Review of Asian and Pacific Studies No. 44

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Future City: Tokyo After Cyberpunk
Dougal McNeill*
Abstract
Surveying the debates around William Gibson’s Neuromancer (1984) almost
forty years since the moment of cyberpunk, this essay proposes a new reading ofGibson’s fiction, and treatments of Tokyo in post-cyberpunk SF more generally.
Drawing on, and critiquing, insights from Marxism and Asian/American studies,
this essay locates in Gibson’s representations of Tokyo a neoliberal ambience.
Gibson’s novels, with their fascination for commodities, gadgets, and the consumer
details of consumerism, create in Tokyo an image of a potential American future,
but this is a vision undercut intermittently by their anxieties around the status of
the American presence in Tokyo, and of its reminders of a history of occupation.
This argument is developed, finally, by way of a comparative reading of some postcyberpunk SF texts, Misha’s Red Spider White Web (1990), Pat Cadigan’s Tea
from an Empty Cup (1998) and Eli K P William’s Cash Crash Jubilee (2015)
Keywords: Cyberpunk, Science Fiction Studies

Cyberpunk finds in Tokyo a future at the very moment the American version for the firsttime seemed threatened.1 U.S. defeat in Vietnam; the ramifications of the oil shocks andthe contractions of the 1970s; the success of the Reaganite counter-offensive against thesocial and political gains of the 1960s; the calcification of once dynamic and dominantAmerican corporations in automobile production and manufacturing all generateanxieties, both popular and at the level of theory, that the ‘American century’ is coming
to an end. Nostalgic styles proliferate, from American Graffiti to Reagan himself, his
campaign speeches studded with lines from old film roles, and postmodernism, the‘cultural logic of late capitalism’, erases from the record both concrete historical pasts
and collective imaginings of the future. ‘It’s morning again in America’, Reagan’s 1984
slogan ran; Bob Dylan, in contrast, just a year earlier announced ‘sunset on the Union’,listing commodities from Asia – Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Japan – as a threat to theviability of the United States.
Neuromancer (1984), the foundational text of cyberpunk, emerges from thiscontext, and its feverish visions of ‘the neon shudder of Ninsei’ (15) illuminate the decay
and stasis of the United States by way of the lights and intoxication of Tokyo. If, for us
now, the postmodern moment has passed, Neuromancer’s account of Tokyo remains
as a constant in the American imaginative vocabulary for the future, being endlessly* School of English, Film, Theatre, and Media Studies, Victoria University of Wellington
Email: dougal.mcneill@vuw.ac.nz
1
My thanks to Fuhito Endo, Shintaro Kono, and Benjamin Robertson for their comments on draft versionsof this essay. I was privileged to work out a first version of this argument while a Fellow at the Centre for
Asian and Pacific Studies, Seikei University. My thanks to all of the academic and administrative staff in the
1 Centre for their warm hospitality and support during my stay.

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reworked, finessed, fused and cited in everything from the Wachowski siblings’ Matrix
films to computer gaming and advertising. A cyberpunk literary and visual archive
exists, with each Tokyo recycled and repackagd in an ongoing creative dialogue between
texts. Neuromancer and Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner (1983) between them set up aremarkably stable set of signs through which the culture narrates Tokyo and, with it, thefuture: skyscrapers, an excess of neon, crowds, bewildering stimulation, urban crush
and blight at street level. Japan is, Joshua LaBare notes, ‘omnipresent in contemporary
science fiction’ (23), and it is Gibson’s Japan that is endlessly cited and recycled. Or, asGibson himself puts it, ‘Japan is the global imagination’s default setting for the future’(Distrust, 124). This is not the Japan of the Kobe suburbs, however, or the dawdle ofrural Kyushu, but rather Pattern Recognition’s (2003) ‘manically animated forest ofsigns’ (125) in Shinjuku, the ‘brightly lit cityscape of Neo-Tokyo’ in Alexander Besher’sRim (1994), with its ‘keiretsu mega-towers and blazing holo-lights’ (272). Tokyo stands,
in cyberpunk, as a synecdoche for Japan as a whole; and Japan, in turn, is the future.
This is a future of a curious kind, however, both anticipating American development andsignaling American decay and exclusion. It is promise and threat, dream and diagnosis.
It expresses itself, above all, in narratives of images. ‘What characterizes Tokyo’,writes Scott Bukatman in his discussion of Chris Marker’s film Sans Soleil (1982), ‘isthe domination of the image; not simply the static, oversized posters with the staringeyes […] but the endless flow of images across the television screen and the endlesstelevisions […] Tokyo exists as pure spectacle; that is, as a proliferation of semiotic
systems and simulations which increasingly serve to replace physical human experienceand interaction.’ The ‘media eruption’ of Tokyo shows up, for Bukatman, ‘the pervasive
domination by, and addiction to, the image’ that defines 1980s and 1990s postmodern
American culture (26, 27). Is Bukatman’s text criticism of cyberpunk or cyberpunk
criticism? Such distinctions blur in this period, as critics accounting for cyberpunk andscience fiction generally drew on it as a diagnostic tool, source of social information andrudimentary cognitive map. Science Fiction, Steven Shaviro claims, is the ‘privileged
genre […] for contemporary critical theory’ (x), its novels doing the same kind of workfor critical theory that the realist novel was able to offer Georg Lukács in the 1930s.
When Fredric Jameson describes Tokyo as a ‘bewildering, infinite, endless series of built
things’ in which ‘some principle of perception gets lost’ (124), then, he both evokes andhimself contributes to the cyberpunk discourse Gibson initiated.
Tokyo, in Neuromancer, by way of its all-but-absorbed satellite city Chiba, is a‘field of data’ (15), ‘synonymous with implants, nerve-splicing, and microbionics […] amagnet for the Sprawl’s techno-criminal subcultures’ (6), a node in a new, dystopian
post-national future where the US has been reduced to ‘the Sprawl’, an urban stretch
across what was Boston, New York, and Washington down to Atlanta, the Boston-Atlanta
Metropolitan Axis, and ‘the zaibatsu, the multinationals that shaped the course of humanhistory, had transcended old barriers’ and now, ‘viewed as organisms’, has ‘attained akind of immortality’ (203). Case, a ‘console cowboy’ and hacker operating in the dubious
shadow world of cyberspace, and Molly, his collaborator, rival, and companion, are drawn

