TRANSPORT POLICY INPERSPECTIVE: 2010
Preface
Automobiles made rapid advances in the last century, surpassing railways to take over themain role of surface transport, and contributed greatly to the advancement of global socioeconomic systems. Therefore, the 20th Century is very much “the Century of Automobiles”.
Automobiles are now playing a major role in moving people and transporting goods. Our
lifestyles and the economy are based upon the mobility provided by automobiles in all aspectsof our society, from where we live and how we do business. Our “automobile-dependentsociety” has become the base for more affluent lifestyles. On the other hand, road traffic
problems including traffic accidents, traffic congestion, and environmental problems such as
global warming and air pollution, social problems including the transport poor, urban sprawl
and the decline of city centers, are widely acknowledged as serious problems throughout theworld.
Under these circumstances, we are reaching a major turning point in the movement toward
a mature motorized society for the 21st Century. Fortunately, advanced road traffic systems
and environmentally friendly next generation motor vehicles that are safer as well as moreenvironmentally friendly are beginning to emerge. These include technological innovations
for motor vehicle themselves, such as less polluting and more efficient hybrid and electricmotor vehicles, and the development of intelligent transport systems (ITS). Since Japanesesociety is now facing decreasing total population together with rapid aging, we have to solvea variety of existing problems and move towards a road and motor vehicle transport systems
for a vibrant and sustainable society.
The Japan Research Center for Transport Policy was founded in 1971. Since then, theCenter (a private non-profit organization involving transportation specialists and researchers
active in universities, private industry, government, and local governments) has been
carrying out interdisciplinary academic research focused on transport policies for roads
and motor vehicles, and providing educational activities and proposing policies regarding acomprehensive transport system that will contribute to the beneficial development of Japanesesociety. It has been formally certified as a Public Interest Incorporated Association under the
new organization reform act.
Every year since the year 2000, with the full support of the Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association, the Japan Research Center for Transport Policy has published “Research on
Automobiles and Transport – Environment and Policy” annually, a booklet giving a generalview of the trends in policy and research concerning motor vehicles and road traffic in Japan.
This is a translation of major parts of the booklet with additional introduction.
The original work was completed mainly for Japanese interested in transport policies. Bearing
in mind that the amount of information in English concerning transport policy of Japan
in limited, this booklet summarizes the current problems and policies in Japan and othercountries concerning transport, focusing mainly on Japan, and provides some basic statistical
data. We intend this booklet to provide comprehensive information that will be useful for
those interested in the transport policy of Japan. We hope that this booklet will be effectively
used for a wide range of educational, research, and policy study activities in many nations.
Finally, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association, which has given us its full support, and to all those who have given theirvaluable time in writing or editing, or who have provided important data for inclusion in thebooklet.
November 2010

Katsutoshi Ohta, Representative Director
Yoshitsugu Kanemoto, Representative Director
Japan Research Center for Transport Policy

TRANSPORT

Katsutoshi Ohta, Professor, Faculty of Regional Development Studies, Toyo University

POLICY IN

Yoshitsugu Kanemoto, Professor, Graduate School of Economics, The University of

PERSPECTIVE
2010
List of Authors(in order of their reports appearance)(Representative Director, Japan Research Center for Transport Policy)
Tokyo (Representative Director, Japan Research Center for Transport Policy)

Masahiro Sugiyama, Professor, Faculty of Commerce, Waseda University
Kiyoshi Takami, Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, The University ofTokyo

Tsutomu Yabe, Chief Researcher, The Institute of Behavioral Sciences
Eiichiro Iwao, Associate Professor, School of Commerce, Senshu University
Kazuya Itaya, Chief Researcher, Institute of Transportation Economics
Fumihiko Nakamura, Professor, Graduate School of Environment and Information
Sciences, Yokohama National University

Atsushi Matsubara, Technical Chief, Oriental Consultants Co., Ltd.
Toshiyuki Okamura, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama
National University

Yuichi Mohri, Manager, Social infrastructure and economy research department, The
Institute of Behavioral Sciences

Seiji Hashimoto, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Environmental Science, Okayama
University

Yasuo Fukuda, Professor, College of Law, Nihon University
Takashi Oguchi, Professor, Graduate School of Urban Environmental Sciences, Tokyo
Metropolitan University

Nobuaki Ohmori, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, The University ofTokyo

Yasunori Muromachi, Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Scienceand Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Masahiro Sakakibara, Manager in charge, ITS Japan Planning GroupAyako Taniguchi, Full-time Lecturer, Graduate School of Systems and Information
Engineering, University of Tsukuba

Masatoshi Nakazawa, Assistant Manager, Environment Department, Japan Automobile
Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Hiroyuki Oneyama, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Urban Environmental
Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University

Masaaki Taniguchi, General Manager, Eco-Driving Promotion Department, The Energy
Conservation Center, Japan

Tadashi Kotake, Assistant director general, Environment Department, Japan Automobile
Manufacturers Association, Inc.
Current as of April 2010

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Japan Research Center for Transport Policy
Katsutoshi Ohta, Yoshitsugu Kanemoto
Preface
List of Authors
1
Contents		Masahiro Sugiyama 2
Automobile and Road Transport Policies in Japan
Transport Today
1

Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It				Fumihiko Nakamura Kiyoshi Takami, Tsutomu Yabe, Eiichiro Iwao, Kazuya Itaya,				

Atsushi Matsubara, Toshiyuki Okamura, Yuichi Mohri

		1-1 The Quality and Quantity of a Changing Mobility		

8		1-2 Road Network Today		 10
		1-3 Freight Road Transport Today		 12
		1-4 Public Transport Today		 14
		1-5 Recent Trends in New Urban Transport Systems		 16
		1-6 Transport Services for Everyone		 18
		1-7 The Future of the Transport Infrastructure		 20
		1-8 Revenue Sources and its Use for Roads		 22

2Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility				 Seiji Hashimoto Yasuo Fukuda, Takashi Oguchi, Nobuaki Ohmori, Yasunori Muromachi,				Masahiro Sakakibara, Ayako Taniguchi		2-1 Trends and Present Situation of Road Traffc Accidents		 24
		2-2 Motor Vehicle Insurance in Japan		 26		2-3 Traffc Safety Measures		 28
		2-4 Efforts toward Traffc Calming		 30
		2-5 The Reconsideration of Movement toward Acceptance of Bicycles		 32
		2-6 Solving Parking Problems		 34
		2-7 The Second-Stage ITS — Intelligent Transport Systems		 36
		2-8 T he Importance and the Developments of “Soft” Measure: TDM (Transportation Demand Management)

and MM (Mobility Management)		 38

3		Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature
Yasunori Muromachi Masatoshi Nakazawa, Hiroyuki Oneyama, Masaaki Taniguchi, Tadashi Kotake

		3-1 Efforts for Motor Vehicle Recycling		 40
		3-2 Traffc Noise and Measures to Control it		 42		3-3 Air Pollution Today and Countermeasures against It		 44		3-4 Improving Energy Effciency		 46
		3-5 Efforts to Prevent Global Warming		 48		3-6 Environmentally Friendly Institutional Measures		 50

		3-7 Development and Promotion of Environmentally Friendly Vehicles		
52

55
Statistics and Data		

1

Automobile
and Road
Transport Policies in Japan

1. Domestic modal share of transport and automobiletransport statistics in Japan
Japan consists of four main islands (Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu),
all surrounded by sea. The feature of its geography is that it has no international
land borders. The area of the country is approximately 380,000 square kilometers,
where more than 127 million people live. Population, like in some other developed
countries, is projected to decrease in the future; according to an estimate, it will havefallen to 44.7 million by 2100 — about one third of the current numbers. Japan’s mountainous geography limits the habitable area. The population tends to beconcentrated in city areas, where s traffic congestion countermeasures are needed.
By contrast, in rural areas, many places are facing depopulation; ensuring transport
services (due to the withdrawal of conventional public transport, etc.) is becoming
an urgent problem awaiting solution. Besides the four main islands, there are over
68,000 islands within Japan, of which over 400 are inhabited. For those inhabitedislands, the current issue is how to continue providing transport services by sea
and/or air over routes that are not likely to be profitable.

MasahiroSugiyama

Transport volume1)

Japanese Transport Trends for Past
Years

Passengers(×100 million
passengerkilometers)

Freight(×100 million
ton-kilometers)

FY 2007

FY 2008

FY 2009

Total

14128

13949

－

Motor vehicles forprivate use

8360

8221

－

Motor vehicles forcommercial use

831

838

－

Railways

4055

4046

－

Maritime

38

35

－

Aviation

843

809

－

Total

5822

5576

－

Motor vehicles

3548

3464

－

Railways

233

223

－

Coastalshipping

2030

1879

－

Aviation

11

11

－

Total

79081

78801

－

Trucks

6884

6568

－

Buses

231

230

－

41469

40799

－

1578

1528

－

1479

1505

－

27440

28171

－

79907

80448

80812

45413

45518

45539

Number of motor
Passenger cars
vehiclesowned*
Special vehicles
1)(×1000)
Two-wheeledvehiclesLight motor
vehiclesTotal
Driving license
holders**Male
2)(×1000)FemaleTraffic accidents2)

34495

34930

35273

Number ofaccidents (×
1000)

832

766

737

Fatalities within
30 days

6639

6023

5772

* Figures as of end of March (registered vehicles + light motor
vehicles)** Figures as of end of December
References for data:
1） Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport,
Annual Statistical Report on Air Transport, Annual Statistical
Report on Railway Transport, and Annual Statistical Reporton Coastwise Vessel Transport
2） Traffic Statistics



A highly mobile society inevitably depends on transport services provided by motor
vehicles, railways, ships, and aircraft. In terms of the domestic transport shareby mode of transport, motor vehicles take a high percentage for both passengers
and freight transport. Passenger transport figures for the fiscal year 2008 assign
the biggest share (74.2% of passengers, and 64.9% of passenger-kilometers) to
motor vehicles. Railways come in the second with figures of 25.5% and 29.0%,
respectively; for maritime transport,, the figures are 0.1% and 0.3%; and for aviation,
0.1% and 5.8%. For freight transport in the same year, 91.7% of the tonnage, and62.1% of ton-kilometers, were transported by motor vehicles. Those figures are 0.9%
and 4.0% for railways; 7.4% and 33.7% for coastal shipping; 0.02% and 0.19%
for aviation: so the motor vehicle percentage share was the highest here, too. Since
2005, passenger transport has shown a slight upward trend in the railway percentage;
freight transport shows an increase in the motor vehicle percentage, and a decreasein the coastal shipping percentage (in terms of ton-kilometers). Those changes,
however, were far from drastic; all in all, the trend has been toward stability.
Historically, ship and rail have been in the first stage mode of modern transport inJapan. It was after World War II that motor vehicles and aircraft began to be used in
popular. In the fiscal year 1960 (about a half century ago), for passenger transport, therailway percentage was 60.6% for the number of passengers and 75.8% in passengerkilometers — considerably above the motor vehicle percentage (38.9% for the numberof passengers and 22.8% in passenger-kilometers). But in freight transport, the motor
vehicle percentage in transported tonnage was 75.8% even in the fiscal year 1960.
However, in ton-kilometers for the same year, it was only 15.0%; not until about 20
years later did it exceed 50%. We can identify a significant development in freighttransport by pointing to the major role that coastal shipping used to play. In tonkilometers, the coastal shipping percentage was close to 50% until it yielded first place
to motor vehicles in the fiscal year 1985. Therefore, in Japan’s case, coastal shipping
would be able to play a fallback role in case of a “modal shift” from motor vehicle
trunk line transport services to rail or marine transport.
In motor vehicle transport statistics, passenger transport is roughly divided into
buses, passenger cars, and trucks for private use, with the biggest share going topassenger cars. Passenger cars are further divided into commercial use and private
use vehicles; those for private use have the highest share of tonnage. Those forcommercial use are required by the Road Transport Law to obtain a license (or, as
is mostly the case in recent years, a permit), and to transport passengers (or freight)
on request. Private use vehicles are defined as passenger vehicles other than thoseused for commercial use. A peculiar category in the Japanese system is that of “lightmotor vehicles,” reserved for vehicles whose total engine displacement is less than660 cc. Statistics for private-use passenger cars and trucks are therefore derived
from combined lists of “registered motor vehicles” and “light motor vehicles.”TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

In freight transport statistics, motor vehicles are divided into those for commercial
use and those for private use. Under each category, volumes transported are assigned
to both registered motor vehicles and light motor vehicles. Recently, both in termsof tonnage and in terms of ton-kilometers, there has been an upward trend incommercial use percentages, the reason being that commercial transport, which hasa higher load factor, is now offering personalized services that make it competitive
with private transport.

2. Japan’s transport policies in transition
One of the biggest changes in policies regarding roads, which are playing a linking
role for the motor vehicles transport services, was the privatization of the fourroad-related public corporations that had been building and managing toll roads.
Another was the transfer of the special funding source system for road works, underwhich earmarked taxes (e.g., the so called gasoline tax) had been used for road
improvement, to the general revenue fund (more about this in Chapter 4). At thispoint, let us look at the main changes in each mode of transport.
Railway services were at first under the direct control of the government. The
Japanese National Railways (JNR), which became a public corporation after WorldWar II in 1949, had the same management nationwide. Due to the inefficiencies inthis unified nationwide organization and mismanagement of the public corporation,an enormous backlog of deficits had accumulated. The major change was finallybrought about: Japanese National Railways was reformed, and, in April, 1972, it was
regionally divided and privatized. Honshu was divided into three areas (east, central,
and west Japan) served by three railway companies; one company was allotted eachto the islands of Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu. The management form decided
upon was joint stock companies. Traditionally, private railway companies, mainly inmetropolitan areas, played a greater role in Japan than in other countries. Now, formore than half a century, there has been a history of cooperation between different
railway companies in managing direct transport services over their own routes.
The six established railway companies from JNR, in their form of management, are
now no longer different from the already existing private railway companies; it ispossible for them, for example, to be involved in new businesses. In railway stations
in recent years, various commercial facilities have been set up and we can buy goods
through multi-purpose magnetic tickets (SUICA, etc.) in those facilities. In urban
transport, private management plays the same role with busses as it does with rail;
the record of transport achievements for private management always exceeds that for
public management. The freight railway company was created as a single company
for the whole country. Because it didn’t own railroad tracks, the separation systemof operation and infrastructure was adopted. That system was implemented for thesuper express railway train Shinkansen (as a typical example) when the Japanese
National Railways was reformed.

40th anniversary of the completion of the entire
Tomei Expressway

Material provided by: Central Nippon
Expressway Company Limited, Tokyo branch

The reform of Japanese National Railways, by the way, gave considerable impetus
to the reform of railways in the developed countries in Europe.
As for ocean shipping, the Japanese merchant marine fleet, which had been dealt acrushing blow in World War II, was reorganized into a grouping of ocean shipping
companies in 1964 with preferential financing from the government. This was donein order for the fleet to play a role in the transport sector to help to sustain Japan’s high economic growth. Ninety-five companies (which included most of the ocean
shipping companies of those days) were organized into eighty-eight companies
in six groups. This grouping of ocean shipping companies is considered to be themost significant event in Japan’s maritime activity since World War II. After further
mergers of the core companies among those six groups, there are now three major
companies — Nippon Yusen Kaisha, MOK Lines, and Kawasaki Lines. Those threemajor companies account for about 70% of the total income in ocean shipping.
In 2008, the Japanese merchant marine fleet transported 11.3% of the world’s cargo
by volume. However, when it comes to the nationality of a ship, the number of

Ohashi Junction

Photo provided by: Metropolitan
Expressway Co., Ltd.



foreign chartered ships (e.g., flag-of-convenience ships) is overwhelming; increasing
the number of Japanese ships and getting them registered is an ongoing policy
problem that needs to be solved. Also, the international standing of ports in Japan isgetting lower and lower; in terms of volume of containers handled, the Port of Tokyoand the Port of Yokohama dropped to the world’s 26th and 36th places, respectively,
in 2009. The Japanese government is attempting to salvage this situation by pushingfor improvement of those ports in the Tokyo-Yokohama area and the Osaka-Kobearea, utilizing their strategic situation (i.e., with big cities as their hinterlands) todevelop them as ports for container cargo.
Skyliner, Narita Sky Access Line
(Nippori station)

Photo provided by:Professor Dr. Katsutoshi Ohta

After World War II, all Japanese commercial aviation was prohibited by GHQ(General Headquarters). It was reopened in 1951, and international flights started in
1954. The government policies of 1970 and 1972 had regulated the airline businessarea with a view to promoting coexistence and shared prosperity among airline
companies. In 1985, however, following the trend toward the deregulation policy(started in the U.S.A.), those regulations were rescinded, which made it possible
for new airline companies to enter into the market. Thanks to those policy changes,
Skymark Airlines, Air DO, and others have already started up businesses. Whencommercial aviation went back into operation, the initial plan was to form twodomestic airline companies. The reality configured itself as three major companies— Japan Airlines, All Nippon Airways, and Toa Domestic Airlines (later changed
to Japan Air System). Later, Japan Airlines (handling mainly international flights)
and Japan Air System (mainly domestic flights) merged as Japan Airlines, so thatJapanese airline system was consisted in two major companies. Finally, Japan
Airlines, which had been suffering from deficit after the merge, fell into bankruptcy
in January, 2010; it is now trying to reorganize, with 2013 as the deadline, under the
direction of the Enterprise Turnaround Initiative Corporation of Japan.
As of April, 2010, there are 83 airports that conform with the Airport Law. The threeinternational airports that are used for international air transport — Narita, Kansai,
and Chubu — are structured as joint stock companies; Tokyo (Haneda) and Osaka(Itami) international airports are operated under government management. Narita,
which is located in the metropolitan area of highest demand, is purposed mainly
for international transport with two runways (4000 and 2500 meters), and 220,000
slots per year. Tokyo (Haneda), which has been used for domestic transport, has four
runways (3000, 3000, 2500, and 3120 meters); total 350,000 slots per year. From
October 2010, an international flight service was also reopened. Ultimately, Narita
and Haneda airports are to have 747,000 slots per year in total.

3. The automobile industry and automobile transport
policies in JapanThe automobile industry is the key industry of Japan. Currently, the number ofpeople who work in motor vehicle-related businesses is over 8% of the total workforce. Income from shipment of its products is less than 17% of the total income
from all shipments. The automobile industry share for capital investment is less than
22% of all capital investment, and its share for research and development is over
19%; it is indeed the driving force in Japan’s economy. Led by Toyota, Nissan, andHonda, there are 14 motor vehicle manufacturers. Normally, more than 10 million
four-wheeled vehicles per year have been produced, but in 2008 and 2009, thenumbers of vehicles produced were below these figures of previous years. In 2009,in particular, the number dwindled to only more than 7.9 million. The number of
new four-wheeled vehicles sold decreased four years running; in 2009, it went down
to 4,609,000. Since 2005, the number of motor vehicles owned has been over 75
million. Though its recent trend is downward, still the number of passenger cars isincreasing slightly; as of December, 2009, it was 58 million. In 2009, the number ofpeople who had a driver’s license was more than 80 million; this signifies a moveinto an era in which everybody drives.
Though the issues of recent Japan’s automobile industry are now facing to theworldwide economic recession, the progressive yen scale down and so on, still there
have been steady improvements in environmental measures, both “hard” and “soft.”
TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

The amount of carbon dioxide emitted during the manufacturing process has been
consistently reduced. Legal performance standards of new vehicles on fuel efficiency
and emission gases have been very successful in reducing greenhouse gas emission
and regional air pollution. By 2008, the average mileage of a gasoline-powered
motor vehicle had been improved to 16.9 kilometers per liter; the reduced amountof emissions conforms to the world’s strictest regulatory standard. In addition, steps
have been taken to spread and promote ecological-driving (also energy-saving
driving), to improve preventive equipment for safety to avoid accidents, and todevelop and promote automatic safety equipment; those efforts have contributed
to a reduction in the number of traffic accident fatalities. Though motor vehicle
improvements can not by themselves reduce the number of traffic accidents, still theannual number of fatalities (4914 in 2009) has decreased nine years running, which
achieved the government’s goal three years in advance.
On the minus side, the automobile industry and users of motor vehicles are forced
to bear an excessive tax burden. There are nine different taxes related to motor
vehicles; in the initial national budget for 2010, the motor vehicle taxes were 10.7%(7,694.8 billion yen) of the total income from taxes. The purchaser’s initial tax
burden is heavy by international standards (motor vehicle tax, motor vehicle tonnage
tax, and motor vehicle purchase tax).
Motor vehicle traffic policies are trending toward deregulation. Private motor
vehicles are by far the biggest number of motor vehicles owned. (in 2008 percentage
breakdown of motor vehicles in private use: passenger cars: 99.7% of ordinarycars, 99.0% of small cars; buses: only 21.6% of ordinary buses, but 81.4% of small
buses; trucks: 62.4% of ordinary trucks, 98.1% of small trucks.) Although businessactivities are not permitted to use private motor vehicles, such illicit activities canstill be occurring. The reality is, however, that given the overwhelming numbers ofprivate vehicles, it is hard to take effective countermeasures. This is a problem inother countries as well.
As for commercial motor vehicles that provide transport services: in 1998, theMinistry of Transport (reorganized as the present Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism) announced its intentions to basically abolish the regulations
and entrust market mechanism in supply-demand adjustment. Pursuant to thatpolicy, access to the business shifted from a licensing system to a permit system.
As far as fare regulations were concerned, bus business is only required to provide
advance notification of fare changes. With the taxi business, the authorization systemremained, but the criteria for authorization were now limited to the upper limit of
the fare. As for trucking businesses and freight forwarding business, both of which
had already been deregulated in 1990, fares can be freely determined. Basically,
the expectation is for the business to regulate itself through competition in themarketplace.

4. Japan’s road policies

Emblem encouraging use of the
Aqua-Line

Material provided: Chiba Prefecture

Japan really had no era of coach transport. Because there was an abrupt shift fromtransport on foot to motor vehicles, there were insufficient road capital stock forbuilding a system to accommodate automobile transport. The situation of thosedays is characterized in the report of the Watkins Commission (1956), which madea feasibility study for the expressway between Nagoya and Kobe (requested by theJapanese government, which was inquiring the expressway plan). In the beginningof the report it was stated that “The roads of Japan are incredibly bad. No otherindustrial nation has so completely neglected its highway system.” After World War
II, the toll road system and the special(earmarked) funding source system for roadworks were introduced as the two main road policy. For the former, with the Law
Concerning Special Measures for Highways (1952) as a basis, the building andmanagement were conducted by public corporations. For the latter, in accordancewith the Emergency Measure Law for Road Improvement (1953), a system wasestablished in which road users paid for their road usage, creating a source ofrevenue to be used only for road improvement. Those systems enabled the Fiveyear Road Improvement Program that was started in 1954 to be carried forward.
The Five-year Road Improvement Program was combined with other transport
infrastructure programs to become the Priority Plan for Social InfrastructureImprovement . Those two systems played a significant role in accumulating Japan’sroad capital stock.
Toll roads were built and managed by (among others) four public corporations that
included the Japan Highway Public Corporation (founded in 1956). As part of the
program, started in 2002, for streamlining special public corporations, privatizationof these corporations was considered. In 2005, the four road-related public
corporations (the Japan Highway Public Corporation, Metropolitan Expressway
Public Corporation, Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation, and Honshu-Shikoku
Bridge Authority) became joint stock companies. At that time, the separation
system of infrastructure was adopted. That is: Japan Expressway Holding and Debt
Repayment Agency (JEHDRA) would hold expressways and repay the debt, and six
expressway companies (the Japan Highway Public Corporation alone was divided
among three regions) would build, manage, and collect tolls. Unlike the privatizationof railways, it typifies a separation system of infrastructure provision from its
operation.

Nissan

15% financing
44.3% financing

While many countries with advanced road systems are opting for road pricing, theDemocratic Party of Japan, when it came into power, announced its new policy on
toll-free expressways. In June, 2010, social experiments started in which the toll
was eliminated in limited areas. That toll-free policy goes against the redemption
principle, which was the rationale for setting the toll. The new policy means that theburden will now shift from the user to the taxpayer. It will distort the competitive
abilities of transport modes that are competing with the expressway service; there
are many problems to be reconsidered.
Renault

3.1% mutual financing

Daimler

Suzuki

19.9% financing
planning tofinanceToyota$50 million
financing

VW

Tesla

Financial arrangements between
motor vehicle manufacturers

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association, Inc.

Changes in incidence of traffic
accident

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association, Inc.

As of August, 2010, the total length of Japan’s expressways is 7722 kilometers.
The final goal is to construct 14,000 kilometers, which is based on the following
criterion: wherever you live in Japan, it will take you no more than an hour to accessto the nearest interchange.
The special (earmarked) funding source system for road works was based on theprinciple that those who are benefited are to pay; the system was excellent in its
rationality (paying for the benefit you received from the service), fairness (avoiding
free-riders), and stability (insuring a necessary source of revenue by usage). Eightdifferent tax sources (e.g., the so called gasoline tax) were utilized to fund road
improvement. Nevertheless, in the face of those advantages, the financial authorities
started to propose, beginning around 1980, the transfer of the road improvement
system to the general revenue fund, on the pretext that the total amount of tax paid
was too great, or, that road improvement, in their opinion, had already reached alevel of sufficiency.
It was after the turn of the 21st century that policies to transfer road improvement to
the general revenue fund discussed concretely. In the beginning of 2005, government
policies on reviewing the special(earmarked) funding sources for road works wereannounced; the decisions were made at the Cabinet level. In the end, by revising theEmergency Measure Law for Road Improvement and its successors, the system wastransferred to the general revenue fund for the fiscal year 2009. The political processof discussion of such legislation is extremely complicated; unless directly involvedin the discussion, there is much that is not easy to understand.
The logic of the transfer to the general revenue fund contains not a small number ofcontradictions. A typical example is how the provisional tax rate was treated. On theassumption that the fund for road improvement would be insufficient, the provisionaltax rate for many of the taxes had been set to be approximately double the tax ratein the main rules. However, even after the transfer to the general revenue fund, thepolicy to keep the provisional tax rate was adopted. This obviously contradicts theargument that road improvement had reached a level of sufficiency. It is nothing but
an excessive burden on road users. That is the first of many points regarding logicalconsistency in discussing the transfer to the general revenue fund. In 2006, membersof the Japan Research Center for Transport Policy made the urgent suggestion thatthe logical inconsistency be corrected.
Future road improvement in Japan is to be carried forward under general revenue
funding; this will require an objective and precise understanding of the road stocks
so as to fulfill the needs of the actual users.

Transport Today

1 -1

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

The Quality and Quantity of a
Changing Mobility

Assistant Professor, Graduate School ofEngineering, University of Tokyo

Kiyoshi Takami

We now have the basic data on the movement of people and goods. In regards to the flow of people, in recent years, the number of trips perperson is on an upward trend, while the distance traveled is on a gradual decrease . The data also reveals an upward trend in the motor vehicle
share of trips of the elderly and women, and in the number of private trips. Regarding the flow of goods, the tonnage per person has been
constantly decreasing since the latter half of the ‘90s; transportation in ton-kilometers has been almost flat although there some periodicity isobserved. In ton-kilometers, the share of motor vehicles is increasing noticeably.

□

Passenger transportation in the past 35 years.  In regards to motor vehicles, the number of trips and the distance traveled per person peryear have been generally increasing, although the distance traveled started to decrease from FY 1999, then became stable. Railways,
after their peak in the early 90’s, decreased to the lowest level in FY 2004, then began another upward trend. There has been a nearconstant decrease in travel on passenger ships, and an increase in air travel, but for the past several years, both have remained almost
stable. The cumulative total of all those transportation modes shows that the number of trips has been generally on an upward trend,
while the distance traveled has shown a generally downward trend. (Fig. 1 & 2)

Fig. 1 A nnual number of trips (per person)


FY






㪈㪌㪏㩷

㪉㪊㪉㩷



㪉㪏㪍㩷

㪈㪅㪎㩷
㪈㪌㪋㩷



㪉㪏㪍㩷

㪈㪌㪏㩷

Motor vehicles

㪇㪅㪈㩷
㪈㪅㪋㩷

Fig. 2 A nnual distance traveled (per person)(trips/person/year)



Rail

㪇㪅㪊㩷

Passenger ships

㪇㪅㪋㩷

Air

FY









Motor vehicles

㪋㪍
㪉㪃㪍㪏㪎

㪊㪃㪍㪏㪏





㪇㪅㪌㩷
㪈㪅㪊㩷
㪇㪅㪍㩷
㪈㪏㪇㩷
㪈㪅㪉㩷
㪈㪎㪈㩷
㪇㪅㪎㩷
㪇㪅㪐㩷
㪈㪎㪉㩷
㪇㪅㪎㩷
㪇㪅㪏㩷
㪇㪅㪎㩷
㪈㪏㪇㩷
㪇㪅㪏㩷

㪋㪏㪏㩷



㪋㪐㪌㩷



㪌㪈㪍㩷



㪌㪉㪊㩷

Passenger ships
Air

㪉㪎㪋

㪉㪃㪎㪉㪎

㪋㪃㪇㪋㪉

㪋㪏
㪈㪎㪎㩷

㪋㪌㪈㩷

Rail

㪉㪌㪋
㪌㪉

㪈㪅㪊㩷


(km/person/year)





㪐㪇

㪉㪃㪎㪏㪌

㪉㪃㪎㪋㪇





Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (latest edition,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)



㪋㪈㪏

㪊㪃㪈㪊㪌

㪍㪃㪐㪇㪈

㪌㪈


㪌㪈㪏

㪊㪃㪈㪏㪍

㪎㪃㪊㪇㪍

㪋㪌


㪍㪉㪏

㪊㪃㪇㪉㪐

㪎㪃㪋㪐㪌

㪊㪋


㪍㪎㪈

㪊㪃㪇㪐㪐

㪎㪃㪈㪏㪋

㪊㪇


㪍㪊㪋

㪊㪃㪈㪍㪏

㪎㪃㪇㪐㪋

㪉㪎

Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (latest edition,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Note: “Motor vehicles” includes small-engine vehicles (“light motor vehicles”) since 1987, which explains the noticeable change inthe figures beginning around that year.

□

In regards to freight transport, the annual transportation tonnage per person has been decreasing since around 1970 for railways, andsince the ‘90s for motor vehicles and coastal shipping; for aircraft, the figures have remained flat in recent years. In annual transportation
ton-kilometers per person, there is an upward trend for motor vehicles and a downward trend for coastal shipping; for railways andaircraft, the figures have been flat for the last ten years or so. (Fig. 3 & 4)

Fig. 3 A nnual freight transport tonnage (per person)








FY


㪋㪌㩷



㪋㪌㩷
㪋㪉㩷



㪋㪐㩷



㪋㪏㩷






㪋㪌㩷

Motor vehicles
Rail
Coastal shipping
Air

㪊㪐㩷
㪊㪎㩷

(ton/person/year)


㪉㪅㪋㩷
㪊㪅㪍㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪈㩷㪈㪅㪋㩷㪋㪅㪊㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪊㩷㪇㪅㪏㩷㪊㪅㪎㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪋㩷㪇㪅㪎㩷㪋㪅㪎㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪎㩷㪇㪅㪍㩷㪋㪅㪋㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪏㩷㪇㪅㪌㩷㪋㪅㪉㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪐㩷



㪇㪅㪋㩷
㪊㪅㪊㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪏㩷㪇㪅㪋㩷㪊㪅㪇㩷 㪇㪅㪇㪇㪏㩷

Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (latest edition,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)Fig. 4 Annual freight transport ton-kilometers (per person)(ton-kilometers/person/year)






FY


㪈㪃㪊㪈㪇

㪍㪇㪏



㪈㪃㪌㪉㪏

㪊㪉㪇
㪈㪏㪈



㪈㪃㪎㪇㪈

㪈㪃㪋㪌㪏

Motor vehicles

㪇㪅㪎㩷

㪈㪃㪏㪐㪏

㪉㪅㪌㩷

㪈㪃㪎㪇㪇

㪋㪅㪇㩷

Rail
Coastal shipping
Air

㪉㪉㪇


㪉㪃㪉㪈㪐

㪈㪃㪐㪎㪏

㪍㪅㪌㩷

㪈㪃㪏㪐㪏

㪎㪅㪋㩷

㪉㪇㪇


㪉㪃㪊㪋㪍
㪈㪎㪋



㪉㪃㪋㪍㪎

㪈㪃㪐㪇㪋

㪏㪅㪌㩷

㪈㪃㪍㪌㪍

㪏㪅㪋㩷

㪈㪃㪋㪎㪈

㪏㪅㪋㩷

㪈㪎㪐


㪉㪃㪍㪉㪉
㪈㪎㪋



㪉㪃㪎㪈㪊

Source: Transportatio-related statistics data collection (latest edition,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
The number of trips per person per day is decreasing for males 54 and younger and females 34 and younger, while it is increasing for theelderly. For the total of all age groups, it has been decreasing year by year until recent years, when the trend flattened out. (Fig. 5 & 6)
Fig. 6 C hanges in the number of trips per female per day(nationwide, weekdays)

㪊㪅㪌㩷

㪊㪅㪌㩷

㪊㪅㪇㩷

㪊㪅㪇㩷

㪉㪅㪌㩷

㪉㪅㪌㩷

Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

2005

75 andover

1992 1999

Age 65-74

75 and
over

1987

2005

Age 55-64

1992 1999

Age 65-74

Age 55-64

Age 35-44

Age 5-14

Age 45-54

㪇㪅㪇㩷
Age 25-34

㪇㪅㪇㩷

Age 15-24

㪇㪅㪌㩷

1987

□

㪈㪅㪇㩷

㪇㪅㪌㩷

Age 45-54

㪈㪅㪇㩷

㪈㪅㪌㩷

Age 35-44

㪈㪅㪌㩷

㪉㪅㪇㩷

Age 25-34

㪉㪅㪇㩷

Age 15-24(trips/person/day)(trips/person/day)Fig. 5 C hanges in the number of trips per male per day(nationwide, weekdays)

Age 5-14□

Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Looking at the modal share of motor vehicle by gender and by age, we see that for males, there was a greater increase among the elderly; forfemales, the increase was through most age groups. This tendency is more noticeable in local city areas than in the three major metropolitan
areas. The modal share of  motor vehicle by females aged 25 to 44 in local city areas has increased to that of males. (Fig. 7 & 8)

Fig. 7 C hanges in the modal share of motor vehicle by males(by age, weekdays)

Fig. 8 C hanges in the modal share of motor vehicle byfemales (by age, weekdays)

㪈㪇㪇㩼

㪈㪇㪇㩼

㪐㪇㩼

㪐㪇㩼

㪏㪇㩼

The 3 major metropolitan
areas (1987)

㪎㪇㩼

㪏㪇㩼

The 3 major metropolitan
areas (1987)

㪎㪇㩼

㪍㪇㩼

The 3 major metropolitan
areas (2005)

㪍㪇㩼

The 3 major metropolitan
areas (2005)

㪌㪇㩼

Local city areas (1987)

㪌㪇㩼

Local city areas (1987)

75 and overAge 65-74

Age 55-64

Age 45-54

Age 5-14

75 and overAge 65-74

Age 55-64

Age 45-54

㪇㩼

Age 35-44㪈㪇㩼㪇㩼

Age 25-34

㪉㪇㩼

㪈㪇㩼

Age 15-24

㪉㪇㩼

Age 5-14

Local city areas (2005)

㪊㪇㩼

Age 35-44

㪊㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

Age 25-34

Local city areas (2005)

Age 15-24

㪋㪇㩼Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 9 C hanges in the modal share(based on the main/
representative mode) (weekdays)■ The motor vehicle share is on an upward trend both in thethree major metropolitan areas and in local city areas. Motorvehicle use is even higher on holidays than on weekdays.

Fig. 10 C hanges of the trip purpose

㪇㩼

㪈㪇㩼

㪉㪇㩼

㪊㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

㪌㪇㩼

㪍㪇㩼

㪎㪇㩼

㪏㪇㩼

㪐㪇㩼

1987

㪉㪉㪅㪋㩷

㪉㪍㪅㪊㩷

㪈㪐㪅㪎㩷

㪉㪌㪅㪍㩷

㪉㪐㪅㪇㩷

㪈㪍㪅㪐㩷

㪉㪊㪅㪐㩷

㪈㪇㩼

㪉㪇㩼

㪊㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

㪌㪇㩼

㪍㪇㩼

㪎㪇㩼

㪏㪇㩼

㪐㪇㩼

Weekdays 1987

㪈㪊㪅㪊㩷

㪐㪅㪌㩷

㪈㪉㪅㪍㩷

㪉㪌㪅㪉㩷

1992

㪈㪋㪅㪊㩷

㪏㪅㪌㩷

㪈㪇㪅㪋㩷

㪋㪇㪅㪐㩷

㪉㪌㪅㪐㩷

㪉㪅㪏㩷
1999

㪇㩼

㪉㪏㪅㪊㩷

㪊㪅㪉㩷
1992

As for the trip purpose, here is  a downward trend for “goingto school” and “business.” while “personal matters” is on an
upward trend.

㪈㪇㪇㩼

㪊㪅㪊㩷
The 3 major
metropolitan
areas

■

㪋㪇㪅㪍㩷

㪈㪇㪇㩼

㪉㪋㪅㪇㩷

㪊㪊㪅㪋㩷

㪈㪏㪅㪉㩷

㪉㪈㪅㪎㩷

1999

㪈㪌㪅㪎㩷

㪎㪅㪉㩷

㪐㪅㪊㩷

㪋㪈㪅㪌㩷

㪉㪍㪅㪉㩷

㪊㪊㪅㪎㩷

㪈㪏㪅㪌㩷

㪉㪉㪅㪇㩷

2005

㪈㪌㪅㪏㩷

㪎㪅㪈㩷

㪏㪅㪊㩷

㪋㪈㪅㪎㩷

㪉㪎㪅㪈㩷

㪉㪅㪌㩷
2005

㪉㪊㪅㪊㩷
㪋㪅㪌㩷

Local cityareas

1 9 8 7 㪉㪅㪌㩷

㪋㪇㪅㪌㩷

㪉㪌㪅㪐㩷

㪉㪍㪅㪎㩷

H o l i d a y s 1987 㪊㪅㪋㩷

㪋㪅㪊㩷

㪋㪈㪅㪐㩷

㪋㪏㪅㪉㩷

㪉㪅㪊㩷

㪋㪅㪌㩷
1992 㪉㪅㪐㩷

㪋㪏㪅㪉㩷

㪉㪈㪅㪋㩷

㪉㪉㪅㪐㩷

1992 㪊㪅㪇㩷

㪈㪅㪎㩷

㪋㪈㪅㪏㩷

㪌㪈㪅㪌㩷

㪈㪅㪏㩷

㪋㪈㪅㪌㩷

㪌㪉㪅㪈㩷

㪉㪅㪐㩷

㪋㪈㪅㪈㩷

㪉㪅㪇㩷

㪊㪅㪏㩷
1999 㪊㪅㪊㩷

㪌㪈㪅㪋㩷

㪉㪇㪅㪋㩷

㪉㪈㪅㪈㩷

1999 㪊㪅㪐㩷
㪇㪅㪎㩷

㪊㪅㪇㩷
2005 㪊㪅㪍㩷㪌㪍㪅㪋㩷Railroads

Buses

㪈㪏㪅㪌㩷
VehiclesMotorcycles
and bicycles㪈㪏㪅㪌㩷Walking andotherSource: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

2005 㪋㪅㪇㩷

㪌㪈㪅㪉㩷

㪇㪅㪐㩷
CommuteGoing toschoolBusiness

Going home

Personal
matters

Source: 2005 Survey on Transportation Characteristics in Cities Nationwide(Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)



1 -2

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

Road Network Today

Chief Researcher, The Institute of Behavioral Sciences

Tsutomu Yabe

The length of our roads has been steadily extended thanks to ongoing road improvement, yet it is not still sufficient for traffic demand. As a result,the average speed on roads remains unchanged at a lower level. A case in point: in city centers such as Tokyo and Osaka, and in DID(Densely
Inhabited District) areas , there is still chronic traffic congestion. Given that background, road network improvements (e.g., the ring road
improvement plans that are proceeding in the three major metropolitan areas) are obviously playing a significant role.

Fig. 1 C hanges in the length of completed roads by road typeFig. 2 Changes in traffic volume and road length■■

Road length (1000km)

㪋㪐㪅㪈 㪌㪇㪅㪇
㪋㪈㪅㪌

㪋㪈㪅㪇

㪋㪊㪅㪍

㪋㪈㪅㪐
㪊㪏㪅㪋 㪊㪏㪅㪌

㪋㪇
㪊㪊㪅㪐

㪊㪊㪅㪊

㪊㪇

㪋㪊㪅㪇

㪊㪉㪅㪏

㪉㪍㪅㪋

㪉㪇
㪈㪇
㪉㪅㪍

㪋㪅㪎

㪍㪅㪍 㪎㪅㪋 㪎㪅㪍㪇National expressways(Type of road)

National highways

1980

1990

㪉㪇㪇

㪈㪃㪉㪇㪇

㪋㪋㪅㪊

Major regional roads

2000

Prefectural roads

2005

Traffic volume (billion vehicle-kilometers)

㪋㪏㪅㪇

㪌㪇

Vehicle-kilometers (passengers + freight)
Traffic volume of light motor vehicles out of the above
Length of completed road (5.5m and wider in width,with improvements finished)

㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪏㪇㪇

㪍㪇㪇

㪈㪈㪎 㪈㪈㪐 㪈㪉㪈

㪌㪉㪏

㪌㪌㪈

㪈㪉㪊 㪈㪉㪌㪈㪉㪎㪌㪐㪍㪌㪍㪍 㪌㪍㪐 㪌㪎㪍㪈㪊㪋 㪈㪊㪍㪈㪉㪐 㪈㪊㪈 㪈㪊㪊㪍㪈㪇 㪍㪈㪌 㪍㪈㪋 㪍㪉㪍 㪍㪊㪈㪈㪊㪎 㪈㪊㪏 㪈㪋㪇 㪈㪋㪈㪍㪋㪇 㪍㪊㪋 㪍㪉㪐㪈㪋㪉 㪈㪋㪊 㪈㪋㪋 㪈㪋㪌

㪈㪍㪇
㪈㪋㪇
㪈㪉㪇

㪍㪈㪇 㪌㪐㪉㪌㪏㪇 㪌㪎㪋

㪌㪊㪎

㪈㪇㪇
㪏㪇

㪋㪇㪇

㪍㪇
㪋㪇

㪉㪇㪇

2008

㪈㪇㪈 㪈㪇㪍 㪈㪈㪉 㪈㪈㪌 㪈㪈㪏 㪈㪉㪋 㪈㪉㪏 㪈㪉㪐 㪈㪊㪉 㪈㪊㪐 㪈㪋㪌

Source: Road Statistics Annual Report (Road Bureau, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)㪈㪏㪇㪈㪌㪈 㪈㪌㪍 㪈㪍㪌 㪈㪎㪈 㪈㪎㪍 㪈㪏㪉 㪈㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪌

Road length (1000 kilometers)

㪍㪇

The figure for traffic volume in vehicle-kilometers, after
peaking in 2001, is on a downward trend; but the figure forlight motor vehicles is on an upward trend. Road length
nationwide is steadily increasing.

㪉㪇㪇㪇㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪈 㪈㪐㪐㪉 㪈㪐㪐㪊 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪌 㪈㪐㪐㪍 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪈 㪉㪇㪇㪉 㪉㪇㪇㪊 㪉㪇㪇㪋 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪉㪇㪇㪍 㪉㪇㪇㪎 㪉㪇㪇㪏

(FY)

Source: Transportation–related statistics data collection (Transport
Research and Statistics Office, Information Security, Researchand Statistics Division, Information Policy Headquarters, Policy
Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 3 C omparison of road length density in ordinancedesignated cities

Fig. 4 C hanges in average traffic volume and average travel
speed by type of road■■The greater the area of the city the DID (Densely Inhabited
District) occupies, the higher the percentage of improved (vs.
unimproved) road length on the road length density scale.
㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪈㪇㪇㩼 㪐㪊㩼 㪏㪋㩼 㪎㪐㩼 㪎㪇㩼 㪌㪊㩼 㪋㪋㩼 㪋㪊㩼 㪊㪉㩼 㪉㪎㩼 㪉㪇㩼 㪈㪎㩼 㪈㪎㩼 㪈㪌㩼 㪈㪋㩼

㪈㪇㪇

㪎㩼

㪍㩼

Unimproved
Already
improved

㪊㪉㪅㪈

㪋㪇
㪉㪅㪍

㪋㪅㪈

㪍㪅㪊

㪉㪅㪐

㪍㪅㪍 㪈㪈㪅㪇 㪈㪇㪅㪊

㪋㪅㪊

㪋㪅㪍

㪍㪅㪍 㪌㪐㪅㪎

㪐㪅㪍

㪈㪇㪅㪋

㪊㪌㪅㪉

㪉㪉㪅㪊 㪈㪐㪅㪌㪉㪉㪅㪌 㪈㪐㪅㪐㪉㪈㪅㪈 㪉㪈㪅㪌㪈㪍㪅㪎 㪈㪍㪅㪏㪈㪍㪅㪊 㪈㪌㪅㪊 㪈㪋㪅㪌 㪈㪏㪅㪎 㪈㪌㪅㪐 㪈㪍㪅㪌
㪈㪋㪅㪎

㪉㪌㪅㪉

Shizuoka

㪉㪅㪏

㪈㪍㪅㪐

㪈㪊㪅㪌

㪋㪅㪋

Hamamatsu

Niigata

Hiroshima

Kyoto

SendaiKobe

Sapporo

Chiba

Kitakyushu

Fukuoka

Sakai

Saitama

Yokohama

NagoyaOsaka

Kawasaki㪇Average traffic volume (vehicles/12 hours)

㪋㪈㪅㪉

㪍㪇

㪉㪇

㪈㪇㪇

㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪏㪇

Wards of Tokyo

Road length density (kilometers/km2)

㪈㪉㪇The average traffic volume on expressways has been on a
downward trend since 1997, partly because of the newly
constructed ones with  less traffic. However, traffic is on an
upward trend for national ordinary roads and regionsl roads.
The average travel speed for either type of road remains levelor is on a slightly downward trend.

㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪏㪇㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪍㪇㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪇㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇㪉㪇㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇㪇* Road length density = road length per area of DID* Among roads as defined by the Road Act; excludes national
expressways.
* Number of lanes and road widths are not taken into account.
* The figure in the square is the DID area percentage of the total city area.
Source:10

road length: taken from data of each municipality (Apr., 2008)
DID area: 2005 National Population Census

㪇
㪈㪐㪏㪇

㪈㪐㪏㪊

㪈㪐㪏㪌

㪈㪐㪏㪏

㪈㪐㪐㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪋

㪈㪐㪐㪎

㪈㪐㪐㪐

㪉㪇㪇㪌

Average traffic volume on expressways

Average traffic volume on national highways

Average traffic volume on local roads

Average travel speed on expressways

Average travel speed on national highways

Average travel speed on regional roads

Source: Road Traffic Census (website of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Average travel speed (km/hour)

For all types of roads, the length of completed road (i.e., withimprovements completed) is increasing steadily.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 5 A
 verage travel speed on national ordinary roads(Nationwide, Tokyo, & Osaka)■ For years there has been almost no change in the national
average. The average travel speed in the wards of Tokyo andin Osaka City is about half the national average; there is stillsevere traffic congestion.

㪈㪇㪇

㪊㪐㪅㪋
㪋㪇

㪊㪍㪅㪋

㪊㪍㪅㪐

㪊㪎㪅㪊

㪊㪎㪅㪊

㪊㪍㪅㪎

㪊㪍㪅㪇

㪊㪍㪅㪎

㪊㪍㪅㪎

㪊㪇
㪉㪈㪅㪌
㪉㪇

㪉㪈㪅㪋

㪈㪎㪅㪊
㪈㪍㪅㪍

㪈㪇

㪈㪐㪅㪌

㪉㪇㪅㪈

㪉㪇㪅㪈

㪈㪐㪅㪈

㪈㪐㪅㪏

㪈㪏㪅㪊

㪈㪋㪅㪏

㪈㪍㪅㪎

㪈㪌㪅㪏

㪈㪏㪅㪇
㪈㪎㪅㪇

㪈㪏㪅㪉
㪈㪌㪅㪐

㪈㪈㪅㪍

Average travel speed (km/hour)

Average travel speed (km/hour)㪌㪇Fig. 6 A
 verage travel speed on expressways (Nationwide,
Tokyo, & Osaka)■ For years the national average has been on a slightly downward
trend. Though there had been changes through the years in the
average travel speed in the wards of Tokyo and in Osaka City,
the speeds were always lower than the national average.   

㪇
㪈㪐㪏㪊

㪈㪐㪏㪌

㪈㪐㪏㪏

㪈㪐㪐㪇

Nationwide

㪈㪐㪐㪋

㪈㪐㪐㪎

㪈㪐㪐㪐

㪉㪇㪇㪌

Source: Road Traffic Census (website of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 7 D egree of congestion of expressways and national
ordinary roads (by roadside condition)■ The degree of congestion exceeds 1.0 on national ordinary
roads along densely inhabited areas (DID).
㪈㪅㪋㪇
㪈㪅㪈㪏

㪈㪅㪉㪇

㪈㪅㪈㪏

㪈㪅㪈㪏

Degree of congestion

㪈㪅㪉㪇
㪈㪅㪇㪇

㪇㪅㪐㪎

㪇㪅㪐㪍

㪈㪅㪈㪌

㪈㪅㪈㪈

㪇㪅㪐㪏

㪇㪅㪏㪇
㪇㪅㪍㪇
㪇㪅㪋㪇
㪇㪅㪉㪇
㪈㪐㪏㪇

㪈㪐㪏㪊

㪈㪐㪏㪌

㪈㪐㪏㪏

㪈㪐㪐㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪋

Expressway (DID)
Expressway (non-DID city area)
Expressway (level terrain)
Expressway (mountain area)

㪈㪐㪐㪎

㪈㪐㪐㪐

㪉㪇㪇㪌

Ordinary road (DID)
Ordinary road (non-DID city area)
Ordinary road (level terrain)
Ordinary road (mountain area)

㪏㪇㪅㪍

㪎㪐㪅㪈

㪎㪌㪅㪌

㪎㪌㪅㪈

㪎㪊㪅㪎

㪌㪋㪅㪈

㪍㪇

㪋㪎㪅㪋

㪊㪐㪅㪊

㪋㪍㪅㪍

㪋㪈㪅㪐

㪋㪇

㪋㪍㪅㪉

㪋㪈㪅㪏

㪊㪈㪅㪉

㪉㪇

㪊㪌㪅㪏

㪋㪍㪅㪍
㪋㪇㪅㪐

㪊㪍㪅㪊

㪉㪏㪅㪋

㪊㪋㪅㪈
㪉㪏㪅㪌

㪉㪐㪅㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪎

㪈㪐㪐㪐

㪉㪍㪅㪇

㪈㪌㪅㪌
㪈㪐㪏㪇

㪈㪐㪏㪊

㪈㪐㪏㪌

㪈㪐㪏㪏

㪈㪐㪐㪇

Nationwide

㪈㪐㪐㪋

Osaka

Tokyo

㪉㪇㪇㪌
(FY)

Source: Road Traffic Census (website of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Note: For expressways in Tokyo and Osaka, the Metropolitan
Expressway and Hanshin Expressway include segments
managed by NEXCO.

Fig. 8 A
 verage 12-hour traffic volume on ordinary roads
by type of vehicles■ On ordinary roads, the traffic volume of passenger cars is on
an upward trend.
㪏㪃㪇㪇㪇Ordinary trucks

㪍㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪋㪃㪇㪇㪇

Small trucks
Buses
Passenger cars

䋨㪊㪃㪍㪎㪌䋩

䋨㪊㪃㪐㪊㪏䋩 䋨㪋㪃㪇㪇㪋䋩䋨㪌㪃㪇㪎㪊䋩
䋨㪋㪃㪋㪈㪐䋩

䋨㪌㪃㪊㪉㪐䋩 䋨㪌㪃㪋㪈㪌䋩 䋨㪌㪃㪋㪍㪊䋩䋨㪋㪃㪍㪎㪇䋩

㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇㪇㪈㪐㪏㪇 㪈㪐㪏㪊 㪈㪐㪏㪌 㪈㪐㪏㪏 㪈㪐㪐㪇 㪈㪐㪐㪋 㪈㪐㪐㪎 㪈㪐㪐㪐 㪉㪇㪇㪌Note: Figures in parentheses are the average traffic volume of
all types of vehicles.

Source: Road Traffic Census (website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism)

Note: Congestion level is given by the traffic volume per roadcapacity (in daytime 12 hours).

㪎㪍㪅㪈

㪍㪍㪅㪍

(FY)

Osaka

Tokyo

㪎㪍㪅㪎

㪇

Average traffic volume (vehicles/12 hours)

㪈㪐㪏㪇

㪎㪐㪅㪋
㪏㪇

Source: Road Traffic Census (website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 9 R oad network improvement plans and road conditions in the three major metropolitan areas (from left: Tokyo,
Kinki , and Chukyo area)■ To cope with chronic congestion in the three major metropolitan areas, road network improvement plans (e.g., ring roads andexpressways) are being carried out.
Ring road Legend

Metropolitan Inter-City Expressway

Tokai Ring Expressway

In useUnder construction
Under planningTokyo Outer Ring Road

Nagoya Ring Expressway 2

Metropolitan Expressway
Central Loop
Osaka City Revival
Ring Road
Kansai Greater Ring
Expressway

Osaka Bay Ring Road

Kansai Central Ring
Expressway

Ring road Legend

Ring road Legend

In useIn useUnder construction※（　）内は、４車種合計の平均交通量

As of May 1, 2010

Under planning

Under construction

As of May 1, 2010

Under planning

As of May 1, 2010

Source: website of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

11

1 -3

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

Freight Road Transport Today

Associate Professor, School of Commerce,
Senshu University

Eiichiro Iwao

Freight road transport today has several features. For ordinary trucks in commercial use, there has been almost no change in distance traveled,
but total cargo weight is on a downward trend. At the same time, for ordinary trucks in private use, the distance traveled and the weighttransported are both on a downward trend. In the number of trucks owned, there has been a constant decrease of private trucks and an increasein commercial trucks. Such data would indicate that freight transport is shifting from private trucks to commercial trucks.
Also, the fact that package and mailing handling, as well as regular parcel post delivery, are increasing indicates that small-lot freight transport ison the rise.

□

Distance traveled by vehicles: For passenger transport, there has been a downward trend since 2001 for passenger cars (private use). For
freight transport, there has been a continuous decrease for small vehicles (private use). However, almost no change has been seen forother types of motor vehicle.  
Fig. 2 C hanges in distance traveled in freight transport,
by vehicle type
Total distance traveled (billion kilometers)

Fig. 1 C hanges in distance traveled in passenger
transport, by vehicle type
Total distance traveled (billion kilometers)

㪌㪇㪇
㪋㪌㪇
㪋㪇㪇
㪊㪌㪇
㪊㪇㪇
㪉㪌㪇
㪉㪇㪇
㪈㪌㪇
㪈㪇㪇

㪐㪇
㪏㪇
㪎㪇
㪍㪇
㪌㪇
㪋㪇
㪊㪇
㪉㪇
㪈㪇
㪇

㪌㪇

㪉㪇㪇㪇

㪇
2000
Buses
(commercial)

2001
2002
Passenger cars
(commercial)

2003
2004
Buses
(private)

2005
2006
Passenger cars
(private)

2007
2008
Light motor
vehicles (private)

㪉㪇㪇㪈

㪉㪇㪇㪉

㪉㪇㪇㪊

㪉㪇㪇㪋

㪉㪇㪇㪌

㪉㪇㪇㪍

㪉㪇㪇㪎

㪉㪇㪇㪏

Ordinary vehicles (commercial)

Small vehicles (commercial)

Special use vehicles (commercial)

Light vehicles (commercial)

Ordinary vehicles (private)

Small vehicles (private)

Special use vehicles (private)

Light vehicles (private)

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information and research Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism); Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 4 C hanges in distance traveled per working day pervehicle, by type of use (private vs. commercial)

Fig. 3 Changes in cargo weight, by vehicle type㪉㪌㪇

Distance traveled (kilometers)

Total weight transported (million tons)

㪉㪃㪌㪇㪇

㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪃㪌㪇㪇

㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪇㪇

㪈㪌㪇

㪈㪇㪇

㪌㪇

㪌㪇㪇

㪇

2000

㪇
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Ordinary vehicles (commercial)

Small vehicles (commercial)

Special use vehicles (commercial)

Light vehicles (commercial)

Ordinary vehicles (private)

Small vehicles (private)

Special use vehicles (private)

Light vehicles (private)

2001

2002

Ordinary vehicles (commercial)
Light vehicles (commercial)
Special use vehicles (private)

2003

2004

2005

2006

Small vehicles (commercial)
Ordinary vehicles (private)
Light vehicles (private)

2007

2008

Special use vehicles (commercial)
Small vehicles (private)

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information
and research Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information andresearch Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 5 N umber of freight businesses, by number ofvehicles owned (mixed load services)Fig. 6 N umber of freight businesses, by number ofvehicles owned (general freight services)㪐㪇㪊㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪏㪇
Number of businesses

Number of businesses㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪎㪇
㪍㪇
㪌㪇
㪋㪇
㪊㪇
㪉㪇

㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪇㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇㪇
FY 2000

FY 2001

FY 2002

FY 2003

FY 2004

FY 2005

FY 2006

FY 2007

FY 2008㪇
10 vehicles
or less

20 vehicles
or less

50 vehicles
or less

100 vehicles
or less

200 vehicles
or less

201 vehicles
or moreData: assembled from data of Cargo Transport Division, Road Transport Bureau
Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy
Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

12

FY 2000

10 vehicles or less

FY 2001

FY 200220 vehicles or less

FY 200350 vehicles or less

FY 2004

FY 2005

100 vehicles or less

FY 2006

FY 2007

200 vehicles or less

FY 2008
201 vehicles or more

Data: assembled from data of Cargo Transport Division, Road Transport Bureau
Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy
Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 7 Changes in private and commercial truck ownership
Truck ownership (1000 trucks)

㪐㪃㪇㪇㪇Fig. 8 C hanges in the amount of package and mailinghandling, as well as regular parcel post delivery
㪍㪇㪇

㪎㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪍㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪊㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

㪇

Amount handled (10,000 parcels/mailings)

㪏㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪌㪇㪇

㪋㪇㪇

㪊㪇㪇

㪉㪇㪇

㪈㪇㪇

㪇

Trucks in private use

Source: Annual Land Transport Statistics (Information and Reserch
Department, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism); Transportation-related statistics data collection(Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Fig. 9 C hanges in percent of capacity loaded (trucks)■

FY 2000

Total

The percentage loaded on trucks was on a downward trend
until 2003; since then, it continues to fluctuate. The percentage
is higher for commercial use than for private use.

㪌㪌㪅㪇㩼
㪌㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪋㪌㪅㪇㩼
㪋㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪊㪌㪅㪇㩼
㪊㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪉㪌㪅㪇㩼
㪉㪇㪅㪇㩼
㪈㪌㪅㪇㩼

FY 2003

FY 2004

FY 2005

FY 2006

FY 2007

Delivery services (air, etc.)

FY 2008

Mailing delivery

Fig. 10 C hanges in average distance transported per ton
by mode
㪈㪃㪉㪇㪇

㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪏㪇㪇

㪍㪇㪇

㪋㪇㪇

㪉㪇㪇

㪇
1985
JR rail containers

㪌㪅㪇㩼
㪇㪅㪇㩼
2000

2001

2002

2003

Commercial trucks

2004

2005

2006

Private trucks

2007

2008

Total trucks

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information andresearch Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism)
Note:
Percentage of capacity loaded is derived from transported ton-kilometers
per capacity ton-kilometers. Excludes vehicles for special use.

1990

1995

JR bulk transport

2000

2003

Commercial trucks

2004

2005

Private trucks

2006

2007

Coastal shipping

2008
Domestic air

Source: Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information
Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism)
Note: 1)	Coastal shipping includes private ships.
2)	Figures for Japan Railway are the total transport distance withfee and without fee before 1986, and (since 1987) with fee
only.
3)	Figures for domestic air (regular flights only) include figures foroverweight checked baggage and mail.

Fuel consumption per ordinary truck (commercial) per day is on a downward trend regardless of fuel type.

Fig. 11 C hanges in fuel consumption per truck per day(gasoline)

Fig. 12 C hanges in fuel consumption per truck per day(diesel)㪎㪇Fuel consumption per truck per day (liter)㪉㪌
Fuel consumption per truck per day (liter)

FY 2002

Source: website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism; statistics data of Japan Post Service Co., Ltd.

㪈㪇㪅㪇㩼

□

FY 2001

Delivery services (truck)

Average distance transported per ton of freight (kilometers)

Trucks in commercial use

㪉㪇

㪈㪌

㪈㪇

㪌

㪇
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Ordinary trucks (commercial)

Small trucks (commercial)

Special use trucks (commercial)

Light trucks (commercial)

Ordinary trucks (private)

Small trucks (private)

Special use trucks (private)

Light trucks (private)

㪍㪇
㪌㪇
㪋㪇
㪊㪇
㪉㪇
㪈㪇
㪇
2000

2001

2002

Ordinary trucks (commercial)
Ordinary trucks (private)

2003

2004

2005

Small trucks (commercial)
Small trucks (private)

2006

2007

2008

Special use trucks (commercial)

Special use trucks (private)

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (Information and Reserch Department, Policy Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism); Transportation-related statistics data collection (Information Policy Headquarters, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

13

1 -4

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

Public Transport Today

Chief Researcher, Institute of Transportation Economics

Kazuya Itaya

In general, automobile passenger-kilometers are decreasing; while railways and buses have been increased slightly since around 2002. The
passenger moving between cities on public transport is increasing, and there is a particularly noticeable increase in the number of passengers
of Shinkansen lines. The role of public transport is increasing, especially for long distance travel. In the three metropolitan areas, the railway
congestion rate continues to decrease; then too, many new lines have been built. Trough – operation of railway service using tracks of different
company’s railway line is also being taken. By contrast, the bus industry in general is becoming unprofitable; nevertheless the number ofbusinesses is increasing. Finally, the total number of traffic fatalities with public transport is very small; public transport is safe transport.

Fig. 1 Number of passengers of railways and buses■ In recent years, the use of railways is gradually increasing; but
the use of buses is almost unchanged.
600

100 million passengers

479.4

500

518.0 523.1
500.1 512.7

527.2 527.6 537.3 538.3

430.6
400

100 million passenger-kilometers
Bus

Railway

RailwayBus

Automobile

Automobile

8000

7411.5 7525.3

7566.3 7550.6 7506.2

7376.2 7238.7 7245.9

259.0

176.8
190.8

107.3 99.0

5755.1

6000

4000

219.4 226.3 216.5 217.2 215.6 217.6 216.9 219.6 222.4 228.4 229.8

3843.63238.0 3212.7

3000
2000

87.8 85.6 76.2
66.4 64.9 62.9 61.9 60.0 58.9 59.1 59.6 59.3

0

1000

3874.8 4000.6 3844.4 3854.2 3822.4 3849.6 3851.6 3911.5 3959.1

2508.01100.6 1104.0 1049.0 1103.7 972.9

1975 1980

1985 1990

873.1

1995 2000

863.5

861.8

2001 2002

863.9

862.9

2003 2004

880.7

887.0

2005 2006

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport;
Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Motor Vehicle Transport;
Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport

Fig. 3 O
 perating kilometers and number of passengers
of Shinkansen■ Use increased over a long period, then decreased in 2008.

Fig. 4 Number of intercity passengers, by mode

Operating kilometers (km)Number of passengers (millions)
Number of passengers

Operating kilometers2500

275.9 280.6 282.5 278.4 282.5

260.1

290.7

301.4 305.1

315.8 310.3

2000

1500

157.3

2152.92152.92036.5125.62387.12387.12387.12249.52387.12387.12387.12032.91000

2011.8500

1176.51176.5

0

899.2

2007 2008(×100,000 passengers)

350.0

3500

300.0

3000 2809.6 2820.7 2804.6 2774.4 2806.1 2825.4 2783.8 2825.4

250.0

2500

200.0

2000

150.0

1500

100.0

1000

50.0

500

0.0

0

2906.93014.1 3050.9

3158.5 3102.9

Express buses

Aircraft

991.8 1013.5
905.9 929.3 942.1 956.6 966.9 937.7 944.2 963.4
811.5 852.4 867.9
955.4
839.4
856.0 834.6 843.6 790.5
769.6
666.9 660.6 696.9
550.1 576.9 597.1

1996

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

889.7

In 2008, the use of Shinkansen and aircraft decreased; but
the use of express buses continues to increase.

■

Shinkansen

179.8

4055.4 4045.9

3145.4 3300.101975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

3000

7131.46646.3

5000

236.1

175.9 180.0
100

9000

7000

362.0

300

200

Fig. 2 Railway and bus passenger-kilometers■ While automobile passenger-kilometers are gradually
decreasing, railway and bus passenger-kilometers are gradually
increasing, after having reached their lowest level in 2002.

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Source: Before 1985: Railways 2008: the numbers.
After 1990: Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport

Source: Annual Statistical Report on Railway Transport; Railways 2008: thenumbers; Annual Statistical Report on Air Transport (each year)

Fig. 5 Modal share by distance traveled■ Comparing 2002 with 2007, on the whole the transport shareof motor vehicles decreased while the share of public transport
increased.

Fig. 6 Bus industry income vs. expenditures■ In the past 18 years, the balance ratio overall has never exceeded 100.
[Balance ratio = (current income / current expenditure) × 100]

100%

100

0.1

0.1

0.1
0.3 0.3

3.5
2.0

3.4
1.7

80%

60%

74.7 75.3

51.7
77.1 77.2

19.6

Public

1.5

2.9
10.7
63.9

61.3

51.6

0.6

31.0

93.7

41.1

25.2 24.6

22.5 22.5

2007 2002

2007 2002

2007 2002

2007 2002

less than 100km

100-300km

300-500km

500-750km

33.7

AircraftPassenger
ships
Motor
vehiclesRailways

90

80

2007 2002

2007 2002 (Survey FY)

75750-1000km

1000km and more

Source: Analytical data from Survey on Flows of Freight andPassengers (2007 edition)

94.7 94.6 94.4 94.6 94.3

92.3

93.0

91.9

91.1 91.0

Private

93.5

89.9

88.2
85

0.2
0.1
0.37.3
5.8
4.4

20.0

0%

14

88.1

1.3
3.827.9

66.8
42.9

95

43.6

40%

20%

䋦

13.9

85.5

92.2

88.5

Total

93.1 93.2

94.2 94.4

89.2 88.8 89.5 89.7

95.5 95.6

90.7

92.0

96.2 95.9

92.6 93.0 92.9 93.0 92.5

84.9

84.8
81.7

95.3 95.0
94.7

86.1

87.1

86.0

82.8 82.9

82.3
80.6

79.1 79.4

78.5 78.3 78.5

79.1

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: Bus industry income and expenditures - FY2008

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 7 Number of businesses engaged in public transport

Fig. 8 Number of traffic fatalities with public transport■■

In recent years, the number of businesses has been on an upward
trend. The number of charter bus businesses had been noticeably
increasing, but it decreased in FY 2007. In FY 2006, the numberof taxi companies and hired car businesses decreased markedly;
however, in FY 2007, they were on the rise again.

70000

1200

Number of businesses

60000

50000

177
377
1206

187
444

181
404

2864

1537

186
450

3281

188
485

3524

190
511

3581

189
513

193
516

3923

3743

1185

192
1087
4110

(Number of fatalities with public transport)

11227

10792

193

146
350
904

135
355
755

142
364
661

Numbers of fatalities with buses, hired cars, and taxis continue
to decrease. Compared to the number of traffic fatalities withmotor vehicles (5155 in FY 2008), public transport safety isoutstanding.

1000

928

4024

8760

9261

53797

53657

54314

20000

53705
53163

10000

56374
55126

52097

400

57613

54527

Hired cars
& taxisCharterbuses

Railways

0

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Railway congestion rates kept decreasing in all three areas; inthe Tokyo area, however, the rate has flattened out in recent
years. On the other hand, in the Nagoya and Osaka areas, it
decreased noticeably even in 2008.
䋦

221

Tokyo area

205 204200

Osaka area

203
192

199
180

Nagoya area

214 212

220

183

171

160

165

157
140

175 175 173
171 171 170 170 171 171

150 149
147 146 147 146 145 146
144 142138 137139

134 134 136 133

130

120

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

2008

1 Sendai Airport Transit
2 Osaka Monorail

2010

1983
1986
1988
2000

Tokyo
Osaka

2009

Osaka

Osaka
Tokyo

■

3 Kyoto City Transportation Bureau Nijo – Uzumasa Tenjingawa
Hanaten – Kyuhoji
4 West Japan Railway
5 Tokyo Transportation Bureau Nippori – Minumadaishinsuikoen

Nakanoshima – Tenmabashi
Nishikujo – Osaka Namba
Mojiko Retro Kanko Line

Marunouchi – Nishicho
11 Toyama Chihou Tetsudou
12 Keisei Electric Railway, Narita Airport Line Keisei Takasago – Narita Airport

10

2

3

E

H

㪈㪊

A

2007

2008

B
G

4,8,9

F

46

53

49

38

50

Tokyo Metro Yurakucho Line & Fukutoshin Line, Seibu Yurakucho Line, Tobu Tojo Line
Osaka City Chuo Line, Kintetsu Keihanna Line
Kyoto City Karasuma Line, Kintetsu Kyoto Line
Tokyo Metro Namboku Line, Toei Mita Line, Tokyu Meguro Line, Saitama Railway
Hanshin Main Line & Namba Line, Kintetsu Nara Line

6

12
5,7

New lines in the Tokyo and Osaka areas arequite noticeable. At the same time, the numberof discontinued lines has been on a downward
trend over the past several years.
Examples between 2007 and 2010

Newly-established lines㧦٨  Discontinued lines㧦٤
No 㪅

11
1

D

70

4000

Fig. 10 Newly-established / discontinued lines of railways

13 East Japan Railway, Tohoku Shinkansen Hachinohe – Shinaomori

C

56

299

123
0
26
25
19
29
13
22
24
20
23
27
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 (FY)

Handaibyoinmae – Saitonishi

8 Keihan Electric Railway
9 Hanshin Electric Railway
10 Heisei Chikuho Railway

58

340

2000
68

165

6 Yokohama City Transportation Bureau Hiyoshi – Nakayama
Kotakemukaihara – Shibuya
7 Tokyo Metro
2009

43

304

299

228

Lines with short distances have been omitted. Lines are those
involved as of July, 2010.
Source: based on The Facts about Major Private Railways (2009)

Name and Section of New Lines 㩿䃂㪀
Natori – Sendai Airport

No㪅

179

347

6000

Note:

Source: Railways 2009: the numbers

2007

196

344

5155

Year of start City area
Lines involved
Tokyo Toei Asakusa Line, Keisei Line, Keikyu Line, Hokuso Line, Shibayama Railway Line
1960
Tokyo Metro Hibiya Line, Tokyu Toyoko Line, Tobu Isesaki Line
1962
Tokyo
Tokyo Metro Tozai Line, JR Chuo Line & Sobu Line, Toyo Rapid Railway
Tokyo
1966
Osaka
Hankyu Kobe Main Line, Hanshin Main Line, Sanyo Main Line1968
Osaka City Sakaisuji Line, Hankyu Kyoto Main Line, Hankyu Senri Line
1969
Osaka
Tokyo Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line, JR Joban Line, Odakyu Odawara Line & Tama Line
1971
1978
Tokyo Tokyo Metro Hanzomon Line, Tokyu Denentoshi Line, Tobu Isesaki Line & Nikko Line
1979
NagoyaNagoya City Tsurumai Line, Meitetsu Toyota Line, Mikawa Line, Inuyama LineTokyo
Toei Shinjuku Line, Keio Line
1980

192

188 187

6352

Table 1 H istory of through – operation of railway service
using tracks of different railway companiess inthe three metropolitan areas■ In Japan, some railway companies operate suburban railway
service directly connecting to lines in the central area using
tracks of other company based on a mutual  agreement for thesake of passenger convenience.
The table shows the history of such practices between metro
lines in the city centers and major private railways in the threemajor metropolitan areas.

Fig. 9 R ailway Congestion rates in the three metropolitan
areas

240

265

314

10000

8000
6871

423
309

12000

Source:	White Paper on Traffic Safety in Japan 2010:,Statistics on
Traffic Accidents of Motor Vehicles for Business Use (2008)

2007

Source: FY 1975 to FY 2005: Annual Land Transport Statistics (2006 edition)
FY 2006-: Transportation-related statistics data collection

■

7358

474
337

131

0
1975

8326

5744

322

200

Buses

8747

574
416

53285

54344

9066

Motor vehicles
Railways
Buses
Hired cars & taxis

7702

600

54438

10679

800

40000

30000

Number of fatalities with motor vehicles

2009

Name and Section of Discontinued Lines 㩿䂾㪀

A Kurihara Denen Railway
B Kashima Railway
C Nishi-Nippon Railroad

Ishikoshi – Hosokura Mine Park Mae

D Shimabara Railway
E Miki Railway
F Nagoya Railway

Shimabaragaiko – Kazusa

G Takachiho Railway
H Hokuriku Railroad

Makimine – Takachiho

Ishioka – Hokota
Nishitetsu Shingu – Tsuyazaki
Yakujin – Miki
Inuyamayuen – Dobutsuen
Tsurugi – Kaga Ichinomiya

Source: Author’s investigation

15

1 -5

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

Recent Trends in New Urban
Transport Systems

Professor, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama
National University

Fumihiko Nakamura

In response to the ever diversifying transport demand , various forms of new technology have been developed and introduced into urban
transport systems. Utilization of the DMV (Dual Mode Vehicle) on a pilot basis; amphibious motor vehicles; the battery-powered LRV (Light Rail
Vehicle); trial operation of the electric-powered mini-bus; getting the lithium-battery LRV into mass production; car sharing systems, and so on— new transport concepts and different ideas for using existing public transport (trams, buses, etc.) are typical of various developments that canbe seen both inside and outside the country. At the same time, it is worth noting that new legislation promoting local public transport has been
enforced, and financial aid programs have been established.

Table 1 Recent trends in new urban transport systems

Fig. 1 Inaugural ceremony for the electric community
bus in Toyama City■■

A variety of new urban transport systems have been gaining
nationwide attention.

Targeted demand

Road-based system

Guideway system

Short-distancetrip inside thecommunity

Community cycles
Velotaxi
Park & Cycle

Inclined elevator
Sky rail
LRT (Light Rail Transit)

New electric low floor community bus was introduced.


Inside the city
overall

Car sharing
On-demand bus
Shared taxi service
BRT (Bus Rapid Transit)
Articulated bus

LRT (Light Rail Transit)
Wireless tram

Guided bus, IMTS (Intelligent Multimode Transit System),
DMV (Dual Mode Vehicle)

Table 2 Trends in public transport

Fig. 2 L ithium-ion LRV manufactured by Kinki Sharyo(from the website of Kinki Sharyo)■■

New ideas are being tried for various problems in urban public
transport.

Field ofimprovement

Typical examples in recent years

VehiclesLow floor articulated bus, domestically produced low floor streetcar

Station/stop

Shelter covered with advertisements; bus terminal shelters provide more
information

AccessTransfer between LRT and bus on the same platform (system used in
Toyama, etc.)
Bicycle-loading bus (used in Chigasaki)

Services

Flexible fare, discount for transfer (used in Fujisawa, Yokohama, etc.)

Environmental
improvement

Electric vehicles, low gas emission vehicles

Systems
improvements

Public response test programs (e.g., “free day” on city train in Kagoshima),
Local Public Transportation Revitalization Act

This tram can run with or without a catenary . Production
started in 2010 for use in North America.

Fig. 3 D
 MV trial run (Akechi Railway)(website of Ena City)

Fig. 4 T ransfer between streetcar and bus(Hiroshima Electric Railway,
Hatsukaichi-shiyakusho-mae Station)

Fig. 5 T win Liner in Atsugi City

Night trial run of JR Hokkaido’s new DMV, movingfrom the rails to the road.

Transfer to the feeder bus on the same platform.
Also operates in Toyama City and Nagasaki City.

The bus is over 2.5 meters wide. Despite being oversized, it is operated by

16(articulated bus made by Benz)

special exception. Chiba City followed this example, and Gifu City soon will.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 6 C hanges in the number of car
sharing systems■ In the past ten years or so, both the numbersof systems and users have been expanding
tremendously.
Changes in numbers of car sharing vehicles and members in Japan(vehicles)(persons)

2002

2003

2004

2005 2006 2007

Number of vehicles

2008 2009

Number of members

Source: website of Foundation for Promoting
Personal Mobility and EcologicalTransportation

Fig. 7 Car sharing pictogram (Germany)■

Car sharing that can be found at stations is
gaining popularity. A pictogram points to theaccess point. The photo is from the central
station in Freiburg.

Table 3 Recent examples of car sharing businesses(as of January 2010)■

The trend in the past several years is for various types of businesses (e.g.,
railroads, rental car companies) to get involved.

Operating organization, relatedorganization, etc.

Name
(name of business / system /operation)
Car Share Kanazawa [Hokusei Car Share Kanazawa
Sangyo Inc. / Tsuji Shoji, Co.,
Ltd. / Orix Auto Corporation(cooperation in joint business)]

Date of start

Operating area

No. ofstations

No. ofvehiclesNo. ofmembers

Nov., 2006

Kanazawa
City, Nonoichi
Machi, Nomi
City (Ishikawa)

11

12

93

Eco village Tsurukawa
Kinokanoie (vehicle section)

Apr., 2007

Machida City,
Tokyo

1

2

6 households

Eburika K.K.
Eburika Car Sharing
Toyota Motor Corporation /Toyota Car Share Club
Toyota Tokyo Rental & Leasing
Co., Ltd. / Toyota Rent-ALease Aichi Co. Ltd. / Toyota
Rent-A-Lease Shin Osaka Co.,Ltd.
Eki Rentacar Shikoku Company Car Share Shikoku

Oct., 2007
Nov., 2007

Osaka City
Wards inTokyo /
Nagoya City /Toyonaka City,
Osaka

4
5

4
15

50
95

Mar., 2008

Nippon Parking Development
Co., Ltd.

Ecoloca Car Sharing

Mar., 2008

Dism Inc.

QuiCarMay, 2008

Car Sharing Japan Co., Ltd.

careco car-sharing clubJan., 2009

Be-R Inc.
Cleaty Co. Ltd.

Wilca
WithreeJan., 2009
Mar., 2009

JR East Rental & Lease Co.
Ltd.

eco renta

Mar., 2009

comuca Inc.

ComucaMar., 2009

Gulliver International Co., Ltd.

Gulliver Car Share Mate

Apr., 2009

Leo Gulliver Car Sharing

Nov., 2009

Takamatsu
City, Kagawa
Tokyo, Osaka
City, Nagoya
City
SetagayaWard, Itabashi
Ward, Shinjuku
Ward, Bunkyo
Ward, Koto
Ward (Tokyo)
Wards inTokyo,
Yokohama
City, Kawasaki
City
Osaka City
Chuo Ward,
ShinagawaWard, Koto
Ward (Tokyo)
ChiyodaWard, Tokyo /Hachioji City /Kawasaki City
SetagayaWard, Meguro
Ward (Tokyo)
Ichikawa City,
Urayasu City
(Chiba)Tokyo,
Kanagawa,
Saitama
Yokohama City

Kinokanoie VS club

Nissan Car Rental Solution,Co., Ltd.
Rhyme Auto Lease Inc.
Aktio Corporation

Fig. 8 Outline of the Integrated Project for
Local Public Transport Revitalization,and its progress to date■In order to reconstruct and revive local
public transport from the ground up
through a united and efficient effort,
we need to determine the following:(1) the basic policies determined by
the responsible Minister; (2) integrated
cooperative plans for local public transport
made by the municipalities, which are
based on local citizen involvement; (3)special provisions in respective  laws inorder to expedite specific local public
transport projects; and (4) required
exceptions in order to permit ordinal  
Railway Business Act procedures that
ensure smooth operations for new local
passenger transport projects, and enable
a company to provide, using the samevehicle or ship, direct transport service
through areas devoted to multiple types ofpassenger transport system. As of August,
2009, 115 research projects and 251
planning projects have been designatednationwide.
Source: website of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and TourismMinistry ofLand, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Nissan Rent-a-car Sharing Club

Jul., 2009
Aug., 2009
Oct., 2009

Japan Car Sharing Inc.

Car Sharing Osaka
Aktio Car Sharing (AKTIO e
DRIVE)
i shareShares Inc.

Ekispress

Nov., 2009

Meitetsu Kyosho Co., Ltd.

Meitetsu Kyosho Car Sharecariteco
Sanpuku Car sharing
department
Machinorikun

Nov., 2009

Sanpuku Sogo Fudosan K.K.
Showa Shell Sekiyu K.K.

Osaka City
Edogawa
Ward, Tokyo
Setagaya Ward,
Koto Ward,
Katsushika
Ward,
ShinagawaWard, Ota
Ward, Adachi
Ward (Tokyo) /Yokohama City
/ Kawasaki City
Shinjuku Ward,
Setagaya
Ward,
Suginami
Ward (Tokyo)
Nagoya City

Oct., 2009

Nov., 2009

Matsuyama
City, Ehime
Nerima Ward,
Suginami Ward,
Setagaya Ward
(Tokyo)Dec., 2009

6

6

158

22

29

500

6

9

55

105

110

1100

3
9

3
12

70
120

3

6

Recruiting

21

21

400

9

9

162

117

117

Recruiting

1

2

Recruiting

1
2

1
2

5
9

9

9

100

5

10

150

13

17

Recruiting

3

3

19

4

5

Recruiting

Source: website of Foundation for Promoting Personal Mobility and Ecological Transportation

Integrated Project for Local Public Transport Revitalization2009 initial budget: 4400 million yen
revised budget: 2524 million yen

In order to achieve the goals of the Local Public Transport Revitalization Act — to apply the law and to respond to various needs in the local area—, the Integrated Project promotes creative and voluntary efforts in the local area, assisting the area council with a single unrestricted aid package
for implementing a variety of projects (e.g., railways, community buses, shared-ride taxis , passenger ships).

Law regarding construction and revival of local public transport (enforced on Oct. 1, 2007)
Official council
City/town/village

Public transport businesses

Local shop keepers••

Local corporations

Residents’ organizations (NPO , etc.)•

Residents

Schools, hospitals, etc.

•

etc.

Assistance from the Integrated Project for
Local Public Transport Revitalization

Decided on bycity/town/village

Local Public Transport Integrated Cooperative Plan (legal plan)
Plan to promote construction and revival of local public transport from the ground up through a united effort
Decided on by Council<Percentage of assistance, etc.>
Support for theplanning process

Projects to be implemented by Council(example) Integrated Project Plan for Local Public Transport Revitalization (3-year plan)� Trial operation of railways, buses, shared-ride taxis , passenger ships, etc.
• Trial runs of increased number of railway operations, changes in the timetable, etc.
• Pilot projects for community buses and shared-ride taxis , and for rehabilitation of local buses• Improving access to the airport (trial runs for bus access to the airport, etc.)• Pilot projects for reorganized routes of passenger ships, increased number of operations, changes in thetimetable, etc.
� Improving vehicle-related facilities, etc.
• Cost for purchasing buses, improving facilities related to vehicles, rolling stock, and ships, improving thephysical environment of waiting areas (bus stop, etc.), introducing the on-demand-bus system,
introducing the low floor LRV , etc.
� Making use of school buses, buses for disabled persons, etc.
� Making smooth transfers• Providing information about transfers, etc., introducing the IC card, promoting Park & Ride, Cycle &Ride etc.
� Activities to encourage more use of public transport, etc.
• Rental bicycle system,, events, public relations, designing a system of transfer discounts, excursion
tickets, etc.
� Facilitating the introduction of new local passenger transport projects
� Other projects that rely on local ingenuity to provide local solutions

Participation obligation if requested
Includes consideration of public comments at the time of making
planning decisions
Devises mechanisms for hearing suggestions during the planning
process, etc.
Council members are obliged to respect the outcome of discussions.

Support for
implementing the
projects(1) Fixed amount for cost of Local Public
Transport Integrated Cooperative
Plan (legal plan)(2) Cost of projects included in the
Integrated Project Plan
• Pilot programs: 1 / 2• Projects other than pilot programs: 1 / 2*
* Projects to be implemented bycouncils appointed fromordinance-designated cities: 1 / 3<Special features of the Project>[Well-planned implementation]• Planning assistance enables well-planned implementation of the projects[Leaving implementation to the discretion of the Council]• Assisting the project with a single unrestricted aid package• Flexible implementation of projects in different phases or fiscal years[Assistance awarded according to the local area’s real situation]• Share of cooperation suited to the local area’s real situation[Thorough evaluation of the project]• Evaluating each achievement on completion in order to obtain efficientand effective implementation

17

1 -6

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

Transport Services forEveryoneTechnical Chief, Oriental Consultants Co., Ltd.

Atsushi Matsubara

Social conditions have changed to the point where we need to approach transport problems by considering the elderly, the disabled, children, pregnant women,
and nursing mothers as a collective majority, rather than as individual minorities. Thanks to the Transport Accessibility Improvement Act (Transport Barrier-freeAct) ,the improvement of facilities is steadily progressing. However, an improvement project is often limited to a single transport mode or facility. Now that caregiving and rehabilitation activities are provided more and more outside the home, the provision of transport services can stimulate not only more mobility, butalso the vitality of entire neighborhoods where many people can live to even more advanced ages. Various transport services for disabled persons(e.g. social
welfare transport services, electric wheelchairs etc.) are expected to be employed. Furthermore, enactment of the basic transport legislation that would be thebackbone of the above is being considered. It is now time for our society, too, to get serious about the right to access transport — the right to move around.

Fig. 1 Future population by age group
The total population of our country is decreasing. It isestimated that the numbers for children in particular (14and younger) and working people (15 to 59) will decrease
noticeably.

Total population(1000 persons)Age 75 and overAge 70 - 74

Age 65 - 69㪈㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇

Age 60 - 64

Age 15 - 59

㪋㪇㪇㪇

Age 0 - 14

Estimated future population by age group㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪎㪃㪌㪉㪈

㪈㪍㪃㪋㪎㪐

㪈㪋㪃㪏㪋㪈

㪈㪈㪃㪐㪌㪍
㪈㪇㪃㪌㪈㪉

㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪐㪃㪇㪊㪍
㪎㪃㪌㪈㪍

㪏㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪎㪌㪃㪌㪋㪏

㪎㪈㪃㪉㪐㪇

㪍㪏㪃㪋㪇㪏

㪍㪊㪃㪊㪎㪊

㪌㪊㪃㪏㪇㪉

㪋㪍㪃㪇㪌㪊

㪍㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪐㪃㪐㪐㪌
㪏㪃㪉㪉㪈
㪍㪃㪐㪍㪐
㪈㪋㪃㪉㪉㪉

㪏㪃㪊㪐㪐
㪐㪃㪍㪈㪊
㪎㪃㪎㪈㪍

㪎㪃㪌㪏㪎
㪎㪃㪇㪊㪎
㪎㪃㪍㪋㪐

㪐㪃㪈㪈㪎
㪎㪃㪐㪉㪇
㪍㪃㪐㪎㪎

㪍㪃㪐㪋㪍
㪎㪃㪌㪇㪎
㪏㪃㪋㪊㪇

㪌㪃㪏㪐㪉
㪍㪃㪈㪋㪏
㪍㪃㪋㪋㪐

㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪇

㪈㪍㪃㪋㪌㪉

㪉㪈㪃㪍㪍㪎

㪉㪉㪃㪊㪌㪉

㪉㪉㪃㪋㪎㪈

㪉㪊㪃㪏㪍㪍

㪉㪇㪇㪌

㪉㪇㪈㪇

㪉㪇㪈㪌

㪉㪇㪉㪌

㪉㪇㪊㪌

㪉㪇㪋㪌

㪉㪇㪌㪌

Internal disorders㪉㪌㪇㪇(overlapping) Morethan one of the above

㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪌㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪐㪌㪌

㪈㪐㪍㪇

㪈㪐㪍㪌

㪈㪐㪎㪇

㪈㪐㪏㪇

㪈㪐㪏㪎

㪈㪐㪐㪈

㪈㪐㪐㪍

㪉㪇㪇㪈

㪉㪇㪇㪍

Source: 2006 Survey on persons with physical disabilities (Ministry of
Health, Labour and Welfare)

Table 1 Number of disabled people who stay at home

Fig. 2 Changes in the number of the elderly
The percentage of the elderly keeps increasing. In 2013, an estimated25.2% of the population will be elderly (65 and over), turning thecountry into a “super aging” society. In particular, the population aged
75 and over will continue to grow; in 2017, the number of elderlyin their late advanced years will become more than the number ofthe elderly in their early advanced years. The over-75 age group will
occupy an even greater percentage of the elderly than it does now.

(1000 persons)㪊㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

(%)
㪋㪌
Actual figures← →Projected figures

Not enough services have been provided to people withintellectual disabilities and mental disorders. The percentage of
those who are staying at home is low; obviously, most of them
have been institutionalized.
Persons who arestaying at home

Total
Persons withphysical disabilities
Persons withintellectual disabilities
Persons withmental disorders

Persons who are
institutionalized

3,660,000

3,580,000

90,000550,000

420,000

130,000

3,230,000

2,900,000

330,000

Source: Survey on persons with physical disabilities (2006), Survey on
persons with intellectual disabilities (2005), Survey on Social
Welfare Institutions (2005), Patient Survey (2008) (Ministry of
Health, Labour and Welfare)㪋㪇Population of those aged 75 and over (theelderly in their late advanced years)㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

Physical disabilities

㪈㪐㪌㪈

■

Population of those aged 65 to 74 (theelderly in their early advanced years)

Visual impairments
Hearing impairments /speech impediments

㪊㪇㪇㪇

㪇

Source: Annual Report on the Aging Society (2010 edition)

■

Total

㪊㪌㪇㪇

㪌㪇㪇

㪋㪇㪃㪇㪌㪐

㪏㪃㪌㪋㪌
㪎㪃㪋㪊㪊
㪍㪃㪍㪊㪎
㪈㪈㪃㪍㪇㪉

㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇

Number of persons with physical disabilities(1000 persons)■Fig. 3 C hanges in the number of persons with physicaldisabilities

Percentage of the elderly㪊㪌

Percentage of population aged 75 and over㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪊㪇㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪌㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪇㪈㪌㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

Table 2 Getting out of the house, by type of impairment■

While 30 to 40 percent of persons with disabilities go out
almost every day, about 10% of them only go out a few times
a year; and 3 to 7 percent of them do not go out at all.

Type of disabilities

㪈㪇
㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪌

Source: Annual Report on the Aging Society (2010 edition)

㪉㪇㪌㪌

㪉㪇㪋㪌
㪉㪇㪌㪇

㪉㪇㪋㪇

㪉㪇㪊㪇
㪉㪇㪊㪌

㪉㪇㪉㪇
㪉㪇㪉㪌

㪉㪇㪈㪌

㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪌
㪉㪇㪈㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪌

㪈㪐㪏㪇
㪈㪐㪏㪌

㪈㪐㪎㪌

㪈㪐㪍㪌
㪈㪐㪎㪇

㪈㪐㪌㪌
㪈㪐㪍㪇

㪇
㪈㪐㪌㪇

㪇

Going out
Almost every 2 to 3 times 2 to 3 times Several times Sub totalday
per week per month per year

Do not No answer
go out

Total

35.6

29.9

16.1

9.7

91.3

5.5

3.2

Visual impairments

29.3

29.8

21.9

10.6

91.6

6.3

2.1

Hearing impairments /speech impediments

41.7

27.4

14.0

7.4

90.5

5.2

4.3

Physical disabilities

31.5

29.9

16.5

11.9

89.8

7.0

3.2

Internal disorders

42.3

30.6

14.4

6.5

93.8

3.0

3.2
unit: %

Source: 2006 Survey on persons with physical disabilities (Ministry of
Health, Labour and Welfare)18

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
In accordance with the new Transport Accessibility
Improvement Acy (Transport Barrier-Free Act), passenger
facilities and vehicles whose average number of users per day
exceeds 5000 have been steadily improved toward  barrierfree, but it is still not enough.

