NIDS China Security Report 2022

The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint
Operations Capabilities
Sugiura Yasuyuki●The 1991 Gulf War prompted the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to begin full-scale research of joint

operations premised on informatization. From around the mid-2000s, the PLA advocated the concept of
integrated joint operations [Yitihua Lianhe Zuozhan, 一体化联合作战] (IJO).

●The Xi Jinping regime, inaugurated in November 2012, carried out the biggest PLA reforms since the foundingof the People’s Republic of China for realizing the IJO concept.
●The PLA reforms were set for completion in 2020.

Purpose of this report
With the 2020 milestone year behind us, this report assesses the extent to which the PLA’s joint operations
capabilities have progressed since the 1990s from four perspectives: (1) the evolution of the concept; (2) theachievements of the joint operations structure established by the PLA reforms; (3) the development of joint
operations training and education; and (4) the maintenance and strengthening of Party-Army relations.

This report carries out a multifaceted analysis
and makes an accurate estimate of the PLA’s joint operations capabilities
Chapter 1: Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept· Based on the outcome of the Gulf War, the PLA started researching joint operations in earnest with informatized warfare in mind.
From the mid-2000s, the PLA advocated the IJO concept and “Information System-Based System of Systems Operational
Capability,” and presented a joint operations concept that included traditional security domains (land, sea, and air) andnew security domains (such as space, cyber electromagnetic, and cognitive domain). Meanwhile, during the Hu Jintao
regime, the PLA’s informatization was still in the initial stage. Therefore, the PLA set forth that, for the time being, the feasible
joint operations were “joint operations under the conditions of informationization,” which was based on the military doctrine of“local wars under the conditions of informationization.” The joint operations capabilities of the PLA had not necessarily reacheda sufficient level in the Hu Jintao era.
· The Xi Jinping leadership established “informationized local wars” as a military doctrine. Under this doctrine, the Xi leadership
undertook large-scale military reforms in order to strengthen joint operations capabilities based on the IJO concept and“Information System-Based System of Systems Operational Capability.”· In October 2017, at the 19th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, Xi advocated the new concepts of “Joint
Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems” and “All-Domain Operations Capability” in order to deepen
the IJO concept. The implementation of precision, stealth, and unmanned operations, as well as the gaining of information
dominance, are positioned at the core of these concepts, putting more pronounced emphasis on new security domains.
· With “intelligentized warfare” proposed from 2019, the PLA is conducting ongoing research on new joint operations concepts,
such as “Multi-Domain Integrated Joint Operations” and “Joint Operations under the Conditions of Intelligentization.”
These discussions include the possibility of further PLA reforms, such as the establishment of new military services and theimplementation of bolder military reforms.

iConceptual Image of the PLA’s IJO during the Xi Jinping Regime: The C2 system for strategic strikes concerns the operation of nuclear assets and conventional
warhead systems used for strategic targets, such as DF-21D, and is therefore considered to beunder the command of the C2 system at the national level, not the theater command level.

Source: Compiled based on 蓝羽石、毛永庆、黄强 [Lan Yushi, Mao Yongqing, and Huang Qiang] et al., eds., 联
合作战指挥控制系统 [Joint Operations Command and Control System] (Beijing: 国防工业出版社 [National
Defense Industry Press], 2019), p. 12.

Conceptual Diagram of the Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept
LeaderJiang Zemin

Hu Jintao

Xi Jinping(Term as CCP CMC chairman)(1989–2004)(2004–2012)(2012–Present)

Military doctrine(Year introduced)

Local wars underhigh-technology
conditions(around 1993)

Joint operations
concept

Joint operations bymultiple services andbranches or joint
operations underhigh-technology conditions

Operations capability
deemed necessary
for joint operations

Mechanization(firepower, mobility)+
informatization(C4ISR) capability: Pending concept

Source: Compiled by the author.

ii

Local wars under the conditionsof informationization(around 2003)

Informationizedlocal wars
(around 2014)

Intelligentizedwarfare?

Joint operations under
the conditions of
informationization

Integrated joint
operations (IJO)

Multi-Domain IJO?
or Joint Operations
under theConditions ofIntelligentization?

Information System-Based System of
Systems Operational Capability: Under discussion as of October 2021

Joint Operations Capability
Based on Network Information
Systems + All-Domain
Operations Capability

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NIDS China Security Report 2022 The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Chapter 2: The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure· The PLA carried out large-scale military reforms from the end of 2015 to 2016. The reforms were wide-ranging and included:(1) the dissolution of four general departments and the launch of the multi-department system of the Central MilitaryCommission (CMC); (2) the abolition of the seven military regions (MRs) and the establishment of five theater commands(TCs); (3) the creation of the PLA Army headquarters; (4) the upgrading of the PLA Second Artillery Corps to the PLA Rocket
Force and the launch of the PLA Strategic Support Force and the PLA Joint Logistics Support Force; and (5) the expansionof the PLA Navy Marine Corps.
· The PLA reforms clarified the distinction between the operational chain of command (CMC-TC headquarters-operational
units) and the administrative chain of command (CMC-service headquarters-operational units), based on the policy of “theCMC performs general management, the theaters are mainly in charge of operations, and the services are mainly in chargeof force building” [ junwei guanzong, 军委管总; zhanqu zhuzhan, 战区主战; junzhong zhujian, 军种主建]. Under this policy,
TCs were described as “the only supreme joint operations command organization in their respective strategic directions.” The
TCs have greater power and command and control (C2) authority than the MRs before the PLA reforms and have gained inimportance.

PLA Organization Chart: After the Military Reforms

Source: Compiled based on Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” in Phillip C.
Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese Military Reforms (Washington
D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2019), p. 6.

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Newly Established Five Theater Commands

Notes: 1. Theater Command headquarters
Theater Army headquarters
Theater Navy headquarters
2. Theater boundaries have not been officially announced. The above map was created based on U.S.
Department of Defense reports, media reports, etc.
Source: Compiled based on Ministry of Defense of Japan, Defense of Japan 2021 (Tokyo: Ministry of Defenseof Japan, 2021), p. 66.

· As part of the PLA reforms, the C2 authority of the People’s Armed Police (PAP) was centralized in the CMC, and the China Coast
Guard (CCG) was placed under the PAP, creating the new CMC-PAP-CCG maritime border security management system.
· Enforcing the CMC chairman responsibility system strengthened Xi Jinping’s C2 authority over the PLA. In addition, under Xi’s
leadership, loyalty to Xi and joint operations were emphasized for selection of the PLA leadership. Nevertheless, PLA Army
personnel still dominate the TC headquarters.

CMC-PAP-CCG Chain of Command Following the Entry into Forceof the Coast Guard Law
Central Military
国 務Commission
院

State Council

PLA
Theatercommands

Peacetime

Mobile units

Internal guard
units

CCG

Other units(related to public security andinfrastructure)

People’s Armed
PoliceServices

Operationalunits
Wartime operations and non-militaryactivities conducted jointly with the PLA

Enactment of the latest law prescribed the scope of authority

Source: Compiled based on the website of the Ministry of Defense of Japan.

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NIDS China Security Report 2022 The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Shift in Composition of Key Posts at TC Headquarters
Affiliation of key staff members at TC headquarters
as of Feb. 2016

Affiliation of key staff members at TC headquarters
as of 2020

0

1

17

17
27

30
9

11
(Unit: people)
PLAA

PLAN

PLAAF

PLARF

Note: Key posts at TC headquarters refers to commander, political commissars, deputy commanders (including
TC chief of staff), and deputy political commissars (including director of the TC Political Work Department).
Sources: Compiled based on 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], ed., 军改后共军
重要领导人事评析专辑 [Collection of Evaluations of Important Leaders of the Communist Military after
the Military Reforms] (Taipei: 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], 2016),
pp. 69-101; 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], ed., 2020年共军人事专辑[Feature: 2020 Communist Army Personnel] (Taipei: 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism
Publishing Co.], 2020), pp. 110-147.

· With the formation of the standing CMC Joint Operations Command Center and TC Joint Operations Command Organizations,the PLA established a joint operations command structure for “unification of peacetime structure and wartime structure”[Ping Zhan Yiti, 平战一体]. In addition, the PLA has been developing C2 systems for joint operations, interconnecting themwith the C2 systems of the military services and integrating them with the C2 systems of government organizations and thecivilian sector.

The Layers of the PLA’s Joint Operations Command Structure
Strategic

Campaign

National-level joint operations command organization(CMC JOCC/JSD)

Theater command joint operationscommand organization
Campaign direction joint operationscommand organization

TacticalJoint tactical force

Service tactical force

Sources: Compiled based on 谭亚东 [Tan Yadong], ed., 联合作战教程 [Lectures on Joint Operations] (Beijing: 军
事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), pp. 88-92; 蓝羽石、毛永庆、黄强 [Lan Yushi,
Mao Yongqing, and Huang Qiang] et al., eds., 联合作战指挥控制系统 [Joint Operations Command andControl System] (Beijing: 国防工业出版社 [National Defense Industry Press], 2019), p. 47.

v

The PLA’s Joint Operations Command Structure
CMC
Joint Operations Command Center

Western TC
JOCO

TC army units

TC navy units

TC air force units
Operationalcommand

Northern TC
JOCO

Central TC
JOCOOther operational
units

Southern TC
JOCO

PLARF units

Eastern TC
JOCOOperational
support

PLAA
PLAN
PLAAF
PLARF
PLASSFPLAJLSF

Administrative
control

Source: Compiled based on 刘伟 [Liu Wei], ed., 战区联合作战指挥 [Theater Command Joint Operations Command](Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2016), p. 340.

Internal Structure of Main Command Post of TC Joint Operations Command
Organization
Commanding officers in TC JOCO
(commander and political commissars)

Intelligence
CenterCommunication
CenterC2 Center

Military
Affairs andMobilization
CenterPolitical Work
Center

Logistic andEquipment
Support Center

Command
Support Center

Information Warfare
CenterAir Defense Center
To be established with certaintySpecial Operations
CenterTo be established as needed, or establishment
is to be determined

Sources: Compiled based on 刘伟 [Liu Wei], 联合作战指挥 [Joint Operations Command] (Shenyang: 白山出版社[Baishan Publishing House], 2010), pp. 50-53; Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command,p. 82.

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Booklet
NIDS China Security Report 2022 The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Chapter 3: The Transformation of Joint Operations Training andTalent Cultivation Programs through the PLA Reforms,
and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations· In accordance with Xi Jinping’s instruction to become an army that is “ready to fight and win wars,” the PLA further strengthened
its joint operations training after the PLA reforms, stepped up trainings in Taiwan’s vicinity and in the South China Sea, and isenhancing its capabilities for commanding joint operations in China-Russia joint exercises. Through a series of joint operations
trainings, the PLA has especially strengthened information sharing among the services and connecting their C2 systems. In
addition, the PLA improved the quality of trainings by strengthening the training supervision structure.
· In order to overcome the shortage of personnel for commanding joint operations, the PLA developed the “triad” System fortraining new types of military personnel, consisting of military institutional education, unit training practice, and military
professional education (online education). The PLA National Defense University is the central academy for cultivating personnel
for joint operations, and the joint operations personnel who have been trained at the university are assigned to operational
units.
· The PLA sought to strengthen the education and training structure by establishing and improving related documents, laws,
and regulations. In terms of training, the PLA updated the “Military Training Regulations” and the “Military Training Outline”
and enacted the “Trial Guidelines on PLA Joint Operations.” In terms of education, it enacted the “Military Education Policy in
the New Era,” the “Trial Regulations on the Education in Military Academies,” and the “Trial Regulations on Military Professional
Education for Armed Forces.”· As the PLA strengthens its joint operations structure, some scholars note that the traditional system for maintaining Party-Armyrelations will become a setback. To address this, the PLA seeks the coexistence of the IJO concept and the maintenance andstrengthening of Party-Army relations by: (1) enforcing the “system of division of the leader’s responsibilities under the unified
collective leadership of the Party committee”; (2) focusing on military expertise and scientific and technological knowledge inthe selection and cultivation of political officers; and (3) emphasizing the “Three Warfares” and promoting informatization in
wartime political work.

Main Types of Military Professional Education

Military professional education

Non-academic credential
continuing education

Academic credential
continuing education

Online graduate school education formaster’s and professional degrees

Distant education for
non-commissioned officers

Self-taught military higher education
examination

Military institutional education
course for reserve officers

Military professional skills
certification program

Military professional qualification
certification program

Professional capacity building andknowledge development and update
program

Source: Compiled based on PLA Daily, March 1, 2018.

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List of Wartime Political Work
Wartime political work

Description

Wartime publicity(propaganda) and education
work

Conducts political mobilization and ideological education for the purpose of completing operational
missions, and carries out wartime publicity activities to raise the morale of participants.

Wartime organization
work

Organizes CCP and Chinese Communist Youth League groupings of the participating units, promotes
military democracy, turns those who have made outstanding achievements into examples andcommends them, selects heroes, and provides care for the wounded and sick soldiers.

Wartime cadre work

Makes personnel appointments, including selection of officers for war and the filling of vacant positions
during a war.

Execution of the “Three
Warfares”

Performs public opinion warfare, psychological warfare, and legal warfare.

Wartime mass work

Conducts mass mobilization at the local level including militias, conducts ideological and politicalwork and discipline maintenance for mobilized personnel, and addresses masses and minorities inother countries during wartime. Forms militia units that provide information support to engage in cyber
operations.

Wartime public security,procuratorial and judicial
work

Guards key headquarters staff, performs political reviews, conducts counterintelligence activities, andprevents and deals with military crimes.

Wartime liaison work

Conducts intelligence activities, such as intelligence collection on the enemy, clandestine dismantling(infiltration) work, and the management, education, and return of prisoners of war.

Source: Compiled based on 吴志忠 [Wu Zhizhong], ed., 战时政治工作教程 [Lectures on Wartime Political Work](Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), pp. 105-128.

Conclusions· Since the 1990s, the PLA has advocated IJO, a concept with broad applicability, in order to adapt flexibly to the developments
in U.S. military theories and science and technology. The PLA sought to deepen the IJO concept by pursuing uniqueness,
combining tradition (such as “Three Warfares,” military-civil fusion, and maintenance and strengthening of Party-Armyrelations) and innovations (such as emphasis on long-range precision attack capability, shift to new security domains, andintelligentized warfare).
· Under the strong initiative of Xi Jinping, the PLA reforms developed a joint operations structure that can realize the IJO concept.
In line with this, the PLA evolved its joint operations training and personnel cultivation programs and aimed to reconcile theeffective execution of the IJO concept and the maintenance and strengthening of Party-Army relations.
· In the PLA reforms, the PLA accomplished many achievements in deepening its joint operations. Meanwhile, there still remain
numerous challenges even after the reforms, such as: (1) coordination of authority and roles among the CMC, TCs, andservices; (2) insufficient awareness of joint operations and service parochialism; (3) the formalism of joint operations training
and coordination between the joint operations training led by the TCs and the training of the services and branches; (4)difficulties with recruiting, cultivating, and retaining personnel skilled in science and technology; and (5) the nature ofcommand authority and capability of political commissars. Overcoming these challenges is expected to take time.
· The timetable for the PLA’s modernization sets 2027, 2035, and 2050 as milestone years. In these years, it will be importantto estimate the joint operations capabilities of the PLA from multiple aspects, paying attention not only to the increase in
defense spending, introduction of new equipment, and statements and actions directed at other countries, but also to the PLA’s
joint operations concept, military reforms and the formation of an organizational culture, qualitative improvements in educationand training and personnel, and Party-Army relations.

viii

NIDS China Security Report 2022

The PLA’s Pursuit ofEnhanced Joint Operations
Capabilities
Sugiura Yasuyuki

National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan

NIDS China Security Report 2022
The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Published by
The National Institute for Defense Studies
5-1 Ichigaya Honmura-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8808 Japan
Website: http://www.nids.mod.go.jp/english/
Translated by INTERBOOKS
Copyright © 2021 by the National Institute for Defense Studies, JapanAll rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written, prior permission fromthe publisher.
The China Security Report 2022 comprises a NIDS researcher’s analyses and descriptions based on
information compiled from open sources in Japan and overseas. The views expressed herein do notnecessarily represent the official position of the Government of Japan or the Ministry of Defense.
ISBN 978-4-86482-099-8 

Printed in Japan

NIDS China Security Report 2022

Contents

Preface∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 5Acronyms and Abbreviations∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 6
Introduction∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 8
Chapter 1: Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept
1. The Joint Operations Concept and Its Challenges
from the Jiang Zemin Era to the Hu Jintao Era∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 12(1) The Jiang Zemin Era: Joint Operations in“Local Wars under High-Technology Conditions”∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 12(2) The Hu Jintao Era: Joint Operations in“Local Wars under the Conditions of Informationization”∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 13(3) Outcomes and Challenges∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 18
Column The Three Capabilities of “Information System-Based System

of Systems Operational Capability” and Their Impact
on Joint Operations Concepts∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 20
2. The Joint Operations Concept and
Its Challenges during the Xi Jinping Regime∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 23
(1) Proposal of “Informationized Local Wars”∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 23(2) “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems”
and “All-Domain Operations Capability”∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 24(3) “Intelligentized Warfare” and Reconsiderationof Joint Operations Concepts∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 26(4) Outcomes and Challenges∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 30

Chapter 2: The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure
1. The Biggest Organizational and Structural Reforms of the PLA
since the PRC’s Founding∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 34
(1) Background of the Reforms∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 34(2) Basic Reform Policy∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 36(3) Main Highlights of the Organizational and Structural Reforms∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 37

1

2. Personnel System of Senior PLA Officers for Enhanced Joint Operations∙∙ ∙ ∙ 46(1) Members of the PLA Leadership as of the 19th National Congress∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 46(2) TC Headquarters and Service Headquarters on Equal Footing∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 49
(3) Appointment of Joint Operations-Oriented TC Headquarter Officers∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 50
3. Situation of the PLA’s Joint Operations Command Structure
and C2 Systems for Joint Operations∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 51(1) Multi-Layered Joint Operations Command Structure Headedby the CMC Joint Operations Command Center∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 51
(2) Characteristics of the TC Joint Operations Command Structure∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 52(3) Evolution of the C2 Systems for Joint Operations∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 56
4. Outcomes and Challenges∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 59
(1) Outcomes∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 59(2) Challenges∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 59

Chapter 3: T he Transformation of Joint Operations Training andTalent Cultivation Programs through the PLA Reforms,
and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations
1. Transformation of Joint Operations Training in Light of the PLA Reforms∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 64
(1) Exploring Joint Operations Training under the Theater
Command Structure∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 64
(2) Promulgation of the New “Military Training Regulations”
and “Military Training Outline”∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 64
(3) Promulgation of the “Trial Guidelines on PLA Joint Operations”
and Holding of the CMC Military Training Conference∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 66
(4) Outcomes of Post-PLA Reform Joint Operations Training∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 68
2. Transformation of Joint Operations Talent Cultivation in Lightof the PLA Reforms∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 69
(1) The Triad Training System for New-Type Military Personnel and“Military Education Policy in the New Era”∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 69
(2) Reorganization of Military Educational Institutions andthe Role of PLA National Defense University∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 70
(3) Cultivation of Joint Operations Personnel in the Units∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 73
(4) Development of Military Professional Education∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 73(5) Outcomes from Creating the Talent Cultivation System∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 75

2

3. Exploring the Strengthening of Party-Army Relationsin the New Joint Operations Structure∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 76
(1) The PLA as the “Party’s Army”∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 76(2) Issues Surrounding Party-Army Relations andthe Efficiency of Joint Operations∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 78
(3) Wartime Party Committee System and Its Role∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 79
(4) Political Officer Cultivation Focusing on Military Expertise and Scientificand Technical Knowledge∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 81(5) Emphasis on the “Three Warfares” and the Promotion of Informatizationin Wartime Political Work∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 82(6) Outcomes from Strengthening Party-Army Relations∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 86
4. Challenges Surrounding Joint Operations Training, Talent Cultivation,
and Party-Army Relations∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 87(1) Challenges of Joint Operations Training∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 87(2) Challenges of Talent Cultivation∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 87(3) Challenges of the Political Commissar System andWartime Political Work∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 88

Conclusions∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 90
Notes∙ ∙ ∙ ∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ 943

4

Preface
Preface

The NIDS China Security Report published by the National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS)
provides a wide audience in Japan and abroad with an analysis by NIDS researchers of events related
to China’s military and security affairs that merit attention from a mid- to long-term perspective. We
are constantly brainstorming for topics to cover and delve deeply in this report that would contributeto understanding the security situation surrounding China and the People’s Liberation Army (PLA).
Recent topics have included the Belt and Road Initiative and cyber, space, and military-civil fusion.

Introduction

This latest China Security Report 2022 has chosen the joint operations capabilities of the PLA andconducts a multifaceted analysis from the perspectives of the evolution of the operations concept, reorganization of the operations structure, and training and personnel cultivation. It discusses in detail thatthe modernization of the PLA’s weapons and equipment and PLA reforms are all converging toward
the goal of smooth execution of joint operations, while the PLA struggles to maintain the absolute
principle of the Party’s Army.

Chapter 1

The wide-ranging topics as mentioned above are chosen by China researchers at NIDS,
following discussions on the academic perspectives of the topic and its significance. It does not in
any way reflect the intention of the Japanese Government, the Ministry of Defense, or NIDS senior
officials. The views expressed in this report are those of the author. The author made revisions at
his own judgment and responsibility, based on comments from the editorial team and others in theprocess through publication, and no changes have been made against the author’s will. Thus, it is

Chapter 2

a literal fact that the China Security Report 2022 has been written solely from the viewpoint of theindividual researcher and does not represent an official view of the Japanese Government, the Ministryof Defense, or NIDS.
This report is the 12th in the series but the first to be written by a single author, Sugiura Yasuyuki,
Senior Fellow, China Division, Regional Studies Department. In writing this report, it goes without
saying that the author has endeavored to present an objective analysis mainly based on materials
published by China, while taking note of suggestions gained by exchanging views with researchers,

Chapter 3

experts, and research institutes in Japan and abroad. This work was supported by the editorial staff
comprised of Yamazoe Hiroshi (deputy editor-in-chief), Ohnishi Ken (editor of the Japanese edition),
Jingushi Akira (editor of the English edition), Yatsuzuka Masaaki (editor of the Chinese edition),
Nakagawa Misa, Arie Koichi, and Seto Takashi.
We hope that the China Security Report 2022 will contribute to a deepening of policy discussions concerning China at home and abroad, alongside dialogue, exchange, and cooperation among

Conclusions

countries and regions regarding security.
November 2021
Momma Rira
Editor-in-Chief, China Security Report 2022
Director, Regional Studies Department

5

Acronyms and Abbreviations
AEW
AEW&C
AI
AMS
BDS-3
C2
C4ISR
CCG
CCP
CMC
COVID-19
CPX
GIG
GSD
IJO
IoT
JOCC
JOCO
MDIJO
MR
NDU
NDWP
NIDS
NPC
NUDT
PAP
PLA
PLAA
PLAAF
PLAJLSF
PLAN
PLANMCPLARF
PLASACPLASSF
PRC
PSC
SOF
TC
TT&C

6

airborne early warning
airborne early warning and control
artificial intelligence
Academy of Military Science
BeiDou Navigation Satellite Systemcommand and control
command, control, communications, computers, intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance
China Coast Guard
Chinese Communist Party
Central Military Commission
coronavirus diseasecommand post exercises
Global Information Grid
General Staff Department
integrated joint operations
Internet of Things
Joint Operations Command Center
Joint Operations Command Organization
Multi-Domain Integrated Joint Operations
military region
National Defense University
National Defense White Paper
National Institute for Defense Studies
National People’s CongressNational University of Defense Technology
People’s Armed Police
People’s Liberation Army
PLA Army
PLA Air Force
PLA Joint Logistics Support Force
PLA Navy
PLA Navy Marine Corps
PLA Rocket Force
PLA Second Artillery Corps
PLA Strategic Support Force
People’s Republic of China
Party Standing Committee
special operations force
Theater Command
telemetry, tracking, and control

NIDS China Security Report 2022
The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Introduction

Introduction

Introduction
The 1991 Gulf War shocked the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA). This war made the PLA
realize that joint operations among all services and branches, premised on informatization, would
become key to future warfare. In the first half of the 1990s, the PLA began researching into joint operations in earnest.1 This approach to warfare remained unchanged even after the change in leadershipfrom Jiang Zemin to Hu Jintao. From the mid-2000s, the PLA advocated the concept of integrated
joint operations [Yitihua Lianhe Zuozhan, 一体化联合作战] (IJO)2 and gradually revamped its joint operations capabilities.
Chinese leader Xi Jinping, appointed chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC)in November 2012, placed greater emphasis on strengthening the joint operations capabilities of the
PLA than his two predecessors, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao. At a meeting of the Standing Conferenceof the CMC held immediately after his appointment, Xi pointed to the PLA’s lack of combat experience and instructed the PLA to concentrate efforts on meeting the capability level required by “joint
operations under the conditions of informationization.” 3 In December of the same year, in remarks
given after hearing a work report by the Second Artillery Corps, Xi instructed the PLA to devote totraining personnel for joint operations.4 Behind this was Xi’s strong sense of wariness toward: (1) thedeterioration of the international situation surrounding China due to such factors as the U.S. rebalance
strategy;5 (2) the lateness in the PLA’s adaptation to informatized warfare and joint operations;6 and(3) the decline in the political leadership’s ability to control the PLA.7
Xi Jinping announced the pursuit of national defense and military reforms (PLA reforms) at theThird Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in November
2013.8 The main objective of the reforms was to develop the joint operations capabilities of the PLA,
with particular emphasis given to strengthening the joint operations command structure. At an expanded
meeting of the CMC in December 2013, Xi mentioned reviewing the leadership and command system,
noting that the reform of the joint operations command structure was a key priority among the PLA
reforms. He proposed establishing a complete joint operations command organization of the CMC andjoint operations command structure of theater commands. Xi ordered that the PLA, through reforming
the joint operations command structure, improve the division of roles between, and the organizational
structure of, the CMC and the four general departments (General Staff Department, General Political
Department, General Logistics Department, and General Armaments Department), make adjustments
to the military regions (MRs) and the PLA’s service and branch system, and strengthen the strategy
management function of the CMC.9 On March 15, 2014, the CMC Leading Group for National Defense
and Military Reform, headed by Xi himself, held its first meeting for advancing the PLA reforms.10
The details of the reforms to the PLA’s organizational structure were successively announced
from the autumn of 2015 to February 2016. The reforms exceeded the expectations of many observers,

8

ranging from the dissolution of thefour general departments and the seven
Preface

MRs to the establishment of the CMC
multi-department system and five theatercommands. Yang Yi, former director of
the Institute for Strategic Studies at the
National Defense University, described
the series of PLA reforms as “the mostnation’s founding.” 11 Some scholars in the
United States noted that the PLA reforms

Introduction

substantial and thorough reforms since the
PLA soldiers marching at the PRC’s 70th anniversary military
parade (October 2019) (Photo: Kyodo News)

were comparable to the introduction of
the Goldwater-Nichols Act. GoldwaterNichols was enacted in the United States in 1986 to strengthen its joint operations structure and to this
Chapter 1

day serves as the foundation of the joint operations structure of the U.S. forces.12
The PLA reforms, the biggest since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, were to
be completed in 2020. At the CMC reform work meeting in November 2015, Xi Jinping instructed
the CMC to make significant progress in reforming the leadership management system and the joint
operations command structure, and by 2020, build a system of modern military forces with Chinesecharacteristics, capable of winning the informatized warfare and effectively executing its mission.13

Chapter 2

As the milestone year of 2020 has passed, the purpose of this report is to assess how much thejoint operations capabilities of the PLA have developed since the 1990s, giving particular focus to
the following four aspects. First, the report traces the evolution of the joint operations concept fromthe 1990s to the present, and notes the challenges that have been faced in its materialization. Second,it explains the joint operations structure of the PLA established by the Xi-led PLA reforms and its
outcomes, and discusses the challenges under the current system. Third, it analyzes the improvements

Chapter 3

in joint operations exercises and the enhancement of personnel training that the PLA initiated under
the new joint operations command structure, the results they have achieved, and the challenges thatremain. Fourth, it examines how the PLA in its reforms has approached maintaining and strengthening
the Party-Army relations, which is often considered to be in a tense relationship with the effective
execution of joint operations. Specifically, this report sheds light on the search for balance between the
traditional systems of the PLA—the Party committee system, the political commissar system, and theConclusions

system of political leading organ—and the concept of IJO, and notes its achievements and challenges.
Assessing the PLA’s joint operations capabilities from a variety of perspectives has criticalsignificance for examining China’s external actions, especially trends in its exercise of military power.
The issues raised in this report have already been a subject of numerous studies, mainly in the UnitedStates and Taiwan. Based on their findings, this report focuses its analysis also on the aspects that have9

Chapter 1

Introduction

not been sufficiently considered, namely, the situation of the joint operations command structure andthe command and control systems for joint operations at the strategic, campaign, and tactical levels,
the strengthening of personnel training for joint operations, and the steps taken to balance the IJO
concept with maintaining and strengthening the Party-Army relations. This report gives priority totranslating the original Chinese text as faithfully as possible, even if the statements of the leaders or
the definitions of the concepts contain ambiguities and vagueness because they are characteristics ofChina’s army building and enable the PLA to maintain flexibility in concrete operations.