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into a conspiracy taking them from Chiba to Manhattan to Paris, Istanbul and outer space
itself. The ramshackle plot is familiar from any number of film noir thrillers rescreened on
daytime television; the aesthetic instantly recognizable from any one of the near-future
video games, movies, or comics of the 1980s and 1990s, all the way to Sonic Youth’s
Daydream Nation (1988) in music and avant-garde art. Gibson’s Tokyo provided theimagery with which to narrate the future in a cultural moment no longer confident of
its futurity: long leather jackets and mirror shades (Morpheus in The Matrix); Chinesecharacters flickering from neon advertising; television screens broadcasting without
viewers; ‘plastic capsules a meter high and three long, stacked up like surplus Godzillateeth in a concrete lot off the main road to the airport’ (1981: 104); the ‘glitter, crystal
maze of the boutiques’ (108) of Harajuku; overstimulation. Gibson’s Tokyo has, for the
past forty years, been America’s Tokyo. If cyberpunk’s literary moment was fleeting its
structuring power remains.
How to assess, a generation on, this particular vision? Two groups of critical responses
have clustered around cyberpunk in general, and Gibson and Neuromancer in particular.
One, a materialist response, values Gibson’s diagnostic power; the other, drawing on
the resources of critical race theory and Asian/American studies, is itself diagnostic,
reading Neuromancer as the latest iteration of a very old, and very familiar, exercise
in Orientalist stereotyping and strategies of containment. My own reading, advanced inwhat follows by way of a self-consciously retrospective account of both text and criticalcontext through what comes after cyberpunk, in both fiction and the social world itself,
will take issue with both; they set out, however, the terrain in which these texts must be
read.
Cyberpunk, for Marxist criticism, has been treated as a kind of twenty-first century
realism, its ‘euphoria and delirium’ managing, in Fredric Jameson’s formulation, to send‘back more reliable information about the contemporary world than an exhausted realism’(2005: 344, 384). Gibson’s work, for Jameson, ‘expresses the truth of an emergent
globalization’ and sets out ‘a mapping of the new geopolitical Imaginary’, a ‘first crude
inventory of the new world system’ (2005: 344). Cyberpunk’s vocation, in Jameson’smaterialist aesthetics, is linked to its ability to account for shifts in the organizationof American, and global, capitalism. ‘Since the 1990s we have entered’, he claims, ‘a
new phase of capitalism in which it is not production as such which creates profit andsurplus value but rather speculation’ (2015: 232-3) It was, then, ‘the unique vocationof cyberpunk to convey in literary form’ this ‘new postmodern abstraction’ which is‘the abstraction of information as such’ as ‘we thus enter a new era of abstraction anda disembodied state which is indeed the play of signs of signifiers anticipated by the
structuralists, and which cyberspace now dramatically embodies in literature and art’(2015: 233). Neuromancer, with its protagonist seeing Tokyo ‘as a field of data’ (16),the cityscape as ‘the roads and crossroads scribed on the face of a microchip’ (262)
and spotting ‘vast, brilliantly lit’ advertisements for Japanese ‘simstim stars’ (151),
simulations flickering between pure mediation and the consumer world of the real,
manages, for Jameson, to narrate and make representable that which threatens to92

outpace the speed of our communicative organs:[Gibson] offers a new and post-realistic but also post-modernistic way of giving us a picture
and a sense of our individual relationships to realities that transcend our phenomenologicalmapping systems and our cognitive abilities to think them. This is the sense in which literature
can serve as a registering apparatus for historical transformations we cannot otherwise
empirically intuit, and in which Neuromancer stands as a precious symptom of our passage
into another historical period. (2015: 234)

For Scott Bukatman, writing twenty years earlier, ‘Neuromancer will render that
information field tangible, legible, and spatial. Cyberspace is precisely a nonspace realism.’ Cyberspace, for Bukatman, is ‘an abstraction which, diagetically andextradiagetically, provides a narrative compensation for the loss of visibility in the world,the movement of power into the cybernetic matrices of the computer banks […] The
planes of cyberspace enable the activity of spatial penetration and thus produce thesubject’s mastery of a global data system’ (123, 143) Case, working as a console cowboy
from Chiba, is ‘jacked into a custom cyberspace deck that projected his disembodied
consciousness into the consensual hallucination that was the matrix’ (5); at that moment,
for materialist criticism, he stands as a realist and ‘typical’ protagonist for the era of theinformation economy, cybernetics and abstracted speculation in information. Tokyo, in
this reading, is an American future, a space refigured according to the new logic of latecapitalism and a sign of the kind of class recomposition to come.
If Marxist critics have read cyberpunk as a form of Ideologiekritik, scholars
trained in critical Asian/American studies have treated it as itself a form of ideologicalcompensation. Blade Runner signaled Los Angeles’ decay through shots of ramenvendors and crowds of Asian workers at street level; Gibson’s Tokyo is strangely sparsely
populated by Japanese people themselves to be treated by his narrators as realized
characters. Tokyo in cyberpunk, then, is not so much a vision of the American future
as a fantasy from the American past, a Yellow Peril dreamspace for nightmares ofreverse colonization and threats to white supremacy. ‘Techno-orientalism’ is, for Lisa
Nakamura, a ‘high-tech version of racial stereotyping’ with Asian imagery deployed‘to establish the distinctive look and feel of a cyberpunk future’ (2002: 63). Robotic
workers, shadowy conspiracies and inscrutable villains: the poetics of cyberpunk are,for Nakamura, nothing more than older racialized narratives of otherness dressed up in
the spacesuits of Science Fiction. Gibson’s novels are, for Timothy Yu, ‘almost entirely
ideological in their operation, representing and evoking the situation of late capitalism,
but displacing responsibility for that situation onto a massive conspiratorial network –the ‘matrix’ – that is ultimately marked as oriental’ (2008: 59). ‘The ultimate drive of
the novel,’ Yu contends, ‘is to re-embody the white American subject, seeking less toconquer Orientalized cyberspace than to reestablish boundaries between the virtualand the real’(60). Neuromancer’s ‘dreams [that] came on in the Japanese night likelivewire voodoo’ (5) do not so much diagnose postmodernity but, contra Jameson, allow
racialized fantasy to displace critical diagnosis. ‘Western conceptions of postmodernity
are built upon continuing fantasies of – and anxieties about – the Orient’ (46) and93

cyberpunk serves the purpose, for Yu, of displacing ‘late-capitalist anxiety onto the
Orient’ (66). Neuromancer is one of the:Foundational texts that establish an orientalist imaginative framework for the periodof postmodernity’s emergence […] [and set up] the extent to which an imagining of
postmodernism has been grounded in Orientalism and racial anxiety. While these urban
fantasies portray fears of postmodernity through the threat of reverse colonization of theWest by the East, at times they also propose in response a recolonization that reasserts thehegemony of the white Western subject. (48)

