CONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVECOMMISSION ON CHINA
ANNUAL REPORT2013

ONE HUNDRED THIRTEENTH CONGRESSFIRST SESSIONOCTOBER 10, 2013

Printed for the use of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China(
Available via the World Wide Web: http://www.cecc.gov

2013 ANNUAL REPORTCONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVECOMMISSION ON CHINA
ANNUAL REPORT2013

ONE HUNDRED THIRTEENTH CONGRESSFIRST SESSIONOCTOBER 10, 2013

Printed for the use of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China(
Available via the World Wide Web: http://www.cecc.gov
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CONGRESSIONAL-EXECUTIVE COMMISSION ON CHINALEGISLATIVE BRANCH COMMISSIONERS
SenateHouse

SHERROD BROWN, Ohio, Chairman
MAX BAUCUS, Montana
CARL LEVIN, Michigan
DIANNE FEINSTEIN, California
JEFF MERKLEY, Oregon

CHRISTOPHER H. SMITH, New Jersey,
Cochairman
FRANK WOLF, Virginia
MARK MEADOWS, North Carolina
ROBERT PITTENGER, North Carolina
TIMOTHY J. WALZ, Minnesota
MARCY KAPTUR, Ohio
MICHAEL M. HONDA, California

EXECUTIVE BRANCH COMMISSIONERSSETH D. HARRIS, Department of LaborFRANCISCO J. SÁNCHEZ, Department of Commerce
NISHA DESAI BISWAL, U.S. Agency for International Development
LAWRENCE T. LIU, Staff Director
PAUL B. PROTIC, Deputy Staff Director(II)CO N T E N T S
Page

I. Executive Summary .............................................................................................
Introduction ......................................................................................................
Specific Findings and Recommendations ........................................................
Political Prisoner Database .............................................................................
II. Human Rights .....................................................................................................
Freedom of Expression .....................................................................................
Worker Rights ...................................................................................................
Criminal Justice ...............................................................................................
Freedom of Religion ..........................................................................................
Ethnic Minority Rights ....................................................................................
Population Planning .........................................................................................
Freedom of Residence and Movement ............................................................
Status of Women ..............................................................................................
Human Trafficking ...........................................................................................
North Korean Refugees in China ....................................................................
Public Health ....................................................................................................
The Environment ..............................................................................................
III. Development of the Rule of Law ......................................................................
Civil Society ......................................................................................................
Institutions of Democratic Governance ..........................................................
Commercial Rule of Law ..................................................................................
Access to Justice ...............................................................................................
IV. Xinjiang ..............................................................................................................
V. Tibet .....................................................................................................................
VI. Developments in Hong Kong and Macau ........................................................
VII. Endnotes ...........................................................................................................
Political Prisoner Database ..........................................................................
Freedom of Expression .................................................................................
Worker Rights ...............................................................................................
Criminal Justice ............................................................................................
Freedom of Religion ......................................................................................
Ethnic Minority Rights .................................................................................
Population Planning .....................................................................................
Freedom of Residence and Movement .........................................................
Status of Women ...........................................................................................
Human Trafficking .......................................................................................
North Korean Refugees in China ................................................................
Public Health .................................................................................................
The Environment ..........................................................................................
Civil Society ...................................................................................................
Institutions of Democratic Governance .......................................................
Commercial Rule of Law ..............................................................................
Access to Justice ...........................................................................................
Xinjiang ..........................................................................................................
Tibet ...............................................................................................................
Developments in Hong Kong and Macau ....................................................

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I. Executive Summary
INTRODUCTION
The Commission notes China’s lack of progress in guaranteeing
Chinese citizens’ freedom of expression, assembly, and religion; restraining the power of the Chinese Communist Party; and establishing the rule of law under the new leadership of President Xi
Jinping and Premier Li Keqiang. Official rhetoric at the start oftheir tenure suggested openness to reforms and limits on the powerof officials, sparking public discussion across China. But the newleadership soon cracked down on growing calls for human rights
and the rule of law and reiterated the Party’s dominance over public affairs. Despite widespread acknowledgement that loosening restrictions on society to encourage public participation, lessening
state control over the economy, and enforcing the rule of law are
essential to China’s economic development, China continues to pursue economic modernization without political reform or guarantees
to fundamental human rights.
The Commission’s reporting year, which covers the period fromfall 2012 to fall 2013, began with some potentially hopeful signs.
Statements starting in late 2012 by President Xi, Premier Li, andother top leaders pledged to crack down on corruption and rein in
official abuses, promised major reforms to the abusive systems of
reeducation through labor and household registration, and suggested an openness to giving greater authority to China’s Constitution. New and revised laws that took effect, including the PRC
Criminal Procedure Law and the PRC Mental Health Law, contained significant flaws but also had the potential to improve protection of citizens’ rights. China’s relatively open response to an
outbreak of avian flu in early 2013 stood in marked contrast to its
poor handling of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
crisis 10 years earlier, a point highlighted at a Commission hearing
held in May 2013. Whether buoyed by statements from China’s
new leaders or the possibilities accompanying a transition of power,
citizens from diverse sectors of society, from elements within the
Party to individuals affiliated with the grassroots New Citizens’
Movement, sought to engage in public discussion over China’s future. They urged their government to give greater force to the Constitution as a check on official behavior, make good on its promise
to combat corruption by requiring officials to disclose their assets,
and ratify the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
which China signed in 1998.
By spring, however, it became clear that hopes China’s new leaders would engage with, or even tolerate, public discussion on issues
such as constitutionalism and anticorruption would remainunfulfilled. In April, the Office of the Communist Party’s Central
Committee reportedly issued Document No. 9, which sought to(1)