Table 3 Barrier-free passenger facilities
Installing textured
paving blocks forpeople with visual
impairments

Installing toilets forthe disabled

㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪏㪇㪇㪇

Rail/tram station

71.3%

93.2%

66.3%

Bus terminal

83.7%

76.7%

58.1%

Ferry/ship terminals

87.5%

75.0%

50.0%

Passenger airport terminal

90.5%

100%

100%

㪉㪇㪇㪇

Total of passenger facilities

71.6%

92.9%

66.5%

㪇

㪍㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪇㪇㪉

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Bus

Passenger ships
Aircraftca. 50% by 2010
ca. 65% by 2010

End of FY 2008
41.3%
41.7%
23.0%
10,742 vehicles
16.4%
64.3%

■

Age 25-29
Age 30-34
Age 35-39
Age 40-44
Age 45-49
Age 50-54
Age 55-59
Age 60-64
Age 65-69
Age 70-74
Age 75-79
Age 80-84
Age 85 and overTotal

End of 2009

Female465,3422,594,417
3,321,218
4,039,182
4,400,236
3,799,126
3,369,503
3,182,712
3,548,875
2,858,349
1,900,568
966,419
369,185
103,559
11,56634,930,527

Male
680,8112,927,832
3,635,774
4,261,076
4,874,986
4,272,559
3,854,374
3,708,580
4,201,984
4,342,694
3,524,617
2,566,794
1,637,311
814,278
235,749
45,539,419

Increased/decreased rate

Female447,224
2,478,844
3,250,888
3,872,819
4,461,714
3,894,514
3,447,041
3,200,120
3,371,396
3,155,591
2,086,622
1,053,333
414,411
122,898
15,11135,272,526

Male
-5.0
-4.1
-2.1
-4.1
1.3
2.1
1.6
-0.9
-6.8
6.8
3.8
1.7
3.8
5.4
13.9
0.0

Female
-3.9
-4.5
-2.1
-4.1
1.4
2.5
2.3
0.5
-5.0
10.4
9.8
9.0
12.3
18.7
30.7
1.0

Source: Driver’s License Statistics (2009 edition, National Police Agency)

Table 6 C haracteristics of driving behavior of the driverwith dementia■ The number of driver’s license holders with senile dementia
is estimated to be about 300,000, based on the percentage
of elderly with licenses and the percentage of elderly withdementia,.

Alzheimer’s disease Pick’s disease Vascular dementia

Understanding Impairedof whereabouts
Drivingmanner

Unimpaired• Forgets destination• Ignores traffic rules
while driving• Lack of attention to• Becomes not very good roadat parking or pulling• Drives too close to car
over
ahead

㪉㪇㪇㪎

㪉㪇㪇㪏

㪉㪇㪇㪐

The number of organizations (NPOs, etc.) operating for-fee
handicap transport service was 2305 in 2008; the number ofvehicles was 13,753.
(1) Transport services operated by Transport services where there isno transportmunicipalities
Municipalities’ transport services
for persons with disabilities

Sometimes impaired• Distracted whiledriving• Slower reactions(steering, gear shifting,braking)(2) For-fee transport services for persons with disabilities(3) For-fee transport services in depopulated areas

Fig. 5 The Number of electric wheelchairs■

People who use an electric wheelchair (the so-called “seniorcar”) are increasing; there are various types of them. The
number of these electric wheelchaurs shipped so far is over
550,000 (cumulative) nationwide. It should be noted that someof these are used by people who do not have driver’s licenses
or who do not keep to the sidewalk.
㪋㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

Number of wheelchairs (each year)

Age 16-19
Age 20-24

End of 2008

㪉㪇㪇㪍

Table 7 Types of for-fee passenger transport service
using private vehicles

Table 5 Changes in the number of driver license holders
by age and by gender■ The number of elderly people with driver’s licenses isincreasing. By contrast, the number of young license-holders ismarkedly decreasing.
Male716,653
3,052,839
3,713,648
4,443,926
4,814,245
4,183,171
3,794,949
3,743,794
4,510,870
4,067,659
3,394,506
2,524,169
1,577,860
772,285
207,01145,517,585

㪉㪇㪇㪌

Source: Road Transport Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Age

㪉㪇㪇㪋

year

Table 4 Situation of vehicles that conform to theaccessibility standard
Goal
Rail/tram vehicle
ca. 50% by 2010
Low-floor bus
100% by 2015
Of the above, non-step bus
ca. 30% by 2010
Taxi with access for persons with disabilities ca. 18,000 vehicles by 2010㪉㪇㪇㪊㪌㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪊㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪊㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

Stick type (eachyear)
Steering wheel
type (each year)
Total (each year)
Stick type(cumulative)
Steering wheel
type (cumulative)
Total (cumulative)

㪇

㪇
㩾㪐㪌

㩾㪐㪍 㩾㪐㪎

㩾㪐㪏㩾㪐㪐 㩾㪇㪇 㩾㪇㪈㩾㪇㪉 㩾㪇㪊 㩾㪇㪋㩾㪇㪌㩾㪇㪍 㩾㪇㪎

㩾㪇㪏

㩾㪇㪐

FY

Source: Electric Wheelchair Safety Information Association

Table 8 Overseas cases for transport access right — theright to move■

In many developed countries, the transport access right isdefined  in a  basic law, similar  to decentralization of power,
together with the basic transport policy principles. . Individualtransport policy measures are proceeded under them.

Country

Source: Study on Social Support for the Elderly Drivers with Dementia(research leader: Yumiko Arai)㪍㪇㪇㪃㪇㪇㪇

Number of electric
wheelchairs shipped㪊㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

Number of wheelchairs (cumulative)

Eliminating
uneven flooring

Fig. 4 N umber of taxis with access for persons withdisabilities■ Besides buses for persons with disabilities, various  transport
services are being provided, such as for-fee transport for
persons with disiabilities, shared taxi service, care-giving taxis,
taxis for persons with disabilities, and childcare support taxis.

vehicles□Name of Law

Enactment

FranceLOTI (Loi d’ Orientation des Transports Intérieurs) 1982

U.K.

Transport Act

1985

U.S.A.

Americans with Disabilities Act

1990

19

1 -7

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

The Future of the Transport
Infrastructure

Associate Professor, Graduate School ofEngineering, Yokohama National University

Toshiyuki Okamura

In the course of national land use planning, the Comprehensive National Development Act was revised and became the National Spatial Strategy. The
decision was made by the Cabinet in July, 2008 to replace the old National Development Plan with the new “National Strategies” plan (National Plan). In
August, 2009, the Regional Plans (with regional blocks as units) were adopted. In the course of national planning for social infrastructure improvement(pursuant to the 2003 Act Regarding the Priority Plan for Social Infrastructure Improvement), conventional long-range plans for each sector basedon administrative set up were united so that sector boundaries were transcended; the result was the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan
(projected time frame: five years). Emphasis is placed on implementation of the improvement plans, which are to be effectively and efficiently expedited.

1. History of the Comprehensive National Development Plans

Pursuant to the Comprehensive National Development Act, postwar national land use planning was carried out from 1962 with theComprehensive National Development Plan as its focus.
Table 1 Outlines of Comprehensive National Development Plans
Development Plan

Outline and goals

Fourth Comprehensive National
Development Plan (1987 -)Balanced development of all areas: aimed at balanced development by preventing urban sprawl, by correcting growthinequality between areas, and by appropriately distributing capital, labor, and technology among all regions. The
concept was one of dispersed economic development of new areas.
Creation of affluent environments: aimed at preserving natural areas permanently; balancing development on a nationwide
scale; reviewing nationwide land use; providing safer, more comfortable conditions suited to the cultural environment; andimproving transport and communications networks. The concept was one of developing large-scale projects.
Improving comprehensive living environment: aimed at achieving balanced land use nationwide and creating acomprehensive living environment. Harmonizing natural environments, living environments, and production
environments. The concept was one of “settling down.”
Converting land use nationwide into a multi-polar dispersed type: to achieve well-balanced development of the nationalland, the basic goal was to implement multi-polar, dispersed land use; introduced the concept of regional networking toachieve that goal.

Grand Design for the 21st Century(1998-)

Building a foundation of multi-axial land use: land development with stakeholder involvement and regional cooperation;
does not specify aggregate investment sums, instead shows priority areas for investment and policy direction for
efficient land development.

Comprehensive National
Development Plan (1962 -)New Comprehensive National
Development Plan (1969 -)Third Comprehensive National
Development Plan (1977 -)2. Outline of National Spatial Strategy
The National Spatial Strategy plan aims at developing the nation’s land by having various regional blocks do their own
developing; it also aims at shaping the land into a beautiful and comfortable place to live. Characteristics of the plan are: (1)shifting from quantitative expansion and development to planning for a “mature society”; and, (2) shifting from state leadership toa two-layered planning system (“separation of powers”). The National Spatial Strategy unites the National Plan with the Regional
Plans in which policies are made for each regional block. The National Plan is the plan to guide land development generally forthe next ten years; it was adopted at the Cabinet meeting in July, 2008. After that, councils for regional plans, etc. were officiallyestablished in each regional block; in August, 2009, the Regional Plans for eight blocks nationwide were adopted.
Table 2 Strategic goals: the new vision for use of the nation’s land under the National Spatial Strategy (National Plan)
1) Smooth interactions
and cooperation with
East Asia

For example, expansion projects of corporations targeting East Asian markets; building transport and information
communications networks that cover land, sea, and air; promoting Japan as a tourist destination

2) Creating a sustainablearea

For example, restructing of urban areas into a function - intensive compact form; regional management (to maintainfunctions of medical treatment, etc.); developing local industries using new scientific technology; creating beautiful
farm/mountain/fishing villages that are comfortable places to live; making use of personnel from outside (who haveresidences in two areas); providing for areas with severe conditions
3) Formation of resilent
For example, promoting comprehensive counter-disaster strategies that include both “hard” and “soft” measures;
land use for withstand- preparing for disaster through intelligent land use; making it possible for transport and communications networks to be
ing disasters
rerouted; strengthening the area’s disaster preparedness (improving evacuation training, etc.)
4) Maintaining the beauty For example, creating and maintaining healthy natural cycles and ecosystem; proper use and preservation of seaof the land for futureareas; passing on and further generating the unique culture of the area; getting people involved in managing the land
generations
5) Creating new concepts For example, improving living conditions with the cooperation of local communities, non-profit organizations, corporaof what local “governtions, and local administration; exploitation and use of area resources through exclusively local initiatives and action;ment” isproviding for marginal villages that are on the verge of collapse, and forming a consensus on a vision for the quality oflife in the future

Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Table 3 The three basic transport and information communications policies found in the National Spatial Strategy(National Plan), with examples for improving transport
Building comprehensive andinternational transport andcommunications systems
Building arterial transportsystems that facilitate
interaction and cooperation
among areas
Building systems for local areatransport and communications

Improving strategic airports and ports to strengthen their competitive abilities as international transport hubs (Asia Gateway concept)
Taking steps to promote direct interactions with East Asia [using local airports/ports, standardizing the ITS (Intelligent Transport
Systems), etc.]
Creating comprehensive land transport networks (regional expressways, access roads to airports/ports, Shinkansen, Central magnetic levitation train)
Creating efficient sea transport networks (promoting coastal shipping, improving hinterlands of ports as bases of transport networks
for multiple modes of transport)
Creating domestic air transport networks (expanding Haneda Airport, reinforcing means of disaster prevention at the airport,
improving local airportsas a base for their area development)
Creating a transport system that fosters an area where the quality of life is sustainable and comfortable (compact cities,
well-maintained public transportation)
Creating a transport environment that sustains life and daily living (minimizes isolation of the area in the case of emergency, etc.)

Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

20

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

3. Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan
Pursuant to the Act Regarding the Priority Plan for Social Infrastructure Improvement, the Social Infrastructure Improvement
Priority Plan was adopted. In that plan, the conventional five-year plans by each sector were replaced with a single plan that united
previous thirteen plans (including the nine conventional long-range plans for roads, ports, airports, etc.); the contents of the plan
range from “project budgets” to “outcomes to be achieved.” The current plan (2008-2012) was adopted at the Cabinet meeting ofMarch, 2009. At the same time that the regional plans in the National Spatial Strategy were adopted (August, 2009), the regional
priority social infrastructure improvement plans for ten regional blocks (including Hokkaido and Okinawa) were adopted under
the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan.
Fig. 1 Outline of the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (2008-2012)

Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan
Reforming the way social infrastructure
improvement projects are handled

Priority goals in social infrastructure improvement, of each goal area

(1) Encouraging strategic maintenance and renovation throughthe use of information technology(2) Mandatory project assessment and cost cutting(3) Reforming public procurement practices(4) Stakeholder involvement; securing transparency(5) Promoting technology development(6) Using capabilities and funds from the private sector(7) Appropriate role-sharing between the state andmunicipalities• Strengthening the ability to compete internationally by improving transport networks• Making the area lively and independent by promoting activities and interaction both
inside and outside the area
• Making the area lively and independent by giving it a lively atmosphere and improving
the comfort and convenience of urban transportation[Conventional five-year plans (nine sectors)]
Flood control

Road improvements

Steep slopes

Traffic safety facilities

Shorelands

Ports

Sewerage

Airports

These plans
are now
covered undera single plan

Urban parkland

Creating lively areas for an economicallyvibrant society㩷

Safety /Security and peace of mind

• Making the land well-prepared for disasters (large-scale earthquakes, etc.)• Making the land well-prepared for disasters (flooding, etc.)• Strengthening traffic safety measures

Efforts for daily living㩷 㩷and the environment• Barrier-free conditions appropriate for an aging society with a low birthrate; helping tocreate a society in which everyone can participate by improving the childcare
environment• Improving living spaces by creating scenic and natural areas• Combating global warming• Creating a recycling-based society㩷 㩷 society (society that reuses/recycles its assets)
Toward the “stock-type”• Encouraging strategic maintenance and renewal• Promoting “soft” measures

Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

In regards to road improvement projects, the new five-year mid-range plan (included in the Social Infrastructure Improvement
Priority Plan) was announced on December, 2008 and was approved by the Cabinet in March, 2009. This plan presents standards
for selecting and focusing, including efforts to minimize costs and eliminate waste. Based on this mid-range master plan, theregional mid-range plans for roads were put together in August, 2009.
Table 4 Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan (2008-2012): Priority goals for road improvement projects,
numerical goals for assessment indexes, and factual figures
Policy direction

Vitality

SafetyRoad transport
safety & security
for an aging
society with a
low birthrate
Quality of life &environment

Policies
Improving arterial networks

䂓 Completion rate for planned ring roads in the three major metropolitan areas

Numerical goals for assessment indexes
2007

2012

53%

69%
about 10%
reduction
about 10%
reduction

Solving chronic congestion

䂓 Time lost at railroad level crossings that are almost never open

ca. 1.32 million
person-hours perday

Improving traffic safety䂓 Rate of road traffic casualties

Encouraging measures to solve
pedestrian & bicycle problems andresidential road problems

109 cases per
100 million
vehicle-kilometers䂓 Rate of preventing pedestrian/bicycle accidents that cause casualties
inside the “safe walking area.”

Prevent about 20% of accidents

Encouraging safety measures t onarterial roads䂓 Rate of preventing accidents that cause casualties in dangerous traffic locations

Prevent about 30% of accidents

䂓 Number of prevented accidents with an advanced signals, etc.

Prevent about 40,000 accidents

Improving living environment

䂓 Barrier-free rates on major local route in residential areas with respect to traffic signals, etc.

83%

100%

䂓 Barrier-free rate on specific roads

51%

75%

Countermeasures against global warming 䂓 CO2 emissions amount from the transport sector

Achieving smoothroad transport while
combating global Promoting smooth flow of traffic
environmental
problems
Using existingroad stockIndexes䂓 Less time required due to advanced control of traffic signals

254 million tons 240 to 243 million tons
About 220 million hours saved䂓 Amount of CO2 emissions eliminated due to advanced control of traffic signals Eliminate about 460,000 t- CO2 per year䂓 Time lost at railway crossings that are almost never open

Safe, secure, and well-planned road
䂓 Plans decided on for repair of roads and bridges nationwide to give them a longer life
management
Effective use of the existing expressway networks; reinforcing theirRate of use of on-board ETC (Electronic Toll Collection units)
functionsca. 1.32 million
person-hours perday

ca. 10%reduction28%

ca. 100%

76%

85%

Data provided by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

21

1 -8

1. Mobility in its Different Modes, and the Transportation Systems That Enable It

Revenue Sources and its
Use for Roads

Manager, Social infrastructure and economy
research department, The Institute of Behavioral
Sciences

Yuichi Mohri

Pursuant to the Law Enacting Provisional Measures Regarding Revenue Sources for Road Improvement, which was enacted in 1953 in response to an
urgent need to improve the outdated road system, road improvements in our country were conducted under the special funding system for road works, andthrough tolls. However, since the autumn of 2005, with the financial situation growing ever more severe, many discussions were held, and in April, 2009,
the Act to Revise in Part the “Act Regarding Government Special Financing of Road Construction and Improvement” was adopted. Starting with fiscal
year 2009, the special tax fund earmarked for road works was abolished and was transferred to the general revenue fund. Also, for social infrastructure
improvement implemented by municipalities, conventional individual financial assistance was abolished in principle starting in fiscal year 2010; in its stead,
it was decided to establish a block grant for social infrastructure improvement, which would give municipalities a higher degree of freedom. As for the fee
system on expressways, free sections (targeting about 20% of all expressways) were to be opened as pilot projects starting June 28, 2010.

Table 1 Steps taken toward the transfer of the tax fund earmarked for road works to the general revenue fund■

Beginning in the autumn of 2005, opinions about the special tax fund earmarked for road works, etc. were submitted from all sectors,
and various discussions were held. Subsequently, in April, 2009, the Act to Revise in Part the “Act Regarding Government Special
Financing of Road Construction and Improvement” was adopted, and the decision was made to abolish, from fiscal year 2009 onward,
the practice of generally allotting an amount equivalent to the estimated amount of the income from the gasoline tax, etc. to road
improvement.   
Order of Prime Minister Koizumi (Nov. 4, 2005)• Regarding the review of the tax earmarked for road works: transfer the revenue to the general revenue fund, without reducing the tax
rate. Make basic policies accordingly.
Basic policies regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works (by the government and the ruling party, Dec. 9, 2005)• The current tax rate, including the amount added as a provisional tax rate, will be maintained. Details of plans are to be based on thetransfer of the tax revenue earmarked for road works to the general revenue fund.
Act regarding Promotion of Administrative Reform to Achieve Simple and Efficient Government (proclamation Jun. 2, 2006)• The 164th Diet adopted the Promotion of Administrative Reform Act that included basic policies regarding the review of the tax revenue
earmarked for road works.
Detailed plans regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works (approved at the Cabinet meeting on Dec. 8, 2006)• Based on the transfer to the general revenue fund, the current governmental system of tax revenue earmarked for road works is to be revised.
Regarding the review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works (bythe government,and the ruling party, Dec. 7, 2007)• Review of the tax revenue earmarked for road works, maintenance of the current tax rate level, etc.
Basic policies regarding the tax revenue earmarked for road works (approved at the Cabinet meeting on May 13, 2008)• The tax revenue earmarked for road works is to be abolished at the time of the fundamental reform of the tax system this year.
Starting from fiscal year 2009, it is to be transferred to the general revenue fund.
Regarding the transfer of the tax revenue earmarked for road works to the general revenue fund (by the government,and the ruling party, Dec. 8, 2008)• The abolition of the tax revenue earmarked for road works: how to treat the tax rate in the relevant tax system be treated in view of thetransfer to the general revenue fund.
Act to Revise in Part the “Act Regarding Government Special Financing of Road Construction and Improvement” (proclamation Apr. 30, 2009)• The 171th Diet approved the Act that included repealing the mandatory practice of using revenue from the gasoline tax, etc. for road improvements.

Data provided by Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Fig. 1 Outline and basis of the Comprehensive Grants for Social Infrastructure Improvement
In principle, conventional individual financial assistance to municipalities implementing social infrastructure improvement has beenabolished. Instead, the Comprehensive Grants for Social Infrastructure Improvement were established in order to assist not only with theimplementation of key projects, but also with improvements to the related social infrastructure, and with projects that will enhance theeffects of the key projects. The grants, in other words, offer municipalities a higher degree of freedom to manage the projects and theireffects.  
<Conventional grant><New grant>

Roads
㆏〝

Sewerageਅ᳓㆏

Floodᴦcontrol᳓

Housing૑ቛ

Shorelands
ᶏጯ

Ports
᷼ḧ

Community䉁 䈤 䈨building䈒䉍䊶䊶Comprehensive grant
for social Infrastructure
Improvement

■

␠ળ
⾗ᧄ
ᢛ஻
✚ว
੤ઃ
㊄

(sector)Creatingsocio-economicᵴജഃ಴ၮ⋚
vitality
Infrastructure᳓䈱቟ో䊶቟ᔃ
provisions
for safe andsecureၮ⋚⏕଻water resource

Improving urban
Ꮢⴝ࿾ᢛ஻
areas
Housing support in࿾ၞ૑ቛᡰេ
the area

How it works
� The municipality is to make a Social Infrastructure Comprehensive Improvement Plan that describes (a) goals and (b) projects toachieve those goals, and submits it to the government. (Project duration to be planned for roughly three to five years.)
� Each year, the government estimates the amount of the grant to be awarded according to said plan, and awards it.
� After the project has been completed as scheduled, the municipality itself assesses the project and makes the assessment
public.

Source: data of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

22

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Table 2 Outline of road-related budget for fiscal year 2010

Fig. 2 Price with tax of one liter of gasoline in OECD countries■(percentage of tax share)

The budget for projects under direct government control
was cut by about 20% from last fiscal year’s budget. For
government-assisted projects, individual financial assistance
was abolished in principle; instead, the Comprehensive Grant
for Social Infrastructure Improvement was established.

MexicoU.S.A.

(unit: 100 million yen)

Project type

Relative change
Relative change
from last fiscal year Government budget from last fiscal year

Project budget

Projects under directgovernment control
Projects receiving
government assistance

15,0480.84

11,394

0.90

1,418

0.22

937

0.25

Toll road projects, etc.

14,633

1.02

1,027

0.97

Total

31,0990.80

13,357

0.76

1.
2.

Includes loan redemption, etc. (government budget: 89.3 billion yen)
Besides items in the table, there are expenses for temporary loans for
local road improvements (gov’t. budget: 80 billion yen), free expressway
projects (gov’t. budget: 100 billion yen), and administrative costs (gov’t.
budget: 1.1 billion yen).
Some of the subsidiary road projects, the vitality grants, and othersubsidiary projects are to be abolished; instead, the Comprehensive Grants
for Social Infrastructure Improvement (tentative name) (gov’t. budget: 2
trillion 200 billion yen) are to be established.

3.

□

In ascending order oftax share
CanadaIndirect tax（Figures are the percentage of tax share.)
Australia
Value-added tax (Figures are the percentage of tax share.)
New Zealand
Japan
Japan’s position
South Korea(out of 29 countries)
Switzerland
From the highest:
GreeceRetail price: 23rd
Spain
Retail price without taxes: 9th
Amount of tax share: 24th
PolandPercentage of tax share: 24th
Luxembourg
Hungary
Czech
Austria
Slovakia
IrelandSweden
Italy
U.K.
Portugal
FranceDenmark
Belgium
Germany
Finland
NorwayTurkeyNetherlands(yen)

Source: Energy Prices and Taxes (the fourth quarter of 2009, IEA)
Note: 1. Japan’s consumption tax is included in the value-added tax.
The sales tax in the U.S.A. is not shown in the above graph.
2. Indirect taxes in Japan are the gasoline tax, local road tax, and oil
and coal tax.
3. The exchange rates for yen are average exchange rate figures
between July, 2009 and September, 2009.

Various expressway toll discounts had been implemented due to (1) cost savings when expressway corporations were privatized, and (2)the driver convenience enhancement plan. Furthermore, in order to reduce freight transport costs and commodity prices and to improve
the area’s economy, as well as to conform to the policy that expressways should be free in principle, the free expressway pilot project
started on June 28, 2010 targeting about 20% of all expressways. The economic impact it would have on the area, as well as the impact
on congestion and the environment, are to be evaluated.

Fig. 3 R eduction of expressway toll vs. projected
revenue sources (NEXCO rural areas)

Fig. 4 Free expressways pilot program in FY 2010
FY 2010: Free expressways pilot program - targeted sections (plan)

Bigger than middle-sized motor
vehiclesSmaller than ordinary motor
vehicles: Pilot program free-toll sections

DaytimeNight

30% off

6am

9am

5pm

8pm 10pm 0am

%

50

off

6am

9am

Night

With the existing discount for companies, 50% off
for commuting and 30% off for late night; with theurgent comprehensive measures, 50% off during
daytime; with the measures for living (including
other times of day), a reduction of 50% (maximum
fee: 1000 yen), is to be implemented.

: Already free-toll sections: Sections with toll

50% off

30% off

5pm

8pm 10pm 0am

DaytimeMax. 1000 yen (all day)
Toll

Sat., Sun. & Holidays

Daytime4am 6amNight
50% off

Weekday

50% off

Sat., Sun. & Holidays

Weekday

50% off

Daytime4am 6amNight
50% off

50% off

Distance travelled
6am
Gov’t “Measures for living” program (0.5 trillion yen): Mar. 2009 to Mar. 2011

9am

5pm

Urgent comprehensive measures (2.5 trillion yen): Oct. 2008 to Mar. 2018

8pm 10pm 0am

4am 6am

Existing discount for companies (45 years)

Source: data of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism

Source: data of Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism

Table 3 Systems in Western countries for road revenue sources
U.S.A.

Germany

Italy

FranceU.K.

Partly special funding source
All from general revenue fund All from general revenue fund
(15% for roads, the rest, general •1951•1920
revenue fund)Established road improvement Established road fund
•1956
•1955
•1961
special account with part of(special funding source)
Special funding started when the federal highway
Special funding source was implemented; parts of the
Article 26, Law 59 provided that the gasoline tax as a revenue using the National Treasury,
mineral oil tax, transport tax, and motor vehicle tax would be the road budget for fiscal year
sourcedriver’s license tax, etc. asSpecial funding system was establishedused for road improvements.
1962 would be 12% of motor•1959
revenue sources; it was
source systems •1983•2002
vehicle- related taxes.
Transferred to generalused as subsidiary money
for road works and Public transportation account established
Law to charge large vehicles on the Autobahn adopted.
•1962revenue fund in accordance
for municipalities to build &how they works
Highway Trust Fund consists of road account & public •2005
That share was supposed to be with the budget law
manage roads.
transportation account.
Imposition of charge on large vehicles on the Autobahn
increased by 2% every year, but •1981•1955
nationwide
in effect, it has remained at 15% Abolished road improvement Officially abolished road fundup to now.
special accountSpecial funding source for roads(Highway Trust Fund)National tax (1997 to up to now)
Fuel tax
(84% for roads, 16% for public transportation)
Tire tax (all for roads)
Truck & trailer selling tax
Breakdown of(all for roads)
special funding
Tax for heavy motor vehicle use
source systems for State tax
road works
Different from state to state, but about the sameamounts are taxed to fuel & motor vehicles; most of
the states specify the use for roads.

Special funding source for roads

National tax
National tax
Fuel tax (mineral oil tax) (2003 to up to now)
Fuel tax (revised on Jan. 1,(15% for roads, 22% for environment tax, 4% for transport
2007)
assistance for municipalities, 19% for financial aid for(15% for roads, 85% general
German Railways, 39% for general revenue fund)revenue fund)Autobahn heavy truck charge (2007 to up to now)
(50% for roads, 38% for railways, 12% for waterways, excl.
cost to collect fees)State tax
The motor vehicle tax (ownership tax) is a state tax. Somestates (Freistaat Bayern, etc.) limit its, use of it for road
improvements; but most states put it into the generalrevenue fund.

Source: data from research of each country

23

2 -1

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

Trends and Present Situationof Road Traffic Accidents

Associate Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironmental Science, Okayama University

Seiji Hashimoto

After the latest peak in 1992, the number of traffic fatalities has shown a downward trend; in 2009, it dropped to less than 5000 (4914 lives lost).
There has also been a continuous reduction in recent years in the number of traffic accidents and the number of casualties; obviously, various
efforts made in the past have started to pay off.
A look at the details of traffic accidents By age: accidents involving young people (age 20 to 29) have noticeably decreased, and are now lessthan those involving people 50 to 59 years old. By means of transportation: for bicycles, which are popular as eco-friendly transportation, thenumber of fatalities has leveled off; but the bicycle accidents involving pedestrians are increasing; there is a need for traffic safety education thataims at better cycling practices and the managing of space for safe cycling.

Number of fatalities㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇

Nationwide

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)

㪈㪏㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪍㪇㪇㪇

Number of injuries㪈㪋㪇㪇㪇㪏㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪎㪊㪍㪍㪏㪏

㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇㪎㪉㪇㪏㪏㪇

㪍㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇㪏㪇㪇㪇㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪍㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪐㪈㪋
㪋㪇㪇㪇

Number of accidents㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇

2005

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

1975

1970

1965

1955

1960

1950

㪇

Number of fatalities㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪐㪈㪇㪈㪈㪌

Casualties per 100,000 people Casualties per 10,000 vehicles
1461.4
Saga Prefecture
1230.2
Shizuoka Prefecture1226.5
Gunma Prefecture
1201.9Miyazaki Prefecture 1169.9
Fukuoka Prefecture
1140.8
Okayama Prefecture 1123.7
Yamanashi Prefecture 1000.9
Wakayama Prefecture 892.7
Tokushima Prefecture 863.0

㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪍㪎㪍㪌
㪐㪏㪈㪇㪐㪍

Table 1 T
 he ten prefectures with the highest casualties:
number of traffic casualties per 100,000
inhabitants and per 10,000 vehicles in 20092009㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇

1945

Number of accidents / and casualities

Fig. 1 C hanges in the numbers of fatalities and injuries
from traffic accidents, and changes in the numberof accidents■ The number of fatalities from traffic accidents decreased
steadily, as did the number of accidents and the number of
injuries.

Kagawa Prefecture

Tokyo Metropolis

162.9
159.9
145.6
141.5
135.6
128.0
126.7
126.6
125.5
121.9

Nationwide

101.1

Kagawa Prefecture
Fukuoka Prefecture
Shizuoka Prefecture
Saga Prefecture
Osaka Prefecture
Miyazaki Prefecture
Okayama Prefecture
Gunma Prefecture
Hyogo Prefecture

717.7

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)Fig. 2 Changes in number of fatalities by age group

Fig. 3 Changes in number of fatalities by transport modes■

All in all, a downward trend is evident. The number offatalities is high for the elderly (65 and over). It has sharply
decreased for those aged 20 to 29 (which is less than that forage 50 to 59).

■

㪊㪌㪇㪇

㪎㪇㪇㪇

Fatalities “in a vehicle” decreased noticeably; and since 2008,“in a vehicle” fatalities have been less than “while walking”
fatalities.
In a vehicle
On a motorcycle
On a bicycle
While walking
Other

㪍㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪋㪌㪉

㪉㪌㪇㪇
Age 40-49

㪊㪇㪇㪇

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)

On a bicycle㪈㪇㪇㪇On a motorcycle

㪈㪎㪈㪎
㪈㪍㪇㪇
㪏㪏㪍
㪍㪐㪌
㪈㪍

㪉㪇㪇㪌

㪉㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪌

㪈㪐㪏㪌

㪈㪐㪎㪌

㪈㪐㪎㪇

㪈㪐㪏㪇

Other

㪇
㪈㪐㪍㪌

㪈㪐㪎㪐
㪈㪐㪏㪇
㪈㪐㪏㪈
㪈㪐㪏㪉
㪈㪐㪏㪊
㪈㪐㪏㪋
㪈㪐㪏㪌
㪈㪐㪏㪍
㪈㪐㪏㪎
㪈㪐㪏㪏
㪈㪐㪏㪐
㪈㪐㪐㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪈
㪈㪐㪐㪉
㪈㪐㪐㪊
㪈㪐㪐㪋
㪈㪐㪐㪌
㪈㪐㪐㪍
㪈㪐㪐㪎
㪈㪐㪐㪏
㪈㪐㪐㪐
㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪈
㪉㪇㪇㪉
㪉㪇㪇㪊
㪉㪇㪇㪋
㪉㪇㪇㪌
㪉㪇㪇㪍
㪉㪇㪇㪎
㪉㪇㪇㪏
㪉㪇㪇㪐

Age 15 and under

㪌㪉㪊
㪋㪎㪍
㪊㪏㪉
㪊㪎㪉
㪊㪎㪈
㪉㪉㪎
㪈㪈㪈

㪈㪐㪍㪇

Age 30-39

㪉㪇㪇㪐

㪉㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪇

Age 50-59

Age 60-69

24

In a vehicle㪋㪇㪇㪇
Age 16-19㪈㪌㪇㪇㪇While walking

Age 20-29

㪉㪇㪇㪇

㪌㪇㪇

㪌㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪐㪌㪌

Number of fatalities

Age 65 and over㪊㪇㪇㪇Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

0.41 88.3

86.4 87.2

88.8 89.1

91.3

0.4

89.1

84.1

0.39 0.38

0.34

0.31

81.8

0.3
0.29
2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

80

0.28

0.2

Driver’s seat(ordinary road)
Passenger front seat(ordinary road)
Back seat (ordinary
road)
Driver’s seat
(expressway)
Passenger front seat
(expressway)
Back seat(expressway)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

2009

87.5

70

2009

90

93.3 0.5

2008

0.47

2002

0.5

80

2007

0.55

90

2006

0.6

%

2005

Mortality rate

100

2004

0.6

0.7

Fig. 5 C hanges in percentage of seatbelt use by positionin vehicle■ Thanks to revisions in the Road Traffic Law, the percentage
of seatbelt use by back seat passengers is increasing both on
ordinary roads and on expressways.

2003%
Percentage of seatbelt use

Mortality rate (in a vehicle)

%

100

1999

Percentage of seatbelt use

Fig. 4 C hanges in the percentage of seatbelt use andmortality rate
■ The more people wear seatbelts, the lower the mortality rate
tends to be.

Source: White Paper on Traffic Safety in Japan 2010

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)Fig. 6 C hanges in incidence of bicycle accidents
involving pedestrians

Fig. 7 C hanges in traffic fatalities worldwide, by country(per 100,000 inhabitants)

Accidents involving bicyclists and pedestrians are rapidly
increasing.
Number of bicyclist-pedestrian accidents㪌㪅㪇㪇

Number of accidents between bicycles

㪋㪅㪌㪇

㪋㪅㪊㪎

Percentage of bicycle accidents among all traffic accidents

㪋㪅㪇㪇
㪊㪅㪌㪇

㪈㪏㪅㪎

㪈㪏㪅㪈 㪈㪎㪅㪏 㪈㪏㪅㪉

㪉㪅㪇㪇
㪈㪅㪌㪇
㪈㪅㪇㪇
㪇㪅㪌㪇

㪈㪅㪇㪇

㪈㪅㪇㪋

㪈㪅㪇㪇

㪈㪅㪇㪈

㪉㪋㪅㪇

㪈㪅㪉㪊

㪉㪉㪅㪇

㪉㪇㪅㪌

㪈㪏㪅㪌

South Korea

㪊㪇

Germany㪉㪌France

㪈㪐㪅㪉

㪈㪐㪅㪎

㪈㪐㪅㪎

㪈㪐㪅㪍

㪉㪇

㪈㪅㪉㪍

㪈㪅㪉㪐

㪈㪅㪊㪊

㪈㪅㪊㪇

㪈㪏㪅㪇

㪈㪌

㪈㪅㪉㪈 㪈㪍㪅㪇

㪈㪇

㪈㪅㪉㪊

㪈㪋㪅㪇
㪈㪉㪅㪇

㪇㪅㪇㪇

U.S.A.

U.K.
South Korea
Japan

㪌

U.K.

Netherlands Japan

Germany

㪇

㪉㪇㪇㪎

㪉㪇㪇㪍

㪉㪇㪇㪌

㪉㪇㪇㪋

㪉㪇㪇㪊

㪉㪇㪇㪉

㪉㪇㪇㪈

㪉㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪐㪐㪐

㪈㪐㪐㪏

Netherlands

Italy

U.S.A.

㪈㪇㪅㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪎

Italy

France

㪉㪇㪅㪇

㪈㪐㪅㪇

㪈㪅㪉㪋

㪊㪌

㪉㪍㪅㪇

㪈㪅㪉㪎
㪈㪅㪇㪐

㪉㪏㪅㪇

㪋㪅㪇㪎
㪊㪅㪐㪋

㪉㪅㪏㪌

㪉㪅㪌㪇

㪋㪅㪌㪈

㪊㪅㪌㪋

㪊㪅㪇㪎

㪉㪅㪏㪐

㪊㪅㪇㪇

ੱ

㪊㪇㪅㪇

㪈㪐㪎㪇
㪈㪐㪏㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪈
㪈㪐㪐㪉
㪈㪐㪐㪊
㪈㪐㪐㪋
㪈㪐㪐㪌
㪈㪐㪐㪍
㪈㪐㪐㪎
㪈㪐㪐㪏
㪈㪐㪐㪐
㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪈
㪉㪇㪇㪉
㪉㪇㪇㪊
㪉㪇㪇㪋
㪉㪇㪇㪌
㪉㪇㪇㪍
㪉㪇㪇㪎
㪉㪇㪇㪏

■

Source: White Paper on Traffic Safety in Japan 2008

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)Table 2 Traffic fatalities worldwide, by situation (2008)

Table 3 N umber of traffic fatalities worldwide by age
group (2007)

Situation Number ofCountry
fatalities
Germany㪋㪃㪋㪎㪎FranceNetherlands
U.K.
U.S.A.
South Korea
Japan

㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪋㪃㪉㪎㪌
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪍㪎㪎
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪉㪃㪍㪋㪌
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪊㪎㪃㪉㪍㪈
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪌㪃㪏㪎㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪍㪃㪇㪉㪊
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇

In a car

㪉㪃㪊㪍㪏
㪌㪉㪅㪐
㪉㪃㪉㪇㪌
㪌㪈㪅㪍
㪊㪊㪇
㪋㪏㪅㪎
㪈㪃㪊㪉㪊
㪌㪇㪅㪇
㪈㪋㪃㪌㪏㪎
㪊㪐㪅㪈
㪈㪃㪊㪋㪉
㪉㪉㪅㪐
㪈㪃㪉㪍㪐
㪉㪈㪅㪈

On a
motorcycle

㪍㪌㪍
㪈㪋㪅㪎
㪎㪐㪌
㪈㪏㪅㪍
㪍㪎
㪐㪅㪐
㪋㪏㪏
㪈㪏㪅㪋
㪌㪃㪉㪇㪇
㪈㪋㪅㪇
㪎㪋㪇
㪈㪉㪅㪍
㪍㪊㪎
㪈㪇㪅㪍

On a
moped

㪈㪈㪇
㪉㪅㪌
㪉㪐㪈
㪍㪅㪏
㪋㪊
㪍㪅㪋
㪉㪈
㪇㪅㪏
㪐㪇
㪇㪅㪉
㪋㪐㪇
㪏㪅㪊
㪌㪉㪍
㪏㪅㪎

On a
bicycle

㪋㪌㪍
㪈㪇㪅㪉
㪈㪋㪏
㪊㪅㪌
㪈㪋㪌
㪉㪈㪅㪋
㪈㪈㪎
㪋㪅㪋
㪎㪈㪍
㪈㪅㪐
㪊㪈㪇
㪌㪅㪊
㪐㪎㪈
㪈㪍㪅㪈

While
walking

㪍㪌㪊
㪈㪋㪅㪍
㪌㪋㪏
㪈㪉㪅㪏
㪌㪍
㪏㪅㪊
㪌㪐㪈
㪉㪉㪅㪊
㪋㪃㪊㪎㪏
㪈㪈㪅㪎
㪉㪃㪈㪊㪎
㪊㪍㪅㪋
㪈㪃㪐㪎㪍
㪊㪉㪅㪏

Other

㪉㪊㪋
㪌㪅㪉
㪉㪏㪏
㪍㪅㪎
㪊㪍
㪌㪅㪊
㪈㪇㪌
㪋㪅㪇
㪈㪉㪃㪉㪎㪐
㪊㪊㪅㪇
㪏㪌㪈
㪈㪋㪅㪌
㪍㪋㪋
㪈㪇㪅㪎

Age

Number of
fatalities

5 and
under

Germany

㪋㪃㪋㪎㪎
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪋㪃㪉㪎㪌
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪍㪎㪎
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪉㪃㪍㪋㪌
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪊㪎㪃㪉㪍㪈
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪌㪃㪏㪎㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇
㪍㪃㪇㪉㪊
㪈㪇㪇㪅㪇

㪊㪌
㪇㪅㪏
㪋㪉
㪈㪅㪇
㪍
㪇㪅㪐
㪊㪇
㪈㪅㪈
㪋㪐㪎
㪈㪅㪊
㪍㪐
㪈㪅㪉
㪌㪌
㪇㪅㪐

Country

FranceNetherlands
U.K.
U.S.A.
South Korea
Japan

6-9

㪈㪐
㪇㪅㪋
㪉㪌
㪇㪅㪍
㪉
㪇㪅㪊
㪉㪊
㪇㪅㪐
㪊㪈㪇
㪇㪅㪏
㪌㪍
㪈㪅㪇
㪋㪌
㪇㪅㪎

10-14

15-17

18-20

21-24

25-64

65 and Unknown
over

㪋㪏
㪈㪎㪋
㪋㪊㪍
㪋㪌㪈 㪉㪃㪉㪋㪉 㪈㪃㪇㪍㪍㪈㪅㪈㪊㪅㪐㪐㪅㪎 㪈㪇㪅㪈
㪌㪇㪅㪈 㪉㪊㪅㪏
㪌㪏
㪈㪎㪉
㪋㪉㪋
㪌㪊㪋 㪉㪃㪉㪇㪐
㪏㪈㪈
㪈㪅㪋
㪋㪅㪇
㪐㪅㪐 㪈㪉㪅㪌
㪌㪈㪅㪎 㪈㪐㪅㪇
㪈㪌
㪊㪉
㪋㪎
㪍㪇
㪊㪋㪈
㪈㪎㪋
㪉㪅㪉
㪋㪅㪎
㪍㪅㪐
㪏㪅㪐
㪌㪇㪅㪋 㪉㪌㪅㪎
㪌㪎
㪈㪍㪇
㪉㪎㪉
㪉㪎㪇 㪈㪃㪊㪊㪊 㪋㪐㪐㪅㪇㪉㪅㪉㪍㪅㪇 㪈㪇㪅㪊 㪈㪇㪅㪉㪌㪇㪅㪋 㪈㪏㪅㪐㪌㪋㪇 㪈㪃㪌㪐㪍 㪊㪃㪈㪏㪎 㪊㪃㪐㪋㪇 㪉㪈㪃㪌㪎㪐 㪌㪃㪌㪊㪊㪈㪅㪋㪋㪅㪊㪏㪅㪍 㪈㪇㪅㪍
㪌㪎㪅㪐 㪈㪋㪅㪏
㪍㪍
㪈㪏㪐
㪈㪈㪍
㪊㪈㪐 㪊㪃㪋㪊㪍 㪈㪃㪍㪈㪌
㪈㪅㪈
㪊㪅㪉
㪉㪅㪇
㪌㪅㪋
㪌㪏㪅㪌 㪉㪎㪅㪌
㪋㪌
㪈㪊㪋
㪉㪎㪋
㪉㪋㪎 㪉㪃㪉㪎㪊 㪉㪃㪐㪌㪇
㪇㪅㪎
㪉㪅㪉
㪋㪅㪌
㪋㪅㪈
㪊㪎㪅㪎 㪋㪐㪅㪇

㪍
㪇㪅㪈
㪇
㪇㪅㪇
㪇
㪇㪅㪇
㪈
㪇㪅㪇
㪎㪐
㪇㪅㪉
㪋
㪇㪅㪈
㪇
㪇㪅㪇

Upper figure: number of fatalities; Lower figure: percentage of total (%)
For countries that used the coefficient to convert the number of fatalities
into a 30-day figure, the total may not represent the sum of each figure.

Upper figure: number of fatalities; Lower figure: percentage of total (%)
For countries that used the coefficient to convert the number of fatalities
into a 30-day figure, the total may not represent the sum of each figure.

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)

Source: Traffic Statistics 2009 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)

25

2 -2

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

Motor Vehicle Insurance inJapan

Professor, College of Law, Nihon University

Yasuo Fukuda

A noteworthy characteristic of motor vehicle insurance in Japan is its two-tiered structure. The first tier is the compulsory liability insurance program in which
all motor vehicles are required by law to be enrolled; The second is a voluntary program in which the motor vehicle owner may or may not choose to enroll.
The compulsory liability insurance is tied to the automobile inspection program, and almost 100% of motor vehicles are found to be enrolled in it. Coverage
to provide basic compensation to victims is limited to 30,000,000 yen for death, and 40,000,000 yen for the severe after-effects of disabling injuries. This
compulsory liability insurance is managed according to the general rule of “No loss, no profit”; the premium is 22,470 yen for two years for an ordinary
automobile, which provides a high level of compensation with quite a low premium. The percentage of motorists enrolled in the voluntary insurance program,which provides compensation that is not provided by the compulsory liability insurance, is about 72%. With the current trend toward higher amounts ofcompensation for losses and damages, more drivers ought to enroll in the voluntary program.