The Orient, in Gibson’s work, is ‘reduced to its most clichéd signifiers, whose continued
presence in the domain of power marks even those white enclaves as orientalized, butwhose stereotypical nature reveals their fundamentally Eurocentric perspective’ (Yu,58). Far from gaining any critical distance from the world of its creation, cyberpunkis, on this reading, another symptom of that world’s own anxiety and bewilderment, aliterary expression of the ‘Japan bashing’ prominent in economic journalism, trade union
organizing, conservative political agitation and, at times, open anti-Asian violence on
American streets during the recessions and reorganization of capital through the 1980s.
These twin readings, incompatible with each other when taken separately, seem tome, when taken together, not so much wrong as insufficiently dialectical, each containing
an insight it seems to wish to negate or deny. Gibson’s Japan has its stereotypes, tobe sure, but when Stephen Hong Sohn writes that cyberpunk, casting Japan as ‘thesite for the projection of futuristic anxieties’, operates ‘again within the frame of theperceived threat the so-called East presents to the West’ and that ‘the rise of technoOrientalism reflects the perceived burgeoning peril to the United States represented by
the Asia-Pacific in the 1980s’ (7) he complicates only one half of what is necessarily an
ideological whole. The ‘West’ is, of course, no less ‘so-called’ than the ‘East’, and both
rely, parasitically, on the other for their mutually constitutive discourses of particularityand difference, whether these have been formulated in the service of praise or paranoia.
This is not to claim that racism and xenophobia did not structure and motivate many
powerful American cultural responses to the transformations of the 1980s – they did, anddo – but rather to insist the ‘the West’ is itself an ideological construct, made of up its
own mutually contradictory and competing self-presentations, riven with incompatible
discourses and class interests. The nativist paranoia energizing, say, Michael Crichton’s
Rising Sun (1992), a popular thriller linking Japanese corporate domination to
weakening US control and, indeed, threatened masculinity itself, operates according toa different logic to the call by Zbigniew Brzezinski in 1988 for the nation’s geopoliticalstrategists to conceive of a two-nation ‘Amerinippon’ shaping Asia-Pacific rivalries in
the 1990s (cited in Palumbo-Liu, 343). David Morley and Kevin Robins, the scholars
responsible for coining the term ‘techno-Orientalism’, flatten out these ideological kinks
and wrinkles when they write, in 1995, on ‘the contemporary hysteria and panic about
Japan’ thatJapan has come to exist within the Western political and cultural unconscious as a figure ofdanger, and it has done so because it has destabilized the neat correlation between West/East

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and modern/pre-modern. If the West is modern, Japan should be pre-modern, or at least nonmodern. That is the case if it is to fit the terms of the established schema by which ‘we’ order
our sense of space and time and allocate it to ‘them’. The fact that Japan no longer fits throws
the established historico-geographical schema into confusion, creating a panic of disorientation(if not yet, to be sure, of dis-Orientalism) (160)

But in what sense can we usefully conjure the abstraction of a singular ‘Westernpolitical and cultural unconscious’ capturing the imagination and positioning of rustbelt manufacturers in declining Detroit car plants, Silicon Valley tech entrepreneurs,
and Strategic Studies Institute military intellectuals planning US bases and reach acrossAsia, to say nothing of the quite different historical, economic, cultural and social
relationships between Japan and the social formations of Australia, Britain, France,and so on? The ‘West’ is here too blunt an analytical tool to produce insights on such acontested topic. ‘Europe was a dead museum’, one of Gibson’s early stories announces,and cyberpunk courses with the sense of excitement this death brings, and of the shift
in cultural and economic power from one zone to another (1981: 110). It is, after all,a long-standing American cultural and literary fantasy to imagine how United States
continental expansion westward displaces the European ‘West’ as the site of progress
and futurity. Neuromancer may present itself as an anxious text, certainly, but we ought
not to take that anxiety on too easy a trust. There is a pleasure, after all, in the shadowsand grime of noir, a readerly excitement in peering at ‘the sky above the port’ that was‘the color of television, tuned to a dead channel’ (1) and taking a vicarious tour throughthe ‘closed circuit of the world’s black markets’ (6). Like the Sony walkman, Nintendo
game console or Mitsubishi station wagon, all normal and well-nigh ‘Americanized’commodities circulating from the 1980s, cyberpunk Tokyo stands as both an image ofanxiety and a reassuring opportunity for the noir pleasures of familiarity, a reorderingof familiar Orientalist tropes and a sign of a genuine enthusiasm for new experienceand terrain. Andrew McKevitt, in his fascinating history of the place of Japanesecommodities in the globalizing of 1980s America, notes that ‘since roughly the mid1970s the consumption of Japanese products has been a central facet of US social andcultural life’ (2), producing ‘not a single definition of globalization but the varied local
experience of many globalizations’ (11), from anime to automobiles. Anime, indeed, firstbrought to the United States by amateur enthusiasts and geek smugglers, developed
into a major, and mainstream, cultural form in turn changing its conditions of productionin Japan: it was ‘this complicated intersection of production and consumption, thefree floating of images unmoored from authorial intent and national origins in a global
age, the mingling of Japanese and Western aesthetics, genres, and racial and gendercategories, that established anime’s hybrid nature’ (McKevitt, 182-3). Just as anime
fandoms have both extended and developed far more sophisticated knowledge ofJapanese history and culture in US society than ever before and at times reinforced anddrawn out misogynistic and commodifying fantasies of the racialized Asian Other, so too
cyberpunk responds to complicating shifts in the US/Japan client state relationship anddraws on, and reinforces, existing racialized imaginative vocabularies, particularly in its

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representations of women. Indeed, Wendy Hui Kyong Chun has written insightfully ofhow, far from operating as a form of domination, Gibson’s turn ‘to old imperialist dreams
and tropes’ help the (implied Western) reader ‘deal with and enjoy vulnerability’ (210).
This is the vulnerability of shifting geopolitical and economic fortunes, certainly, butalso the vulnerability new technologies set off in us, fears of personal redundancy andincomprehension. Gibson sexualizes, and orientalises, what is now the most banal andprosaic of acts – going online – and renders it in the language of orgasm:
And it flowed, flowed for him, fluid neon origami trick, the unfolding of his distanceless home,
his country, transparent 3D chessboard extending to infinity […] And somewhere he waslaughing, in a white-painted loft, distant fingers caressing the deck, tears of release streaking
his face. (Neuromancer, 47)

There are fears and old stereotypes knitted into the imaginative fabric of the new
cyberpunk Tokyo, but they cannot account for the stability of its aesthetic influence andreach, over thirty years now and across very different periods of Japanese-American
relations, migration patterns, and political struggles. Critical Asian/American studies, by
accepting the idea of the ‘West’ as coherent, needlessly restricts its object of criticism.
What then of the materialist account? If scholars of American racial identity havepursued too narrow a hermeneutic of suspicion, Marxist critics have, in contrast, been
too easily contented with taking cyberpunk at its own word. Jameson, treating cyberpunkas ‘the supreme literary expression’ of ‘late capitalism’ and as ‘the imagination of
the multinationals in postmodernism’ (1991: 419, 321), elides cyberpunk précis andcyberpunk critique, response to ideology and recognition of new realities. Gibson’s
characters’ announcement in 1981, from Chiba, that ‘we’re an information economy’(16)and Jameson’s 2003 analysis of the ways in which ‘the cybernetic technologies of thepresent […] can electronically substitute one entire national working class for another,halfway round the globe […] overnight’ (705) share the same rhetoric and the sameorganizing assumptions, but neither is tested against historical analysis of the concrete
situation. Far from being an era of ‘the displacement of old-fashioned industrial laborby the cybernetic kind’ (2003: 702), as Jameson describes it, the battles of the 1980s
and the dot-com boom of the 1990s were over production – cars most notably in tradetensions between Japan and the United States – and manufacturing. Online shoppingsites such as Amazon have facilitated the growth of the Midwestern and Californian
distribution hubs, traditional labor centers all, and Nissan car plants in the UnitedStates took decades to build, establish themselves, and be linked to a global network ofsupply chains in industry. None of this is weightless, and the thinness of Marxist literary
criticism’s treatment of this extra-textual, empirical context impoverishes its accounts ofcyberpunk’s thought-world. Materialism, in Science Fiction studies, has too often been
insufficiently materialist, insufficiently skeptical. Gibson’s Tokyo provides a space forthinking about this contest far more conflicted and internally divided than his materialist
critics have acknowledged. The success of his work, I want to argue, is generated out of
this very conflict and division.