10

NIDS China Security Report 2022
The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Chapter 1
Evolution of the PLA’s Joint
Operations ConceptChapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

1. The Joint Operations Concept and Its Challenges
from the Jiang Zemin Era to the Hu Jintao Era(1) The Jiang Zemin Era: Joint Operations in “Local Wars under HighTechnology Conditions”
The Gulf War in 1991 prompted the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to start researching joint
operations in earnest. The coalition forces spearheaded by the United States won a stunning victory
over the Iraqi forces, leading to the PLA’s proposal of “local wars under high-technology conditions”
as a new military doctrine in 1993. Its characteristic was the consideration of command, control,
communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) as critical assets,
alongside firepower and mobility.1 In this new military doctrine, joint operations were viewed as key
to winning wars.2
China’s concept of joint operations during this era had three features. First, the PLA emphasized the campaign level centered on military regions (MRs) as a unit of joint operations. The PLA
recognized that an integrated command and control (C2) system was needed and proposed the war
zone/theater concept. In addition, it began training for joint operations at the campaign level andcommenced research and education on joint operations based on campaign-level scenarios.3
Second, the PLA emphasized informatization, including in the space and electromagnetic
domains. From the 1980s, the PLA underscored electronic warfare and “electronic (or electromagnetic) dominance” as priorities of joint operations. From the 1990s onwards, the PLA started to discuss“information dominance,” including “computer network dominance.” In light of the outcome of the
Gulf War, the PLA focused attention on the need for space operations capability, noting that extensive
communications and accurate navigation and location information were essential to winning “local
wars under high-technology conditions.” Space as a battlefield was positioned as “a major componentof future conflict,” taking into account the operations capabilities of the U.S. forces in the Kosovo War.4
Third, the PLA refined the concept of joint operations and made “integrated operations, key
point strikes” the operational guideline for the campaign level. This guideline focused on integrating
the military with politics, economy, and diplomacy, combining forces, including the PLA Army
(PLAA), PLA Navy (PLAN), PLA Air Force (PLAAF), and PLA Second Artillery Corps (PLASAC),
as well as reserves and militias, and destroying and paralyzing the enemy’s operational system. Under
this operational guideline, the PLA prioritized firepower and informatization and focused on linking
precision-guided weapons, intelligence support systems, electronic warfare systems, and automatedcommand systems.5
The PLA has two terms for system, “tixi [体系]” and “xitong [系统].” The tixi-system is a moreadvanced stage of the xitong-system and is a large system consisting of many xitong-systems. With
regard to the notion of system in the PLA’s joint operations concept, this report refers to xitong as

12

“system” and to tixi as “Systems.”6
The main accomplishments of this era were as follows. First, the PLA began joint operations
Prefacetraining at the campaign level. From July 1995 to March 1996, the PLA General Staff Department(GSD) conducted joint operations training around the Taiwan Strait. This exercise was assessed as asignificant achievement in further developing joint operations under high-technology conditions. After
1999, many MRs also conducted joint landing operational exercises under high-technology conditions.7
Second, the PLA established guidelines for the execution of joint operations. In January 1999,
the Central Military Commission (CMC) promulgated “Ordinance of Joint Campaigns of the Chinese

Introduction

People’s Liberation Army.” This ordinance envisaged joint operations in the forms of island blockade,island assault, border area counterattack, counter-air raid, and anti-landing campaigns.8
Third, the PLA developed an education system for joint operations. Based on “Ordinance of
Joint Campaigns of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army,” it published campaign training materials, including Joint Campaign, Island Landing Campaign, and Joint Border Area Counterattack
Campaign. In addition, Science of Joint Campaign and Science of Services Campaign were estab-

Chapter 1

lished as courses in the campaign studies department at military educational institutions.9(2) The Hu Jintao Era: Joint Operations in “Local Wars under theConditions of Informationization”
The “Integrated Joint Operations” Concept and “Information System-Based System of
Systems Operational Capability”

Chapter 2

In the Hu Jintao era, the PLA developed the idea of “local wars under the conditions of informationization” that replaced “local wars under high-technology conditions.” 10 This was underpinned by the
influence of the Kosovo War, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War. “Local wars under high-technology
conditions” was an extension of mechanized warfare, in the sense that it emphasized the destruction of
the enemy’s physical targets while recognizing the importance of informatization.11 In contrast, “local
wars under the conditions of informationization” placed greater focus on informatization. According

Chapter 3

to the PLA’s definition, they are local wars that rely on information systems and involve weaponsand equipment having a certain level of informationization and corresponding operational methods.
They are the basic form of combat in the transitional period from the industrial age to the informationage. Informatized warfare is a manifestation of this evolutionary trend. Moreover, “informationizedwarfare” was defined as warfare that relies on network information systems, employs informatizedweapons and equipment as well as operational methods, and is conducted in land, sea, air, space,

Conclusions

cyber electromagnetic, and other spatial domains as well as in the cognitive domain, where Systems
confrontation is the main form of conflict, and is the basic form of warfare in the information age. The
PLA identified “informationized warfare” as future warfare.12
Under these military doctrines, the PLA developed the two concepts of “integrated joint operations [Yitihua Lianhe Zuozhan, 一体化联合作战] (IJO)” and “Information System-Based System of13

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

Systems Operational Capability.” Both constructs were influenced by U.S. military theories but werearranged to conform with the characteristics of the PLA.13
The concept of IJO was proposed soon after the Hu Jintao regime came into power.14 The 2011
revised volume of the PLA’s official glossary of military terms, PLA Military Terminology, defined
IJO as “operations that use informationized weapons and equipment as well as operational methods
based on network information systems, all together in the land, sea, air, space, and cyber electromagnetic spaces and the cognitive domain. It is a basic form of operation in response to informationizedwarfare.” 15 The concept of IJO overlaps with “informationized warfare” in many respects, and thetwo are inseparably linked. IJO emphasized the operational philosophies of “information leading”(placing the highest priority on “information dominance”), “precision operations” (operations that
achieve objectives with minimum effort and in the shortest possible time through a close examination of space, time, targets, means, and effects), “vital point strike” (precision attacks that combine
soft- and hard-kill methods to destroy or paralyze the enemy’s core operational Systems), and “winby integrated operations” (integrating military, politics, economy, and diplomacy to achieve victorythrough a combination of various means in the land, sea, air, space, information, psychological, andcognitive domains). The PLA expanded its operational domains from the traditional security domainsof land, sea, and air to the new security domains of space, cyber electromagnetic space, deep sea, andcognitive domain.16
However, as of 2013, the PLA recognized that its mechanization was not yet completed andits informatization was in the initial stage. The PLA had therefore understood that operations feasible
for the time being were “coordinated joint operations” that integrate different services and branches
according to a plan, and that realizing the IJO concept would take time.17 For this reason, the PLA set“joint operations under the conditions of informationization” as a preliminary step for the IJO concept.
“Joint operations under the conditions of informationization” are a form of operation tailored to “local
wars under the conditions of informationization.” This form of operation was conceived as having thefollowing characteristics: (1) although the operational forces have a certain level of informatization,
informatized weapons and equipment still do not occupy a leading position; (2) although the operational Systems have a certain level of information system support, the information system function has
not reached its full and complete potential; and (3) although the flexible coordination capability has
been significantly enhanced, coordinated actions based on a plan still occupy the leading position.18
Thus, IJO was set forth as a medium- to long-term goal.
From around 2005, the PLA advocated “Information System-Based System of Systems
Operational Capability” as an essential capability for future warfare.19 The PLA Military Terminology
defines “Information System-Based System of Systems Operational Capability” as “an operational
capability that has double efficacy by fusing operational elements, operational units, and operational
systems, with the command and information system serving as the link and support, to aggregate and integrate real-time sensing, high-efficiency command, precision attack, rapid maneuver, full-dimensional

14

defense, and comprehensive support.”20 This construct, while influenced by U.S. military theories
on C4ISR advancement, was adapted to fit the characteristics of the PLA and formed its originalPrefacecore concept.21 In line with this concept, the PLA presented the following basic forms of Systems
operations: “information-firepower strike,” “multi domain-dimensional assault,” “network-electronic
integrated confrontation,” “psychological-cognitive attack,” and “special operations” (Table 1.1).22
The concepts of IJO and “Information System-Based System of Systems Operational
Capability” were closely related. Kevin McCauley, a U.S. scholar on Chinese military affairs, notesthat the PLA considered the latter as a requirement for IJO.23

Introduction

Characteristics
The joint operations discourse during the Hu Jintao regime had three characteristics. First, while
focusing mainly on joint operations at the campaign level, their implementation was expanded to thestrategic and tactical levels.24 PLA National Defense University (NDU) scholars categorized joint
operations into the strategic, campaign, and tactical levels and emphasized replacing the conventional

Chapter 1

vertical chain of command with a flat, simplified mesh-type chain of command (Figure 1.1).
However, NDU scholars deemed that the basic operational unit of joint operations was the

Table 1.1 Basic Operational Forms of “Information System-Based System of Systems
Operational Capability”
This form of attack combines soft- and hard-kill methods, where information is the initiative and firepower isthe mainstay. Use of firepower is focused on long-range precision attacks employing mainly precision-guided
munitions. Focus is placed on electronic, cyber, and psychological-cognitive attacks to destroy the enemy’s
operational Systems.

Multi domaindimensional
assault

The forces of multiple services and branches are employed comprehensively to attack an enemy’s operationaltargets in multiple domains, such as land, sea, air, space, electromagnetic, psychological-cognitive, and cyber. This
form of attack combines soft- and hard-kill methods in multi-dimensional domains against the key nodes of theenemy’s operational Systems and therefore requires advanced C2 capability.

Network-electronic
integrated
confrontation

This is a collective term for activities related to weakening and destroying enemy networks and electronic warfare
equipment (systems) and defending friendly units’ networks and electronic warfare equipment (systems). It is ameans of gaining information dominance, which includes network electronic reconnaissance, network electronic
attack, and network electronic defense. It is implemented at all stages from peacetime to wartime and requires ahigh level of C2 capability.

Psychologicalcognitive attack

This form of attack aimed at psychological cognition uses the information media as a weapon and employs a variety
of means to influence psychological cognition and create a state of psychological cognition that is advantageous tofriendly units and disadvantageous to the opponent. The purpose is to cause the enemy’s downfall and strengthen
one’s position. Targets are wide-ranging, including enemy leaders, dignitaries, troops, civilians, enemy allies, andthird countries. It can be combined with information-firepower strikes and multi domain-dimensional assaults toenhance its effectiveness.

Special operations

This is an irregular operational action conducted against an enemy’s strategic and campaign targets or other key
targets using special units or specially trained forces for specific military, political, economic, or psychological
purposes. Because the operational targets are at the strategic and campaign levels and affect all phases of the war,covert operations are emphasized and implemented under Theater Command command officers (commanders
and political commissars). Missions include special reconnaissance, destruction and assault of key targets, seizure
and control of key targets, precision attack guidance, psychological disintegration warfare, and cyber attacks.

Conclusions

Informationfirepower strike

Chapter 3

Description

Chapter 2

Basic forms

Source: Compiled based on 董連山 [Dong Lianshan], ed., 基于信息系统的体系作战研究 [Research on Information
System-Based System of Systems Operations] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2012), pp. 128-153.

15

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

campaign level. The PLA considered that joint operations at the strategic level were strategic joint
campaign operations conducted by joint campaign formations comprised of services and branchesfrom one or more theater commands (TCs) or from the entire PLA. While the scholars envisaged
the establishment of a strategic joint operational campaign command organization, establishing suchan organization at the national level was not necessarily considered. In addition, the NDU scholars
conceptualized joint combat, stating that more integrated means of command and the further development of weapons and equipment technology have enabled joint operations even at the tactical level.
Meanwhile, given the status of the PLA’s informatization, the scholars envisioned that joint operations
at the tactical level would be virtually impossible for the time being without C2, and supports atthe campaign level.25 On the other hand, scholars at the PLA Academy of Military Science (AMS)
anticipated the establishment of both a strategic joint operations command organization at the national
level and a theater joint operations command organization at the campaign level.26 Such disagreementof views can be attributed to the lack of a standing joint operations command organization, as is
discussed later.
Secondly, the PLA went beyond merely imitating Western countries. It made the joint operations concept unique by basing it on the PLA’s tradition, and novel by taking new technologicaldevelopments into account. Specifically, in line with the Hu Jintao regime’s call for military-civil
fusion from around 2005,27 the PLA stressed the importance of promoting military-civil fusion in joint
operations, focusing on space and information technologies. In addition, the PLA identified the “Three
Warfares” of public opinion warfare, psychological warfare, and legal warfare28 as critical capabilities.
The PLA also directed attention to intelligentization represented by artificial intelligence (AI) andemphasized confrontations in the cyber electromagnetic and cognitive domains, incorporating them

Figure 1.1 Mesh-type Chain of Command of Joint Operations

Theater Command headquarters

BrigadeBrigadeBrigadeBrigadeBrigadeBattalion

Battalion

Battalion

Battalion

Battalion

Source: Compiled based on 马平 [Ma Ping], ed., 联合作战研究 [Joint Operations Research] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社[NDU Press], 2013), p. 166.

16

into its joint operations concept.29
Thirdly, the PLA emphasized and developed the notion of Systems confrontation based on
Prefacethe concepts of IJO and “Information System-Based System of Systems Operational Capability.”
In Systems confrontation, the military identifies and attacks the enemy’s critical weaknesses while
simultaneously building and protecting its combat Systems.30 According to AMS scholars, five major
functional systems (intelligence reconnaissance system, C2 system, operational forces system, battlefield system, and integrated support system) and a single common support system (intelligence support
system) comprise the essential operations systems of joint operations systems (Table 1.2). The basic

Introduction

operational model of joint operations, consisting of these five major functional and single common
support systems, was regarded as Systems confrontation. Emphasis was placed on Systems paralysis,
Systems destruction, and Systems defense.31
In joint operations characterized by Systems confrontation, the PLA emphasized the “three

Table 1.2 Systems Comprising the IJO Concept

C2 system

This is an organizational System that combines, mutually coordinates, and mutually constrains the multi-layeredcommand organizations of the strategic, TC, and campaign (TC) direction levels based on the demand of joint
operational command. It plays a core role in joint operations and is key to turning information dominance into
policymaking dominance and action dominance.

Operational forces
system

It forms the main material foundation for the implementation of joint operations and consists of the PLAA, PLAN,
PLAAF, PLASAC, intelligence, special operations, space, and other forces. Militias, reserves, and the People’s
Armed Police join as necessary, and emphasis is placed on their integration and modularization.

Battlefield system

The battlefield space is expanding, comprised of multiple domains, including the land, sea, air, space, cyberelectromagnetic, and cognitive domains, and its boundaries are becoming blurred. The battlefield system ischaracterized by mechanization and informatization, and emphasizes implementation of asymmetric operations,protection against long-range precision attacks as well as nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, andincreasing military-civil fusion.

Integrated support
system

It is the foundation that supports joint operations Systems and provides information, materials, and energy to all
operational Systems in a sustainable and effective manner. It consists of operational support, logistic support,
equipment support, and the local support system through national defense mobilization. In particular, operational
support envisions ensuring essential elements for conducting informatized operations, such as reconnaissanceand intelligence support, target support, operational digital support, information security support, communications
support, surveying, mapping and navigation support, and battlefield control and electromagnetic spectrum
management.

Intelligence support
systemThis PLA-wide information infrastructure facility with communication networks as a link and informationtransmission and processing as its core unifies the battlefields of land, sea, air, space, and cyber electromagnetic
spaces and organically interconnects the five major functional systems in all battlefields. It consists of an
information transmission system, navigation and positioning system, and information security system. It
integrates operational activities, such as intelligence reconnaissance, C2, fire strikes, and troop maneuver,and enables decisions, commands, and communications in real time. It acts as a connector and multiplier toeffectively demonstrate the overall operational capability of the armed forces and envisions the Global Information
Grid (GIG) maintained by the U.S. forces.

Conclusions

Its basic task is to collect and provide information. Its components include the PLA-wide unified strategic early
warning system, battlefield reconnaissance surveillance system, and information reconnaissance center. It
focuses on the mutual coordination of intelligence reconnaissance systems among the PLA services to achieve
real-time information sharing.

Chapter 3IntelligencereconnaissancesystemChapter 2

Main role

Chapter 1

SystemSources: Compiled based on 譚亜東 [Tan Yadong], ed., 联合作战教程 [ Lectures on Joint Operations] (Beijing: 军事

科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2012), pp. 20-34; 任连生 [Ren Liansheng], ed., 基于信息系

统的体系作战能力教程 [Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability](Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), p. 54.

17

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

non” warfares of non-contact, nonlinear, and asymmetric operations as well as target-centric warfare.
The PLA defined non-contact operations as “offensive operations conducted against an enemy fromoutside the effective counterattack range of the enemy’s main weapons,” nonlinear operations as“operations based on unified intentions, conducted by irregularly deploying forces throughout thedepth of the battlefield with no fixed operation direction or location,” and asymmetric operations as“operations in which opposing forces employ different types of units and different operational means
and methods.” Target-centric warfare redefined non-contact operations and referred to operations inwhich PLA command officers, through the deployment of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance sensors and target analysis, identify and immediately aim to destroy the most critical targets inthe enemy’s operational systems.32(3) Outcomes and Challenges
Outcomes
The outcomes of the PLA’s joint operations concept during the Hu Jintao era can be summarized
into three points. First, joint operations training moved into full swing. The all-PLA military training
conference hosted by Hu Jintao in 2006 and the Outline of Military Training and Evaluation released
in 2009 emphasized the expansion of joint operations training. In 2009, the PLA conducted as manyas 18 large-scale joint operations trainings, focusing on military-civil integration, power projection
capability at sea and air, “systemic operations,” the improvement of joint training methods, and C2
at the war zone level. This trend continued thereafter, and joint operations trainings such as Mission
Action 2010 and Queshan 2012 were conducted in 2010 and 2012, respectively.33
Second, the CMC and PLA GSD made personnel changes with a view to joint operations. In
September 2004, the commanders of the PLAN, PLAAF, and PLASAC were selected as members of
the CMC. In addition, vice chiefs of staff of the PLA GSD were appointed from the PLAN and PLAAF
in 2004 and from the PLASAC in 2010.34 Subsequently, Xu Qiliang, commander of the PLAAF;
Wu Shengli, commander of the PLAN; Ma Xiaotian, commander of the PLAAF; and Wei Fenghe,
commander of the PLASAC, after serving as vice chief of staff of the PLA GSD, were appointed
commanders of services and branches and joined the CMC.35
Third, the joint operations structure was strengthened, mainly through the restructuring of the
PLA GSD. In June 2011, the Communications Department of the PLA GSD was reorganized into
the Information Department. The Information Department dealt with the decentralized information
terminals and diversified information formats of various units.36 In November 2011, the Strategic
Planning Department of the PLA GSD was established. There was a “need to create an independent
department in charge of comprehensive strategic planning across the PLA’s services.” 37 In December
2011, the Military Services and Training Department of the PLA GSD was reorganized into the
Military Training Department. This was to expand the training and guidance of the PLA GSD, which
was heavily weighted toward the PLAA, to include the PLAN, PLAAF, and PLASAC. Furthermore,18

the Joint Operation Training Bureau was established in the Military Training Department and given
exclusive responsibility for joint operational training.38
Preface

Challenges
The PLA achieved many outcomes throughout the Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao eras. However, somechallenges remained. In particular, the PLA faced organizational, primarily C2 structure related issues,
which posed a challenge for conducting joint operations for informatized warfare.
The first challenge was the lack of a standing joint operations command organization at the

Introduction

strategic and campaign levels. Due to the lack of standing organizations, the PLA GSD and MRs exercised C2 mainly over the PLAA, while the PLAN and PLAAF headquarters handled their operations
respectively during peacetime. As a result, integration at the campaign level was inadequate. In orderto overcome this challenge, the PLA decided to set up TCs to serve as temporary joint headquarters
during wartime.39 However, as the structures varied between peacetime and wartime, it took time toswitch between the two, and problems arose in readiness ability.40

Chapter 1

The second issue was the PLA’s “Big Army” thinking. The PLAA did not have an independent headquarters; instead, the four general departments fulfilled the headquarter function. The
PLAA monopolized almost all the commanders and political commissars of the MRs. In this respect,
the PLAA was one rank above the other services and branches, including the PLAN, PLAAF, and
PLASAC.41 The PLA was aware of these problems, and observers noted that this structure made itdifficult to command “joint operations under the conditions of informationization.” 42

Chapter 2

The third issue was the enlargement of the four general departments including the GSD andthe consequent decline in the authority of the CMC. Following the PLA reforms, the PLA Daily criticized the concentration of power in the four general departments, with each becoming an independent command organization and taking over the functions of the CMC, stating that it affected the
CMC’s collective and unified control.43 Especially during the Hu Jintao era, the authority of the CMC
chairman is said to have diminished to the extent that the structure was derided as a “CMC Vice

Chapter 3

Chairman Responsibility System.”44

Conclusions

19

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

ColumnThe Three Capabilities of “Information System-Based System of Systems
Operational Capability” and Their Impact on Joint Operations Concepts
The PLA has produced numerous research outputs regarding “Information System-Based System of
Systems Operational Capability.” This capability as defined by scholars at Nanjing Army Command College
mainly targets the PLAA tactics units,45 whereas that as defined by scholars at PLA NDU mainly targets theentire PLA.46 These studies were interrelated but did not lead to a fixed definition. Furthermore, the definition has been subject to changes.47 Against this backdrop, scholars at PLA AMS, led by Ren Liansheng,classified the capabilities of the “Information System-Based System of Systems Operational Capability”
into mission capabilities, element capabilities, and information infrastructure support capabilities, notingthat these capabilities interact and collaborate to form multi-layered and open capability Systems (Figure1.2).48 Compared to other studies, this classification emphasized the interrelationship of the capabilities
and focused on their integration to establish a Systems operational capability. The following is an overview
of the capability layers and their component capabilities as presented in the study by Ren et al.
A monograph by Ren et al. defined the first layer, mission capabilities, as “the capabilities to
conduct various joint operations based on the mission and duties of the armed forces.”49 It consisted of
the nine capabilities outlined in Table 1.3.
The second layer, element capabilities, was defined as “general capabilities equipped withelements of various operational forces and functions for different aspects by assistance of information
infrastructure support capabilities as well as common capabilities that are necessary for the armed forces
to complete various operational missions.” 50 It consisted of the nine capabilities outlined in Table 1.4.

Figure 1.2 Conceptual Diagram of “Information System-Based System of Systems
Operational Capability”

Joint airdefensive
operational
capability

Joint space
confrontation
capability

Joint
information
operational
capability

Full-dimensional defense capability

Comprehensive support capability“Three Warfares” capability

Joint strategic
Joint borderline ofdefensivecommunications
operational
security
capability
capability

Information offense anddefense capability

Joint island
offensive
operational
capability

Multi-dimensional maneuver capability

Jointblockade
operational
capability

Assault and resisting action capability

Element
capabilities

Joint firestrikecapability

Fire strike capability

2nd Layer

Nucleardeterrenceandcounterattack
capability

C2 capability

Missioncapabilities

Intelligence reconnaissance capability

1st Layer

3rd Layer

Information
infrastructure
supportcapabilities

Informationcollection
capability

Information
processing
capability

Information
storagecapability

Informationtransmission
capability

Information
distribution
management
capability

Information
security
capability

Navigation andpositioning
capability

Source: Compiled based on Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability,p. 54.

20

Table 1.3 Mission Capabilities of the “Information System-Based System of Systems
Operational Capability”
Mission capability

Description

Joint fire strike capability

The capability to operate the firepower of military services and branches
comprehensively to attack different targets in different spaces.

Joint blockade operational capability

The capability to limit the enemy’s freedom of action by disrupting the linkages
between the islands occupied by the enemy and outside the islands.

Joint island offensive operational capability

The capability to conduct landing operations on large islands.

Joint border defensive operational capability

The operational capability to maintain stability in border areas and to protect the
territorial sovereignty of a nation.

Joint strategic line of communications
security capability

An operational capability that is employed to ensure the security of key strategic
communications at sea and on land.

Joint air defensive operational capability

The capability to resist or counterattack an enemy attacking from the air.

Joint space confrontation capability

The confrontation capability to maintain the security and interests of friendly units’
space targets and seize dominance in space.

Joint information operational capability

The capability to protect the security of information spaces, including cyberelectromagnetic space, and seize information dominance.

Introduction

The capability to operate a range of nuclear weapons to threaten, deter, andcounterattack in response to an enemy’s intentions and actions involving the useof nuclear weapons.

Preface

Nuclear deterrence and counterattack
capability

Chapter 1

Source: Compiled based on Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability,
pp. 58-60.

Table 1.4 Element Capabilities of the “Information System-Based System of Systems
Operational Capability”

C2 capability

The capability of command officers and their staff organization to conduct planning, coordination andcontrol, and counter-command operations for the operational actions of service and branch forces. It
constitutes the core of Systems operational capability.

Fire strike capability 51

The capability to comprehensively operate long-range precision-attack firepower to kill or wound enemy
troops, destroy military facilities, weapons, and equipment, and attrit their combat power. Precision-attack
firepower is formed by integrating the platforms deployed on land, at sea, in the air, and in space.

Assault and resisting
action capability 52

The capability to operate operational forces to attack, occupy, or defend key areas and targets. It consistsof assault action capability and resisting action capability, which are designed for short-range operations.

Multi-dimensional
maneuver capability

The capability to ensure the smooth implementation of operational actions and to transport operational
units and equipment to designated operational areas in a multi-dimensional, rapid, and safe manner. It
consists of land, sea, and air capabilities.

Information offense anddefense capability

The capability to hinder, suppress, and demolish the enemy’s information and intelligence systemwith soft- and hard-kill methods while protecting friendly units’ information and intelligence system.
It is employed to conduct asymmetric warfare and is an important means of hindering, destroying andparalyzing the enemy’s operational Systems. It is necessary to build information operations Systems
that integrate land, sea, air, and space capabilities at the strategic, campaign, and tactical levels andto form an information operational capability that combines offense and defense, integrates cyber andelectromagnetic spaces, and combines soft- and hard-kill methods.

Full-dimensional defense
capability

The capability to prevent an enemy from striking or destroying friendly units’ operational Systems. It
consists of anti-reconnaissance and surveillance capability, air defense missile capability, and nuclear,biological, and chemical defense capabilities.

Comprehensive support
capability

The capability to provide operational, logistics, and equipment support for joint operations. It consists ofoperational support, which aims to facilitate the command officers’ decisions and operational actions, andlogistics and equipment supports.

“Three Warfares”
capability

The capability to gain the legal initiative, seize political dominance, and psychologically demolish theenemy’s military. It consists of public opinion warfare, psychological warfare, and legal warfare.

Conclusions

Intelligencereconnaissance capability

Chapter 3

Description
The capability to comprehensively operate early warning and reconnaissance assets, collect various
intelligence on the enemy, and support operational actions and operational command. It consists ofintelligence reconnaissance capabilities established on land, at sea, in the air, and in space.

Chapter 2

Element capability

Source: Compiled based on Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability,
pp. 61-79.

21

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

The third layer, information infrastructure support capabilities, was defined as “capabilities tosupport the interconnection of the functions of each operational capability and the overall linkage of theoperational Systems by relying on the PLA-wide information infrastructure.” The PLA-wide information
infrastructure was regarded as the “nerve” of the informatized battlefield and a feature of “Information
System-Based System of Systems Operational Capability.” 53 It consisted of the following seven capabilities outlined in Table 1.5.
These classifications influenced the joint operations research conducted by other scholars at AMS,
prompting them to give nearly identical definitions to element capabilities and information infrastructure support capabilities. Nonetheless, there were some differences between these scholars and Ren
Liansheng et al. For example, (1) the scholars described fire strike capability as “fire assault capability”
which sets the conditions for achieving certain strategic objectives and subsequent actions by paralyzing
the enemy’s operational Systems. In addition, they emphasized space operations, identifying “spacedominance” as the commanding point of future warfare. (2) With regard to information offense and defense
capability, they established interference by electronic warfare equipment, anti-radar missiles, and cyberpenetration/virus attack capability as the specific means. (3) They referred to the use of special operations
forces in regard to assault and resisting action capability. Furthermore, (4) they did not list “informationcollection capability” among the information infrastructure support capabilities.54
In addition, AMS scholars considered operational forms and actions of joint operations in responseto the mission capabilities. They noted the operational forms of joint firepower strikes, joint island offensive
operations, and joint island blockade operations for offensive warfare and the operational forms of joint
counter-air raids, joint border area defense operations, and joint anti-landing campaigns for defensive
warfare. Furthermore, they envisioned the following operational actions to implement these operational
forms: (1) rapid and secure strategic power projection on land, at sea, and in air; (2) space confrontation
aimed at destroying the enemy’s space Systems and defending friendly units’ space Systems through aTable 1.5 Information Infrastructure Support Capabilities of the “Information SystemBased System of Systems Operational Capability”
Information infrastructure
support capability

Description

Information collection
capability

The capability to collect necessary information with sensors.

Information processing
capability

The capability to support decisions and process various types of information into a format that is suitablefor each operational unit.

Information storage
capability

The capability to store, edit, and process various types of information for information sharing.

Information transmission
capability

The capability to operate various means of communication in a comprehensive manner and to smoothlytransmit battlefield information between the command posts at each level and the units of military
services and branches.

Information distribution
management capability

The capability to provide information access and information transmission to operational units andoperational elements in the most practical and effective manner based on operational requirements.

Information security
capability

The capability to provide full-dimensional, multi-layered, and high-performance information protection,
threat detection, and resilience to the information resources of network information systems at each level.

Navigation and positioning
capability

The capability to provide timely, accurate, and uninterrupted navigation guidance and localization
information, such as position, speed, and time, to operational platforms and equipment.

Source: Compiled based on Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability,
pp. 81-84.

22

combination of hard- and soft-kill; (3) information
operations focusing on offensive operations andmilitary-civil fusion; (4) special operations; and (5)Prefacethe “Three Warfares.” 55
There were various opinions within the PLA
concerning the operational actions of joint operations. Other AMS monographs on joint operations
at the campaign level adopted the aforementioned
forms of operations but identified the following asof a strong enemy through intimidation, information
offense and defense, and attacks on carrier strike

President Xi Jinping declaring the official commissioning of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System(BDS-3) (July 2020) (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/
Kyodo News Images)

Introduction

operational actions: (1) dealing with the involvement

groups and overseas bases; (2) joint campaign
information operations; (3) joint campaign special operations; and (4) joint campaign airborne operations.56 NDU scholars described operational actions as consisting of operations for gaining commandof the air, which combines air forces, land forces, electromagnetic technology and missile capabilities,

Chapter 1

as well as information operations, space operations, and special operations.57 Meanwhile, none of thestudies mentioned “nuclear deterrence and counterattack capability” and “joint strategic communications security capability.”
An AMS monograph on joint operations research emphasized space confrontation. However,given its major impact on the international community, the monograph stated that a strategic commandorganization at the national level was necessary to command the operational actions in space. In addition, it noted that the PLA should consider the implementation of space confrontation, which focuses

Chapter 2

on the notion of combining peacetime and wartime operations and unifying military and civil resourcesfrom peacetime. The monograph expressed the view that, in wartime, the PLA must quickly and covertly
deploy the space operational forces required for specific operational targets and key objectives, andcoordinate various forces even during the operations. It also stated that space confrontation should focus
on Systems destruction by blinding the reconnaissance satellites and jamming the space communications of the enemy, and that the PLA should make a careful decision in physically destroying the satellitesof the enemy because of its retaliation and severe criticism from the international community.58 These

Chapter 3

views are believed to have factored into the PLA reforms that established the Strategic Support Force andgave the CMC direct control over them.

Conclusions

2. The Joint Operations Concept and Its Challenges
during the Xi Jinping Regime(1) Proposal of “Informationized Local Wars”
The Xi Jinping regime, inaugurated in November 2012, advocated “informationized local wars” as analternative military doctrine to “local wars under the conditions of informationization” since around23

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

2014.59 This doctrine had the following characteristics. First, “information dominance,” meaning superior intelligence capabilities, is a prerequisite for achieving dominance in air, sea, and other domains
in “informationized local wars.” Second, the battlefield space is larger, more multi-dimensional, andincreasingly three-dimensional, with intangible battlefields, such as electromagnetic, cyberspace, andcognitive domains, added to tangible battlefields, such as land, sea, airspace, and space. Furthermore,
air and space battlefields are merged and integrated, becoming a strategic commanding point for
seizing the initiative in war. Third, IJO is the basic operational form due to the Systems confrontation nature of “informationized local wars.” The operational capabilities of various military services,branches, and domains, seamlessly linked under the command of a unified organization, are integrated. Fourth, war progress, strike target, and means are controlled accurately in “informationizedlocal wars,” leading to a shift to highly efficient, cost-effective, low-risk, and low-cost small andmedium precision operations.60
The doctrine was a further articulation of the concepts of IJO and “Information System-Based
System of Systems Operational Capability.” Indeed, the Xi Jinping regime maintained these two
notions. In August 2014, Xi Jinping instructed at the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Politburo Collec­
tive Study Session that the PLA establish an ideological concept for IJO by multiple services and branches.61 The defense whitepaper, China’s Military Strategy, released in May 2015 underscored strength­ening“capabilities for system-vs-system operations based on information systems” as part of combat readiness, and in this vein, called for the gradual establishment of IJO Systems in which operational elements are seamlessly linked and operational platforms perform independently and in coordination.62
Meanwhile, Xi Jinping carried out drastic reforms in response to the organizational challenges
that hampered the realization of the IJO concept. It is argued that the main reason that Xi advocated“informationized local wars” as a new doctrine was to provide an overarching framework for thereform that would be undertaken63 (Xi-led military reforms are discussed in detail in Chapter 2).

(2) “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems”
and “All-Domain Operations Capability”
The PLA kept the IJO concept even after the military reforms. In April 2017, Xi Jinping instructed thecadres of the PLA, which had been reorganized by the reforms, that it adapt to the requirements of IJO
and enhance new-quality operational capability.64
In October 2017, Xi, in his political report to the 19th National Congress of the CCP, stressed
the significance of the PLA reforms as an outcome of the national defense policy over the past five
years. With regard to the future direction of military modernization, he emphasized that China would“make comprehensive adjustments and progress in combat readiness in both traditional and new security fields.” Xi then instructed the PLA to improve its “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network
Information Systems” and “All-Domain Operations Capability.” 65 These were new constructs thatwould develop the IJO concept by giving further emphasis to the new security domains.

24

The 2017 edition of Science of Strategy
edited by NDU presented “joint operations
Prefacesystem of systems based on network information Systems” as an alternative concept to“information system-based joint operations
system of systems.”66 It follows that “Joint
Operations Capability Based on Network
Information Systems” is a concept which inherSystem of Systems Operational Capability.”