Table 1 Obligations of those responsible for a traffic accident■

When a traffic accident occurs, the person who caused theaccident has three types of legal obligations and one moral
obligation; the civil obligation is to compensate the victim(s)for the loss.
Legal obligations

Fig. 1 C ompulsory motor vehicle liability insurance andmotor vehicle insurance■ For traffic accidents, there are two types of insurance: (1)compulsory liability insurance (mandatory) to compensate
death or injury of the accident victim(s); and (2) voluntary
motor vehicle insurance that supplements the compulsory
liability insurance.
supplements compulsory motor
vehicle liability insurance

Administrative Obligation(Subject to administrative disposition:) To ensure safety on the road,the public safety commission in charge takes action such as
revocation / suspension of the driver’s license, deduction of points,
and imposition of a fine.
Criminal liability
If the victim died or was injured through the driver’s “professional
negligence”: The penalty is determined depending on the extent of
the negligence, the consequences of the accident, and the appropriateness of the driver’s action after the accident. Penalties are
imprisonment with work, imprisonment without work, and a fine.
Civil obligation
If the driver caused losses/damages to others from the traffic
accident, (s)he must compensate the victim(s) for the loss. Compensation is regulated in the civil law and in the Automobile Liability
Security Act.
Moral obligation
Besides legal obligations, there is a moral obligation for the person who
caused the accident to visit the victim and apologize sincerely.

Motor vehicle
insurance(voluntaryenrollment)
Compulsory motor
vehicle liability
insurance (mandatory
insurance)

Supplements compensation for humanlosses/damages that exceed thepayment limit of compulsory liability
insurance; provides compensation forproperty damage, injuries of the person
who caused the accident, motor vehicle
damage, etc.

minimal compensation
Compensation for humanlosses/damages for an accident
resulting in injury or death

Source: Fact Book 2010: Japan’s Insurance against Loss (TheGeneral Insurance Association of Japan)

Fig. 2 Changes in the number of traffic accidents and thenumber of cases in which claims have been paid by
the compulsory motor vehicle liability insurance■ The number of traffic accident injuries is on a downward
trend; but the number of claims paid by the compulsory motor
vehicle liability insurance remains flat.

Source: Insurance for Loss & Damage in Daily Life (The General
Insurance Association of Japan)

Outline of the compulsory motor vehicle liability insurance
In accordance with the Automobile Liability Security Act, for the
purpose of providing relief to victims of motor vehicle accidents,
the compulsory motor vehicle liability insurance is designated“mandatory”; all motor vehicles are required to be enrolled.
It follows that even such vehicles as mopeds must also beenrolled.

㪈㪃㪈㪉㪎㪃㪎㪌㪌

Number of claims paid: Number of casualties

Table 2 O utline of the compulsory motor vehicle liability
insurance■ All motor vehicles are obliged to have compulsory liability
insurance.

㪐㪋㪌㪃㪌㪇㪋

㪌㪃㪋㪏㪉

Penalty for not having the compulsory motor vehicle liability insurance
Imprisonment for less than one year or afine of less than 500,000 yen
Six points will be deducted; suspensionof license, etc.

(penalty in accordancewith the Automobile
Liability Security Act)
(penalty inaccordance with theRoad Traffic Act)

Source: Fact Book 2010: Japan’s Insurance against Loss (TheGeneral Insurance Association of Japan)

26

㪌㪃㪈㪌㪌
(FY)

㪉㪇

Number of claims for injuries (including after-effects of disabling
injuries) paid by the compulsory motor vehicle liability insurance
Number of traffic accident injuries
Number of death claims paid by the compulsory motor vehicle liability
insurance
Number of traffic accident deaths

Source: Automobile Insurance in FY 2009 (Non-Life Insurance Rating
Organization of Japan)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

1,200,000 yen

Lost profits, pain & suffering
compensation, etc.

Depending on the grade of after
effects from disabilities:
40,000,000 – 750,000 yen**(1) When there is severe damage to the nervous system, brain, or organs of the chest andstomach and the person needs nursing care at all times or as needed: nursing care at
all times: 40,000,000 yen(1st degree disability): nursing care as needed: 30,000,000
yen (2nd degree disability)(2) After-effects of disabling injuries other than the above (1): 30,000,000 yen (1st degreethdisability)
750,000
yen (14degree disability)
Source:FacttoBook
2010:
Japan’s
Insurance against Loss (The General

Insurance Association of Japan)

Fig. 3 C hanges in the percentage of those enrolled involuntary motor vehicle insurance
70.0

72.8

60.0

Bodily injury liability
insurance
Property damage
liability insurance
Passenger injury
insurance
Motor vehicle physicaldamage insurance

55.0
50.0
45.0
40.0

58.3

40.3

35.0
30.0

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Source: Automobile Insurance in FY 2009 (Non-Life Insurance Rating
Organization of Japan)

Hit and killed a pedestrian
Bumped into other vehicle and caused injury
to the driver.
Bumped into and damaged another vehicle.

−

Bumped into someone’s house gate and brokeit.

−Drove into a river and was injured−

Bumped into a utility pole, injuring apassenger in the driver’s vehicle−

After a collision with another vehicle, sufferedafter-effects of disabling injuries; but thedriver of the other vehicle didn’t have bodily
injury liability insurance.

−

Uninsured motorist
insurance / Bodily injury
insurance−

Motor vehicle physicaldamage insurance

Property damage liability
insurance

Own-fault Insurance /Passenger injury
insurance / Bodily injury
insurance

Drove over a cliff, totally wrecking the vehicle.
A signboard was blown into the vehicle,
causing severe damages.
Vehicle stolen.

Fig. 4 C hanges in the average claim paid by thecompulsory liability insurance, by result ofaccidents (death / injuries)
Figures in parentheses show the indexes
when FY 2003 figure = 100.

72.8

65.0

Insurance that covers the case
Mandatory Supplementary insurance
insurance
Compulsory
motor
Bodily injury liability
vehicleinsurance
liability
insurance

Source: Insurance for Loss & Damage in Daily Life (The General
Insurance Association of Japan)

Average amount of money paid (10,000 yen)

Percentage of enrollment (%)

75.0

Driver’s vehicle

30,000,000 yen
Property damage

Funeral costs, lost profits, pain
& suffering compensation

Loss from death

Other person’s Other person’s
propertybody

Damage from injuries

Costs for medical treatment,
costs for documentation, loss
from closing a business,consolation money, etc.

Damage fromafter-effects ofdisabling injuries

Limit of payment

Driver & passengers

Scope of loss/damage

Type of
Examplesdamage/loss

Damage/loss to becompensatedType of loss/damage

Table 4 C overage of compulsory (mandatory) vs.
voluntary (supplementary) insurance

Injuries

Table 3 Coverage and limits of the compulsory motor
vehicle liability insurance■ The compulsory motor vehicle liability insurance (mandatory
insurance) covers only compensation for loss/damage to thebody of the accident victim. It does not cover compensation for
loss/damage to the body of the person who caused the accident
or to motor vehicles of the victim or of the person who caused
the accident. Also, the limits of the amount are set as follows:

㪉㪃㪋㪇㪌
㩿㪐㪐㪀
Death

Total

㪎㪈㪅㪎
㩿㪐㪐㪀
㪍㪇㪅㪐
㩿㪈㪇㪈㪀
Injuries (incl. post-accident disabilities)

㪉㪇

FY

Source: Automobile Insurance in FY 2009 (Non-Life Insurance Rating
Organization of Japan)

Fig. 5 C hanges in the reported number of motor vehicle
thefts and amounts of claims paid
■ The reported number of motor vehicle thefts is decreasing; however, the size of claims paid is not consistently decreasing.
Of all stolen vehicles, thenumber of motor vehicles stolen
when keys were left in vehicles(unit: 100 million yen)

㪊㪇㪎

㪊㪋㪊





1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Source: National Police Agency research on motor vehicle theft2009

FY 1999 FY 2000 FY 2001 FY 2002 FY 2003 FY 2004 FY 2005 FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008 FY 2009

Source: Fact Book 2010: Japan’s Insurance against Loss (The General
Insurance Association of Japan)

27

2 -3

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

Traffic Safety Measures

Professor, Graduate School of Urban Environmental
Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University

Takashi Oguchi

Monetary losses in Japan from traffic accidents were estimated to be 4.4 trillion yen in 2004. Furthermore, the estimated amount per person of non-monetarylosses from fatal accidents (e.g., psychological loss from grieving, loss from lowered quality of life) is well over the amount of monetary losses ( estimated by“WTP,” Willingness to Pay approach). New safety measures being currently implemented include improving traffic safety facilities, employing better traffic control
techniques, renovating road surfaces and related facilities, better control of traffic lanes, educational activities for traffic safety using the Internet, Road Traffic Act
revisions (e.g., making seatbelts mandatory, strict penalties for driving under the influence), and so on. The policies presented in the Eighth Traffic Safety Basic
Plan, which envisions a society where there are no traffic accidents and where people come first when it comes to traffic safety, are gradually reaching the public.

Fig. 1 Government efforts for traffic safety■ Promotes comprehensive and meticulously planned safety measures in accordance with the Traffic Safety Measures Basic Law; promotes
facilities improvements in accordance with the Social Infrastructure Improvement Priority Plan.
Traffic safety planning in accordance with the Traffic Safety
Measures Basic Law

Traffic Safety Basic Plan

* The law is intended to promote comprehensive and carefully planned traffic safetymeasures (land, sea, and air).

• Drafted by the Central Traffic Safety Measures Council (headed by the Prime Minister)• Provides an outline of traffic safety policies, and measures to implement them

Eighth Traffic Safety Basic Plan (approved by the Central Traffic Safety Measures Council on March 14, 2006) for FY 2006 to FY 2010

Basic policies:
1. Steps toward a society without traffic accidents: To build a truly fulfilling and energetic society, we need to achieve a society free of traffic accidents.
2. A philosophy of traffic safety that puts people first: In a civilized society whose priorities include consideration and concern for the weak, all traffic
safety implementing measures need to be in harmony with the basic philosophy that gives priority to people — that enhances, in other words, the safety of the“traffic disadvantaged” (the elderly, the disabled, children, etc.).
3. Basic implementation objectives: To set measurable goals to be achieved in the designated period and to specify the actions that will achieve those goals.
For road traffic, in particular, traffic safety measures that put people first are to be further reinforced (e.g., more sidewalk improvements on roads taken toschools, roads in residential areas, and arterial roads in city areas). To promote traffic safety activities where people come and work together.
4. Dealing with human error in public transport: In all public transport (land, sea, air), persons involved with transport administration and operation are torecognize once again that solving safety problems takes the highest priority; improvement is to be system-wide.
*

The government’ s goal was set at the beginning of 2009: “In the next ten years, the number of traffic accident fatalities is to be 2500 or less.” Towardthat end, efforts are being made in fiscal 2010 for the next (ninth) Traffic Safety Basic Plan.

Traffic safety plans of prefectures

Traffic safety plans of municipalities

Traffic safety facilities improvement projects

Centralgovernment

Designation of roads

Prefectural & municipal governments
Comments

Social Infrastructure Improvement
Priority Plan

<Persons in charge of road management /Public Safety Commission>
Implementation plans for projects
to improve specified traffic safety
facilities
Implementationof projects

Special treatments
in subsidies etc.

Table 1 Monetalized social losses from traffic accidents (items & amounts)■ The monetary loss from a traffic accident is about 30 million yen per person. On the other hand, the estimated amount of loss from death
as a non-monetary loss is about 230 million yen per person (estimated figure from the results of WTP analysis on reducing death risk).
Type of losses

Items of expense

Calculated
amount (2004)

Human losses

Medical expenditure, loss from closing a business, consolation money, lost profits, etc.

1.5 trillion yen

Physical losses

Repair of vehicles and damaged structures, and payments for the damages

1.8 trillion yen

Losses of business operators

Loss from reduction in the amount of added value due to death, post-accident disabilities, closing business, etc.

0.1 trillion yen

Losses of publicorganizations

Costs for emergency transport, police reports, court, lawsuits, prosecutors, reform, insurance management,
financial assistance to victims, welfare, emergency medical care system; losses from delays caused by congestion

1.0 trillion yen

Source: Research Report on Economic Analysis of Damage and Loss from Traffic Accidents (Mar., 2007, Cabinet Office Director-general for Policies
on a Cohesive Society)28

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 2 E ducational activities on the website, “Traffic
Safety Map”
■ This website, created by the National Police Agency and theMinistry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism,
provides the general public with traffic accident data as well as
analysis of the cause of the accidents. It has a search function
for dangerous places where accidents can occur, as well as “safewalking areas” (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Maintaining "Safe Walking Areas"■

Area-wide and comprehensive measures are now being takenthat target city blocks of about one square kilometer, where
there are many accidents due to motor vehicle traffic,.

Measures to improve the roads Intersection improvements, high-tech traffic signalsthat run around the city blocks
A smooth flow of traffic on arterial roads that run around the city blocks will
discourage vehicles from passing through the Safe Walking Areas.
Providing for pedestrians Sidewalk improvements, barrier-free pedestrian areas
Improving pedestrian areas where people can move safely
Speed control in the zone, installation of speed bumps
and chicane, etc.
Creating zones that give priority to pedestrians or bicyclists.

Measures for speed zones(Speed bumps)(Chicane )(Speed bumps)

Data:website of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism; http://www.kotsu-anzen.jp/

Table 2 Safety measures introduced in the revised Road
Traffic Act (Jun. 1, 2008)■ Research in October 2008 showed that, after seatbelt use
was made mandatory for backseat passengers (the driver ispenalized one point for each violation), the percentage ofbackseat passengers using seatbelts showed a remarkableincrease. However, in October 2009, a year later, there was notmuch improvement; the percentage of seatbelt use by backseat
passengers is still low.
Seatbelt use (2008)
Percentage in 2008

website of the National Police Agency; http://www.npa.go.jp/

Fig. 3 Effects of stricter penalties for driving under the influence■

Stricter penalties were introduced in the 2002 and 2007
revisions to the Road Traffic Act. After each of those revisions,traffic accidents caused by driving under the influence
decreased noticeably; in 2008, the figure was less than 25% ofthat of ten years ago.

㩿ઙ㪀
㪐㪇㪇㪇

㩿ઙ㪀
㪈㪏㪇㪇

Driver not under the
influence (left axis)
Driver under the influence(right axis)

㪎㪌㪇㪇Fig. 5 T raffic signal that separates pedestrians frommotor vehicles■ Secures the safety of pedestrians who are crossing the road bystaggering the order of signals for motorists and pedestrians.
* Two-way traffic lanes

First stage

Second stage

Flow of motor vehicles

Flow of pedestrians

Fig. 6 A ltering lane configurations for safety at traffic
merging points■ Encouraged as an effective measure against accidents at somemerging points on urban expressways.
Before improvement

Merging directly from a
two-lane approach

Merging twice onto the same outer expressway lane

Directionof traffic

㪈㪌㪇㪇

㪍㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪉㪇㪇

㪋㪌㪇㪇

㪐㪇㪇

After improvement

㪊㪇㪇㪇

Third stage*Signal with arrows

Expressways, etc.

Driver95.9(+0.9)
99.0(+0.5)
96.6(+0.7)
99.2(+0.1)
Front seat96.4(+2.9)
90.8(+1.6)
96.9(+0.5)
passenger 89.2(+2.9)
Back seat63.4(+0.9)
passengers 30.8(+22.0) 62.5(+49.0) 33.5(+2.7)
Figures in parentheses show the change in percentage from the previous year.

Data:website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism;
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/road/traffic/sesaku/

North

Percentage in 2009

Ordinary roads Expressways, etc. Ordinary roads

Data:(Chicane)After narrowing to one
lane, vehicles can merge
without changing lanes㪍㪇㪇
Changes in the number of fatal accidents (in which the driver was
judged to be mainly at fault), where the driver was driving a moped or
bigger motor vehicle (drunk vs. not drunk)

㪈㪌㪇㪇

㪊㪇㪇

㪇

㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪇

Data:

㪈㪐㪐㪊

㪈㪐㪐㪏

㪉㪇㪇㪊

Separate a lane of the main road to accept merging vehicles

Directionof traffic㪉㪇㪇㪏 㪉㪇㪇㪐

website of the National Police Agency; http://www.npa.go.jp/

29

2 -4

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

Efforts toward Traffic Calming

Associate Professor, Graduate School ofEnvironmental Science, Okayama University

Seiji Hashimoto

The idea of promoting safety in residential areas by reducing vehicle speeds on minor roads — in other words, the idea of “Traffic Calming” — is
now accepted as a matter of course. It is not easy, however, to put that idea into practice, as is apparent from the various traffic-calming methods
that have been used in the past.
Along with conventional measures (e.g., speed humps, road narrowing), such new methods as ISA (Intelligent Speed Adaptation), Automatic
Bollard, and Shared Space have been implemented overseas in recent years. In Japan, too, there is a need to review speed management incities. In reviewing speed regulations,, the National Police Agency and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism clearly statedthat the speed on residential roads should be set at 30 km per hour or less (see the box below). There is definitely a growing movement toward
traffic calming.

Fig. 1 P ercentage of accidents that caused casualties bytype of road (2007)

Fig. 2 N umber of casualties among children pedestrians
by distance from home (2009)■■

The number of traffic accidents (per vehicle-km) on roads inresidential areas is high. The percentage of pedestrian andbicycle accidents is high, too.
Pedestrians & bicycles
Other㪇㪅㪈㩿㪈㩼㪀
Motorways㪈㪈㪅㪍

When children die in traffic accidents while walking, the sceneof the accident is often rather close to home. Traffic safetymeasures need to be taken not only for highways, but also forresidential roads.
㪇㪅㪍Junior high school students(total of 1585)㪍㪅㪊 㪐㪅㪋

Pupils in upper grades of
elementary school (total of 2430)

㪈㪉㪅㪊

Pupils in lower grades of
elementary school (total of 6006)

㪈㪍㪅㪍

㪊㪇

㪉㪌㪅㪊

㪈㪋㪅㪈

㪈㪋㪅㪊
㪇㪅㪉

㪈㪈㪅㪌㩿㪐㪐㩼㪀

㪈㪋㪅㪌

㪊㪊

㪈㪐㪅㪌

㪐㪅㪌

㪈㪇㪅㪐
㪇㪅㪋

Arterial road㪎㪉㪅㪌㩿㪏㪇㩼㪀

㪐㪇㪅㪍

㪇

㪌㪇

㪈㪉㪍㪅㪐㩿㪍㪈㩼㪀

㪈㪇㪇

㪈㪌㪇

㪉㪇㪎㪅㪍

㪉㪇㪇

㪉㪌㪇

Source: White Paper on Land, Infrastructure and Transport in Japan 2009

Fig. 3 Efforts toward speed management■

㪉㪍㪅㪍

Infants (total of 3304)

㪇㩼Residential Roads

㪊㪉

㪈㪏㪅㪍

㪎㪅㪈 㪏㪅㪊

㪍㪅㪐

㪉㪉

㪇㪅㪌

㪈㪏㪅㪈㩿㪉㪇㩼㪀㪏㪇㪅㪎㩿㪊㪐㩼㪀㪈㪎

Recognizing the importance of managing speed to securesafety on roads, various countries are making efforts for  speed
management. For residential areas, 30 kilometers per hour isgenerally regarded as the optimal speed limit. In our country,
too, the National Police Agency’s “Report on Deciding Speed
Limits” mentioned that a speed limit of 30 km per hour or lessis desirable.

Less than
50 meters

㪈㪇㩼Less than
100 m.

㪉㪇㩼

㪈㪊㪅㪋
㪊㪇㩼

Less than
500 m.

㪋㪇㩼

㪈㪏㪅㪍
㪌㪇㩼

Less than
1000 m.

㪈㪉
㪍㪇㩼

㪎㪇㩼

Less than2000 m.

㪏㪇㩼㪐㪇㩼 㪈㪇㪇㩼

2001 m.
and farther

Unknown

Source: Traffic Statistics 2008 (Institute for Traffic Accident Researchand Data Analysis)

Report on Deciding Speed Limits (residential roads):
Targeting a speed that allows time for reaction to an
unexpected incident, and that can avoid the occurrence of aserious accident, we set the speed limit at 30 km per hour or
less. The extent of the regulation of this will be governed byattention to how the road is actually used in the area. At thesame time, discussions are to be held with interested parties(e.g., residents, police, local governments, road authorities
management) on just where the speed needs to be reduced
and where the flow of traffic needs to be maintained. Also at
the same time, in addition to speed control, the installationof devices (e.g., speed humps, protective barriers) should beconsidered.   
Report on Deciding Speed Limits (National Police Agency, 2009)■

In Germany, the speed limit is 30 kilometers per hour incities. Separate speed limits are set for highways, where faster
speeds are the rule. (Area-wide speed limit map: example from
Kaiserslautern)
Legend30 km/hrzone andtraffic-calmed
area
Arterial road
(40 km/h)
Tempo 40
Tempo 50

Source: Speed Management — A Road Safety Manual for Decisionmakers and Practitioners (WHO,2008)

Tempo 70
Roads outside
the jurisdiction of
Kaiserslautern

Built-up area

30

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 4 Traffic calming methods
Movable rubber speed hump
■ Instead of a conventional asphalt or concrete speed humpformed on site, factory-made rubber speed humps are alsoavailable. Because of their reliability and ease of installation
or removal, they are often used in various places on a trial
basis. Permanent use of them is also growing. (Photo: Pilot
installation of two types of movable speed humps / Toyota
City, Aichi Prefecture)

Automatic Bollard■ In many cities in Europe, an automated ballard is used torestrict vehicle entry and exit to and from a residential orcommercial area. It goes up and down automatically to permit
only designated vehicles to proceed (e.g., public transportation,a resident’s car). (Photo: Cambridge, U.K.)

Road Narrowing■ To restrict vehicle entry and exit to and from a residential orcommercial area, and to reduce the speed of vehicles, part ofa two-way road is intentionally narrowed to the point where
vehicles need to yield to each other. An old practice in Westerncountries, it can also be seen in Japan. (Photo: Kamagaya City,
Chiba Prefecture)Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA)■ Use of the ISA, which automatically sets the upper speed
limit of a vehicle by using ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems)
technology, has been either contemplated or actually introduced,
mostly in northern Europe. Methods under consideration are thesatellite-linked GPS (Global Positioning System), or a speedlimit transmitter installed on a traffic sign. ISA is also being
used experimentally on public roads in London.

Shared Space■ Regarding the road as a space shared among pedestrians,
bicycles, motor vehicles, and so on will reduce traffic
accidents, and will eliminate such devices as traffic lights,
signs, and speed humps. The idea was first formed in the
Netherlands and is spreading throughout the Westerncountries. In various places, its trial or permanent use isaccelerating. (Photo: Stockholm)

Roundabout■ A roundabout consists of an island inside an intersection,around which the traffic has to flow one way. There are manyof them in Western countries. It is supposed to reduce theaccidents that would otherwise occur if the intersection had
traffic signals, provided that there is less than a certain amountof traffic. There is currently some movement toward shifting
the regulation of traffic at intersections from signal lights toroundabouts with no signals. (Photo: Letchworth, U.K.)

31

2 -5

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

The Reconsideration of Movement
toward Acceptance of Bicycles

Associate Professor, Graduate School ofEngineering, The University of Tokyo

Nobuaki Ohmori

People are once again looking favorably on bicycles as pollution-free and healthy vehicles. In other countries, progress has been seen in efforts
to establish safe bicycle lanes, to provide bicyclists with access to public transportation, to take bicycles on public transportation vehicles, and to
introduce advanced bicycle sharing systems. There are even cases in which bicycles play a significant role in building communities. The numberof bicycles owned in our country is about 70 million. Following the revision of the Road Traffic Act in June, 2007, the way that bicycles run onroads is undergoing a noticeable change, with both small-scale and large-scale innovations being seen.

Table 1 Bicycle routes by country
Country

Length ofbicycle routes
(km)

Year

Percentage of
total length ofroads (%)

Length of bicycle
routes per national
land area (m/km2)

Length of bicycle
routes per 1000
inhabitants(m/1000
inhabitants)

Length of bicycle
routes per 1000
bicycles(m/1000 bicycles)

Netherlands
GermanyJapan
Note: The length of bicycle routes in Japan is the total of (1) bicycle-pedestrian sidewalks (with bicycle lanes), (2) bicycle paths, (3)roads exclusively for bicycles, and (4) roads exclusively for bicycles and pedestrians.

Source: data of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Fig. 1 Types of bicycle routes
Road exclusively forbicyclesBicycle path

Bicycle-pedestriansidewalk

Table 2 Five rules for safe use of bicycles
Road exclusively for bicycles
and pedestrians

Sidewalk

No sidewalk(1) Travel on the carriageway as a general rule. Travel on sidewalk is a permitted
exception when,• a traffic sign, etc., indicates that sidewalk use is permitted, or• bicyclists are children younger than 13, elderly aged 70 and over, or
physically disabled, or• it is impossible to do otherwise considering the road traffic situation.
(2) Travel on the left side.

Bicycle zone is separated
visually (white line, colored
pavement, etc.).

Note:(3) On the sidewalk, give priority to pedestrians and ride slowly on the side next to the road.

Has a passage for bicycles alone.

Bicycles and pedestrians are
mixed.

Bicycles run on the shoulderof the road, etc.

（2,900km）（78,000km）(1.1 million km)

Bicycle path: Path exclusively for bicycles installed adjacent to the motor
vehicles road and sidewalk
Bicycle-pedestrian sidewalk: Sidewalk installed adjacent to the road, to beshared by bicycles and pedestrians
Road exclusively for bicycles, and road exclusively for bicycles andpedestrians: Separate roads for bicycle,  and bicycle and pedestrian traffic
Other than the above, there are bicycle zones designated by pavement
markings.

(4) Observe safety rules.
• It is not permitted to ride a bicycle when you are drunk, to have two people on
one bicycle, and to ride parallel to another bicycle. Use lights at night. Observe
traffic signals. Stop at the intersection, look all ways, and proceed with caution.
(5) Children are to wear helmets.

Source: data from Japan Traffic Safety Association and the National
Police Agency

Fig. 3 Chigasaki City Rainwear Project■

Source: data of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism(figures for 2009)

To keep middle school and high school students from notusing umbrellas while riding on bicycles, this citizens’ projectis developing attractive rainwear.
Ride
umbrella-free!

My companion on a rainy
day is my rainwear!

Fig. 2 Areas to be a model in improving bicycle traffic■

In January, 2008, ninety-eight places nationwide were
designated as areas to be a model of future improvement ofbicycle traffic. In each model area, “separated” spaces are
installed strategically for bicycles to travel through.
� Bicycles entangled withpedestrians on sidewalk⇒ installing lane exclusively forbicycles (bicycle lane)

Station� Bicycles entangled withpedestrians on sidewalk⇒ installing lane exclusively forbicycles (bicycle lane)

Parking

Source: Rainwear Project, official website of Chigasaki City

Shopping area

SchoolRoad
Sidewalk

Bicycle lane

� Too many pedestrians,
bicycle passage
impossible⇒ installing a detour

Sidewalk■� Bicycles, pedestrians, and motor vehicles
extremely entangled⇒ installing a bicycle path

Bicycle path

Existing bicycle routes
Will be installed in thenear futureRoad� Bicycles entangled with pedestrians on
bicycle-pedestrian sidewalk⇒ clearly marking bicycle zones on the
sidewalk

Residential
area

Sidewalk

Fig. 4 Roads exclusively for bicycles

Road
Bicycle lane

Marking (white line)

Bicycle-pedestrian sidewalk

Road

Will be installed in future

Source: data of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

32

In Narita New Town, aseries of bicycle roads havebeen installed, completely
separated from pedestrians.

■

In the center of Paris, morebicycle roads are being
installed.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 5 Developing bicycles for three people

Fig. 7 New developments in bicycle parking areas■■

For households with children, bicycles are indispensable forgoing out with the children. From July 1, 2009, the Road
Traffic Act permits two infants to be carried on one bicycle
only if the bicycle satisfies the new safety standard. (The Act
also changed the standard for the human-to-motor assist ratio
to 1 : 2 for electric motor assisted bicycles.)  

The first mechanized bicycle
parking units in Mitaka
City. It accommodates 180
bicycles per unit.

■

Photographed by Transportation and
Urban Engineering Research Group,
Yokohama National University
Photographed by author■

Bicycle-sharing (the “community bikes” system), whichbasically uses cell phones or integrated-circuit cards for renting
and managing bicycles, and is good for theft prevention,
efficient management, and convenience to users, has been
introduced in over 100 cities, mainly in Europe (including
Paris, where the system is called “Vélib’”); there are a numberof operators in the business. In our country, too, since its
introduction in Toyama City in March 2010, many other cities(Nagoya, Sapporo, Kitakyushu, etc.) are conducting pilot tests
and are considering introducing the system. (Data from Aoki
et al. (2008), Mr. Takahito Suwa, http;//bike-sharing.blogspot.
com/, Urban Community Cycle Research Group (2010), andMinistry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.)

The map was created by local residents; it shows dangerous
spots.

Business operator

Source: website of Kanazawa River and National Road Office

Table 3 Maintaining safety of bicycles
Place / targets
Intersections

Bus stops

Sidewalks

Parking areas

Road shoulders
The “transport
disadvantaged” (theelderly, etc.)
Comprehensive
measures

Possible measures to takeInstalling colored pavement
Widening bicycle crossing lanes
Ensuring space for bicycles to wait for the signal
Improving visibility
Installing street lights
Improving visibility
Installing street lights
Installing protective barriers
Improving bicycle-pedestrian sidewalks
Widening sidewalks
Introducing roads exclusively for bicycles
Installing protective barriers
Making regulations for ordinary bicycle travel on permitted sidewalks
Reviewing the parking fee system
Installing new bicycle parking areas
Introducing legislation to make it mandatory for facilities to install bicycle parking areas
Keeping bicycles from parking in improper areas
Introducing roads exclusively for bicycles
More enforcing of rules (e.g. stopping, obeying traffic signals) for motorists
Installing street lights
Keeping bicycles from parking in improper areas
Improving bicycle-pedestrian sidewalks
More education for bicyclists
Putting more emphasis on education and public relations
More enforcing of rules (e.g. stopping, obeying traffic signals) for motorists
More education for bicyclists

Source: data from website of Urban Economic Research InstituteSource: data of Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism

Table 4 The European trend toward community bikes

Fig. 6 Safety map for bicycles and pedestrians (Kanazawa City)■

On road bicycle parking
areas are now possible by a
new rule.

Name of city (system)

JC DecauxOver 15 cities including Paris (Vélib’), Lyon (Vélo’v), andToyama (Cyclocity)

Clear Channel

Over 10 cities including Oslo (Oslo Bysykkel) andBarcelona (Bicing)

DB

Over 6 cities such as Berlin and Frankfurt (Call-a- bike)

Nextbike

Over 20 cities, e.g. Leipzig and Frankfurt (Nextbike)

BicincittàOver 20 cities including Parma (Bicincittà) and Rome
(Roma’n’Bike)

Other

Copenhagen (Bycyklen), Orléans (Véló+), Taipei(YouBike), London (Barclays Cycle Hire), etc.

Fig. 8 Community bike project in Toyama City (Cyclocity)■

The service started in March, 2010. The system is the same as
Vélib’ in Paris. It has 15 stations and 150 bicycles. The photo
was taken near the Centrum station.

Photographed by Mauricio Matsumoto

33

2 -6

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

Solving Parking Problems

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo
Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

There is now better enforcement of laws against illegal parking; the number of drivers parking illegally on the street in the Special Wards ofTokyo continues to decrease. The same trend applies to motorcyclists. Steps are being taken to cope with the insufficiency of motorcycle parking
areas. To assist elderly people driving around looking for parking spaces, a parking policy has been introduced that aims at creating a traffic
environment friendly to elderly drivers.

Fig. 1 Changes in the number of vehicles illegally parked for a period of time on the street in the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo
Inside the Special Wards of Tokyo

Inside the Special Wards of Tokyo㪌㪇㪇㪇㪇㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪏㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪍㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪏㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪍㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪇

Four-wheeled vehicles
violating parking laws

Two-wheeled vehicles
violating parking laws

㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪊㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪇

㪐㪇 㪐㪈 㪐㪉 㪐㪊 㪐㪋 㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇 㪈 㪉

㪊 㪋 㪌

㪍 㪎 㪏

㪍

㪐

㪎

㪏

㪐

Source: National Police Agency; http://www.keishicho.metro.tokyo.jp/kotu/chusya/chusya.htm#1_4rin, 2010

Fig. 2 O utsourcing office work related to parking enforcement to the private sector, with results (Tokyo)■
Outsourcing office work related to parking enforcement to theprivate sector

The number of vehicles illegally parked for a time on the ten
major streets has decreased.

Outsourcing identification work
Prefectural Public Safety
Commissions
Corporation A

Registration

Registration

Corporation B

May 24, 2006
Registration

Consignment
through bids, etc.

vehiclesPolice Chief B
Fair and impartial
enforcement

Police Chief A
Interferencein the executionof their duties is acrime.

Note: The ten major streets include Harumi St., Shinjuku St.,
Violations officer

Executive

Meiji St., etc. (ca. 33 km of streets): Survey time of day: 2

Clerical worker

Executives, officers, etc. are to uphold thesame confidentiality as public employees are.

p.m. to 4 p.m.

Adopting qualification system

Outsourcing office work related to parking fines

Public Safety
Commission■

Jun., 2005 – May, 2006

Executive
Clerica
Worke lr

kmJun., 2009 – May, 2010km

Duty of confidentiality of
executives & clerical workers

Source: JPO News Vol. 47, 2005 (Japan Parking Facilities Promotion
Organization)

34

On the ten major streets , the length of traffic congestion
within one hour has become shorter.

Corporation

Duty to protect
privileged information

Making & sending documents,
entering data, etc.

vehiclesDuty toprotect
privileged
information

Certificate ofqualification as
violations officer

Identifying illegally parked vehicles

May 26, 2010

Corporation C

Source:	National Police Agency; http://www.keishicho.metro.tokyo.
jp/kotu/chusya/koka.htm, 2010

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 3 C hanges in the number of parking spaces (meters& permit tickets)
㪋㪌㪇㪇㪇
㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪊㪌㪇㪇㪇
㪊㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪌㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪌㪇㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇
㪌㪇㪇㪇
㪇

Fig. 4 C hanges in the number of parking enforcement
actions for mopeds and motorcycles

MopedsMotorcycles

Parking permit tickets
Parking meters㪐㪇 㪐㪈 㪐㪉 㪐㪊 㪐㪋 㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇 㪈 㪉 㪊 㪋 㪌 㪍 㪎Jun., 06 –May, 07

Source: JPO News Vol. 57, 2008 (Japan Parking Facilities Promotion
Organization)

Source: JPO News Vol. 57, 2008 (Japan Parking Facilities Promotion
Organization)

Fig. 5 Total demand for motorcycle parking spaces at peak hour on a weekday vs. number of spaces available■

In many areas, parking spaces are insufficient to accommodate motorcycles informally parked on the street.

Kitasenju

Ayase Station

Shakujii-koen

Akabane Station

Ikebukuro Station

Ogikubo Station

Nakano Station

Asagaya Station

Ebisu Station

Shibuya Station

Sangenjaya
StationNumber of motorcycles thatparked on the street

Futako-Tamagawa
Station

Omori Station

Meguro Station

Kamata Station(east part)

Gotanda Station

Kiba Station

Number of motorcycles thatused parking areas

Oimachi Station

Kinshicho Station

Ueno Station

Asakusa Station

Yushima Station

Shinjuku Station(west exit)

Shinagawa
StationShinjuku Station(east exit)

Roppongi Station

JimbochoNihonbashi
StationAkihabara Station

Total demand for parking spaces

Total demand for parking spaces at peak hour on a weekday vs.
number of spaces available

Number of motorcycles that can beaccommodated in parking areas

Source: 2008 Survey on the Realities of On-street Parking (2009, Tokyo Metropolitan Public Corporation for Road Improvement and Management)

Fig. 6 Introducing parking exclusively for senior or other special drivers.

How the system works. When facilities often used by senior or other special
citizens in their daily lives (e.g., governmental facilities, welfare facilities
for senior citizens, facilities for the disabled, hospitals) do not have a large
enough parking area, exclusive parking spaces can be set up on the roadnear those facilities (designated as “Parking space for senior or other special
drivers”). Seniors who display a special label are entitled to use those spaces.
“Senior or other special drivers” means those who have a license to drive
ordinary cars and who• are 70 years old or older, or• have been issued that license with the qualification that they have a hearing
problem, or• have been issued that license with the qualification that they are physicallyhandicapped, or• are pregnant or have given birth within the last eight weeks.
Source: National Police Agency; http://www.keishicho.metro.tokyo.jp/kotu/kourei_chusya/kourei_chusya.htm, 2010

Beginning April 19, 2010

The “Parking space forsenior or other special
drivers” system will start!
For properly
labeled cars only

For properly
labeled cars only
Observe thissign!!
The parking space is exclusively for seniors,
physically disabled persons, those who are
pregnant, or similar persons. (A special label
is required. Please ask the nearest police
station for details.)

For properly
labeled cars only

Use of the space by those not in the above
categories is a parking violation. The fine forsuch violations, and for illegal parking, will behigher than fines for other parking infractions.
Japan Traffic Safety Association & National Police
Agency35

2 -7

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

The Second-Stage ITS —Intelligent Transport Systems

Manager in charge, ITS Japan Planning Group

Masahiro Sakakibara

ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) closely coordinate people, vehicles, and roads, using the latest information communications technology. The systems aredesigned to improve safety, efficiency, and comfort, and to preserve the environment. In Japan, first-stage practical use of the ITS came with such systems as
the VICS (Vehicle Information and Communication System) and the ETC (Electronic Toll Collection). In cities, the use of more services from the latter is being
promoted through the installation of an ETC device in the vehicle itself. In September, 2004, the Japan ITS Promotion Council was established by users fromindustrial, governmental, and academic sectors, and promotion policies for the ITS, which had entered its second stage, were announced. In January, 2006, theIT (Information Technology) Strategies Headquarters made public its New Reform Strategies, announcing among its goals the realization of a society that would
rank first worldwide in road traffic safety. To achieve the goal of reducing the number of traffic fatalities to less than 5000, the “driving safety support system” (tobe implemented nationwide beginning in 2010) will be installed, mainly in places where accidents occur frequently. In May 2010, in the wake of the IT New Reform
Strategies, the New Information Telecommunications Technology Strategies were made public, and the Green (energy conserving) ITS was promoted. This systemcollects a broad range of traffic information, including “probe” information (real-time motor vehicle movements), and disseminates it. Also, as one of the “Accerelated
restoration of the benefits to society” projects under Japan’s long-range strategic policies (Innovation 25, adopted by the Cabinet meeting of June 1, 2007), theachievement of safe and efficient road traffic systems using information communications technology (ITS) was promoted; the project is being expedited.

Table 1 ITS promotion policies announced by Japan ITS
Promotion Council
Targeted field Overall theme

Individual theme(1) Improving traffic safety(2) Smoother traffic
Reducing environmental
impact• Moderating traffic demand• Advanced traffic management systems• Advanced parking systems• Efficient freight transport(3) Increasing personal
convenience• Providing more advanced traffic informationand encouraging its use• Skillfully utilizing ITS capabilities• Increasing conveniences for the elderly anddisabledComfort &convenience

GeneralSocial Promotion Strategies Headquarters for Advanced
Information Telecommunications Network(IT Strategies Headquarters)• More intelligent motor vehicles• Enhancing infrastructure• Interactions between vehicles and between
vehicles and infrastructure• Supporting safety of pedestrians, bicycles,
and other two-wheeled vehicles• Advanced system for rescue and emergency
medical care of the injured from traffic
accidents

Safety andsecurity

Environment &efficiency

Fig. 1 The system for promoting ITS in Japan(4) Stimulating an area’ s
economic activities• Improving access from the area toexpressways• Increasing convenience of intermodal
movement in public transport(5) Improving transport infrastructure • Building the ITS platform• Promoting ITS international standards
Promoting international
standards

Source: Japan ITS Promotion Council (website of ITS Japan)(headed by the Prime Minister)
Four-Ministry
Liaison Conference
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism

ൻ
ITS Standards
Committee
ળPromoting international
standards
International Organization forStandardization (ISO)ITS Japan
ITS

National Police Agency(consists of academics,䋨ቇ⼂⚻㛎⠪䊶ડᬺ䊶
professionals,/ corporations /relevant organizations)㑐ଥ࿅૕䈪᭴ᚑ䋩

Ministry of Internal Affairs andCommunications

Promotion of ITS by industrial
and academic sectors
Holding the ITS World
Conference, etc.

Ministry of Economy, Trade andIndustry

Source: website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Fig. 3 IT strategies of Japan: steps taken, goals, and policies
New Information
Telecommunications
Technology Strategies(May, 2010)
The “Three Pillars of Priority” strategy to establish a
new society with the sovereignty of the people�IT Basic Act
�Foundation of IT Strategies
Headquarters(headed by the Prime Minister)Fig. 2 Direction of the second stage

IT New Reform Strategies(Jan., 2006)

Developing a new mobile society• The second stage of ITS will offer a variety of services. ITS will become a part ofdaily life and society, contributing to the solution of social problems and tochange society.

e-Japan Strategies II(July., 2003)
e-Japan Strategies(January., 2001)

Pursuing the structural reform
ability of IT

Emphasis on making use of IT

IT groundwork

VICS (Vehicle Information andCommunication System)
ETC (Electronic Toll Collection)
ASV (Advanced Safe Vehicle)
Probe system
Bus location system

First stage(the forefront, trend)

Improving the quality of
movement & transport(safety, security, environment, & comfort)

Clearing away any negative
legacyEnsuring mobility for theelderly
Satisfaction in individual andcommunity living
Improvement of the businessenvironment

New mobile society

Car navigation

Evolution, integration, andcooperation of each system

ITS Nagoya conference(Oct.,2004)

On to the second stage(changing lifestyles & society)

2001

2003

2 00 62010

2 02 0[IT New Reform Strategies]
A society that ranks the first worldwide in traffic safety — less than 5000 traffic fatalities
is the goal.
1. Making practical use of a driving safety support system that interacts with infrastructure (FY2010-)
2. Promoting and spreading the FAST system that shortens the time of getting the injured from a traffic
accident spot to a medical institution, etc.
3. Developing technology to prevent pedestrian accidents[New Information Telecommunications Technology Strategies]
1. The “Three Pillars of Priority” strategy: (1) Achieving electronic administrative services that put
people first, (2) Strengthening community bonds, and (3)Creating new markets and development worldwide
2. Promoting “greening” (energy conservation) where people and things move: Promoting GreenITS that collect a broad range of traffic information, including “probe” information (real-time motor
vehicle movements), and disseminates it; the system can also be used to control traffic.
3. Promoting smart grids; low carbon housing and offices: Combining smart grid techniques withheat exchange systems, traffic systems, etc., to achieve optimal energy management in the area.

Source: Smartway Project Advisory Committee, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
Source: website of the IT Strategies Headquarters, Prime Minister ofJapan and His Cabinet

36

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 4 Driving Safety Support System

Table 2 N umber of car navigation devices, VICS units,
and ETC devices installed

Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism: ITS installations
Infrastructure and motor vehicles interactingDSRC䋺
on expressways
Dedicated Short Range Communication

Item䅇 Attention! Car
merging fromthe left.

National Police Agency: DSSS
(Driving Safety Support System)
Infrastructure and motor vehicles
interacting on ordinary roads

Interactions between vehicles (5.8GHz/UHF band)

Optical beacon

A signal can beseen ahead.

Road Transport Bureau, Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism:
ASVs (Advanced Safe Vehicles)

ITS Japan (private sector) andrelated Ministries together
establish the ITS Promotion
Council, and make cooperative
efforts toward putting ITS topractical use.

Ministry of Internal Affairs andCommunications: ITS radio media
Allotting and developing
wave lengths for ITS use

Cumulative number

Date of calculation

Car navigation devices

41,299,000

June, 2010

VICS units

27,642,878

June, 2010

ETC devices
Percentage of vehicles using the ETC
system (nationwide average)

39,485,661

August, 2010
Aug. 27, 2010
to Sep. 2, 2010

80.9%

Source: website of Vehicle Information and Communication System
Center (VICS Center) and Organization for Road System
Enhancement (ORSE)

Ministry of Economy, Tradeand Industry: standardization

Fig. 6 R elationship between the percentage of ETC use
and the amount of congestion at toll gates on
main routes (Metropolitan Expressway)

Standard devices to be installed in vehicles toreceive multi-services.

Amount ofcongestion(kilometer-hours
per day)

Relationship between the percentage of ETC use and the amountof congestion at toll gates on main routes

Percentage of
ETC use (%)

Congestion
Percentage of ETC use
Source: Made by ITS Japan from data of the Cabinet Secretariat

Fig. 5 Innovation 25 — “Bring home the benefits” projects

Cong

Outstanding model projects that speed the return of academic technical achievements to the
public, through research that unites different fields and through public services improvement

Outline ofpolicies

es

tio

se

Cu

f ET

n
ge o
enta
Perc

1. A society in which people canstay healthy all their lives• Medical treatment that retrieves lost functions

Present (2008)

2. A safe and securesociety

Returning new technologies
to the public“Accerelated restoration of thebenefits to society”
Demonstrations that accompany
systems reform

Uniting different fields

Cooperation between
governmental andprivate sectors

Developing provable technologies

Source: website of Metropolitan Expressway Co., Ltd.