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I. Neoliberal ambivalence
Pattern Recognition (2003), in many ways a sequel to Neuromancer in its treatmentof Tokyo as a space of imagined futurity, is obsessed not with images but with objects,
commodities. Blue Ant, the advertising agency initiating the narrative occasion, may
be ‘more post-geographic than multinational’ (6), but the novel’s narrative discourse
draws insistent attention to the materiality of global trade – the things globalization
globalizes – and the nation-states connected to the production process. The novel’s
first chapter opens with a flurry of nationally-bound objects: ‘the German fridge’ (1),an ‘Italian floor-lamp’ (2), ‘a German filter’ (3), ‘imported Californian tea substitute’(3), ‘Afghani opium supplies’ (6), ‘a Korean clone of an old Casio G-Shock’ (7). Cayce
Pollard – her name conjuring Neuromancer’s Case, just as her twenty-first century
cross-national navigation conjures his late-twentieth-century navigation of cyberspace– is a ‘coolhunter’ (2), her ‘morbid and sometimes violent reactivity to the semioticsof the marketplace’ (2) allowing her to intuit what trends and designs will work forclients’ marketing plans. The novel’s plot sends her on the usual Gibsonian cross-country
adventure as part of both a conspiracy and in search of the footage, a fragmentaryand enticing work produced outside of the logic of commodity culture dominating
the rest of the novel’s storyworld. Cayce is hired by Hubertus Bigend, owner of Blue
Ant and globalizer, to find the maker of the footage; the quest narrative takes her toTokyo, London, Moscow. Pattern Recognition’s story and its narrative discourse are in
productive conflict with one another, the story generating and recording an ambivalence
about the process of globalization the narrative discourse itself celebrates and treats withenergetic enthusiasm. Cayce’s affective immersion in the flows of globalization facilitatesa narrative tracking the journey of commodities from one zone to another, and she, with
her uncanny ability to spot what will travel and translate from one market to another,‘knows that she is, and has long been, complicit […] in whatever it is that gradually makes
London and New York feel more like each other, that dissolves the membranes between
mirror-worlds’ (194). Cayce worries over globalisation’s telos, ‘a world where there are no
mirrors to find yourself in the other side of, all experience having been reduced, by thespectral hand of marketing, to price-profit variation on the same thing’ (341). The ‘mirror
world’ (105) is her term for the variations in everyday life between cultures – in typesof tap, forms of plug, public transport – that make up cultural difference. Difference, in
Cayce’s account, is connected to technology and commodities:‘My idea of a mirror-world is Bangkok. Asia somewhere. This [London] is just more of our stuff.’‘No,’ she tells him, ‘different stuff. That’s why you notice that vent – they invented it here,
probably, and made it here. This was an industrial nation. Buy a pair of scissors, you got British
scissors. They made all their own stuff. Kept imports expensive. Same thing in Japan: All theirbits and pieces were different, from the ground up.
‘I see what you mean, but I don’t think it’s going to be that way much longer. Not if the world’s
Bigends keep at it: no borders, pretty soon there’s no mirror world to be on the other side of.’
(105)

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However much the fear of cultural erasure is foregrounded in story and direct discourse,
however, the novel – and Gibson’s oeuvre taken as an aesthetic whole – fairly buzzes withexcitement at the possibilities of commodity exchange, a process centred imaginatively
in Tokyo. The makers of Cayce’s Rickson’s jacket have, ‘in some very Japanese way’ (11),turned their product into ‘an act of worship’ (11). Japanese cigarettes, Mild Sevens, are‘the default brands of creatives’ (11). One of her collaborator’s phones, ‘cased in candyapple mango’ (107) is nothing less than ‘Japan’ (107) itself. Gibson’s protagonists are
the fantasy agents of neoliberal capitalist ideology, ‘creatives’ connecting purportedly
weightless capital globally, and Tokyo is their spiritual home. Laney in Idoru (1996),
another conspiracy-cum-global-road-trip taking in Tokyo’s entertainment world, is ‘anintuitive fisher of patterns of information’, Chia in the same novel lives a now that ‘wasdigital, effortlessly elastic, instant recall supported by global systems she’d never haveto bother comprehending’ (25). Tokyo is a kind of fantasy space in these storyworlds,
the centre of a global middle-class aesthetic – Muji clothing, Apple computing, a cheerfulindulgence in the obsessions and drives of ‘weird nerd innocence’ (31) and collecting –and it interpolates the ideal subject of the liberal-globalising vision of US capitalism: a
Silicon Valley hipster or a start-up creative moving effortlessly across worlds, fossicking
in the cultural jumble-market of the open global order. Case’s childhood in Neuromancer
may have conjured American industrial decline – ‘the landscape of childhood, on
broken slag and the rusting shells of refineries’ (85) – and that novel’s Tokyo shared thisindustrial-capitalist social world:
Now he slept in the cheapest coffins, the ones nearest the port, beneath the quartz-halogen
floods that lit the docks all night like vast stages; where you couldn’t see the light of Tokyo
for the glare of the television sky, not even the towering hologram logo of the Fuji ElectricCompany, and Tokyo Bay was a black expanse where gulls wheeled above drifting shoals ofwhite Styrofoam. Behind the port lay the city, factory domes dominated by the vast cubes ofcorporate arcologies. Port and city were divided by a narrow borderland of older streets, anarea with no official name. Night city, with Ninsei at its heart. By day, the bars down Ninsei
were shuttered and featureless, the neon dead, the holograms inert, waiting, under the
poisoned silver sky. (6-7)

Even here, however, the text is energized by possibilities for restructuring and reform, by
the thought of ‘burgeoning technologies’ that ‘require outlaw zones’ (11) and the ‘root ofstreet cool […] the knowing posture that implied connection, invisible lines up to hidden
levels of influence’ (203). Far from being a narrative of fear of the orientalized Other
recolonizing the United States, Gibson’s cyberpunk kits out an aesthetic for the neoliberal
ideology of American renewal, with Tokyo as a ‘creative capital’ and as itself a form of‘creative capital’ retrofitting and reworking nationally-bound manufacturing into selfimages of spryly transnational, mobile and digitally-based, globalizing capital associatedwith Silicon Valley, Google, Facebook and, in the case of politics, the Democratic Partyand Hilary Clinton’s 2016 presidential campaign. Cyberpunk facilitated not dystopian
visions but a capitalist utopian ambiance, visible everywhere in the Japanese commodity
and aesthetic presence in a particular US liberal culture today. The ‘mirror world’ may be,

