. If the missiles have a CEP of under ten meters, only a few will be required to makethe runway unusable.37 In future, if China can increase the ISR capabilities of its space bases,
it will likely achieve greater target precision over a wider area.
China’s DF-11 and DF-15 short-range ballistic missiles have mainly been deployed atBase 52, directly across the strait from Taiwan. The new DF-16 is classified as a mediumrange missile, but it has a range of 1,000 kilometers and is also thought to be deployed acrossthe strait from Taiwan. A report from the US Department of Defense notes that as of 2015,
the number of short-range ballistic missile launchers was 200 to 300, with at least 1,200 missiles available.38 The DF-15B and DF-16 are said to offer very high accuracy, with a CEP ofless than ten meters.
Regarding intermediate-range missiles, China has deployed the DF-21C mediumrange ballistic missile and the DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile. The DF-21C’s range permits it to reach all of the countries in the region, and the DF-21 was used in 2007 for testing48

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

Table 3-5: Major Conventional Ballistic Missiles and Cruise Missiles
Range (km)DF-11

Short-range

280-350

DF-11A

Short-range

DF-15

Launchsystem

Solid

1992

600

350-530

Mobilelauncher

Solid

1998

200

Short-range

600

Mobilelauncher

Solid

1990

300

DF-15A

Short-range

600

Mobilelauncher

Solid

1996

30-45

DF-15B

Short-range

600

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2006

5-10

DF-16

Mediumrange

1,000

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2013

10?

DF-21C

Mediumrange

1,750

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2006

40-50

DF-21D

Mediumrange

1,550

Mobilelauncher

Solid

2006

<20

DF-26

Intermediaterange

4,000

MobilelauncherSolid

Unknown

Unknown

DF-10A

Cruise1,500+

Mobilelauncher

——

2007

10
Chapter 3

Mobilelauncher

Chapter 2

CEP (m)Chapter 1

Deployed

Introduction

Fuel

Chapter Summary

Type

Preface

Name

Source: IHS Jane’s Strategic Weapon 2015-2016.

in destroying a satellite. The DF-21 and DF-21A, however, have low target accuracy and are
Chapter 4thus regarded as probably being used for nuclear warheads.
The DF-21D is called a carrier-killer and in recent years has drawn marked attention
for its development and deployment.39 The development program for this model is thought

Conclusions

to have actually started at the time of the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1995-1996.40 At thattime the US Navy Seventh Fleet deployed carrier combat groups in the Taiwan Strait, butthere was nothing that China could do in reaction. This turned China’s attention to ways toprevent such a close approach by carrier strike groups in the future. Analysis conducted byAndrew S. Erickson, Associate Professor at the US Naval War College, indicates that while
the DF-21D may not be fully suited to combat applications, it is at least technologicallyequipped for such a role, and it is undeniable that a number of DF-21Ds have been deployed.41 The DF-21D was first publicly displayed on September 3, 2015, as part of theparade celebrating the seventieth anniversary of China’s victory over Japan in World War II.
Since it seems that only weapons which have already been deployed to some degree are49

Chapter 3

displayed in military parades, its appearance would seem to indicate that DF-21D
deployment is underway. It is thought tocombine inertial guidance and terminal
radar guidance. Since determination of
the target ship’s location is vital to antiship operations, both space-based ISR
and ground-based over-the-horizon radarserve

importantfunctions.

China’s

public display of the DF-21D may imply
that it possesses the ISR capabilities
needed for its operation.
The DF-26 first appeared in the
September 3, 2015, military parade. This
is China’s latest intermediate-range ballistic missile and has a range of 4,000
kilometers, putting Guam within its
range. The DF-26 is a dual-purpose
Figure 3-1: Range of Major Missiles①②③

Base 51▲
Base 54

Base 56▲
Base 22
Base 53

▲

▲ ▲
▲

▲

Base 55
Bay of Bengal④
Sea ofJapan

East China
Sea

Pacific Ocean

Base 52

South China
Sea

Guam

① DF-15B
600km② DF-16 1,000km③ DF-21D 1,500km④ DF-26 4,000km

Source: IHS Jane’s Strategic Weapon 2015-2016.

50

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

missile which can be mounted with either nuclear or conventional warheads. When carrying
Prefacea nuclear warhead, it is capable of immediate counterstrikes, and when fitted with a conventional warhead, it is said to offer precision strikes on an enemy’s bases and ships.42
Regarding China’s long-range ground-to-ground cruise missiles, the DF-10A has

Chapter Summary

been deployed43 and has a range above 1,500 kilometers. For guidance it relies on inertial
navigation, terrain contour matching, and digital image collation, and it uses GPS navigation
as well, with an apparent CEP of ten meters. Cruise missiles may present problems of speed
and the destructive force they can bring to bear, but they fly at low altitudes which permit

Introduction

them to evade radar, can correct course during flight, and employ turbofan engines, making
them less expensive than ballistic missiles and able to be mounted on a variety of platforms.
The CJ-10 cruise missile, an air-to-ground variety, is mounted on the H-6K bomber.

Chapter 1

3. The Future of the PLASAF

Chapter 2

While China continues to pledge no first use of nuclear weapons, it is also working to
make qualitative improvements in its fighting forces. At the same time, it is making major
quantitative and qualitative improvements regarding its conventional missiles. The following are some of the directions that the PLASAF will take over the next ten years.

Chapter 3

First, the PLASAF will likely continue its efforts for qualitative improvements andgradual increases in numbers of its nuclear weaponry, with the goal of greater survivability
and assurance of a second-strike capability. Deployment of the DF-41 means that China islikely to be successful in mobile launch capability for its Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles

Chapter 4(ICBMs) as well as use of solid fuel and multiple independently-targetable reentry vehicles(MIRVs), meaning a great increase in its war capacity. It is also likely to seek more development of its ground-launched ballistic missiles as well as improvement in the capabilities ofConclusions

its strategic nuclear submarines and development of its strategic bombers.
Over the coming decade, China seems unlikely to seek to challenge the US in termsof nuclear capabilities, so it is not expected to make major increases in the number of its
nuclear warheads.
Second, regarding China’s conventional missile force, there will in particular be notable increases in the capabilities of mid-range missiles. It already has a considerable numberof short-range ballistic missiles, but even if intermediate-range missiles are given the responsibility of conducting precision strikes on an enemy’s C4ISR and force projection
nodes, their numbers seem to fall short of what is needed to accomplish this goal, so it ispossible that the intermediate-range missiles will be reinforced.

51

Chapter 3

In addition, the strengthening of China’s conventional missile force will not only be acause of greater regional insecurity, it may also distract from the provisions of the IntermediateRange Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. The INF was a treaty between the US and the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics (USSR) forbidding ballistic or cruise missiles with ranges from five
hundred to 5,500 kilometers, whether they carried nuclear or conventional warheads. The expansion of intermediate-range missile forces by China, which is not a party to this treaty,
would create a strategic imbalance in the region and also make the treaty itself less effective.
Third, the development of China’s conventional missile force could possibly make thethreshold between its nuclear forces and conventional forces more ambiguous.44 According
to the 2013 edition of The Science of Military Strategy, a compound deterrence using both
nuclear and conventional forces could give China a more flexible deterrence, with conventional deterrence as the basic approach, backed up by nuclear deterrence.45 The 2015 editionof The Science of Military Strategy by the PLA National Defense University goes even further, discussing the unification of nuclear and conventional attack capabilities. In otherwords, by organically fusing a nuclear counterstrike capability with the ability to conductconventional attacks, China would possess dual war-making capacity and could eventually
move beyond merely having both nuclear and conventional capabilities to a unified nuclear
and conventional force.46 The DF-26 missile is in fact both nuclear and conventional, capableof carrying either nuclear or conventional warheads, which may make it quite difficult todetermine which it is carrying at any particular time.
Fourth, as more and more countries achieve the ability to conduct precision strikes,
China will likely seek and research methods to diminish other countries’ ability to do so.
Research and development (R&D) is also likely to continue on supersonic missiles, be they
nuclear or conventional. Attention is being paid, too, to hypersonic cruise missiles and hypersonic glide vehicles (HGV), and R&D will move forward as well on measures to counteract these. Research will also likely continue particularly concerning electronic warfare
and informationized warfare or new technology such as laser weapons. As a result of the
spread of the ability to conduct precision strikes, such directions are likely to apply to othercountries as well, and in fact, China is already engaged in such research.
Last, it is far from clear how the chain of command will be handled when the PLASAF
engages in joint operations, making this a topic requiring future attention. Since the PLASAF
is under the direct command of the CMC, its chain of command is different from those of thearmy, navy, and air force. The CMC is in charge of making decisions about use of nuclear
force, but some adjustments will probably be necessary when conventional missile units areengaged in joint operations.
Viewpoints differ on this point, however. The 2013 edition of The Science of Military
Strategy states that in the case of use of conventional missile forces, factors such as scale and52