China’s new model of stealth attack drone at the country’s
70th anniversary military parade (October 2019) (Photo:
Kyodo News)

Introduction

ited and built on “Information System-BasedA PLA manual defined “joint operations

based on network information Systems” as follows. “They are a series of operational actions that are
conducted jointly in all domains and in multi-dimensional spaces to achieve the overall or localized
objectives of wars. Relying on PLA-wide information infrastructure facilities and a joint information
Chapter 1

sharing environment, information systems and weapons and equipment from each level are integrated,
and information networks form operational Systems from the dispersed joint operational forces. Under
the unified command of a joint command operational organization, these joint operational forces
concentrate to deliver operational effects.” It stated that the operational actions under this concept
would be carried out as: integrated operations based on networks, cloud, and terminals; multi-dimension and all-domain operations; and integrated information-firepower fusion operations. They are

Chapter 2

characterized by achieving strategic objectives in short decisive wars, emphasizing precision, stealth,and unmanned operations and the gain of information dominance based on the IJO concept.67“Joint Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems” was defined as “a systemof systems operations capability that integrates operational capabilities, such as real-time sensing,high-efficiency C2, precision attack, rapid maneuver, full-dimensional defense, and comprehensive
support in joint operations, with network information systems serving as the link and pillar, thereby

Chapter 3

doubling the effect.” The specific component capabilities include reconnaissance and patrol capability, C2 capability, precision attack capability, three-dimensional maneuver capability, information
offense capability, full-dimensional defense capability, and comprehensive support capability.
These capabilities largely inherited the aspects of the “Information System-Based System of
Systems Operational Capability” but differed in that: (1) information offense and defense capability
was changed to information offense capability, and information defense capability became part ofConclusions

the full-dimensional defense capability; (2) the manual omitted fire strike capability and assault andresistance counterattack capability and mentioned instead precision attack capability, which integrates
land, sea, air, and space domains and combines long-range, medium-range, and short-range operations; and (3) the manual deleted “Three Warfares” capability. With regard to (3), the manual included
soft-kill methods in information offense capability, and the concept of “public opinion and legal fight,

25

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

and psychological offense and defense,” which inherited the “Three Warfares” construct, was identified as an important component of soft kill in joint operations.68“All-Domain Operations Capability” was a concept that the PLAA had used to break away fromthe traditional MR-centered area defense and to conduct maneuvers beyond the war zones, employing
a variety of transportation capabilities with the goal of coping with the weather, geography, electromagnetic requirements, and other complex conditions.69 Following the 19th National Congress,“All-Domain Operations Capability” became a PLA-wide concept and was described in the PLA
Daily.70 In these articles, Zhang Qianyi at AMS defined “All-Domain Operations Capability” as “thecapability of an armed force to effectively launch hostilities against an enemy and to achieve deterrence and victory in war on domestic and foreign battlefields, or in the full range of space and security
domains such as the land, the sea, the air, space, cyberspace, the electromagnetic spectrum, and thecognitive domain, as well as burgeoning domains such as the deep sea, quantum computing, artificial
intelligence, and biological security, by layering effects in multiple domains, controlling new domains
to gain the strategic initiative, and striving for comprehensive superiority through cross-domain integration.”71 This notion further expanded the domains of the PLA’s IJO concept and placed even more
importance on the combination of domains.

(3) “Intelligentized Warfare” and Reconsideration of Joint Operations
Concepts
Xi Jinping stated in his political report to the 19th National Congress that the CCP would “speed
up development of intelligent military.” Immediately after the National Congress, Xu Qiliang, vicechairman of the CMC, also instructed the CCP to “seize the important development direction of intelligentization.” 72 In addition, the 2017 edition of Science of Strategy edited by NDU added “military
struggle in intelligent domain” as one of the military struggles in the new domains.73
Observers point out that the emphasis on intelligentization gained prominence from 2019. The
Xi regime is believed to have adopted the “Military Strategic Guidelines in the New Era” in around
January 2019.74 In July of that year, the defense white paper, China’s National Defense in the New Era,
was released. This white paper assessed that
Driven by the new round of technological and industrial revolution, the application of
cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), quantum information, bigdata, cloud computing and the Internet of Things [IoT] is gathering pace in the military field. International military competition is undergoing historic changes. New andhigh-tech military technologies based on IT are developing rapidly. There is a prevailingtrend to develop long-range precision, intelligent, stealthy or unmanned weaponry andequipment. War is evolving in form towards informationized warfare, and intelligent
warfare is on the horizon.75

26

Figure 1.3 Conceptual Image of the PLA’s IJO during the Xi Jinping Regime

Preface

Joint operational command system

C2 system forcyber operations

C2 system for
air operations

Introduction

C2 system forjoint operations at thenational/TC levelC2 system forjoint tactical force
C2 system forland operations

C2 system forstrategic strikes
C2 system for
maritime operations

Chapter 1
Chapter 2: The C2 system for strategic strikes concerns the operation of nuclear assets and conventional
warhead systems used for strategic targets, such as DF-21D, and is therefore considered to be under
the command of the C2 system at the national level, not the TC level.
Source: Compiled based on 蓝羽石、毛永庆、黄强 [Lan Yushi, Mao Yongqing, and Huang Qiang] et al., eds., 联合作战

指挥控制系统 [Joint Operations Command and Control System] (Beijing: 国防工业出版社 [National Defense

Industry Press], 2019), p. 12.

Chapter 3

NDU scholars defined intelligentized warfare as “integrated warfare based on IoT systems that uses
intelligent weaponry and equipment and their corresponding operational methods in the land, sea, air,space, electromagnetic, cyber, and cognitive domains.”76
As of 2021, the PLA has not established intelligentized warfare as a military doctrine to replaceinformatized warfare. Even after intelligentized warfare was proposed, the PLA Daily has reiterated
the importance of integrated development of mechanization, informatization, and intelligentization.

Conclusions

At the CCP Politburo Collective Study Session in July 2020, Xi Jinping mentioned “accelerating the
integrated development of mechanization, informationization, and intelligentization.”77 Moreover, theXi regime adheres to the IJO concept even after proposing intelligentized warfare. In January 2021, Xi
issued the 2021 mobilization order for military training in which he instructed the PLA to accelerate
improvement of the IJO capability.78

27

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

The characteristics of intelligentized warfare as noted by scholars include: (1) C2 through joint
decision-making by humans and machines using AI and cloud control; (2) the building of a weaponsand equipment System featuring unmanned vehicles, and the realization of “swarm attack”; and (3)further integration and fusion of traditional and new security domains as well as physical (land, sea,
air, and space) and non-physical (e.g., cognitive, social, cyber) security spaces, and the need to seize
the initiative and control in confrontation operations in cognitive space.79
The PLA is now beginning to consider a joint operations concept that can accommodate bothinformatized warfare and intelligentized warfare. In April 2020, Wei Jianguo, former deputy chief ofGeneral Staff of the PLA, noted in the PLA Daily that the major battlefield in informatized warfare willbe the struggles over information dominance, cognitive dominance, and intelligence dominance. He
deemed that the key to winning is to disrupt the opponent’s information communications and achieve
secure information communications of one’s military, to disrupt the opponent’s situational awarenessand ensure one’s accurate grasp of the situation, and to carry out efficient operations by achieving
superiority in system intelligentization. Wei also stressed the following. (1) The concept of battlefieldspace in joint operations changed from “the three-dimensional spaces of land, sea, and air to multidimensional spaces” and the timeframe from “large-scale continuous operations to instantaneous lethal
strikes.” He noted that the boundaries between strategic, campaign, and tactical actions have become
blurred, and that warfare has entered the era of “instant defeat” with detection immediately following
destruction. (2) The concept of destruction in joint operations changed from “inexact destruction toprecise control” and from “hard-kill to soft-kill” approaches and places greater importance on information control capability than firepower. (3) The key factors of victory or defeat in joint operations
changed from “physical domains to information and cognitive domains” and from “seizure of spaces
and killing or wounding of generals to winning the hearts and minds of the people and stabilizing
social order.” Wei argued that total operations would become the basic form of warfare, and thatcross-domain operations would lead to winning joint operations.80
The 2020 edition of Science of Strategy edited by NDU introduced the concept of “MultiDomain Integrated Joint Operations (MDIJO).” The 2020 edition referred to MDIJO as an advanced
stage of joint operations and defined it as “holistically interlinked operations featuring a high level ofcoordination, which are conducted in many domains, including land, sea, air, space, cyber electromagnetic, and intelligence, in accordance with a unified plan for achieving unified operational objectives,and consist of operational Systems that seamlessly integrate operational forces, operational units, andoperational elements through network information systems under a unified command.” It explainedthat MDIJO: (1) is information leading operations; (2) fuses various forces; (3) realizes C2 integration;(4) consists of interlinked operational actions in multiple domains; (5) wins wars through Systems
confrontation; and (6) is characterized by precise support capabilities.81 Since the 2015 and 2017
editions of Science of Strategy did not refer to intelligentization in their explanation of IJO, it can beconstrued that MDIJO is aimed at multi-domain joint operations in view of intelligentized warfare.82

28

Many other discussions also transpired in the PLA Daily. Various concepts emerged from thediscussions, including: (1) “Intelligentized Joint Operations Systems”;83 (2) “Joint Operations underPrefacethe Conditions of Intelligentization” characterized by shortened operations time, expanded operations
space, and intelligentized operational methods;84 and (3) “Cross-Domain Joint Operations,” a moreadvanced form of IJO that combines operational actions, which cut across traditional and new security
domains, and joint operations among multiple services and branches.85 However, these concepts havevague definitions, and it is unclear whether the PLA has reached a consensus about them.
In addition, the PLA Daily has published opinions indicating the possibility of further PLA

Introduction

reforms. First, it proposed the establishment of new services, such as the space force, the network
force, and the electronic force.86 Second, it proposed the creation of tactical units for joint operations:(1) the multi-domain joint tactical force, which is designed for strategic decision-making, commandof theaters, and tactical operations with an emphasis on readiness; (2) the small and multi-task intelligentized new operational unit, which encompasses the strategic, campaign, and tactical levels
as well as all services and branches; and (3) the integrated attack battalion, which brings together

Chapter 1

elements related to precision attack and can carry out precision attack operations independently.87
Third, the PLA Daily criticized that traditional joint operations employing the forces of services andbranches cannot meet the requirements of operations which integrate humans and machines, fuse all
domains, and AI conducts autonomously. In order to maximize the efficacy of AI-led human-machine
Systems operations, the PLA Daily raised the need for bolder organizational reforms, contending thatthe traditional military unit structure model be abandoned, that the overemphasis on military service

Chapter 2

Figure 1.4 Conceptual Diagram of the Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept
Jiang Zemin

Hu Jintao

Xi Jinping(1989–2004)(2004–2012)(2012–Present)

Military doctrine(Year introduced)

Local wars underhigh-technology
conditions(around 1993)

Joint operations
concept

Joint operations bymultiple services andbranches or joint
operations underhigh-technology conditions

Operations capability
deemed necessary
for joint operations

Mechanization(firepower, mobility)+
informatization(C4ISR) capability

Joint operations under
the conditions of
informationization

Informationizedlocal wars
(around 2014)

Intelligentizedwarfare?

Integrated joint
operations (IJO)

Multi-Domain IJO?
or Joint Operations
under theConditions ofIntelligentization?

Information System-Based System of
Systems Operational Capability

Joint Operations Capability
Based on Network Information
Systems + All-Domain
Operations Capability

Conclusions: Pending concept

Local wars under the conditionsof informationization(around 2003)

Chapter 3

Leader(Term as CCP CMC chairman): Under discussion as of October 2021

Source: Compiled by the author.

29

Chapter 1

Evolution of the PLA’s Joint Operations Concept

expertise and pursuit of single-service interests be eliminated, and that a new structure be establishedthat closely integrates systems, such as reconnaissance and intelligence, C2, precision attack, mobile
power projection, and support guarantee.88
These concepts are the personal views of PLA scholars, and it is unknown whether they will bereflected in the actual joint operations concept. When the “Trial Guidelines on PLA Joint Operations”
was promulgated in November 2020, a senior official of the Strategic and Theater Training Bureauof the CMC Joint Staff Department noted that, in developing the guidelines, they took note of theadvances in modern science and technology and their application in the military domain, analyzed andstudied their impact on warfare, and sought to embody the characteristics of informatization and intelligentization in future warfare in the operational ideology, operational thought, means of command,and operational method.89 These statements suggest that the views of PLA scholars may have hadsome influence on current and future joint operations concepts.

(4) Outcomes and Challenges
Outcomes
The Xi Jinping regime aimed to build a PLA structure that embodied the IJO concept. Moreover, while
adhering to this concept, the Xi regime advocated “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network
Information Systems” and “All-Domain Operations Capability” and put greater emphasis on new
security domains. Furthermore, with the calls for intelligentized warfare, the regime began to consider
a new joint operations concept and introduced MDIJO, among other constructs.
Challenges
The realization of these concepts, however, requires overcoming challenges. First, China’s defense
science and technology is not necessarily at the level required by such concepts. Following Xi
Jinping’s statement at the CCP Politburo Collective Study Session in July 2020 regarding “accelerating the integrated development of mechanization, informationization, and intelligentization,” the
PLA Daily wrote, “intelligentization cannot be steadily promoted without having some foundation
for mechanization and informationization.” 90 In November 2020, after the Fifth Plenary Session of
the 19th CCP Central Committee, an AMS scholar warned, “Intelligentization will become a mirage
if we bypass mechanization and informationization and direct all our focus toward intelligentization.”91 In December 2020, the PLA Daily noted the need for the integrated development of mechanization, informatization, and intelligentization, assessing, “At present, our armed forces have basicallyachieved mechanization, have made significant progress in informationization, and are presented withthe opportunities and challenges of intelligentization.” 92 This wording suggests that mechanization isalmost complete, informatization is under development, and intelligentization is in the initial stage.
The second challenge is cultivating joint operations talent with a high level of competence
and expertise. As part of the PLA reforms, the PLA reformed its military educational institutions and30strengthened the system for cultivating joint operations talent, where NDU constitutes the central
educational institution.93 China promulgated the “Trial Regulation on Military Academy Education
Prefacefor PLA” in June 2020 and the “Trial Regulations on Military Professional Education for PLA”
in December.94 In this context, Xi visited the Air Force Aviation University in July 2020 and gave
important instructions on military academy education and the cultivation of military talent in the
new era. In particular, Xi instructed the PLA to accelerate the training of professionals who operateand command unmanned vehicles.95 However, as the Chinese government promotes the intelligenceindustry on a national scale, scholars have noted that the state and the private sector may have to

Introduction

compete for talent in highly versatile fields, such as AI. Training personnel for intelligentized warfareis thus not an easy task for the PLA96 (strengthening of talent cultivation programs for joint operations
through the PLA reforms is discussed in Chapter 3).
The third challenge is how to reconcile winning modern joint operations with the PLA’s supreme
mission of maintaining and strengthening Party-Army relations. Scholars have noted that the various
systems for Party-Army relations do not suit the objectives of informatized warfare and the reason-

Chapter 1

able implementation of joint operations.97 For example, the characteristics of the existing Leninist
military, represented by the political commissar system and the PLA’s Party committee system, aresaid to reduce flexibility and autonomy at the operational level and slow down decision-making.98 In
addition, some believe that the importance of political officers in military operations will decline inintelligentized warfare because: (1) military operations will become more specialized; (2) the tempo
of operations will become faster than ever before; and (3) AI tends to assist and substitute operational

Chapter 2

decision-making (balancing the enhancement of joint operations and the maintenance and strengthening of Party-Army relations is discussed in Chapter 3).99
The fourth challenge is possible resistance within the PLA. PLA reforms commenced in
November 2013, made changes to the organizational structure that have been called “the most drastic
reform since the founding of China,” and are considered to have been completed in 2020. It is undeniable that concepts involving further PLA reforms, such as the establishment of new military services,

Chapter 3

the downsizing of joint operations tactical units from brigades to battalions, and the fundamental
reorganization of the traditional military structure, may provoke resistance from within the PLA,
especially the PLAA.

Conclusions

31

32

NIDS China Security Report 2022
The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Chapter 2
The Reformed PLA’s Joint
Operations StructureChapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

1. The Biggest Organizational and Structural
Reforms of the PLA since the PRC’s Founding(1) Background of the Reforms
In November 2013, Xi Jinping, chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC), announced
the pursuit of national defense and military reforms (People’s Liberation Army [PLA] reforms) at theThird Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).1 On
March 15, 2014, the CMC Leading Group for National Defense and Military Reform held its firstmeeting. Xi was appointed as its head and two CMC vice chairmen as vice heads. Of the two, it was
not Fan Changlong from the PLA Army (PLAA) but Xu Qiliang, the first CMC vice chairman fromthe PLA Air Force (PLAAF) who was appointed executive deputy leader of the leading group. Thissuggested that the PLA aimed in these reforms to establish a joint operations structure which put theservices on an equal footing.2
The PLA reforms became more explicit following Xi Jinping’s announcement of a 300,000
troop reduction on September 3, 2015, at a military parade commemorating the 70th anniversary

Figure 2.1 PLA Organization Chart: After the Military Reforms

Source: Compiled based on Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” in Phillip C.
Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese Military Reforms (Washington
D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2019), p. 6.

34

Figure 2.2 Newly Established Five Theater Commands

Preface
Introduction
Chapter 1

Notes: 1.

Theater Command headquarters

Theater Army headquarters

Theater Navy headquarters

2. Theater boundaries have not been officially announced. The above map was created based on U.S.
Department of Defense reports, media reports, etc.
Source: Compiled based on Ministry of Defense of Japan, Defense of Japan 2021 (Tokyo: Ministry of Defense ofChapter 2

Japan, 2021), p. 66.

of China’s victory over Japan in World War II.3 In November 2015, the CMC work conference on
military reform was held in Beijing. At this meeting, Xi expressed determination to carry out the PLA
reforms, referring to: (1) the establishment of the PLAA headquarters; (2) the CMC’s incorporation of
the functions of the four general departments to strengthen its authority; (3) the establishment of the
Command[TC]

Chapter 3

operational chain of command (CMC-Theater
headquarters-operational

units) and the administrative chain of command(CMC-service headquarters-operational units);and (4) the reorganization of the CMC Discipline
Inspection Commission and the CMC Political

Conclusionsand Legal Affairs Commission.4
The details of the PLA’s organizationaland structural reforms were unveiled between theend of 2015 and February 2016. On December 31,
2015, the PLA announced: (1) the establishment

CMC Chairman Xi Jinping conferring military flags to
TC commanding officers at a TC establishment ceremony(February 2016) (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/Aflo)

35

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

Figure 2.3 Conceptual Diagram of the Basic Reform Policy

Source: Compiled based on Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, Chinese Military Reforms in the Age ofXi Jinping: Drivers, Challenges, and Implications (Washington D.C.: National Defense University Press,
2017), p. 22.

of the PLAA headquarters; (2) the renaming of the PLA Second Artillery Corps (PLASAC) as the
PLA Rocket Force (PLARF) and its upgrading from the status of “independent branch” to the statusof a full service; and (3) the creation of the PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF). Xi Jinping thenconferred PLA flags to the commanding officers of these new units. On January 1, 2016, the CMC
promulgated the “CMC Opinions on Deepening National Defense and Military Reforms” [Zhongyang
junwei guanyu shenhua guofang he jundui gaige de yijian, 中央军委关于深化国防和军队改革的意见].5 On
January 11, the four general departments were dissolved, and the CMC multi-department system wasestablished, with a total of 15 functional departments all under the CMC (Figure 2.1).6 On February 1,
the abolition of the seven military regions (MRs) and the creation of five TCs were announced, and a
joint operations command organization (JOCO) was established in each TC (Figure 2.2).7(2) Basic Reform Policy
The basic policy on PLA reforms was that “the CMC performs general management, the theaters
are mainly in charge of operations, and the services are mainly in charge of force building” [junwei
guanzong, 军委管总; zhanqu zhuzhan, 战区主战; junzhong zhujian, 军种主建] (Figure 2.3).8 This policy
had the following characteristics.
First, the PLA reforms made a clear distinction between operational and administrative chainsof command. Hu Guangzheng at the PLA Academy of Military Science (AMS) and Xu Jinzhao at theXi’an Politics Institute explained the TCs are responsible for the output of combat power, including joint
operational planning and command at the strategic and campaign levels, while the services are responsible for the input of combat power, such as deploying personnel, procuring equipment, and training.9
The TC headquarters appear to have greater authority over the operational actions of the troops
than the previous MR headquarters. Hu Guangzheng and Xu Jinzhao explained that, under the strategic and overall control of the CMC, TCs centralize command authority over joint operations at the36strategic and campaign levels. The TCs are in charge of strategy and campaign planning, along withcommanding joint operations for their assigned strategic direction. On the other hand, the service
Prefaceheadquarters became responsible mainly for the administrative chain of command and saw their previously held operational authority diminish. According to the policy, the services exercise administrative control under the CMC’s political control and strategic unified planning and guidance, and theservices may not manage force building arbitrarily and independently.10
Second, the chain of command and control (C2) was streamlined based on the concept of“unification of peacetime structure and wartime structure” [Ping Zhan Yiti, 平战一体]. In this process,Introduction

the CMC Joint Operations Command Center (CMC JOCC) and the TC JOCOs were established as
standing organs, the lack of which had been a longstanding issue. On April 20, 2016, Xi Jinping
visited the CMC JOCC where he stated, “Instituting the CMC JOCC is a critical element of deepening
national defense and military reform and an important measure to strengthen the strategic command
function of the CMC.” In addition, “commander-in-chief of the CMC Joint Operations CommandCenter” was added to Xi’s list of titles.11 Later, in his political report to the 19th National Congress ofChapter 1

the CCP, Xi instructed the CMC to create TC JOCOs reliably and effectively.12
Third, the PLA’s traditional “Big Army” thinking was rectified, albeit imperfectly. At a meetingin the Jinan MR in November 2013, Xi Jinping stated, “We will abandon the ‘Big Army’ thinking andseek to position the Army in the joint operations Systems.” “The CMC will strengthen research on thereform of the Army’s chain of command and administration and complete the overall planning andguidance for the Army’s model change.”13 The PLA reforms established the PLAA headquarters. This

Chapter 2

implies that the PLAA’s priority relative to the other services receded, considering that until then the
PLAA’s headquarters function was carried out by the four general departments, especially the General
Staff Department (GSD).14 Furthermore, although the MR headquarters had been the de facto Army
headquarters in the seven MR system, an Army headquarters was also established under each TC.
These TC Army headquarters were considered equivalent in rank to the TC headquarters of the PLA
Navy (PLAN) and the PLAAF, and here again, the PLAA decreased in priority.15

Chapter 3(3) Main Highlights of the Organizational and Structural Reforms
The series of organizational and structural reforms brought about wide-ranging changes. Attention
was focused on the following in regard to strengthening the joint operations structure.
Xi Jinping’s Strengthened Command and Control Authority over the PLA

Conclusions

The PLA reforms strengthened Xi Jinping’s power and authority as chairman of the CMC. The “CMC
Opinions on Deepening National Defense and Military Reforms” set forth the following basic principle:
to fully implement the CMC chairman responsibility system and concentrate the supreme leadershipand command right of the armed forces in the hands of the Party leaders and the CMC.16 According to a
PLA Daily commentary with the General Political Department byline, which was reported at the CMC

37

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

work conference on military reform held in November 2015, the guiding principle of the reforms was“to strengthen collective leadership by the CMC, comprehensively implement the CMC chairman
responsibility system, and concentrate the supreme leadership right and command right of the armed
forces in the Party leaders, CMC, and Chairman Xi Jinping.”17
Observers note that reinforcing the CMC chairman responsibility system will lead to strengthening Xi Jinping’s control over the PLA and increase his C2 authority.18 Hu Guangzheng and Xu
Jinzhao, too, stressed the importance of the CMC chairman responsibility system, calling it “thehighest form of the Party’s absolute leadership over the military.”19 At the 19th CCP National Congressin October 2017, the CMC chairman responsibility system was included in the Constitution of theChinese Communist Party.20 While the CMC chairman responsibility system was mentioned in the1982 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (PRC),21 its mention also in the CCP Constitution
gave further importance to the system. When the “Political Work Regulations of the PLA” was revisedfor the first time in a decade in February 2021, the PLA Daily and the leadership of the Political Work
Department emphasized adherence to “Xi Jinping Thought on Strengthening the Military” and the
CMC chairman responsibility system.22
As a result of the reforms, the Discipline Inspection Commission, which was a division of theGeneral Political Department, became an independent CMC Discipline Inspection Commission. This
commission in charge of the anticorruption campaign within the PLA is said to provide an independent
assessment of the performance of commanders, political commissars, and the PLA’s Party committees
directly to Xi Jinping.23
The CMC General Office is the staff organization that conducts document and information
management, and is the key entity in enforcing the CMC chairman responsibility system. It is headed
by Lieutenant General Zhong Shaojun. He served under Xi Jinping since Xi held positions in Zhejiang
Province and accompanied Xi both when he became secretary of the Shanghai Municipal Party
Committee and member of the Politburo Standing Committee in Beijing. When Xi was appointed
CMC chairman, Zhong Shaojun joined the PLA with a senior colonel rank and was appointed vicedirector of the CMC General Office and director of the CMC Chairman Office. Zhong is considered
one of Xi Jinping’s most trusted figures within the PLA24 and is thought to be contributing to Xi’s
strengthening of control over the PLA.
Creation of the CMC Multi-Department System
The PLA reforms dissolved the four general departments and created the CMC multi-department
system consisting of seven departments, three commissions, and five subsidiary organs (Figure 2.4).
The GSD, which had been expanding its functions and roles under the Hu Jintao regime, was subdivided into the Joint Staff Department, the Training Management Department, the National Defense
Mobilization Department, the Strategic Planning Office, and the International Military Cooperation
Office, while the Army’s headquarters functions were transferred to the PLAA headquarters. Of the38intelligence departments under the GSD, part of the Technical Reconnaissance Department (Third
Department) and the Electronic Countermeasures Department (Fourth Department) was transferred toPrefacethe newly established PLASSF.25
The Joint Staff Department forms the nucleus of joint operations in the CMC. Although thedetails of the Joint Staff Department have not been revealed, it is believed to have assumed some of
the functions of the former GSD, including those of the Operations Department (First Department),
the Intelligence Department (Second Department), the Electronic Countermeasures Department, andthe Information Department. Furthermore, it appears that the Joint Training Bureau of the Military

Introduction

Training Department of the former GSD was incorporated into the Joint Staff Department as theStrategic and Theater Training Bureau, as well as some organizations of the Operations Bureau of theStaff Department of the services.26 The function of the Joint Staff Department is “to mainly implement operational planning, command and control, and operations command support,” “to study andformulate military strategies and requirements,” “to carry out operations capability assessments,” and“to organize and guide joint operations training, force building for combat readiness, and day-to-day

Chapter 1

combat readiness duties.” 27
The Training Management Department was established based on the Military Training Bureauof the former GSD and is in charge of training and education. It appears to be responsible for further
developing joint operations training and assessing training programs in coordination with the Joint
Staff Department, the TC headquarters, and the service headquarters.28 The explanation for the creationof the Training Management Department was that “it would be advantageous for unified planning andChapter 2

Figure 2.4 Structure of the CMC Multi-Department System

Chapter 3
Conclusions

Source: Compiled based on Wuthnow and Saunders, Chinese Military Reforms in the Age of Xi Jinping, p. 11.

39

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

systematic guidance of PLA-wide military training, and advantageous for strengthening the management of operational units and military educational institutions.” The department’s role was set forth asorganizing and guiding military training, training supervision, troops administration, and managementof educational institutions across the PLA.29
Upgrading of the Second Artillery Corps to the Rocket Force and Establishment of theStrategic Support Force and the Joint Logistics Support ForceA) Rocket ForceThe PLASAC, created in 1966, long had the status of “independent branch.” In December 2015, the
PLASAC was renamed the PLARF and upgraded to full service on par with the PLAA, the PLAN,
and the PLAAF.30 In January 2016, Xi Jinping noted that the PLARF is a “core force of strategic deterrence, a strategic buttress to the country’s position as a major power, and an important building block in
upholding national security.” 31 The National Defense White Paper China’s National Defense in the New
Era released in July 2019 (NDWP 2019) stated: “In line with the strategic requirements of having both
nuclear and conventional capabilities and deterring wars in all battlespaces, the PLARF is enhancing its
credible and reliable capabilities of nuclear deterrence and counterattack, strengthening intermediateand long-range precision strike forces, and enhancing strategic counter-balance capability.” 32
The PLARF is (1) under the direct C2 of the CMC, same as when the PLARF was the PLASAC,
and (2) the bases across China are under the C2 of the PLARF headquarters. Based on these observations, some say that the PLARF headquarters has greater independence than other service headquarters in terms of operational authority. On the other hand, after the PLA reforms, the PLA stepped up the
PLARF’s participation in the joint operations structure. Unlike the other services, the PLARF has notsecured the post of deputy commander of TC headquarters. Nevertheless, it has been reported that the
PLARF has sent more than 100 staff members to the TC headquarters, and the PLARF’s participationin joint operations training is increasing (see Chapter 3 for more information on joint operations
training following the PLA reforms). Furthermore, observers have noted that the PLARF conventional
warhead units may have been placed under the C2 of TC JOCOs, strengthening their relationship with
the TC headquarters and other services.33
B) Strategic Support Force
In January 2016, Xi Jinping stated, “The PLASSF is a new type of combat force for safeguarding
national security and an important driver for the growth of new combat capabilities.” 34 NDWP 2019used the same wording and added: “[The PLASSF] comprises supporting forces for battlefield environment, information, communications, information security, and new technology testing. The PLASSF
provides the entire military with accurate, highly efficient, and reliable information support and strategic support. In line with the strategic requirements of integrating existing systems and aligning civil
and military endeavors, the PLASSF is seeking to achieve big development strides in key areas and40

accelerate the integrated development of new-type combat forces, so as to build a strong and modernized strategic support force.” 35 Based on this description, the PLASSF is said to have the following
Prefacebasic mission: win informatized warfare by (1) providing strategic information support for joint operations, including in the new operational domains of space and cyber electromagnetic, (2) achieving
information dominance, and (3) converting advanced technologies into military capabilities.36
Although China has not disclosed the structure of the PLASSF, it is believed to have been
established primarily from the space units under the former General Armaments Department andfrom the Technical Reconnaissance Department under the former GSD. The PLASSF includes part ofIntroduction

the Operations, Intelligence, and Electronic Countermeasures Departments under the former GSD as
well as the psychological warfare units under the former General Political Department (Figure 2.5).
This reorganization is considered to have largely consolidated the disparate space and intelligence

Figure 2.5 PLA Reforms: Restructuring of the Space and Cyber Units of the Former
Four General Departments
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Conclusions

Note: ECM: electronic countermeasures; GAD: General Armaments Department; PsyOps: psychological operations; TT&C: telemetry, tracking, and control.
Source: Compiled based on John Costello and Joe McReynolds, China’s Strategic Support Force: A Force for a
New Era (Washington D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2019), p. 10.

41

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

operational functions of the PLA. On the other hand, the Joint Staff Department inherited theInformation Department under the former GSD, which was in charge of information system defense,and some note that this presents challenges for consolidating the functions of cyber operations.37
A characteristic of the PLASSF structure is that the Staff, the Space Systems, and the Network
Systems Departments are equal in status, and some of the missions of the Space Systems and the
Network Systems Departments overlap. In addition, according to a U.S. Department of Defense reportand U.S. scholars, the Network Systems Department incorporated the 311 Base, which was in chargeof psychological warfare in the former General Political Department, and in turn, the PLASSF could
be supervising psychological warfare (Figure 2.6).38
The PLASSF, like the PLARF, seems to be under the direct C2 of the CMC and not includedin the chain of command of the TCs. According to some observers, the PLASSF, contrary to the otherservices, is unique in having not only the role of a force provider but also the nature of a force user,
conducting asymmetric warfare, such as cyber-electromagnetic confrontation and space-electronic
confrontation. The PLASSF is thought to support the cyber operations of the TCs under the CMC’s
order. However, the relationship between the PLASSF and the TC headquarters is unclear, and some
Figure 2.6 Strategic Support Force Organization Chart

Note: TT&C: telemetry, tracking, and control; C4ISR: command, control, communications, computers, intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnaissance.
Source: Compiled based on Costello and McReynolds, China’s Strategic Support Force, p. 11.