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for Cayce, a term of ambivalence, but it first appears in Gibson’s writing in a journalistic
text as a much more straightforward term of praise and marketing possibility. The Japanthat ‘delights, disturbs, and fascinates us today’, Gibson suggested in 2001, is ‘a mirror
world, an alien planet we can actually do business with, a future’ (2010: 125). Tokyo is his‘handiest prop shop’ (2010: 158) for facilitating the narrative of this business possibility.
Charles Paulk has linked what he calls Gibson’s ‘garage-sale-in-cyberspace aesthetic’ tothe ‘gleeful ransacking’ of the past ‘voraciously consumed and redeployed as product’ in
his vision of Japan, ‘trash transmuted into Tokyo real estate’ (491). Even disaster anddystopia, in this vision, present opportunities for capitalist renewal:‘They’re going to rebuild San Fransisco from the ground up, basically. Like they’re doing toTokyo. They’ll start by layering a grid of seventeen complexes into the existing infrastructure.
Eighty-storey office/residential, retail/residence in the base. Completely self-sufficient. Variablepitch parabolic reflectors, steam-generators. New buildings, man; they’ll eat their own sewage.’‘Who’ll eat sewage?’‘The buildings. They’re going to grow them, Rydell. Like they’re doing in Tokyo.’ (1993: 230).

Marxist critics like Jameson are wrong to see this as any kind of mapping of the
globalized order; it is, rather, an ideologically concentrated expression of one class
fraction’s view of that order’s dreams, justifications and possibilities. If Cayce suffers ‘aspecies of semiotic agoraphobia’ (264), Gibson’s own narrative style treats the namesof global commodities circulating in and beyond Tokyo with a kind of Melvilleianreverence and excess. It was always things rather than images or abstractions thatdrove the expansions of the period, as a glance at the vast iPhone production factories
in China or the new distribution hubs of the American Midwest can show, and more
recent developments in global politics, from Trump’s protectionist turn to a newly
assertive Chinese state, give Jameson’s rhetoric a dated air. But this vision is, equally, no
Orientalist response to anxiety about American loss. Those visions, in a line from Michael
Crichton in fiction to Steven Bannon and the alt-right in politics, set themselves against
exactly the order Gibson’s prose delights in and draws crackling energy from at the
moment is registers nostalgic unease. Cyberpunk’s is a neoliberal ambivalence.

II. Tokyo as American history
There is a narrative of loss in Pattern Recognition, twinned with its giddier explorationof global commodities, and this narrative is Gibson’s contribution to occupation literature,linking Tokyo to a wider uncertainty and mourning over America’s global position ashegemon, or fading hegemon. Pattern Recognition is, among other things, one of thefirst 9-11 novels; Cayce’s father Win, a former CIA asset, goes missing on the day of theattacks, and one of the narrative’s strands involves Cayce’s attempts to account for his
final moments and for her own grief. 9-11 is an ‘experience outside culture’ (137) for
Cayce, its traumatic excess returning unexpectedly and unbidden as she
exits Shinjuku station […] Looking up now into the manically animated forest of signs, she sees
the Coca-Cola logo pulsing on a huge screen high up on a building, followed by the slogan ‘NO

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REASON!’ This vanishes, replaced by a new clip, dark-skinned men in bright robes. She blinks,
imagining the towers burning there, framed amid image-flash and whirl. (125)A lost father figure who was also a long-serving agent for the global infrastructure of US
empire, killed in the most symbolically powerful and socially traumatic threat to that
empire this century, is hard to read in anything other than the most overdetermined andsymbolically loaded ways. Win stays at ‘the Mayflower’ (186) in Manhattan, connecting
him to an even older American story, and his loss – and the loss and devastation of 9-11
more generally – inflect each of the novel’s scenes. The sign Cayce can decode in this‘forest’ is American (‘Coca-Cola’), a symbol not so much of globalization and the endof the ‘mirror world’ as of the stability of an American presence in Tokyo. This twinned
narrative of loss of parental, and imperial security and the search for an authentic
commodity links Tokyo in the reader’s mind with American loss, and with its presence
and historical resonance as an occupation city. Gibson has written of how ‘you can see
more chronological strata of future design in a Tokyo streetscape than anywhere else in
the world.’ It is, he writes, ‘like successive Tomorrowlands, older ones showing throughwhen the newer ones start to peel’ (2010: 158) Tomorrowland is, however, a peculiarly
American futurity to spot in a Tokyo street,2 just one of the many connecting links to
American history and American occupation grounding Gibson’s Tokyo of the mind: the‘faded American advertising and the greys and the pinks of gum’ on a Tokyo wall (Idoru,
151); taxi drivers with ‘white cotton gloves and a hat like the hats cab drivers wore in
1940s movies’ (1996: 169) For Chia in Idoru,
She felt like everything, every little detail of Tokyo, was just different enough to create a kindof pressure, something that built up against her eyes, as though they’d grown tired of having
to notice all the differences […] At the same time, she felt that if she squinted, maybe just theright way, she could make all this turn back into Seattle. (140)This is not, as Michael J. Blouin has it, a ‘token mise-en-scene for cyberpunk fiction’(144) nor an expression, in Timothy Liu’s phrase, of fears of ‘the threat of reverse
colonization’ (48) but rather a representation of an American space, an occupied andcolonized zone that has never been separated from American space and American order.
David Palumbo-Liu, in a careful and politically sensitive reading, finds in Idoru a failureof imaginative sympathy. The strangeness of the text’s Tokyo, treated as a sign of the
future in the present day, is, for Palumbo-Liu, an anachronism thatsuggests an essential and abiding foreignness to Japan and creates a stereoscopic effecttemporally, superimposing one temporality over another even as they share the same psychic
quality of alienation. Despite Gibson’s immense imaginative vocabulary, the ‘shock’ of future
Tokyo is the same as the shock of present-day Tokyo. (380)What if this shock, however, were precisely the city’s American qualities? As Tomiko Yoda
and others have pointed out, the ideologies of Japanese particularity and US presence asa ‘model’ nation to be emulated and hegemon to accept as dominating presence fit each

2

Tokyo Disneyland was in fact the first to open outside of the United States, and so deserves its place inany account of the ideological dream-world of occupation literature.