Expanding and Strengthening Its Missile Force —The PLASAF

timing must be determined by CMC decision. In contrast, according to John W. Lewis,
Preface

Professor Emeritus at Stanford University, and Xue Litai, research scholar at Stanford
University’s Center for International Security and Cooperation, when the PLASAF participatesin joint operations, it assigns a coordination group to the joint operations command center andChapter Summary

issues orders to PLASAF brigades via this group.47 This matter of chains of command will
likely come in for attention in China’s ongoing national defense and military reforms.
(Author: Shinji Yamaguchi)

Introduction

ColumnDevelopment of Hypersonic Glide Vehicles
China is engaged in developing the WU-14 hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV). In

Chapter 1

January 2014, its Ministry of Defense conducted the first WU-14 flight test, followed
by a total of four tests by June 2015.48 This HGV is mounted on a ballistic missile andreenters the atmosphere at a speed of Mach 10. It then passes through near spaceand heads for its target, making early detection extremely difficult. It is expected to beable to pass through the US missile defense system.49 Since it soars through near-

Chapter 2

space altitudes (twenty to one hundred kilometers above sea level), mounting the
WU-14 on a ballistic missile is expected to give a ballistic missile much greater range
than when it is fitted with a normal warhead. The WU-14 is still in the testing stage, and
it is unclear just how it will eventually be used, but there is no denying its ability to carry

Chapter 3

a nuclear warhead.

Chapter 4
Conclusions

53

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

Chapter 4
Enhancement of the PLA’s
Joint Operational
Capabilities

Chapter 4

1. Aiming to Win Informationized Local Wars
This report has analyzed trends in the strategies, expansion of scope of operations andmodernization of equipment of the People’s Liberation Army’s (PLA) Navy, Air Force andSecond Artillery Force (reorganized into the PLA Rocket Force at the end of December2015), which have a direct impact on the security of East Asia, and examined their future
outlook. Generally speaking, each of these services of the PLA can be viewed as steadily
expanding the scope of its operations, particularly in the oceans, while aiming to conduct
operations in distant areas and modernizing equipment in order to strengthen its power projection capabilities. However, it is difficult to understand the potential impact of this expansion on the security of East Asia by analyzing the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force
individually. This is because it is assumed that actual operations by the PLA in the seas of
East Asia will not involve only one service of the PLA, for example the Navy on its own, butalso the Air Force and Second Artillery Force, which have both been strengthening their ability to project power in this sea area. Therefore, in order to determine the future challenges
China might pose for the security of East Asia, it is necessary to understand the overall strategy of the PLA and how it intends to use its military capabilities.
The defense white paper China’s Military Strategy, published in May 2015, states thatthe “strategic concept of active defense” is the essence of the Chinese Communist Party’s(CCP) military strategic thought.1 Since the establishment of the CCP, the strategic conceptof active defense formed through revolutionary wars over many years has been characterized
by the unity of strategic defense and operational and tactical offense. China’s Military
Strategy states that China has always adhered to the principle of attacking only when attacked and counterattacking without fail if attacked. Since the foundation of the People’s
Republic, China has established its “military strategic guideline of active defense” on thebasis of this strategic concept and has adjusted its nature according to the changing times. In
1993, for example, it adjusted the “basic point for preparation for military struggle (PMS)”
to “winning local wars under high-tech conditions.” In 2004, this basic point for PMS was
modified to “winning local wars under conditions of informationization.”
In China’s Military Strategy, China announced that it had further modified its military
strategy of active defense. As its “military strategic guideline of active defense in the newsituation,” it stated that the basic point for PMS would now be “winning informationizedlocal wars,” in particular “highlighting maritime military struggle and PMS.” However, although the defense white paper states the aim of developing a weaponry and equipment
system that can respond to informationized warfare, it does not provide any clear explanation of what it means by “informationized local wars.”

56

Enhancement of the PLA’s Joint Operational Capabilities

In The Science of Military Strategy (2013 edition) compiled by the PLA Academy ofPreface

Military Sciences, the concept of informationized local wars is explained as follows.2 The
three main elements of the combat effectiveness of armed forces are materials, energy, andinformation. “Mechanized warfare,” the main form of conventional warfare, was spear-

Chapter Summary

headed by materials and energy. In the industrialized age, with the development of energy,
expansion of armaments production, and increase in population, the material and energy
aspects of firepower, mobility, and troop strength formed the core of combat effectiveness.
The most important determinants of combat effectiveness were the size of armed forces andIntroduction

the amounts of key weapons such as aircraft, ships, tanks and artillery.
However, the rapid development of information technology (IT) and its application in
the military field has led to a change in the form of warfare from mechanized to informationized warfare. While materials and energy continue to be important resources for fighting

Chapter 1

wars, they are no longer the main factors determining combat effectiveness. In their place,
information has assumed the leading role and information systems are now the key determinant of combat effectiveness. In informationized warfare, even if one side possesses powerful weapons, it cannot display high combat effectiveness and achieve victory without

Chapter 2

advanced capabilities in the operation of military information systems.
According to The Science of Military Strategy, the shift from mechanized warfare to
informationized warfare has also given rise to changes in the mechanism of securing victory.3 The political aim of war is to impose one’s will on the enemy, while its military aim is

Chapter 3

one’s own survival and the destruction of the enemy. In the age of mechanized warfare, thebasic means of achieving these war aims was to inflict heavy human and material losses on
the enemy through large-scale attacks, thereby depriving the enemy of the ability to resist.
However, such means not only resulted in great damage to one’s own country, but also did

Chapter 4

not necessarily wear down the enemy’s ability to resist. With advances in IT, it has become
possible to achieve the aims of war by eliminating the enemy’s overall ability to resist
through the control and paralysis of its systems, without having to inflict heavy human orConclusions

material damage. The main targets of attack in informationized warfare will be the enemy’score of systems such as administrative institutions, command and control centers, and thehubs of information networks. Inflicting great damage to the enemy’s combat effectivenessand psychology through a concentrated precision strike on these systems has become themechanism for victory in informationized warfare. It is therefore assumed that the scale ofwar will be smaller than in the past.

57

Chapter 4

2.	Enhancing Capabilities for System-versusSystem Operations
To win informationized local wars, the PLA is aiming to enhance “capabilities for
system-versus-system operations based on information systems.” Regarding such capabilities, China’s Military Strategy states that “China’s armed forces will quicken their steps totransform the generating mode of combat effectiveness, work to use information systems tointegrate a wide range of forces, modules and elements into overall operational capacity, andgradually establish an integrated joint operational system in which all elements are seamlessly linked and various operational platforms perform independently and incoordination.”4
China views the basic characteristic of informationized warfare as confrontation between the systems of the countries at war. The Science of Military Strategy argues that informationized warfare is no longer combat between the various operational elements, units andforces, but rather combat involving all elements and systems incorporating not only systemsof operation for the use of military force but also systems of warfare including politics,
economics, law and public opinion. Victory or defeat in such a war will depend on how well
all these systems function. In system-versus-system combat, the enemy is viewed as a single
organism. By inflicting a precise blow against the key points in its systems of operation andwarfare and rapidly reducing the integrity, stability and balance of these systems, theirmechanisms can be paralyzed, operational procedures disrupted, and functions undermined.5 The Science of Military Strategy further points out that the basic operational modeof combat between systems depends on networks of military information systems. Using
informationized operational methods and weapons and equipment, these will be integrated
joint operations that link and coordinate land, sea, air, outer space, and cyberspace operations. The two essential requirements for such integrated joint operations are military information systems via seamless networks and high-level joint operations by all the military
services and their branches.6
The main elements of China’s research on military information systems can be summarized in the following five points.7(1) Reconnaissance and early warning systems

These are the “eyes and ears” of operational systems. By setting up reconnaissance
platforms in the domains of land, sea, air and outer space, linking these platforms and conducting integrated analysis of intelligence, the war situation can be grasped in real time.