2
marginalize and silence calls for constitutional checks,
anticorruption, universal human rights, and press freedom as the
products of ‘‘Western anti-China forces’’ and dissidents, rather thantreat them as the legitimate concerns of China’s own citizens andan obligation under China’s commitments to international standards such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. By September 2013, authorities had detained, arrested, or ‘‘disappeared’’
nearly 60 individuals in an ensuing crackdown on free expression,assembly, and association, including the prominent rights advocates Xu Zhiyong and Guo Feixiong. Pro-reform editorials and discussions on the Internet were censored. Citizens who sought information about the government’s human rights action plan and thesubmission to the UN Human Rights Council’s Universal Periodic
Review of China’s human rights record scheduled for October 2013
faced harassment, detention, and arrest.
The Party’s harsh response to calls for reform this past year
echoed a consistent theme across the 19 issue areas covered in thisreport—that the Party’s interest in maintaining control and dominance over Chinese society still trumps meaningful and lasting
progress on transparency, human rights, the rule of law, and easing state control over the economy. To be sure, the Commission
documented improvements at the margins throughout this report,
including the issuance of a national anti-trafficking plan, the loosening of residency restrictions in some localities, the introductionof labor law amendments intended to curb abuse of subcontracted
labor, and the discontinuation of reeducation through labor sentences in some provinces. But these took place against the backdrop of a Chinese state that still views its citizens with suspicion
and still denies them basic freedoms.
This was evident in many of the headline issues that captivatedChinese citizens this past year, from crippling pollution and corrupt political figures to widespread concerns over food safety andtensions in ethnic minority regions. Citizens clamored for more information about the safety of their environment and food, but authorities deemed soil pollution data a ‘‘state secret.’’ Corruption
was a top concern for many in China, but authorities detained
anticorruption advocates and censored foreign news stories about
the finances of China’s leaders and their families. Despite dozens
more self-immolations in Tibetan areas of China and some of theworst unrest in Xinjiang since 2009, Chinese officials continued torely on heavier security and tighter control instead of dialogue andreconciliation. Another year has passed without resumption of formal dialogue with representatives of the Dalai Lama, extending thelongest break since talks resumed in 2002. On the surface, the August trial of Bo Xilai, former Party Central Political Bureau member and Chongqing Party Secretary, appeared relatively moretransparent, but it also was a reminder that when the Party’s interests are involved, China remains very much a country ruled by
the Party and not by laws.
In addition, China made little progress toward achieving the‘‘highly efficient modern government that operates under the ruleof law’’ recommended in the groundbreaking ‘‘China 2030’’ report
released by the World Bank and the Development Research Centerof China’s State Council in 2012. The ‘‘China 2030’’ report, which