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other as codependent and co-productive rather than as rival nationalisms.3 In Pattern
Recognition this shock is to do with re-imagining a new American order in ways not yet
possible: a father gone ‘missing in New York City on the morning of September 11, 2001’(134) and this memory only thinkable in Tokyo because ‘the Japanese sunlight, with therobotic drapes fully open, seems to come from some different direction entirely’ (134).
Difference and sameness, American loss and Japanese recovery, a globalizing marketof American capitalist liberal order and the terrifying fears of disruption to that order,
and to American dominance generally: Pattern Recognition’s twin narratives tie thesecontradictory forces together and tether them in a Tokyo of the mind, even if the novel
does not have the historical resources at its disposal to work them through to any kind ofresolution.

III. After cyberpunk
From the 1990s onwards, shifts in the global economy, and in technological development,draw Science Fiction writers from Japan to China for their settings of some kind of
futurity, and from cybernetics to nanotechnology (see Niu). Three works downstream ofcyberpunk draw out and complicate Gibson’s Tokyo; one through modernistic excess andstyle; one through humour; and one through a reinvigorated dystopia.
Misha’s Red Spider White Web (1990) is a ‘metal vision’ (11) of post-apocalyptic
America, an ‘industrial puzzle of abandoned factories’ (100), ‘closed down genetic
reservations, frozen deserts and howling winds’ (165). The world is so polluted everyone
must wear masks, and Kumo, the artist hero, makes her living in the ‘factory deserts,
wastelands of empty warehouses and strange, rusted towers […] debris of waste papers,
glittering glass, windblown, dry grass and broken hunks of asphalt’ (12). The polar ice
caps have melted, society has broken down into warring gangs of rich youth andholographic artists, and Tommy Uchida, a metal man hybrid serving the state that has
infected him, becomes a focus for millennial religious longings. Misha’s style takes its
energies from negativity, intensity and excess, and Kumo is a kind of pure negation, hervoice ‘like a vivisection’ (157): ‘What do you know? Kimi ga Nihonjin dewaarimasen.
You’re not human. You’re not a man. You’re not even white.’ (72) Red Spider White Web
takes the fears of the ‘Japan bashing’ 1980s but amplifies them into a kind of delirious
auto-critique. Japan has conquered American manufacturing, but industrial
manufacturing has destroyed the world. The Japanese have colonized the United States,
but Kumo, Métis perhaps, or Native American, Other in some textually unspecified way

3

See Yoda: ‘Local cultural variance, far from being expunged, is actively produced and consumed [inglobalized postmodernity] […] but the meaning and function of cultural difference is being fundamentallytransformed. The local is increasingly disassociated from specific social space and relations inhabit as it
is constituted through the process of commodification. Rather than inscribing a sociocultural boundary
between the inside and the outside (that takes the national interiority as the ultimate horizon), the local
in the global postmodern operates on a more fluid, affective distinction of familiar and exotic or a visceralsense of proximity and distance that need not presuppose a fixed historical or social point of reference’(661).

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apart from in ‘her row of American features and cunning eyes […] her healthy animal
obstreperousness and gleaming pelzmantel’ (158) is outside the gendered and racial
order in which this subsequent colonization matters much: ‘Yer crazy blood Kumo. You
ain’t no real human. You ain’t Japanese, you ain’t even white. I don’t even know what youare.’ (121) A Japanese vengeance conspiracy to redeem defeat in the Pacific War – astaple and cliché of endless US narratives – is revealed, only for Kumo to revel in its
denouement: ‘that fucking war. Those Americans and that fucking war […] I admire theJapanese.’ (211) The narrative discourse is threaded with untranslated Japanese
rendered in roman lettering, from Kumo’s name (the Japanese term for spider,referencing the Japanese military flag, ‘the rays of the sun formed the eight legs of ared spider’ 127), damaged Japanese signifiers (‘the odor of synthetic sushi’ 17) andsocio-cultural collisions (‘a cup of scalding synthetic coffee out of a ceramic sake cup’154). Tokyo has been translated to the Pacific coast, as Mickey-san, a Tomorrowland ofsorts, ‘a living recroom for the rich and rotten […] Pacifica Rima – the biggest plastic cityin the USA’ (102). Mickey-san’s domed separate evokes Katsuhiro Otomo’s Akira:[Figure One: Otomo, Akira]overlaid with a kind of deranged everyday quality:
pieces of dawn fell away into the chrome-coloured day. Tommy cocked his head, listening toMickey-san’s hiss, belch, roll, and sirens. Loudspeakers announced the day’s words in singsong Japanese. In between language lessons morphemes and phonemes, ran newsbulletins,(tragedies mostly), trivia or vector sealings of new quarantine areas. (99)

Unlike Gibson’s ‘creatives’, Kumo is an artist driven mad by commodity culture and its
ecologically destructive circulation, consumption and re-supply, and her struggle to
avoid that ‘kikeibutsu’ (16) – deformity – is a struggle for survival in the world globalized
capitalism made:In the cathedral acoustics of the tank, she heard: explosions, animal cries, screaming metal,

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burning buildings, machine gunfire, heavy equipment, protest cries, sirens, airplanes, copters –all ancient sounds she recognized from holovids. Tommy walked over to a box of silvery chips
and threw a blanket over it. The sound ceased. Kumo cleared her throat and glanced aroundthe walls, filled with carnages of the twentieth century; windows, auto parts, door knobs, wires,smashed small appliances, adapters, circuits, vacuum tubes, records, disks, rubber boots, tincans, cprs, tapes, darts, bottles, dried ink, Styrofoam peanuts, books, magazines, computer
cards, keyboards, drives, fans, plastic toys, buttons, bulbs, decoys, rubber fish, watches, pocket
calculators, games, musical instruments, all piled high in overflowing shelves welded to thewalls and boxes on the floor. (68)

Here is American-Japanese exchange not as cultural interaction or misunderstanding, but
as an enormous pile of junk facilitated and encouraged by the postwar consumer order
fostered under American occupation. Where Gibson sees ‘sheer eye candy’ (2010: 158),
Misha’s vision turns to a nightmare of waste that will not biodegrade.
Red Spider White Web is too relentless in its negativity, perhaps, and too intensely
itself and outside any legible literary tradition or conversation, for it to have lodged itself
securely in the SF or mainstream canon. Despite early championing by Brian Aldiss,and sporadic scholarly attention, Misha’s work has not entered the dialogue aroundcyberpunk in any permanent way. Its vision of North American-Japan relations on a
wrecked planet, and its intensity of ecological vision, may well be more relevant to ourmoment, however, than Gibson’s more sanguine ideological projections of the smooth andopen spaces of last century’s dream globalization.
If Red Spider White Web piles intensity upon intensity, Pat Cadigan’s Tea From an
Empty Cup (1998) untugs some of cyberpunk’s knots by way of irony and play. Joshua
LaBare has noted that ‘representations of the Japanese fall into three common science
fiction tropes: high technology, the alien, and the apocalypse’(23). Cadigan scrambles
all three. Her Japan has been ‘all but obliterated’ (48), with only three dozen people left
living where old Tokyo once stood. The ‘real Tokyo’ (12) is now a zone in artificial reality,
accessible only through drugs and bodily connection to the machine, a promise in aworld where ‘post-Apocalyptic glamour’ (92) is the ‘bleeding edge of this-minute fashion’(92) in a world desperate for paid thrills. Gibson’s Tokyo has something of the sheen of
the glossy magazine or the colour supplement, entranced as it is by the circulation of
objects while Cadigan’s world is attuned to the alienation and tedium commodification
brings with it, ‘billable AR time’ (132) allowing access to an artificial reality ‘even moretiresome than the reality she was used to’ (79). Tea from an Empty Cup follows thefamiliar plotting lines of criss-crossed conspiracy – Lieutenant Konstantin searches forthe real-life killer of two artificial reality addicts in one narrative line, while Yuki seeks
her lover Tom, one of those dead, in the other – but plays up its most clichéd devices
to parodic effect. There are plenty of ‘geisha’ (134) and ‘samurai’ (125) in this artificial
reality, certainly, but they reflect the way what Nakamura calls ‘cybertypes’ circulate
in the alienated spaces of the internet. Authenticity – cultural or existential – is, in thisnarrative, suspect, and the most ‘intense authenticity’ Konstantin encounters in artificial
reality is opening a doorknob, an experience ‘more like touching a doorknob than actually103