58Enhancement of the PLA’s Joint Operational Capabilities(2) Command and control systems
Preface

Based on information networks, command and control systems are not only the foundation of situational analysis, operational decisions and operational command, but also provide effective support for command and control by, for example, making it possible toChapter Summary

conduct combat training by simulation.
(3) Strike systems

Strike systems consisting of computers, digital communications and radar, etc. enable

Introduction

long-range precision strikes by various firepower and efficient designation of targets, making
it possible to greatly enhance the effectiveness of weapons and equipment.
(4) Network and electromagnetic combat systems

Chapter 1

In informationized warfare, fierce combat will take place in information networks andelectromagnetic space. Combat involving satellite and datalink technologies is becoming a
new field for network and electromagnetic combat systems.

Chapter 2(5) Comprehensive support systems

The element of support, such as surveys, climate data, supplies and maintenance, is avital part of system-versus-system operations. Information systems such as satellites andcomputers are used in the operation of these systems.

Chapter 3

The PLA is steadily enhancing the capabilities of these military information systems.
Examples of this include the development of unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, introductionof command automation systems, and establishment of network combat units. Particularly

Chapter 4

noteworthy is the development of outer space through the launching of various satellites.
Satellites can be divided into three types according to their use: remote sensing satellites thatsurvey the situation on the earth’s surface, navigation satellites that measure positions on theConclusions

earth’s surface, and communications satellites that transmit information. China is actively
promoting the deployment of all three types of satellite. China’s core remote sensing satellites, the Yaogan series, are equipped with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and optical sensors. In August 2015, the Yaogan-27 was launched. China has also deployed the Gaofen
series of high-precision imaging satellites. The Gaofen-2 satellite, which came into use in2014, provides images with a resolution of one meter and China is planning to launch various
other Gaofen satellites.8
China is also building its own satellite navigation system based on the Beidou seriesof navigation satellites. This Beidou navigation system, said to be superior to the GPS operated by the US in respects such as its short message transmission function, is increasingly

59Chapter 4

being used in China’s military operations.9 In July 2015, the improved 18th and 19th Beidou
satellites were successfully launched and tests such as inter-satellite transmission areplanned.10 The Beidou navigation system currently covers the Asia-Pacific region and there
are plans to cover the whole world by deploying more than 30 Beidou satellites by 2020.11
China is also actively developing communications satellites, planning to launch about 20
satellites, including data relay satellites.12 Close attention will be paid to how China promotes the development of early warning satellites.
In view of its objective of winning informationized local wars, it has become anurgent task for the PLA to integrate the operations of the Army, Navy, Air Force, Second
Artillery Force, and their respective branches. According to The Science of Military Strategy,
since the PLA lacks experience in conducting integrated joint operations because it originally developed from the Army operating as a single military service and has mainly engaged in warfare led by one service of its armed forces. For informationized warfare, the
PLA will have to change its concept of single non-autonomous integrated operations centering on the Army and conduct integrated joint operations under a single plan and overallcommand and control. Stressing the need for equality in the use of all of its military services
and branches and combining their capabilities optimally, it points out that the PLA must aim
to achieve operational effects where the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.13
Based on this understanding, the PLA is striving to conduct joint military exercises
involving multiple services and branches. In March 2014, it set up the PLA Joint Training
Leading Small Group, which took on the integrated planning and organization of joint training for all four services of the PLA.14 One recent example of joint exercises between different PLA services is the joint combat drills conducted in August 2014 by jet fighter units of
the Navy and Air Force. In this exercises, leading-edge fighter aircraft of the Navy and Air
Force conducted free combat drills based on no particular scenario. It is reported that the
Navy and Air Force are undertaking joint missions in the East China Sea Air Defense
Identification Zone.15 In October 2013, the PLA Navy (PLAN) conducted large-scale joint
field training exercises in the Western Pacific called Maneuver-5. In these exercises, all fivebranches from the three fleets of the PLAN—the Surface Force, Submarine Force, Naval Air
Force, Marine Corps, and Coastal Defense Force—conducted free field combat drills basedon no particular scenario.16 It seems that the PLAN again conducted joint exercises in theWestern Pacific on an even larger scale than Maneuver-5 at the end of 2014, but the details
are unclear because it was not widely reported in the Chinese media. China is reported to beverifying forces’ far seas operational capabilities through these open seas exercises.1760Enhancement of the PLA’s Joint Operational Capabilities

Figure 4-1: Image Chart of Informationized Local Wars at Sea

tes
on
isi equ
v
R
ro

Re
q
on uest

isi

Co

on

Submarine

ina

tion

Introduction

i si

Req
ue
visio st
n

Pro

ord

t
ues
Req sion
vi
P ro

Naval
command
ship

ov
Pr

n

io

vis

o
Pr

vis
Pro

P

Coordination
Army command
post

on st
isi ue
ov eq
R
Pr
est
qu
Re
ion

Provis
ion
Re qu
e st

ov

Early warning and control system

Chapter Summary

Pr

Preface

Strategic Information

Surface ship
Formation command ship
RequestProvision
Surface ship

Chapter 1

Ground forces

Source: Based on 胡志强 [Hu Zhiqiang], 优势来自联合 [Superiority through Jointness], 海洋出版社 [China
Ocean Press], 2012, p. 265.

Chapter 2

3. The Direction of Reforms of Command andForce Structures

Chapter 3

As we have seen, the PLA has been striving to enhance its capabilities for systemversus-system operations based on information systems in order to win informationizedlocal wars. To achieve this objective, it has been pointed out that the PLA needs to imple-

Chapter 4

ment major reforms in its command and force structures. According to a study on reform of
the armed forces published by the National Defense University’s Research Center for
Theories of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, the main bottlenecks impeding im-

Conclusions

provement of the PLA’s capabilities are long-accumulated systemic obstacles, structuralcontradictions, and policy issues. It points out that it is essential to overcome these problems
and modernize the organizational structure of the armed forces. In order to promote reformof national defense and the armed forces, the study stresses the need for reform of the command structure by optimizing functions and structures within the Central MilitaryCommission (CMC) and general departments that serve as command organizations to establish joint operational command systems in the CMC and battle zone commands. It also emphasizes the importance of reforming the PLA’s composition, stating that adjusting andoptimizing the composition of forces and, focusing on strengthening the Navy, Air Force andSecond Artillery Force, making the building of new operational capabilities a strategic

61

Chapter 4priority are essential conditions for enhancing capabilities for system-versus-system operations based on information systems.18
Whether it is the reform of command systems or of force structure, the main target ofthese reforms will no doubt be the Army. Up to now the Army has held overwhelming influence over the other services of the PLA. Even in terms of the command structure, the General
Staff Department, functioning as the headquarters of the Army, has stood above the respective headquarters of the Navy, Air Force, and Second Artillery Force.19 In order to build asystem of command geared to joint operations, it will be essential to revise this system thatgives ascendancy to the Army. Furthermore, since the scale of the Army is much greater thanthat of the other services, reforms in force structure involving the reduction of the Army will
be unavoidable in order to strengthen the Navy, Air Force, and Second Artillery Force.
President Xi Jinping is passionate about promoting reform of the PLA’s commandand force structure. In the communiqué of the third plenary session of the 18th Central
Committee held in November 2013, he stated, “we will endeavor to resolve the prominent
problems that constrain the development of national defense and the armed forces” by“deepening the adjustment and reform of the military administrative setup and staffing.”
Immediately after this, in response to a report on the operations of the Jinan Military Region,
based on his view that “both the position and role of the Army in warfare and its structural
pattern and modes of operation have changed fundamentally in this age of information technology,” Xi Jinping pointed out that “we must determine the appropriate position of the
Army in joint operation systems” and “deepen our examination of reforms to the Army’scommand and control structure and determine appropriate overall planning and leadershipfor a change in configuration of the Army.”20 At a meeting in December of the same year, Xi
Jinping stated that “the most important thing is a joint operations command structure,” andthat “we need a sense of urgency in establishing the joint combat command organizations of
the CMC and the joint combat command mechanism of theaters. This is not something we
can put off indefinitely.”21 In March 2014, the Leading Small Group for Deepening Reformon National Defense and the Military was set up in the CMC with Xi Jinping as its chairman.
In his speech at its first plenary meeting, pointing out that “there cannot be modernization ofnational defense and the military without modernization of the military’s forms of organization,” he stressed the need to “push forward the reform of military leadership systems, composition of the armed forces, and military policies and systems.”22
Amidst Xi Jinping’s repeated issuance of such clear instructions, changes have started
to appear in the PLA’s command and force structure. Regarding the command structure, theEast China Sea Joint Operational Command Center was established in November 2013 andit is reported that a joint operations command center was also set up within the CMC.23
However, at a meeting of chiefs of staff of the PLA in September 2014, Xi Jinping again

62

Enhancement of the PLA’s Joint Operational Capabilities

emphasized the need for the establishment of a “new type of command headquarters.”24 In
Preface

December of the same year, with the agreement of Xi Jinping, a “guideline promoting theconstruction of a new type of command headquarters that will obey commands of the Party,
formulate sound plans, and win battles” was issued by the CMC, once again stressing Xi

Chapter Summary

Jinping’s call for the development of such a headquarters.25 This suggests that the East China
Sea Joint Operations Command Center and the joint operations command center within the
CMC are different from the new type of command headquarters President Xi Jinping has
been calling for.