3
the Commission raised in last year’s annual report, underscoredthe strong relationship between the human rights and rule of law
issues monitored by the Commission and China’s long-term economic development and stability. The report urged China to takea number of steps to reach the next stage of economic development,
including allowing Chinese people greater freedom of movement
and public participation, and strengthening the rule of law. The report also urged China to reform its state-owned sector, a source ofabuses that tests China’s commitment to the rule of law. On thiscount, this report found that the state continues to play an outsizedrole in China’s economy, unfairly subsidizing state-owned enterprises and coordinating an overseas investment strategy, employing policies that favor domestic companies over foreign firms, violating World Trade Organization obligations, undervaluing its currency, and failing to curb the massive theft of foreign intellectual
property.
China’s new leaders must undertake significant reforms to meet
China’s human rights obligations under international standards
and to strengthen the rule of law. To that end, the Commission
provides the following main recommendations to Members of the
U.S. Congress and Administration officials outlining ways to encourage such reforms.
MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights(ICCPR). China signed the ICCPR in 1998 but 15 years later has
still not ratified the covenant despite repeatedly stating its intent
to do so. China is the only permanent member of the UN Security
Council not to have acceded to or ratified the ICCPR. China musttake a number of concrete steps to come into conformity with thespecific provisions of the ICCPR, including the following: Ending
arbitrary arrest and detention of political dissidents (Article 9); allowing citizens the right to freely choose their place of residence(Article 12); ending the policy of denying passports and restricting
the movement of activists and their families as political punishment (Article 12); allowing citizens the freedom to not only hold religious beliefs but also to practice them (Article 18); ending pressand Internet censorship of peaceful political content and allowing
freedom of expression (Article 19); allowing citizens the right tofreely associate with others, including through non-governmentalorganizations and trade unions (Article 22); and allowing genuine
elections by universal and equal suffrage (Article 25).
RECOMMENDATION: Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials should urge China to commit to a specific date
for ratifying the ICCPR, including providing a concrete and transparent plan and timetable for ratification developed through genuine, democratic, and open public participation and comment fromall sectors of civil society. The Administration should raise this recommendation during China’s Universal Periodic Review before the
UN Human Rights Council on October 22, 2013, and at future bilateral dialogues with China, including the Strategic and Economic
Dialogue, the Human Rights Dialogue, and the Legal Experts Dialogue. The Administration should raise China’s qualifications for4membership on the UN Human Rights Council prior to and during
the upcoming election for Council members at the UN General Assembly on November 12, 2013.
• U.S.-China Trade and Connection to Rule of Law and
Human Rights. One of the results of the United States’ extensive
trade ties with China is that China’s domestic human rights andrule of law developments impact the public health and economic
well-being of Americans to a greater degree than those of any othercountry. China is the world’s second-largest economy and has beena member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 2001.
China is the United States’ second largest trading partner, and exports a large and growing volume of food, drugs, and products to
the United States. The U.S. trade deficit with China reached arecord US$315 billion in 2012 and topped US$30 billion in July
2013, the highest monthly deficit ever. China continues to be theworld’s largest producer of carbon dioxide emissions, while foodcontinues to be grown in areas of China contaminated by waterand soil pollution. In addition, pollutants originating in China,
such as mercury and ozone, are reaching the United States. The
extent to which the Chinese government is transparent, respects
its international trading obligations, and protects Chinese citizens’
human rights affects the safety and quality of goods imported from
China, and the ability of American workers and companies to compete on a level playing field.
This connection between China’s domestic commercial rule of law
and human rights developments and the health and economic prosperity of Americans as a result of trade is evident in many contexts. Without a free press and civil society, Chinese consumers
cannot effectively uncover and respond to food and drug safetyissues, environmental threats, and disease outbreaks that could beexported abroad. Unfair trading practices, such as industrial policies, currency manipulation, quotas and subsidies, forced technology transfer, and intellectual property theft—many of which
contravene China’s obligations as a member of the WTO—directly
harm American businesses and workers. China’s censorship of theInternet not only denies China’s nearly 600 million Internet users
their freedom of expression but also blocks companies such as
Facebook, Twitter, Bloomberg, the New York Times, Google, andYouTube from accessing China’s markets. The denial of the basic
right of Chinese workers to organize independent unions and thelack of enforcement of minimum labor and environmental standards places American workers and companies at a competitive disadvantage. Over the last two years, the Commission has held anumber of hearings that have highlighted how U.S. trade relations
with China should not be viewed in isolation from China’s restrictions on expression, labor rights, environmental and public healthtransparency, and civil society, including ‘‘China’s Censorship ofthe Internet and Social Media: The Human Toll and Trade Impact’’; ‘‘Ten Years in the WTO: Has China Kept Its Promises? ’’;‘‘Working Conditions and Worker Rights in China: Recent Developments’’; ‘‘Food and Drug Safety, Public Health, and the Environment in China’’; and ‘‘Chinese Hacking: Impact on Human Rights
and Commercial Rule of Law.’’5
RECOMMENDATION: Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials should seek to include human rights and ruleof law concerns as integral parts of their discussions over trade andcommercial issues with their Chinese counterparts during the annual U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue, negotiations
over a bilateral investment treaty, and other trade-related venues,
pointing out the links between, for example, China’s censorship ofthe Internet and market access, the rule of law and food safety, andChina’s industrial policies and weak enforcement of law and theftof American intellectual property. The Administration should also