touching a doorknob’ (76). Yuki, meanwhile, far from being an exoticised and eroticizedJapanese Other, has her body likened by a friend to ‘a daikon radish’ (145): her physicalexistence is not, in this narrative, a vehicle for another’s erotic gratification so much as
for her own sense of autonomy and purpose, as ‘she felt a surge of affection for [it], forall the pleasure she had taken for granted and recognized now as being part of corporeal
existence’ (145). Pay-per-access artificial reality robs its users of this pleasure, theirminds taken up with vicarious apocalypses, a neat turn on cyberpunk consumption in ourown world: ‘a glitzed-out, gritted up, blastered and blistered post-Apocalyptic Noo Yawk
Sitty […] was topping the hotline for the thirteenth week in a row, with post-Apocalytpic
Ellay and pre-millenial Hong Kong holding a tie at two and three’ (22). The plot torebuild Tokyo, a post-Apocalyptic Tokyo only the Japanese can find, involves pitting one
kind of artifice against another, older crafts of puppetry, collective labour, planning, andhuman connection working against artificial reality, atomized computer experience, cityas-consumption:
Not a doll. A puppet, with several living persons behind its movements. Her movements.
Bunraku. Japanese puppet theatre. Not a children’s diversion but the classic puppet theatreof Old Japan, as serious as Noh and Kabuki, a demonstration of skill and grace, control andcooperation. Now she could see the outlines of the people moving the puppet if not their faces.
See them and feel them – (187)

Cadigan avoids exoticising this vision by opening her novel with a scene making
whiteness – the default ‘non-identity’ of the cyberpunk reader still – visible. In a dinerso generic in its features that it could be anywhere in either Japan or America, the‘Japanese guy’ (3) and ‘the white guy’ (3) discuss how to get to the real Tokyo. This
opening chapter forces the reader’s attention on our ways of seeing both characters, the‘thin, Anglo lips’ (3) of ‘the white guy’ racialized in ways that ‘the Japanese guy’ seems
to manage to avoid, with ‘the white guy [] watching the other smooth the front of his
Guinness T-Shirt. Not sake, but Guinness, for chrissakes, what kind of an Oriental was he,anyway?’ (1) Tokyo is a name for things to come in this novel, a site to be, a place outsideof the administered world of artificial reality and corporate-controlled technology. It is a
Utopian promise of potential collectivity:
Abruptly, she realized she wasn’t as high up over the city as she had been and she could see thelights more clearly now, flashing, twinkling patterns that resolved themselves into gargantuan
signs flashing words, flashing pictures, flashing kanji as if in a long and complex display forwhat universe there might be out there in the dark, over and over, the message: Japan lives!
(216)

IV. After the crash‘In the beginning, all the world was America….’: this citation from Locke’s Two Treatisesof Government, overheard amidst conversation amongst ‘fetishistic collectors andconnoisseurs of printed books, vinyl, paintings, photographs, and all manner of analog
detritus’(100), links Eli K. P. William’s vision of Tokyo in his Cash Crash Jubilee