42view that the command relationship is gradually forming as the PLA reforms make progress.39

PrefaceC) Joint Logistics Support ForceThe PLA Joint Logistics Support Force (PLAJLSF) was created in September 2016 as part of the PLA
reforms. It consists of the Wuhan Joint Logistics Support Base and the joint logistics support centers
in Wuxi, Guilin, Xining, Shenyang, and Zhengzhou, with each center in charge of logistics support intheir home TCs. Xi Jinping stated that the PLAJLSF “is the main force to conduct joint logistics support
as well as strategic and campaign level support and is an important component of the modern military

Introduction

force System with Chinese characteristics.” 40 NDWP 2019 used the same wording and noted, “In linewith the requirements of joint support for joint operations and joint training, the PLAJLSF is being
integrated into the joint operations system to enhance the capabilities of integrated joint logistics.” 41
It is unclear why the creation of the PLAJLSF was delayed relative to other reforms; the PLA
had sought to integrate the logistics support system since the 1990s. The PLAJLSF, like the PLARF
and the PLASSF, reports directly to the CMC, and is believed to be under the jurisdiction of the CMC

Chapter 1

Figure 2.7 Chain of Command of the Joint Logistics Support Force
CMC Chairman

CMC Logistics Support Department

Chapter 2

PLAJLSF
PLAA Logistics Dept.

PLAJLSF Wartime Service Dept.

Xinjiang MR Support Dept.

Wartime service planning office,intelligence support office, purchase planning office,direct work office, technical mobilization group,
machinery service support center“Theaters are mainly incharge of operation”
Wuxi Joint Logistics Support Center,
Eastern TC
Guilin Joint Logistics Support Center,
Southern TC

Tibet MR Support Dept.
Wuhan Joint Logistics Support Base

Xining Joint Logistics Support Center,
Western TC

PLAAF Logistics Dept.

Shenyang Joint Logistics Support Center,Northern TC

PLARF Logistics Dept.

Zhengzhou Joint Logistics Support Center,
Central TC“Services are mainly incharge of force building”

PLASSF Logistics Dept.

Support andcooperation

Conclusions

Command andcontrol

Chapter 3

PLAN Logistics Dept.

In wartime, engages in logistical support under the command of the TC JOCOs.

Source: Compiled based on 董慧明 [Dong Huiming], “共军联勤保障部队战略与建设 [Strategy and Construction of

the Communist Army’s Joint Logistics Support Force],” 中共研究 [Studies on Chinese Communism], Vol.
54, No. 5, 2020, p. 92.

43

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

Logistics Support Department, which inherited many of the divisions of the former General Logistics
Department. The PLAA, PLAN, PLAAF, PLARF, and PLASSF units in the respective TCs as wellas the Xinjiang and Tibet MRs directly under the PLAA headquarters are noted to have logistics andsupport departments even after the PLA reforms.42 The PLAJLSF centers are under the command of
the Wuhan Joint Logistics Support Base in peacetime. In wartime, they are thought to be under thecommand of the TC JOCOs and provide logistics support to the operational units in the TCs. The PLA,
led by the PLAJLSF, is thereby working to build an integrated logistics support system in line with thebasic policy, “the CMC performs general management, the theaters are mainly in charge of operations,and the services are mainly in charge of force building” (Figure 2.7).43
Reorganization of the Navy, the People’s Armed Police, and the China Coast Guard
The PLA cut 300,000 personnel under its reforms. Meanwhile, it decided to add personnel to the
Navy based on Xi Jinping’s strategic consideration that national security threats mainly emanate fromthe sea. As a result, the number of PLAN personnel is estimated to have increased from 230,000 to
300,000.44
Among the PLAN branches, the PLA Navy Marine Corps (PLANMC) underwent a significant
expansion due to the PLA reforms. The PLANMC was previously under the South Sea Fleet, consisting
only of two brigades and approximately 10,000 personnel. Through the PLA reforms, the PLANMC
incorporated a motorized infantry brigade and coastal defense units of the PLAA, as well as a special
operations force (SOF) and a helicopter unit of the PLAN, increasing the number of brigades to eight(six combined arms brigades, one SOF brigade, and one shipborne aviation (helicopter) brigade).
The PLANMC appears to have also added personnel, but the number is not known. In addition, the
PLANMC headquarters was newly established in Chaozhou, Guangdong Province and was given thesame status as the headquarters of the North Sea, East Sea, and South Sea Fleets (Figure 2.8).45
The PLANMC, like the service headquarters, is deemed to have an administrative role, which
includes coordination of personnel assignments,
training, political indoctrination, logistics, andequipment support. The PLANMC brigades
likely are intended to be employed relatively
independently, with support received from otherelements of their parent service. The role of the
expanded PLANMC is said to place emphasis
on first attacks in landing operations, such asreconnaissance, small-scale raid, infiltration,and special operations attack, as well as on swift
overseas deployments, in addition to existing
operations—amphibious operations, which focus

44

CMC Chairman Xi Jinping giving remarks to the
PLANMC (October 2020) (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/
Kyodo News Images)

Figure 2.8 Post-Reform Chain of Command of the PLA Navy Marine Corps

Northern TC Navy HQ(Qingdao)

Eastern TC Navy HQ(Ningbo)

Support during wartime

PLANMC
2 brigades

Southern TC Navy HQ(Zhanjiang)

PLANMC
2 brigades

Command and control during peacetime(mainly administrative chain of command)

PLANMC HQ(Chaozhou)

Introduction

PLANMC
2 brigades

Preface

PLAN headquarters

PLANMCSOF brigade( ) indicates headquarter location

Note: Respective Theater Command headquarters appear to be responsible for the wartime operations of the
SOF brigade.
Sources: Compiled based on 董连山 [Dong Lianshan], ed., 基于信息系统的体系作战研究 [Research on Information

Chapter 1

System-Based System of Systems Operations] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2012), p. 148; Dennis

Blasko and Roderick Lee, “The Chinese Navy’s Marine Corps, Part 1: Expansion and Reorganization,”
China Brief, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2019; Blasko and Lee, “The Chinese Navy’s Marine Corps, Part 2: Chainof-Command Reforms and Evolving Training,” China Brief, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2019; 黄郁文 [Huang Yuwen],“中共军改后海军陆战队的建构与发展 [The Establishment and Evolvement of the PLA Navy Marine Corps

after Chinese Military Reforms],” 海军学术双月刊 [Navy Professional Journal], Vol. 53, No. 5, 2019, p. 70;
among others.

Chapter 2

on securing bridgeheads for large-scale landing operations, and island defense in the South and East
China Seas. On the other hand, the PLAA’s amphibious operations brigades have not been reorganized, raising speculation that the PLAA’s amphibious operations brigades will play the main role inlarge-scale landing operations.46
The People’s Armed Police (PAP) was under the dual command of the CMC and the StateCouncil. However, in January 2018, the chain of C2 was centralized by placing the PAP under the

Chapter 3

CMC.47 In the same month, Xi Jinping instructed that the PAP speed up its integration with the
PLA-wide joint operations structure.48
In March 2018, the units of the China Coast Guard (CCG) under the State Oceanic
Administration were placed under the command of the PAP as part of the institutional reforms
announced after the National People’s Congress (NPC) opened.49 The CCG units were reorganized
into the PAP Maritime Police Contingent and kept the China Coast Guard name for common use.50

Conclusions

This established a new maritime border security management system comprised of the CMC, the PAP,
and the Maritime Police Contingent (CCG). This move was in line with the decision to coordinate andstreamline the mechanisms for border security management at sea and in the air proposed when the
PLA reforms were announced in November 2013.51
The reformed CCG is described to have a dual identity: an identity as a component of China’s

45

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

Figure 2.9 CMC-PAP-CCG Chain of Command Following the Entry into Force of the
Coast Guard Law

Central Military
国 務Commission
院

State Council

PLA
Theatercommands

Peacetime

Mobile units

Internal guard
units

CCG

Other units(related to public security andinfrastructure)

People’s Armed
PoliceServices

Operationalunits
Wartime operations and non-militaryactivities conducted jointly with the PLA

Enactment of the latest law prescribed the scope of authority
Source: Compiled based on the website of the Ministry of Defense of Japan.

“armed forces” and an identity as a domestic law enforcement agency. The CCG has strengthened
its collaboration with the PLAN, with PLAN officers serving as the director-general of the CCG
Bureau and as directors-general of the CCG regional branch bureaus in the north, sea, and south seas.52
The 2020 edition of Science of Strategy noted that the CCG shall be incorporated into the PLA and
PAP network information Systems and develop institutional mechanisms for joint monitoring, jointcommand, and joint actions with the PLAN.53 Pursuant to Article 83 of the Coast Guard Law of the
PRC, which entered into force in February 2021, the CCG is to conduct defensive operations and othermissions in accordance with relevant laws, including the National Defense Law of the PRC and thePeople’s Armed Police Law of the PRC, as well as military regulations and CMC orders.54 The CCG
has thus deepened cooperation with the PLA via the PAP (Figure 2.9).

2. Personnel System of Senior PLA Officers forEnhanced Joint Operations(1) Members of the PLA Leadership as of the 19th National Congress
Xi Jinping aims to strengthen his power base in the PLA by demonstrating authority over personnel
appointments. He personally reviews appointments to the MR (TC) leadership55 (generals and lieutenant generals) and conducts meetings with every officer who is to be promoted to MR (TC) leader,46

corps leader of operational units (major generals and lieutenant generals), and key positions in CMC
departments.56 Around the time of the 19th National Congress, Xi conducted a major reshuffle of thePreface

PLA leadership (CMC members, TC commanders and political commissars, and service commanders
and political commissars). At that time, Xi established four criteria for selecting the new CMC
members: (1) uphold political standards; (2) concentrate on preparing for war and winning battles; (3)optimize the balance between the services; and (4) prioritize the age distribution. He then appointed
the members shown in Table 2.1.57 The characteristics of these personnel appointments can be summed
up into the following three points.

Introduction

Politics Is Given the Highest Priority
As evidenced by the fact that “uphold political standards” was set forth as the first CMC member
selection criterion, “politics” was given top priority in selecting officers, i.e., the strength of theirloyalty to the CCP and Xi Jinping. The relationship between Xi and military personnel can be divided
into three broad categories.

Chapter 1

The first category of personnel is those who have a close personal relationship with Xi Jinping
because of their family background. Zhang Youxia, vice chairman of the CMC, is in this category. His
father, General Zhang Zongxun, was a comrade of Xi’s father, Xi Zhongxun.58
The second category is those who worked with Xi Jinping when he was in Fujian and Zhejiang
Provinces, Shanghai City, and other locations before he was appointed member of the PolitburoStanding Committee. Such officers include Xu Qiliang, vice chairman of the CMC; Miao Hua, director

Chapter 2of the Political Work Department; Han Weiguo, former PLAA commander; and Ding Laihang, former

Table 2.1 Members of the CMC Decided at the 19th National Congress
Title

Name

Position, rank, and service
CCP general secretary and president of the PRC

VicechairmanXu Qiliang (age 70)

Member of the Politburo of the CCP Central Committee; general; PLAAF

Vicechairman

Zhang Youxia (age 70)

Member of the Politburo of the CCP Central Committee; general; PLAA

MemberWei Fenghe (age 66)

Minister of national defense and member of the CCP Central Committee;
general; PLARF

MemberLi Zuocheng (age 67)

Chief of the Joint Staff Department and member of the CCP Central Committee;
general; PLAA

MemberMiao Hua (age 65)

Director of the Political Work Department and member of the CCP Central
Committee; admiral; transferred from PLAA to PLAN

MemberZhang Shengmin(age 62)

Secretary of the CMC Discipline Inspection Commission, deputy secretary of
the CCP Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, and member of the CCP
Central Committee; general; PLARF

Conclusions

Xi Jinping (age 67)

Chapter 3

Chairman

Note: Ages as of January 2021.
Source: Compiled based on media reports.

47

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

PLAAF commander. Miao Hua has contributed to increasing Xi’s influence in the PLA by expressing
his loyalty to Xi Jinping in the PLA Daily in April 2014, and at the 11th Plenary Session of the 11th
PLAN Party Committee in March 2016, stating, “I pledge absolute obedience to President Xi Jinping,
the core leader.” 59
The third category is those who were promoted to general or selected for key posts after Xi
Jinping became chairman of the CMC. They include Wei Fenghe, state councilor and minister ofnational defense; Li Zuocheng, chief of the Joint Staff Department; and Zhang Shengmin, secretary of
the CMC Discipline Inspection Commission.60
Selecting Younger Officers with Military Expertise
Priority was also given to selecting officers who have military expertise, in keeping with strengthening
the joint operations structure.61 CMC members were selected from the PLAA, the PLAN, the PLAAF,
and the PLARF.62 Even for selecting TC commanders, a position dominated by the PLAA, Yuan Yubai
became the first PLAN officer to be appointed commander of the Southern TC and Yi Xiaoguang thefirst PLAAF officer to be appointed commander of the Central TC in 2017.63 These appointments
likely reflect the Xi leadership’s desire to strengthen the joint operations structure to correct the “BigArmy” thinking.64
In addition, Xi Jinping has been noted to be actively engaged in selecting young military
personnel as he sought to eliminate the influence of Guo Boxiong and Xu Caihou in the military.65
In fact, in 2017, Li Qiaoming (then age 56), who had just been promoted to lieutenant general, wasappointed commander of the Northern TC.
Elevating the CMC Discipline Inspection Commission and Continuing the
Anticorruption Campaign
In the course of the PLA reforms, Xi Jinping focused on the anticorruption campaign as a way tobuild his power base within the military.66 For example, Xi intentionally referred to the issue of discipline within the PLA at the end of his speech, which was delivered at the first plenary session of
the CMC Leading Group for National Defense
and Military Reform on March 15, 2014.67
Considering Xu Caihou was arrested on thesame day, Xi presumably was indicating to PLA
officers that those who oppose the PLA reforms
would be severely punished in the anticorruption campaign. Furthermore, just prior to the19th National Congress, Fang Fenghui, chiefof the Joint Staff Department, and Zhang Yang,
director of the Political Work Department, lost48

CMC ceremony promoting officers to generals in July
2021 (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/Kyodo News Images)

their posts.68
Zhang Shengmin’s appointment as a CMC member signifies a rise in status of the CMC
Preface

Discipline Inspection Commission. These measures suggested that Xi Jinping would continue tostrengthen his power base within the military through the anticorruption campaign.

(2) TC Headquarters and Service Headquarters on Equal Footing
In the 2017 reshuffle of senior PLA officers, service commanders who were granted CMC membership during the Hu Jintao era lost their status. All commanders of the TCs and services were selected
Introductionas CCP Central Committee members. Whereas all political commissars of the services were selected
as members of the 19th CCP Central Committee, some of the political commissars of the TCs were
not selected as members. Thirteen CCP Central Committee members were from service headquarters
and 12 from TC headquarters,69 demonstrating that the two headquarters have become nearly equal instatus. There has been no significant change in this trend as of September 2021, even while reshuffles
continued in the TC and service headquarters following the 19th National Congress (Table 2.2).

Chapter 1

As regards the officers’ speaking order at a PLA delegates’ meeting of the 19th National
Congress, the commanders and political commissars of the TCs spoke before the commanders andpolitical commissars of the services.70 This is thought to signify a rise in status and authority of the TCs.
Table 2.2 Members of TC Headquarters and Service Headquarters as of September 2021
TC

Commander (rank, service)

Political commissar (rank, service)
He Ping (general, PLAA)
CCP Central Committee member

Southern TC

Wang Xiubin (general, PLAA)
CCP Central Committee candidate member

Wang Jianwu (general, PLAA)
CCP Central Committee member

Western TC

Wang Haijiang (general, PLAA)

Unknown

Northern TC

Li Qiaoming (general, PLAA)
CCP Central Committee member

Fan Xiaojun (general, PLAAF)
CCP Central Committee member

Central TC

Lin Xiangyang (general, PLAA)

Zhu Shengling (general, PLAA)
CCP Central Committee member

ServiceCommander (rank)

Chapter 3

He Weidong (general, PLAA)

Chapter 2

Eastern TC

Political commissar (rank)
Liu Lei (general)
CCP Central Committee member

PLAN

Dong Jun (admiral)

Qin Shengxiang (admiral)
Transferred from PLAA; CCP Central Committee
member

PLAAF

Chang Dingqiu (general)
CCP Central Committee candidate member

Yu Zhongfu (general)
CCP Central Committee member

PLARF

Zhou Yaning (general)
CCP Central Committee member

Xu Zhongbo (general)
CCP Central Committee candidate member

PLASSF

Ju Qiansheng (general)

Li Wei (general)

Conclusions

PLAA

Liu Zhenli (general)
CCP Central Committee member

Source: Compiled based on media reports.

49

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

Figure 2.10 Shift in Composition of Key Posts at TC Headquarters
Affiliation of key staff members at TC headquarters
as of Feb. 2016

Affiliation of key staff members at TC headquarters
as of 2020

0

1

17

17
27

30
9

11
(Unit: people)
PLAA

PLAN

PLAAF

PLARF

Note: Key posts at TC headquarters refers to commander, political commissars, deputy commanders (including
TC chief of staff), and deputy political commissars (including director of the TC Political Work Department).
Sources: Compiled based on 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], ed., 军改后共军
重要领导人事评析专辑 [Collection of Evaluations of Important Leaders of the Communist Military after

the Military Reforms] (Taipei: 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], 2016),
pp. 69-101; 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], ed., 2020年共军人事专辑[Feature: 2020 Communist Army Personnel] (Taipei: 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism
Publishing Co.], 2020), pp. 110-147.

(3) Appointment of Joint Operations-Oriented TC Headquarter Officers
On February 1, 2016, it was announced that the seven MRs would be dissolved and five TCs would
be created. All commanders of the TCs were from the Army, and all the political commissars, except
for Zhu Fuxi (Western TC) of the Air Force, were from the Army.71 Meanwhile, commanders of the
TC Army, the TC Navy, and the TC Air Force were appointed as TC deputy commanders. In addition,
full-time TC deputy commanders were appointed from the PLAA, the PLAN, and the PLAAF. As forthe chiefs of staff of the TCs selected from among the deputy commanders, Rear Admiral Wai Gangof the Navy was appointed to the Southern TC and Major General Li Fengbiao of the Air Force wasappointed to the Central TC.72
In 2017, the PLAA’s dominance of TC commanders ended with the appointment of TC
commanders from the PLAN and the PLAAF. As mentioned earlier, these selections likely reflected
Xi Jinping’s wishes, as he himself was engaged in the review of TC-level officer candidates.
Furthermore, although no PLARF general has been appointed as a commander, political commissar,
or deputy commander, they appear to have been appointed as TC deputy political commissars (lieutenant general level) and deputy chiefs of staff and assistant chiefs of staff (major general level).73 The
officers comprising the TC headquarters are thus increasingly, albeit gradually, more mindful of joint
operations (Figure 2.10). However, in July 2021, the PLAA’s Wang Xiubin was appointed commanderof the Southern TC, replacing Yuan Yubai, while in September, Lin Xiangyang, also from the PLAA,

50

was appointed commander of the Central TC, replacing Yi Xiaoguang. Consequently, PLAA officers
once again dominate all TC commander posts.74
Preface

3. Situation of the PLA’s Joint Operations
Command Structure and C2 Systems for
Joint Operations
Introduction(1) Multi-Layered Joint Operations Command Structure Headed by the CMC
Joint Operations Command Center
The PLA has established a multi-layered joint operations command structure consisting of the strategic, TC (campaign), and tactical levels. The CMC JOCC is a standing organization at the strategiclevel and the TC JOCO a standing organization at the TC (campaign) level. At the tactical level,

Chapter 1

brigade-size tactical units of the services form the base of a standing organization. When necessary,a joint tactical force is established, and the services supply forces suited to the mission. In addition,
if necessary, a temporary JOCO of the campaign (TC) direction level is established between the TC(campaign) and tactical levels (Figure 2.11).75 In fact, in 2012, the PLA established the East China Sea
Joint Operations Command Center in the East Sea Fleet headquarters amidst the increasingly tense
situation surrounding the Senkaku Islands. The center commands the PLAN and the PLAAF as the

Chapter 2

Figure 2.11 The Layers of the PLA’s Joint Operations Command Structure
Strategic(CMC JOCC/JSD)

Chapter 3

Campaign

National-level joint operations command organization

Theater command joint operationscommand organization
Campaign direction joint operationscommand organization

Joint tactical force

Service tactical force

Conclusions

Tactical

Sources: Compiled based on 谭亚东 [Tan Yadong], ed., 联合作战教程 [Lectures on Joint Operations] (Beijing: 军事

科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), pp. 88-92; 蓝羽石、毛永庆、黄强 [Lan Yushi, Mao

Yongqing, and Huang Qiang] et al., eds., 联合作战指挥控制系统 [Joint Operations Command and Control
System] (Beijing: 国防工业出版社 [National Defense Industry Press], 2019), p. 47.

51

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

campaign direction-level JOCO.76
The details of the CMC JOCC and the relationship between the CMC JOCC and the Joint Staff
Department are unknown.77 However, some believe that the Joint Staff Department is responsible for
operational planning, preparation for war, strategic research, guidance on joint operations training,and command of overseas non-war military operations, while the CMC JOCC provides strategiccommand to the TCs in wartime.78
In a book published before the PLA reforms, scholars at the AMS defined the strategic-level
JOCO, which is believed to have the CMC JOCC in mind, as “an organization in which the supremecommand provides strategic command over joint operational actions.” They set forth its basic mission
as “to determine the war situation, finalize strategic guidance policies, make strategic decisions,formulate strategic plans, organize strategic support, coordinate military combat actions in strategic
directions and actions implemented through PLA-local government collaboration, and realize theobjective of the war, based on decision-making and the intentions at the highest level.”79
The main command post forms the basis of the strategic-level JOCO, and forward and special
command posts are established as needed. The main command post is comprised of supreme command
officers, and based on the situation, calls upon officers from the services. A monograph by AMS
published before the PLA reforms notes that the main command post of the strategic-level JOCO consistsof various departments, including the C2 Center, the Intelligence Department, the Informatization(Communications) Department, the Military Affair and Mobilization Department, the Political Work
Department, the Logistic Support Department, and the Equipment Support Department. However,a monograph by the PLA National Defense
University (NDU) published in April 2016 noted
that, while this model represents the trend into
the future, the current CMC JOCC consists ofgeneral departments, service departments, andother specialized departments, and the extent
of their integration is little.80 It suggests that the
CMC JOCC was not necessarily perfected at its
inception and is exploring ways to approach its
ideal form through various operations.

CMC Chairman Xi Jinping visiting the Southern TC(October 2018) (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/Kyodo
News Images)(2) Characteristics of the TC Joint Operations Command Structure
In February 2016, Xi Jinping stated that TCs “have a pivotal role in safeguarding the country’s overallnational security and military strategies in dealing with security threats, maintaining peace, containing
wars, and winning wars in their respective strategic directions.” A spokesperson for China’s Ministryof National Defense described TCs as “the only supreme joint operations command organization in
their respective strategic directions.” A monograph by NDU proposed “centralized unity” as one of52the key principles of commanding joint operations in TCs. It denied the service headquarters’ C2authority over operational units in the execution of joint operations, noting that no one but the supreme
Prefacecommand (CMC) can engage in the command of operational units by the commanding officers in
TC JOCOs (commander and political commissars of TCs). Thus, TCs have significant power and C2
authority in the conduct of joint operations. However, the monograph does not deny that, in large-scale
joint operations, PLA leaders may dispatch a senior officer above the rank of deputy chief of staff of
the Joint Staff Department as the command officer for a joint operation.81
TC JOCOs appear to command the theater armies, navies, and air forces, and in wartime, theIntroduction

PLARF conventional warhead units and other operational forces (e.g., PLASSF, PLAJLSF, PAP,
CCG, militias) (Figure 2.12). The PLARF is a subsidiary service of the CMC. Although there havebeen no moves to establish a TC PLA Rocket Force headquarters or to secure a deputy commander
post, observers note that TC JOCOs will command the PLARF conventional warhead units deployed
to theaters in wartime. Meanwhile, the CMC is said to be holding off on delegating the command
authority over conventional warhead systems used for strategic targets, such as DF-21D and DF-26,

Chapter 1

to the TC headquarters.82
For the time being, TC JOCOs will likely conduct joint operations through the TC service
headquarters due to constraints in the resources for command means and command personnel. At thesame time, the PLA envisages that, depending on the situation, a specific operational group command

Figure 2.12 The PLA’s Joint Operations Command StructureSouthern TC
JOCOWestern TC
JOCO

TC army units

TC navy units

TC air force units

Northern TC
JOCO

Central TC
JOCO

PLAA
PLAN
PLAAF
PLARF
PLASSFPLAJLSF

Chapter 3

Eastern TC
JOCO

Chapter 2

CMC
Joint Operations Command Center

Conclusions

Operational
supportOther operational
units

PLARF units

OperationalcommandAdministrative
control

Source: Compiled based on 刘伟 [Liu Wei], ed., 战区联合作战指挥 [Theater Command Joint Operations Command](Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2016), p. 340.

53

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structureorganization will put forces of other services under its command. In air operations, for instance, the
PLAAF-led Air Operations Group Command Department will command not only PLAAF air units
but also PLAN air units. In landing operations, the Land Operations Group Command Department willcommand PLANMC and PLAAF airborne units in addition to PLAA units.83
TC JOCOs consist of a main command post, an alternate command post, a rear command post, a
direction command post, and a forward command post. The main command post is always established.
The alternate and rear command posts are established in many circumstances, whereas the direction
and forward command posts are established as the situation demands. The main command post is thecentral command organization and consists of the TC JOCO commanding officer, the TC JOCO chiefof staff, and key staff officers and staff for rear support (logistics and equipment support). The maincommand post is likely to be set up in underground locations. The alternate command post consists ofTable 2.3 Role of Departments of Main Command Post of TC Joint Operations
Command Organization
Department

Main role

Command & Control
Center

It is in charge of advising TC JOCO commanding officers (commanders and political commissars) for theirdecision-making on joint operations, formulating joint operation plans, and coordinating and controllingthe actions of the services.

Intelligence Center

It establishes joint intelligence and reconnaissance Systems, provides guidance on intelligence activities
by the services, comprehensively processes information from the services, and transmits it to the C2
Center and related departments.

Communication Center

It is responsible for planning and building joint communications Systems and command information
system, unifying and distributing communications frequency resources, guiding the systematic operationof communications and command information systems used by the services, and enabling information
sharing among the services.

Military Affairs andMobilization Center

It is responsible for battlefield control, military affairs, and operational system mobilization.

Political Work Center

It is responsible for political work in the services, and conducts psychological warfare and other operations.
* See Chapter 3, Section 3 for more information on wartime political work.

Logistic and Equipment
Support Center

It is responsible for logistics and equipment support.

Command Support Center

It is comprised of the meteorological, hydrological, positioning navigation, and general informationcommand support staff, and is responsible for providing command support that cannot be provided by theIntelligence and Communication Centers.

Information Warfare
Center

It is responsible for planning and building the joint information warfare Systems, drafting the joint
information warfare plan, and guiding the information warfare conducted by the services.

Air Defense Center

It is responsible for planning and building the joint air defense operational Systems and planning andorganizing air defense operational actions. It guides and coordinates the air defense operational actionsof the operational groups, helps organize civil air defense in various locations, and organizes andorchestrates air defense operations under the instruction of the command officers of its operational units
and the air defense command centers of senior units.

Special Operations Center

It is responsible for drafting plans and arranging actions for joint special operations.

Sources: Compiled based on 刘伟 [Liu Wei], 联合作战指挥 [Joint Operations Command] (Shenyang: 白山出版社[Baishan Publishing House], 2010), pp. 50-53; Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, pp.

83-84; Jeffrey Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System Destruction Warfare: How the Chinese
People’s Liberation Army Seeks to Wage Modern Warfare (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2018),
pp. 39-41.

54

Figure 2.13 Internal Structure of Main Command Post of TC Joint Operations
Command Organization
PrefaceCommanding officers in TC JOCO
(commander and political commissars)

Communication
CenterC2 Center

Military
Affairs andMobilization
CenterPolitical Work
Center

Logistic andEquipment
Support Center

Command
Support Center

Introduction

Intelligence
CenterInformation Warfare
CenterAir Defense Center
To be established with certainty
To be established as needed, or establishment
is to be determined

Chapter 1

Special Operations
Center

Sources: Compiled based on Liu, Joint Operations Command, pp. 50-53; Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations
Command, p. 82.

the TC JOCO deputy command officer as well as the operations, reconnaissance, and communications
staff of the services. Political and logistics staff are also assigned as necessary. The rear command
Chapter 2

post consists of the TC JOCO deputy command officer as well as staff dispatched by the rear support
divisions of the services and by local governments. It is responsible mainly for rear support operations
and provides support for rear defense, rear political work, coordination with local governments, andsecuring systems for military traffic as well as rear communications and command information.84
There are no specific regulations regarding the composition of the main command post of TC
JOCOs. However, the Regulations of the PLA Headquarters states that, in principle, the main command

Chapter 3

post may establish departments, such as C2, intelligence, communication, military affairs and mobilization, political work, logistics support, and equipment support centers, and form other organizations
as necessary. Liu Wei, a senior colonel engaged in joint operations research at NDU, notes that themain command post of TC JOCOs consists of the C2 Center, Intelligence Center, Communication
Center, Military Affairs and Mobilization Center, Political Work Center, and Logistic and Equipment
Support Center, and may sometimes establish a Command Support Center. In a monograph published

Conclusions

before the PLA reforms, Liu Wei states that in addition to these centers, the main command post
will establish the Information Warfare Center, Air Defense Center, and Special Operations Center
separately or inside the C2 Center. A monograph by NDU published after the PLA reforms notes thatan information warfare organization will be established under the C2 Center (Figure 2.13).85 The main
roles of the respective departments are shown in Table 2.3.

55

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure(3) Evolution of the C2 Systems for Joint Operations
A Chinese monograph, commissioned by the Equipment Development Department, defines C2
systems for joint operations as “systems to improve the ability to conduct joint operations and diversified missions, in which functions are provided such as comprehensive analysis of battlefield situations,joint planning by multiple services and branches, joint operational command, and control of operational joint actions, and in which joint operations command personnel conduct command, control,
coordination, and information sharing for units participating in joint operations, including services
and branches and other operational forces.” The monograph explains the role of the C2 systems is tointegrate real-time sensing, efficient C2, precision attack, full-dimensional defense, and comprehensive support by interfusing operational elements, operational units, and operational systems in joint
operations and, based on information systems, provide Systems operational capabilities that “are fully
integrated across all domains, consolidate services, are seamlessly connected, and are secure and reliable.” The systems are described as consisting of a joint situation sensing capability, joint commandand decision-making capability, joint action control capability, and joint support capability.86 Such C2
systems for joint operations are said to be the central subsystem of as well as the heart and brain of the

Figure 2.14 The External System Relationship of the C2 Systems for Joint Operations in
the PLA
Request cooperation, inform situation,
formulate operational plan, etc.

Strategic-level C2 system
for joint operations

Services’ operational command
information systems
Command info system
for PLAA operations

Command info system
for PLAN operations

Command info system
for PLAAF operations

Command info system
for PLARF operations

・・・

Report situation,
request support,make proposal,
etc.

Communicate
mission fromabove, inform
situation,
formulate
operational plan,etc.

Reportsituation,
requestsupport,makeproposal,etc.

Communicate
mission fromabove, inform
situation,
formulate
operationalplan, etc.

Campaign-level C2 system
for joint operations
Reportsituation,
requestsupport,makeproposal,etc.

Communicate
mission fromabove, inform
situation,
formulate
operationalplan, etc.

Reportsituation, makeproposal, etc.