Introduction

Close attention will be paid as to whether or not the powers of the General Staff
Department are reviewed and a new type of command headquarters that can exert unified
control over command of the Army, Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force is set up, andwhether or not the troop strength of the Army is reduced and a reform in force structure is

Chapter 1

made that will allocate more resources to the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force. In
this respect, the reform proposals made by Xi Jinping at a CMC meeting in November 2015
on reforming the armed forces are extremely important. Speaking in front of more than 200

Chapter 2

Figure 4-2: Organizational Structure of the PLA (Before the end of 2015)
People’s Armed
Police Force
Headquarters

State Council

Central MilitaryCommission

Group Army

Division (brigade)
Radar division

Base

BrigadeMilitary Region

Air regiment(brigade)

General Staff
Department

Coastal defense
district
Airborne force

Air Force

Navy

Surface-to-air
missile division(brigade)
Base

Second Artillery
Force
General Political
Department

Reserves

Conclusions

General Logistics
Department

Academy of
Military Sciences

Militia

Chapter 4GeneralArmaments
Department

Province military
district
Military sub-district

Chapter 3

National Defense
University

Command,detachment

Military region
air force
Fleet

Base
Marine Corps
Air regiment
Detachment

Source: 田 越英 [Tian Yueying], 图解中国国防 [Illustrated Guide to Chinese Defense], 人民出版社[People’s Publishing House], 2013, p. 5.

63

Chapter 4

high-ranking military officers, Xi Jinping stated that, in addition to strengthening the joint
operations command system in the CMC, by establishing new “battle zones” and joint command systems in each battle zone, a joint operational command structure running from the
CMC through the battle zone commands to each service of the PLA should be established.
He also proposed that a new Army headquarters be established in addition to the existing
headquarters of the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force, with a centralized administrative structure running from the CMC through each service headquarters to the troops.26
The main aim of these reform proposals by Xi Jinping is to establish a basis for efficient joint operations transcending the military services and strengthen the CCP’s leadershipover the armed forces by concentrating all powers of command and administration of the
PLA under the CMC, of which Xi Jinping himself is chairman. At the meeting Xi Jinping
stressed that breakthroughs in reform of the command and administration structures must be
made by 2020. In fact, on December 31, 2015, the PLA Army general command and Strategic
Support Force were established and the Second Artillery Force was reorganized into theRocket Force.27 Moreover, it was announced on January 11, 2016 that the four military headquarters had been reorganized into fifteen
new agencies under the CMC.28 If these
proposed reforms are realized as planned,
they will no doubt enhance the capabilities of the PLA to win informationizedlocal wars. In view of the expected resistance to these reforms within the armed
forces, Xi Jinping’s executive powers
will be tested as he strives to realize them.
(Author: Masafumi Iida)

64

NIDS China Security Report 2016
The Expanding Scope of PLA Activities and the PLA Strategy

Conclusions

Conclusions
The People’s Liberation Army’s (PLA) Navy (PLAN), Air Force (PLASAF; reorganized into the PLA Rocket Force at the end of December 2015), and Second Artillery Force(PLASAF) are all seeking to increase their necessary capabilities based on their separate,individual strategies. One common characteristic of their strategies, however, could be called
their reliance on Command, Control, Communication, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance
and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) and precision strikes to carry out military operations effectively in the areas distant from the Chinese mainland. All these services are working to realize this strategic goal, pushing forward to provide themselves with equipment to move everfarther afield and developing and deploying weapons to permit accurate attacks on far-off
targets. For example, the PLAN is putting aircraft carriers and other large vessels into service
and is deploying long-range fixed-wing patrol planes, intelligence-gathering aircraft, andbombers, as well as developing anti-ship missiles with a longer range and higher accuracy.
The PLAAF is increasing its number of fourth-generation multirole fighters which offer excellent air-to-ground and air-to-ship attack performance; it is also continuing to develop
heavy transport aircraft and in-flight refueling tankers among other varieties. The PLASAF,
handling both nuclear and conventional missiles, is seeking to extend their range and increase their ability to pinpoint the target, and it is also developing anti-ship ballistic missilesthat can fly from the mainland to attack enemy vessels on the far seas.
The PLAN and the PLAAF are indeed following their own strategies in expanding thescope of their activities far from the homeland. The PLAN has repeated live-fire and amphibious landing exercises in the South China Sea, conducted large-scale joint military training in the Western Pacific, and carried out counter-piracy activities off the coast Somalia andin the Gulf of Aden. The PLAAF has increased the number of fighter flights over the East
China Sea and has started to conduct bomber flights over the Western Pacific. The PLASAF
is expanding the geographic range within which its missiles can strike their targets, and all
three services are steadily improving their force projection capabilities.
The PLA would seem to be strengthening its war fighting capabilities on and above
the seas in particular by jointly employing the PLAN, PLAAF, and PLASAF, each of which
is attempting to improve its fighting capabilities far from home. China’s Military Strategy,
the Chinese defense white paper, points out that the focus in preparations for military struggle is on informationized local wars, and this must precede maritime military conflicts andmilitary readiness, and it made clear the Chinese policy of strengthening its system-versussystem operations based on information systems. The PLA would seem to have the goal of
applying all sorts of military information systems, including space and cyberspace, and in66

Conclusions

addition making joint use of all services—Navy, Air Force, Second Artillery Force, andPrefaceindeed the Army—and all troops to achieve victory in informationized local wars at sea.
Following such a strategy, as the PLA expands the range of its activities to include theseas, it may greatly affect the security of East Asia in at least the following two ways. First,

Chapter Summary

the tension may grow in China’s relations with other countries of the region. In its dealings
with the East China Sea and the South China Sea, China is in conflict with several of thecountries of the region regarding territorial rights and sovereignty and maritime interests.
Elements of confrontation and provocation have appeared in recent years as China goes

Introduction

about dealing with such countries regarding these matters, arousing the apprehension of thecountries concerned. As the PLA is expected to increase its maritime fighting capabilities incoming years, whether China will engage in peaceful talks as equals on the maritime confrontations in East Asia or whether it will do so with menacingly, backed up by its military

Chapter 1

might, will have a major influence on China’s relations with these countries.
Second, there is the possibility that China will upset the order of East Asian security.
As the PLA has become more active at sea on a broader scale, it has repeatedly obstructed
US military vessels and aircraft in the South China Sea which are operating in accord with

Chapter 2international rules. The Chinese military has stepped up realistic joint exercises in theWestern Pacific and sought in various ways to strengthen its capacity for nuclear deterrence
directed at the United States (US), including the deployment of new strategic nuclear submarines. The foundation for the formation and maintenance of a security order in East Asia

Chapter 3

has been an American military presence and the cooperation from its allies and friendly
countries supporting such a presence. If the PLA were to continue its challenges to the US
presence in East Asia, and if such challenges were to prove effective, the existing order of
security in East Asia could change dramatically. And if the US should step up its actions

Chapter 4

designed to maintain that order in the face of such efforts by China, this would necessarilymean an increase in tension in their bilateral relationship. Will China take the kind of stanceit has shown in its activities off Somalia’s coast and in the Gulf of Aden, and in its participa-

Conclusions

tion in the United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operations? Or will it respond with further
challenge to the existing order, heightening the confusion and tension in East Asia? Close
attention will be paid to the answer to these questions.
Whether East Asia can in future achieve stability and prosperity will depend on just
how China goes about developing its security policies. Most desirable for the countries of
the region would be for China to cease its attempts to alter the existing situation against thebackground of its own power and for it to become a responsible great power which would
complement the existing security order. It is probable that achieving this would mean bolstering the dialogue between China and the countries of East Asia, with inclusion of the US,
and thereby deepening a shared sense among the countries of the region as to the desirable

67

Conclusions

future for East Asia. In the future, it will likely be necessary to build and promote a varietyof frameworks—bilateral, trilateral, and multilateral—and work toward promoting a candid
dialogue with China.
(Author: Masafumi Iida)

68

Endnote

Chapter 1
1“我们一定要建设一支海军” [We Must Without Fail Build a Navy], 建国以来毛泽东军事文稿（上卷）[Military Writings of Mao Zedong Since the Founding of the Republic, Vol. 1], 军事科
学出版社 [Military Science Press], 2009, p. 111.