104(2015), an astonishing recent intervention into the cyberpunk canon, to both narrativesof future Tokyo and to ways of imagining the city’s occupation literature. William’s
dystopia rewrites Neuromancer for a post-Bubble Tokyo and a post-Global Financial
Crisis United States, offering intertextual homage to his predecessor while bringing
a much more skeptical eye to Gibson’s neoliberal excitement. Case in Neuromancer
worked the ‘consensual hallucination that was the matrix’ (5) and that we have cometo call cyberspace, and the characters in Cash Crash Jubilee live in the ‘consensus
hallucination’ (209) that is there permanently socially-mediated society of ‘adverpromos’(53) and ‘datainment’ (53). Tokyo is now a ‘vast amorphous adscape’ (355), ‘huge
skyscrapers sprawling endlessly in all directions, their every wall and window covered
in a motley sheen of entertisement’ (32) and ‘the infosky […] a cinematic quilt of
promotional narratives’ (32). After the ‘Great Cyberwar’ the ‘Old Powers of the West’and ‘the new Powers of mainland Asia’ (45) – Japan’s status between these two groups isambiguous – create ‘the action-based global economy’ at the ‘Tokyo Roundtable’ (45), alibertarian, market-driven society where all volitional activities, from blinking to touching
to childbirth, have become ‘a kind of intellectual property, the usage of which required
payment of a licensing fee’ (11). Tokyo is thus a vast ‘communixchange’ (37) orderedby the Twelve and One, a group of ‘MegaGloms’ (35) that together own the rights toall human endeavor, with ‘No Logo, Inc.’ owning copyright on ‘protesting, subversion,counter-culture, swearing’ (35). In this world all available surfaces are commoditized:‘the black clouds that had been hanging over the metropolis finally opened up. Firsta sprinkle of Korean soap opera fell – crystal tears of drama that splattered onto thepavement into vaguely glowing spots’ (316). Free citizens, those with credit and liquidity,
are equipped with interpretive technology mediating their vision. There is ‘ImmaNet, a
global communication network that matched up the world seen by the naked eye with aveneer and graphics information infoseen by the eyescreen integrated into every Free
Citizen’s retina’ (17) and ‘LifeStream, a recording of […] life taken continuously by all
the sensors […] working in tandem’ (81). This is, in other words, a world where theprivatized internet – the Googles, Facebooks, and YouTubes of our own day – control andorder every aspect of human affairs, knowledge being accessible only to the amount that
one can afford bronze, silver, or gold searches on Flexipedia, human activity regulating
according to the costs of each interaction, social life impossible without a screen of
consumer decision making. William’s Tokyo is not the site of reverse-colonization
fantasies, and immigration after the ‘Bubble rewind’ (132) has made Tokyo’s population
more ethnically diverse. Lawrence Barrow, the country’s Chief Executive Officer, is thefirst non-Japanese to hold the position, and looks like a European in a Urasawa Naoki
manga: ‘his hair was pure white and of just enough length to be pulled back and tied into
a tight ponytail; his nose large and commanding; his eyes a piercing blue nearly light asa husky’s’ (129). William creates a memorable Tokyo narrative not by imagining ways
the city might be different and outside of global capitalist flows, but rather by figuring
how those flows work in this particular space. His is an art of modernist indirection,
travelling in circles round the city – one can trace the protagonists’ movements, more or105less circling the inner city and central suburbs, by way of chapter titles – and evoking it
in fragmentary detail, as Kim Ha Yong does for Seoul in Your Republic Is Calling You(2010) or Joyce Dublin in Ulysses (1922). Besides, if citizens do not like Tokyo’s reality
they can have the ImmaNet overlay it for them with another: ‘the membership dues touse subscription overlays, like gaming environments or nostalgic, historical cityscapes,
were higher than the flat hourly fee for the default public overlay, but were nothingcompared to custom overlays’ (51). Tokyo Bay has been filled with rubble and nuclear
waste, Mt Fuji hollowed out to store more waste, but the privatization of public spaceconnects to our current reality easily enough.
Amon Kenzaki, William’s protagonist, ‘of Persian and Japanese descent’ (20), is a
Liquidator for the Global Action Transaction Authority, responsible for ‘liquidating’bankrupts, stripping them of their Free Citizen status and reducing them to ‘Bankdead’(87) status. ‘Justice was better entrusted to the market wherever possible’ (60) throughself-regulating fines and compensation, but Amon’s job is to remove those who can nolonger live in the market. He is not a cool-hunter so much as a subject for the era ofausterity, separating the Free Citizen from the irresponsible spender:
By checking their action-transaction and balance fluctuations over the past few weeks, months,
and sometimes years he could begin to see an abstract picture of their routine, their job, their
hobbies, and their addictions. Amon almost felt a sort of monetary personality manifesting fromthe vague bundle of activities like faces spotted in a cloud (47)Amon is homo economicus, a rational economic man and model market subject, text
messaging friends rather than talking, a more expensive choice, whenever possible,
careful hoarder of credit and prudent self-regulator. He uses a ‘SpillBot’, a machine
designed to masturbate clients to relieve tension and then sell their discharge to spermbanks, rather than waste his spending – the double entendre is the text’s4 – on thought,
fantasy, and emotional interaction: ‘on special occasions, when face-to-face meetings did
happen, Amon thought it foolish to waste creditime holding hands, snuggling, kissing,and other behavior with a poor cost-to-stimulation ratio. He understood the need forforeplay, but it was prudent to limit minimally arousing acts’ (29). This careful, andunbalanced, rationality, will be Amon’s undoing, and the prompt for the conspiracy
driving the novel and its two follow-up works. Plot revelations need not spoil things
here; what matters, for my analytic purposes, is the way William counterposes affective
experiences – touch, contact, conversation – with the eroticized Other conventional toso many Science Fiction and popular cultural treatments of Japan.5 Anton encounters
two childhood friends sharing a cuddle before work, and it is the emotional-economic
wastefulness of the scene, rather than its disclosure of a sexual relationship, thatunnerves him. Amon cannot conceive of human relations in terms other than those of
the market – ‘emotional investment’ – and cost-benefit analysis. If Gibson celebrates the‘outlaw zones’ of ‘burgeoning technologies’ and generates narratives for the subject of
4
5

William offers a post-crash commentary on the tradition of libidinal economy David Bennett traces.
As Wendy Hui Kyong Chun points out, the sexualizing and commodifying logic of internet pornography
searches has turned the term ‘Asian’ into a sexual marker. See Control and Freedom, chapter 2.

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neoliberal discovery, early adopted and ‘creatives’, William recognizes the mutations inthat subject once the neoliberal order has become the orthodoxy, and its spiritual orderthe norm:
In his lifetime, Amon had enjoyed heaps of porn, acclimatizing himself to harshly exultant
panting, passionate moans, and vulgar pillowtalk. Yet the humming of Rick and his partner had
an unfamiliar resonance, suggesting not lust but a kind of tenderness. (29)Sexuality, or an alienated and transactional reduction of sexuality, is exposed here to amuch wider sense of feeling, touch, and imperfect human interaction, lost amidst thedigital mediation of the ImmaNet and its populations moved ‘like router arteries pumping
data clots through junctions of fiber-optic cables’ (57). A ‘glimpse into the naked world’(175) without advertising filters reveals in Amon a horror of the body and physicality
itself. A stock image of Tokyo life – the overcrowded subways - here becomes a kind of
Breughel hellscape:Yet ImmaNet was limited to only two senses – sight and hearing – and Amon’s sense of
touch belied the spectacle. Nowhere could he see even a dab of fat; every office lady either
voluptuous or slender, every salaryman brawny or slim. But he could feel flab and untoned
muscle pressing all around him: a squishy love handle on his side, a soft bicep on his belly, asagging breast on the small of his back. (17)These details, markers of abjection at the novel’s opening, will become, over Amon’s
progression through the city and his inevitable crisis, conspiracy and struggle in the
Authority, markers of a form of humanism, flab and sag and softness an alternative to therealm of the visual enforced by ImmaNet. Delivery and recovery, plotted in the trilogy’s
subsequent books outside of official Tokyo, involves not only learning to see again but
also how to touch, how to imagine human connection.
Because it was the visual, after all, that, for cyberpunk’s theorists, defined Tokyo:
Bukatman’s ‘media eruption of Tokyo’ with its ‘pervasive domination by, and addiction
to, the image’ (27), Barthes’s ‘empire of signs’ cited everywhere across critical theory,
Gibson’s ‘manically animated forest of signs’. William has produced the first major
Science Fiction response to the post-Bubble Japan – and to the world living the drawn-on
aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis – and, significantly, in this world touch replaces
sight and the sense with which to rediscover Tokyo. If his city is less special in one sense,
captured as it is by globalized technologies imaginable in any one of the world’s major
centres, it is more fully imaginatively realized for all that, being a space lived in by people
and the place for realization of character – both in the sense of character construction
in narrative and the test of character through the quest obligations of the story – rather
than the backdrop for visions of American renewal. William moves cyberpunk from optic
to haptic, from the delirious representational energy of Gibson’s visual order, with its
listing of commodities, breathless witnessing of technological bustle and fascination withthe lights and advertising of Tokyo’s exterior, its outside, to a sensuous order organizedaround touch and the problem of social renewal. Cash Crash Jubilee has, unusually forTokyo Science Fictions, a wide range of Japanese characters, each linked to social (mis)understandings with the others as opportunities for readerly imaginative connection

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rather than as illustration of social type. William’s is a bleaker Tokyo than Gibson’s, to be
sure, but, in that bleakness, it offers the reader a city trying, across the ‘travelling theatreof the obscene’ (320) that is its advertising world and regulatory system, to be taken on
its own, human terms.

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