National-level C2 system forcivilian support capabilities

Request cooperation,
inform situation,
formulate operationalplan, etc.

Reportsituation, makeproposal, etc.

Regional-level C2 systemfor civilian support
capabilities

Tactical-level C2 system
for joint operations
Report situation, reportmilitary results, etc.

Land operations
platform system

Maritime operations
platform system

Air operations
platform system

Communicate mission from above,
inform situation, formulate operationalplan, command operation, etc.

・・・

Cyber operations
platform system

Source: Compiled based on Lan, Mao, and Huang et al., Joint Operations Command and Control System, p. 50.

56

command information systems.87
There are many unknowns about the PLA’s C2 systems for joint operations. However, thePreface

aforementioned monograph reveals the following points. First, the C2 systems for joint operations
have a three-tier structure comprised of the strategic, campaign, and tactical levels. If necessary, C2
systems for campaign direction operations are established between the campaign and tactical levels88(Figure 2.14).
The strategic level of C2 system for joint operations is responsible for strategic operationalcommand, dealing with emergencies affecting all phases of operations, and planning and commanding

Introduction

strategic military actions by national command authorities. Its basic mission is to support routine
military operations, including intelligence gathering and processing, emergency response to crisis
situations, and C2 of strategic activities by operational units in wartime. It is normally located in a
fixed command post above ground or underground, but in an emergency, it is installed on air, sea,or ground mobile platforms. This system consists of a PLA-wide service center and the command
departments for airborne, maritime, land, space, and cyber operations that affect the entire military.

Chapter 1

The PLA-wide service center will be interconnected with the systems of the nation’s highest-level
intelligence, communication, and support centers, as well as the systems of TCs’ C2 service centers
for joint operations, and will have control over the operational structure covering the entire country
and all dimensions.89
The campaign level of C2 system for joint operations is used in TCs for military actions, such as
joint operations of the services, military training, and joint military activities with foreign countries, as

Chapter 2

well as for non-military actions, such as emergency disaster dispatch. The main missions of the system
are: (1) to grasp the crisis situation in all domains of the TC; (2) to have a real-time control of theoperational assignment, training, support, and capability dynamics of the TC’s services, branches, andoperational units; (3) to assign missions to joint functional units, such as air, sea, land, special operations, and cyber operations units, to monitor in real time the implementation of military operations andmilitary operations other than war and troop movement dynamics in the TC; and to retain capabilities

Chapter 3

to directly command and control its operational platforms. The system consists of the TC service
center and the air, sea, land, special operations, cyber operations, and other departments in the TC. The
TC service center is interconnected with the systems of the intelligence center, communication center,and support center in the TC, as well as the systems of the air, sea, land, special operations, cyber
operations, and other sub-centers. The service center is in charge of controlling troop movements in
the TC, as well as unifying the formation and distribution of operational structures. The campaign

Conclusions

level of C2 system for joint operations is also connected to the C2 system of the PLARF.90
The tactical level of C2 system for joint operations (C2 system for joint tactical force) is a system
for C2 of integrated joint operations [Yitihua Lianhe Zuozhan, 一体化联合作战] (IJO) by brigades at thetactical level, and is based on mobile systems, such as the PLAAF’s airborne early warning and control(AEW&C) aircraft and the PLAA’s command vehicles. Tactical-level joint operations are described as

57

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

proof of the high level of integration achieved by joint operations. Nevertheless, the details of its C2
system are uncertain.91
One of the characteristics of the PLA’s C2 systems for joint operations is that they are linked
to the C2 systems of government organizations and the civilian sector at the national level in the caseof strategic operations and at the relevant regional level in the case of campaign operations. The C2
systems thereby realize joint actions between the military on the one hand and the local government
and the civilian sector on the other. It appears that this trend of military-civil fusion in C2 systems forjoint operations will continue to gain traction.92
The C2 systems for joint operations adopt the method of combining joint command andcommand of operational domain units. The systems support collaboration between the command
elements and cooperate with local governments and the civilian sector. The internal system relationship consists of: information service infrastructure; joint intelligence; joint planning; joint command;
joint decision-making on operational command; joint support; coordination between the military andlocal governments; and subsystems of operational domains (Figure 2.15). The information service
infrastructure serves as a support platform for all systems, providing functional services, resource

Figure 2.15 The Internal System Relationship of the C2 Systems for Joint Operationsin the PLA

Source: Compiled based on Lan, Mao, and Huang et al., Joint Operations Command and Control System, p. 51.

58

management, and situation services to each subsystem. The joint intelligence subsystem is responsible for receiving information from the sea, air, and land and providing comprehensive intelligence
Prefacesupport for decision-making by the command officers. The military-local government coordination
subsystem provides support for decision-making by the command officers, including information
on social conditions and public opinion, along with command of civilian forces. The joint planningsubsystem establishes the joint operations program. The joint command subsystem is responsible forthe implementation of joint operations actions. The joint support subsystem is responsible for providing
communications, equipment, weather, and other information to support command decisions.93

Introduction

As shown above, the PLA is developing C2 systems for joint operations in line with the progress of the PLA reforms. It is unknown what capabilities such systems will actually possess. However,as Chapter 3 will note, real-time information sharing has been achieved between the services inpost-PLA reform joint operations training, and it can be assessed with certainty that such capabilities
are becoming more advanced.94 If joint operations training at each level is further enhanced, the PLA’s
C2 systems for joint operations will likely become more complete.

Chapter 1

4. Outcomes and Challenges(1) Outcomes

Chapter 2

The PLA aimed to strengthen the joint operations structure by carrying out large-scale organizationaland structural reforms. The outcomes of these reforms were wide-ranging and include: (1) strengthening Xi Jinping’s power base by enforcing the CMC chairman responsibility system; (2) launching
the CMC multi-department system and the five TC structure; (3) realizing Xi-led appointment ofsenior PLA officers who are useful for joint operations; (4) establishing a standing joint operationscommand structure comprised of the CMC JOCC and TC JOCOs; and (5) the introduction and devel-

Chapter 3

opment of C2 systems for joint operations. Through these outcomes, the PLA is gradually putting inplace a structure that can realize the IJO concept.

(2) Challenges
On the other hand, even under the new structure, the PLA still faces challenges with the division of roles
among the CMC, TCs, and services. In September 2020, the “CCP Regulations on Party Building inConclusions

the Military” entered into force. A commentary in the Study Times, which was written by Commander
He Weidong and Political Commissar He Ping of the Eastern TC, noted that one of the purposes of theregulations was to ensure adherence to the principle, “the CMC performs general management, thetheaters are mainly in charge of operations, and the services are mainly in charge of force building.” Inregard to the operational and administrative chains of command, the commentary highlighted the need59Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

to clarify the relationship between the TC Party committee, service Party committee, and TC service
Party committee.95 Specifically, the following problems can be identified.
The CMC’s Delegation of Command Authority to TCs
A key question regarding the CMC and the TCs is to what extent the CMC will delegate command
authority to the TCs as external crises increase.96 The fact that the CMC made TCs the only supreme
JOCO in their respective strategic directions is testament that the CMC seeks to enhance the emergency response capability of the PLA by delegating its C2 authority to the TCs.
On the other hand, in July 2016, after the arbitral award invalidated China’s claims and activities
in the South China Sea as illegal, the PLA leadership, including Fan Changlong, vice chairman of the
CMC; Ma Xiaotian, PLAAF commander; Wei Fenghe, PLARF commander; Miao Hua, PLAN politicalcommissar; and Yi Xiaoguang, deputy chief of the Joint Staff Department, visited the Southern TC. On
this occasion, Fan Changlong said, “You must earnestly study and ensure implementation of Chairman
Xi Jinping’s significant strategic thoughts and important decisions and instructions, and firmly maintain the Party’s absolute leadership over the military.”97 These remarks suggest that, as the South China
Sea dispute becomes more serious, Fan was sounding the alarm to ensure that operational actions in theSouthern TC do not disregard the command of the Party Central Committee, the CMC, and Xi Jinping.
The CMC placed the PLARF and the PLASSF under its direct command and has not delegatedC2 authority to the TCs. While the PLARF’s conventional warhead units are being incorporated into
the TC joint operations command structure, they do not include the units that operate the DF-21D and
DF-26. The benefit of this approach is that the Party’s central leadership retains control over criticalcapabilities. The downside, however, is that this may weaken the ability of TC commanders to quickly
employ the full range of capabilities to deter or defeat adversaries.98 In this light, the Xi-led CCP
leadership appears undecided still as to what extent it should delegate authority to the TCs in the eventof external crises.
Clarifying the Division of Roles between TCs and Services
A challenge for the TCs and services is to clearly delineate, as well as to strengthen cooperation
between, the operational and administrative chains of command under the centralized and unified
guidance of the CMC.99 Particularly important are: (a) coordinating between the TCs’ command
authority over joint operations and the services’ trainings; (b) maintaining authority over the operational actions of service operational units; and (c) managing the budget and personnel.
With regard to (a), the PLAN retains authority to lead joint exercises by the three fleets. The
Joint Staff Department, the Training Management Department, and the leadership of the Southern
TC participated in the three-fleet joint confrontation exercise held by the East, South, and North Sea
Fleets in the South China Sea in July 2016. However, it was the PLAN headquarters under PLAN
Commander Wu Shengli and PLAN Political Commissar Miao Hua that led the exercise.100 The PLAN

60

also led the joint exercises of the three fleets in the East China Sea in the following month.101
Since training is part of the administrative chain of command,102 it is not necessarily a problem
Prefacethat the PLAN take initiative for the three-fleet joint confrontation exercise. In addition, the PLAN
recognized that, following the reforms, its role changed from “combination of force building and operation” to “mainly force building,” and that as the respective fleets would be under the dual commandof the TC and the PLAN, the administrative chains of command of the PLAN and the fleets on the
one hand and the operational chains of command of the TCs and the fleets on the other should beorganized.103 However, if involvement in large-scale exercises is limited, the question remains as toIntroduction

how TCs will secure authority to command and control fleet operations.
With regard to (b), the PLAN retains the authority to conduct far-sea patrols. Observers note,“This could be a product of the reality that services have the experience to manage certain missions
better than joint headquarters (who may be led by personnel from different services) and the bureaucratic impulse not to cede responsibility.” According to them, “Whether service headquarters will bewilling to sacrifice vestigial operational roles—and refrain from interfering with the employment of

Chapter 1

assets during a crisis—is an open question.”104
With regard to (c), a PLA monograph published before the PLA reforms proposed that TCs
be given authority over command, personnel appointments, and budget in order to strengthen unity
and authority in joint operations command.105 While TCs secured command authority as a result of
the PLA reforms, authority over personnel appointments and budget was considered to belong to
the administrative chain of command106 and was retained by the services. Without authority over

Chapter 2

personnel appointments and budget, it is questionable as to what extent the TC headquarters can
exercise authority over the services and the service headquarters in the TCs in peacetime.
Inadequate Joint Operations Mindset and Service Parochialism
The third challenge concerns the PLA’s mindset after many years of the four general department, MR,
and “Big Army” systems. In this regard, a Taiwanese scholar has noted that interservice barriers have

Chapter 3

not been completely eliminated, and that while the “body” has entered the TCs, the “brain” remains
in the services. According to him, a mindset for integration and fusion in the true sense has not beendeveloped, and integration of the TC organs is still “shallow.”107
In addition, scholars have noted the existence of service parochialism in the PLA. This owes
to opposition to the joint operations structure of the services, as was seen in the United States andIndia, and to China’s long-standing lack of standing JOCOs at the strategic and campaign levels. For

Conclusions

example, the continued exercise of operational control by the PLAN headquarters in some instanceseven after the PLA reforms is seen as a case of service parochialism.108 Some have also noted that, if
defense budget growth slows down, interservice competition over missions and resources may impede
operational cooperation and affect efforts to rationalize C2 relationships.109
It is difficult to make observations about mindset issues from the outside. Conversely, Xi

61

Chapter 2

The Reformed PLA’s Joint Operations Structure

Jinping’s reiteration of the importance of joint operations training and cultivation of talent for joint
operations seems to be aimed at further developing the PLA’s joint operations mindset. However, itsuggests also that the PLA has not overcome mindset issues even after the reforms.

62

NIDS China Security Report 2022
The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Chapter 3
The Transformation of Joint Operations
Training and Talent Cultivation
Programs through the PLA Reforms,
and the Quest for Strengthening
Party-Army Relations

Chapter 3

第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

1. Transformation of Joint Operations Training inLight of the PLA Reforms(1) Exploring Joint Operations Training under the Theater Command
Structure
Xi Jinping assumed the chairmanship of the Central Military Commission (CMC) in November 2012.
Since then, he has advocated the importance of an armed forces that is “ready to fight and win wars”
and repeatedly instructed the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to conduct real combat-oriented training.1 With the PLA reforms dissolving the General Staff Department (GSD), the CMC’s Joint Staff
Department and Training Management Department now play a central role in planning and coordinating joint operations training at the PLA’s central level.2 The theater commands (TCs) are responsible for implementing joint operations training, whereas the service headquarters are for training theirrespective services.
Xi Jinping has emphasized strengthening TC joint operations training, stating at a key PLA
meeting in September 2016, “The establishment of theater commands has removed organizational andstructural obstacles to joint operations training.” He instructed that the PLA should properly define
the relationship between joint operations training and services training and make integration the main
focus. He further ordered that joint operations training drive services training and that the latter support
the former.3 At an expanded meeting of the CMC in February 2017, Xi instructed, “We need to give
top priority to strengthening joint operations training, enhance training with new equipment and newforces, and incorporate new-type operational forces into the joint operations System.” 4Command post exercises (CPX) were carried out in the TCs in February 2016, shortly after
the TCs were established. In the Eastern TC, a CPX was held for integrating information systems.
It was participated by officers and troops from the PLA Army (PLAA), Navy (PLAN), Air Force(PLAAF), and Rocket Force (PLARF), which were under the command of the TC Joint Operations
Command Center (JOCC) in accordance with the “Operational Norms of Joint Operations CommandCenters.”5 The Southern TC JOCC conducted a CPX focusing on joint operations between the PLAN
and the PLAAF.6 In that same month, the Western TC JOCC held a CPX participated by the PLAA,
the PLAAF, the PLARF, and other units.7 In March, it conducted another CPX to strengthen joint
operations readiness capability.8 The Northern TC carried out a CPX participated by the PLAA, thePLAN, the PLAAF, and the PLARF in March 2016.9(2) Promulgation of the New “Military Training Regulations” and “Military
Training Outline”
At the end of December 2017, Xi Jinping signed the “Trial Regulations of the PLA on Military
Training” (hereafter referred to as the “Military Training Regulations”), which came into effect on

64

January 1, 2018. This was the first revisionof the “Military Training Regulations” since
Preface2002. Although the content of the regulations was not disclosed, a senior official of
the CMC Training Management Department
explained that it is intended to create worldclass forces, as instructed in the politicalreport of the 19th National Congress of the
The CMC promulgated the new“Military Training Outline” on January 25,

Introduction

Chinese Communist Party (CCP).10
China-Russia joint military exercise at Vostok-2018(September 2018) (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/Kyodo News
Images)2018. The details have not been made public.
According to a PLA Daily report, the Outline mainly focuses on building the training System andrelated institutional mechanisms that emphasize real combat-oriented training, joint operation, scienChapter 1

tization, and normalization for adapting to the PLA reforms. Furthermore, it noted that the promulgation of the Outline would elevate the level of the PLA’s readiness for real combat and significantly help
enhance its “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems” and “All-Domain
Operations Capability.” A senior official of the CMC Training Management Department stated theOutline emphasizes joint operations training and would strengthen not only services training but also
campaign-level joint operations training.11

Chapter 2

Based on these revisions of the training regulations, the PLA actively conducted joint operations exercises in 2018. On January 3, the CMC convened the 2018 Mobilization Meeting for theCommencement of Training for the Whole Armed Forces. During the meeting, Xi instructed the PLA
to improve its war-winning capability by strengthening real combat-oriented military training, giving
particular emphasis to the importance of joint operations training.12 That April, the PLAAF conductedtraining in the airspace around Taiwan, participated by fighters, such as Su-35, J-11, and J-10, as well

Chapter 3

as the H-6K bomber and KJ-2000 airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft. At thistime, the PLAAF formed a joint operations structure, which included real-time information sharing
with the PLAN, coordinating with the PLAA’s air unit, and receiving support from the PLAA’s radar,ground missile, and electronic confrontation units.13 In June, the PLAA, the PLAN, and the PLARF
participated in the PLAAF-led Blue Shield-18 joint air defense exercise.14
In September 2018, the PLA participated in the Vostok-2018 exercise held in Russia’s Eastern

Conclusions

Military District. In this exercise, the Chinese and Russian armed forces established a strategic-leveljoint operational command system comprised of the Joint Staff Department of China’s CMC and theGeneral Staff of Russia’s Armed Forces, as well as a joint operational command post consisting of
the Northern TC of the Chinese PLA and the Eastern Military District of the Russian Armed Forces.15
The Chinese side stated that, through the exercise, they were able to improve their joint operational

65

Chapter 3

第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relationscommand and control (C2) capabilities, which is an objective of the PLA reforms, and learn a lot
about operations and training from the Russian armed forces that has considerable actual combat
experience.16(3) Promulgation of the “Trial Guidelines on PLA Joint Operations” andHolding of the CMC Military Training Conference
In 2020, China stepped up its training activities notwithstanding the coronavirus disease (COVID19) pandemic. In February, the PLA conducted joint operations training between the PLAN and the
PLAAF in waters south of Taiwan’s main island.17 At around the same time, the Southern TC Navy
conducted a far-sea joint operations training for over 30 days in the Pacific Ocean.18 At the National
People’s Congress (NPC) in May, Commander Yuan Yubai of the Southern TC reported that it steadily
carried out TC-level joint operational command exercises.19 The PLAA and the PLAAF frequently
conducted war gaming style joint anti-aircraft exercises, including sharing operational information inreal time and connecting C2 systems.20 The PLAN and the PLAAF carried out anti-submarine training
involving real-time information sharing via airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft and unmanned
aircraft.21 In a joint landing campaign training by the PLAA and the PLAN, the two services set up atemporary joint Party committee.22 In addition, the PLA conducted frequent military exercises in theSouth China Sea. Notably, during the drills in August, the PLA fired a DF-26B missile, known as the“Guam killer,” and a DF-21D missile, known as the “carrier killer,” that struck their target.23
In November 2020, the CMC promulgated the “Trial Guidelines on PLA Joint Operations.”
According to a PLA Daily report, the guidelines, the content of which was not made public, adheres
to “Xi Jinping Thought on Strengthening the Military” and “The Military Strategic Guideline for a
New Era,” and clarifies the key principles, requirements, and basic procedures for the command,
operational actions, operational support, national defense mobilization, and political maneuvers of
joint operations.24
A PLA Daily commentary appreciated the promulgation of the guidelines, saying it was animportant achievement for the laws, regulations, and systems of joint operations and strengthens thejoint operations capabilities of the PLA. It then noted that military training needs to: (1) transition
from passively adapting to war to actively leading war planning; (2) shift from the System in which
the services and branches train individually to joint operations-focused training; and (3) promote a
shift from mechanization-informatization hybrid development to intelligentization-driven development, alongside improving “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems” and“All-Domain Operations Capability.” 25
A senior official at the Strategic and Theater Training Bureau of the CMC Joint Staff Department
underscored the importance of promulgating the guidelines, stating that it would elevate the level ofjoint operations in the new era and help clarify the nature of the training, training requirements, andtraining standards for operational units.26 A CMC Training Management Department official echoed

66

that the integration was still formalistic, despite the PLA reforms creating a new joint operations
structure. He stressed the PLA should enhance joint operations training to accelerate the building ofPrefacethe joint operations command System and strengthen new-type operational forces.27
A CMC military training conference was held in November 2020, shortly after the promulgation of the guidelines. At the conference, Xi Jinping referred to the changes in: the security environment surrounding China; the military combat situation; the mission of the PLA; forms of modern
warfare; the organizational status of the PLA; and the mission objectives of national defense andmilitary modernization. Xi instructed the PLA to accelerate the creation of the new military training

Introduction

System and improve the training level and the PLA’s war-winning capability. In particular, he stressedstrengthening joint operations training, developing the PLA’s characteristic joint operational training
System, and improving the capability for integrated joint operations [Yitihua Lianhe Zuozhan, 一体化联合作战] (IJO).28 In reference to Xi Jinping’s remarks, a PLA Daily commentary also reiterated theneed to strengthen joint operations training.29 In December 2020, a spokesperson for China’s Ministryof National Defense stated that Xi attaches importance to military training, and that the CMC military
Chapter 1

training conference reviewed the military training experience since the 18th National Congress of the
CCP in 2012 and was an important milestone in realizing a strong military in the new era.30
In 2021, the PLA has continued to maintain a training-oriented approach that focuses on joint
operations training. The 2021 New Year’s Day editorial in the PLA Daily proposed accelerating thechange in military training model in the spirit of the CMC military training conference.31 A mobilization order for military training, the first CMC order in 2021, was issued on January 4. This order

Chapter 2emphasized upholding the spirit of the CMC military training conference. It instructed the PLA toaccelerate capability strengthening for IJO, while keeping in line with the concept that joint operations
training drives services training and services training supports joint operations training.32 On February
20, the CMC issued the “Decision on Fostering a New-Type Military Training System.” While its
details are unknown, the strengthening of joint operations training was underlined as one of the hallmarks of the decision in the PLA Daily.33

Chapter 3

In March 2021, Xi Jinping attended a plenary meeting of the delegation of the PLA and thePeople’s Armed Police (PAP) of the NPC. At the meeting, he pointed to the relatively unstable anduncertain security situation in China, and instructed the PLA to step up the building of high-caliber
strategic deterrence and the joint operations System. In response, the PLA delegates made references
to strengthening joint operations training.34
Based on these instructions, the PLA has continued to actively engage in joint operations training

Conclusions

in 2021. In January, battalions from the Eastern TC Army conducted joint operations training, in which
it mutually exchanged personnel with the Navy and Air Force. In the same month, the command postof the Northern TC Air Force conducted joint operations CPX with the PLAA’s group armies at thegroup army and brigade levels. The exercises reviewed the IJO capabilities of the command post
staff.35 During the NPC in March, the English edition of the Global Times reported that the PLAN

67

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第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

Marine Corps of the Southern TC conducted a joint landing campaign training participated by the
Army’s amphibious units; the Navy’s surface vessels consisting of a destroyer, frigate, dock landing
ship, replenishment ship, and intelligence gathering ship; the Air Force’s Su-30 fighters and H-6K
bombers; the PLARF; and the PLA Strategic Support Force (PLASSF).36(4) Outcomes of Post-PLA Reform Joint Operations Training
As shown, the PLA has steadily strengthened joint operations training after the reforms. In October
2020, the PLA Daily reported that, during the 13th Five-Year Plan period following the PLA reforms, the
PLA conducted more than 100 joint operations trainings involving mobilization of actual personnel.37
The series of joint operations trainings had the following outcomes. First, they steadily
increased the PLA’s proficiency in real-time information sharing among the services and connecting
their C2 systems, which are key to the execution of joint operations. Furthermore, the PLA proactively
conducted tactical-level joint operation trainings. While these efforts were initiated before the PLA
reforms, the reforms provided an impetus for further improvement.
Second, the PLA revised and enacted laws and regulations on military training based on theoutcomes of joint operations trainings, such as amending the “Military Training Regulations,” updating
the “Military Training Outline,” and promulgating the “Trial Guidelines on PLA Joint Operations.”
The PLA Daily reported that the PLA promulgated more than 2,000 training outlines and updated morethan 760 training outlines, and published more than 7,500 teaching materials, creating joint training
scenarios that reflect real combat, science, and norms.38
Third, the “Trial Regulation of the PLA on the Supervision of Military Training,” promulgated in February 2019, strengthened the training supervision structure and improved training quality.
The PLA Daily reported that, following the military reforms, the PLA has supervised more than
1,000 brigade and higher level units, more than 150 military educational institutions, and nearly 100
key drills. More than 180 units and over 730 people have been censured and 375 people punished,according to the report.39 After its reforms, the PLA can be assessed to have made many achievements
in joint operations training in the realms of interservice information sharing, laws and regulations on
military training, and training supervision.

682. Transformation of Joint Operations Talent
Cultivation in Light of the PLA Reforms
Preface(1) The Triad Training System for New-Type Military Personnel and“Military Education Policy in the New Era”
Scholars have noted the PLA’s weakness in not being able to secure high-quality personnel who canhandle informatized warfare and joint operations, despite the rise in the education level of personnel.40

Introduction

The PLA itself has acknowledged this deficit of talent. At the Joint Action-2015D joint operations
training held in September 2015, participant Zhang Yuansong, deputy chief of staff of the 14th Group
Army, remarked, “Joint training is increasing, but there is a shortage of staff officers who can conduct
them.” 41 These issues were not immediately resolved even after the PLA reforms. According to the
PLA Daily, command officers still tended to overemphasize the use of a single service or branchduring a joint operations training in the Southern TC.42 The PLAAF also recognized that talent culti-

Chapter 1

vation posed as a challenge for joint operations training.43
The CCP leadership and the PLA leaders gauged this situation and emphasized strengthening thetalent cultivation System of the PLA. At the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CCP Central Committee
in November 2013, Xi Jinping indicated an intention to enhance cultivation of PLA personnel forjoint operations, stating he would deepen the reform of military educational institutions and complete
the creation of the “triad” System for training new types of military personnel.44 The triad consists ofChapter 2

military institutional education, unit training practice, and military professional education. The “CMC
Opinions on Deepening National Defense and Military Reforms” [Zhongyang junwei guanyu shenhua
guofang he jundui gaige de yijian, 中央军委关于深化国防和军队改革的意见], promulgated in January 2016,
articulated improving the triad System, completing a CMC-service two-level system for managing
military educational institutions, establishing three levels [dengji, 等级] of training comprised of basic[chuji, 初级], intermediate [zhongji, 中级], and advanced [gaoji, 高级], and adjusting and optimizing

Chapter 3

the scale of military educational institutions.45 A PLA Daily commentary stated that the triad System,in principle, “focuses on military institutional education, is complemented by unit training practice,and supplements [the lack thereof] with military professional education.” The column noted that thedivision of work and responsibilities between the three components should be clarified to demonstrate
their respective strengths and that their efforts should be combined to cultivate personnel.46
In November 2019, Xi Jinping attended an opening of a training session for heads of mili-

Conclusions

tary academies and schools held at the PLA National Defense University (NDU) and presented the“Military Education Policy in the New Era.” Albeit the details are unknown, the PLA Daily’s explanation was that the policy “upholds the Party’s absolute leadership over the PLA, serves the goal ofbuilding a strong country with a strong military, and aims to train a new type of military personnel who
are competent, professional and possess both integrity and ability in which integrity educates people

69Chapter 3

第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

and personnel are trained for war.” 47
In May 2020, Li Keqiang stated at the NPC in his report on the work of the government: “Wewill thoroughly implement Xi Jinping’s thinking on strengthening the armed forces and the military strategy for the new era. We will continue to enhance the political loyalty of the armed forces,
strengthen them through reform, science and technology, and the training of capable personnel, andrun the military in accordance with law.” 48 The training of personnel was newly added to “Xi Jinping
Thought on Strengthening the Military,” which, at the 19th National Congress in October 2017, wasdefined as “enhancing [the PLA’s] political loyalty, strengthening it through reform and technology,
and running it in accordance with the law.” 49
At an NPC plenary meeting of the delegation of the PLA and the PAP, Xi himself stressed theimportance of cultivating personnel based on the “Military Education Policy in the New Era,” stating,“We need to create the triad System for cultivating talent and establish a structure for training new
types of military personnel who are competent and professional, possessing both integrity and ability.”
The military representatives at the NPC repeatedly voiced support for Xi’s remark.50 At a group study
session of the CCP Politburo held in July, Xi once again called for adherence to the “Military Education
Policy in the New Era” and completing the creation of the triad military personnel training System.51
In October 2020, the CMC approved the “Decision on Advancing the Triad System to Cultivate
New-Type Military Personnel.” Although the details are not known, according to reports the decision
instructed the PLA to accelerate the construction of the triad training System for new-type military
personnel by delving deeper into “Xi Jinping Thought on Strengthening the Military” and ensuring theimplementation of the “Military Education Policy in the New Era.” 52 Since the PLA reforms, the PLA
has made efforts to build the triad training System for new-type military personnel and emphasizedthorough implementation of the new “Military Education Policy in the New Era.”(2) Reorganization of Military Educational Institutions and the Role of PLA
National Defense University
The PLA Daily explained that education at military educational institutions is the main channel tocultivate military talent, and the role of the institutions is to teach basic theory, basic knowledge, andbasic skills and to develop personnel’s thinking methods, learning ability, and mindset for creating
new innovations. It also stated that priority be given to improving the cultivation of personnel for joint
operations.53
Among the military educational institutions, NDU is the central academy for personnel cultivation for commanding joint operations. In March 2016, Xi Jinping led a group of CMC members,
including Fan Changlong and Xu Qiliang, on a visit to NDU. There, Xi referred to the policy thatNDU should play an important role in the cultivation of talent for joint operations, stating, “National
Defense University is the only comprehensive joint command university of the entire armed forces,
and the cultivation of personnel for commanding joint operations is its core function.” In light of the70

establishment of the joint operations command organizations (JOCOs) of the CMC and TCs, he notedthat it was necessary to improve the command capabilities of command officers and staff officers at all
Prefacelevels, and that this was an urgent task.54
Table 3.1 PLA Military Educational Institutions Following 2017 Reforms
Name
National Defense University

2

National University of Defense Technology

3Army Command College

4

Army Engineering University

5

Army Infantry College

6

Army Academy of Armored Forces

7

Army Academy of Artillery & Air Defense

8

Army Aviation Academy

9Army Special Operations Academy

Subordination
CMC

Grade
TC deputy leader (lieutenant generals and major generals)
Corps leader (major generals and lieutenant generals)

Introduction

1

PLAA

Corps deputy leader(major generals and senior colonels)

10 Army Academy of Border and Coastal Defense
11 Army Institute of NBC Defense

Chapter 1

12 Army Medical University
13 Army Logistic University
14 Army Military Transportation University
15 Naval Command College
16 Naval University of Engineering
17 Dalian Naval Academy
18 Navy Submarine Academy

Corps deputy leader(rear admirals and senior captains)

Chapter 2

19 Naval Aviation University

PLAN

20 Naval Medical University
21 Naval Service Academy
22 Naval NCO School

Division leader (senior captains and rear admirals)

23 Air Force Command College
24 Air Force Engineering University
25 Air Force Aviation University
26 Air Force Early Warning Academy
28 Air Force Shijiazhuang Flight Academy

PLAAF

Corps deputy leader(major generals and senior colonels)

Chapter 3

27 Air Force Harbin Flight Academy
29 Air Force Xi’an Flight Academy
30 Air Force Medical University
31 Air Force Logistics College
32 Air Force Communication NCO Academy

Division leader (senior colonels and major generals)

33 Rocket Force Command College
34 Rocket Force University of Engineering

PLARF

36 Strategic Support Force Space Engineering University
37 Strategic Support Force Information Engineering University

Conclusions

35 Rocket Force NCO School

Corps deputy leader(major generals and senior colonels)
Division leader (senior colonels and major generals)

PLASSF

Corps deputy leader(major generals and senior colonels)

Sources: Compiled based on Ying Yu Lin, “One Step Forward, One Step Back for PLA Military Education,”
China Brief, Vol. 18, No. 7, 2018; Kenneth Allen and Mingzhi Chen, The People’s Liberation Army’s 37
Academic Institutions (Montgomery: China Aerospace Studies Institute, 2020), pp. 234-235.