2

“有计划地逐步建设一支强大的海军” [Building a Strong Navy Following a Plan and in Stages],
毛泽东军事文集（第6卷）[Military Writings of Mao Zedong, Vol. 6], 军事科学出版社[Military Science Press], 1993, p. 326.

3

军事科学院军事战略研究部 [Department of War Theory and Strategic Research, PLA Academyof Military Sciences], ed., 战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], 军事
科学出版社 [Military Science Press], 2013, pp. 206-209.

4

Regarding the process of formulating the “offshore defense” strategy, see 刘华清 [Liu Huaqing],刘华清回忆录（第2版）[Memoirs of Liu Huaqing, 2nd Edition], 解放军出版社 [People’s
Liberation Army Publishing House], 2007, p. 432-439.

5

Generally speaking, the first island chain is a conceptual line linking the Japanese archipelago,
Taiwan, the Philippine islands, etc. The second island chain is a conceptual line extending fromthe Ogasawara Islands to Guam.

6

全金富 [Quan Jinfu], “新世纪我国海军战略理论的创新发展” [The Progressive Development of a
Theoretical Strategic Basis for Our Navy in the New Century], 南京政治学院学报 [Journal of PLA
Nanjing Institute of Politics], March 3, 2004, p. 85.

7

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], pp. 209-212.

8

国务院新闻办公室 [State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China], 中国
的军事战略 [China’s Military Strategy], May 2015.

9“着眼生成体系作战能力积极推进军事训练转变” [Giving Attention to Systematically Building
Our System-versus-system Operation Capabilities and Positively Promoting Changes in Our Military
Training], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 29, 2010 and “南海舰队实战化演训共发射16型71枚导
弹” [The South Sea Fleet Fires 71 Missiles of 16 Types During Realistic Live-fire Training Exercises],
新华网 [Xinhuanet], August 1, 2010.

10“海军在南海某海空域举行实兵对抗演练” [Navy Conducts Training Exercises Using Actual
Opposing Troops on the Ocean and in the Skies of a Certain Area of the South China Sea], 中国军网[China Military Online], July 28, 2015.

11“中国海军新闻发言人就在南海海域演习作出回应” [Chinese Navy Spokesperson Answers
Questions Regarding Exercises in the South China Sea], 中国军网 [China Military Online], July 25, 2015.

12“我军登陆作战能力快速提昇” [Rapid Improvement in Our Military’s Amphibious Landing
Combat Capabilities], 人民日报 [People’s Daily], March 27, 2013.

13“野牛气垫登陆艇首次亮相解放军南海登陆演习” [Pomornik Class LCAC Make First Appearancein PLA Landing Exercises in the South China Sea], 人民网 [People’s Daily Online], July 20, 2015.

14“Chugoku Kaigun Kantei no Doukou ni tsuite [Movements of Chinese Navy Vessels],” Japan Joint
Staff, Ministry of Defense, April 13, 2010 and “Chugoku Kaigun Kantei no Doukou ni tsuite[Movements of Chinese Navy Vessels],” Japan Joint Staff, Ministry of Defense, April 22, 2010.

15“海军“机动-5号”远海实兵对抗演习拉开战幕” [Navy Starts Jidong-5 Training Exercises Using
Actual Opposing Troops on the High Seas], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], October 18, 2013, ““机动-5号”南海舰队参演编队通过巴士海峡” [South Sea Fleet Takes Part in Jidong-5 Exercise, Passes in70

Endnote

Formation through the Bashi Channel], 中国军网 [China Military Online], October 24, 2013, and “机动5号演习：轰炸机编队奔袭远海突击蓝军” [Jidong-5 Exercises: Bombers in Formation Conduct
Raids on the High Seas, Attack Blue Army], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 27, 2013.
16“中国5架军机赴西太平洋表明已可空中穿越岛链” [Five Chinese Military Aircraft Head for theWestern Pacific, Demonstrate That China Can Break Through the Island Chain by Air], 人民网[People’s Daily Online], December 10, 2014 and “Chugokuki no Higashishinakai ni okeru Hiko ni
tsuite [Flights of Chinese Aircraft in the East China Sea],” Japan Joint Staff, Ministry of Defense,
December 6, 2014.

17“Chugokugun 4 Seki ga Nihon Isshu [Four Chinese Navy Ships Sailed around Japan],” Yomiuri
Shimbun, December 28, 2014 and “Chugoku Kaigun Kantei no Doukou ni tsuite [Movements ofChinese Navy Vessels],” Japan Joint Staff, Ministry of Defense, December 25, 2014.

18

See Yasuyuki Sugiura, “Chapter 5: Counter-piracy Operations off the Coast of Somalia and in the
Gulf of Aden,” National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS), ed., NIDS China Security Report2014 (NIDS, 2015), pp. 45-48.

19“尹卓：我军两栖船坞登陆舰坛长岛礁攻防” [Yin Zhuo: Our Military’s Amphibious Docking
Landing Craft Are Outstanding at Attacking and Defending Islands and Reefs], 人民网 [People’s
Daily Online], January 23, 2014.

20“张军社：MH370大搜救彰显我大国形象” [Zhang Junshe: Large-scale Search and Rescue
Operations for the MH370 Clearly Display China’s Image as a Great Power], 解放军报 [PLA Daily],
March 31, 2014.

21

Ronald O’Rourke, “China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy Capabilities—Backgroundand Issues for Congress,” CRS Report, July 28, 2015, p. 5. Unless otherwise noted, the quantities of
weapons and equipment and years of commissioning stated below are based on this report.

22

Office of Naval Intelligence, “The PLAN: New Capabilities and Missions for the 21st Century,”
April 2015, p. 19.

23

Japan Ministry of Defense, Defense of Japan 2015, 2015, p. 38.

24

For example, the Hong Kong Commercial Daily reported statements by Vice Admiral Ding
Haichun, deputy political commissar of the PLAN, and Admiral Liu Xiaojiang, former politicalcommissar of the PLAN, acknowledging that China is building an indigenous aircraft carrier, anda statement by Rear Admiral Ma Weiming that China is developing an electromagnetic catapult(“海军证实第二舱空母在建” [Confirmation That the Navy Is Building Its Second Aircraft Carrier],
香港商报 [Hong Kong Commercial Daily], March 9, 2015).

25“U.S. Navy-China Showdown: Chinese Try to Halt U.S. Cruiser in International Waters,”
Washington Times, December 13, 2013 and “News Transcript: Department of Defense Press
Briefing by Secretary Hagel and General Dempsey in the Pentagon Briefing Room,” December
19, 2013.

26“就建造第二艘航母、国防事权和支出责任划分改革等问题” [Construction of a Second Aircraft
Carrier and Issues in Reform of the Administrative Authority, Fiscal Responsibility, and Other
Aspects of the National Defense], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 1, 2016.

27

Office of Naval Intelligence, “The PLAN: New Capabilities and Missions for the 21st Century,”
p. 17.

28

The following outline comments on air power are based on International Institute for Strategic

71

Endnote

Studies (IISS), Military Balance 2015 (London: IISS, 2015), p. 241.
29““高新6号”服役、中国海军走向远洋的又一标志” [Gaoxin-6 Takes Up Duty, One Sign That the
PLAN Is Heading to the Far Seas], 人民网 [People’s Daily Online], July 10, 2015.

30

中国的军事战略 [China’s Military Strategy], May 2015.