• A disaster information communications system in which
everyone can receive necessary information from a single
source• Advanced traffic control systems that will dramaticallydecrease traffic accidents and environmental impacts(CO2 emissions), and will contribute to improved
productivity

Fig. 7 “ Bring home the benefits” projects — Model cities
for ITS demonstration projects

3. A society where there is roomfor everyone to have a life
• Support for home medical treatment and nursing care forthe elderly, the disabled, and the chronically ill

Model cities

4. A society that contributes to the solutionof global problems

Toyota City

• Providing real-time road traffic information using “probe” information• Making systems for on-demand buses; introducing bus location systems for all
routes; introducing a multi-purpose IC card
• Introducing less polluting vehicles; introducing personal mobility

Yokohama City

• Demonstration of navigation systems; supporting eco-driving by controlling
traffic signals• Introducing bus location systems, bicycle share systems, and Park & Ride
• Introducing less polluting and high fuel efficiency vehicles; encouraging new
personal choices among modes of transport• Comprehensive use of biomass resources that helps solve
environmental and energy problems without diminishing
the food supply.

Basic technologies
Seminal research at universities, etc.

5. A society that is open to theworld• Vocal communication technology that will remove language
barriers

Source: data of the Seventh Conference to Promote Industrial, Academic,
and Governmental Cooperation (data from Mr. Okumura,member of the Council for Science and Technology Policy)

Fig. 8 S ervices available in town through the ETC device
installed in the motor vehicle (examples)
Using the ETC to manage taxis waiting forcustomers in front of the station; making thesystem more efficient to eliminate taxi congestion
StationTaxi management system

Outline of measures to be implemented

Aomori City

• Sharing information about current status of snow removal• Introducing bus location systems; resolving traffic bottlenecks; introducing a
multi-purpose IC card
• Introducing next-generation motor vehicles (official cars, city buses, rent-a-cars)

Kashiwa City• Dynamic Park & Ride; next-generation ITS parking areas; on-demandtransport; car sharing• Bicycle share systems; introducing personal mobility systems; eco-driving

Source: data from Research Report on Trends of ITS Industries (Mar.,2010, Japan Automobile Research Institute)
Quickly noticing a customer’s visit to the store;
special services can be provided.

"No. ○ car, please
move to the station."

Store

Advanced customer management

Gas station

Paying automatically for gas
No need to prepare cash.
Information about the vicinity (stores,etc.) also provided.

Drive throughPaying automatically atdrive throughs
No need to prepare cash.
Information about the vicinity (stores, etc.)
also provided.

Parking area

Paying automatically for parking

AirportPaying automatically for parking

No need to pull over to pay; no need to prepare cash.
Information about the vicinity (stores, etc.) also
provided.

Source: website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism

Port

Simplifying the process of boarding a
ferry

By combining motor vehicle inspection information,
confirmation of the vehicle can be omitted, which saves timein embarkation.

37

2 -8

2. Efforts to Assure Safe and Comfortable Mobility

The Importance and theDevelopments of “Soft” Measure:Full-time Lecturer, Graduate School of
Systems and Information Engineering,
University of Tsukuba

TDM (Transportation Demand Management)
and MM (Mobility Management)

Ayako Taniguchi

Motorization has caused many problems in our society. For such problems, TDM/MM is getting more and more important. These measures attempt
an appropriate balance between transport demand (individual trips) and supply (transport facilities /services) by adjusting the demand. In ourcountry, TDM have been implemented since the ‘90s in various areas, and tried to improve transport services by improving transport facilities andvehicles, operating practices, fee policies,and so on. In recent years, MM is being implemented. along with various TDM measures worldwide. MM
emphasizes creating a responsible awareness among each person. Such measures are becoming more important than ever as a means of easingproblems involving the global environment and declining city centers.

Fig. 2 P aradigm shift in urban policies and the conceptof TDM

1. Importance of TDM/MM■

Fig. 1 Importance of TDM/MM

Traditionally, increased demand for transport was managed from the
supply side, that is, through facilities improvement (demand-following
approach). It has shifted to an integrated package-type approach fromthree sides — demand (TDM), supply, and institutional framework.
That approach provides attractive alternative methods of movement by
taking account of environmental limits, and by changing the institutionalarrangements (e.g., revised financial assistance). It also restrains
demands for motor vehicle transport.

Financial problems of national
and local governments, andproblems with public acceptanceof implementation measures→ It is difficult to manage these
problems by attempting to improvetransport infrastructure alone( “hard” transport measures)Road congestion , global
environmental problems,declining public transport,
declining city centers, etc.
- the far-reaching negative
economic impacts of urban
traffic are becoming serious.

Environmental limits
transport policies (that work on transport demand) are becoming more important.

A1

T2

A: Transport dimand
T: Supply

Working on the systemMM a. Traditional approach(demand-following approach)■ Definitions of terms
TDM (Transportation Demand Management): A method ofsolving transport problems (including traffic congestion) by
adjusting the demand side, i.e., the attitude of the motor vehicle
user, rather than the supply side (road improvements and so on).
MM (Mobility Management): Measures focusing on
communication that encourages each person voluntarily tochange his/her mobility (movement) patterns in a direction thatis desirable for both the society and the person*.
*For example, changing from excess use of cars  toappropriate use of public transport and bicycles.
TFP (Travel Feedback Program):One of the MM measures toencourage voluntary changes in people’s consciousness andbehavior toward transport through broad-based personalcommunication. Communication is with each person or eachhousehold, and basically involves multiple times.

㪉㪇㪇㪇 㪉㪇㪇㪈 㪉㪇㪇㪉㪉㪇㪇㪋 㪉㪇㪇㪌 㪉㪇㪇㪍 㪉㪇㪇㪎

Gaining backlog of 䃨1 JCOMM(Tokyo)test experience

MM-style policies introduced in䃂 magazines

Fig. 3 Envisioning the integrated package approach
The integrated package
approach to achievingᬜthe goals of urbanšštransport strategies is theappropriate combinationand implementation of
Improving facilities (building P & R parking area)multiple transport measures䋫that mutually reinforce
Encouraging use (TFP communication)
each other — the “carrot
and stick” approach. For example, the technique of building
a parking area for Park & Ride (P & R): TFP communicationurges people to change their consciousness, and at the sametime promotes the use of P & R.
ᬜŨŨ

Sapporo TFP real implementation (first䃂 time in Japan)

MM test on Bay Route of Hanshin
䃂 Expressway
Research assistance of IATSS

of MM (Japan䃂 Guidelines
Society of Civil Engineers)
was published

㪉

㪊

㪍

䃨 4 JCOMM
thPurpose㩷Easecongestion

㪈㪋

㪊㪌

㪍㪍

䃂 Ministry of Land,effects of MM wasadoptedEnvironment䃂 JCOMM

incorporated㪈㪈㪏• Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism: Pilot tests

Encourage the • Comprehensive program to revitalize public transport
use of more
• Comprehensive project for vitalization/revival of
public transport
local public transport

䃂 first JCOMM Awards

㪈㪇

Examples of major funds(Oita)

䃂 Manual to measure theNote 1: JCOMM is the Japanese Conference of Mobility Management
2 Number of events that were reported to the office of the JOMM

38

th

(Fukuyama)■

Table 2 E xamples of funds that can beused for TDM and MM

Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism: started
eco-commuting project䃂 Kyoto Prefecture: MMpromotion was included intransport demand
management plan

and Tourism (former Ministry ofConstruction): started pilot test project㪈(Sapporo)

Engineers: workshop
enhanced to become amanual for offices
sub- committee
䃂 MM
was adopted

Engineers: started
workshop for studies onchanges in attitudes andbehavior

Number of
events䃨5 JCOMMrdnd

䃂Japan Society of Civil

䃂 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport㪉㪇㪈㪇(Kyoto)䃨2 JCOMM䃂 Japan Society of Civil

Association of Traffic and䃂 (International
Safety Sciences) for studies on changes
in attitudes and behavior㪉㪇㪇㪏 㪉㪇㪇㪐䃨 3 JCOMMst䃂 Sapporo TFP pilot test

Initial involvement of
Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport
and Tourism (central)

Events related to MM㪉㪇㪇㪊b. New approach(intergrated package approach)

Source: Policies And Strategies Toward Sustainable Transport,
International Environmental And Symbiotic Sciences (Katsutoshi
Ohta, Chapter 3, 2005, Asakura Publishing)

Table 1 M ajor events related to MM policies in Japanand changes in the number* of those events
㪈㪐㪐㪐

T2

Working on public consciousness

TDM

before1997 㪈㪐㪐㪏

A2

Other

• Road management action program for CO2 reduction• Model area, area-wide management promotion
project to create low carbon areas• EST (Environmentally Sustainable Transport) model
project• Comprehensive support project for Model City
Environmental Cleanup• Community-building grant• Vitality revival projects for localities, etc.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

2. Examples of MM

1) Workplace transport management that targets
commuters: Uji City, Kyoto Prefecture<Outline>■ Purpose: Alleviate traffic congestion at commuting times inareas where offices are clustered■ Year of implementation: 2005-2006■ Number of targeted persons: 4400 employees of 150
companies and administrative agencies■ Implemented by national government, Kyoto Prefecture, Uji
City, Chamber of Commerce, local corporations, transportbusinesses, non-profit organizations, etc.  
■ Implementation media: (1) lectures (for administrative
sector and for corporations), (2) one-time use of TFP, and(3) TFP through website
Fig. 4 P ublic transport map for commuting: displays
company names

2) MM to encourage students to make residential
moves in such a way as to create a “compact
city:” Tsukuba University
To systematically organize the traffic environment for people
involved with the university, Tsukuba University began to charge its
parking areas in 2003, and introduced a bus system inside the campus
in 2005. Since 2006, it has continued to encourage people to use theuniversity bus. The MM regarding residential moves was part of apromotion of the inter-school bus, and it started as a test project.
<Outline>■ Purpose: Giving incentives to choose an apartment near thebus stop■ Year of implementation: 2007 to present■ Targets: Freshmen who plan to move from Tsukuba
University’s student dormitory to an apartment■ Number of targets: FY 2007: about 300;  FY 2008: about 600■ Implementation cost: about 1200 yen per person for the“incentive booklet” group■ Procedures: Targets were randomly divided into fourgroups: (1) a “control” group that was given no contact; (2)a “housing information” group to which an ordinary housing
magazine was distributed; (3) a “bus focused” groupto which a housing magazine was distributed in whichapartments within 200 meters from a bus stop were marked
with a red “convenient for bus” mark; and (4) an “incentive
booklet” group that was given the same magazine as the“bus focused” group and an additional incentive booklet.
The effects of the communication provided could be seenin those who ended up living near the bus stop: comparedto the “control” group, the “bus focused” group had twice
as many people living near the bus stop, and the “incentive
booklets” group had 2.7 times as many.
Fig. 6 Distributed booklets to give incentives←Housing information with
“convenient for bus” marks↓Map that was colored red near the bus stops↓Incentive booklet

Fig. 5 C hanges in the number of passengers who get
off the train (those without a computer pass)㪍㪇㪇

JR Uji Station

㪈㪋㪋

㪊㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇
㪈㪇㪇

㪉㪏㪇

MM implementation

㪌㪇㪇
㪋㪇㪇

increased 48.6%

Keihan Uji Station

㪉㪋㪍

㪈㪐㪌

㪊㪍㪎

㪊㪐㪋

㪉㪈㪍
MM implementation㪎㪇㪇How do you choose anapartment?

㪋㪈㪋㪇
Sep., 8, 2005 Sep., 21, 2005 Sep., 6, 2006 Sep., 20, 2006
Source: Brochure for EST model projects in Kyoto city areas

Fig. 7 Effects of MM: changes of motor vehicles share

3) Promotion campaign urging high school students
to use more public transport
Fig. 8 L eaflet for promotion campaign urging highschool students to use more public transport:
Ibaraki Prefecture■ The leaflet was
distributed at the
freshman orientation.
The percentage of
sophomores using
public transport was
about 10% higher
compared to those
who had not received
it (freshmen: 41.8%,
sophomores: 31.6%).

㪇㩼

㪉㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

㪍㪇㩼

㪏㪇㩼

㪈㪇㪇㩼

more than 3 min. to the bus stop
“Control” group (N=55)

㪈㪍㪅㪋㩼

㪏㪊㪅㪍㩼

“Housing information” group(N=20)

㪈㪌㪅㪇㩼

㪏㪌㪅㪇㩼

twice
“Bus focused” group(N=35)“Incentive booklet” group(N=25)

㪍㪏㪅㪍㩼

㪊㪈㪅㪋㩼

2.7 times
㪋㪇㪅㪇㩼

㪍㪇㪅㪇㩼

within 3 min. to the bus stop

Source: Analysis of The Effects of Persuasive Communication on Choosing
Housing Based on Public Transportation Accessibility (Ayako
Taniguchi, Kazuhide Asami, Satoshi Fujii, Haruo Ishida / Proceedingsof Infrastructure Planning Research (CD-ROM) Vol. 37, 2008)39

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-1

Efforts for Motor Vehicle
Recycling

Assistant Manager, Environment Department,
Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Masatoshi Nakazawa

Because of the pressing needs of recycling in order to solve the problems of proper handling of motor vehicles at the end of their useful lives, andfinding the space for their final disposal — , the Automobile Recycling Law went into effect in January, 2005.
Since then, government agencies, automotive industries, and consumers have all been participating in this solution, each sector making its own
effort to build a system for a recycling-oriented society.

Fig. 1 Status of junked vehicles following enforcement of the Automobile Recycling Law
Number of passenger cars owned*

Number of motor vehicles otherthan passenger cars owned*
Number of junked vehicles taken away

Number of new motor vehicles
newly registered* Figures are those at the end of March(×10,000
vehicles)

㪏㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪎㪃㪌㪌
㪎㪃㪌㪌㪇
㪌㪏㪍

㪎㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪎㪃㪌㪍㪏

㪎㪃㪌㪈㪋

㪎㪃㪌㪋㪎

㪎㪃㪌㪇㪉

㪌㪍㪉

㪍㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪋㪏㪏

㪋㪎㪇

㪊㪌㪎

㪋㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪊㪇㪌

㪊㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪌㪃㪎㪈㪇

㪎㪇㪇
㪍㪇㪇

㪌㪊㪉

㪌㪃㪇㪇㪇

(×10,000
vehicles)

㪊㪎㪈

㪌㪇㪇
㪊㪐㪉

㪊㪌㪏

㪋㪇㪇
㪊㪇㪇

㪌㪃㪎㪌㪈

㪌㪃㪎㪍㪏

㪌㪃㪎㪌㪌

㪌㪃㪎㪐㪇

㪉㪇㪇

㪉㪃㪇㪇㪇

㪈㪇㪇

㪈㪃㪇㪇㪇
㪇

㪇
FY 2005

FY 2006 FY 2007

FY 2008

FY 2009

Source: data of Industrial Structure Council and Central Environmental Council

Table 1 C hanges in the number of
average years of use
Passenger cars(ordinary & Trucks (ordinary& small)small)

Year
1980

8.29

7.77

1990

9.26

9.28

1995

9.43

9.60

2000

9.96

10.53

2001

10.40

10.68

2002

10.55

10.92

2003

10.77

11.23

2004

10.97

11.84

2005

10.93

11.72

2006

11.10

11.47

2007

11.66

11.92

2008

11.67

11.72

2009

11.68

13.50

Source: Automobile Inspection & Registration
Information Association

Fig. 2 Processing and recycling of junked motor vehicles: flow chart● Chassis (steel) → vehicle parts / ordinary steel products● Radiator (copper / aluminum) → brass & aluminum products● Engine oil (oil) → ignition booster for boilers & incinerators● Batteries (lead) → batteries● Doors (steel) → vehicle parts / ordinary steel products● Seats (urethane foam / fiber) → vehicle soundproofing materials● Wire harness (copper) → copper products, etc.

● Windows (glass)● Coolant (alcohol) → ignition booster for boilers & incinerators● Radiator (steel / aluminum) → ordinary steel products / aluminum products● Hood (sheet metal)→ glass wool, etc.
● Trunk (steel)→ vehicle parts / ordinary steel products→ vehicle parts / ordinary steel products● Suspension (steel / aluminum)→ ordinary steel / aluminum products● Rear bumper (resin)● Front bumper (resin)→ bumpers→ bumpers
interior & exterior parts

interior & exterior parts

toolboxes, etc.

toolboxes, etc.

● Tires (rubber) → raw fuel to make cement, etc.

● Wheels (steel / aluminum)→ vehicle parts / ordinary steel products / aluminum products

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

40

● Transmission (steel / aluminum)→ ordinary steel / aluminum products● Gear oil (oil) → ignition booster for boilers & incinerators● Catalytic converter (precious metals) → catalytic converters

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 3 Examples of auto parts made of recycled materials from discarded bumpers

Luggagecompartment
trim

Shield under engine
Seat backboard

Source: Toyota Motor Corporation

Fund Management Corporation* (designated agency)
Recycling Support Department*(designated agency)
Automobile
manufacturers(vehicles soldbefore) 3 years
New vehicle
purchaser(Dealer)Autowrecker

ASR company

ASR** company

Japan Auto Recycling Partnership

Fluorocarbons
destruction
facilities

Airbagprocessing
facilities

ASR
destruction
facilities

Fluorocarbons
recoveryDismantler

Shredding
Agent

Used vehicle
purchaser

Last vehicle
ownerInformation Management Center* (designated agency)
Flow of materials
Flow of information

Information about processing fees forfluorocarbons, airbags, and ASR

Recycling fee

Fig. 4 How the Automobile Recycling Law works

Registration / inspection
system (MOTAS)Light vehicle inspection system

Flow of money* Three designated agencies were
established under the Japan Automobile
Recycling Promotion Center.
** ASR (Automobile Shredder Residue)

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Table 2 Recycling percentage of automobile
manufacturers
Recycling percentage (%)
Shredder residue
Airbags
Goals

70 (2015-)
50 (2010-)
30 (2005-)

85

FY 2009
FY 2008

77.5 㪄 82.1
72.4 㪄 80.5

93.9 㪄 94.7
94.0 㪄 94.9

Table 3 V oluntary efforts to recycle cargo holds oncommercial vehicles
1. Promoting the manufacture of recyclable cargo holds(1) Improving design of vans with an aluminum refrigerator / freezer easy to dismantle; promoting appropriate processing(2) Suggesting alternatives to materials like wood and insulation that are difficult to process properly(3) Creating a manual for dismantling

2. Reducing the use of materials that impact on the environment(1) lead; (2) mercury; (3) hexavalent chromium ; (4) cadmium

Note: Excludes manufacturers that entrust recycling to designatedrecycling agents. Figures are based on information furnished byeach company; significant digits are rounded differently in each case.

Source: data of Industrial Structure Council and Central
Environmental Council

3. Promoting proper recycling procedures(1) Building and expanding cooperative recycling networks

4. Promoting information sharing and educational activities(1) Producing and distributing fliers about cargo hold recycling. (2) Providing information to dismantlers

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Table 4 Reduction goals for chemicals that impact on the environment; achievements won through voluntary efforts
Chemicals tobe reduced

Goals

Achievements

Lead

Starting from Jan., 2006, less than 1/10 of the amount used in 1996 (exc.
batteries)• For large commercial vehicles (incl. buses), less than ¼• Achieved with all models from Jan., 2006

Mercury

Prohibited from Jan., 2005 onward• However, the following parts, which are used for the purpose of traffic
safety, will be excluded.
(1) liquid display for navigation devices; (2) gauge array;(3) discharge headlamps;(4) room fluorescent light• Achieved with all models from Jan., 2003
- How the exceptional parts are being handled:for (2), all models replaced with mercury-free materials;for (4), not used conventionally in passenger cars.

Hexavalentchromium

Prohibited from Jan., 2008 onward• Achieved with all models from Jan., 2008

Cadmium

Prohibited from Jan., 2007 onward• Achieved with all models from Jan., 2006

Note: (1) Reduction goals apply to new models. (2) Large commercial vehicles are those whose gross vehicular weight is more than 3.5 tons.
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

41

3 -2

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Traffic Noise and Measures
to Control it

Associate Professor, Graduate School of Urban
Environmental Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University

Hiroyuki Oneyama

According to an FY 2008 assessment, slightly less than 90% of the environmental standard for traffic noise was met nationwide both day andnight; the score for areas adjacent to arterial roads was about 83%. The percentage has been gradually improving over the past several years;
however, noise levels under special road conditions, with a multi-level structure are still high. Dealing with the problem in those cases has
involved strengthening comprehensive measures that target noise sources, reduce traffic flow, alter the road structure, or change roadsideconditions.

Fig. 1 M eeting the environmental standard: assessment
results (overall, FY 2008)

Table 1 E
 nvironmental standards and required limits
regarding traffic noiseClassification of area

Nationwide

Not adjacent toarterial roads
㪇㩼

㪉㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

㪍㪇㩼

Lower (better) than the standard
both day and night
Lower than the standard, daytime onlyNight

AA areas50㪋㪇A areas / B areas55㪋㪌C areas

60

㪌㪇

㪏㪇㩼

㪈㪇㪇㩼

A areas facing road(s) with two or more lanes60㪌㪌B areas facing road(s) with two or more lanes / C areas

65

㪍㪇

70

㪍㪌

Areas facing roads

Lower than the standard, nighttime only
Exceeded (higher than) the standard
both day and night

Note: The assessment was based on the percentage of all roadsidestructures whose noise level readings were compared with thestandard.
Note: Areas adjacent to arterial roads were defined by the distancefrom the edge of the road, depending on the number of thelanes on the road, as mentioned below. (Roads that bear arterial
traffic are national expressways, urban expressways, national
highways, prefectural roads, and municipal roads that have atleast four lanes.)• Roads that bear arterial traffic and have two or less lanes: 15 meters• Roads that bear arterial traffic and have more than two lanes: 20 meters
Note: Areas not adjacent to arterial roads are: (1) areas that are
hinterlands of the area adjacent to the road that bear arterial
traffic, or (2) areas adjacent to roads other than arterial roads.

Fig. 2 M eeting the environmental standard: assessment resultsfor highway sections with multi-level structure, FY 2008
■ Compared to the previous fiscal year, improvements have been
seen in meeting the standard at highway sections with multilevel structure. However, compared to the overall results (Fig.
1), there is a high percentage of areas not meeting the standard.
Nationwide

Exceptions for areas adjacent to roads that bear arterial traffic
Areas adjacent to arterial roads

Classification of area

Not adjacent toarterial roads

Night

A areas facing road(s) with one lane / B areas facing road(s) with one lane65㪌㪌

A areas facing road(s) with two or more lanes70㪍㪌B areas facing road(s) with two or more lanes / C areas

75

㪎㪇

75

㪎㪇

Exceptions for areas adjacent to roads that bear arterial traffic
AA areas:

Special quiet zones

A areas:Exclusively residential

B areas:Primarily residential

C areas:Extensively residential, but also commercial / industrial* Leq = equivalent continuous sound pressure level [dB]Fig. 4 Providing traffic noise conditions on the Internet
Traffic noise conditions can be viewed on the Nationwide
Traffic Noise Map (survey report on traffic noise provided on
the website, “Environment GIS,” run by National Institute forEnvironmental Studies;
URL: http://www-gis.nies.go.jp/noise/car/)

㪇㩼

㪉㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

㪍㪇㩼

Lower (better) than thestandard both day and night
Lower than the standard,nighttime only

㪏㪇㩼

㪈㪇㪇㩼

Lower than the standard,
daytime only
Exceeded (higher than) the
standard both day and night

Fig. 3 C hanges in meeting the environmental standard
by year (overall)■ The percentage of the environmental standard that is being met
is gradually improving.
FY 2004
FY 2005
FY 2006
FY 2007
FY 2008㪉㪇㩼

㪋㪇㩼

Lower (better) than the standard
both day and night
Lower than the standard,nighttime only

㪍㪇㩼

㪏㪇㩼

㪈㪇㪇㩼

Lower than the standard,
daytime only
Exceeded (higher than) the
standard both day and night

Source for Fig. 1 to Fig. 3: Traffic Noise in 2008 (Ministry of the Environment)

Required limits (Leq)
DaytimeAreas facing roads■

Adjacent toarterial roads

42

DaytimeGeneral areas

Adjacent toarterial roads

㪇㩼Environmental standards (Leq*)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

Traffic noise
measuresFig. 5 Classification of measures against traffic noise, with main strategies
Measures targeting noise
sources

Measures against noise from motor vehicles

Strengthening noise regulations (acceleration noise, cruising noise, noise determined from proximity
exhaust measurement)

Measures for traffic flow

Traffic regulations, etc.

High-tech signals; excluding large vehicles; regulating maximum speed, etc.

Improving bypasses, etc.

Improving ring roads and bypasses, etc.

Improving freight transport bases

Rationalizing freight transport through appropriate placement of facilities and joint transport/distribution

Installing low noise pavements

Installing porous pavement

Installing noise insulation walls

Installing walls that are effective in blocking noise

Creating an environmental buffer zone

Ensuring 10 to 20 meters of buffer space between road and roadside

Measures for roadsides

Planning for the roadside area

Organizing urban development according to plan so as to make it suitable for the arterial roadside

Measures to eliminate
noise discomfort

Implementing assistance for soundproofing housing

Implementing assistance for soundproofing housing, and other support measures

Promotion measures

Creating a system to carry out the measures

Carrying out measures with close cooperation between relevant ministries and municipalities

Measures for road structure

Source: Annual Report on the Environment in Japan 2008 (Ministry of the Environment)

Fig. 6 Composition of motor vehicle noise (accelerationnoise) by source of noise, and how it has changed
Noise regulations have been noticeably strengthened since 1971.
Large vehicles

Passenger cars

Motorcycles

Power train & otherTires, power train, & otherTires & otherTires
Cooling system
Exhaust system

Intake system
Cooling system
Exhaust system

Power train
Intake system
Exhaust system

EngineEngineEngineHighly-functional pavements
Noisethat reduce noise
insulation wall

Buffer building
Soundproofedbuilding

SoundproofedSound absorption board
underneath the elevated road building
Noiseinsulation wall

New-type noise
insulation wall

Environmental buffer zone

Highly-functional pavementsthat reduce noise

Measures

Properties

Noise insulation walls

Reducing noise bydiffraction

Ca. 10 dB

Environmental buffer
zone

Reducing noise byattenuation over a distance

5 – 10 dB

Sound-absorbing board
underneath the elevatedroad

Reducing reflected noisefrom the elevated road2 – 5 dB (depending on thecontribution of reflected noise)

Ca. 3 dB

ns

Source: website of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism;
http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/ir/data/souon/souon3.html

tio

ns

Effects

Source: website of Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Fig. 7 Example of roadside area planning■ Planning for the roadside area will organize urban
development to accommodate arterial roadsides (e.g., plannedplacement of buffer buildings, spaces reserved for buffer
greenery, soundproofing of buildings).

Fig. 9 Examples of effects of reducing noise by road improvements■

The Shimosuwa – Okaya Bypass (partially opened) has caused
a noticeable reduction in the noise level of National Highway
No. 20.
Noise level in Osachi-higashihori, Okaya City

Noise level (dB)

20

01

reg

ula

ns

tio

reg
87

ula

ns

tio
19

reg

ula

ns

tio

reg

79
19

76

ula

ns

tio
ula
reg

71
19

19

ns

tio

reg
98

ula

ns

tio
19

reg

ula

ns

tio

reg

19

82

ula

ns

tio

reg

79
19

77

ula

ns

tio
ula
reg

71
19

19

ns

tio

reg

ula

ns

tio

reg

20

01

ula

ns

tio

reg

85
19

19

79

ula

tio

tio
ula

reg
76

19

reg
19

71

ula

ns

Energy percentage

Highly-functional
Mainly reducing vibration
pavements that havenoise-reduction properties and noise

Noise level in Osachi, Okaya City

Time of day
DaytimeNight

After theimprovement

Environmental buffer zone

Noise level (dB)■

Fig. 8 E xample of major measures against traffic noise
and their effects

Soundproofedbuildings

Before opening

Time of day
DaytimeNight
Before opening

After provisional opening

After provisional opening

Shimosuwa – OkayaBypass L=1.6km
Provisionally open section(Mar., 27, 2004, 2 lanes) L=2.9 km

Unopened section
L=1.7km

Okaya IC

ad

d ro

nate

sig

Re

Shimosuwa Sta.

Square & buffer
greenery

Buffer buildings(requirements forheight & front
footage;soundproofed)
Buildings that provide roadside-type services (regulations
for the type of use; attractingthat type of business)

Source : website of Kobe City Urban Development Corporationta.

Lake Suwa

S
ya

a

Ok

Source: website of Kanto Regional Development Bureau, Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; http://www.ktr.mlit.
go.jp/nagano/ir/hyouka/simosuwa/pdf/simosuwa-4.pdf

43

3 -3

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Air Pollution Today andCountermeasures against It

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo
Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

The percentage of the environmental standard achieved for atmospheric nitrogen dioxide and suspended particulate matter has improved; it is now nearing
to 100%. Between 1995 and 2008, the achievement rate for roadside air pollution monitoring stations improved from 70.5% to 95.5% for nitrogen dioxide,and from 35.2% to 99.3% for suspended particulate matter. However, there are still monitoring stations in some urban locations that have yet to show suchachievements; and along with a new standard for fineer particles (e.g., PM2.5), consideration is now being given to stronger emissions regulations.

Fig. 1 C hanges in the achievement rate for the nitrogendioxide environmental standard

㪈㪇㪇Fig. 2 Changes in the achievement rate for the suspended
particulate matter environmental standard

㪈㪇㪇

㪏㪇

㪏㪇

㪍㪇

㪍㪇

㪋㪇

㪋㪇

㪉㪇

㪉㪇

㪇

㪇

㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇㪇 㪇㪈 㪇㪉 㪇㪊 㪇㪋 㪇㪌 㪇㪍 㪇㪎 㪇㪏
Ambient air
monitoring stations

Note:

Roadside air pollution
monitoring stations㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇㪇 㪇㪈 㪇㪉 㪇㪊 㪇㪋 㪇㪌 㪇㪍 㪇㪎 㪇㪏

Ambient air monitoring stationsin specified areas

Roadside air pollution monitoring
stations in specified areas

Specified areas are the areas where, pursuant to the Motor Vehicle NOX and Particulate Matter (PM) Law, measures arebeing taken to reduce the amounts of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. The areas are some parts of Tokyo, Kanagawa,
Saitama, Chiba, Aichi, Mie, Osaka, and Hyogo Prefectures.
Source: http://www.env.go.jp/air/osen/

Table 1 E xamples of monitoring stations that Fig. 3 O utline of regulations for types of vehicles in Motor Vehicle
didn’t achieve the environmental
NOX and PM Law and special municipal ordinances
standard (stations with highest
Ordinance for Tokyo and three
Motor Vehicle NO and PM Law
Hyogo Prefecture Ordinanceprefectures in the Kanto area
amounts of pollutants)
Southeast Hanshin area [Nada Ward
■ Roadside monitoring stations: nitrogen dioxide
Some areas in 8 Prefectures& Higashinada Ward in Kobe City,
Whole area of Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo
X

Targeted area

Monitoring station
Kamiuma,Tamagawa-dori■

44

PrefectureTokyo

Matsubarabashi,
Kannana-doriTokyo

Yamatocho,
Nakasendo

Tokyo

City / ward / 98% value Environmental(ppm)
standard
town / village
Failed toachieve

Targetpollutants

NOX, PMPM

NOX, PM

Ota Ward

Failed toachieve

Itabashi
Ward
Yokkaichi
City

Failed toachieve
Failed toachieve

Targeted motor
vehiclesMotor vehicles based in thespecified areas

Motor vehicles driven in the target
area

Motor vehicles driven in the target
area

Targeted
vehicle types

Trucks, buses, special vehicles (forpassenger cars, only diesels), anddiesel passenger cars

Diesel trucks, buses, and special
vehiclesOrdinary trucks and special vehicles
whose total weight is over 8 tons; big
buses with over 30-person capacity

Mie

Chiba City Hall

Chiba

Chuo Ward,
Chiba City

Failed toachieve

Ohira (ex Okazaki 3rdmonitoring station)

Aichi

Okazaki City

Failed toachieve

Miyajima

Shizuoka

Fuji City

Failed toachieve

In front of
Ikegami-Shinden Park

Kanagawa

Kawasaki Ward.
Kawasaki City

Failed toachieve

Asahi

Aichi

Okazaki City

HinodeChiba

Funabashi
City

Failed toachieve
Failed toachieve

Saiwai Ward,
Endomachi intersection Kanagawa
Kawasaki City

Failed toachieve

Roadside monitoring stations: suspended particulate matter
Prefecture

Ohira (ex Okazaki
3rd monitoring
station)Aichi

OkazakiCity

Yes

Failed toachieve

Ichikawa

Chiba

Ichikawa
City

No

Achieved

TonokiShizuoka

Fuji City

No

Failed toachieve

Shimo-ochiai,
Shin-Mejiro-doriTokyo

Shinjuku
Ward

No

Achieved

Ozone

Chiba

Sodegaura
City

No

Achieved

Miyajima

Shizuoka

Fuji City

No

Achieved

Nakamura-minami

IbarakiTsuchiura
City

No

Achieved

Shimo-sueyoshi
Elementary
SchoolKanagawa

Eitai-dori
Shinkawa

Tokyolevel as the value in theRegulated value: NOX SameNo regulations
long-range regulations
Weight over 3.5 tons: same level as Same level as the value in thethe value in the long-range regulations long-range regulations (however, for
Weight less than 3.5 tons: half theTokyo and Saitama, starting April,PMvalue in the new short-range
2006, same level as the value in theregulations
new short-range regulations)

Same as those in the Motor Vehicle
NOX and PM Law

Start of regulation Oct., 2002

Oct., 2003

Oct., 2004

Grace period

As a general rule, 8 to 12 years(depending on the type of vehicle)
from the first registration.
Extended period for preparation(Sept., 2003 to Sept. 2005)
depending on when the firstregistration was made.

7 years from the first registration

As a general rule, 10 to 13 years(depending on the type of vehicle)
from the first registration.
Extended grace period (Sept., 2004
to Sept. 2006) depending on when
the first registration was made.

Compliance
procedureMotor vehicle inspection

On-the-spot inspection by “vehicle
G-men”, on-the-road inspection

On-the-road inspection, inspection by
cameraPenalty

Imprisonment for less than 6 months Fine of less than 500,000 yen(violation of order and duty),
or fine of less than 300,000 yen
publishing name of ownerCity / ward / 2% exceptional Continuation of 2 Environmental
town / village value (mg/m3) days and longer standard

Monitoring
stationTochigi

Amagasaki City, Nishinomiya City
(excl. northern part), Ashiya City, andItami City]

Setagaya
Ward

Naya

Hiraide(Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa,(excl. islands), and Kanagawa
Aichi, Mie, Osaka, and Hyogo)

Tsurumi Ward,
Yokohama City
Utsunomiya
City
Chuo Ward

No

Achieved

No

Achieved

No

Achieved

Fine of less than 200,000 yen,transmitting owner’s name to relevantbusinesses (consignors, etc.)

Source: Regulations by motor vehicle type in the Motor Vehicle NOX andPM Law (2005, Ministry of the Environment & Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/air/osen/

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Table 2 Outline of countermeasures against motor vehicle emissions

Detailed description
PM countermeasures NOX countermeasures
Measures toreduceexhaustemissions

CO2 countermeasures
� Promoting the use of vehicles that
conform to energy-saving standards(through the tax system, official
advisories, etc.)

1) Makinglesspollutingvehicles� Imposing regulations according to the types of vehicles
with higher � Developing less polluting vehicles to replace big diesel vehicles
fuelless polluting vehicles like those fueled by CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) through the tax system,
efficiency � Promoting
exemplary use by public agencies, etc.
� Promoting DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter)and oxidation catalysts
� Lowering the sulfur content in diesel fuel
� Enforcing laws against use of improper
diesel� Promoting installation of fuel supply facilities for less polluting vehicles
� Promoting fuel cell vehicles for practical use2) Reducing
demandfor motor
vehicletransport

� Road pricing to reduce burden on environment.

3) Increasing
traffic
capacity� Improving arterial road networks with ring roads, bypasses, etc.
� Dealing with bottlenecks by installing grade-separated intersection approaches, improving railway crossings, etc.
� Promoting ETC (Electronic Toll Collection)
� Reducing road work� Enforcing parking regulations
� Enhancing traffic safety facilities, etc.

� Traffic restrictions

� Road pricing � Promoting “park and ride” � Improving sidewalks and bicycle routes
� Improving train station plazas � Encouraging staggered working hours and flextime
� Improving public transportation such as LRT (Light Rail Transit) and streetcars
� Providing more information to drivers by spreading VICS (Vehicle Information and Communication System), etc.
� Making freight distribution more efficient by organizing joint collection/delivery centers, etc.
� Promoting rail and ship transport
� Encouraging the campaign to shut off idling engines� Requesting commercial vehicles to detour

Source: Road Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; http://www.mlit.go.jp/road/sisaku/k2.html, 2008

Fig. 4 O utline of “Future Countermeasures to Reduce Motor Vehicle Emissions (the 10th report)” (draft) —Strengthening emissions regulations for diesel trucks and busses (outline of goals to be met by 2016) Introducing WHTC (World Harmonized Transient Cycle), theworld wide standard test cycles etc.

 Time frame, goals;  etc.

• Time frame: through the end of 2016. Exceptions are for
tractors (through the end of 2017) and for vehicles whose
total weight is less than 7.5 tons (through the end of 2018).
• Goal: the amount of NOX is to be approximately 40%
less than that in the emissions regulations of 2009 (post“new” long-range regulations); that is, 0.4 g/kWh (from0.7 g/kWh). Goals for other pollutants (CO, NMHC,and PM) are to be the same as those in the post-“new”
long-range regulations.
Because the “cold start” factor will also be included, thegoal will be harder to achieve than it looks.  
• The new 2016 goal will reduce the total amount of
NOX emissions by about 9% in 2020, and about 35% in
2030, which would not have been the case, had only the2009 regulations applied.

Source: Outline of “Future Countermeasures to Reduce Motor Vehicle Emissions (10th report)” (draft) (2010, Ministry of the Environment)

Fig. 5 Relationship of the amount of minute particulate matter (PM2.5) to the environmental standard

City areas (Ambient air pollution monitoring
stations, N=12; in FY 2008, N=10)
Non-city areas (Ambient air pollution
monitoring stations, N=5; in FY 2008, N=4)
Roadside air pollution monitoring stations(N=16; in FY 2001, N=11; in FY 2008, N=5)

Environmental standard (annual average) based on
the draft of a report (Jul. 2, 2009) by the Central
Environmental Council

FY 2001

FY 2002

FY 2003

FY 2004

FY 2005

FY 2006

FY 2007

FY 2008

Source (with author’s additions): Report of the Minute Particulate Matter Environmental Standard Special Committee, Air Quality Group, Central Environmental Council (Jul. 2009)45

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

3-4

Improving Energy Efficiency

General Manager, Eco-Driving Promotion Department, The Energy
Conservation Center, Japan

Masaaki Taniguchi

Transport means rely heavily on petroleum as a source of energy. From the viewpoint of preventing global warming and saving energy, improving
the efficiency of energy consumption in the transport sector generally, and in motor vehicles in particular, is becoming an important challenge.
Steady progress has been made in improving the energy efficiency of motor vehicles themselves, and the effects are becoming obvious (see 3-7
Development and Promotion of Environmentally Friendly Vehicles that are in Harmony with The Environment). At the same time, as roads arebeing improved, attention is being paid to improving how people handle motor vehicles. The four Ministries made the decision to form the Ecodriving Advocacy League, cooperating in a united effort of bureau chiefs (or their equivalents) to educate the public on a wide variety of topics
related to eco-driving.
For commercial vehicles (trucks, etc.), eco-driving is being promoted thanks to the spreading of the EMS (Eco-driving Management System)and of the installation of a digital tachometer. The question remains as to how to develop an awareness of eco-driving in ordinary drivers whose
practice of it is entirely voluntary.

Fig. 1 Amount of primary energy supply in Japan (FY
2008)

Fig. 2 Amount of energy consumption by transportmenas (FY 2008)

 In Japan, petroleum accounts for nearly half the energy supply.
Most transport meansuse petroleum as an energy source.

 87% of the energy is consumed in the motor vehicle sector.
The challenge for the future is to reduce energy consumption
in that area.

Alternative energy &other sources
1.3%

Hydroelectric
power
Nuclear
3.1%
power
㪐㪅㪐㩼

1.7%

Total amount ofprimary energy
supply603 million
kiloliters

Gas
16.6%

Railways
Sea Aircraft
2.4% transport
5.9%
4.6%
Buses

Petroleum
47.0%

Trucks29.7%

Amount of energy
consumption in thetransport sector
92.3 million
kiloliters

Privatepassenger
cars

54.0%

Commercial
passenger
cars
1.6%

Coal
22.0%

Note: Figures were converted to crude oil equivalents.

Note: Figures were converted to crude oil equivalents.

Source: Energy And Economy Statistics Handbook 2010 (The Energy
Conservation Center)

Source: Energy And Economy Statistics Handbook 2010 (The Energy
Conservation Center)Fig. 3 Annual energy consumption per household (FY2005)
 Nearly half the energy consumed in an ordinary household isconsumed by the use of motor vehicles.

Fig. 4 M easures to reduce motor vehicle fuelconsumption
 Measures to reduce motor vehicle fuel consumption are
making use of fuel more efficient for driving, while moderating
demand for it. For efficient transport, the vehicle, the road, andthe motorist are each expected to play a role in contributing to
the reduction.

Lighting :85 liters
Air conditioning: 131 liters
Refrigerator :82 liters

Private passenger vehicle:
1072 liters

Improving motor
vehicles themselves

TV :52 liters

Making the fuelconsumption needed for
driving more efficient

Hot water supply:
354 liters
Heating (kerosene, gas):282 liters(Other: 125 liters)* Unit: converted to liters of crude oil
equivalents (FY2005)

Source: Future Energy Saving Measures (Mar., 2003, Agency of
Natural Resources and Energy, data updated for FY 2005)

Reducing fuelconsumption

Kitchen:92 liters(high mileage cars, hybrid cars, etc.)

Building better roads;
smoothing the flow of traffic
Implementing
energy-saving driving(eco-driving, etc.)

Improving transport efficiency(carpool, etc.)

Moderating the amountof movement ofpeople and freight

Using other transport mode(modal shift)
Moderating traffic demand(staggered office hours,
directing to alternate routes, etc.)
Restraining generationof transport/movement(self-contained city structures,
i.e. compact cities, etc.)(Chart made by The Energy Conservation Center)

46

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 5 How eco-driving is being promoted
 Major policies of the action plan

 The Eco-driving Advocacy League was established in fiscal 2006. It announced
its action plan whereby central and local governments and related organizations
are to lay emphasis on promoting and reinforcing eco-driving.
Cooperative efforts among the relevant
four ministries
Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry
Industrial policies / energy
policies

Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism
Management of transport,
roads, rivers, etc

Eco-driving Advocacy League
Ministry of theEnvironment

National
Police Agency

Environmental policies that
include policies to combat
pollution and global warming

Traffic control

Consists of bureau chiefs (or equivalent
positions) of the four ministries

�Reviewing the definition of eco-driving; establishing criteria(indexes) for assessing its effects→ establishing effective and consistent terms for thedefinition of eco-driving, indexes of its effects, problems,contents of the trainingcourses, etc.
�Informational and educational activities for eco-driving→ relevant people cooperate and perform various
informational and educational activities, such as setting up
an “Eco-driving Promotion Month (November)”�Promoting eco-driving support devices, etc.
→ promoting “idle stop” vehicles and devices that support
eco-driving such as the instant mileage meter�Establishing an eco-driving evaluation system→ promoting an eco-driving evaluation system by which thedriver can judge his/her own eco-driving; establishing anevaluation system in which outsiders judge eco-driving
�Cooperative efforts with municipalities and related organizations→ promoting more effectiveness by having the governmentand related agencies cooperate with municipalities

Action plan for promoting and reinforcing eco-driving

The Energy Conservation Center

Targeting ordinary drivers▪Developing teaching materials▪Considering eco-driving courses▪Encouraging promotion bymunicipalities, etc.