71

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第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

At that time, Xi Jinping mentioned
the following as challenges facing the PLA’s
cultivation of joint operations personnel: (1)the ways to cultivate personnel are unclear
due to lack of real combat experience; (2)instructors at the military educational institutions have backgrounds solely within their
specialties and do not have sufficient interaction with senior officers of organs and units;(3) the units do not admit talented personnel
to the military educational institutions, andMembers of the PLA NDU’s Joint Operations College visiting
the National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS) (November2019) (Photo: NIDS)

there are differences in expertise among thestudents who enroll in the institutions; and (4) it is difficult to conduct joint education and training
between the military educational institutions and the units. Xi then instructed the PLA to overcome
the first challenge by learning from the experience of foreign armies and integrating those lessons
into the actual situation of the PLA. For the other challenges, he ordered the PLA to resolve them bystrengthening the CMC’s unified planning and coordination and ensuring that the organs, units, andmilitary educational institutions fulfill their respective responsibilities. Xi also vowed that militaryeducational institutions would be reformed in 2016.55
The details of the reform of military educational institutions came to light in June 2017. The
reform reduced the number of the PLA’s military educational institutions from 67 to 37 (Table 3.1).
Furthermore, the grades of many military educational institutions were lowered. This included NDU,
which was downgraded from TC leader grade (generals and lieutenant generals) to TC deputy leader
grade (lieutenant generals and major generals). Meanwhile, although many military educational
institutions were consolidated and abolished, the reform kept the enrollment system for basic officer
educational institutions in which officer cadets have to choose not only their service but also theiroccupation prior to enrolling. In addition, the abolishment of the National Defense Student Program56
was announced. This Reserve Officers’ Training Corps program in the PLA was adopted on a trial
basis in 1998 and was ready for institutionalization in around 2000.57
Joint Operations College and Joint Services College are the central institutions for cultivating personnel for joint operations at NDU. Joint Operations College was formed by reorganizing
Shijiazhuang Army Command College, and Joint Services College by reorganizing Logistics College,
both of which have been placed under NDU. The former trains command officers and staff officers,
while the latter trains logistics personnel.58
In November 2019, Xi Jinping presented the “Military Education Policy in the New Era” at the
opening of a training session for heads of military academies and schools. At the time, a PLA Daily
commentary noted that the PLA reforms formed a new structure of military educational institutions,72with the joint operations military educational institutions as the core, the branches/services specialized
military educational institutions as the foundation, and the military-civil fusion cultivation as thePrefacesupplement.59 The new “Trial Regulations on the Education in Military Academies” was promulgatedin June 2020 and entered into force on July 1 of the same year. The details of the regulations have notbeen announced. The PLA Daily described the regulations as a concrete measure for accomplishingthe “Military Education Policy in the New Era.” 60 Following the PLA reforms that restructured themilitary academies, military educational institutions centering on NDU appear to have finished establishing systems for training personnel for joint operational command.

Introduction(3) Cultivation of Joint Operations Personnel in the Units
The PLA Daily explained that unit training focuses on the practice and application of the theory,knowledge, and skills learned at military educational institutions. The main role of training was
described as turning theory into practice and dramatically transforming the acquired knowledge into
operational capabilities for the units.61

Chapter 1

After the TC structure was established, the respective TCs have sought to strengthen their own
programs for cultivating joint operations personnel. In March 2016, the Western TC JOCC held tests
two times for cultivating personnel for joint operations and conferred more than 300 participants with“certificates,” which demonstrate that they are qualified to serve in joint operations.62 Also in March,
the Southern TC held a test to cultivate talent for joint operations.63 The Northern TC prepared the“Three-year Plan for the Training of Personnel for Commanding Joint Operation” and developed a

Chapter 2

curriculum for joint operations education. The TC aims for its rigorous implementation, for example,
not allowing personnel to become staff officers unless they pass the curriculum.64 In this way, each
unit, mainly at the TC level, is promoting efforts to cultivate joint operational personnel.

(4) Development of Military Professional Education
A dictionary on military institutional education compiled by NDU defines “military professional
Chapter 3

education” [junshi zhiye jiaoyu, 军事职业教育] as “a step-by-step, lifetime career-oriented military
vocational education and training activity founded on military higher education, which is offered
to officers and non-commissioned officers in accordance with the methods for developing military
professional education personnel and the needs of the posts appointed by the armed forces.” 65 The
PLA Daily explained that military professional education constitutes a major platform for cultivating
personnel and emphasizes supplying, exploring, and developing talent. It stated that the main role ofConclusions

military professional education is to develop the military expertise of personnel through learning new
knowledge, theories, techniques, and equipment in line with the changes in the times and the needs ofthe respective posts.66
In 2017, the CMC officially launched military professional education reform by promulgating
the “Implementation Plan on Military Professional Education Reform.” Although the details are not73Chapter 3

第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

known, the PLA Daily explained that the plan set three objectives of the reform: (1) making the improvement of professional capabilities and professional grounding the core mission of military professional
education; (2) integrating non-academic credential and academic credential continuing education; and(3) mainstreaming non-academic credential continuing education, providing continuing education
suited to the respective posts by domain, category, and level, and completing the PLA lifetime education System. The PLA Daily called for actively combining online and in-person education in orderto achieve the above objectives. A PLA Daily commentary noted that the enactment of the plan wasunderpinned by the rapid changes in military domains as well as substantial changes in warfare form,
operational styles, command methods, and weapons and equipment.67
An official from a related CMC department stated that the new military professional educationis unlike the preassignment education68 offered by the PLA, the professional military education offoreign armies, and the professional education provided by local institutions. He explained that military professional education features diverse online learning methods, although it does not exclude
other methods, such as reading and offline in-person education. Military professional education
was identified as a form of continuing education that fosters the capabilities necessary for a post. In
addition to acquiring military expertise, military professional education includes pursuing academic
credentials at a graduate school or other institutions (Figure 3.1). The official explained that the objective of military professional education is to produce talent necessary for world-class forces, namely, by
promoting and providing organized and systematic self-taught education so that all people can receive
education continuously at any time and place. The educational offerings focus on building knowledge
that is the most critical and most urgent for the respective posts. Theater command organizations
at the group army level or higher, for example, give top priority to developing the personnel’s strategic grounding and thinking abilities, while headquarters at the division and brigade levels prioritize
basic knowledge on joint operations, the “three information (enemy information, ally information,and battlefield environment information)” 69 and tactical research, implementation of operations byservices and branches, knowledge on weapons and equipment, and advanced organizational training.
Furthermore, online education uses the military comprehensive network service platform, designed
for content classified as “confidential” and below, as well as the interconnected service platform thathas collected superior educational materials from the military and local educational institutions.70
As illustrated, post-PLA reform military professional education emphasized the use of information
systems to continuously deepen advanced military knowledge.
In May 2019, the CMC approved “Several Opinions on Accelerating Military Professional
Education Promotion,” the details of which are unknown. The PLA Daily reported that the opinions normalized the main missions and basic requirements for the promotion of military professional
education. A senior official of the CMC Training Management Department mentioned that the opinions was enacted due to the underlying shortage of personnel capable of conducting joint operations
and of operating new-type operational forces.71

74

Figure 3.1 Main Types of Military Professional Education

Non-academic credential
continuing education

Preface

Military professional education

Academic credential
continuing education
Introduction
Chapter 1

Online graduate school education formaster’s and professional degrees

Distant education for
non-commissioned officers

Self-taught military higher education
examination

Military institutional education
course for reserve officers

Military professional skills
certification program

Military professional qualification
certification program

Professional capacity building andknowledge development and update
program

Source: Compiled based on PLA Daily, March 1, 2018.

Chapter 2

In July 2020, a military professional education network exchange activity was conducted acrossthe PLA, using the military professional education military comprehensive network service platform.
A senior official from the CMC Training Management Department described that the exchange activity
was an important measure for ensuring implementation of the “Military Education Policy in the New
Era” and deepening military professional education.72

Chapter 3

In December 2020, the PLA promulgated the “Trial Regulations on Military Professional
Education for Armed Forces.” The details of the regulations have not been disclosed; the explanation
was it would have great significance for the development of military professional education and thecreation of a structure for cultivating new types of military personnel.73 As the PLA had previously
raised the need for their enactment,74 the promulgation meant the PLA had made some achievement toestablish a military professional education system.

Conclusions(5) Outcomes from Creating the Talent Cultivation System
Through its reforms, the PLA sought to create the triad training System for new-type military personnel.
The main outcomes were as follows.
First, the “Military Education Policy in the New Era” was established, and in accordance75Chapter 3

第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

with this policy, the PLA revised and enacted some military laws and regulations, including the new“Trial Regulations on the Education in Military Academies” and the “Trial Regulations on Military
Professional Education for Armed Forces.” By enacting these policies as well as PLA laws and regulations, the PLA clarified the capabilities required for new types of military personnel and normalized the System for cultivating such personnel. Such enactments are expected to enable the PLA tostrengthen the cultivation of personnel for joint operations and secure many outstanding talent.
Second, the PLA established NDU-centered joint operations curricula. Joel Wuthnow andPhillip Saunders noted that the reform of military educational institutions resulted in: (1) the NDU
senior commanders’ course being divided into the joint operational command track and the leadershipmanagement track, where the former focused on joint operations; (2) military educational institutions
directly under the CMC expanding their joint operations courses, including creating a 10-month joint
operations course at NDU for lower level officers and courses on joint operations intelligence support
at National University of Defense Technology (NUDT); (3) military educational institutions of theservices strengthening their joint operations curricula; and (4) strong partnerships being establishedamong military educational institutions, TC headquarters, and service headquarters.75
Third, joint operations personnel trained at NDU and other institutes were assigned to operational units. The PLA Daily explained that 98% of the command officers and staff officers of the major
joint operations trainings in 2020 were trained at NDU.76
Following its reforms, the PLA is assessed to have produced many outcomes in cultivating
personnel for commanding joint operations, mainly by strengthening the curricula of military educational institutions. On the other hand, new military professional education programs have started only
recently, and their outcomes are yet to be confirmed.

3. Exploring the Strengthening of Party-Army
Relations in the New Joint Operations
Structure(1) The PLA as the “Party’s Army”
The PLA has remained the “Party’s Army” of the CCP since its predecessor, the Red Army, wasfounded in 1927. Of particular importance in understanding Party-Army relations is the principle of“the Party’s absolute leadership over the PLA,” which is enshrined in the CCP Constitution and the
National Defense Law of the People’s Republic of China.77“Political work” is the method for infiltrating the will of the Party into the army based on
this principle. Article 5 of the “Political Work Regulations of the PLA” (hereafter referred to as the“Political Work Regulations”) defines political work as “the ideological and organizational work of76

the CCP within the army, an important component of the army’s combat power, a fundamental guarantee for the Party’s absolute guidance over the PLA and for the army to fulfill their role and mission,
Prefaceand the lifeline of the PLA.” The content of political work is wide-ranging and includes ideologicaland political education; Party organization building; cadres contingent building (appointment of
cadres); Communist Youth League of China construction and youth work (unifying and educating
young soldiers); democratic systems construction (holding of Party meetings); discipline inspection
and supervision; public security, procuratorial and judicial work (military prosecutions and trials);security work (counter intelligence); military publicity work (propaganda); scientific and cultural

Introduction

education; cultural and sport work; mass work (military-civil cooperation, national defense education,
ethnic issues, etc.); liaison work (intelligence); and the “Three Warfares” (public opinion warfare,psychological warfare, and legal warfare).78
The organizational systems for accomplishing this political work consist of the system of theParty committee of the PLA (Party committee system), the political commissar system, and the systemof political leading organ. The three are positioned as systems that play a decisive role in political

Chapter 1

work.79
Regarding the Party committee system, Article 8 of the “Political Work Regulations” stipulates,“The CCP shall establish committees in units of regiments and above of the PLA and their corresponding units, establish grass-roots Party committees in battalions and their corresponding organizations, and establish Party branches in companies and their corresponding organizations.” “The Party
committees at each level (branches) are the core of the unified leadership and unity of the unit.” 80

Chapter 2

The Party committees at each level are the central organ for the Party’s absolute leadership over the
PLA, and in particular, the Party’s standing committees are the supreme decision-making bodies of
the units.81
With regard to the political commissar system,
Article 9 of the “Political Work Regulations” stipulates,“The PLA shall have political commissars in units of regi-

Chapter 3

ments and above, political directors in battalions, and political instructors in companies.”82 A political commissar musthave been a CCP member for five years or more, a politicaldirector must have been a CCP member for three years or
more, and a political instructor must be a member of the
CCP.83 The political officers of the former Soviet Union

Conclusions

army after World War II and the Republic of China army
after the defeat of Taiwan served the unit commanders andhad limited operational authority. However, the politicalcommissars of the PLA are of the same rank as the militarycommand officers, and both of their signatures are required

CMC Chairman Xi Jinping underscoring
the “Party’s Army” (August 2017) (Photo:
Reuters=Kyodo)

77

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第 3章
The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

for the operational actions of units. Normally, the political commissar concurrently serves as the secretary of the Party committee at each level, and the military command officer the deputy secretary.84
With regard to the system of political leading organ, Article 10 of the “Political Work
Regulations” stipulates, “Political departments shall be established in units of brigades and above, andpolitical divisions shall be established in regiments.”85 The Political Work Department of the CMC isat the top of the political organs. The main functions of the organs are to support the work of the Party
committee and political commissars, to guide the political work of the units, and to ensure that thisis carried out thoroughly. The political organs at each level must not only follow the guidance of theParty committees and political commissars at the same level, but also follow the guidance of seniorpolitical organs, carry out their instructions, and report and make recommendations.86(2) Issues Surrounding Party-Army Relations and the Efficiency of Joint
Operations
Following reforms, the PLA is strengthening the joint operations structure with informatized warfare
in mind. Some scholars note, however, that this effort will suffer a setback from the above traditional
system for maintaining Party-Army relations. For example, Saunders and Wuthnow state that the
PLA retains characteristics of a Leninist military even after the recent reforms, such as the politicalcommissar system and the Party committee system, and give this as a reason why the PLA cannot
have a C2 system like the U.S. forces. They argue that, while the shortcomings should not be overestimated, these systems reduce the flexibility and autonomy of commanders especially at the operational
level and “decision-making could be slowed both vertically, as commanders and their subordinates
seek approval from party committees at higher echelons, and horizontally, insofar as there might bedisagreements between commanders and political commissars.” 87 Jeff Benson and Zi Yang concurthat “In a dual-command system, the commanding officer potentially has less autonomy in his or her
ability to act because of Party control,” pointing to concrete issues such as: (1) administrative andoperational delays due to a formal process with a hierarchy of authority; (2) the political commissar’s
ability to vote and change military decisions made by a PLAN command officer; (3) limited flexibility
and crew initiative under a dual-command system; and (4) mistakes in communication between thecommand officer and political commissar.88
Meanwhile, the PLA aims to develop these systems through its reforms in order to strengthen
Party-Army relations. The “Opinions on Deepening National Defense and Military Reforms” promulgated by the CMC on January 1, 2016 sets out the following first basic principle for the PLA reforms:“strengthen and perfect the principle and system of the Party’s absolute leadership over the PLA.”89
In his explanation of the PLA reforms, Wu Jian, a spokesperson of the Ministry of National Defense,
stated that with regard to the reorganization of the General Political Department into the Political
Work Department, the PLA will strictly implement the Party committee system, political commissar
system, and system of political leading organ in order to uphold the principle that the Party commands

78the military.90 The PLA strives to reconcile the IJO concept with the Party committee system, politicalcommissar system, and system of political leading organ through the three methods discussed below.
Preface(3) Wartime Party Committee System and Its Role
In order to reconcile the Party committee system and the IJO concept, the PLA is enforcing the“system of division of the leader’s responsibilities under the unified collective leadership of the Party
committee.” 91 This system consists of three principles. (1) Unified leadership: The Party committee
provides centralized and unified leadership to all organizations, departments, personnel, and opera-

Introduction

tions of the units affiliated with the committee. All major issues are decided through discussion by the
Party committee. In emergency situations, although commanding officers (military command officers or political commissars) can make and issue their own decisions and orders, they have to reportback to the Party committee and receive its inspection. (2) Collective leadership: All major issues are
discussed democratically by the Party committee. “The minority has to obey the majority’s opinion”
principle will always be followed, not allowing any individual to take sole responsibility. (3) Division

Chapter 1of responsibility system: After the Party committee makes a decision, the military command officer
and political commissar will share responsibility for executing the decision. Military-related affairs
are organized and carried out under the responsibility of the military command officer, while politicalwork is organized and carried out under the responsibility of the political commissar.92
The three principles are inextricably linked and were articulated at a conference of senior Party
cadres in the national military system held from the end of 1953 to January 1954.93 At the Political

Chapter 2

Work Conference of the PLA in October 2014, Xi Jinping criticized the lack of understanding andambiguity of the “system of division of the leader’s responsibilities under the unified collective leadership of the Party committee” and instructed its thorough implementation.94
Scholars at the Academy of Military Science note that a wartime Party committee usuallyconsists of a military command officer, political commissar, deputy military command officer, deputy
political commissar(s), deputy chief of staff in each department under the headquarters, and military

Chapter 3

command officers and political commissars of lower grade units. The scholars note that, as necessary, the Joint Campaign Organization (TC) Party Committee also includes leaders of local Party
committees and local governments of the area of operation. The members of the TC Party committees
during wartime must be agreed upon by the Party Central Committee and the CMC. The Party Central
Committee and the CMC also appoint the secretary and deputy secretary. The composition of thewartime Party committee of the operational groups/units below the TCs must obtain the consent ofConclusions

a higher grade Party committee. The secretary and deputy secretary are also appointed by the higher
grade Party committee. Any wartime vacancies are filled according to a predeveloped plan.95 The
Party Standing Committee (PSC) aboard a PLAN vessel is said to consist of the command officer,
executive officer (operations), executive officer (administrative/logistics), political commissar, andone or two deputy political commissars.96 Such members of the PSC are thought to make up a majority

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The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relationsof the wartime Party committee membership.
The unified leadership of the Party committee in wartime does not mean that it should cover all
matters, but that it should control overall situations, grasp the whole picture of operation from beginningto end, and concentrate its efforts on the major issues that will determine victory or defeat. The major
issues to be discussed by the Party committee in wartime are: (1) the implementation of the principlesof the Party Central Committee and the CMC’s operational policy principles and the orders issued by
the higher levels; (2) the overall coordination of the operational missions in charge and the completionof those missions; (3) the shift of the operational phase and the major adjustment of the operational
direction and operational forces; (4) the arrangements for the ideological and political education of
the units; (5) issues related to the unity and cooperation of affiliated units; (6) appointment, dismissal,
and adjustment of cadres and awards and punishments for affiliated units and individuals under theauthority of the Party committee; (7) coordination of important issues related to operational support
with local Party committees and the people’s government; and (8) other important issues to be decided
by the Party committee. The Party committee always reports to the senior Party committee on the decisions and execution of major issues.97 In addition, in wartime, major issues are discussed based on thesituation in online Party committees using the command and information system, in accordance withthe provisions of the “Relevant Issues concerning Wartime Party Committee Meetings and Operation
Meetings” prepared by the GSD and the General Political Department.98
In this way, the PLA aims to maintain the principle that the Party committee has centralized
decision-making authority over major issues in wartime and makes decisions regarding major issues
through collective discussion by thoroughly implementing the “system of division of the leader’s
responsibilities under the unified collective leadership of the Party committee.” Once the policy isdecided, however, military command officers bear responsibility for operational actions, while
the political commissars are to concentrate on wartime political work, except for signing orders ofthe military command officers. Accordingly, it seeks to ensure both the effectiveness of the Party
committee system and the effective execution of IJO.
This policy can be seen in the PLAN’s counterpiracy operations in the Gulf of Aden. The
PLA grants the temporary Party committee for dispatched fleets sufficient rights for decision-making,command, and actions and gives them certain discretion at the field level. In addition, major issues are
discussed collectively by the temporary Party committee, which is composed of a command officer,
political commissar, deputy chief of staff under headquarters, and those in charge of vessels, helicopters, and special forces. On the other hand, in emergencies that require an immediate response,
a command officer can act on their own initiative under a preexisting policy. When Chinese ships
were attacked by pirates in November 2010, the command officer conducted rescue operations.99 The
lessons learned from these counterpiracy operations in the Gulf of Aden are being fed back into thecreation of the C2 system in the PLAN’s operational actions.100

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(4) Political Officer Cultivation Focusing on Military Expertise andScientific and Technical Knowledge
Preface

In cultivating political officers, the PLA emphasizes not only ideological and political competence,
political work, and grounding in the humanities and social sciences, but also modern military competence, grounding in scientific and technical knowledge, and physical and psychological competence.
Having a modern military background requires an understanding of informatized warfare theory andjoint operations theory at the strategic, campaign, and tactical levels; ability to command operations
conducted in cooperation with military command officers; and ability to execute public opinion,

Introduction

psychological, and legal warfares. As regards grounding in scientific and technical knowledge, it iscritical for political officers to have information technology knowledge, especially adequate understanding of military information technology, and they have to comprehend advanced new technologies, such as computers, networks, communications, artificial intelligence (AI), automatic command
systems, positioning and navigation systems, radio frequency identification, and laser range scanner.101
In addition, in light of Xi Jinping’s calls for the integrated development of mechanization, informati-

Chapter 1

zation, and intelligentization, the PLA advocates the cultivation of personnel who can perform intelligentization political work.102 On the other hand, political officers’ intelligence abilities are allegedly
not at a sufficient level to carry out information duties, and PLA researchers call for an improvementin such abilities of the officers.103
Against this backdrop, the PLA places importance on selecting and cultivating highly educatedand talented personnel based on a strict set of criteria, especially cadres with a strong background in

Chapter 2

intelligence, and developing them into political officers. Field experience is emphasized in selecting
and cultivating political officers. Moreover, the PLA strives to strengthen personnel exchanges among
the services, among operational units, between operational units and military educational institutions,
between political organs and field units, and between wealthy coastal areas and impoverished inland
areas. Through such selection and training, the PLA aims to cultivate hybrid political officers “whoare well versed in both military and political affairs, are equipped with a combination of command andChapter 3

technical abilities, and have one specialty and multiple skills.” 104 In October 2014, Xi Jinping stated at
the Political Work Conference of the PLA, “It is the tradition of the PLA that political cadres can not
only conduct ideological work but also command wars,” and instructed political officers to acquire
military knowledge, command capabilities, and scientific knowledge.105
The PLA has taken the following initiatives to cultivate hybrid political officers. First, it emphasizes the participation of political officers in military training in order to improve their command

Conclusions

capabilities. The PLA Daily reported that the PLAA’s brigade political commissars participated in
platoon-level training,106 and that political officers at the brigade, regiment, battalion, and company
levels participated in PLAA brigade training to improve their command capabilities, with 41 of themachieving excellent results.107
Second, the PLA is strengthening education programs for increasing the military expertise81

Chapter 3

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through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

and scientific and technical knowledge ofpolitical officers. The PLA Daily reported
that cadres from the political department of
NUDT attended the All-PLA 11th Senior
Cadre Military Informatization Construction
and Training Group, which met at NUDT in
May 2015, and that they acquired expertiseand skills in informatized warfare.108 In addition, in order to retain their positions, PLAN
political officers are said to have to learn
about operational command, handling emergency situations, psychological warfare,

A military command officer and a political officer marchingside by side at China’s 70th anniversary military parade(October 2019) (Photo: Xinhua News Agency/Kyodo News
Images)and technical details and pass tests modeled
upon a captain’s examination.109
Third, ever since the Political Work Conference of the PLA in October 2014, the PLA has
focused on political officers who can command units based on past tradition. The PLA Daily reported
that a political commissar of the fleet in the Gulf of Aden led a training exercise,110 and that a political instructor commanded a PLARF training exercise in place of a military command officer.111
Furthermore, scholars have noted that PLAN political officers have been officially designated“mission commander [renwu zhihuiyuan, 任务指挥员]” along with the captain in PLAN surface units
at least since mid-2018, and that political commissars who had desk positions have been assigned to
PLAN combat units to gain direct combat experience.112(5) Emphasis on the “Three Warfares” and the Promotion of Informatizationin Wartime Political Work
The “Political Work Regulations” defines wartime political work as “strengthening the unified leadership of Party committees over operations and ensuring that units will carry out the strategic intentions
and operational policies of the CCP Central Committee and CMC and the resolutions, orders, andinstructions of the upper echelon.” 113 They are elaborated in Table 3.2.114
The PLA is promoting the informatization of wartime political work keeping in line with the
IJO concept. In October 2014, Xi Jinping instructed the Political Work Conference of the PLA to raise
the level of informatization, law abidance, and scientification of political work, study the characteristics and discipline of political work in the information network era, make appropriate use of network
platforms, highly integrate the traditional dominance of political work and information technology,
and strengthen the initiative and effectiveness of political work.115 The 2020 edition of Science ofStrategy edited by NDU added wartime political work as a new item and pointed out the need torevamp wartime political work through informatization.116 Members of the PLA have also suggested

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Table 3.2 List of Wartime Political Work
Wartime publicity(propaganda) and education
work

Conducts political mobilization and ideological education for the purpose of completing operational
missions, and carries out wartime publicity activities to raise the morale of participants.

Wartime organization
work

Organizes CCP and Chinese Communist Youth League groupings of the participating units, promotes
military democracy, turns those who have made outstanding achievements into examples andcommends them, selects heroes, and provides care for the wounded and sick soldiers.

Wartime cadre work

Makes personnel appointments, including selection of officers for war and the filling of vacant positions
during a war.

Execution of the “Three
Warfares”

Performs public opinion warfare, psychological warfare, and legal warfare (more information provided
in the main text).

Wartime mass work

Conducts mass mobilization at the local level including militias, conducts ideological and politicalwork and discipline maintenance for mobilized personnel, and addresses masses and minorities inother countries during wartime. Forms militia units that provide information support to engage in cyber
operations.

Wartime public security,procuratorial and judicial
work

Guards key headquarters staff, performs political reviews, conducts counterintelligence activities, andprevents and deals with military crimes.

Wartime liaison work

Conducts intelligence activities, such as intelligence collection on the enemy, clandestine dismantling(infiltration) work, and the management, education, and return of prisoners of war.

Introduction

Description

Preface

Wartime political work

Chapter 1

Source: Compiled based on 吴志忠 [Wu Zhizhong], ed., 战时政治工作教程 [Lectures on Wartime Political Work](Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), pp. 105-128.

that wartime political work training should be incorporated into PLA-wide training and TC joint operations political work training, in order to examine the nature of wartime political work in the new era.117
Chapter 2

Among wartime political work, the “Three Warfares” have been particularly emphasized inrecent years. The “Three Warfares” are an integral means by which political work directly exerts its
operational function, are an essential nexus for the operational system, and are a basic component of
Systems operational capability. The “Three Warfares” are considered to be a single holistic, interconnected concept.118
Public opinion warfare is hostilities in which both sides in a war use mass media, such as

Chapter 3

television, cable broadcasting, the Internet, and newspapers, as the primary channels to systematicallyand purposefully convey selected information to the enemy side, induce and control social opinion,and shape public opinion that is favorable to oneself and unfavorable to the enemy. Public opinion
warfare is intended mainly to: (1) explain the rationality and legality of friendly operational actions
and win the moral high ground; (2) display the military power of the friendly side to startle the enemy;and (3) counterattack the enemy’s propaganda campaign and seize the initiative of public opinion.119

Conclusions

Public opinion warfare focuses on combining peacetime and wartime operations, and emphasizes
the military-civil integration of resources [junmin jiehe, 军民结合] and the unification of militaryand local resources [jundi yiti, 军地一体].120 Moreover, advances in network technology have createdmany methods and means for public opinion warfare. The PLA emphasizes using these methods andmeans to take the initiative in launching offensives. Public opinion warfare envisions three scenarios:

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The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations(1) attacking the enemy’s central figures; (2) attacking specific situations; and (3) propagating theenemy’s military predicament.121
Psychological warfare is hostilities in which both sides in a war use an array of methods toinfluence and stimulate the enemy’s mind and psychology, to effectively undermine the enemy’s
operational functions, and to cement the psychological defense line of allies. This warfare is waged
to achieve a large victory for a small price. It is mainly designed to: (1) fully demonstrate the political superiority of one’s own side to launch psychological propaganda; (2) utilize the psychologicalcharacteristics and weaknesses of the enemy to trigger division and downfall; and (3) emphasize
the strengthening of the psychological defense line of one’s own side.122 Psychological warfare ispositioned as the central element of the “Three Warfares,” and it is considered essential to lay thegroundwork for this warfare from peacetime.123 Scholars note that the intelligentization of the military
has increased the importance of public opinion warfare and psychological warfare, and accordingly,
the means of psychological offense must be revamped.124
Legal warfare is hostilities in which both sides in a war apply relevant domestic and international laws, especially the laws and regulations of war. Such laws are used as weapons to secure alegal basis and propagate the legality of the use of force and the operational actions of friendly forcesin order to suppress, expose, and eliminate the enemy’s illegal use of force and unlawful operational
actions. Legal warfare also uses the law to enhance and enlarge the results of victory and achieve thepolitical objectives of the war. Legal warfare is mainly intended to: (1) startle and restrain the enemy
based on law; (2) proactively launch legal offensives against the enemy’s unlawful actions; (3) basedon law, refute and counterattack the enemy’s legal condemnation of friendly military actions; (4) use
legal means to constrain the enemy’s military actions; (5) use wanted persons and war crimes tribunals
to hold third countries legally accountable for violations of their obligations under international law;and (6) provide a legal basis and legal protection for friendly operational decisions and actions.125
Legal warfare plays an important role in peacetime, wartime, and after the war.126
Political officers carry out the wartime political work. Political commissars carry out all of thework listed above. Political directors and political instructors, on the other hand, do not perform everything. For example, political commissars conduct all Three Warfares. However, political directors engage
in ideological and political education, psychological service work, and the strengthening of psychological defense work. Political instructors engage in ideological and political education and psychologicalservice work and help solve the ideological and psychological issues of individual troops.127
The PLA will establish a wartime political organ in a contingency. In accordance with the decisions, orders, and instructions of the senior Party committees and political organs as well as those of
the Party committees and commanding officers (military command officers and political commissars)of the affiliated units, a wartime political organ will be tasked with planning wartime political work
based on the actual situation of the units, translating the plan into action, guiding the political work of
the affiliated units, and completing the tasks within the scope of the units’ authority, pursuant to the84basic missions and main contents of wartime political work.128
Wartime political organs can be divided into the campaign level, the operational group level,
Prefaceand the operational unit level. The wartime political organ or political work center within the campaign(TC) JOCO consists of a human affairs center, a publicity (propaganda) and mobilization center, a military legal affairs center, a political warfare center, and the joint campaign formation Party committee(wartime TC Party committee) general office. These organs, in cooperation with other departmentsof the TC JOCO, work under the unified leadership of the TC Party committee and achieve unified
command (see Chapter 2, Section 3 regarding the composition of the TC JOCO). The political organ

Introductionof the operational group is formed based on the standing political organs of the services and consistsof several offices, including a service campaign formation (group army level) Party committee general
office, an organization and human affairs office, a publicity (propaganda) and mobilization office,a military law protection office, and a political work and warfare office. Under the guidance of theaffiliated service campaign formation Party committee and its political commissars, the political organof the operational group guides the wartime political work of their units. The political organ of the

Chapter 1

operational unit consists of the political work teams of the main command post, forward command
post, alternate command post, and rear command post. The political work team of the main command
post is composed of three to five political officers who are commanded by the head of the political
department of their unit.129
The PLA uses a command information system software called the “Integrated Command
Platform Wartime Political Work Component” for the wartime political work of joint operations.

Chapter 2

This software, which is shared by the entire PLA, is comprised of 13 specialized components: political work command; organizational work; cadre work; publicity (propaganda) work; public opinion
warfare; psychological warfare; legal warfare; security work; discipline inspection work; mass work;
battlefield situation display; document graphic processing; and wartime political work database.130
A researcher from the PLAA notes that the software should be used to conduct simulation training on
political work information processing and command.131 PLA scholars also point out that such political

Chapter 3

work command information systems need to be integrated with intelligence reconnaissance systems,
C2 systems of military command officers, information offense and defense systems,132 and integrated
support systems, alongside conducting real-time information sharing between political officers andofficers in the operational divisions, in order to keep pace with wartime political work and military
actions.133
All 13 specialized components are operated by the political work center and above at the group

Conclusions

army level and above, while the specialized components of public opinion warfare, legal warfare,and discipline inspection are not operated in division- and brigade-level units.134 Among the “Three
Warfares,” public opinion warfare and legal warfare are thus conducted by wartime political organs at
the group army level and above.
Psychological warfare is conducted at a range of levels, from the TC level to the unit level.