31“少将曝中国新型两栖舰细节：吨位远超日航母” [Rear Admiral Reveals Details on China’s
New Amphibious Naval Craft: Far Surpasses Japanese Helicopter Carriers in Tonnage], 环球网[Huanqiu Online], November 19, 2013.

32

中国的军事战略 [China’s Military Strategy], May 2015.

33

刘华清 [Liu Huaqing], 刘华清军事文选（上卷）[Selected Military Writings of Liu Huaqing,
Vol. 1], 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2008, p. 467.

Chapter 2
1

For a general overview on the PLAAF, see Kenneth Allen and Jana Allen, “The Chinese Air Forceand Chinese Security,” Lowell Dittmer and Maochun Yu eds., Routledge Handbook of Chinese
Security (London and New York: Routledge, 2015), pp.275-305; National Air and SpaceIntelligence Center, People’s Liberation Army Air Force 2010 (Ohio: National Air and SpaceIntelligence Center, 2010).

2

董文先 [Dong Wenxian], “论战略空疆（1989年5月）” [Discussing Strategic Airspace Frontiers(May 1989)], 号声扬空军 [The Order Is to Make the Air Force Widely Known], 解放军出版社[People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2007, pp.124-132; 董文先 [Dong Wenxian], 全疆覆盖空军军事思想和装备发展趋势之一” [Trends in Developing Military Spirit and Military Equipment
for an Air Force That Covers Our Entire Territory], 光明日报 [Guangming Daily], June 5, 2001.

3

军事科学院军事战略研究部 [Department of War Theory and Strategic Research, PLA Academyof Military Science], 战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], 军事科学出
版社 [Military Science Press] 2013, p. 220.

4

“瞭望：中国拟借航天优势空天一体化空军赶超强国” [Liaowang Magazine: China Relies on an
Air Force That Will Be Superior in Space as It Unifies Air and Space, Catching Up With and Passing
the Big Powers], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], August 4, 2010. Representative research results may befound in 蔡风震・田安平 [Cai Fengzhen, Tian Anping], “空天一体作战学” [The Science ofAerospace Strategy], 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2006.

5“中国空军战略转型歴程：从零到空天一体攻防兼备” [China’s PLAAF, Steps toward a Strategic
Transformation: Starting from Zero, Unifying Air and Space, Ready for Both Offense andDefense],中国新闻週刊 [China Newsweek], November 12, 2014.

6“许其亮上将：中国空军将发展空天一体作战能力” [Gen. Xu Qiliang: Developing the PLAAF’s
Fighting Capability to Unify Air and Space], 国际在线 [CRI Online], November 5, 2009.

7

马晓天 [Ma Xiaotian]・田修思 [Tian Xiusi], “加快建设一支空天一体攻防兼备的强大人民空
军” [Speeding Up the Building of a Powerful PLAAF That Can Unify Air and Space and Is Ready
for Both Offense and Defense], 求是 [Qiushi Journal], November 2, 2014.

8“撑开东海上空的安全大伞” [Spreading a Huge Umbrella of Security Over the East China Sea],
兵器知识 [Ordnance Knowledge], Vol. 2, 2014.

972

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 223.

Endnote

10

Ibid., p. 226.

11

Ibid., p. 224.

12

“中国空军战机飞出第一岛链千余公里” [PLAAF Fighters Pass More Than 1,000 Km Beyond
the First Island Chain], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], August 15, 2015.

13“习近平批准南中国海填海” [Xi Jinping Approves Landfills in the South China Sea], 汉和防务评论 [Kanwa Defense Review], No. 120, October 2014, p 39.

14“晒晒我们的成绩单” [Let Us Clearly Display Our Record], 中国人大杂誌 [The People’s
Congress of China], April 18, 2014.

15“中国空军两架伊尔76运输机从马来西亚赴澳搜救” [Two PLAAF Il-76 Transports Head from
Malaysia to Australia for Search and Rescue Efforts], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], March 22, 2014.

16

马晓天 [Ma Xiaotian], “努力提高空军部队能打仗打胜能力” [Air Force Units Strive to Improve
Ability to Win in Battle], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 2, 2014.

17

David Shlapak, “Equipping the PLAAF: The Long March to Modernity,” Richard P. Hallion,
Roger Cliff and Puhip C. Saunders eds., The Chinese Air Force: Evolving Concepts, Roles, andCapabilities (Washington D.C.: NDU Press, 2012). For an overview of PLAAF capabilities, seealso Andrew Erickson, “China’s Modernization of Its Naval and Air Power Capabilities,” Ashley
J. Tellis and Travis Tanner eds., Strategic Asia 2012-13: China’s Military Challenge (Seattle andWashington D.C.: The National Bureau of Asian Research, 2012).

18

Japan Ministry of Defense, Defense of Japan 2015, 2015.

19

Richard D. Fisher, “Xi Jinping Visit Reveals H-6 Bomber Details,” IHS Jane’s Defence Weekly,
February 12, 2015.

20“我预警机形成全时域作战能力” [Our Military’s Early Warning Aircraft Are Building the Might
to Fight Any Place, Any Time], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 5, 2013.

21“预警机总设计师欧阳绍修：运-8被大胆修改了80%” [Early Warning Aircraft Head Designers
Ouyang Shaoxiu: We’ve Boldly Redesigned 80% of the Y-8], 科技日报 [Science and Technology
Daily], July 12, 2011.

22“深度：浅谈中国空警500预警机：指挥我军突破第一岛链” [Seeking the Essence: Plain Talk
About the KJ-500 Early Warning Craft: Directing Our Military as It Breaks Through the First Island
Chain], 新浪网 [Sina], July 12, 2015.

23

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 224.

24

“防务短评：运-9系列对中国巨大战略价值” [Comments on Defense: The High Strategic Valueof the Y-9 Series to China], 凤凰网 [Phoenix], November 30, 2011.

25“海上警戒机对中国海军的作用” [The Role of the PLAN’s Maritime Surveillance Aircraft], 中
国海军 [China Navy], No. 11, 2005, pp. 23-26.

26“运八特殊飞机家族” [The Y-8 Special Aircraft Family], 新浪 [Sina], December 23, 2013.

27

董文先 [Dong Wenxian], “我军亟待加强战略空运部队建设” [Our Military Must Rapidly Build
Up Its Strategic Supply Transport Units], 中国国防报 [China National Defense News], May 6, 2014.

28“建防空识别区雷达战机自動化指挥系统均不能少” [To Establish an Air Defense ID Zone for
China’s Defense, an Automated Command System for Radar Aircraft Is Essential], 北京晚报
[Beijing Evening News], December 10, 2013.

29“First Chinese Il-78 Tanker Seen at PLAAF Base,” IHS Jane’s Defence Weekly, November 3, 2014.

30“运-20大型运输机首飞成功” [Y-20 Heavy Transport Aircraft Successfully Makes First Flight],
人民日报 [People’s Daily], January 27, 2013.

73

Endnote

31

Ian Easton, “China’s Evolving Reconnaissance-Strike Capabilities,” Project 2049 Institute and
JIIA, February 2014.

32“中国空军察打一体无人机首次亮相“和平使命”军演” [First Appearance of the PLAAF’s Combined
Reconnaissance/Attack UAV in “Peace Mission” War Games], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], August 26, 2014.

33“China Confirms CH-4 UCAV in PLA Service at Peace Mission 2014 Drill,” IHS Jane’s Defence
Weekly, September 1, 2014.

34“空军无人机首次执行地震灾情侦察任务” [PLAAF UAV Performs First Reconnaissance Mission
to Inspect Earthquake Damage], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], July 3, 2015.

35

For information on engines, see Richard Fisher, “Analysis: Can China Break the Military Aircraft
Engine Bottleneck?” Flight Global.com, May 27, 2015; Jeffrey Lin and P.W. Singer, “China’s
Most Powerful Aircraft Engine Ever Takes to the Sky,” Popular Science, February 21, 2015.

36

Phillip C. Saunders and Joshua K. Wiseman, “Buy, Build, or Steal: China’s Quest for Advanced
Military Aviation Technologies,” China Strategic Perspectives 4 (Institute for National Strategic
Studies, National Defense University, December 2011); Hiroshi Yamazoe, “Roshia no Indo,
Chugoku, Betonamu ni tai suru Tsujoheiki Yushutsu [Russia’s Export of Conventional Weapons to
India, China, and Vietnam]” NIDS Security Studies, Vol. 17, No.1, October 2014, pp. 87-103.