Foundation for Promotion of
Personal Mobility and EcologicalTransportation

Japan Automobile Federation (JAF)
Targeting ordinary drivers▪Courses targeting ordinary drivers▪Declared commitment toeco-driving

Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association

Improvements on the motor vehicle side

Promotion targeting businesses▪Certifying “Green Management”
projects

The General Insurance Association of Japan

Environmental Restoration andConservation Agency of Japan

Polluted Areas Restoration Center

Targeting offices and municipalities▪Informational and educational activities
that combine traffic safety and eco-driving

�Research activities to promote and reinforce eco-driving→ doing research as a background for future eco-driving
measures(The Aozora Foundation)

Source: Eco-driving Advocacy League press material (Jun. 9, 2006)

Promotionorganizations

Activities

Organization for �Promoting the Eco-driving Management System (EMS)The Promotion(Directing eco-driving program targeting transport businesses (trucks, buses,of Low Emission
taxis, etc.); comprehensive assessment of operations and guidance)
Vehicles▪ Leasing the EMS devices; collecting and analyzing data
▪ By FY 2009, about 89,000 EMS devices were brought into about 5100
business establishments nationwide.
▪ Started eco-driving diagnosis project (with fees) targeting businesses thatare implementing the EMS
�Holding the eco-driving awards
Environmental(Excellence awards to businesses for efforts in eco-driving activities)
Restoration and▪ Awards to corporations that own vehicles
Conservation▪ Examining and evaluating corporation activities, their system for
Agency ofcollecting/handling fuel efficiency data, their achievements in improvingJapanfuel efficiency, etc.
▪ Number of businesses participating in awards: FY 2007: 1766: FY 2008:
3810: FY 2009: 9733 (increasing every year)
Foundation for
Promotion of
Personal
Mobility andEcologicalTransportation(Eco-Mo
Foundation)�Public recognition of eco-driving courses for trucks(Public recognition of courses that conform to eco-driving curriculum
standards for businesses that own trucks)▪ Publicly recognized 14 organizations (manufacturers, truckers’ associations,driving schools, etc.)▪ Distributing course textbooks; issuing certificates of participation▪ Number of participants: 2007: 10,585: 2008: 25,572: 2009: 22,826
�Publicly recognizing eco-driving courses for ordinary motorists▪ From the autumn of FY 2008, it joined The Energy Conservation Center injoint recognition▪ The Energy Conservation Center trains instructors. The Eco-Mo Foundation
distributes textbooks and provides eco-driving diagnosis software to publicly
recognized organizations, and issues certificates of participation▪ By FY 2009, 1828 people had taken the course using actual cars
�Holding eco-driving symposium

Japan
Automobile
Federation(JAF)

�JAF eco-advisor system(Directing, training, and publicly recognizing those in charge of eco-driving
promotion in organizations /corporations; directing training in eco-driving techniques
and in using the mileage meter needed for teaching in the practical course)▪ By FY 2009, publicly recognized 11 organizationse course using actual cars
�Holding eco-training and courses▪ Held many eco-training sessions (eco-driving training with a real car) and courses
at branch offices nationwide

The Energy
Conservation
Center�Training eco-driving instructors(Training personnel who can teach the eco-driving course in order to promote
eco-driving efforts in municipalities, etc.)▪ Targeting driving school teachers in the area. Issuing certificates of participation in
the center’s program▪ By FY 2009, trained 540 people as instructors
�Training personnel to encourage eco-driving(Targeting people in charge of promotion in municipalities/corporations, training
personnel in lecturing)▪ Providing materials and DVD to be used in an app. one-hour lecture
�Producing “Smart Drive”(Based on the driving data and quantitative analysis of fuel consumption, producing
and distributing a booklet that shows the techniques of eco-driving)▪ Used as basic data for textbooks and brochures of organizations that promote
eco-driving

Source: websites of each promotion organization

Fig. 6 R educing fuel consumption by regulating
the flow of traffic When travel speeds slow, the amount of fuelconsumed increases because of more frequent
stopping and starting and more low-speed travel.
With bumper-to-bumper traffic and speeds of about
10 kilometers per hour, nearly twice the fuel isconsumed compared to a smooth traffic flow ofaround 40 kilometers per hour.
Amount of fuel consumed (cc/km)

Table 1 Activities of eco-driving promotion organizations

㪈㪇㪇
㪐㪇
㪏㪇
㪎㪇
㪍㪇
㪌㪇
㪋㪇
㪊㪇
㪉㪇
㪇

㪈㪇

㪉㪇
㪊㪇
㪋㪇
Travel speed (km/h)

㪌㪇㪍㪇

(Traveled roads: ordinary roads in Tokyo; vehicle: 1300 cc)

Source: Smart Drive Competition 2004 (driving data of
The Energy Conservation Center)Fig. 7 M ileage meter to be installed in an
automobile More and more models have gauges useful for ecodriving, like the mileage meter.

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

47

3 -5

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Efforts to Prevent Global
Warming

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of
Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

The amount of Japan’s greenhouse gas emissions in FY 2008 increased by 8.3% compared to that of the base year (1990) in the Kyoto
Protocol, while the amount of CO2 emitted showed a 4.1% decrease from last year’s figure in transport sector. Measures to reduce greenhousegas emissions that had been taken since the Kyoto Protocol are now being reviewed; more reduction is required. Minister of the Environment
suggested a middle- and long-range road map to combat global warming.

Fig. 1 Breakdown by activity sector of the amount of
CO2 emitted (FY 2008)

 About 19.4% of the total emissions derived from thetransportation sector.
Energy conversion 6.4% Leakage fromfuel usage
0.0%
Waste
2.1%
Industrial
processes
4.1%
Transportation

Fig. 2 Changes in amounts of greenhouse gas and CO2
emissions in Japan
㪈㪋㪇㪇

㪈㪊㪇㪇

㪈㪉㪇㪇

19.4%

Businesses,
etc.

19.4%

Amount of non-CO2 greenhouse gases emitted (millions of tons)
Amount of CO2 emitted (millions of tons)

Total amountof emissions
1214 (millions of
tons)(100%)

Households
14.1%

㪈㪈㪇㪇
㪐㪇 㪐㪈 㪐㪉 㪐㪊 㪐㪋 㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇㪇 㪇㪈 㪇㪉 㪇㪊 㪇㪋 㪇㪌 㪇㪍 㪇㪎 㪇㪏㪈㪈㪅㪇Industries
34.5%

Amount of CO2 emitted per person (tons)

㪈㪇㪅㪌
㪈㪇㪅㪇

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/press/press.php, 2010

Fig. 3 Changes in the amount of CO2 emitted by thetransportation sector (millions of tons)

㪐㪅㪌
㪐㪅㪇

㪊㪇㪇

㪐㪇 㪐㪈 㪐㪉 㪐㪊 㪐㪋 㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇㪇 㪇㪈 㪇㪉 㪇㪊 㪇㪋 㪇㪌 㪇㪍 㪇㪎 㪇㪏

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/press/press.php, 2010

㪉㪌㪇Fig. 5 Changes in the amount of oil consumed by thetransportation sector in major countries (1000tons; for U.S.A., 10,000 tons)

㪉㪇㪇
㪈㪌㪇
㪈㪇㪇

Railways, ships, andaircraftFreight trucks㪌㪇㪈㪇㪇㪇㪇㪇

Passenger cars㪇㪐㪇 㪐㪈 㪐㪉 㪐㪊 㪐㪋 㪐㪌 㪐㪍 㪐㪎 㪐㪏 㪐㪐 㪇㪇 㪇㪈 㪇㪉 㪇㪊 㪇㪋 㪇㪌 㪇㪍 㪇㪎 㪇㪏㪏㪇㪇㪇㪇

Source: http://www-gio.nies.go.jp/index-j.html, 2010

Fig. 4 Trends in the amount of CO2 emitted worldwide or
emitted by the transport sector (billions of tons)

㪍㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪋㪇

㪋㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪋㪌

㪊㪌
㪊㪇
㪉㪌

㪉㪇㪇㪇㪇

㪉㪇

㪏㪇

㪈㪌

㪐㪇

㪇㪇

㪇㪉

㪇㪊

㪇㪋

㪈㪇

Canada:France:Germany:㪌Japan:U.K.:

U.S.A.

㪇
㪈㪐㪐㪇

㪉㪇㪇㪌
Worldwide

㪉㪇㪈㪌

㪉㪇㪊㪇

Transportation
sectorNote: Includes bunker oil for international ships; excludes international air transport
Source: Reference Scenario in World Energy Outlook 2007 (IEA) and World
Energy Outlook 2008 (IEA)

48

㪇㪌

㪇㪍

Italy:

Source: Energy Statistics of OECD Countries, 2005-2006 (IEA) and
Energy Statistics of Non-OECD Countries, 2004-2005 (IEA)

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 6 Greenhouse gas emissions forecast for FY 2010

(million t-CO2)

Strengthening measures and policies toreduce emissions would bring a 0.8% to1.8% reduction compared to the baseyear.

 The final joint report of the Industrial Structure Council
and the Central Environmental Council (February 2010)concluded that, with only the current measures being
implemented, an estimated 22,000,000 to 36,000,000 t-CO2
reduction will still be needed to achieve the goals of the
Kyoto Protocol. However, from now on, with the utmost
effort of each constituent in each sector to implement notjust the current measures but also additional measures andpolicies, they could manage the estimated 37,000,000 t-CO2
reduction, and even more; thus the report concluded that the
Kyoto Protocol’s goal of a 6% reduction could be achieved.

Forest absorption and the
Kyoto Mechanisms willassist in achieving thepromised 6% reduction.
(= 6.0% less than thebase year)
base year

Source: http://www.env.go.jp/press/press.php, 2008

confirmed value

Fig. 7 Suggested middle- and long-range road map to combat global warming: tentative plan announced
on March 31, 2010, by Sakihito Ozawa, Minister of the Environment
Amount of greenhouse gas emissions by sector envisioned for 2020 and 2050 (unit: millions of t-CO2)
Daily life &regional planning
Industry

Households

Business

Energyconversion

Transportation

1990 ±0%Non-energy-originated(Tentative
estimate)(Variable
macro)(Fixedmacro)(Reduction by international contribution
and forest absorption could be included.)

Variable macro frame for all sectors on the condition that carbon will be priced.
Fixed macro frame for industrial sector where the macro frame is fixed for theindustrial sector.
3
Percentage of emissions reduction compared to 2008
1
2

Vision for achieving a 25% reduction (compared to 1990) in 2020 (plans for primary measures)
Envisioned for 2020

Primary measures
Motor vehicles(Transportation
sector)Promoting eco-friendly
vehiclesRailways, motor
vehicles, & ships(Transportation
sector)

Percentage of reduction in unit energy consumption:
For trains:
For ships:
For planes:

Regional Planning(Transportation,
household, &business sectors)
Regional Planning(farm/mountain/
fishing village)(Transportation,
household, &business sectors)

Amount of additional
investments

2005: ca. 60,000 new next-generation vehicles sold2020: ca. 2.5 million vehicles
2020: 10% (compared to 2005)- 8.3 trillion yen

2020: 20% (compared to 2005)
2020: 24% (compared to 2005)

Distance travelled by motor
vehicles

10% reduction in distance travelled by motor vehicles(through doubling the public transportation share, etc.)

Amount of waste heatrecaptured for use

Amount of recaptured heat: equivalent to 1 million t-CO2

Forest management(absorption factor)

Thinning ca. 550,000 ha a year

Harvested wood
(absorption factor)

Encourage use of domestic wood

Additional investment
amounts need to beappropriated forregional planning(e.g., improving
public transportation,
thinning of forests),
which were notincluded this time.

Source: Ministry of the Environment; http://www.env.go.jp/earth/ondanka/domestic.html#a03, 2010

49

3 -6

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Environmentally Friendly
Institutional Measures

Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of
Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology

Yasunori Muromachi

There are discussions inside Japan in regards to setting goals of global warming countermeasures for the years between 2020 and 2050.
Suggestions have been made, and measures like road use fees or road pricing are proposed. There is international cooperation with developing
countries to create low-carbon societies (e.g., CDM, the Clean Development Mechanism). And finally, in accordance with government guidelines,
such programs as strategic environmental assessment and the creation of a Low-Carbon City have been introduced.

Fig. 1 The Nagoya City plan for a PDS (Parking Deposit
System)Fig.2 Progress with the CDM (Clean Development
Mechanism) in the transportation sector

 How the system would work: Outline of Project 1351: Installation of low greenhouse gases(GHG)-emitting rolling stock in metro system

1. Motorists pay a deposit when entering the regulated area.
2. Those who park inside the area will pay the parking fee
from the deposit; those who do shopping can use it as a
discount for purchases.
3. For those who only pass through the regulated area, thedeposit functions as a road use fee.
The system achieves an uncongested flow of traffic into
the city and at the same time solves the problem of illegal
parking.   
Use for shopping

Date registered:  December 29, 2007
Period: 2007 to 2017
Amount to be reduced:  41,160 t-CO2 per year
Procedure: Low greenhouse gas emission rolling stock equippedwith regenerative brake systems is to be introduced to
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC).

Use at parking space

Regulated area with parking deposit
DepositFee is collected atpoint of entry

Those who only passthrough the area
& those who park illegally

Those who park and/or shop
inside the area

In effect, a road use fee

No actual charge

Source: http://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/DB/RWTUV1190204766.13/view,2009
http://www.apic.or.jp/plaza/oda/special/20080521-02.html, 2009

Source: Morikawa & Yamamoto Laboratory, Nagoya University;
http://www.trans.civil.nagoya-u.ac.jp/last/research/PDS.jpg, 2008

Table 1 “Fahrleistungsmodell” (cutting down vehicle-kilometers in new development) in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland• Fahrleistungsmodell is a measure to cut down the amount of traffic (the number of trips and vehicle-kilometers) that is
generated by a large-scale development project such as a new shopping center. At the same time, it aims at achieving air
quality and spatial economy goals. The Canton of Bern estimates that it would achieve its conservation goals for air quality
and against climate change if the growth rate of vehicle-kilometers of automobiles didn’t exceed 8% (1.3 million kilometers
per day) in 2015, setting 2000 as the bases year. Half of that limited growth rate has been allotted to general traffic growth in
the canton; and the other half has been allotted to projects that will induce traffic on a large scale development.
• Since 2000, a project generating more than 2000 new automobile trips per day is  permitted only when it conforms to spaceplanning criteria and is allotted the number of automobile trip credits permitted for that project. For instance, the Bern
Brunnen shopping mall plan obtained its allotment of 57,000 vehicle-kilometers per day (6000 trips / day × 9.5 km, theaverage length of a trip). After monitoring, if the permitted limit has not been maintained, the owner must employ remedies
like charging for parking. And if that measure is not effective enough, the canton has the authority to impose a fine and touse the revenue for the improvements of the public transportation.
Source: Swiss Confederation, Switzerland’s Fourth National Communication under the UNFCCC, 2005

50

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Fig. 3 Guideline for introducing the SEA)
Environmental considerations

Flow chart from project draft throughimplementation

SEA (Strategic Environmental
Assessment) is the environmental
assessment in the strategic decisionmaking stage that precedes theconstruction of an individual project — inother words, it targets the three Ps: Policymaking, Planning, and Programming.
The system permits environmental
considerations to be included from anearly stage, and more extensively. There
have been discussions about introducing
it inside and outside the country, and it is
now being put into practice.

Policy-making
phase

Strategic Environmental Assessment[Basic idea]� Those who make the plan do the assessment.
� Input is needed from ordinary citizens,specialists, and environmental agencies.
� It is important to compare and assess anumber of alternative plans.

Indicates (taking account of various
policies) the direction of each plan or
project.
Higher-level planning
phase

Specifies which projects, and when,
where, and how they are to be
carried out.

Environmental assessment

Individual project phase[Basic idea]� Those who conduct the project do theassessment.
� Input is needed from ordinary citizens,specialists, and environmental agencies.

Shows individual project designs, andoperation, environmental conservation
measures, etc., in detail.

Source: Guidelines for the Strategic Environmental
Assessment (SEA) (2007, Ministry of theEnvironment)

Environmental assessment currently conductedin Japan in accordance with the law(Environmental Impact Assessment Law) andordinances.

Project implementation phaseFig. 4 Guidelines for building a Low Carbon City

In order to technically support the planning and implementation of “Building a Low-Carbon City” in various areas, newguidelines have been issued by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; the guidelines show steps to betaken in building a Low-Carbon City, and ways to analyze outcomes.

�Basic ideas on building a Low-Carbon City
�Possible measures
�Simulation method of estimating changes in theamount of CO2 emitted through the whole city

The guidelines
consist of:�Graphic representation of various transport measures and their effects“Hard” measure(Constructing ring roads)

Example of simulation on theassumption that bold have beentaken in a city

“Soft” measure (introductionof arterial bus route,/lane, etc.)“Soft” measure (Park & ride)

CO2 reduction rate

CO2 reduction rateBus:
JR line:Metro:

CO2 reduction rate

�Graphic representation of compact city structure
Attracting population from suburbs and outskirts of the city to areas
around railway stations and the existing city center
Present

Future(persons/ha)(persons/ha)

Combine different
measures and estimate
the amount of CO2
emissions in the whole
city that is consistent indata with local measuresand their relevant analysis

Source: Basic guidelines for building a low-carbon city (2010, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

51

3 -7

3 Symbiosis of Vehicles, People and Nature

Development and Promotion ofEnvironmentally Friendly Vehicles

Group Leader, Environment Department, Japan
Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Tadashi Kotake

Taking steps against global warming, automotive manufacturers introduced various technologies to improve fuel efficiency, and achieved — long
before 2010 — the fuel efficiency standard specified for that year. We continue that pace as we look toward the 2015 fuel efficiency standard. In
addition, the Green tax system and subsidies have been implemented, and the development and promotion of next-generation motor vehicles areon schedule.

Fig. 1 Changes in average fuel efficiency of gasoline--engine passenger vehicles

 Fuel efficiency, as observed in both vehicles sold and vehicles owned, is increasing every year.

䋨km/ℓ䋩

18.1

Average fuel efficiency

18

16

14
12.7

12

12.6

12.5

10

12.6

12.4

9.2

9.2

13.5

13.1

12.6

9.1

12.6

9.0

13.8

9.1

9.1

15.4

16.2

15.5

14.3

12.8

12.7

16.0

15.1

14.9

8

16.9

Fuel efficiency invehicles sold

12.9

9.2

13.1

13.2

13.4

13.7

13.9

14.1

14.4

9.9

10.0

Fuel efficiency invehicles owned
9.4

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

Fuel efficiency based on actual driving
2000

1995

2009

2005

FY

Note: Imported cars are not included among motor vehicles sold and motor vehicles owned.
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Fig. 2 Technologies to improve the fuel efficiency of motor vehicles

Fig. 3 Actual figures for average fuel efficiency of gasoline-engine
passenger vehicles, with prospects for improvement

 Improvement of fuel efficiency has been achieved step by step Efforts are being made toward the FY 2015 fuel efficiency

Improvement in engine efficiency

Reducing air resistance

Improvement in heat efficiency
Lean fuel burning
Direct injection of fuel into cylinder
Variable mechanisms (variable cylinder,
VVT, etc.)
Reducing friction losses
Reducing friction in pistons and rings
Low-friction engine oil
Variable supplement device drive

Improving body form

Expantion of torque converter lock up
range
Increase of the number of gear shift
positions
CVT (Continuously Variable Transmission)

10-15 mode (km/L)

㪉㪉Lighter-weight vehicles
Use of more lightweightmaterials
Improvement in body structure

Other
Electric power steering

Reducing rolling resistanceTires with low rolling resistance

Idling stop
Hybrid vehicles

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

52

increased noticeably in FY 2009.

Average fuel efficiencyof new cars

Improvement of power train

standard and even further improvement.

 Thanks to the eco-car subsidies, the average fuel efficiency

Fuel efficiency
standard for FY 2015
18.6
18.1
䃨

㪉㪇

䃂

㪈㪏

(2.3% / year)㪈㪍

20.9
improved by 35%

with the development of various technologies.

䃨

㪈㪋

12.5

Fuel efficiency
standard for FY 2010

㪈㪉
㪈㪐㪐㪌
㪉㪇㪇㪇
㪉㪇㪇㪌
㪉㪇㪈㪇
㪉㪇㪈㪌
㪉㪇㪉㪇 FY
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
Table 1 Issues in mass marketing next-generation motor
vehicles by 2020

Fig. 4 Number of motor vehicles owned and thebreakdown for next-generation vehicles(estimate for FY 2009)

1. It will take time to make an impact on the existing “market stock” ofautomobiles

Next-generation
vehiclesca. 1.03 million
1.4 䋦▪ Motor vehicle CO2 emissions derive from the market stock.
▪ Even if more new cars were sold, it will take time for the market stock
to be replaced.
▪ It is not likely that, by 2020 (only 12 years left), there will be a massive
impact on the stock.

Clean diesel vehicles: ca. 5000
Electric vehicles: ca. 3800
Natural gas vehicles: ca. 39,000

2. Will they be chosen by consumers?

▪ Does the price of the vehicle motivate consumers to purchase?
▪ Amid uncertainty in the market, the automotive businesses cannot
make large investments.

3. Lead time for technical research and product development is necessary▪ Time is necessary for technical research and development for
next-generation motor vehicles.
▪ Time is necessary to develop a large number of models for the market.
▪ Research and development personnel are needed in large numbers forthe new technology.
▪ It is difficult for manufactures to start developing hybrid vehicles immediately.

4. Lead time to establish a mass production system is necessary▪ Preparation and investment for assembly lines and facilities/equipment for
new-generation vehicles▪ Preparation and investment for assembly lines and facilities/equipment forparts industries▪ Preparation and investment for supply system of materials manufacturers▪ When new technology is massively promoted over a short period, it isdifficult to maintain quality.

Conventional vehicles
ca. 74.29 million
99.2 䋦

Hybrid vehicles ca. 985,000<Data>Out of 4,609,256 motor vehicles sold in Japan in fiscal
2009:• Hybrid vehicles: 449,021 (9.7%)• Electric vehicles: 1560 (0.03%)• Clean diesel vehicles: 3119 (0.07%)• Natural gas vehicles: 1744 (0.04%)• Fuel cell vehicles: 18 (0.0004%)
Note: Next-generation vehicles: hybrid vehicles, clean
diesel vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles,
natural gas vehicles, biofuel vehicles, fuel cell vehicles, andhydrogen vehicles
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc.

Fig. 5 Effects of the government’s assistance for eco-cars

 Due to the Eco-car tax reduction and subsidies of which about 600 billion yen was spent, the sales of next-generation vehicles increased,
temporarily to about 10% of total sales (passenger cars only).

Next-generation vehicles:
share (%) of total sales of automobiles

㪉㪌㪉㪇Start of the Eco-car tax
reduction and subsidies

㪈㪌

㪈㪇

㪌

㪇
㪋

㪌

㪍

㪎

㪏

㪐 㪈㪇 㪈㪈 㪈㪉 㪈

FY 2007

㪉

㪊

㪋

㪌

㪍

㪎

㪏

㪐 㪈㪇 㪈㪈 㪈㪉 㪈

FY 2008

㪉

㪊

㪋

㪌

㪍

㪎

㪏

㪐 㪈㪇 㪈㪈 㪈㪉 㪈

㪉

㪊

㪋

㪌

㪍

FY 2009

Note: The percentage includes imported cars. However, because they could not be included in the statistics, Kluger Hybrid and X-Trail
Diesel are not included among the next-generation cars that were sold in the above period.
Source: Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. and other sources53

Table 2 Next-generation vehicles fuel initiative (May, 2007)

 Aiming at the 2030 goal for the transport sector (80% dependence on oil and 30% improvement in energy efficiency),
benchmarks (cost, performance, etc.) have been set as check points until 2030 (2010, 2015, and 2020), targeting market
production at each point.  
Use / form
Using
batteries

UsinghydrogenUsing
dieselPresent
Compact EV
for electriccompanies

2010
Limited use:
commuter EV
advanced HV**

200,000 yen/kwh

1/2
100,000 yen/kwh

Performance
Cost to run
Travel range
20 times
Price of vehicle
Cost to run Several million yen/kw
Durability
2000 hours

2020
Advanced plug-in HV

Commonplace EV

1.5 times

3 times

7 times

1/7
30,000 yen/kwh

1/10
20,000 yen/kwh

1/40
5000 yen/kwh

1.2 times
4000 yen/kw
5000 hours

3-5 times
5000 yen/kw
3000 hours

Same exhaust gas, performance &price (incl. fuel cost) as
gasoline-engine vehicles

Materials
Using bio
resources

2015
Fuel cell vehicles;
ordinary commuterEV; plug-in HV

Rice straw, etc. (leftover from lumber mills etc.)
100 yen/L (Biomass Nippon Comprehensive
100 yen/L (Biomass Nippon
Strategies Promotion Council — Schedule Comprehensive Strategies Promotion
for expanding production of domestic
Council — Schedule for expanding
biofuel); 40 yen/L (technology innovation
production of domestic biofuel);model)
40 yen/L (technology innovation model)

Cost

Average speed in 3 major
metropolitan areas: 1.5 times(20% less CO2 emissions)

Using IT

Average speed in 3 major
metropolitan areas: twice(30% less CO2 emissions)

Source: data of Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry

Table 3 Next-generation Motor Vehicles Strategies 2010 (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry) — Promotion goals
and overall strategies for encouraging the use of next-generation vehicles
 To accelerate popular demand for next-generation vehicles, optimal marketing goals set by the government (by vehicle type, as apercentage of all new cars sold) are mentioned below. To meet those goals, the government needs to implement strong incentive
measures (assisting development and purchases, tax writeoffs, infrastructure improvements, etc.).
 In the Next-generation Motor Vehicles Strategies 2010, action plans for popularizing next-generation vehicles were made in each of the six
strategic areas.
 Automotive manufacturers primarily, but also related businesses and research institutions, are to do their best to speed development.
Prospects of spreading the use of next-generation
vehicles (through private-sector efforts)

Government goals fornext-generation vehicles

2020

2020
Conventional vehicles

80% and more

Next-generation vehicles㪌㪇㪄㪏㪇㩼
㪉㪇㪄㪌㪇㩼

Next-generation vehicles

Less than 20%

Hybrid vehicles㪉㪇㪄㪊㪇㩼

Hybrid vehicles

10-15%

㪈㪌㪄㪉㪇㩼

Electric vehicles
Plug-in hybrid vehicles

5-10%

Fuel cell vehicles

negligible

Clean diesel vehicles

negligible

Conventional vehicles

Electric vehicles
Plug-in hybrid vehicles
Fuel cell vehicles
Clean diesel vehicles

㪄㪈㩼
㪄㪌㩼

Note: For successful marketing without governmental incentive
measures, the Japan Automobile Manufacturers
Association estimates prospects at 10% + α[Six strategies and major action plans]

Major action plans

Infrastructure
Overall Strategies Batteries Strategie Resources Strategies
Improvements Strategies Systems Strategies
Making Japan the center ofdevelopment and productionof next-generation motor
vehiclesResearching and developing
technology to produce theworld’s most advanced
batteries

Obtaining rare metals andbuilding a resources
recycling system▪ Goal for promotion successof next-generation vehicles
for 2020: maximum 50%▪ Improving performance oflithium-ion batteries▪ Upper-stream
Strategic procurment of
resources▪ Advanced environmental
vehicles (next-generation
vehicles + conventional
vehicles that are
particularly excellent intheir performance for theenvironment): 2020:
maximum 80%▪ Developing post-lithium-ion
batteries▪ Mid-stream
Developing batteries andmotors without rare
metals▪ Diversity in fuel types▪ Improving the market forsecondary use of batteries▪ Spreading the use ofelectric vehicles to speed
mass production▪ Lower stream
Building a system forrecycling batteries

Ordinary chargers: 2 million;
Rapid chargers: 5000

▪ Well-planned and intensive
infrastructure improvements
during market preparation
periodMainly electric vehicle
towns / plug-in hybrid
vehicle towns▪ Building a path toward atime of universal acceptanceElectric vehicle town /Plug-in hybrid vehicle town
Producing a “’Best
Practices” compendium

Export vehicles on thebasis of a system(smart grid, etc.)

International standards
under Japan’s leadership▪ Creating new businessmodels in electric vehicle
and plug-in hybrid vehicle
towns▪ International standards forbattery performance,
safety, and evaluation
methods▪ System verification in
next-generation energy
public demonstration
projects▪ International standards
for charger connection
system▪ International standardization
based on the verification
results; commercial
development of results

Source: Compiled from the data in NEXT GENERATION MOTOR VEHICLES STRATEGIES 2010

54

International
Standards Strategies▪ Encouraging administrativeand private sectors to
advocate standardization▪ Training standardization
personnel

Page
1. Passenger and Freight Transport in Japan
1-1 Passenger transport in Japan
1-2 Freight transport in Japan

56
56
58

2. Passenger and Freight Transport in Japan and Other Countries
2-1 Passenger transport in Japan and other countries (passenger-kilometers)
2-2 Freight transport in Japan and other countries (ton-kilometers)

58
58
59

3. Road Traffic in Japan and Other Countries
3-1 Motor vehicle kilometers traveled in Japan
3-2 Vehicle-kilometers traveled in Japan and other countries

60
60
60

4. Road Traffic in Japan
4-1 Traffic volume by type of road / average travel speed at peak hours
4-2 Traffic volume in major cities / average travel speed at peak hours

61
61
60

5. Roads in Japan and Other Countries
5-1 Length of roads in Japan
5-2 Length of roads in Japan and other countries
5-3 Changes in the amount of investment for road construction in Japan

62
62
62
63

6. Number of Motor Vehicles Owned in Japan and Other Countries
6-1 Number of motor vehicles owned in Japan
6-2 Number of motor vehicles owned in Japan and other countries (2008)

63
63
64

7. Number of People Who Hold a Driverʼ s License in Japan (end of 2009)64

8. Traffic Accidents in Japan
8-1 Number of traffic accidents, fatalities, and injuries
8-2 Number of fatalities by age group and by circumstances of accident (2009)

65
65
65

9. Number of Traffic Fatalities in Japan and Other Countries66

10. Implementation of Traffic Safety Facilities in Japan66

11. Parking Facilities in Japan
11-1 Changes in parking capacity
11-2 Number of parking meters and parking permit ticket devices installed
11-3 Parking Facilities in Major Cities

67
67
67
67

12. Travel Time in Daily Activities of Japanese People
6812-1 Changes in time spent for daily activities of Japanese People (average of whole
nation, average of doers)68
12-2 Travel time by different population segments (weekdays, average time spent by thedoer, total of both)69
13. Transport And Communications Expenditures in Japanese Households
69
13-1 Transport and communications expenditures in households (monthly average;
working-class, nationwide)69
13-2 Changes in consumer prices for transport and communications
70
13-3 Monthly transport / communications expenditures per household by size of city or
by city area (average of all households, 2009)70
14. Energy Consumption in Japan and Other Countries
14-1 Energy consumption by transport modes in Japan
14-2 Energy consumption in Japan and other countries (2008)

71
71
71

15. Travel in Japan
15-1 Number of trips made per person by trip puropose
15-2 Number of trips made per person by trip purpose and by automobile ownership
15-3 Comparison of purposes of trip mode by city type15-4 Comparison of transport mode by city type15-5 Number of trips per person mode by city type15-6 Percentage of the main transport mode by trip purpose (nationwide)
15-7 Transport used by trip purpose (percentages of the main transport mode)

71
71
71
72
72
72
73
73

16. Basic Transport Data for Major World Cities (2000, 52 cities)

74

Statistics and Data

Statistics and Data

1. Passenger and Freight Transport in Japan
1-1 Passenger transport in Japan

Number of passengers transported x 1000 passengers ( % in parentheses)
Motor vehicles
Buses
Passenger cars total
Commercial use
FY1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

7 900 743（38.9）
14 863 470（48.3）
24 032 433（59.2）
28 411 450（61.5）
33 515 233（64.8）
34 678 904（64.4）
55 767 427（71.6）

6 290 722
10 557 428
11 811 524
10 730 770
9 903 047
8 780 339
8 558 007

1 610 021
4 306 042
12 220 909
17 680 680
23 612 186
25 898 565
36 203 558

1 205 225
2 626 631
4 288 853
3 220 221
3 426 567
3 256 748
3 223 166

Private use
Registered cars
404 766
1 679 411
7 932 056
14 460 459
20 185 619
22 641 817
30 847 009

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

57 555 953（71.6）
58 841 075（72.0）
59 284 686（72.1）
59 934 869（72.4）
61 271 653（72.8）

8 581 527
8 444 624
8 224 853
7 835 945
7 619 016

37 738 091
39 195 780
40 120 796
41 468 428
43 054 973

3 177 338
3 041 414
2 921 600
2 821 934
2 758 386

31 703 753
32 686 088
33 126 915
34 004 081
35 018 454

2 857 000
3 468 278
4 072 281
4 642 413
5 278 133

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

61 542 541（72.9）
62 199 844（73.5）
61 838 994（73.5）
62 046 830（73.9）
62 841 306（74.2）

7 492 001
7 350 681
7 047 203
6 864 127
6 635 255

43 735 581
45 117 374
45 771 966
46 512 934
47 937 071

2 684 353
2 614 960
2 514 790
2 465 979
2 433 069

35 071 869
35 869 364
35 938 895
35 985 722
36 505 013

5 979 359
6 633 050
7 318 281
8 061 233
8 998 989

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

64 590 143（74.7）
65 480 675（75.1）
65 933 252（75.0）
65 990 529（75.1）
65 946 689（74.9）

6 489 964
6 286 093
6 191 302
5 995 303
5 888 754

50 005 870
51 268 330
51 801 525
52 310 957
52 722 207

2 343 721
2 366 320
2 351 547
2 243 855
2 217 361

37 683 632
38 139 379
37 891 573
37 558 610
37 358 034

9 978 517
10 762 631
11 558 405
12 508 492
13 146 812

2006
2007
2008

65 943 252（74.6）
66 908 896（74.4）
66 774 143（74.2）

5 909 240
5 963 212
5 929 557

52 764 906
53 729 659
60 844 586

2 208 933
2 137 352
2 024 813

36 570 098
36 625 025
36 024 555

13 985 875
14 967 282
15 777 161

Passenger-kilometers transported x 1 million passenger-kilometers ( % in parentheses)
Motor vehicles
Buses
Passenger cars total
Commercial use

Light cars

2 133 383

FY1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

55 531（22.8）
120 756（31.6）
284 229（48.4）
360 868（50.8）
431 669（55.2）
489 260（57.0）
853 060（65.7）

43 99880 134102 893
110 063
110 396
104 898
110 372

11 53340 622181 335
250 804
321 272384 362575 507

5 162
11 21619 311
15 57216 24315 76315 639

Private use
Registered cars
6 370
29 406162 024
235 232305 030
368 600
536 773

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

869 337（65.3）
888 279（65.6）
889 873（65.6）
896 751（65.9）
917 419（66.1）

108 212106 637
102 909
99 781
97 288595 481617 551626 979
640 384
664 625

16 05515 64515 16614 33813 796548 805
564 654567 999576 710594 71230 62137 25243 81449 33656 117

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

931 721（66.1）
944 972（66.6）
954 807（67.1）
955 563（67.1）
951 253（67.0）

94 89292 90090 43388 68687 307684 177704 127
723 791
733 437
741 148

13 277
12 81812 34412 115
12 052606 741618 615631 502632 815630 958

64 15972 69479 94588 507
98 138

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

954 292（67.0）
955 413（67.0）
954 186（66.9）
947 563（66.8）
933 006（66.1）

86 35186 181
86 391
86 28588 066752 529756 632755 062750 518737 62111 80211 901
11 968
11 585
11 485633 326628 601
620 698
607 909587 657

107 401
116 130
122 396131 024
138 479

2006
2007
2008

917 938（65.4）
919 062（66.3）
905 907（64.9）

88 69988 96989 921

723 870724 591
713 146

11 45411 100
10 572566 577559 533
542 304

145 839
153 958
160 271

Light cars

23 095

Source: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Note: 1. Starting from FY 1987, motor vehicles include light motor vehicles and trucks in private use.
2. Regarding the number of passengers transported and passenger-kilometers for railways: figures from FY 1987 onward are not in sequencewith those of the previous fiscal year and before because of overlaps between JR (Japan Railway) Companies.
3. For passenger ship transport, figures for FY 1970 and before include only scheduled transport services; figures from FY 1975 onward are
the total of scheduled and nonscheduled transport services. Passenger-kilometers transported in FY 1965 and before were estimated bymultiplying the number of passengers by 27 kilometers (the average kilometers per person transported).

56

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

Trucks in private use
Registered trucks Light trucks

Railways

Passenger
ships

AircraftTotal

98 887（0.5）
126 007（0.4）
173 744（0.4）
169 864（0.4）
159 751（0.3）
153 477（0.3）
162 600（0.2）

1 260（0.01）
5 194（0.02）
15 460（0.04）
25 467（0.06）
40 427（0.08）
43 777（0.08）
65 252（0.08）

20 291 270（100.0）
30 792 839（100.0）
40 605 671（100.0）
46 194 706（100.0）
51 720 373（100.0）
53 865 861（100.0）
77 933 888（100.0）

FY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

3 454 128

7 551 734

12 290 380（60.6）
15 798 168（51.3）
16 384 034（40.3）
17 587 925（38.1）
18 004 962（34.8）
18 989 703（35.3）
21 938 609（28.2）

3 404 271
3 377 578
3 263 258
3 159 741
3 133 874

7 832 064
7 823 093
7 675 779
7 470 755
7 463 790

22 559 810（28.1）
22 694 082（27.8）
22 759 159（27.7）
22 597 951（27.3）
22 630 439（26.9）

162 000（0.2）
157 855（0.2）
157 250（0.2）
150 866（0.2）
148 828（0.2）

68 687（0.09）
69 687（0.09）
69 584（0.08）
74 547（0.09）
78 101（0.09）

80 346 450（100.0）
81 762 699（100.0）
82 270 679（100.0）
82 758 233（100.0）
84 129 021（100.0）

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

3 068 844
2 936 947
2 707 178
2 579 223
2 484 914

7 246 115
6 794 842
6 312 647
6 090 546
5 784 066

22 593 304（26.8）
22 197 786（26.2）
22 013 765（26.2）
21 750 275（25.9）
21 646 751（25.6）

148 107（0.2）
144 896（0.2）
127 665（0.2）
120 091（0.1）
110 128（0.1）

82 131（0.1）
85 555（0.1）
87 910（0.1）
91 588（0.1）
92 873（0.1）

84 366 083（100.0）
84 628 081（100.0）
84 068 334（100.0）
84 008 784（100.0）
84 691 058（100.0）

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

2 464 818
2 406 007
2 377 331
2 200 539
2 083 356

5 629 491
5 520 245
5 563 094
5 483 730
5 252 372

21 720 088（25.1）
21 561 067（24.7）
21 757 564（24.8）
21 686 454（24.7）
21 963 024（24.9）

111 550（0.1）
108 846（0.1）
107 288（0.1）
100 872（0.1）
103 175（0.1）

94 579（0.1）
96 662（0.1）
95 487（0.1）
93 739（0.1）
94 490（0.1）

86 515 679（100.0）
87 247 250（100.0）
87 893 591（100.0）
87 871 594（100.0）
88 098 313（100.0）

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

2 021 509
2 003 807
1 906 546

5 247 597
5 212 218
5 111 511

22 243 472（25.2）
22 840 812（25.4）
22 976 100（25.5）

99 168（0.1）
100 794（0.1）
99 032（0.1）

96 971（0.1）
94 849（0.1）
90 662（0.1）

88 382 863（100.0）
89 945 351（100.0）
89 939 937（100.0）

2006
2007
2008

Trucks in private use
Registered trucks Light trucks

Railways

Passenger
ships

Aircraft

Total

2 670（1.1）
3 402（0.9）
4 814（0.8）
6 895（1.0）
6 132（0.8）
5 752（0.7）
6 275（0.5）

  737（0.3）
2 952（0.8）
9 319（1.6）
19 148（2.7）
29 688（3.8）
33 119（3.9）
51 623（4.0）

243 278（100.0）
382 594（100.0）
587 177（100.0）
710 711（100.0）
782 031（100.0）
858 232（100.0）
1 298 436（100.0）

FY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

74 65992 523

184 340（75.8）
255 484（66.8）
288 815（49.2）
323 800（45.6）
314 542（40.2）
330 101（38.5）
387 478（29.8）

75 42875 74974 64773 80473 88790 21788 34385 33882 78281 620400 083（30.1）
402 258（29.7）
402 727（29.7）
396 332（29.1）
400 056（28.8）

6 195（0.5）
6 097（0.5）
6 061（0.4）
5 946（0.4）
5 527（0.4）

55 349（4.2）
56 680（4.2）
57 118（4.2）
61 289（4.5）
65 012（4.7）

1 330 964（100.0）
1 353 314（100.0）
1 355 779（100.0）
1 360 318（100.0）
1 388 014（100.0）

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

73 11172 03468 66464 69959 43179 54175 911
71 92068 74263 366402 156（28.6）
394 933（27.8）
388 938（27.3）
385 101（27.0）
384 441（27.1）

5 635（0.4）
5 368（0.4）
4 620（0.3）
4 479（0.3）
4 304（0.3）

69 049（4.9）
73 243（5.2）
75 988（5.3）
79 348（5.6）
79 698（5.6）

1 408 561（100.0）
1 418 516（100.0）
1 418 516（100.0）
1 424 491（100.0）
1 419 696（100.0）

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

56 21854 61954 11351 73649 74259 19657 98058 62159 02357 576385 421（27.0）
382 236（26.8）
384 958（27.0）
385 163（27.2）
391 228（27.7）

4 006（0.3）
3 893（0.3）
4 024（0.3）
3 869（0.3）
4 025（0.3）

81 459（5.7）
83 949（5.9）
83 311（5.8）
81 786（5.8）
83 220（5.9）

1 425 178（100.0）
1 425 491（100.0）
1 426 479（100.0）
1 418 381（100.0）
1 411 397（100.0）

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

48 46148 65646 91056 90856 84655 930395 908（28.2）
405 544（28.7）
404 585（29.0）

3 783（0.3）
3 834（0.3）
3 510（0.3）

85 746（6.1）
84 327（6.0）
80 931（5.8）

1 403 375（100.0）
1 412 767（100.0）
1 394 933（100.0）

2006
2007
2008

57

Statistics and Data
1-2 Freight transport in JapanFY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

Tonnage transported x 1000 tons (% in parentheses)
Motor vehicles
Commercial use
Registered vehicles Light vehicles
380 728
380 728
1 156 291（75.8）
664 227664 227
2 193 195（83.8）
1 113 061
1 113 061
4 626 069（88.1）
1 251 482
1 251 482
4 392 859（87.4）
1 661 473
1 661 473
5 317 950（88.9）
1 891 937
1 891 937
5 048 048（90.2）
2 427 625
2 416 384
11 241
6 113 565（90.2）

Private use
775 563
1 528 968
3 513 008
3 141 377
3 656 477
3 156 111
3 685 940

Registered vehicles Light vehicles
775 563
1 528 968
3 513 008
3 141 377
3 656 477
3 156 111
3 557 161
128 779

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

6 260 811（90.5）
6 101 706（90.7）
5 821 537（90.5）
5 810 374（90.1）
6 016 571（90.6）

2 571 938
2 516 790
2 490 750
2 517 955
2 647 067

2 559 405
2 503 720
2 477 742
2 504 830
2 633 277

12 53313 070
13 00813 12513 7903 688 873
3 584 916
3 330 787
3 292 419
3 369 504

3 547 528
3 444 392
3 193 002
3 152 639
3 230 135

141 345140 524
137 785
139 780
139 369

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

6 177 265（90.9）
6 065 384（90.8）
5 819 881（91.0）
5 863 259（91.0）
5 773 619（90.6）

2 778 854
2 775 830
2 747 332
2 873 655
2 932 696

2 764 245
2 760 452
2 731 587
2 857 581
2 916 222

14 60915 37815 74516 07416 474

3 398 411
3 289 554
3 072 549
2 989 604
2 840 923

3 263 236
3 158 681
2 943 464
2 862 411
2 713 392

135 175
130 873
129 085
127 193
127 531

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

5 578 227（90.6）
5 339 487（90.6）
5 234 076（91.3）
5 075 877（91.1）
4 965 874（91.2）

2 898 336
2 830 173
2 843 911
2 833 122
2 858 258

2 881 753
2 813 389
2 826 770
2 815 502
2 840 686

16 58316 78417 141
17 62017 572

2 679 891
2 509 314
2 390 165
2 242 755
2 107 616

2 556 217
2 389 557
2 269 573
2 120 129
1 983 974

123 674
119 757
120 592
122 626
123 642

2006
2007
2008

4 961 325（91.4）
4 932 539（91.4）
4 718 318（91.7）

2 899 642
2 927 928
2 808 664

2 881 688
2 908 987
2 788 513

17 95418 94120 151

2 061 683
2 004 611
1 909 654

1 937 380
1 883 959
1 792 088

124 303120 652
117 566

FY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

Ton-kilometers transported x 1 million ton-kilometers (% in parentheses)
Motor vehicles
Commercial use
Registered vehicles Light vehicles
9 639
9 639
20 801（15.0）
22 38522 38548 392（26.1）
67 33067 330135 916（38.8）
69 24769 247
129 701（36.0）
103 541
103 541
178 901（40.8）
137 300
137 300
205 941（47.4）
194 221193 799  422
274 244（50.2）

Private use
11 16326 00668 58660 45575 36068 64280 023

Registered vehicles Light vehicles
11 16326 00668 58660 45575 36068 64278 358
1 665

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

283 776（50.7）
281 599（50.5）
275 885（51.5）
280 587（51.5）
294 648（52.7）

204 198
204 844204 862
209 699
223 090

203 752
204 405
204 442209 278
222 655

  446
  439
  420
  421
  435

79 57876 75471 02370 88871 55877 83475 03069 37469 231
69 911

1 744
1 724
1 649
1 657
1 647

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

305 510（53.3）
306 263（52.9）
300 670（54.5）
307 149（54.8）
313 118（54.2）

233 255
236 552
235 642245 579
255 533

232 797
236 066
235 142245 066
255 012

  458
  486
  500
  514
  522

72 25569 71165 02861 56957 58570 64168 14063 48360 02056 025

1 614
1 571
1 571
1 549
1 559

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

313 072（53.9）
312 028（54.7）
321 862（57.1）
327 632（57.5）
334 979（58.7）

259 771
262 305
274 364
282 151
290 773259 239261 760
273 798
281 555
290 160

  532
  545
  566
  596
  613

53 30149 72347 49845 48144 20651 82848 30846 10244 06442 752

1 473
1 415
1 396
1 417
1 455

2006
2007
2008

346 534（59.9）
354 800（60.9）
346 420（62.1）

302 182
310 185
302 816301 546309 496302 092

  636
  689
  724

44 35244 61543 60442 85343 13542 123

1 499
1 480
1 481

Source: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

2. Passenger and Freight Transport in Japan and Other Countries

2-1 Passenger transport in Japan and other countries (passenger-kilometers)
Japan
U.S.A
U.K.
FranceGermany

Survey year Passenger cars
2008
816.0（58.5）
2007
7 742.6（86.3）
2007
689.0（84.9）
2007
727.8（81.0）
2007
868.7（79.0）

Source: Transportation-related Statistics
Data Collection (Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

58

Buses
90.1（6.5）
238.0（2.7）
51.5（6.3）
47.1（5.2）
65.4（5.9）

x 1 billion passengerkilometers (% in parentheses)

Railways
Coastal shipping
404.6（29.0）
3.5（0.3）
9.3（0.1）－
59.7（7.4）－
93.0（10.3）－
95.3（8.7）－

Note: 1. Figures for Japan are those for the fiscal year.
2. Figures for passenger cars for the U.S.A.
include motorcycles.