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through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

In psychological warfare, political officers, led by the political commissar and head of the political
department, work closely together with the operations division, led by the military command officer
and chief of staff. Both parties must agree on the formulation of operational plans and the implementation of operational actions.135 Psychological warfare units have the 311 Base at the strategic leveland psychological warfare regiments at the campaign level.136 These units are noted to have beenplaced under the command of PLASSF as a result of the PLA reforms (see Chapter 2, Section 1).
Public opinion warfare is conducted by wartime political organs at the group army level and above.
Moreover, operational units below the division and brigade level also emphasize strengthening thecapabilities of officers and troops to identify public opinion information.137 Legal warfare is conductedby political organs at the group army level and above, and there are no particular scenarios involving
operational units.138(6) Outcomes from Strengthening Party-Army Relations
As shown above, the PLA has instituted a variety of measures to win wars through the realization of
the IJO concept while maintaining the “Party’s Army” absolute principle. Due to material constraints,
the outcomes of these measures are difficult to observe.
Against this backdrop, the results that are relatively easy to ascertain are the promulgation of
the “CCP Regulations on Party Building in the Military” in September 2020139 and the promulgationof the new “Political Work Regulations” in February 2021,140 the details of which have not been
disclosed. The former is a fundamental and major internal Party regulation that fully normalizes Partybuilding in the military and is considered an important outcome of the reform of the military policy
system. The PLA Daily mentioned one of the principles of the regulations as “to firmly concentrateon the primary responsibility and task of preparing for war and waging war,” and advocated joint
operational command led by the TC Party committee.141
The latter regulations, which was revised for the first time in ten years, was likewise considered an integral outcome of the military policy system reform. A senior official of the CMC Political
Work Department noted that the revisions were made because of serious changes in the situation andthe mission of the political work of the PLA. The official also explained the new “Political Work
Regulations” as follows: (1) it added chapters on “Guidance on the Political Work of the Central
Military Commission” and “Guidance on the Political Work of Party Committees at All Levels”; (2)it adjusted the content of army building by the political organs and political officers, normalized themain responsibilities and the required qualities of political officers, and strengthened the command
capability and military grounding of political officers, requiring political officers to carry out both
political work and military work; (3) it clarified the nature of political work by removing content thatwas not included yet, and supplemented and normalized political work at the unit of TCs, services
within TCs, PLASSF, and PLA Joint Logistics Support Force; and (4) it maintains the Party committee
system, the political commissar system, and the system of political leading organ.142

86Preface

4. Challenges Surrounding Joint Operations
Training, Talent Cultivation, and Party-Army
RelationsThrough its reforms, the PLA has thus strengthened joint operations training and the structure forcultivating personnel for joint operations and has made achievements in these areas. Furthermore,with regard to the execution of modern warfare, i.e., the IJO concept, and the issue of maintaining

Introduction

and strengthening Party-Army relations, the PLA has produced outcomes in the form of enacting the“CCP Regulations on Party Building in the Military” and revising the “Political Work Regulations.”
However, the PLA still faces the following challenges.

(1) Challenges of Joint Operations Training
In November 2020, the PLA Daily published an article summarizing the Xi-led military training,
Chapter 1

ahead of the CMC military training conference. The article described many achievements but also
pointed out the need to revamp the content and methods of military training. As an example of aconcrete issue, it mentioned shifting the emphasis from combined-arms training to joint operations
training and improving “Joint Operations Capability Based on Network Information Systems” and“All-Domain Operations Capability.”143
The PLA Daily published articles before and after the CMC military training conference that

Chapter 2

noted the challenges of joint operations training. Specifically, the articles stated that: (1) the level of
PLA training has not reached the goal of building world-class forces, and the PLA should strengthen
the linkage between the TC-centered joint operations training and troop training by the services;144(2) the PLA should reform the training methods adopted at training bases, and enhance the Systems
training, war gaming, and joint exercises with foreign countries to improve the training methods ofjoint operations training;145 and (3) the PLA should improve the scientific and technical level of mili-

Chapter 3tary training, adjust new-type operational domains and traditional operational domains, strengthen
multi-dimensional and three-dimensional joint operations training, and improve “All-Domain
Operations Capability.” 146
As can be observed, the PLA still faces challenges in joint operations training, and the PLA
Daily has raised the need to strengthen the development of the “joint operations training System with
Chinese characteristics.” 147 The frequent enactment of regulations and laws on military training may

Conclusions

suggest that these challenges are not easy to overcome.

(2) Challenges of Talent Cultivation
Cultivating talent also has some challenges. First, it is difficult to promote officers excessively. Doingso may create a new surplus of senior personnel at the PLA, which has already downsized by 300,000,

87Chapter 3

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The Transformationof Joint Operations Training and Talent Cultivation Programs
through the PLA Reforms, and the Quest for Strengthening Party-Army Relations

and present a setback for maintaining a balance of senior and junior officers.148
Second, it is difficult to secure scientifically and technically competent talent. In October 2020,
an official from the CMC Training Management Department stated that the 2021 recruitment work
for military graduate students was revamped in order to cultivate personnel of a new quality who areurgently needed. The official announced that the PLA has established more programs for cultivating
talent in new security domains, such as space and cyber electromagnetic domains, and the joint operations support domain.149 However, the PLA competes with the private sector for personnel skilled inscience and technology, and according to scholars, the PLA is disadvantaged because it cannot matchthe salaries.150
The third challenge is improving the level of faculty at military educational institutions. At
NDU, education and training is provided not only for students but also for faculty engaged in joint
operations education. These measures suggest even faculty of NDU, the highest academic institutionof the PLA, still face a number of challenges in conducting joint operations education.151(3) Challenges of the Political Commissar System and Wartime PoliticalWork
The political commissary system also has several challenges. For example, if the military command
officer or political commissar were wounded or killed, it is unclear how the roles will be divided
between the political commissar and the deputy military command officer, or between the deputy
military command officer and the deputy political commissar.152 At this stage, it is unknown whether
strengthening the political commissar’s command capability will solve these problems or bring
confusion to the units, as the political commissar commands them with smattering of expertise andexperience.
Another challenge of wartime political work is ambiguity over whether the main implementerof psychological warfare is the wartime political organ or the PLASSF. Following the PLA reforms,
PLA monographs have tended to avoid the term, “Three Warfares.” For example, the 2017 edition of
NDU’s Science of Strategy changed the wording from “public opinion warfare, psychological warfare,and legal warfare” used in the 2015 edition of Science of Strategy to “public opinion and legal fight,
and psychological offense and defense.” 153 Since the two are almost equivalent in description and definition, this change in notation may suggest that the main body for conducting psychological warfare
among the “Three Warfares” was transferred from the Political Work Department to the PLASSF.
In addition, PLA researchers pointed out that the lack of laws and regulations, which political
officers can rely on for the execution of wartime political work, caused uncertainty over how political
officers, especially those of the terminal units, should perform wartime political work. This has raised
calls within the PLA for the enactment of “Wartime Political Work Regulations,” “Guidelines on Joint
Operations Political Work,” and laws and regulations on wartime political work for conducting joint
operations training.154

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NIDS China Security Report 2022
The PLA’s Pursuit of Enhanced Joint Operations Capabilities

Conclusions

Conclusions

Conclusions
The Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) began to research joint operations in earnest in the wakeof the Gulf War and advocated the concept of integrated joint operations [Yitihua Lianhe Zuozhan,一体化联合作战] (IJO) from the mid-2000s. To win informatized warfare, the IJO concept envisaged

conducting joint operations in operational spaces encompassing not only the traditional security
domains of land, sea, and air but also the new security domains of space, cyber electromagnetic, deepsea, and the cognitive domain. Aiming to realize the IJO concept, Xi Jinping launched organizationaland structural reforms in November 2013, which were the biggest since the founding of the People’s
Republic of China, and sought to strengthen the PLA’s joint operations structure.
Under a new joint operations structure, the PLA stepped up its joint operations training alongside strengthening personnel cultivation programs that are indispensable for the execution of joint
operations. In addition, keeping steadfast to the principle of “the Party’s absolute leadership over the
PLA,” the PLA explored new ways to operationalize the traditional systems of Party committees,
political commissars, and political leading organs to be compatible with the IJO concept. In this way,
the PLA aspired to enhance joint operations capabilities on multiple fronts, including the concept,
structure, education and training, and Party-Army relations. The outcomes of these PLA reforms,
which were planned and implemented for completion in 2020, are summarized below.
First, to further develop the IJO concept, the joint operations concept proposed “Joint Operations
Capability Based on Network Information Systems” and “All-Domain Operations Capability.” Basedon these concepts, the PLA is shifting the focus of joint operations to making new security domains
the main battlefields and making new types of security forces the main forces. Furthermore, the PLA
contends that intelligentized warfare will become the future warfare and has begun to consider joint
operations concepts that can accommodate it.
Second, the joint operations structure created a command system whose core components are:the Central Military Commission (CMC) multi-department system; the five-theater command (TC)structure; and the PLA’s four services (Army, Navy, Air Force, and Rocket Force) and two sub-service forces (Strategic Support Force and Joint Logistics Support Force). Standing joint operationscommand organizations (JOCOs) were established in the CMC and the TCs. The PLA Navy Marine
Corps was upgraded, including the establishment of a new headquarters. Furthermore, the China Coast
Guard became part of the People’s Armed Police, suggesting that it was integrated into the PLA’s joint
operations structure. The PLA’s upper echelons have been increasingly filled with personnel who are
inclined toward joint operations. In addition, the PLA established a command and control (C2) system
for joint operations consisting of the three levels of strategic, campaign, and tactical. At the campaign
level, the C2 systems for joint operations of the TCs are linked with the C2 systems of the services.
Additionally, the C2 systems of the government and civilian sectors are being integrated into the90strategic and campaign-level C2 systems for joint operations.
Third, the PLA made significant strides in training and cultivating personnel for joint operaPreface

tions. In the realm of training, the PLA strengthened real-time information sharing and the linkage ofC2 systems, revised and enacted training laws and regulations, such as the “Trial Guidelines on PLA
Joint Operations,” and aimed to improve the quality of training by strengthening the training supervision system. In the realm of personnel cultivation, the PLA established the “triad” System for training
new types of personnel comprised of three components: military institutional education; unit training
practice; and military professional education. In addition, the PLA put forward the “Military Education

Introduction

Policy in the New Era,” revised and enacted internal regulations, such as the “Trial Regulations on
the Education in Military Academies” and the “Trial Regulations on Military Professional Education
for Armed Forces,” developed curricula for joint operations, and assigned many joint operations
personnel to operational units.
Fourth, the PLA began to reorganize traditional systems in order to reconcile the IJO concept andthe maintenance and strengthening of Party-Army relations. Specifically, it sought to: (1) ensure theChapter 1“system of division of the leader’s responsibilities under the unified collective leadership of the Party
committee”; (2) give weight to military expertise and scientific and technical knowledge in selecting
and cultivating political officers; and (3) emphasize the “Three Warfares” and promote informatizationin wartime political work. While it is difficult to determine the result of these efforts, the promulgationof the “Chinese Communist Party Regulations on Party Building in the Military” and the revision of the“Political Work Regulations” are regarded as moves to institutionalize outcomes of some kind.

Chapter 2

As shown above, the PLA made many achievements through its reforms, which were mainly
aimed at strengthening joint operations capabilities. It can therefore be assessed that the PLA succeeded
in deepening its joint operations through the reforms. The PLA’s reforms and efforts to strengthen joint
operations capabilities were marked by the following features. (1) The IJO concept, being a broadconcept, was able to adapt flexibly to the developments in U.S. military theories and science and technology. (2) The PLA pursued uniqueness in deepening an IJO concept that prioritized both tradition

Chapter 3(e.g., the “Three Warfares,” emphasis on military-civil fusion, and maintenance and strengthening ofParty-Army relations) and innovations (e.g., emphasis on long-range precision attack capability, shift
to new security domains, and intelligentized warfare). (3) Under the initiative of the strong leader,
Xi Jinping, a comprehensive set of reforms was undertaken covering the PLA’s structure, training,
personnel cultivation, and Party-Army relations.
Meanwhile, challenges remain in the PLA’s joint operations capability. The joint operations

Conclusions

concept is presented with: (1) deficiencies in defense science and technology as well as personnel
capable of realizing the concept; (2) difficulties reconciling the IJO concept, which is headed toward
intelligentized warfare, and the maintenance and strengthening of Party-Army relations; and (3)possible resistance to further reforms triggered by new concepts. These challenges were of a naturethat should have been overcome by PLA reforms to some extent, with the exception of defense science91Conclusions

and technology. However, this report has examined the post-PLA reform joint operations structure,joint operations training, cultivation of personnel for joint operations, coexistence of the promotion of
the IJO concept and the maintenance and strengthening of Party-Army relations, and it can be deduced
that the challenges have not been overcome.
First, the post-PLA reform joint operations structure faces challenges relating to: the transfer
of command authority over wartime actions from the CMC to the TCs; coordination of the divisionof roles between the TC headquarters and the service headquarters in peacetime and wartime; andinsufficient awareness of joint operations and service parochialism. Second, joint operations trainingis also challenged by its formalism and by issues of coordination between joint operations training led
by the TCs and training of the services and branches. Third, cultivating personnel entails difficulties
with giving quick promotions to officers, and with recruiting, cultivating, and retaining personnel
skilled in science and technology, while the PLA has to raise the level of faculty at military educational
institutions. Fourth, maintaining and strengthening Party-Army relations is also faced with issues suchas the command authority and capability of political commissars when military command officers areabsent; lack of clarity on whether the main body waging psychological warfare is the wartime politicalorgan or the Strategic Support Force; and inadequate laws and regulations for wartime political work.
The outbreak of the coronavirus disease in 2020 plunged the United States and other Westernindustrialized countries into negative economic growth, whereas China was the only major power toachieve positive economic growth. Underpinned by such growth, China’s defense spending in both2020 and 2021 increased at almost the same rate as in previous years.1 The PLA will likely use these
ample funds to overcome its challenges. However, the three challenges—recruiting, cultivating, andretaining superior talent; creating an organizational culture that prioritizes joint operations over theservices; and maintaining and strengthening Party-Army relations in modern warfare—are difficult
to evaluate by quantification and visualization and are not problems that can be solved solely byincreasing the budget or improving defense science and technology. Overcoming these challenges istherefore expected to take more time.
As of this writing, the PLA has set 2027 as “the year by which to ensure the achievement of
the military’s centenary goal.” 2 It aims to basically complete the modernization of national defense
and the military by 2035 and transform itself into world-class forces by the middle of this century.3
Considering these timelines for modernization, it appears that the PLA establishes 2027 as a shortterm target and aspires to basically overcome the challenges by 2035 and acquire capabilities thatmatch or surpass the U.S. forces’ by 2050.
Therefore, when formulating security policy, it will become even more important that Japan
objectively estimates the PLA’s joint operations capabilities as accurately as possible, based on avariety of information sources. In doing so, it will be imperative to continuously assess the PLA’s
capabilities by closely monitoring not only the growth rate of Chinese defense spending, China’s
introduction of new equipment, and its statements and actions directed at other countries, but also the92PLA’s actual situation from multiple perspectives, including its joint operations concept, organizational and structural reforms and the accompanying changes in organizational culture, development ofeducation and training, qualitative improvements in personnel, and Party-Army relations.

93NotesIntroduction1谭亚东 [Tan Yadong], ed., 联合作战教程 [Lectures on Joint Operations] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of

Military Science Press], 2013), p. 9; Dean Cheng, Cyber Dragon: Inside China’s Information Warfare and Cyber
Operations (Santa Barbara: Prager Security International, 2016), pp. 22-26.
2Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, p. 11; Joel Wuthnow, “A Brave New World for Chinese Joint Operations,”
Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1-2, 2017, p. 176.

3

习近平

[Xi Jinping], “埋头苦干锐意创新努力开创国防和军队建设新局面（2012年11月23日）[We Will Work

Wholeheartedly and Engage Diligently in Innovation to Break New Ground in National Defense and Military
Building (November 23, 2012)],” in 中国人民解放军总政治部 [General Political Department, Chinese People’s
Liberation Army (PLA)], ed., 习近平关于国防和军队建设重要论述选编 [Xi Jinping’s Selected Important Documentson the National Defense and Military Building] (Beijing: 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing
House], 2014), p. 22.
4

习近平 [Xi Jinping], “建设强大的信息化战略导弹部队（2012年12月5日） [We Will Build a Powerful Informatized

Strategic Missile Unit (December 5, 2012)],” in PLA, ed., Xi Jinping’s Selected Important Documents, p. 25.
5习近平 [Xi Jinping], “在中央军委扩大会议上的讲话（2012年11月16日） [Remarks at the CMC Expanded Meeting(November 16, 2012)],” in PLA, ed., Xi Jinping’s Selected Important Documents, p. 15; 习近平 [Xi Jinping], “增强忧患意识、危机意识、使命意识（2012年12月26日） [Increasing Patriotic Worrying, Crisis Consciousness, and Mission

Consciousness (December 26, 2012)],” in PLA, ed., Xi Jinping’s Selected Important Documents, pp. 47-50.
6Xi, “Increasing Patriotic Worrying, Crisis Consciousness, and Mission Consciousness,” pp. 50-51; 习近平 [XiJinping], “坚定不移深化国防和军队改革（2013年12月27日） [We Will Firmly and Unwaveringly Promote Further
Reform of National Defense and the Military (December 27, 2013)],” in PLA, ed., Xi Jinping’s Selected Important
Documents, p. 220.

7

Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, Chinese Military Reforms in the Age of Xi Jinping: Drivers, Challenges,
and Implications (Washington D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2017), pp. 32-35.

8

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 13, 2013.

9Xi, “We Will Firmly and Unwaveringly Promote Further Reform of National Defense and the Military,” p. 223.

10

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 16, 2014.

11

文汇报 [Wen Wei Po], November 27, 2015.

12James Mulvenon, “China’s ‘Goldwater-Nichols’? The Long-Awaited PLA Reorganization Has Finally Arrived,”
China Leadership Monitor, No. 49, 2016; Phillip C. Saunders and Joel Wuthnow, “China’s Goldwater-Nichols?
Assessing PLA Organizational Reforms,” Strategic Forum, No. 294, 2016. For the impact of the GoldwaterNichols Act on the U.S. forces, see: Kikuchi Shigeo, “Beikoku ni okeru Togo no Kyoka: 1986 nen Gorudo Wota
Nikoruzu Kokubosho Kaihenho to Genzai no Minaoshi Giron [Strengthening Joint Operations in the UnitedStates: The Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 and the Current Debate on
Revisions],” National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS) Briefing Memo, July 2005; Kikuchi Shigeo, “Dai Niji
Sekai Taisengo no Beikoku ni okeru Togo Kyoka wo meguru Giron to Seigun Kankei: ‘Supa Chokan,’ Sanbo
Socho, Puroshiagata Sanbohonbu [‘Super Secretary,’ ‘Single Chief of Staff’ and ‘Prussian General Staff’: PostWW-II Debate on Service Unification/Jointness in the United States and Its Implication on the Civil-Military
Relations],” Kokusai Anzenhosho [Journal of International Security], Vol. 34, No. 4, 2007, pp. 47-71.

13

习近平 [Xi Jinping], “在中央军委改革工作会议上的讲话（2015年11月24日） [Remarks at the CMC Reform Work

Meeting (November 24, 2015)],” in 中央军事委员会政治工作部 [Political Work Department, Central MilitaryCommission], ed., 习近平论强军兴军 [Xi Jinping Argues for the Strong Military and the Military Development](Beijing: 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2017), pp. 375-376.

94

Chapter 1
1

National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS), ed., China Security Report 2021: China’s Military Strategy in the
New Era (Tokyo: NIDS, 2020), pp. 9-10.

2谭亚东 [Tan Yadong], ed., 联合作战教程 [Lectures on Joint Operations] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of

Military Science Press], 2012), p. 9; Dean Cheng, Cyber Dragon: Inside China’s Information Warfare and Cyber
Operations (Santa Barbara: Prager Security International, 2016), p. 24.
3Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, p. 10; Cheng, Cyber Dragon, pp. 30-33.

4

Cheng, Cyber Dragon, pp. 30-34, 156-158.

5

张震 [Zhang Zhen], 张震军事文选（下卷） [Selected Military Works of Zhang Zhen (Vol. II)] (Beijing: 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2005), pp. 545-548; M. Taylor Fravel, Active Defense: China’s

Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019), pp. 191, 209-210.
6

张晓杰、梁沂 [Zhang Xiaojie and Liang Yi], eds., 基于信息系统体系作战能力研究丛书:作战篇 [The Research ofOperational Capabilities Base on Information Systems: Operations Section] (Beijing: 军事谊文出版社 [Military
Affairs Yiwen Press], 2010), pp. 11-12; Jeffrey Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System Destruction
Warfare: How the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Seeks to Wage Modern Warfare (Santa Monica: RAND
Corporation, 2018), pp. 2-5.
7Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, p. 10; Cheng, Cyber Dragon, p. 29.

8Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, p. 11; Fravel, Active Defense, p. 209.

9马平 [Ma Ping], ed., 联合作战研究 [Joint Operations Research] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2013), p. 63.

10

However, when “local wars under the conditions of informationization” was proposed, the CMC chairman was
Jiang Zemin, not Hu Jintao. Fravel, Active Defense, p. 218.

11

NIDS, China Security Report 2021, p. 10.

12

全军军事术语管理委员会、军事科学院 [All-Military Military Terminology Management Committee, Academy of

Military Science (AMS)], ed., 中国人民解放军军语（全本） [PLA Military Terminology (Unabridged)] (Beijing: 军
事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2011), p. 48.

13

Kevin McCauley, PLA System of Systems Operations: Enabling Joint Operations (Washington D.C.: Jamestown
Foundation, 2017), p. 5.

14Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, p. 11; Joel Wuthnow, “A Brave New World for Chinese Joint Operations,”
Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1-2, 2017, p. 176.

15

AMS, PLA Military Terminology, p. 68.

16Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 14, 68-84.

17Ma, Joint Operations Research, p. 20.

18

AMS, PLA Military Terminology, p. 68.

19

McCauley, PLA System of Systems Operations, pp. 10-13.

20

AMS, PLA Military Terminology, p. 79.

21

任连生 [Ren Liansheng], ed., 基于信息系统的体系作战能力教程 [Lectures on the Information System’s System of

Systems Operational Capability] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), pp. 32-52.
22

董连山 [Dong Lianshan], ed., 基于信息系统的体系作战研究 [Research on Information System-Based System of

Systems Operations] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2012), pp. 128-153.
23

McCauley, PLA System of Systems Operations, p. 10.

24Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, p. 12.

25

Ma, Joint Operations Research, pp. 21-28, 113-114, 163-167. Scholars at the PLA AMS who analyzed joint operations at the tactical level also assessed that the PLA’s joint operations at the tactical level are in the elementarystage. 檀松、穆永朋 [Tan Song and Mu Yongpeng], eds., 联合战术学 [Science of Joint Tactics] (Beijing: 军事科学出版

95Notes社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2014), pp. 46-48.

26

Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 23-24.

27

NIDS, China Security Report 2021, p. 65.

28

Saito Ryo, “Chugoku no Sansen (Yoronsen, Shinrisen, Horitsusen) to Taiwan no Hansansen [Three Types ofChinese Warfare (Media [Public Opinion], Psychological and Legal), and Taiwan’s Countermeasures],” Rikusen
Kenkyu [Journal of Ground Warfare], Vol. 58, 2010, pp. 23-54; Cheng, Cyber Dragon, pp. 41-53.

29

Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 14-15, 156-160; Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of
Systems Operational Capability, pp. 136-147.

30

McCauley, PLA System of Systems Operations, pp. 10-11; Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System
Destruction Warfare, pp. 10-19; Cheng, Cyber Dragon, p. 86.

31Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 20-43.

32

AMS, PLA Military Terminology, p. 72; Cheng, Cyber Dragon, pp. 25-26; Mark R. Cozad, “Toward a More
Joint, Combat Ready PLA?” in Phillip C. Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese
Military Reforms (Washington D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2019), pp. 208-210.

33

Wuthnow, “A Brave New World,” p. 177; Cozad, “Toward a More Joint, Combat Ready PLA?” pp. 211-214.

34

Roger Cliff, China’s Military Power: Assessing Current and Future Capabilities (Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 54.

35

大公报 [Ta Kung Pao], October 30, 2012.

36

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 16, 2011.

37

中国国防报 [China National Defense Daily], November 29, 2011.

38

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 22, 2011 and August 7, 2012; 人民日报 [People’s Daily], December 22, 2011.

39

Wuthnow, “A Brave New World,” pp. 177-179.

40

刘伟 [Liu Wei], 联合作战指挥 [Joint Operations Command] (Shenyang: 白山出版社[Baishan Publishing House],

2010), pp. 47-50.
41David Shambaugh, Modernizing China’s Military: Progress, Problems, and Prospects (Berkeley, Los Angeles,and London: University of California Press, 2002), p. 154.

42

史伟光 [Shi Weiguang], 作战指挥体制改革问题研究（修订版） [Study on the Reform of the Operational Command

Structure (Revised)] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2014), pp. 23-24.
43

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 30, 2015 and February 3, 2016.

44

James Mulvenon, “The Yuan Stops Here: Xi Jinping and the ‘CMC Chairman Responsibility System,’” China
Leadership Monitor, No. 47, 2015.

45

Zhang and Liang, The Research of Operational Capabilities Base on Information Systems, pp. 25-37.

46

Dong, Research on Information System-Based System of Systems Operations, pp. 34-79.

47

Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System Destruction Warfare, pp. 5-7.

48

Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability, p. 53.

49

Ibid., p. 58.

50

Ibid., p. 61.

51

Scholars at PLA NDU referred to this capability as “precision strike capability.” Dong, Research on Information
System-Based System of Systems Operations, pp. 50-54.

9652

Scholars at Nanjing Army Command College and PLA NDU did not use this concept.

53

Ren, Lectures on the Information System’s System of Systems Operational Capability, pp. 53-54, 79.

54Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 44-67.

55

Ibid., pp. 112, 126, 138-160.

56

张培高 [Zhang Peigao], ed., 联合战役指挥教程 [Lectures on Joint Theater Command] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社

[Academy of Military Science Press], 2012), pp. 189-228.
57

Ma, Joint Operations Research, pp. 208-241.

58

Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 143-147.

59

Fravel, Active Defense, pp. 230-234.

60

NIDS, China Security Report 2021, p. 12.

61

人民日报 [People’s Daily], August 31, 2014.

62

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 27, 2015.

63

Fravel, Active Defense, pp. 233-234.

64

解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 19, 2017.

65

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 29, 2017.

66

肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学 [Science of Strategy] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2015), pp. 243-245;
肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学（2017年修订） [Science of Strategy (2017 rev.)] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU

Press], 2017), pp. 260-262.
67

张志刚 [Zhang Zhigang], 基于网络情报体系的联合作战 [Joint Operations Based on the Network Information Systems](Beijing: 兵器工业出版社 [Ordnance Industry Press], 2019), pp. 7-13.
68

Ibid., pp. 59-71, 127.

69

军事科学院军事战略研究部 [Department of War Theory and Strategic Research, AMS], ed., 战略学（2013年版）

70

Derek Solen, Chinese Views of All-Domain Operations, China Aerospace Studies Institute, 2020.

71

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 25, 2018.

72

Asano Ryo, “Chugoku no Chinoka Senso [China’s Intelligentized Warfare],” Boeigaku Kenkyu [Defense Studies],[Science of Strategy (2013 Edition)] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2013), p. 205.

No. 62, 2020, pp. 24-26; Yatsuzuka Masaaki, “Jinmin Kaihogun no Chinoka Senso: Chugoku no Gunji Senryaku
wo meguru Giron [PLA’s Intelligentized Warfare: Discussion on China’s New Military Strategy],” Anzenhosho
Senryaku Kenkyu [Security & Strategy], Vol. 1, No. 2, 2020, p. 24.
73

Xiao, Science of Strategy (2017 rev.), pp. 173-179.

74

Yatsuzuka, “PLA’s Intelligentized Warfare,” p. 20.

75

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 25, 2019; State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, China’s

National Defense in the New Era (Beijing: 外文出版社 [Foreign Languages Press], 2019).
76

庞宏亮 [Pang Hongliang], 21世纪战争演变与构想 智能化战争 [Evolution and Conceptualization of 21st Century

Warfare: Intelligentized Warfare] (Shanghai: 上海社会科学院出版社 [Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press],2018), p. 84.
77

Yatsuzuka, “PLA’s Intelligentized Warfare,” pp. 24-25.

78

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 5, 2021.

79

Iida Masafumi, “Jinmin Kaihogun kara mita Jinkochino no Gunji ni taisuru Inpakuto [PLA’s Perception about the
Impact of AI on Military Affairs],” Anzenhosho Senryaku Kenkyu [Security & Strategy], Vol. 1, No. 2, 2020, pp.
5-13; Yatsuzuka, “PLA’s Intelligentized Warfare,” pp. 26-27.

80
81

解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 28, 2020.
肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学（2020年修订） [Science of Strategy (2020 rev.)] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU

Press], 2020), pp. 264-267.
82

Xiao, Science of Strategy, pp. 240-243; Xiao, Science of Strategy (2017 rev.), pp. 257-260.

83

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 12, 2020.

84

解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 16, 2020.

85

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 8 and December 31, 2020.

86

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 6, 2020.

97Notes87

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 6, February 13, and May 12, 2020.

88

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 15, 2020.

89

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 26, 2020.

90

解放军报 [PLA Daily], August 12, 2020.

91

光明日报 [Guangming Daily], November 8, 2020.

92

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 1, 2020.

93

Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A Modern Major General: Building Joint Commanders in the PLA,” inSaunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA, pp. 304-306.

94

解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 17 and December 22, 2020.

95

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 24, 2020.

96

Yatsuzuka, “PLA’s Intelligentized Warfare,” p. 32; Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A New Step Forward
in PLA Professionalization,” China Brief, Vol. 21, No. 5, 2021, p. 18.

97

Takeda Junichi, Jinmin Kaihogun: To to Kokka Senryaku wo Sasaeru 230 Mannin no Jitsuryoku [PLA: 2.3 Million
People’s Ability to Support the Party and National Strategy] (Tokyo: Business-sha, 2008), pp. 60-61; Michael S.
Chase et al., China’s Incomplete Military Transformation: Assessing the Weaknesses of the People’s Liberation
Army (PLA) (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2015), pp. 55-56.

98

Phillip C. Saunders and Joel Wuthnow, “China’s Goldwater-Nichols? Assessing PLA Organizational Reforms,”
Strategic Forum, No. 294, 2016, pp. 5-9; Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A More Cohesive Force:
Enabling Joint Operations in the PLA,” in Roy Kamphausen, David Lai, and Tiffany Ma, eds., Securing the China
Dream: The PLA’s Role in a Time of Reform and Change (Seattle and Washington D.C.: The National Bureau of
Asian Research, 2020), pp. 49-50.

99

Yatsuzuka, “PLA’s Intelligentized Warfare,” pp. 31-32.

Chapter 2
1

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 13, 2013.

2

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 16, 2014.

3

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 4, 2015.

4

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 27, 2015.

5

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 2, 2016.

6解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 12, 2016.

7

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 2, 2016.

8

胡光正、许今朝 [Hu Guangzheng and Xu Jinzhao], “伟大改革的精髓: 论军委管总、战区主战、军种主建 [The Essence ofGreat Reform: The CMC performs general management, the theaters are mainly in charge of operations, and theservices are mainly in charge of force building],” 国防 [National Defense], March 2016, pp. 4-10.
9

Ibid.

10

Ibid., p. 9.

11

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 2 and April 21, 2016; James Mulvenon, “Xi Jinping Has a Cool New Nickname:‘Commander-in-Chief,’” China Leadership Monitor, No. 51, 2016.
12

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 28, 2017.