37“Chugoku, Nishi Taiheiyo no Seiku Nerau: Shingata Bakugekiki nado Kaihatsu Zokyo, Choki
Senryaku Bunsho, Bei wo Shiya [China Aims to Control the Skies Over the Western Pacific:
Pushing Development of New Bombers, Etc., Documents on Long-term Strategy Eye the US],”
Jiji Press, August 2, 2015.

38

肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], 战略学 [The Science of Military Strategy], 国防大学出版社 [National
Defense University Press], 2015, p. 351.

39

邱贞瑋 [Qiu Zhenwei], “大型运输机與战略投送能力建设” [Heavy Transport Planes andDevelopment of Ability to Make Strategic Deliveries], 空军 [Air Force], April 2013, pp. 10-15.

40“空军装备部袁强：要加大远程轰炸机等装备建设” [PLAAF Equipment Department Director
Yuan Qiang: We Must Reinforce Development of Long-range Bombers and Other Equipment], 央广网 [CNR], March 7, 2014.

41“中国发展远程轰炸机” [China to Further Develop Long-range Bombers], 汉和防务评论[Kanwa Defense Review], No. 128, June 2015, pp. 18-19.

42

肖 [Xiao], 战略学 [The Science of Military Strategy], p. 355.

43

Wendell Minnick, “Does China Tout Its Anti-Stealth Radars?” Defense News, October 4, 2014.

44“中国航空工业第一集团公司发展概况” [Current Stage of Development for China Aviation
Industry Corporation], 中国政府网 [The Central People’s Government of the People’s Republicof China Net], 2003.

45“中航工业学习贯彻全军装备工作会议精神” [China Aviation Corp. Studies and Applies theSpirit of the All-Services Equipment Working Group Session], 中国航空报 [China AviationNews], December 13, 2014.

46“在新起点上实现中航一集团的跨式发展” [From a New Starting Point, China Aviation Corp.
Achieves Fantastic Development], 中国航空报 [China Aviation News], June 22, 2001.

47“开创航空工业发展新局面” [China Aviation Corp. Opens New Phase in Development], 中国航空报 [China Aviation News], July 3, 2001.

48“中国空军百余项高新工程通过验收并投入使用” [Over 100 PLAAF Hi-Tech Projects Pass
Muster and Go Into Use], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 12, 2009.

74

Endnote

Chapter 3
1

Jeffrey Lewis, Paper Tigers: China’s Nuclear Posture (London and New York: Routledge, 2014);
Jun’ichi Abe,“Dai Ni Hohei Butai to Kaku-misairu Senryoku [The Second Artillery Force and Its
Nuclear Missile Force],” Tomohide Murai, Jun’ichi Abe, Ryo Asano, and Jun Yasuda, eds., Chugoku
Wo Meguru Anzen Hosho [Chinese Security] (Tokyo: Minerva Shobo, 2007), pp. 231-232.

2

军事科学院军事战略研究部 [Department of War Theory and Strategic Research, PLA Academyof Military Sciences] ed., 战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], 军事科
学出版社 [Military Science Press], 2013, p. 235

3“全面禁止和彻底销毁核武器” [Completely Banning and Completely Abandoning Nuclear
Weapons], 中共中央文献研究室编 [CCCPC Party Literature Research Office], ed., 周恩来外交文选 [Selected Diplomatic Works of Zhou Enlai], 中央文献出版社 [Central Party Literature
Press], 1990, pp. 422-423.

4Mark Stokes, “China’s Nuclear Warhead Storage and Handling System,” Project 2049 Institute,March 12, 2010, pp. 4-9.

5

China’s concept of deterrence differs from that generally accepted in discussion of deterrence
theory. The Chinese term that is normally used to mean deterrence (威慑, weishe) actually has abroader meaning. While it can be used to represent deterrence per se, it is also used to indicatecompellence. In other words, “deterrence” in Chinese folds together these two meanings, becoming a concept close to coercion. 李彬 [Li Bin], “中美对核威懾理解的差异” [Chinese and US
Differences in Understanding of Nuclear Deterrence Force], 世界经济与政治 [World Economy
and Politics], Vol. 2, 2014; Dean Cheng, “Chinese Views on Deterrence,” Joint Force Quarterly,
Issue 60:1, 2011, pp. 92-94.

6

For a comprehensive discussion of China’s nuclear deterrence strategy, see: Elbridge A. Colby andAbraham Denmark, Co-chairs, “Nuclear Weapons and US-China Relations: A Way Forward,”
Center for Strategic and International Studies, March 2013; Michael S. Chase, “China’s Transition
to a More Credible Nuclear Deterrent: Implications and Challenges for the United States,” Asia
Policy, No. 16, July 2013, pp. 69-101; Lewis, Paper Tigers.

7

李彬 [Li Bin], “中国核战略辨析” [Discriminant Analysis of China’s Nuclear Capabilities], 世界
经济与政治 [World Economy and Politics], Vol. 9, 2006, pp. 16-22.

8

Yao Yunzhu, “Chinese Nuclear Policy and the Future of Minimum Deterrence,” Strategic Insights,
Vol. 4, Issue 9, September 2005.

9

M. Taylor Fravel and Evan S. Medeiros, “China’s Search for Assured Retaliation,” International
Security, Vol. 35, No. 2, Fall 2010, pp. 48-87.

10

Wu Riqiang, “Certainty of Uncertainty: Nuclear Strategy with Chinese Characteristics,” The
Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 36, No. 4, 2013, pp. 579-914.

11

李显荣 [Li Xianrong], 论核战略 [Discussing Nuclear Strategy], 人民出版社 [People’s Publishing
House], 2014, pp. 330-337. Regarding existential deterrence, see Marc Trachtenberg, “TheInfluence of Nuclear Weapons in the Cuban Missile Crisis,” International Security, Vol. 10, No. 1,
Summer 1985, pp. 137-163.

12

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 172; Wu Riqiang, “Certainty ofUncertainty: Nuclear Strategy with Chinese Characteristics.”

13

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 172.

75

Endnote

14

Lawrence Freedman, The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, Third Edition (Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2003), p. 234.

15

For example, Yao Yunzhu, “Chinese Nuclear Policy and the Future of Minimum Deterrence.”16

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 173.

17

Ibid, pp. 173-174.

18

中国人民解放军第二炮兵 [The Chinese People’s Liberation Army Second Artillery Force], 第二炮兵战役学 [The Science of Second Artillery Campaigns], 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation
Army Publishing House], 2004, pp. 281-296.

19

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 175.

20

Ibid, pp. 175-176.

21

第二炮兵戦役学 [The Science of Second Artillery Campaigns], pp. 226-227.

22

Kier Lieber and Daryl Press, “The End of MAD? The Nuclear Dimension of US Primacy,”International Security, Vol. 30, No. 4, Spring 2006, pp. 7-44. For further information on Chinese
views on such matters, see also 时殷弘 [Shi Yinhong], “美国国家导弹防御计画與中国对策”[American National Missile Defense Planning and Chinese Countermeasures], 太平洋学报
[Pacific Journal], Vol. 4, 2000, and Lora Saalman, “Prompt Global Strike: China and the Spear,”
Asia Pacific Center for Security Studies, April 2014.

23

Criticism of China’s no first use declaration rarely appears in publicly available Chinese materials,
but such views may be introduced as part of criticism thereof, which allows us some knowledge ofthe debate. For example, see 李显荣 [Li Xianrong], 论核战略 [Nuclear Strategy], pp. 353-365.

24“建设强大的信息化战略导弹部队” [Let Us Build a Mighty Informationized Strategic Missile
Corps], 中国人民解放军总政治部编 [PLA General Political Department], ed., 习近平关於国防和军队建设重要论述选编 [Selection of Important Statements by Xi Jinping on Building National
Defense and the Military], 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2014.

25

肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], 战略学 [The Science of Military Strategy], 国防大学出版社 [National
Defense University Press], 2015, p. 356.

26

James Acton, “China’s Offensive Missile Force,” Testimony before the US-China Economic andSecurity Review Commission, April 1, 2015.

27

There are also some who view the 2014 test as an anti-satellite missile test.

28

肖 [Xiao], 战略学 [The Science of Military Strategy], p. 369; Office of the Secretary of Defense,“Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republicof China 2015,” p. 32.

29

Anthony Cordesman, Chinese Strategy and Military Power in 2014 (Washington D.C.: Center for
Strategic and International Studies, 2014).