Aircraft80.9（5.8）
977.8（10.9）
10.0（1.2）
18.4（2.0）70.9（6.4）

Total
1 395.1（100）8 967.7（100）812.0（100）898.9（100）
1 100.2（100）

3. Figures for buses for U.K. are those for public
transport vehicles.
4. Figures for buses for Germany are the total of all
public transport including taxis and streetcars.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

Railways

Aircraft

Coastalshipping

Total

229 856（15.1）
243 524（9.3）
250 360（4.8）
180 616（3.6）
162 827（2.7）
96 285（1.7）
86 619（1.3）

138 849（9.1）
179 645（6.9）
376 647（7.2）
452 054（9.0）
500 258（8.4）
452 385（8.1）
575 199（8.5）

  9（0.00）
  33（0.00）
  116（0.00）
  192（0.00）
  329（0.01）
  538（0.01）
  874（0.01）

1 525 005（100.0）
2 616 397（100.0）
5 253 192（100.0）
5 025 721（100.0）
5 981 364（100.0）
5 597 256（100.0）
6 776 257（100.0）

FY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

85 697（1.2）
82 402（1.2）
79 259（1.2）
78 948（1.2）
76 932（1.2）

571 891（8.3）
540 410（8.0）
528 841（8.2）
555 764（8.6）
548 542（8.3）

  874（0.01）
  854（0.01）
  859（0.01）
  910（0.01）
  960（0.01）

6 919 273（100.0）
6 725 372（100.0）
6 430 496（100.0）
6 445 996（100.0）
6 643 005（100.0）

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

73 558（1.1）
69 228（1.0）
60 369（1.0）
58 685（0.9）
59 274（0.9）

546 909（8.0）
541 437（8.1）
516 647（8.0）
522 602（8.1）
537 021（8.4）

1 002（0.01）
1 014（0.02）
1 015（0.02）
1 061（0.02）
1 103（0.02）

6 798 734（100.0）
6 677 063（100.0）
6 397 912（100.0）
6 445 607（100.0）
6 371 017（100.0）

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

58 668（1.0）
56 592（1.0）
53 602（0.9）
52 219（0.9）
52 473（1.0）

520 067（8.4）
497 251（8.4）
445 544（7.8）
440 252（7.9）
426 145（7.8）

1 015（0.02）
1 001（0.02）
1 033（0.02）
1 065（0.02）
1 082（0.02）

6 157 977（100.0）
5 894 331（100.0）
5 734 255（100.0）
5 569 413（100.0）
5 445 574（100.0）

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

51 872（1.0）
50 850（0.9）
46 225（0.9）

416 644（7.7）
409 694（7.6）
378 705（7.4）

1 099（0.02）
1 145（0.02）
  996（0.02）

5 430 940（100.0）
5 394 228（100.0）
5 144 244（100.0）

2006
2007
2008

Coastalshipping

Railways

AircraftTotal

53 916（39.0）
56 678（30.5）
63 031（18.0）
47 058（13.1）
37 428（8.5）
21 919（5.0）
27 196（5.0）

63 579（46.0）
80 635（46.4）
151 243（43.2）
183 579（50.9）
222 173（50.6）
205 818（47.4）
244 546（44.7）

  6（0.00）
  21（0.01）
  74（0.02）
  152（0.04）
  290（0.07）
  482（0.11）
  799（0.15）

138 302（100.0）
185 726（100.0）
350 264（100.0）
360 490（100.0）
438 792（100.0）
434 160（100.0）
546 785（100.0）

FY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

27 157（4.8）
26 668（4.8）
25 433（4.7）
24 493（4.5）
25 101（4.5）

248 203（44.3）
248 002（44.5）
233 526（43.6）
238 540（43.8）
238 330（42.6）

  812（0.15）
  804（0.14）
  817（0.15）
  871（0.16）
  924（0.17）

559 948（100.0）
557 073（100.0）
535 661（100.0）
544 491（100.0）
559 002（100.0）

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

24 968（4.4）
24 618（4.3）
22 920（4.2）
22 541（4.0）
22 136（3.8）

241 756（42.2）
247 018（42.7）
226 980（41.2）
229 432（41.0）
241 671（41.8）

  962（0.17）
  982（0.17）
  985（0.17）
1 039（0.19）
1 075（0.19）

573 196（100.0）
578 881（100.0）
551 555（100.0）
560 161（100.0）
578 000（100.0）

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

22 193（3.8）
22 131（3.9）
22 794（4.0）
22 476（3.9）
22 813（4.0）

244 451（42.1）
235 582（41.3）
218 190（38.7）
218 833（38.4）
211 576（37.1）

  994（0.17）
  991（0.17）
1 027（0.18）
1 058（0.19）
1 075（0.19）

580 710（100.0）
570 732（100.0）
563 873（100.0）
569 999（100.0）
570 443（100.0）

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

23 192（4.0）
23 334（4.0）
22 256（4.0）

207 849（35.9）
202 962（34.9）
187 859（33.7）

1 094（0.19）
1 145（0.20）
1 078（0.19）

578 669（100.0）
582 241（100.0）
557 613（100.0）

2006
2007
2008

2-2 Freight transport in Japan and other countries (ton-kilometers)
Japan
U.S.A.
U.K.
FranceGermany

Survey year
2008
2003
2007
2007
2007

Trucks  346.4（62.1）
1 845.4（31.4）
  160.4（81.1）
  191.4（72.0）
  261.4（57.2）

Source: Transportation-related Statistics
Data Collection (Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

Railways
Coastal shipping  22.3（4.0）
  187.9（33.7）
2 265.1（38.5）
  885.0（15.1）
  26.4（13.3）
  0.2（0.1）
  42.6（16.0）
  9.2（3.5）
  114.6（25.1）
  64.7（14.1）

x 1 billion ton-kilometers (% in parentheses)

Aircraft  1.1（0.2）
  22.2（0.4）
  0.7（0.4）
  1.0（0.4）
  0.7（0.2）

Pipelines－
  861.7（14.7）
  10.2（5.2）
  21.7（8.2）
  15.8（3.5）

Total
  557.6（100）5 879.3（100）  197.9（100）  265.9（100）  457.3（100）Note: 1. Figures for Japan are those for the fiscal year.

59Statistics and Data

3. Road Traffic in Japan and Other Countries
3-1 Vehicle kilometers traveled in JapanFY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985

Passenger cars
(excl. light vehicles)
8 725
34 002120 582
176 035
241 459
275 557

Buses(unit: 1 million kilometers)
Sub total

1 994
3 590
5 394
5 451
6 046
6 352

10 71937 592125 976
181 486
247 505
281 908

Trucks in commercial use Trucks in private use(excl. light trucks)(excl. light trucks)
4 377
13 0688 465
36 09815 59284 44817 92286 93826 883
114 664
34 682111 851

Sub total

Total

17 44544 563100 040
104 859
141 547
146 533

28 16482 155226 017286 345389 052428 442

1986
1987
1988
1989
1990

285 294
295 084
308 629
328 376
350 317

6 455
6 626
6 737
6 962
7 112

291 749
301 710315 366
335 338
357 429

37 24239 96643 47546 31448 459112 622116 181129 448
119 535
122 077

149 864
156 148
172 923165 849
170 536441 613457 858
488 289
501 187527 964

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

366 288
380 102383 356
391 599407 001

7 185
7 068
6 934
6 807
6 768

373 474387 170
390 290
398 406
413 769

52 36554 37055 20257 54060 341

125 271
124 734
123 008
120 186
122 253

177 636
179 105178 210177 726
182 594551 110566 275
567 771576 132
596 363

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

418 980425 988427 689438 550438 204

6 706
6 641
6 520
6 601
6 619

425 686432 629434 209445 151444 823

63 13563 95663 22565 64169 204

121 362
118 514116 517
115 494
116 728

184 496
182 470
179 742181 135
185 932

615 939615 099613 951626 286
630 755

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

448 845445 134
438 730429 260
417 537

6 762
6 653
6 662
6 665
6 650

455 607451 787445 392
435 925424 187

69 34470 65272 89771 60770 829114 867
111 956
110 480
102 804
97 473

184 211
182 608183 377
174 411168 302639 818634 395
628 769
610 336592 489

168 440
168 500
163 163

580 483
573 805552 230

405 3886 655
412 043
73 10395 337
2006
398 5796 726
405 305
74 271
94 2292007
382 499
6 568
389 067
72 14891 0152008
Source: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

3-2 Vehicle-kilometers traveled in Japan and other countries
Japan
U.S.A.
U.K
Germany
FranceSurvey year
2007
2001
2003
2003
2003

Italy
Netherlands
Belgium
Denmark
Poland

1999
1999
1998
2002
2001

Spain
SwedenChina
South Korea
Hong Kong
Thailand

2003
2002
2000
1997
1999
1996

Passenger cars
398 579
4 117 190
393 007577 800
425 000(unit: 1 million vehicle-kilometers)
Buses
6 726
11 247
5 391
3 700
2 400

Trucks
168 500－
86 32457 700121 500

Total
573 805－
484 722639 200
548 900

51 98993 18595 65938 85494 600−  540
60 974  219
5 600

15 92716 230−−37 90067 916
109 955−−
138 100

204 21144 092
418 330
29 6016 506
39 200

3 641
1 000
－
3 799
1 022
10 20032 14413 900422 630
33 8663 253
50 500239 996
58 992840 960
67 266
10 78199 900Source: Road Statistics Annual Report 2003; World Road Statistics 2005 (IRF)

4-2 Traffic volume in major cities / average travel speed at peak hours(FY)

Vehicle-kilometers traveled in 12 hours(x 1000 vehicle-kilometers)
Average travel speed at peak hours (km/h)
Length of roadsurveyed (km)2005
1980 1985 1990 1994 1997 1999
1980 1985 1990 1994 1997 1999 2005
2005
Passenger cars Buses Trucks Total
145.3 2 572 2 688 3 099 3 463 3 684 3 574 2 425
  59   683 3 167   29.4   29.0   30.3   27.5   26.0   24.6   23.2
Sapporo City, Hokkaido−− 2 373 2 627 2 770 2 845 2 035
  39   876 2 951−−   19.6   24.1   26.8   22.2   22.6
Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture 139.7
171.2 5 491 5 584 5 663 5 917 6 123 6 156 2 994
  62 2 212 5 269   21.4   14.8   19.1   11.6   16.7   18.0   18.2
Special Wards of Tokyo
  57 2 069 5 589   31.4   23.3   27.0   18.2   21.7   23.0   23.4
Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture 149.8 3 428 4 597 4 968 5 998 6 289 6 152 3 463
  14   345   792   24.6   17.4   19.3   19.7   21.7   20.0   22.7
Kawasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture 37.8   444   527   861 1 349 1 179 1 219   433110.3 3 181 3 408 3 629 3 785 3 783 3 671 2 203
  24 1 389 3 616   25.6   19.7   19.3   13.1   19.4   19.6   20.6
Nagoya City, Aichi Prefecture  36   708 2 238   29.7   23.8   20.2   20.9   23.0   21.6   25.4
Kyoto City, Kyoto Prefecture   166.5 1 923 2 070 2 292 2 339 2 280 2 276 1 493
  30 1 067 2 779   21.5   19.5   18.3   20.1   19.8   17.0   15.9
Osaka City, Osaka Prefecture   99.2 2 177 2 893 2 945 3 434 3 218 3 216 1 682
  36 1 027 2 854   38.6   32.9   30.4   28.2   28.5   33.6   32.0
Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture   113.0 2 463 2 786 3 340 3 469 3 430 3 458 1 791
  42   936 2 859   30.9   24.3   25.7   21.7   20.7   20.2   23.6
Hiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture   140.4 1 909 2 144 2 503 2 783 2 778 2 888 1 882
  45   946 3 210   33.6   26.9   26.6   23.5   24.7   25.7   22.7
Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka Prefecture   149.8 3 251 3 413 3 688 3 209 3 211 3 257 2 219
  30   595 2 006   24.5   18.7   22.2   17.1   15.9   18.4   18.7
Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture   80.2 1 673 1 868 2 223 2 144 2 039 1 954 1 380
Source: Road Traffic Census (Japan Society of Traffic Engineering)60

Note: 1. Figures are those measured on national highways.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

4. Road Traffic in Japan

4-1 Traffic volume by type of road / average travel speed at peak hours
Type of road

FY

Length of roadsurveyed (km)National
expressways

1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005
1980
1985
1988
1990
1994
1997
1999
2005

2 698.8
3 555.4
4 280.0
4 675.3
5 567.7
6 114.9
7 094.9
8 513.1
  250.8
  322.5
  379.8
  421.0
  490.7
  548.7
  604.1
675.4
2 949.6
3 877.9
4 659.8
5 096.3
6 058.4
6 663.6
7 699.0
9 188.5
19 025.0
19 710.0
19 955.8
20 052.3
20 622.1
20 641.4
20 837.4
21 280.9
20 920.9
26 395.7
26 498.5
26 672.3
32 428.6
32 368.0
32 558.2
32 954.6
39 945.9
46 105.7
46 454.3
46 724.6
53 050.7
53 009.4
53 395.6
54 235.5
43 582.3
49 159.7
49 474.7
49 710.0
56 178.6
56 579.4
56 377.4
57 718.3
86 583.6
74 198.8
75 105.3
75 730.9
64 341.2
67 635.2
67 971.2
70 599.9130 165.9
123 358.5
124 580.0
125 440.9
120 519.8
124 214.6
124 730.0
128 318.2
170 111.8
169 464.2
171 034.3
172 165.5
173 570.5
177 224.0
178 125.6
182 553.7
173 061.4
173 342.1
175 694.1
177 261.8
179 628.9
183 887.6
185 186.7
190 607.6

Urban
expressways

Expressways
total

National roads(government
management)

National
roads(other)National roads
total

Principal
local roads

Generalprefectural
roads

Local roads
total

Total of nationalroads and local
roads

Overall total

Estimated vehicle-kilometers traveled in Average travel
24 hours (x 1000 vehicle-kilometers) speed at peak
Small trucks Ordinary trucks
Passenger cars
Truckshours (km/h)
9 590
12 78955 51221 35234 160  82.95
10 95316 64676 43835 06641 372
  82.81
15 75321 520105 516
48 49557 021
  84.36
16 83826 460121 629
55 18066 449  84.99
21 05132 128153 673
75 08378 590  78.34
22 75835 198177 900
91 80386 098
  83.45
22 97233 498
187 687
94 16793 521
  79.1120 09235 406
202 400
108 180
94 220
78.20
3 943
2 632
17 1188 638
8 480
  42.27
5 139
3 381
23 59210 997
12 595
  40.05
5 813
4 622
29 03013 22015 810  46.345 766
5 068
32 17215 32216 850  51.285 915
6 090
35 63417 43618 198
  24.58
6 056
6 359
39 73621 22318 514
  36.625 107
6 012
41 26225 28315 979  44.315 570
6 881
42 93125 30217 62940.40
13 53315 42272 63029 99042 640  79.42
16 09220 027100 030
46 06353 967
  76.06
21 56626 142
134 544
61 71472 830  79.07
22 60431 528153 80270 50283 300  80.62
26 96738 218189 307
92 51896 789  66.55
28 81341 557
217 637
113 025
104 611
  75.50
28 07939 510228 949
119 450
109 500
  74.50
25 71442 402245 331
133 482
111 849
73.10
59 23836 530254 878
130 363
124 515
  40.86
64 80038 789284 962
142 869
142 093  37.08
73 47344 194318 171
155 607162 564  37.46
72 41347 336
336 002169 790
166 212
  36.92
66 13451 838362 013
199 372
162 642  34.92
60 30854 802379 213219 253
159 960
  35.25
58 86952 685389 786234 203155 583  34.62
53 40950 598390 137
243 649
146 488
34.70
31 90013 167119 232
65 15454 078
  38.0143 63716 275
159 835
82 39777 438
  36.74
50 11319 471
180 503
90 14690 357
  37.1150 63921 381
194 672
100 54494 128
  37.63
54 50226 777239 627
134 577
105 051  36.66
51 68229 590258 279
153 052
105 227
  37.66
47 69528 911
266 163
170 278
95 885
  38.2142 58127 022267 896
180 855
87 04138.20
91 13749 697374 110
195 517178 593  39.37
108 43655 064444 797
225 266
219 531  36.88
123 585
63 664498 674245 753
252 921
  37.26
123 052
68 717530 674
270 334
260 340
  37.32
120 636
78 614
601 641333 948267 692  35.96
111 990
84 391
637 492
372 305
265 187  36.68
106 565
81 596655 949404 481251 468  36.72
95 70077 726658 032424 503233 52936.70
54 99519 470201 848
114 493
87 355
  36.2266 15522 131240 932
125 619
115 313
  33.73
74 96225 887268 845136 231132 614  34.1675 18328 119287 033
150 468
136 565
  35.63
76 50233 465339 056
195 382
143 674  32.91
72 68037 663365 713220 366
145 347
  33.96
67 56236 508377 036250 254
126 782  33.83
60 72534 411
383 419
265 774
117 646
34.20
60 391
16 814210 507121 844
88 663－61 20216 047
210 693
110 677
100 016
  34.24
70 64419 153
237 563
120 969
116 594  48.40
72 16821 226253 172
133 017120 155
  33.60
54 76818 663
221 357
127 801
93 556
  32.1153 81722 142249 051
151 61297 439  33.41
50 31021 502237 908172 31085 598
  33.01
44 06219 937259 499
182 940
76 55833.10
115 387
36 284412 355
236 337
176 018
  36.22
127 357
38 178451 625
236 296215 329  33.74
145 607
45 040506 410257 201
249 209  34.17147 351
49 345
540 205
283 485
256 720
  34.19
131 270
52 128560 413323 183
237 230
  32.48
126 497
59 805
614 763371 977
242 786  33.66
117 872
58 010634 944422 564
212 380
  33.38
104 541
54 713642 918448 714194 20433.60
206 52485 981
786 466
431 854354 612
  37.74
235 794
93 242896 422461 562434 860
  35.19269 192
108 704
1 005 083
502 954502 130
  35.60
270 403
118 061
1 070 879
533 819517 060
  34.41251 906
130 743
1 162 054
657 132504 922  33.48
238 487
144 196
1 252 256744 282
507 973  34.51
224 437
139 606
1 290 893
827 045463 848
  34.32
200 704
132 503
1 300 950
873 217427 73334.50
220 057
101 402859 115461 863397 252
  39.15251 885
113 269
996 452507 625488 827
  35.95
290 757
134 846
1 139 629
564 668
574 961  36.53
293 007149 586
1 224 681
624 321600 360
  34.41
278 872
168 961
1 351 361
749 650
601 711
  34.06
267 300
185 753
1 469 892
857 307612 585
  35.21251 516
177 718
1 511 810
942 060
569 750
  35.04
224 668
172 472
1 532 720
998 947533 77335.30

Vehicle-kilometers traveled in 12 hours (x 1000 vehicle-kilometers)
38 93351 76270 04380 526
105 461
121 653
128 829
140 500
12 31616 01319 22220 82023 73826 80128 03229 78651 24967 77589 265
101 346
129 198
148 453
156 861
170 290191 007
208 403230 809242 582
263 293274 013279 297281 099
93 836
123 550
138 775
148 720
185 088
199 331
202 744204 714284 843331 952369 584
391 302448 381473 344482 041
485 787
156 748
184 220
203 933
216 726
269 128277 568284 268
289 169
165 874
162 282
182 240
195 980
173 097
193 563
198 329
199 374322 622346 503386 173412 706432 225471 131482 597488 507607 466
678 455755 757804 008
880 607944 475
964 638
974 289658 715746 230845 022905 351
1 009 805
1 092 928
1 115 622
1 134 687

Passenger cars
15 42422 69930 54434 97349 66161 57169 66882 193
5 638
7 299
8 588
9 750
11 49714 08816 57816 91921 06229 99839 13244 72461 15875 65886 24699 10991 783
101 545
109 750
119 468
142 268
156 007164 875
174 282
46 72161 37966 85374 334
101 366
115 710
123 706
132 859
138 504
162 925
176 603193 802
243 634
271 717288 581307 018
79 20492 80099 892110 233
145 938
164 079
177 061
190 851
85 53782 35489 73599 843
97 566
115 435
124 321133 182
164 741
175 155
189 628210 077
243 504
279 514301 383
323 880
303 245338 080
366 231403 879487 138551 231589 964
631 339324 307368 077405 363448 602548 296626 890672 885725 065

Buses
1 130
1 465
2 226
2 256
2 620
2 126
2 692
2 660
  102
  194
  200
  235
  236
  298
  335
447
1 232
1 659
2 425
2 490
2 855
2 425
3 026
3 065
3 457
3 269
3 393
3 365
3 053
2 896
2 867
2 530
2 048
2 258
2 339
2 366
2 444
2 350
2 433
2 457
5 505
5 528
5 731
5 732
5 497
5 245
5 299
4 858
3 079
3 134
3 191
3 191
3 223
3 147
3 137
3 181
3 132
2 678
2 707
2 743
2 100
2 168
2 195
2 193
6 211
5 813
5 899
5 934
5 323
5 315
5 332
5 374
11 716
11 34011 63011 66510 82010 56010 631
10 717
12 94812 99914 05514 156
13 67512 98513 50413 616

Source: Road Traffic Census (Japan Society of Traffic Engineering)61

Statistics and Data

5. Roads in Japan and Other Countries
5-1 Length of roads in Japan
National
expressways(km, at beginning of each fiscal year)
National
highwaysPrefecturalroads

FY 1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985

  181
  638
1 519
2 579
3 555

24 09224 91827 85832 81838 54040 21246 435

1989
1990

4 407
4 661

46 80546 935

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

4 869
5 054
5 410
5 568
5 677

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

120 536
122 124
120 513
121 180
125 714130 836
127 436

Principal local roads General prefectural roads

Municipal roads

General roads
total

Total

28 01927 41932 77528 45033 50343 90649 94792 51794 70587 73892 73092 211
86 93077 489–814 872836 382859 953901 775939 760
950 078–961 914984 753
1 013 951
1 066 028
1 110 808
1 123 950

144 628
961 914984 934
1 014 589
1 067 547
1 113 387
1 127 505

128 539
128 782

50 28350 35478 25578 428930 230
934 319

1 105 574
1 110 037

1 109 981
1 114 698

47 00047 03353 30453 30253 327129 040129 284
123 536
123 877
125 51250 38850 45544 64756 80857 04078 65278 83078 88967 06968 472939 552943 472948 642953 600
957 792

1 115 592
1 119 790
1 125 482
1 130 778
1 136 631

1 120 461
1 124 844
1 130 892
1 136 346
1 142 308

5 932
6 114
6 402
6 455
6 617

53 27853 35553 62853 68553 777

126 915
127 663
127 911
127 916
128 182

57 20657 33857 40357 35457 43869 70970 32570 50870 56270 745961 406
965 074968 429973 838
977 764

1 141 600
1 146 092
1 149 969
1 155 439
1 159 723

1 147 532
1 152 206
1 156 371
1 161 894
1 166 340

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

6 851
6 915
7 196
7 296
7 383

53 86653 86654 00454 08454 264

128 409
128 554
128 719
128 962
129 139

57 57457 58557 67357 80357 82170 83570 96971 04671 16071 318982 521987 943992 674997 296
1 002 085

1 164 796
1 170 363
1 175 398
1 180 342
1 185 589

1 171 647
1 177 278
1 182 594
1 187 638
1 192 972

2006
2007
2008

7 392
7 431
7 560

54 34754 53054 736129 294
129 329
129 393

57 90357 91457 98071 39071 41571 502

1 005 975
1 009 599
1 012 088

1 189 616
1 193 459
1 196 217

1 197 008
1 200 890
1 203 777

Source: Annual Report on Road Statistics (Japan Highway Users Conference)

5-2 Length of roads in Japan and other countries
Surveyyear(km)

Expressways Principal roads Second-classroads

Other roads

Total

Japan
U.S.A.
CanadaU.K.
Germany

2008
2004
2004
2004
2004

7 560
75 37716 900
3 523
12 04454 736267 776
85 80046 66941 139129 393
1 651 008
114 600
114 400
86 8091 012 088
4 439 111
1 191 600
223 082
91 428

1 203 777
6 433 272
1 408 900
387 674
231 420

France
Italy
Netherlands
Belgium
Denmark

2004
2003
2003
2000
2003

10 490
6 621
2 500
1 727
  918

25 73046 0096 700
12 600
  701

365 000
119 90957 500
1 349
9 988

550 000
312 149
59 400132 540
60 240

Switzerland
Austria
Spain
SwedenHungary

2004
2003
1999
2004
1999

1 728
2 050
10 3171 591
  438

18 04810 19324 12415 38529 63051 43823 658139 656
82 88323 199PolandEgypt
South Africa
MexicoBrazil

2000
2004
2001
2004
2004

  358
－
  239
6 144
  0

17 709－2 887
41 15293 071

Argentina
South Korea
China
TaiwanSingapore

1999
2004
2004
2000
1999

  734
2 923
34 288
  608
  150

38 40714 24633 5224 447
  569

Road density (expressways &principal roads)
by areaby vehicle owned(m/km2)(m/vehicle)
  164.9
  37.5
  11.3
  207.5
  152.4

  0.8
  1.4
  5.6
  1.6
  1.1

951 220484 688
126 100
148 216
71 847

  65.8
  178.9
  271.5
  462.2
  38.2

  1.0
  1.5
  1.4
  2.8
  0.7

  0
98 000489 698
325 088
158 152

71 214133 901
663 795
424 947
211 419

  494.4
  148.5
  68.1
  41.4
  323.3

  4.8
  2.5
  7.8
  3.8
  11.028 381－60 02768 553276 776318 208－
300 978
119 821
1 382 021

364 656
92 370364 131235 670
1 751 868  55.9－
  0.2
  24.8
  11.0

  1.5
－
  0.0
  2.2
  3.0

176 330
17 476
231 715
2 455
  358

－
65 634
1 571 136
28 421
1 989

215 471
100 279
1 870 661
35 931
3 066

  14.1
  173.9
  7.3
  140.4
1 198.3

  6.0
  1.2
－
  0.9
  1.3

58 112863 136
2 462 096
3 383 344
  19.5
  4.5
2002－
368 360
2002
－
－
－
－
－
－
57 403
2000
－
－
－
－
－
－
810 200
2003
－
－
－
－
－
－
Australia
2003
  171
10 83781 923
  0
92 931
  41.1
  3.9
New Zealand
Source: World Road Statistics 2005 (Japan Road Association); Annual Report on Road Statistics (Japan Highway Users
Note: Only vehicles that have at least four wheels
Conference); Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)are counted as vehicles owned.
India
Indonesia
Thailand62

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010
5-3 Changes in the amount of investment for road construction in Japan(x 100 million yen)

General road construction
Toll road construction
Independent construction by local governments
Total
Amount of investment From the previous FY, increased by (%) Amount of investment From the previous FY, increased by (%) Amount of investment From the previous FY, increased by (%) Amount of investment From the previous FY, increased by (%)
1 243
  8.4
  281
  92.1
  589
  26.52 113
  20.1FY 1960
4 109
  15.4
1 254
  2.7
1 628
  13.36 991
  12.41965
7 784
  17.93 100
  15.05 095
  31.915 979
  21.41970
14 140
  0.7
7 517
  7.6
7 893
29 550
  1.3
1975
3.1
26 42813 067
  3.3
18 795
  10.558 290
  3.2
1980
1.6
31 581
  20.518 819
  7.1
21 47371 874
  8.7
1985
3.9
1988
1989
1990

41 84843 05743 675

  0.4
  2.9
  1.4

25 01825 78527 339

  5.7
  3.1
  6.3

26 97331 83236 253

  10.2
  18.0  13.993 840100 674
107 328

  4.5
  7.3
  6.6

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

44 68553 11063 56850 13066 131

  2.3
  18.9  19.7
21.1
  31.930 31133 87436 91836 47635 677

  10.6
  11.8
  9.0
1.2
2.2

39 64746 93750 15649 36850 937

  9.4
  18.4
  6.9
1.6
  3.2

114 643
133 921150 642135 974
152 745

  6.8
  16.8
  12.5
9.7
  12.3

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

54 57251 87372 78963 55062 168

17.5
4.9
  40.3
12.7
2.2

34 23633 72932 59028 49625 810

4.0
1.5
3.4
12.6
9.4

53 34250 95848 68742 95639 708

  4.7
4.5
4.5
11.8
7.6

142 151
136 560
154 066
135 002
127 686

6.9
3.9
  12.8
12.4
5.4

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

60 69058 09250 91649 93448 343

2.4
4.3
12.4
2.0
3.2

25 725
21 69221 03518 67516 201

0.3
15.7
3.0
11.2
13.2

36 52733 67630 521
26 85023 986

8.0
7.8
9.4
12.0
10.7

122 942
113 460
102 471
95 45988 530

3.7
7.7
9.7
6.8
7.3

2006
2007
2008
2009

47 87046 19843 631
23 993

1.0
3.5
5.6
45.0

14 277
14 34313 56314 565

11.9
  0.5
5.4
  8.1

23 20020 91622 20019 900

3.3
3.9
  6.1
10.4

85 34781 45779 39458 548

3.6
2.9
2.5
26.5

Source: Road Handbook (Japan Highway Users Conference)

6. Number of Motor Vehicles Owned in Japan and Other Countries
6-1 Number of motor vehicles owned in Japan(prior to 1999, vehicles were counted at the end of December; afterward, at the end of March)

Passenger cars
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990

42 588153 325457 333
2 181 275
8 778 972
17 236 321
23 659 520
27 844 580
34 924 172

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

Light four-wheeled passenger cars

TrucksLight four-wheeled trucks

Buses

Vehicles for specialuse
12 49432 57264 286150 572333 132
584 100
789 155
941 647
1 206 390

Total

37 530393 786
2 244 417
2 611 130
2 176 110
2 016 487
2 584 926

152 109
250 988775 715
3 865 478
8 281 759
10 043 853
13 177 479
17 139 806
21 321 439

36 648
1 405 442
3 005 017
2 785 182
4 527 794
8 791 289
12 535 415

18 30634 42156 192102 695
187 980
226 284
230 020231 228
245 668

225 497471 306
1 353 526
6 300 020
17 581 843
28 090 558
37 856 174
46 157 261
57 697 669

37 076 015
38 963 793
40 772 325
42 678 430
44 680 037

3 217 371
3 800 515
4 392 208
5 043 434
5 775 386

21 323 397
21 131 580
20 881 286
20 667 495
20 430 149

12 427 907
12 223 962
12 026 161
11 840 040
11 642 311

248 258
248 624
247 794
245 387
243 095

1 266 953
1 314 147
1 361 129
1 420 160
1 500 219

59 914 623
61 658 144
63 262 534
65 011 472
66 853 500

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

46 868 362
48 610 747
49 895 735
51 222 129
52 449 354

6 552 382
7 264 826
7 980 965
9 166 424
10 084 285

20 089 329
19 652 180
19 080 885
18 424 997
18 064 744

11 336 096
10 983 683
10 632 080
10 158 863
9 958 458

242 243
240 354237 701
235 725
235 550

1 601 444
1 500 016
1 600 233
1 386 036
1 431 162

68 801 378
70 003 297
70 814 554
71 268 887
72 180 810

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

53 487 293
54 471 376
55 288 124
56 288 256
57 097 670

10 959 561
11 816 447
12 663 918
13 512 078
14 350 390

17 726 154
17 343 079
17 015 253
16 860 783
16 707 445

9 819 281
9 677 137
9 600 918
9 580 608
9 547 749

234 244
233 180
231 984
232 000
231 696

1 429 840
1 395 991
1 349 798
1 318 212
1 293 236

72 877 531
73 443 626
73 885 159
74 699 251
75 330 047

2006
2007
2008

57 510 360
57 551 248
57 682 475

15 280 951
16 082 259
16 883 230

16 490 944
16 264 317
15 858 749

9 476 686
9 380 627
9 291 247

231 758
230 981229 804

1 272 655
1 251 465
1 202 242

75 505 717
75 298 011
74 973 270

Source (for before 1999): survey by Ministry of Transport; later years: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Note: For statistics for light passenger cars owned and light trucks owned: those that had not had a vehicle inspection were erased from the data in October, 1975; data from1975 onward are not in sequence with data of 1970 and before. Figures for 1999 onward are those collected at the end of the fiscal year; they are not in sequence with
figures from before 1999.

63

Statistics and Data
6-2 Number of motor vehicles owned in Japan and other countries (2008)
Passenger cars
(×1000)
Asia
Japan
China
India
South Korea
ThailandTurkeyEuropeAustria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGermany
U.K.
GreeceItaly
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
America
BrazilCanadaArgentina
MexicoU.S.A.
AfricaEgypt
South Africa
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand

Number of cars per1000 inhabitants

Buses, trucks,
etc. (×1000)（台）

Number of buses, trucks,
etc. per 1000 inhabitants

Total (×1000)

Number of vehicles
per 1000 inhabitants

57 86538 38912 90012 4844 188
6 797

  455.1
  28.5
  10.8
  258.3
  61.8
  90.817 663
12 607
5 610
4 310
5 584
3 394

  138.9
  9.4
  4.7
  89.2
  82.4
  45.475 52850 99618 51016 7949 772
10 191

  594.0
  37.9  15.5
  347.5
  144.2
  136.2

4 285
5 087
2 105
2 683
30 85041 32131 1675 101
36 1052 197
4 408
22 1454 279
3 990

  512.3
  477.8
  384.8
  503.8
  494.8
  502.9
  506.2
  457.0  603.1
  456.6
  411.7
  493.2
  462.6
  527.2

  391
  778
  541
  432
6 362
2 683
4 450
1 067
4 789
  547
1 349
5 468
  524
  375

  46.7
  73.1
  98.9
  81.1
  102.0
  32.7
  72.3
  95.6
  80.0  113.7
  126.0
  121.8
  56.7
  49.6

4 676
5 865
2 646
3 115
37 21244 00435 6176 168
40 8942 744
5 757
27 6134 803
4 365

  559.1
  550.9
  483.7
  584.9
  596.9
  535.5
  578.5
  552.6
  683.0
  570.2
  537.7
  614.9
  519.3
  576.8

21 88419 6126 244
16 827
135 882

  113.0
  584.2
  155.0
  153.5
  431.8

5 597
  908
2 216
8 485
114 357

  28.9  27.0  55.0  77.4
  363.4

27 48120 5208 460
25 312250 239

  141.8
  611.2
  210.1
  230.9
  795.3

2 797
5 275

  33.7
  105.3

  766
2 215

  9.2
  44.2

3 563
7 490

  42.9
  149.5

11 8042 386

  554.4
  559.3

2 880
  449

  135.3
  105.3

14 6842 835

  689.6
  664.6

Source: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

7. Number of People Who Hold a Driver’s License in Japan (end of 2009)（人）

Age 15-19*
Age 20-24
Age 25-29
Age 25-29
Age 35-39

Male
680 8112 927 832
3 635 774
4 261 076
4 874 986

Female447 224
2 478 844
3 250 888
3 872 819
4 461 714

Total
1 128 035
5 406 676
6 886 662
8 133 895
9 336 700

Percentage of license holders (%)
  18.6
  78.7
  92.2
  95.6
  95.9Age 40-44
Age 45-49
Age 50-54
Age 55-59
Age 60-64

4 272 559
3 854 374
3 708 580
4 201 984
4 342 694

3 894 514
3 447 041
3 200 120
3 371 396
3 155 591

8 167 073
7 301 415
6 908 700
7 573 380
7 498 285

  94.9  92.8
  89.6
  84.4
  78.3

Age 65-69
Age 70-74
Age 75-79
Age 80-84
Age 85 and overTotal

3 524 617
2 566 794
1 637 311
814 278
235 749
45 539 419

2 086 622
1 053 333
414 411
122 898
15 11135 272 526

5 611 239
3 620 127
2 051 722
937 176
250 860
80 811 945

  67.0  52.2
  35.2
  22.0
  6.8
  63.4

Source: Driver’s License Statistics (2009 edition, License Division, Traffic Bureau, National Police Agency); Monthly General Statistics Data (Ministryof Internal Affairs and Communications* A driver’s license can be obtained only from the age of sixteen up. However, because population statistics are calculated over five-year intervals, thefirst item is shown as “Age 15-19.”

64

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

8. Traffic Accidents in Japan

8-1 Number of traffic accidents, fatalities, and injuries
Number of traffic accidents
Number of fatal accidents

Number of
fatalities

Number of
injuries

33 21293 981
449 917567 286
718 080
472 938
476 677552 788––
11 92215 801
10 165
8 329
8 826

4 202
6 379
12 055
12 48416 765
10 792
8 760
9 261

1989
1990

661 363643 097

10 57010 651

11 086
11 227

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

662 388695 345724 675
729 457
761 789

10 547
10 891
10 39510 15410 227

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

771 084
780 399803 878
850 363931 934

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985

25 45076 501
289 156425 666
981 096622 467598 719681 346

The number of all traffic accidents, that occurred on expressways (National & designated expressways)
Number of fatal accidents Number of fatalities

–
–
–
–
–
–
3 623
4 741

–
–
–
–
–
–
  155
  223

–
–
–
–
–
–
  175
  250

814 832790 295

8 337
9 060

  386
  401

  439
  459

11 105
11 451
10 94210 64910 679810 245844 003878 633
881 723922 677

9 756
9 785
11 127
11 62811 304

  449
  402
  395
  366
  375

  522
  449
  451
  402
  416

9 517
9 220
8 797
8 681
8 707

9 942
9 640
9 211
9 006
9 066

942 203958 925
990 675
1 050 397
1 155 697

11 673
11 91412 02912 98614 325

  359
  353
  326
  296
  327

  413
  397
  366
  323
  367

947 169936 721947 993952 191
933 828

8 414
7 993
7 456
7 084
6 625

8 747
8 326
7 702
7 358
6 871

1 180 955
1 167 855
1 181 431
1 183 120
1 156 633

14 72614 08313 99213 797
13 775

  336
  290
  306
  272
  249

  389
  338
  351
  329
  285

886 864
832 454766 147736 668

6 147
5 587
5 025
4 773

6 352
5 744
5 155
4 914

1 098 199
1 034 445
945 504
910 115

13 803
12 67410 96511 112

  234
  222
  174
  161

  262
  244
  193
  178

Source: Traffic Statistics (Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis)

8-2 Number of fatalities by age group and by circumstances of accident (2009)
Age group

Situation

Fatalities(increased/decreased by*)Age
Fatalities
16-19 (increased/decreased by*)Age
Fatalities
20-24 (increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Age 16-24(increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Age 25-29(increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Age 30-39(increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Age 40-49(increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Age 50-59(increased/decreased by*)Age
Fatalities
60-64 (increased/decreased by*)Age
Fatalities
65-69 (increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Age 60-69(increased/decreased by*)Age
Fatalities
70-74 (increased/decreased by*)Age 75
Fatalities
and over (increased/decreased by*)Age 70 and
Fatalities
over(increased/decreased by*)
Fatalities
Total(increased/decreased by*)
15 and under

On a motorcycle
Motorcycles
Mopeds
Passenger Subtotal Driver Passenger Subtotal
28
28
1
0
1
5
-6
-6
0
0
0
-1
42
89
56
9
65
47
-3
3
-14
-2
-16
-14
39
133
95
3
98
28
8
-4
-3
0
-3
2
81
222
151
12
163
75
5
-1
-17
-2
-19
-12
17
91
52
1
53
7
-4
-10
-9
-1
-10
-3
20
153
114
2
116
21
-12
-37
-9
0
-9
-8
13
155
93
1
94
21
-8
-21
4
1
5
-4
28
211
38
1
39
42
-5
-46
-8
0
-8
-2
20
148
16
0
16
31
-8
6
1
0
1
7
32
123
9
0
9
26
4
-8
3
0
3
-15
52
271
25
0
25
57
-4
-2
4
0
4
-8
43
147
14
1
15
45
2
-2
5
1
6
-13
128
322
21
0
21
86
27
15
-9
0
-9
-13
171
469
35
1
36
131
29
13
-4
1
-3
-26
410
1600
509
18
527
359
-5
-110
-39
-1
-40
-64

In a vehicle
Driver
0
0
47
6
94
-12
141
-6
74
-6
133
-25
142
-13
183
-41
128
14
91
-12
219
2
104
-4
194
-12
298
-16
1190
-105

Source: Traffic Statistics (Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis)

Total
6
-1
112
-30
126
-1
238
-31
60
-13
137
-17
115
1
81
-10
47
8
35
-12
82
-4
60
-7
107
-22
167
-29
886
-104

On a
While
bicycle walking
36
6
17
-5
12
1
29
-4
10
-6
25
2
30
-8
71
12
49
-3
83
-19
132
-22
103
2
259
-4
362
-2
695
-22

41
-14
9
-2
21
7
30
5
22
2
57
-1
81
-7
159
0
125
0
166
4
291
4
193
-22
843
29
1036
7
1717
-4

Other

Total

0
-1
0
0
0
-1
0
-1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
-1
2
2
2
0
4
2
2
-1
7
0
9
-1
16
-1

111
-16
227
-34
292
2
519
-32
184
-26
372
-53
382
-35
523
-45
371
13
409
-35
780
-22
505
-30
1538
18
2043
-12
4914
-241

* Compared with previous year

65

Statistics and Data

9. Number of Traffic Fatalities in Japan and Other Countries

Japan
U.S.A.
CanadaU.K.
Germany

Survey
year
2008
2003
2003
2003
2003

Population(×1000)127 648
290 81031 63059 32982 541

France
Italy
Netherlands
Belgium
Denmark

2003
2002
2003
2001
2003

59 76257 64616 22210 37653 872

6 058
6 736
1 028
1 394
  432

  10.1
  11.7
  6.3
  13.4
  0.8

  1.70  1.92
  1.52
  2.55
  1.90  1.9Austria
Switzerland
Spain
PolandSweden

2003
2003
2003
2003
2003

8 090
7 350
41 10138 196
8 956

  931
  255
5 399
5 640
  529

  11.5
  3.5
  13.1
  14.8
  5.9

  2.11
  0.63
  2.35
  4.17
  1.17

  5.4
  3.9
–
–
  2.3

Portugal
NorwayUkraineMalaysia
South Korea

2003
2003
2002
1995
2001

10 4444 562
48 356
24 77447 912

1 546
  280
5 982
6 286
7 212

  14.8
  6.1
  12.4
  25.4
  15.1

  3.24
  1.16
  9.01
  9.99
  4.94

–
  2.5
–
–
  8.7

Hong Kong
Australia

2001
2000

6 816
19 881

  173
1 621

  2.5
  8.2

  3.30–––

Number of fatalities
5 155
42 643
2 778
3 658
6 613

Number of fatalities per Number of fatalities per 10,000 Number of fatalities per 100
100,000 inhabitants
motor vehicles owned
million vehicle-kilometers
  4.0
  0.68
  0.8
  14.7
  1.85
  4.6
  8.8
  1.52
  5.1
  6.2
  1.25
  5.2
  8.0
  1.39
  5.2

  2.4
–
  1.5

Source: World Road Statistics (IRF)
Note: 1. For Italy, the number of fatalities is for those who died within a week; for Canada, it varies from province to province.
For other countries, the number refers to those who died within 30 days.

10. Implementation of Traffic Safety Facilities in Japan

(at the end of each fiscal year)(numberof cities)

  74

  74

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

  75

Traffic
Traffic information boards
information
devices Roadside communication terminals

-

1 604

2 175

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

  192

  274

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Centralized control units

32 58543 01950 55656 50257 90859 17460 87161 93564 05566 03767 23168 78570 371

Synchronized
control system

FY 1985 FY 1990 FY 1995 FY 1999 FY 2000 FY 2001 FY 2002 FY 2003 FY 2004 FY 2005 FY 2006 FY 2007 FY 2008

Automatic traffic-actuated units

5 576

4 682

4 585

4 155

4 023

3 830

3 619

3 489

2 824

2 293

2 225

1 957

1 141

Programmed multi-stage units

12 81414 35517 34019 87720 21820 90421 38921 90922 10822 65323 23323 70023 676
1 193

Push-button units

1 164

  801

1 213

  935

  963

  914

  941

  901

  932

1 106

1 131

1 187

Traffic-actuated control

Independent control system

Traffic signals

Traffic control centers

Full traffic-actuated units

1 120

  984

  959

  895

  867

  827

  813

  800

  786

  802

  771

  749

  745

Semi traffic-actuated units

6 640

7 788

10 110

11 243

11 53512 018

12 487

12 62012 80413 03213 14913 32113 996Bus-actuated units

  238

  101

  165

  156

  154

  153

  149

  139

  130

  127

  123

  121

  121

Train-actuated units

  228

  162

  180

  174

  177

  185

  183

  190

  195

  183

  179

  180

  185

Fixed-cycle units (including
programmed multi-stage units)

35 57741 20045 28248 30448 80249 18351 03251 43351 47451 08750 92150 76950 984Push-button units

23 11320 71323 08325 20425 696

26 09227 48227 89728 07028 20028 59928 77429 135Single flashing units

  465

1 829

4 319

5 541

5 670

5 781

6 007

6 080

6 181

6 250

6 295

6 354

6 409

119 520 135 634 157 792 172 986 176 013 179 061 184 973 187 393 189 559 191 770 193 857 195 897 197 956

Total units- 720 725 885 383 979 502 1 001 623 1 019 420 1 057 940 1 082 980 1 109 483 1 125 659 1 146 167 1 169 963 1 189 368

LightsFor vehicles

22 880(LED lights)

Roadmarkings

Traffic signs(LED lights)
23 089Variable signs
Fixed
signs

Graphic markings

23 25929 936(numberof)

29 152

  974

15 01429 58246 46164 44588 129 126 541

28 58328 23627 07827 52623 35322 667

21 912719 548 801 464 890 723 952 344 967 355 981 599 1 010 924 1 033 769 1 043 062 1 054 219 1 064 369 1 080 358 1 092 226（km） 110 465 116 248 115 898 125 914 125 838 135 767 125 436 125 502 126 745 131 141 127 660 128 169 128 375(numberof)

3 238 374 3 913 961 3 995 149 4 043 239 3 945 511 4 063 430 4 221 541 4 298 653 4 467 654 4 506 671 4 531 593 4 571 460 4 609 045

Source: Traffic Statistics (Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis)

66

30 186

9 705 165 10 020 616 10 379 062 11 002 134 10 183 538 9 915 947 9 767 724 9 849 332 9 533 123 9 422 368 9 297 292 9 346 943 9 420 018

Roadside signs

Solid lines

24 109420 640 500 347 582 255 622 062 617 279 615 787 622 328 649 683 630 888 642 270 628 255 623 709 624 671

Large signs

Crosswalks

61 634 103 247 144 013 180 265 217 764 275 265- 524 122 634 959 744 649 764 976 771 651 812 943 834 178 850 274 869 188 884 349 899 928 912 899

For pedestrians

Note: Programmed multi-stage units also include single-stage units.