13习近平 [Xi Jinping], “深入贯彻党在新形势下的强军目标努力建设全面过硬战略预备力量 [We Will Thoroughly Work

to Achieve the Party’s Goal of Strengthening the Military under the New Circumstances, and Strive to Build
a Strategic Reserve Force that Can Stand the Test of Time on All Fronts],” in 中国人民解放军总政治部 [General
Political Department, Chinese People’s Liberation Army], ed., 习近平关于国防和军队建设重要论述选编 [Xi Jinping’s

98

Selected Important Documents on the National Defense and Military Building] (Beijing: 解放军出版社 [People’s
Liberation Army Publishing House], February 2014), p. 207.
14

Joel Wuthnow, “A Brave New World for Chinese Joint Operations,” Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1-2,
2017, p. 183.

15

Dennis J. Blasko, “The Biggest Loser in Chinese Military Reforms: The PLA Army,” in Phillip C. Saunders et al.,eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese Military Reforms (Washington D.C.: National Defense
University Press, 2019), pp. 351-355.

16

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 2, 2016.

17

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 7, 2015.

18

James Mulvenon, “The Yuan Stops Here: Xi Jinping and the ‘CMC Chairman Responsibility System,’” China
Leadership Monitor, No. 47, 2015.

19

Hu and Xu, “The Essence of Great Reform,” p. 5.

20

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 29, 2017.

21

Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, Chinese Military Reforms in the Age of Xi Jinping: Drivers, Challenges,
and Implications (Washington D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2017), p. 78.

22

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 19, 20, and 26, 2021.

23

Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” in Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi
Remakes the PLA, p. 29.

24

South China Morning Post, September 13, 2017; Wuthnow and Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” pp.
29-32; 中共研究杂志社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], ed., 2020年共军人事专辑 [Feature: 2020
Communist Army Personnel] (Taipei: 中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], 2020), p.
20.

25

Kenneth W. Allen, Dennis J. Blasko, and John F. Corbett, Jr., “The PLA’s New Organizational Structure: Whatis Known, Unknown and Speculation (Part 1),” China Brief, Vol. 16, No. 3, 2016, p. 9; John Costello and Joe
McReynolds, China’s Strategic Support Force: A Force for a New Era (Washington D.C.: National Defense
University Press, 2019), pp. 10, 31-35; Wuthnow and Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” p. 6.

26

人民海军 [PLA Navy], May 17, 2016; Wuthnow and Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” pp. 32-33;

Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co., Feature, pp. 21-23.
27

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 12, 2016; State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China,

28

Wuthnow and Saunders, “Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,” pp. 34-35; Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing

China’s National Defense in the New Era (Beijing: 外文出版社 [Foreign Languages Press], 2019).
Co., Feature, pp. 31-32.
29

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 12, 2016; State Council, China’s National Defense.

30

David C. Logan, “Making Sense of China’s Missile Forces,” in Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes
the PLA, pp. 394-395, 412-413; 谢游麟 [Xie Youlin], “析论中共军改后之联合作战指挥体制 [Analysis of the Joint
Operations Command Structure after China’s PLA Reforms],” 海军学术双月刊 [Navy Professional Journal], Vol.
52, No. 1, 2018, p. 48.

31

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 2, 2016.

32

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 25, 2019; State Council, China’s National Defense.

33

Logan, “Making Sense of China’s Missile Forces,” pp. 411-421; Roderick Lee, “Integrating the PLA Rocket
Force into Conventional Theater Operations,” China Brief, Vol. 20, No. 14, 2020, pp. 24-31.

34

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 2, 2016.

35

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 25, 2019; State Council, China’s National Defense.

36

National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS), ed., China Security Report 2021: China’s Military Strategy in the99NotesNew Era (Tokyo: NIDS, 2020), pp. 27-28.
37

Costello and McReynolds, China’s Strategic Support Force, pp. 9-10, 23-29, 52-54.

38

Ibid., pp. 10-19; Office of the Secretary of Defense, U.S. Department of Defense, Annual Report to Congress:
Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2020, September 2020, p. 62.

39

Costello and McReynolds, China’s Strategic Support Force, pp. 15, 30-31, 40-44; 曾怡砚 [Zeng Yiyan], “中共战略支援部队战略与建设 [Strategy and Construction of China’s Strategic Support Force],” 中共研究 [Studies on Chinese

Communism], Vol. 54, No. 5, 2020, p. 98; John Chen, Joe McReynolds, and Kieran Green, “The PLA Strategic
Support Force: A ‘Joint’ Force for Information Operations,” in Joel Wuthnow et al., eds., The PLA Beyond
Borders: Chinese Military Operations in Regional and Global Context (Washington D.C.: National Defense
University Press, 2021), pp. 163-168.
40

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 14, 2016.

41

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 25, 2019; State Council, China’s National Defense.

42

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 14, 2016; LeighAnn Luce and Erin Richter, “Handling Logistics in a Reformed

PLA: The Long March Toward Joint Logistics,” in Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA, pp.
259-264; 董慧明 [Dong Huiming], “共军联勤保障部队战略与建设 [Strategy and Construction of the Communist
Army’s Joint Logistics Support Force],” 中共研究 [Studies on Chinese Communism], Vol. 54, No. 5, 2020, pp.
103-106.
43

State Council, China’s National Defense; Luce and Richter, “Handling Logistics,” pp. 272-278; Dong, “Strategy
and Construction,” pp. 105-106.

44

人民海军 [PLA Navy], April 15, 2016; 荆元宙 [Jing Yuanzhou], “规模结构和力量编制体系重塑之意涵 [The Meaning ofRealigning the Scale Structure and the Force Organization Systems],” 中共研究 [Studies on Chinese Communism],Vol. 52, No. 3, 2018, p. 107.
45

Dennis Blasko and Roderick Lee, “The Chinese Navy’s Marine Corps, Part 1: Expansion and Reorganization,”
China Brief, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2019; Blasko and Lee, “The Chinese Navy’s Marine Corps, Part 2: Chain-of-Command
Reforms and Evolving Training,” China Brief, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2019; Office of the Secretary of Defense, Annual
Report to Congress, pp. 47-48.

46

Blasko and Lee, “The Chinese Navy’s Marine Corps, Part 2”; 黄郁文 [Huang Yuwen], “中共军改后海军陆战队的建构与发展 [The Establishment and Evolvement of the PLA Navy Marine Corps after Chinese Military Reforms],”
海军学术双月刊 [Navy Professional Journal], Vol. 53, No. 5, 2019, pp. 61-74; Ying-Yu Lin, “New Wine into New

Wineskins: The Evolving Role of the PLA Navy Marine Corps in Amphibious Warfare and Other Mission Areas,”
China Brief, Vol. 20, No. 2, 2020, pp. 23-28.
47

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 29, 2017.

48

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 11, 2018.

49

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 22, 2018.

50

解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 23, 2018.

51

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 16, 2013; 人民日报 [People’s Daily], November 21, 2013.

52

Ryan D. Martinson, “Introducing the ‘New, New’ China Coast Guard,” China Brief, Vol. 21, No. 2, 2021, pp.
8-11.

53

肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学（2020年修订） [Science of Strategy (2020 rev.)] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU

Press], 2020), p. 430.
54

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 23, 2021.

55

Regarding ranks and duty grades in the Chinese PLA, see: Allen, Blasko, and Corbett, “The PLA’s New
Organizational Structure,” pp. 6-15.

56

100

习近平 [Xi Jinping] in 中央军事委员会政治工作部 [Political Work Department, Central Military Commission], ed.,习近平论强军兴军 [Xi Jinping Argues for the Strong Military and the Military Development] (Beijing: 解放军出版社[People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2017), pp. 428-429.
57

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 27, 2017.

58

South China Morning Post, October 25, 2017; Joel McFadden, Kim Fassler, and Justin Godby, “The New PLA
Leadership: Xi Molds China’s Military to His Vision,” in Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA,
pp. 565-566.

59

人民海军 [PLA Navy], March 3, 2016; Yomiuri Shimbun, October 13, 2017; McFadden, Fassler, and Godby, “TheNew PLA Leadership,” pp. 562-565, 570-571.
60

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 3, 2017; Cheng Li, “Promoting ‘Young Guards’: The Recent High Turnoverin the PLA Leadership (Part III: Personal and Political),” China Leadership Monitor, 2016, No. 50, pp. 1-2;
McFadden, Fassler, and Godby, “The New PLA Leadership,” pp. 567-573.
61

McFadden, Fassler, and Godby, “The New PLA Leadership,” p. 557.

62

From the PLAN, Miao Hua, who was appointed the PLAN’s political commissar despite formerly belonging to
the PLAA, was appointed CMC member as a PLAN representative.

63

Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co., Feature, pp. 117, 145.

64

Xi, “We Will Thoroughly Work to Achieve the Party’s Goal of Strengthening the Military,” p. 207.

65

Li, “Promoting ‘Young Guards,’” pp. 2-6.

66

Phillip C. Saunders and Joel Wuthnow, “Large and In Charge: Civil-Military Relations under Xi Jinping,” inSaunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA, p. 543.

67习近平 [Xi Jinping] “坚持以强军目标引领改革围绕强军目标推进改革 为建设巩固国防和强大军队提供有力制度支撑 [We Will

Adhere to Leading the Reforms with the Goal of Strengthening the Military and Promoting Reforms aroundthe Goal of Strengthening the Military, and Provide Strong Institutional Support for National Defense and the
Building and Strengthening of a Strong Military],” in 中国人民解放军总政治部 [General Political Department,
Chinese People’s Liberation Army], ed., 习近平国防和军队建设重要论述选编（二） [Xi Jinping’s Selected Important
Documents on the National Defense and Military Building (II)] (Beijing: 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army
Publishing House], 2015), p. 23.
68

South China Morning Post, October 3, 2017.

69

凤凰网 [Phoenix], October 24, 2017, http://news.ifeng.com/a/20171024/52777643_0.shtml.

70

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 21, 2017.

71

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 2, 2016; Wuthnow and Saunders, Chinese Military Reforms, pp. 17-18.

72

中共研究杂誌社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], ed., 军改后共军重要领导人事评析专辑 [Collectionof Evaluations of Important Leaders of the Communist Military after the Military Reforms] (Taipei: 中共研究杂誌
社 [Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co.], 2016), pp. 69-101.

73

Studies on Chinese Communism Publishing Co., Feature, pp. 110, 119, 129, 147.

74

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 6 and September 7, 2021; South China Morning Post, July 6 and September 7, 2021.

75

谭亚东 [Tan Yadong], ed., 联合作战教程 [Lectures on Joint Operations] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of

Military Science Press], 2012), pp. 88-90; 檀松、穆永朋 [Tan Song and Mu Yongpeng], eds., 联合战术学 [Science of
Joint Tactics] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2014), pp. 108-115; Jeffrey Engstrom,
Systems Confrontation and System Destruction Warfare: How the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Seeks toWage Modern Warfare (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2018), pp. 28-36; 蓝羽石、毛永庆、黄强 [Lan Yushi,
Mao Yongqing, and Huang Qiang] et al., eds., 联合作战指挥控制系统 [Joint Operations Command and Control
System] (Beijing: 国防工业出版社 [National Defense Industry Press], 2019), pp. 46-49.
76“中国设立东海联合作战指挥中心 [China Establishes East China Sea Joint Operations Command Center],” 汉和防务评论 [Kanwa Defense Review], August 2014, p. 22; 刘伟 [Liu Wei], ed., 战区联合作战指挥 [Theater Command Joint

101

NotesOperations Command] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2016), p. 32.
77

Wuthnow, “A Brave New World,” pp. 182-183; 解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 4, 2017.

78

Kevin McCauley, PLA System of Systems Operations: Enabling Joint Operations (Washington D.C.: Jamestown
Foundation, 2017), p. 33.

79

Tan, Lectures on Joint Operations, pp. 90-91.

80

Ibid.; Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, p. 81.

81

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 2, 2016; Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, pp. 51, 72, 99-100,

332.
82

Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, pp. 14, 340; Lee, “Integrating the PLA Rocket Force,” pp.
24-31.

83

Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, pp. 96-107; Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System
Destruction Warfare, pp. 33-36.

84

Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, pp. 79-81; Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System
Destruction Warfare, pp. 36-38.

85

刘伟 [Liu Wei], 联合作战指挥 [Joint Operations Command] (Shenyang: 白山出版社[Baishan Publishing House],

2010), pp. 50-53; Liu, Theater Command Joint Operations Command, pp. 79-81; 李继斌 [Li Jibin], 联合战役网络空间作战指挥问题研究 [Study of the Command Issue of Joint Campaign Cyberspace Operations] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2016), pp. 68-72.

86Lan, Mao, and Huang et al., Joint Operations Command and Control System, pp. 12, 37-46.

87

Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System Destruction Warfare, p. 42.

88

Lan, Mao, and Huang et al., Joint Operations Command and Control System, pp. 46-47.

89

Ibid., pp. 47-48.

90

Ibid., pp. 47-49.

91

Ibid., p. 49.

92

Ibid., pp. 49-50, 218. For the relationship between the PLASSF and government organizations and the civilian
sector with a focus on cyber operations as a concrete example of cooperation, see Chen, McReynolds, and Green,“The PLA Strategic Support Force,” pp. 155-163.

93

Lan, Mao, and Huang et al., Joint Operations Command and Control System, pp. 50-51.

94

For the PLA’s information sharing mechanisms after the PLA reforms, see also Shinji Yamaguchi, “ChineseIntelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Operations in the Near Seas,” in Wuthnow et al., eds., The PLA
Beyond Borders, pp. 127-150.

95

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 10, 2020; 学习时报 [Study Times], October 16, 2020.

96

Phillip C. Saunders, “Command and Control of Overseas Operations in a Reformed PLA,” in Wuthnow et al.,eds., The PLA Beyond Borders, pp. 116-117. For the issue of centralization and decentralization of command
authority within the military, see: Roger Cliff, China’s Military Power: Assessing Current and Future Capabilities(Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 37-59.

97

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 20, 2016.

98

Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A More Cohesive Force: Enabling Joint Operations in the PLA,” in Roy
Kamphausen, David Lai, and Tiffany Ma, eds., Securing the China Dream: The PLA’s Role in a Time of Reformand Change (Seattle and Washington D.C.: The National Bureau of Asian Research, 2020), pp. 48-49.

99

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 17, 2020.

100 解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 9 and 14, 2016; 人民海军 [PLA Navy], July 11, 2016.
101 人民海军 [PLA Navy], August 2, 2016.
102 Hu and Xu, “The Essence of Great Reform,” p. 10.

102

103 人民海军 [PLA Navy], May 30, 2016.
104 Wuthnow and Saunders, “A More Cohesive Force,” p. 48.
105 史伟光 [Shi Weiguang], 作战指挥体制改革问题研究（修订版） [Study on the Reform of the Operational Command
Structure (Revised)] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science Press], 2014), pp. 39-41, 72-83.
106 Hu and Xu, “The Essence of Great Reform,” p. 10.
107 Xie, “Analysis of the Joint Operations Command Structure after China’s PLA Reforms,” p. 51.
108 Wuthnow, “A Brave New World,” p. 187.
109 Saunders, “Command and Control of Overseas Operations,” pp. 117-118.

Chapter 3
1

National Institute for Defense Studies (NIDS), ed., East Asian Strategic Review 2019 (Tokyo: NIDS, 2019), p. 63.

2

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 12, 2016.

3

习近平 [Xi Jinping], “抓好战区联合训练（2016年9月20日） [We Will Fully Conduct Joint Training of the Theater

Commands (September 20, 2016)],” in 中央军事委员会政治工作部 [Political Work Department, Central MilitaryCommission], ed., 习近平论强军兴军 [Xi Jinping Argues for the Strong Military and the Military Development](Beijing: 解放军出版社 [People’s Liberation Army Publishing House], 2017), pp. 495-496.
4习近平

[Xi Jinping], “在中央军委扩大会议上的讲话（节选）（2017年2月20日） [Remarks at the CMC Expanded

Meeting (Excerpt) (February 20, 2017)],” in CMC, ed., Xi Jinping Argues for the Strong Military and the Military
Development, p. 574.
5

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 16 and 24, 2016.

6解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 21, 2016.

7

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 29, 2016.

8

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 9, 2016.

9解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 19, 2016.

10

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 30 and 31, 2017.

11

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 26 and February 1, 2018.

12

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 4, 2018.

13

解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 27 and 28, 2018; 人民日报 [People’s Daily], May 12, 2018.

14

解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 6, 2018.

15

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 12, 2018.

16

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 13 and 14, 2018.

17

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 11, 2020.

18

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 3, 2020.

19

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 27, 2020.

20

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 31, May 7, June 10, June 24, October 17, November 5, and November 14, 2020.

21

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 21, 2020.

22

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 17, 2020.

23

South China Morning Post, November 14, 2020.

24

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 14, 2020.

25

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 14, 2020.

26

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 26, 2020.

27

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 29, 2020.

28

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 26, 2020.

103Notes29

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 27, 2020.

30

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 1, 2021.

31

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 1, 2021.

32

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 5, 2021.

33

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 21, 2021.

34

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 10, 2021.

35

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 31, 2021.

36

Global Times, March 3, 2021.

37

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 26, 2020.

38

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 26, 2020.

39

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 25, 2020.

40

Michael S. Chase et al., China’s Incomplete Military Transformation: Assessing the Weaknesses of the People’s
Liberation Army (PLA) (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2015), pp. 58-59.

41

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 29, 2015.

42

解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 22, 2016.

43

空军报 [Air Force News], July 13, 2016.

44

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 16, 2013.

45

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 2, 2016.

46

解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 10, 2018.

47

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 28, 2019.

48

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 23, 2020.

49

Sugiura Yasuyuki, “19 Kai Totaikai ni okeru Shu Kinpei no Gun Shoaku to Jinminkaihogun no Yukue [XiJinping’s Grip on the Military at the 19th National Congress and the Future of the PLA],” Toa [East Asia], No.
606, 2017, p. 31.

50

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 27, 2020.

51

解放军报 [PLA Daily], August 1, 2020.

52

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 20, 2020.

53

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 28, 2018.

54

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 24, 2016; 习近平 [Xi Jinping], “围绕实现强军目标推进军队院校改革创新（2016年3月23日）[We Will Promote Reform and Innovation of Military Educational Institutions with a Focus on Realizing the Goalof Strengthening the Military (March 23, 2016)],” in CMC, ed., Xi Jinping Argues for the Strong Military and theMilitary Development, p. 458.
55

Xi, “We Will Promote Reform and Innovation of Military Educational Institutions,” pp. 459-461.

56

For China’s National Defense Student Program, see: Yumino Masahiro, “Chugoku ni okeru ROTC Seido no
Keisei: Jinminkaihogun no Jinzai Ikusei Shinchanneru Kokubosei Seido ni tsuite [The Establishment of the
ROTC System in China: National Defense Student Program, the PLA’s New Channel for Talent Cultivation],”
The Waseda Study of Politics and Public Law, No. 81, 2006, pp. 81-117.

57

Ying Yu Lin, “One Step Forward, One Step Back for PLA Military Education,” China Brief, Vol. 18, No. 7, 2018;
Kenneth Allen and Mingzhi Chen, The People’s Liberation Army’s 37 Academic Institutions (Montgomery: China
Aerospace Studies Institute, 2020), pp. 6-7, 22-23, 231-235.

58

澎湃新闻 [The Paper], August 9, 2017, https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1757313; 新京报 [The BeijingNews], September 29, 2017; 解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 15, 2020; Allen and Chen, The People’s Liberation Army’s
37 Academic Institutions, pp. 34-41.
59

104

解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 29, 2019.

60

解放军报 [PLA Daily], June 17, 2020.

61

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 28, 2018.

62

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 14, 2016.

63

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 30, 2016.

64

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 5, 2016.

65

黄会瑜、牟显明 [Dong Huiyu and Mou Xianming], eds., 现代军校教育辞典（第2版） [Dictionary of Modern Military

Education (2nd Edition)] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2011), p. 89.
66

解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 28, 2018.

67

解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 28, 2017.

68

Preassignment education refers to education for acquiring the abilities deemed necessary for a certain post and isconsidered a counter concept to academic credential education. Dong and Mou, Dictionary of Modern Military
Education, pp. 144, 218.

69

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 8, 2016.

70

解放军报 [PLA Daily], March 1, 2018.

71

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 6, 2019.

72

解放军报 [PLA Daily], July 23, 2020.

73

解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 22, 2020.

74

解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 21, 2019.

75

Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A Modern Major General: Building Joint Commanders in the PLA,” inPhillip C. Saunders et al., eds., Chairman Xi Remakes the PLA: Assessing Chinese Military Reforms (Washington
D.C.: National Defense University Press, 2019), pp. 304-306.

76

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 27, 2021.

77

NIDS, ed., China Security Report 2012 (Tokyo: NIDS, 2012), p. 6; 解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 27, 2020.

78

岳忠强 [Yue Zhongqiang], ed., 中国人民解放军政治工作学 [Science of PLA Political Work] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社[NDU Press], 2006), p. 112; “中国人民解放军政治工作条例（节选）（2010年8月9日） [Political Work Regulations of
the PLA (Excerpt) (August 9, 2010)],” in 中共中央文献研究室 [CCP Central Party Literature Research Office], ed.,
十七大以来重要文献选编（中） [Selected Important Documents since the 17th National Congress (Vol. II)] (Beijing:
中共中央文献出版社 [CCP Central Party Literature Press], 2010), pp. 886-893.

79

Yue, Science of PLA Political Work, p. 169; 军队政治工作学编写组 [Science of Military Political Work CompilingGroup], 军队政治工作学 [Science of Military Political Work] (Beijing: 人民出版社、高等教育出版社 [People’s
Publishing House and Higher Education Press], 2011), p. 122.

80

“Political Work Regulations of the PLA,” p. 886.

81

Science of Military Political Work Compiling Group, Science of Military Political Work, p. 124; Jeff W. Benson
and Zi Yang, Party on the Bridge: Political Commissars in the Chinese Navy (Washington D.C.: Center for
Strategic and International Studies, 2020), p. 11.

82“Political Work Regulations of the PLA,” p. 887.

83

Science of Military Political Work Compiling Group, Science of Military Political Work, p. 129.

84

Harriet F. Scott and William F. Scott, The Armed Forces of the USSR (Boulder: Westview Press, 1979). Translated
by Inui Ichiu as Sorengun: Shiso Kiko Jitsuryoku (Tokyo: Jiji Press, 1986), pp. 244-258; Matsuda Yasuhiro,“Taiwan no Seigun Kankei: Seisen Keito no Yakuwari wo Chushin ni (1950–83 Nen) [Civil Military Relationin Taiwan: The Role of the Political Warfare System (1950–83)],” Ajia Keizai [Asian Economy], Vol. 43, No.
2, 2002, pp. 26-47; Kenneth W. Allen, Brian Chao, and Ryan Kinsella, “China’s Military Political Commissar
System in Comparative Perspective,” China Brief, Vol. 13, No. 5, 2013, pp. 15-19; 吴志忠 [Wu Zhizhong], ed.,战时政治工作教程 [Lectures on Wartime Political Work] (Beijing: 军事科学出版社 [Academy of Military Science105NotesPress], 2013), p. 149; Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, pp. 12, 27.
85“Political Work Regulations of the PLA,” p. 887.

86

Yue, Science of PLA Political Work; Science of Military Political Work Compiling Group, Science of Military
Political Work, pp. 131-135.

87

Phillip C. Saunders and Joel Wuthnow, “China’s Goldwater-Nichols? Assessing PLA Organizational Reforms,”
Strategic Forum, No. 294, 2016, pp. 5, 9; Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A More Cohesive Force:
Enabling Joint Operations in the PLA,” in Roy Kamphausen, David Lai, and Tiffany Ma, eds., Securing the China
Dream: The PLA’s Role in a Time of Reform and Change (Seattle and Washington D.C.: The National Bureau of
Asian Research, 2020), pp. 49-50.

88

Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, p. 29.

89

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 2, 2016.

90

解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 12, 2016.

91

For studies focusing on the “system of division of the leader’s responsibilities under the unified collective leadership of the Party committee,” see Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge.

92

Yue, Science of PLA Political Work, pp. 174-180; Science of Military Political Work Compiling Group, Scienceof Military Political Work, pp. 125-127.

93
94

Yue, Science of PLA Political Work, p. 173.
习近平

[Xi Jinping], “在全军政治工作会议上的讲话（节选）（2014年10月30日） [Remarks at the Political Work

Conference of the PLA (Excerpt) (October 30, 2014)],” in CMC, ed., Xi Jinping Argues for the Strong Military
and the Military Development, pp. 285-286.
95

Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, p. 147.

96

Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, p. 27.

97Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, p. 148.

98

王德义、王庐生、赵力兵 [Wang Deyi, Wang Lusheng, and Zhao Libing], eds., 基于信息系统联合作战政治工作 [Joint

Operations Political Work Based on Information Systems] (Beijing: 蓝天出版社 [Lantian Press], 2013), p. 32.
99

顾礼康 [Gu Likang], “适应护航任务常态化需求发挥政治工作服务保证作用 [Demonstrating the Role of Assuring Political

Work Services in Line with the Needs of the Normalization of Escort Missions],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political
Work], No. 2, 2011, p. 5; 解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 18, 2010 and November 10, 2014.
100 解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 10, 2014 and April 23, 2021; Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, p. 15.
101 Science of Military Political Work Compiling Group, Science of Military Political Work, pp. 180-190.
102 周海保、张纬 [Zhou Haibao and Zhang Wei], “智能化条件下政治工作面临的挑战及对策研究 [Study of the Challenges
Facing Political Work under the Conditions of Intelligentization and Countermeasures],” 政工学刊 [Journal of
Political Work], No. 3, 2021, pp. 65-67.
103 王云龙 [Wang Yunlong], “提升政治干部信息素养的几点思考 [Study of the Improvement of the Intelligence Skills of
Political Officers],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political Work], No. 6, 2018, p. 50.
104 Science of Military Political Work Compiling Group, Science of Military Political Work, pp. 196-203.
105 Xi, “Remarks at the Political Work Conference of the PLA,” p. 297.
106 解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 19, 2015.
107 解放军报 [PLA Daily], April 12, 2015.
108 解放军报 [PLA Daily], May 19, 2015.
109 Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, p. 19.
110 解放军报 [PLA Daily], January 15, 2015.
111 解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 16, 2020.
112 Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, pp. 18-19.

106

113 “Political Work Regulations of the PLA,” p. 893.
114 Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, pp. 105-128.
115 Xi, “Remarks at the Political Work Conference of the PLA,” pp. 295-296.
116 肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学（2020年修订） [Science of Strategy (2020 rev.)] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU
Press], 2020), pp. 212-216.
117 王雄兄 [Wang Xiongxiong], “锻炼提高新时代军队政治工作服务备战打仗能力 [Political Work of the Military in the New
Era Builds Up and Enhances War Readiness and Combat Service Capability],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political
Work], No. 10, 2020, p. 14.
118 Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, pp. 26-27, 115-119; Wang, Wang, and Zhao, Joint Operations Political
Work, p. 6; Dean Cheng, Cyber Dragon: Inside China’s Information Warfare and Cyber Operations (Santa
Barbara: Prager Security International, 2016), p. 44.
119 Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, pp. 115-116.
120 Cheng, Cyber Dragon, p. 52.
121 张煜 [Zhang Yu], “论体系作战中政治工作制胜机理 [Discussion of the Winning Mechanisms of Political Work in
Systems Operations],” 南京政治学院学报 [Journal of PLA Nanjing Institute of Politics], Vol. 32, No. 1, 2016, p.
125; 王金文、赵鹤娟 [Wang Jinwen and Zhao Hejuan], “加强合成营战时政治工作几点思考 [Study of Strengthening theWartime Political Work of Mixed Operational Units],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political Work], No. 3, 2021, p. 57.
122 Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, pp. 116-117.
123 Cheng, Cyber Dragon, pp. 44-46.
124 Wang and Zhao, “Study of Strengthening the Wartime Political Work of Mixed Operational Units,” p. 57.
125 Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, pp. 117-118.
126 Cheng, Cyber Dragon, p. 48.
127 Wu, Lectures on Wartime Political Work, pp. 148-150.
128 Ibid., p. 152.
129 Ibid., pp. 153-154.
130 Wang, Wang, and Zhao, eds., Joint Operations Political Work, pp. 20-21.
131 陈全旻、黄程逸 [Chen Quanmin and Huang Chengyi], “积极运用政治工作训练实战化的新方法 [Active Use of New
Methods of Combat-realistic Political Work Training],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political Work], No. 5, 2018, p. 61.
132 For details on information offense and defense systems, see: Jeffrey Engstrom, Systems Confrontation and System
Destruction Warfare: How the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Seeks to Wage Modern Warfare (Santa Monica:
RAND Corporation, 2018), pp. 66-78.
133 Zhang, “Discussion of the Winning Mechanisms of Political Work in Systems Operations,” p. 124; 宋军锋 [SongJunfeng], “加强战时政治工作全要素能力建设 [Strengthening the Capability Buildup of All Elements of Wartime
Political Work],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political Work], No. 6, 2018, p. 41.
134 Wang, Wang, and Zhao, Joint Operations Political Work, pp. 22-23.
135 Ibid., pp. 36, 49-50, 68.
136 Ibid., p. 50; Mark Stokes and Russell Hsiao, The People’s Liberation Army General Political Department:
Political Warfare with Chinese Characteristics, Project 2049 Institute, 2013, p. 29.
137 Wang, Wang, and Zhao, Joint Operations Political Work, p. 96.
138 Ibid., pp. 115-135.
139 解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 10, 2020.
140 解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 19, 2021.
141 解放军报 [PLA Daily], September 10, 11, and 14, 2020.
142 解放军报 [PLA Daily], February 19 and 20, 2021.

107Notes143 解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 25, 2020.
144 解放军报 [PLA Daily], November 24 and December 15, 2020.
145 解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 3 and 22, 2020.
146 解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 17, 2020.
147 解放军报 [PLA Daily], December 22, 2020.
148 Joel Wuthnow and Phillip C. Saunders, “A New Step Forward in PLA Professionalization,” China Brief, Vol. 21,
No. 5, 2021, p. 18.
149 解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 28, 2020.
150 Wuthnow and Saunders, “A New Step Forward,” p. 18.
151 解放军报 [PLA Daily], August 16 and September 13, 2020 and January 27, 2021.
152 Benson and Yang, Party on the Bridge, p. 36.
153 肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学 [Science of Strategy] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU Press], 2015), pp. 216-219;
肖天亮 [Xiao Tianliang], ed., 战略学（2017年修订） [Science of Strategy (2017 rev.)] (Beijing: 国防大学出版社 [NDU

Press], 2017), pp. 233-236.
154 汪保康、张红 [Wang Baokang and Zhang Hong], “从‘法制推动’到‘法治转化’―论全面提高我军政治工作的法治
水平 [From ‘Promotion of Legal System’ to ‘Shift to Constitutional Government’: Discussion of the Overall

Improvement of the Rule of Law Level of Our Military’s Political Work],” 南京政治学院学报 [Journal of PLA
Nanjing Institute of Politics], Vol. 32, No. 2, 2016, p. 113; 汪保康、潘璟 [Wang Baokang and Pan Jing], “适应军队改革要求完善政治工作法规体系 [Developing Political Work Regulations Systems that Meet the Needs of Military

Reform],” 军队政工理论研究 [Theoretical Studies on PLA Political Work], Vol. 18, No. 1, 2017, pp. 96-97; 杨红章、
李亮 [Yang Hongzhang and Li Liang], “联合训练中政治工作存在的问题及对策 [Problems of Joint Training Political

Work and Countermeasures],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political Work], No. 7, 2019, p. 64; 李晓钰、张章 [Li Xiaoyu
and Zhang Zhang], “联训联演中基层战时工作开展之困及对策 [Difficulties of Frontline Wartime Work Implementation
during Joint Training and Exercises and their Countermeasures],” 政工学刊 [Journal of Political Work], No. 11,
2020, p. 62.

Conclusions

108

1

Ministry of Defense of Japan, ed., Defense of Japan 2021 (Tokyo: Ministry of Defense of Japan, 2021), pp. 60-61.

2

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 30, 2020.

3

解放军报 [PLA Daily], October 28, 2017.