30

Shigeo Hiramatsu, To Shohei no Gunji Kaikaku [Deng Xiaoping’s Military Reforms], (Tokyo:
Keiso Shobo, 1989), pp. 118-170.

31

Shigeo Hiramatsu, Taiwan Mondai [The Taiwan Problem], (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, 2005), pp.
149-159.

76

32

第二炮兵战役学 [The Science of Second Artillery Campaigns], pp. 323-324.

33

Ibid, p. 325.

34

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 236.

35

Ibid, pp. 137-140.

36

Lora Saalman, “Prompt Global Strike: China and the Spear,” Asia-Pacific Center for Security

Endnote

Studies, April 2014.
37

David A. Shlapak, David T. Orletsky, Toy I. Reid, Murray Scott Tanner, and Barry Wilson, A
Question of Balance: Political and Military Aspects of the China-Taiwan Dispute (Santa Monica:
RAND Corporation, 2009), pp. 31-51.

38

Office of the Secretary of Defense, “Annual Report to Congress: Military and Security
Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2015,” p. 34.

39

Mark Stokes, “China’s Evolving Conventional Strategic Strike Capability,” Project 2049 Institute,
September 14, 2009.

40

Andrew S. Erickson, “Chinese Anti-Ship Ballistic Missile (ASBM) Development: Drivers,
Trajectories and Strategic Implications,” Jamestown Foundation, May 2013, pp. 30-34.

41

Ibid, pp. 24-25.

42“战略打击模模块：维护国家安全的坚强盾牌” [Models for Strategic Strikes: A Strong Shieldto Protect the Nation’s Safety], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], September 3, 2015.

43

Dennis M. Gormley, Andrew S. Erickson, and Jingdong Yuan, A Low-Visibility Force Multiplier:Assessing China’s Cruise Missile Ambitions (Washington, D.C.: NDU Press, 2014), p. 3 ; Jeffery
Lin and P.W. Singer, “China Shows Off Its Deadly New Cruise Missiles,” Popular Science, March
10, 2015; Ian Easton, “The Assassin Under the Rader: China’s DH-10 Cruise Missile Program,”
Project 2049, 2009. It has been confirmed that the cruise missile which in the past was called theDH-10 appeared in the September 3, 2015, military parade as the DF-10A.

44

A good discussion of this topic may be found in Thomas J. Christensen, “The Meaning of the
Nuclear Revolution: China’s Strategic Modernization and US-China Security Relations,” Journalof Strategic Studies, Vol. 35, No. 4, August 2012, pp. 447-487.

45

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 152.

46

肖 [Xiao], 战略学 [The Science of Military Strategy], pp. 362-363.

47

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 235; John W. Lewis and Xue
Litai, “Making China’s Nuclear War Plan,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 68, Issue 5,2012, pp. 46-65.

48“China Conducts Fourth Test of Wu-14 Strike Vehicle,” Washington Free Beacon, January 11,
2015.

49

US-China Economy and Security Review Commission, “Annual Report to Congress, 2014,” pp.
291-292.

Chapter 41

国务院新闻办公室 [State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China], 中国
的军事战略 [China’s Military Strategy], May 2015.

2

军事科学院军事战略研究部 [Department of War Theory and Strategic Research, PLA Academyof Military Sciences] ed., 战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], 军事科
学出版社 [Military Science Press], 2013, pp. 91-92.

3Ibid, pp. 92-93.

4

中国的军事战略 [China’s Military Strategy], May 2015.

5

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 93.

6

Ibid, pp. 121-125.

77

Endnote7

惠拉林 [Hui Lalin], “论军事信息系统在体系作战能力形成中的作用” [Discussing the Role ofthe Military Information System in Shaping System-versus-system Operation Capabilities], 西安
政治学院学报” [Journal of Xi’an Politics Institute of PLA], No. 5, 2011, p. 105.

8

“高分二号首次公布影像图、中国遥感进入亚米级时代” [First Public Release of Image Maps
Taken by Gaofen-2, China’s Remote Sensing Enters the Age of Sub-meter Scales], 新华网[Xinhuanet], October 1, 2014.

9“北斗不远、就在你我身边” [Beidou Isn’t Far Away, It’s Close to You and Me], 解放军报 [PLA
Daily], April 30, 2015.

10“我国采用‘一箭双星’方式” [Our Country is Using the One-Rocket, Two-Satellites Approach],
解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 26, 2015.

11“中国北斗卫星导航系统可比肩GPS” [China’s Beidou Navigation Satellite System Doesn’t
Take a Back Seat to GPS], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 20, 2015.

12“中国规划发射100多颗应用卫星” [China Plans to Launch Over 100 Application Satellites], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], November 10, 2014.

13

战略学(2013) [The Science of Military Strategy, 2013 Edition], p. 125.

14“2014年中国军演：军事训练从量变到质变” [China’s Military Exercises for 2014: Shifting Military
Training from Changes in Quantity to Changes in Quality], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], December 25,
2014.

15

“自由空战：海空军航空兵展开深度联合演练” [Unscripted Aerial Combat: Naval and Air
Force Personnel Conduct High-level Joint Training Exercises], 新华网 [Xinhuanet], September
11, 2014.

16“三大舰队首次同步远海演习” [The Three Fleets Carry Out First Blue Water Simultaneous
Exercises], 人民日报 [People’s Daily], October 31, 2013.

17“海军远海训练向常态化实战化迈进” [PLAN Blue Water Training Becomes Routine, with
Moves Toward Realistic Battle Training], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 7, 2015.

18

国防大学中国特色社会主义理论体系研究中心 [National Defense University Research Center
for Theories of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics], “充分认清深化国防和军队改革的重要性紧迫性” [Let Us Be Fully Aware of the Importance and Urgency of Deepening the Reform of
National Defense and the Military], 解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 17, 2015.

19

The use of nuclear weapons is thought to be under the direct command of the Central MilitaryCommission, but due to the lack of publicly disclosed information, the relationship between the
General Staff Department and the Second Artillery Force Headquarters is not clear.

20习近平 [Xi Jinping], Kaikaku no Zenmen teki Shinka ni tsuite [How to Deepen Reform
Comprehensively], 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press], 2014, pp. 193-194.

21“习近平：构建中国特色现代军事力量体系” [Xi Jinping: Building a Modern Military Forces
System with Chinese Characteristics], 人民网 [People’s Daily Online], August 31, 2014.

22“习近平主持召开中央军委深化国防和军队改革领导小组第一次全体会议” [Xi Jinping Convenes
First Plenary Session of the Central Military Commission’s Leading Small Group on Deepening
Reform of National Defense and the Military], 人民日报 [People’s Daily], March 16, 2014.

23

Japan Ministry of Defense, Defense of Japan 2015, 2015, p. 42.

24“习近平在接见全军参谋长会议代表时强调努力建设新型司令机关” [Xi Jinping, Meeting with
All Military Chiefs of Staff, Urges Striving to Build a New Command Mechanism], 人民日报 [People’s
Daily], September 24, 2014.

78

Endnote25“经习近平主席批准 中央军委颁发《关于努力建设听党指挥、善谋打仗的新型司令机关的
意见》” [With President Xi Jinping’s Approval, Central Military Commission Issues “Opinions on
Efforts to Build a New Command Mechanism to Follow the Party’s Directions, Plan Carefully,
and Win at War”], 人民日报 [People’s Daily], December 26, 2014.

26“习近平在中央军委改革工作会议上强调全面实施改革强军战略坚定不移走中国特色

强军之路” [Attending the Central Military Commission’s Meeting on Military Reform, Xi
Jinping Stresses Thoroughgoing Application of Reform and Strategy for a Strong Military andWalking Unwaveringly on the Road of a Strong Military with Chinese Characteristics], 解放军报
[PLA Daily], November 27, 2015.
27“陆军领导机构火箭军战略支援部队成立大会在京举行” [Event Held in Beijing for the
Establishment of the Command of the Army, the Rocket Force and the Strategic Support Force],
人民日报 [People’s Daily], January 2, 2016.

28“军委机关调整任务基本完成 总部制改为多部门制 军委机关设15个职能部门”[Adjustment
Activities for the CMC Structure Basically Complete; Switch from General Departments Structure
to Multi-agency Structure; 15 Functional Agencies Established within CMC], 人民日报 [People’s
Daily] , January 12, 2016.

79