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

11. Parking Facilities in Japan
11-1 Changes in parking capacity
Urban planningparking facilities(vehicles; at fiscal year's end)

Officially designatedparking facilities

Mandated parking
facilities

FY 1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985

1 313
8 948
18 12033 78148 62756 5359 908
53 597124 429287 457
458 053598 808

1989
1990

68 17573 092746 265774 504

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

74 76879 17685 01288 71693 431

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

2 830
39 448123 997276 285
403 355559 709

On-street parking
areas

Total

Parking spaces per
10,000 vehicles

6 576
2 189
  750
2 400
2 339
2 033

20 627104 182
267 296599 923912 374
1 217 085

  89.5
  143.7
  147.0
  211.2
  240.3
  263.3

772 371863 955

1 519
1 417

1 588 330
1 712 968

  287.3
  296.6

812 509861 694924 983965 275
995 735

949 909
1 041 567
1 129 575
1 198 266
1 297 958

1 353
1 577
1 363
1 377
1 381

1 838 539
1 984 014
2 140 933
2 253 634
2 388 505

  307.0
  322.0
  338.1
  346.2
  356.1

96 655
103 651
109 998
113 681
115 696

1 021 554
1 078 381
1 121 228
1 161 653
1 225 194

1 386 157
1 500 673
1 599 165
1 681 266
1 771 028

1 333
1 280
1 279
1 279
1 275

2 505 699
2 683 985
2 831 670
2 957 879
3 113 193

  364.5
  384.3
  400.6
  413.2
  429.4

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

118 220
119 353
119 535
119 472
120 091

1 272 190
1 302 474
1 333 159
1 372 876
1 415 252

1 858 895
1 942 707
2 015 404
2 104 894
2 212 069

1 275
1 222
1 217
1 172
1 386

3 250 580
3 365 756
3 469 315
3 598 414
3 748 798

  444.1
  456.3
  467.5
  479.6
  495.5

2006
2007
2008

120 575
121 336
120 775

1 450 858
1 482 645
1 549 878

2 325 538
2 429 997
2 514 807

1 216
1 100
1 357

3 898 187
4 035 078
4 186 817

  514.1
  533.6
  543.5

Source: Annual Report of Motor Vehicle Parking (Japan Parking System Manufacturers Association Incorporated)
Note: 1. Urban planning parking facilities that are also officially designated parking facilities are included in the number of urban planning parking facilities. Mandated parking facilities thatare also officially designated parking facilities are included in the number of mandated parking facilities.
2. The number of vehicles owned includes light vehicles.

11-2 Number of parking meters and parking permit ticket devices installed
Parking meters
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1995

14 157
14 73715 90317 56919 03927 627

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

Parking permit ticket dispensing devices
NumberNumber of vehicles allowed to park(at the end of March)
Number14 157
14 73716 40118 53720 37229 262

Total
Number of vehicles allowed to park

  0
  0
  498
  968
1 333
1 635

4 334
8 299
10 79313 04314 157
14 73720 23725 86829 83240 67027 68227 63627 56127 48826 988

1642
1630
1 602
1 587
1 574

12 926
12 74812 467
12 32912 32029 32429 26629 16329 07528 56240 60840 38440 02839 81739 308

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

26 34125 82824 30823 28422 929

1 540
1 520
1 416
1 381
1 329

12 216
11 931
10 68410 4099 976

27 88127 34825 72424 66524 25838 55737 75934 99233 69332 905

2006
2007
2008
2009

22 45322 45321 93021 589

1 321
1 321
1 291
1 291

9 421
9 421
9 168
9 147

23 77423 77423 22122 88031 87431 87431 09830 736

Source: Annual Report of Motor Vehicle Parking (Japan Parking System Manufacturers Association Incorporated)11-3 Parking Facilities in Major Cities
Urban planning
Officially designatedMandated parking
On-street parking
Totalparking facilities
parking facilities
facilities
areas
Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number offacilities parking spaces facilities parking spaces facilities parking spaces facilities parking spaces facilities parking spaces
  3
  758
  181
32 2422 821
161 027
  1
  27
3 006
194 054
Sapporo City, Hokkaido
  2
  380
  169
27 522
  748
44 659
  2
  49
  921
72 610Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture
  2
  616
  59
9 121
  46
7 394
  107
17 131
Saitama City, Saitama Prefecture
19 675623 633
  47
17 562
  402
77 79019 226528 281Wards of Tokyo
  6
3 082
  188
39 8176 372
281 4466 566
324 345
Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture
  1
  366
  72
11 146
  995
47 6091 068
59 121
Kawasaki City, Kanagawa Prefecture
  14
4 832
  356
71 3292 978
158 2933 348
234 454
Nagoya City, Aichi Prefecture
  5
1 594
  160
27 206
  609
31 492
  774
60 292
Kyoto City, Kyoto Prefecture
  10
4 482
  684
51 8366 664
243 4947 358
299 812Osaka City, Osaka Prefecture
  13
3 830
  172
41 515
  971
58 6001 156
103 945
Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture
  6
2 381
  182
24 375
1 362
31 235
  14
  727
1 564
58 718Hiroshima City, Hiroshima Prefecture
  8
3 082
  269
46 1782 645
101 465
2 922
150 725
Fukuoka City, Fukuoka Prefecture
2009

Source: Annual Report of Motor Vehicle Parking (Japan Parking System Manufacturers Association Incorporated)

67

Statistics and Data

12 Travel Time in Daily Activities of Japanese People

Eat

Personal care

Medical treatment/ recuperation

Work

Study

Housework

Going to work

Going to school

Other travel

Community
involvement

Conversation /social interactions

LeisureMass media
contact

Rest

Other / unknown

1:31

0:59

1:33

8:17

7:46

1:13

1:14

1:04

0:56

-

1:35

1:42

6:35

0:54

-

7:40

1:36

1:07

1:28

6:27

8:09

5:00

0:59

1:05

0:55

-

1:28

1:36

7:18

0:55

-

Male

7:10

1:32

0:58

1:29

7:23

6:20

1:27

1:10

1:02

1:07

-

2:13

2:27

6:56

0:58

-

Female

7:46

1:37

1:08

1:33

5:53

6:26

4:59

0:55

1:05

1:05

-

1:50

1:55

7:18

0:58

-

Male

9:04

1:36

0:58

2:00

6:02

3:54

1:54

1:01

1:01

1:23

-

2:51

3:19

7:49

1:11

-

Female

8:37

1:41

1:06

1:56

5:13

3:48

4:58

0:54

0:57

1:18

-

2:20

2:32

7:30

1:07

-

Male

7:54

1:31

0:59

2:00

8:41

8:08

1:08

1:10

1:04

0:52

-

1:32

1:55

6:14

0:50

-

Female

7:33

1:36

1:09

1:27

6:33

8:14

4:53

0:56

1:05

0:52

-

1:34

1:50

6:56

0:52

-

Male

8:05

1:34

0:57

1:46

7:49

6:08

1:26

1:08

1:00

1:00

-

2:13

2:39

6:44

0:56

-

Female

7:42

1:38

1:09

1:43

5:59

6:14

4:48

0:51

1:00

1:00

-

1:53

2:07

7:05

0:56

-

Male

8:58

1:36

0:57

3:08

6:38

4:01

1:51

0:58

1:02

1:21

-

2:45

3:42

7:33

1:09

-

Female

8:28

1:42

1:07

2:35

5:27

3:40

4:48

0:48

1:05

1:15

-

2:21

2:49

6:56

1:04

-

Male

7:51

1:33

0:56

2:03

8:41

7:52

1:19

1:13

1:05

1:00

-

1:43

1:59

3:57

0:51

0:54

Female

7:28

1:37

1:09

1:49

6:40

7:59

4:38

0:57

1:08

0:56

-

1:46

1:48

4:22

0:49

0:54

Male

7:59

1:36

0:57

2:24

7:43

6:23

1:41

1:08

1:01

1:15

-

2:16

2:43

4:40

0:55

1:11

Female

7:34

1:39

1:11

1:54

6:02

6:18

4:45

0:52

1:04

1:09

-

2:05

2:05

4:35

0:53

1:11

Male

8:49

1:38

1:00

3:09

6:32

4:12

2:04

1:04

1:03

1:29

-

2:51

3:34

5:17

1:01

1:29

Female

8:20

1:41

1:13

2:38

5:22

4:08

4:44

0:55

0:55

1:22

-

2:33

2:43

4:41

0:57

1:13

Male

7:36

1:29

0:58

3:06

8:58

7:53

1:42

1:23

1:10

-

2:05

1:37

2:36

4:22

1:00

1:10

Female

7:21

1:34

1:10

2:12

6:50

7:53

4:43

1:02

1:12

-

2:00

1:32

2:18

4:48

1:03

1:16

Male

8:00

1:34

0:59

3:37

7:51

5:38

2:16

1:11

1:07

-

3:16

2:20

4:11

5:07

1:14

1:25

Female

7:35

1:38

1:10

2:10

6:19

5:17

5:02

0:58

1:08

-

2:39

2:08

3:23

5:05

1:05

1:17

Male

8:34

1:36

0:59

5:34

6:44

3:58

2:35

1:10

1:03

-

3:58

2:50

4:31

5:43

1:21

1:28

Female

8:08

1:41

1:11

3:09

5:46

4:05

4:48

0:57

1:09

-

3:20

2:22

3:54

5:05

1:10

1:28

Male

7:35

1:30

0:58

2:57

9:09

7:52

1:45

1:21

1:06

-

2:25

1:33

2:48

4:21

1:02

1:23

Female

7:17

1:37

1:13

2:03

6:56

7:29

4:40

1:09

1:04

-

2:08

1:30

2:27

4:56

1:08

1:28

Male

7:50

1:36

0:58

2:29

8:18

5:57

2:19

1:16

1:11

-

4:13

2:35

4:08

5:00

1:10

1:17

7:33

1:41

1:14

3:40

6:08

5:17

4:58

1:02

1:04

-

2:54

2:04

3:04

5:01

1:11

1:22

Female
Male

7:31

1:34

1:00

2:18

9:11

7:56

2:03

1:24

1:08

-

2:25

1:50

2:50

4:28

1:09

1:25

Female

7:16

1:38

1:16

2:22

7:04

7:36

4:48

1:06

1:10

-

2:10

1:37

2:22

4:55

1:07

1:25

Male

7:55

1:42

1:02

2:34

8:14

4:44

2:39

1:13

1:03

-

3:26

2:25

4:07

5:27

1:17

1:25

Female

7:42

1:46

1:14

2:13

6:18

5:08

4:55

1:05

1:23

-

2:44

2:11

3:18

5:26

1:10

1:30

Male

8:23

1:41

1:03

4:29

6:35

4:19

2:52

1:15

1:25

-

3:53

3:03

4:36

6:00

1:24

1:41

Female

8:08

1:47

1:16

4:42

5:36

3:44

5:05

1:08

1:02

-

2:54

2:16

3:37

5:24

1:13

1:30

Saturdays

Saturdays

8:05

SundaysMale
FemaleWeekday

Sleep
Saturdays
Saturdays
Saturdays
Saturdays(hours : minutes)

FemaleSundays

2005

2000

Weekday

Sundays

1995

Weekday

Sundays

1990

Weekday

Sundays

1985

Weekday

Sundays

1980

Weekday

12-1 Changes in time spent for daily activities of Japanese People (average of whole nation, average of doers)

Male

8:23

1:38

0:59

4:46

6:47

4:36

2:37

1:08

1:17

-

3:45

2:51

4:30

5:46

1:19

1:24

8:03

1:44

1:14

5:47

5:27

3:40

4:53

0:59

0:59

-

3:00

2:13

3:40

5:22

1:13

1:30

Source: How Time Is Spent in Japan (NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute)
Note: 1. Total hours of all activities do not add up to 24 hours because when two activities are done simultaneously, each of them is separately included in the table.
2. The survey method was changed starting from 1995 so that the data of 1995 onward cannot be directly compared with the data of 1990 and before.
3. Under “Conversation / social interactions,” only social interactions are included in the data for 1980 and 1985.
4. “Mass media contact” for 1980 and 1985 is the total of time spent for newspapers, books, magazines, TV, and radio.
5. “Rest” for 1980 means both relaxing and resting.

68

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 201012-2 Travel time by different population segments (weekdays, average time spent by the doer, total of both)
1985
Going to work Going to school

By size of city

By occupation

Female: by age group Male: by age group

By gender

Whole nation
Male
Female10 ～ 1516 ～ 19
20s
30s
40s
50s
60s
70 and over
10 ～ 1516 ～ 19
20s
30s
40s
50s
60s
70 and overFarmer / fisher / forest worker
Self-employed
Sales or service person
Blue-collar worker (skilled / unskilled)
Office worker / technical expert
Management & administration
Professional or free-lance worker, or otherHousewife
Unemployed
Tokyo area
Osaka area
City of a half million or more
City of 100,000 or more and less than 500,000
City of less than 100,000
Town / village

1:05
1:10
:56
:23
1:02
1:09
1:05
1:12
1:15
1:17
:59
:00
:55
1:14
:46
:49
:58
1:00
:45
:40
:52
1:04
1:01
1:13
1:24
1:13
:50
1:29
1:17
1:02
:58
:56
:54

1:05
1:04
1:05
:49
1:26
1:56
:45
:00
:00
:00
:00
:52
1:30
1:50
:00
2:00
:00
:00
:00
:00
:00
3:00
1:30
:00
:00
:00
3:00
1:07
1:08
1:00
1:03
1:03
1:07

1990
Other

:52
:52
:52
:43
:53
:51
:46
:54
1:06
1:06
:51
:41
:47
:53
:48
:56
:55
:59
:55
:44
:52
:51
:41
:46
:59
1:24
:57
:57
:57
:56
:49
:47
:49

Going to work Going to school

1:07
1:13
:57
:35
:56
1:09
1:10
1:16
1:17
1:16
1:00
:34
1:02
1:13
:50
:48
:55
:56
:55
:46
:53
1:02
1:02
1:15
1:28
1:12
:51
1:11
1:32
1:20
1:03
:59
:55
:56

1:06
1:05
1:08
:50
1:22
1:38
:46
:46
:42
1:48
1:50
:52
1:29
1:40
:31
:35
:51
:31
1:00
:29
1:05
:51
:48
:46
1:27
:58
:48
:58
1:17
1:09
1:04
:59
1:03
1:06

1995
Other

:58
1:00
:56
:41
:53
1:01
:53
1:06
1:05
1:18
1:05
:37
:52
:58
:50
1:00
1:02
1:07
1:04
:57
1:05
1:00
:48
:52
1:16
1:06
1:06
1:14
1:08
:57
:57
:54
:56
:56

Going to work Going to school Going to work Going to school

1:15
1:23
1:02
:51
1:02
1:18
1:20
1:22
1:30
1:25
1:20
:39
:59
1:14
1:00
:55
:59
1:05
:55
1:12
1:09
1:09
1:10
1:21
1:37
1:13
:58
1:12
-

1:11
1:10
1:12
:54
1:31
1:45
:44
1:22
:31
:32
1:15
:55
1:34
1:42
:53
:48
:55
:47
1:10
:35
:42
1:11
:45
:49
1:17
:48
:50
1:10
-

(hours : minutes)

2000
1:16
1:21
1:09
:15
:43
1:16
1:18
1:20
1:26
1:28
1:10
:57
1:20
1:14
1:01
1:03
1:12
:58
1:04
1:18
1:17
1:12
1:20
1:23
1:18
1:03
1:27
1:39
1:28
1:11
1:05
:55
1:05

1:05
1:06
1:04
:52
1:31
1:46
1:17
:40
:51
:49
:15
:50
1:26
1:05
1:02
:40
:39
:35
1:00
:37
:36
:53
1:15
1:00
:25
1:15
1:13
1:11
:55
1:02
:54
1:13

2005
Other

Going to work Going to school

1:26
1:23
1:28
1:25
1:13
1:04
:57
1:15
1:29
1:31
1:52
1:14
1:21
1:20
1:10
1:26
1:19
1:37
1:57
1:42
1:27
1:30
1:21
1:02
:56
1:16
1:30
1:53
1:32
1:34
1:21
1:10
1:26
1:27

1:16
1:21
1:09
:15
:43
1:16
1:18
1:20
1:26
1:28
1:10
:57
1:20
1:14
1:01
1:03
1:12
:58
1:04
1:18
1:17
1:12
1:20
1:23
1:18
1:03
1:27
1:42
1:25
1:12
1:05
1:03
1:06

1:05
1:06
1:04
:52
1:31
1:46
1:17
:40
:51
:49
:15
:50
1:26
1:05
1:02
:40
:39
:35
1:00
:37
:36
:53
1:15
1:00
:25
1:15
1:19
1:24
1:07
0:58
0:58
1:06

Other

1:26
1:23
1:28
1:25
1:13
1:04
:57
1:15
1:29
1:31
1:52
1:14
1:21
1:20
1:10
1:26
1:19
1:37
1:57
1:42
1:27
1:30
1:21
1:02
:56
1:16
1:30
1:53
1:32
1:34
1:21
1:10
1:26
1:27

Source: National Time Use Survey (NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute)
Note: The survey method was changed starting from 1995 so that the data of 1995 onward cannot be directly compared with the data of 1990 and before.

13 Transport and Communications Expenditures of Japanese Households

13-1 Transport and communications expenditures of households (monthly average; working-class, nationwide)
Consumption expenditures
Food
Housing
Utilities
Furniture / housework supplies
Clothing & shoes
Health maintenance / medical treatment
Transport / communications
Transport & motor vehicle related expenditures
Transport
Railway fares
Railway passes
Bus fares
Bus passes
Taxi fares
Airplane fares and other
Vehicle related expenditures
Purchase of motor vehicle, etc.
Purchase of bicycle
Maintenance of motor vehicle
Communications
Education
Cultural matters / entertainment
Other expenditures

1990
331 595
79 99316 47516 797
13 10323 9028 670
33 49927 072
7 543
2 730
1 877
  423
  463
  671
1 379
19 5296 842
  369
12 3196 426
16 82731 76190 5691995
349 663
78 947
23 41219 551
13 04021 0859 334
38 52431 419
8 064
2 654
2 269
  356
  474
  545
1 766
23 355
7 734
  337
15 2847 104
18 46733 221
94 082

2000
341 896
75 17421 71621 282
11 26817 19510 90143 63233 118
7 873
2 453
2 198
  326
  395
  460
2 041
25 2458 847
  342
16 055
10 51418 26133 796
88 6702005
296 79064 28223 71318 0048 634
13 37410 24043 29631 372
8 090
2 533
2 311
  342
  400
  406
2 099
23 2826 187
  199
16 896
11 92413 93431 33269 9792006
285 057
62 50222 46118 5388 154
13 1059 614
41 46429 494
7 322
2 231
2 121
  309
  391
  384
1 887
22 1725 680
  199
16 293
11 97013 86830 02465 3282007
289 82163 54122 17118 2338 395
13 4449 949
42 35829 965
7 701
2 402
2 297
  321
  348
  372
1 961
22 2645 532
  264
16 46912 39214 21331 44466 073

2008
291 498
64 54822 51019 2398 718
13 0689 896
43 53131 070
7 526
2 284
2 311
  333
  369
  363
1 866
23 5446 004
  317
17 22212 46113 95631 01865 015(yen)

2009
283 685 100.0%
22.2%
62 868
7.7%
21 797
6.4%
18 124
8 732
3.1%
4.4%
12 607
9 970
3.5%
15.0%
42 56729 909
10.5%
2.4%
6 896
0.8%
2 172
0.7%
2 037
0.1%
  335
0.1%
  329
0.2%
  472
1 550
0.5%
23 013
8.1%
6 489
2.3%
  271
0.1%
16 2535.7%
4.5%
12 6585.1%
14 35131 28811.0%
21.6%
61 382

Source: Family Income And Expenditure Survey: Annual Report (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications)
Note: Individual transport expenditures are estimated by dividing total transport expenditures (monthly average) by the annual share for each item.

69

Statistics and Data
13-2 Changes in consumer prices for transport and communications(annual average; figures for 1995 are set as 100)

1990

1995

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

  93.5

  100.0

  101.5

  100.8

  99.9  99.6

  99.6

  99.3

  99.6

  99.6

  101.0

  99.6

  99.0  100.0

  97.8

  97.0  96.4

  96.5

  96.3

  96.6

  96.9  97.0  98.9  94.1

  93.5

  100.0

  105.6

  105.9

  105.7

  105.9

  106.1

  106.1

  105.8

  105.9

  106.9

  106.1

  86.8

  100.0  110.7

  110.9

  110.9

  111.0

  111.0

  111.2

  111.4

  111.6

  111.8

  111.8

Railway fares (Japan Railway)   100.0

  100.0

  103.2

  103.2

  103.2

  103.0

  102.8

  102.8

  102.8

  102.8

  102.8

  102.8

Bus fares  88.8

  100.0

  105.5

  105.5

  105.4

  105.4

  105.4

  105.3

  104.9

  104.9

  105.1

  105.7

Taxi fares

  82.2

  100.0

  106.3

  106.3

  106.3

  106.2

  106.2

  106.2

  106.2

  106.9

  112.5

  113.1

Air fares

  100.3

  100.0

  102.4

  104.9

  103.6

  105.0

  108.4

  108.3

  105.4

  105.8

  113.2

  114.6

Toll road fares

  95.2

  100.0

  103.7

  103.7

  104.0

  104.3

  104.4

  104.4

  104.4

  104.4

  103.4

  95.7Overall consumer prices
Transport / communications
Transport
Railway fares (excl. Japan Railway)

Motor vehicle related expenditures   100.1

  100.0

  95.2

  96.0  95.6

  95.6

  95.7

  98.5

  100.9

  101.8

  105.2

  96.7

  100.4

  100.0

  101.0  100.4

  99.8

  99.6

  99.2

  99.7

  99.6

  99.8

  99.8

  99.0

Maintenance of motor vehicles   100.0

  100.0

  93.1

  94.4

  94.0  94.2

  94.5

  98.1

  101.2

  102.4

  106.7

  95.8Gasoline  110.4

  100.0

  91.0  91.9  88.8

  91.1

  96.8

  107.4

  117.0

  120.6

  134.8

  104.2

Rent for parking spaces

  82.0  100.0

  101.6

  101.4

  101.0  100.8

  100.6

  100.3

  100.1

  100.1

  99.5

  99.0Parking fees  87.7

  100.0

  99.1

  98.7

  98.3

  96.8

  96.5

  95.4

  94.1

  93.5

  92.8

  92.6

Communications

  105.8

  100.0

  93.4

  87.7

  86.4

  86.3

  85.2

  79.5

  76.6

  75.0  75.0  74.7

Postage

Motor vehicles

  81.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0  100.0

Fixed telephone charge*   110.0

  100.0

  93.7

  86.4

  85.2

  85.2

  84.2

  75.0  75.0  75.2

  75.1

  75.2

  89.8

  100.0

  101.8

  101.8

  101.8

  101.8

  101.8

  101.8

  101.4

  101.8

  101.8

  96.9Shipping fees

Source: Annual Report on Consumer Price Index (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications)* The “Fixed telephone charge” for 1990 and 1995 means the charge per telephone call.

13-3 Monthly transport / communications expenditures per household by size of city or by city area (average of all households, 2009)

Consumer expenditures

City size
Cities of
Small
Kanto
All cities 50,000 or
MiddleSmall
cities B
Big
cities(Tokyomore
size cities cities A & towns /area)villages
253 720 254 467 253 010 257 460 252 204 249 403 269 897

Food

59 25859 67661 05959 35158 34056 83564 88461 09361 11454 193

Housing

18 40219 53321 74319 691

16 446

11 83322 246

19 11518 78217 293

Utilities

18 43518 09316 76118 51719 23520 42417 67518 97517 84817 337

Furniture / housework utensils

8 448

8 321

7 666

8 606

8 776

9 186

8 368

9 921

8 296

7 535

Clothing & shoes

10 57210 871

11 895

10 774

9 683

8 842

12 042

11 675

10 79910 495

Health maintenance / medical treatment

10 891

10 89210 802

11 191

10 60310 87811 30910 46611 12810 239Transport / communications

32 91032 12530 26232 43634 08637 47633 13636 16130 43833 941

Transport

5 433

5 770

7 333

5 194

4 538

3 471

8 092

4 977

6 211

5 287

Vehicle related expenditures

17 19116 17813 406

16 89418 75923 086

14 64721 20014 37019 161

Purchase of motor vehicle, etc.

4 431

4 001

3 173

4 322

4 621

6 939

3 276

4 915

3 980

6 968

Purchase of bicycle

  181

  185

  192

  188

  171

  158

  215

  216

  244

  163

Maintenance of motor vehicle
Communications
Education

12 57911 99210 041

12 38413 96715 98911 15616 06810 147

12 031

10 286

10 1779 523

10 34810 790

10 92010 397

9 985

9 857

9 493

9 112

9 423

9 592

9 141

9 591

7 311

11 043

10 487

10 246

8 459

Cultural matters / entertainment

28 39629 02130 38729 11827 11424 75733 86629 83028 71624 499Other expenditures

57 29656 51352 84358 63458 33261 86155 32956 58956 69055 218Source: Annual Report of Family Income and Expenditure Survey (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications)[City size] Big city: population of one million and over
Middle-size city: population between 150,000 and less than one million
Small city A: population between 50,000 and less than 150,000
Small city B: population is less than 50,000

70

Metropolitan areas
Keihanshin
Chukyo(Kyoto, Metropolitan(Nagoya
Osaka, &area
area)
Kobe area)
264 313 254 058 239 209

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 2010

14. Energy Consumption in Japan and Other Countries
14-1 Energy consumption by transport modes in JapanFY 1995

FY 2000

FY 2001

FY 2002

FY 2003

FY 2004

FY 2005

FY 2006

FY 2007

Passenger transport 1 022 945 1 369 843 1 385 122 1 985 737 2 476 551
125 037
135 000
131 484
164 051
176 358
Railways
80 07984 47479 326102 307108 377
JR (national railway)
44 95850 52652 15861 74467 981
Private railways
60 11264 13065 13571 70772 586Buses
47 05149 56350 69355 84257 893
Commercial buses
13 06014 56714 44215 86514 693
Private buses
Passenger cars 722 847 1 028 722 1 061 164 1 367 624 1 791 336
Commercial passenger cars
78 61487 48885 27084 93585 437941 233
975 894 1 282 689 1 705 899
Private passenger cars 644 233
  0
  0
  0
232 870
243 293
Private trucks
59 94463 54457 80965 59577 526
Passenger ships
55 00578 44769 53083 930115 409
Aircraft
946 926 1 127 303 1 076 987 1 324 299 1 498 355
Freight transport
28 63323 651
14 52612 80912 349
Railways
28 04723 10714 191
12 51612 181JR (national railway)
  586
  544
  335
  293
  167
Private railways
917 959946 550 1 170 796 1 338 406
Passenger cars 692 666
284 358
352 884
503 833
649 926
Commercial passenger cars 188 289
633 642593 707666 963
688 480
Private passenger cars 504 377
219 768
175 521102 391
123 405
125 540
Coastal shipping
5 860
10 17213 52117 33022 060Aircraft

FY 1975

2 717 299
166 970
99 41567 55570 73156 95413 7772 063 530
82 595
1 980 934
206 01978 052131 997
1 515 008
10 49310 349
  144
1 349 975
712 097
637 878
130 807
23 733

2 782 434
167 923
99 94867 97570 79856 68614 112
2 141 700
81 4172 060 283
200 696
69 491
134 826
1 492 364
10 697
10 583
  114
1 327 208
706 816620 392
132 535
21 924

2 795 345
165 581
96 97368 60869 57656 48913 086
1 873 054
82 562
1 790 492
198 643
70 068138 021
1 468 543
10 710
10 585
  125
1 309 264
714 284594 980
126 852
21 716

2 756 506
163 406
95 70067 70669 62557 17312 4522 109 722
81 225
2 028 497
197 500
77 628
138 625
1 421 515
10 461
10 348
  113
1 267 274705 946561 328
121 002
22 776

2 665 859
179 872
105 225
74 64867 64455 65911 985
2 023 640
76 356
1 947 284
192 048
69 778132 876
1 336 057
11 17211 061
  111
1 190 345
670 274520 071
111 61322 927

2 586 265
182 650
107 243
75 40766 50054 69811 802
1 946 533
75 041
1 871 492
185 92169 926
134 735
1 302 466
11 273
11 162
  110
1 156 380
656 397499 983
111 61123 202

2 507 213
162 751
95 30567 44666 46553 776
11 824
1 896 971
74 326
1 822 645
180 026
60 965140 035
1 297 884
10 31410 206
  109
1 151 368
665 867
485 501
112 376
23 8272 500 800
164 169
95 90068 26866 28054 14012 140
1 897 230
72 333
1 824 896
177 032
60 965135 125
1 267 464
9 851
9 747
  104
1 123 847
646 827477 020
109 157
24 610Total of passenger & freight transport

FY 1980

FY 1985

FY 1990

47 058 2 497 146 2 462 109 3 310 035 3 974 906 4 232 307 4 274 799 4 263 888 4 178 021 4 001 917 3 888 730 3 805 097 3 768 265

Source: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

14-2 Energy consumption in Japan and other countries (2008)
Japan
Energy consumption per person(oil-equivalent; tons / person)
Oil consumption per person(oil-equivalent; tons / person)
Total energy consumption(oil-equivalent; x 1 million tons)
As primary energy
As final consumption
Breakdown of final energy consumption(oil-equivalent; x 1 million tons)
Industrial sector(%)
Transport sector(%)
Commercial & residential sector(%)

U.S.A.

Germany

  3.88

  7.50  4.08U.K.
  3.40France  4.16

  1.68

  2.80  1.35

  1.10  1.30  495.84
  318.81

2 283.72
1 542.25

  335.28
  235.67

  208.45
  142.85

  266.50
  165.50

  86.79（27.2）
  78.03（24.5）
  117.20（36.8）

  295.40（21.1）
  601.42（42.9）
  506.23（36.1）

  55.25（23.4）
  54.10（23.0）
  102.14（43.3）

  29.65（20.8）
  43.22（30.3）
  60.91（42.6）

  33.37（20.2）
  44.54（26.9）
  73.87（44.6）

Source: Transportation-related Statistics Data Collection (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

15. Travel in Japan(unit: number of trips per person per day)15-1 Number of trips made per person by trip purpose
City area

PurposeTokyo metropolitan area (weekdays)
Keihanshin (Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe) metropolitan area (weekdays)
Chukyo (Nagoya) metropolitan area (weekdays)
Keihanshin (Kyoto-Osaka-Kobe) metropolitan area (holidays)

Going to work /school
0.56
0.54
0.58
0.10

Going home

Business

Other

Total

1.00
1.01
1.08
0.80

0.23
0.30
0.29
0.05

0.61
0.67
0.62
1.01

2.40
2.51
2.57
1.96

Note: Data for Tokyo are from the fourth survey (1998); for Keihanshin (weekdays & holidays), from the fourth survey (2000);
and for Chukyo, from the fourth survey (2001).
Source: Road Handbook2006 (Japan Highway Users Conference)

15-2 Number of trips made per person by trip purpose and by automobile ownership (unit: number of trips per person per day)
No. of trips /percentages

Trip purpose
Going to work / school
Going home
Business
Other
Total

Number of trips made per person

Owning a car
0.58
1.05
0.33
0.66
2.62

Not owning a car All households
0.39
0.86
0.18
0.69
2.12

0.54
1.01
0.30
0.67
2.51

Percentages (%)

Owning a car
22.2
40.0
12.5
25.2
100.0

Not owning a car All households
18.3
40.7
8.4
32.6
100.0

21.5
40.1
11.8
26.6
100.0

Note: Data are from the fourth survey (2000) for Keihanshin metropolitan area (weekdays).
Source: Road Handbook 2006 (Japan Highway Users Conference)71

Statistics and Data
15-3 Comparison of trip purposes by city type (%)
Going to work
13.3
14.3
15.7
15.8
13.9
14.7
15.8
16.3
12.6
13.9
15.6
15.3
3.4
3.0
3.9
4.0
3.2
2.8
3.6
3.8
3.6
3.2
4.2
4.1

1987
1992
1999
2005
Three major 1987
1992
metropolitan
1999
areas
2005
1987
Local city
1992
1999
areas
2005
1987
1992
Nationwide
1999
2005
Three major 1987
1992
metropolitan
1999
areas
2005
1987
Local city
1992
1999
areas
2005
Nationwide

Weekdays

Holidays

Going to school
9.5
8.5
7.2
7.1
10.1
8.8
7.0
6.9
8.9
8.3
7.4
7.3
2.3
2.0
0.7
0.9
2.2
1.9
0.5
0.6
2.3
2.0
1.0
1.2

Business
12.6
10.4
9.3
8.3
10.9
9.1
8.7
7.2
14.1
11.7
10.0
9.4
4.3
1.7
1.8
2.9
3.5
1.3
1.6
2.5
4.9
2.1
1.9
3.3

Going home
40.6
40.9
41.5
41.7
41.3
41.5
41.9
42.3
40.0
40.2
41.2
41.0
41.9
41.8
41.5
41.1
42.4
42.3
41.6
41.6
41.4
41.3
41.3
40.5

(Unit: ％ )Personal matters
24.0
25.9
26.2
27.1
23.7
25.9
26.5
27.2
24.3
25.9
25.8
27.0
48.2
51.5
52.1
51.2
48.7
51.7
52.7
51.4
47.8
51.4
51.5
50.9

Sources: Survey on Personal Trips in Cities Nationwide and Survey on Traffic Characteristics in Cities, Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

15-4 Comparison of transport mode by citytype (%)

Weekdays

Holidays

Railways
12.1
14.2
14.0
13.8
22.4
25.6
23.9
23.3
2.5
2.9
3.3
3.6
7.7
8.0
7.8
7.5
14.5
15.0
13.3
12.6
1.9
1.9
2.2
2.1

1987
1992
Nationwide
1999
2005
Three major 1987
1992
metropolitan
1999
areas
2005
1987
Local city
1992
1999
areas
2005
1987
1992
Nationwide
1999
2005
Three major 1987
1992
metropolitan
1999
areas
2005
1987
Local city
1992
1999
areas
2005

Buses
3.9
3.9
3.2
2.8
3.3
3.2
2.8
2.5
4.5
4.5
3.8
3.0
3.2
2.6
2.1
1.7
3.0
2.4
2.2
1.7
3.3
2.7
2.1
1.7

Motor vehicles
33.6
38.7
42.1
44.7
26.3
29.0
33.4
33.7
40.5
48.2
51.4
56.4
45.6
53.4
59.6
63.0
37.6
44.4
52.2
53.9
52.4
61.2
67.2
72.6

Motorcycles
22.9
19.2
19.3
18.5
19.7
16.9
18.2
18.5
25.9
21.4
20.4
18.5
21.8
17.5
15.8
13.2
20.6
16.8
16.0
14.3
22.7
18.1
15.5
12.0

(Unit: ％ )Walking & other
27.4
24.1
21.4
20.3
28.3
25.2
21.7
22.0
26.7
22.9
21.1
18.5
21.8
18.6
14.7
14.7
24.2
21.4
16.4
17.6
19.7
16.1
13.0
11.6

Sources: Survey on Personal Trips in Cities Nationwide and Survey on Traffic Characteristics in Cities, Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

15-5 Number of trips per person by city type
1987
1992
1999
2005
1987
Net
1992
(unit: trips) 1999
2005
1987
Percentage of 1992
travelers (%) 1999
2005
Gross
(unit: trips)

Nationwide
2.63
2.51
2.34
2.31
3.04
2.94
2.77
2.76
86.3
85.4
84.6
83.6

Weekdays
Three major metropolitan areas Local city areas
2.52
2.46
2.37
2.31
2.91
2.84
2.75
2.72
86.3
86.6
86.0
85.0

2.74
2.56
2.32
2.31
3.17
3.04
2.79
2.81
86.2
84.2
83.1
82.1

Nationwide
2.13
2.03
1.90
1.85
3.06
3.01
2.84
2.86
69.3
67.2
66.6
64.6

Holidays
Three major metropolitan areas Local city areas
1.94
1.84
1.86
1.82
2.94
2.86
2.78
2.79
65.9
64.2
67.0
65.1

2.32
2.22
1.93
1.88
3.18
3.16
2.90
2.93
72.8
70.2
66.3
64.2

Sources: Survey on Personal Trips in Cities Nationwide and Survey on Traffic Characteristics in Cities Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)
Gross: Trips per person (persons = both those who went out and those who did not) Net: Trips per person (of persons who went out) Percentage of travelers: Percentage of people who made a trip on that day

72

TRANSPORT POLICY IN PERSPECTIVE: 201015-6 Percentage of the main transport mode by trip purpose(nationwide)

Weekdays

Holidays

1987
Going to 1992
work
1999
2005
1987
Going to 1992
school
1999
2005
1987
Business 1992
1999
2005
1987
1992
Going
home
1999
2005
1987
1992
Privatematters 1999
2005
1987
1992
All
purposes 1999
2005
1987
Going to 1992
work
1999
2005
1987
Going to 1992
school
1999
2005
1987
Business 1992
1999
2005
1987
1992
Going
home
1999
2005
1987
1992
Privatematters 1999
2005
1987
1992
All
purposes 1999
2005

Railways
24.3
26.3
24.6
24.8
13.2
17.6
17.0
18.3
7.0
8.3
9.3
8.3
12.5
15.0
14.5
14.5
6.9
7.5
7.6
6.8
12.1
14.2
14.0
13.8
16.7
16.3
15.6
16.7
9.6
11.4
12.3
17.9
5.5
4.7
6.8
6.8
7.9
8.1
8.0
7.7
7.0
7.3
7.0
6.4
7.7
8.0
7.8
7.5

Buses
5.7
5.2
3.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
2.7
2.4
1.6
1.1
1.2
1.0
4.1
4.2
3.5
2.9
4.0
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.9
3.9
3.2
2.8
5.9
5.1
3.8
2.7
3.7
1.7
3.3
3.1
1.7
0.6
0.9
1.3
3.4
2.9
2.3
1.8
2.9
2.3
1.9
1.5
3.2
2.6
2.1
1.7

Motor vehicles

Motorcycles

40.9
45.1
47.6
47.4
5.4
7.2
7.8
8.6
71.0
76.3
75.1
75.8
28.7
34.2
38.8
41.6
29.6
37.5
41.7
47.7
33.6
38.7
42.1
44.7
44.7
51.4
52.9
53.4
5.8
7.0
17.5
17.9
62.0
80.4
72.3
67.1
43.0
50.7
57.5
61.1
48.4
56.6
61.9
65.9
45.6
53.4
59.6
63.0

20.9
16.7
16.6
17.6
19.6
19.0
19.2
19.9
12.8
8.2
8.4
8.2
24.8
20.8
20.7
19.7
27.6
22.5
22.5
19.8
22.9
19.2
19.3
18.5
22.5
19.3
18.9
18.4
23.2
23.5
34.4
33.2
19.5
8.4
12.4
13.2
23.4
19.2
17.3
14.5
20.4
16.1
14.2
11.3
21.8
17.5
15.8
13.2

Walking & other
8.2
6.7
7.5
7.2
58.6
52.8
53.3
50.8
7.6
6.1
6.0
6.8
29.9
25.8
22.6
21.3
32.0
28.7
24.8
22.8
27.4
24.1
21.4
20.3
10.2
7.8
8.7
8.8
57.7
56.3
32.4
27.9
11.4
6.0
7.6
11.6
22.3
19.0
14.9
14.9
21.3
17.8
15.0
14.9
21.8
18.6
14.7
14.7

Sources: Survey on Personal Trips in Cities Nationwide and Survey on Traffic Characteristics in Cities Nationwide (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism)

15-7 Transport used by trip purpose (percentages of of the main transport mode)
City area

Transport
PurposeGoing to work
Going to school
Going home
Home to place ofTokyo metropolitan businessarea (weekdays) Between workplace
and place of business
Home to private
destination
Other private matters
All purposes
Going to work
Going to school
Keihanshin
Going homemetropolitan area
Business(weekdays)
Personal
All purposes
Going to work
Going to school
Chukyo metropolitan Going homearea (weekdays) Business
Personal
All purposes
Going to work
Going to school
Keihanshin
Going homemetropolitan area
Business(holidays)
Personal
All purposes

Railways

Buses

(%)

Motor vehicles Motorcycles

53.0
31.0
31.0
32.0

2.0
2.0
3.0
2.0

24.0
7.0
27.0
39.0

13.0
11.0
17.0
16.0

26.0

1.0

58.0

12.0
21.0
30.0
34.5
23.8
19.3
11.0
9.4
18.2
15.5
17.0
9.9
3.8
4.1
9.2
25.5
23.8
11.5
7.7
9.0
10.8

4.0
3.0
3.0
2.2
4.0
2.8
1.8
3.3
2.8
1.5
1.1
1.4
0.4
1.4
1.3
1.9
2.0
1.7
3.5
2.2
2.0

34.0
32.0
29.0
36.4
3.6
30.1
57.1
32.2
32.9
66.4
11.9
54.4
81.3
60.5
57.9
41.4
9.6
48.5
62.8
52.8
50.4

Walking &
other

Total

7.0
49.0
22.0
11.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

6.0

8.0

100.0

23.0
15.0
16.0
20.1
16.0
23.5
13.0
25.9
21.9
11.3
17.1
15.5
7.2
16.2
14.2
22.6
33.3
19.9
13.1
16.1
18.0

27.0
29.0
22.0
6.8
52.6
24.2
16.6
29.2
24.0
5.4
52.8
18.8
7.3
17.8
17.4
8.7
31.3
18.2
12.4
19.7
18.5

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

Note: Data for Tokyo are from the fifth survey (2008); for Keihanshin (weekdays & holidays), from the fourth survey (2000); and for Chukyo, from the fourth survey (2001).
Sources: Road Handbook 2006 (Japan Highway Users Conference); data from the fifth survey on person-trips in the Tokyo metropolitan area73

資料・統計
Statistics and Data
16．世界の主要都市についての交通基本データ−52
2000
16 Basic Transport Data for Major World Cities (2000,
cities)年、52 都市−
CitiesGross product Motor vehicle ownership Annual average
Passenger Motorcycles distance traveled
per personby private cars
cars

Population of the area

Energyconsumption
for transport(x 1000 persons) (euro/person/year) (vehicles/1000 persons) (vehicles/1000 persons) (km/vehicle/year) (Megajoules/person/year)

Averagenumber of
Public transport Walking & bicycles Private cars
trips
Shares of transport modes

(%)

(%)

(%)

(trips/person/day)

Amsterdam
AthensBarcelona
BerlinBern
BilbaoBologna
Brussels
Budapest
ChicagoClermont-Ferrand
Copenhagen
Dubai
DublinGenevaGent
Glasgow
Graz
Hamburg
HelsinkiHong Kong
Krakow
Lille
LisbonLondon
Lyons
MadridManchester
Marseilles
Melbourne
Milan
Moscow
MunichNantesNewcastle
Oslo
Paris
PragueRome
Rotterdam
Sao Paulo
SevillaSingapore
Stockholm
Stuttgart
Tallinn
Tunis
Turin
Valencia
ViennaWarsaw
Zürich
注1）交通エネルギー消費量は１人当たり私的旅客交通によるもの。
Note:
1. “Energy consumption for transport” is the energy consumed per person in private passenger transport.
注 2）平均トリップ生成原単位は、徒歩を含む全手段による１人当たり１日の平均トリップ数。
2. “Average number of trips” is the average number of trips per person per day for all means of transport including walking.
注 3）運賃収支率は、運行費用に対する運賃収入の割合（％）。
3. “Fare balance rate” is the percentage of operating
expenses paid by fares.
出典：MOBILITYCITES. UITP
データベース（2006年）を基に加工・編集した。一部データについて修正。
Source: data from IN
MOBILITYIN CITES.
UITP database (2006,
modified)

74

Averagetravel time forprivate cars(min.)

2009
TRANSPORT POLICY IN自動車交通研究
PERSPECTIVE:
2010
Public transportation indexes
Public transportation indexes

Motor vehicle indexes

Private cars

RailwaysBuses(vehicles/1000(m/1000 persons) employedpersons)(km/hour)(km/hour)(km/hour)Annual supply Fare balance rate Length of roads
Capacity:
person-kilometers/person(%)

Average travel speed

Central BusinessDistrict parking areas

CentralBusiness District
Private cars Public transportation Population Employment employment
Annual use

Population density in city areas(person-kilometers/ (person-kilometers/
person)person)(persons/ha) (persons/ha)

(%)

75

TRANSPORTPOLICY INPERSPECTIVE
2010
Katsutoshi Ohta         Professor, Faculty of Regional Development Studies,
General editor(English edition)
Toyo University (Representative Director, Japan Research Center for Transport Policy)
Editorial staff

Kazuya Itaya
Chief Researcher, Institute of Transportation Economics
Masahiro Sugiyama  Professor, Faculty of Commerce, Waseda University
Fumihiko Nakamura Professor, Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University
Seiji Hashimoto
Associate Professor, Graduate School of Environmental
Science, Okayama University
Yasunori Muromachi Associate Professor, Interdisciplinary Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute ofTechnology* This booklet is to be available to the public on the website below.
* If you would like to place an order for this booklet, please contact below.

Published by  Public Interest Incorporated Association
Japan Research Center for Transport Policy
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Published in December, 2010