continue to ensure that China adheres to its WTO obligations, including by exercising the United States’ rights under the WTO dispute settlement process when necessary.
• Rule of Law and Democratic Institutions. Early in theCommission’s reporting period, President Xi Jinping drew attention
with comments such as, ‘‘[N]o organization or individual should be
put above the constitution and the law’’; and, ‘‘[T]he Constitution
should be the legal weapon for people to defend their own rights’’and implemented in order to have ‘‘life and authority.’’ In practice,
China’s rule of law development has stalled, as most laws and regulations are developed behind closed doors largely in the absenceof democratic input; officials continue to arbitrarily apply laws topunish individuals they deem politically sensitive; and enforcementof laws, such as labor laws, remains uneven. China lacks meaningful safeguards, such as an independent judiciary, a free press, andan unrestricted civil society, to ensure that the state’s restrictions
on freedom are narrowly tailored to meet the requirements of international law.
RECOMMENDATION: Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials should raise President Xi’s statements with
Chinese officials and urge them to adopt the true hallmarks of a society marked by the rule of law, including laws and policies developed through democratic institutions and public participation, andmeaningful safeguards such as a free press, independent judiciary,and vibrant civil society. U.S. officials who wish to express support
for the new Chinese leadership’s attempts to combat corruption
should insist that, in order for such efforts to be sustainable, theymust be accompanied by democratic participation, public oversight,
and the rule of law. U.S. officials should also cite the ‘‘China 2030’’
report’s assertion that the creation of a ‘‘highly efficient modern government that operates under the rule of law’’ is key to China’s economic future.
• Ethnic Minorities. China’s current policy toward ethnic minorities, most notably with respect to Tibetans and Uyghurs, has
proven ineffective and counterproductive. Instead of promoting thedeclared national goals of stability and a harmonious society, thesepolicies have led in the opposite direction. Tibetans continue to engage in tragic acts of self-immolation at an alarming rate, and the
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) has witnessed someof the most severe unrest since 2009.
RECOMMENDATION: Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials should note to Chinese officials that instability
in Tibetan areas of China and the XUAR is likely to continue and6
could deteriorate further without a shift in the state’s policy awayfrom a top-down approach that belies China’s constitutional commitment to ‘‘ethnic autonomy,’’ and instead relies on heavy-handed
security measures and development policies that fail to provide forparticipation by ethnic minorities in decisionmaking and fail to protect their distinct cultural, linguistic, and religious identity. China
should be encouraged to move toward a more inclusive, democratic
approach that fully takes into account the views and values of Tibetans and Uyghurs and respects their culture, language, and religion. U.S. officials should take note of and seek to learn more about
what appeared to be more tolerant policy suggestions on the Tibet
issue that appeared within the Party this year and should call on
the Chinese leadership to promote a more stable and inclusive society by allowing greater public dialogue and debate among allgroups, especially groups such as Tibetans and Uyghurs that areamong the most adversely affected by current policies.
• Reeducation Through Labor, Population Planning, andHousehold Registration. Major policies such as the reeducation
through labor system, the population planning policy, and thehousehold registration system were the source of great public discontent in China this past year. These policies not only violate
human rights but also contribute to social instability and hold backChina’s economy. The reeducation through labor system violates
the rule of law by incarcerating citizens without trial or access tolegal counsel, and high-profile cases of abuse have led to widespread calls for abolishing the policy in China. The population
planning policy interferes with and controls the reproductive livesof Chinese citizens, especially women, and involves serious abusessuch as forced sterilizations and forced abortions. The policy also
exacerbates the country’s demographic challenges, which include
an aging population, diminishing workforce, and skewed sex ratio.
The household registration system denies Chinese citizens the freedom to choose a permanent residence and leads to unequal treatment and discrimination against migrants from rural areas who
move to cities, contributing to social tensions and instability.
RECOMMENDATION: Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials should inquire about indications this past
year of possible changes in these policies, including a government
restructuring plan that moves population planning policy development to the National Development and Reform Commission and theannouncements of possible major reforms to the reeducation throughlabor system and the household registration system by the end of
2013. Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials
should request more details about the changes and proposed reforms
and urge Chinese officials to undertake serious reform that would
both remedy rights violations and lead to greater social stability byending policies that are widely opposed in China.
REPORT HIGHLIGHTSThis report is divided into 19 issue areas. Highlights of developments in each area are discussed briefly below.
The Commission observed China’s implementation of practices
inconsistent with Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil

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and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR), as noted in this year’s Freedom of Expression section. As more and more Chinese citizens accessed theInternet to share information and express grievances, Chinese officials responded with overly broad and non-transparent policies tocurb ‘‘online rumors’’ and expand the real-name registration requirement for online services. Censorship of peaceful political content, a violation of international standards, remained commonplace
and targeted everything from foreign news articles on the wealthof former Premier Wen Jiabao’s family to domestic online discussion of the 18th Party Congress. New research indicated China was
expanding its censorship system and focusing on online activity
that could lead to collective movements. The Party continued to exercise broad control over the press, and authorities punished journalists such as Du Bin, who exposed abuses at the Masanjia Women’s Reeducation Through Labor Center, and Deng Yuwen, who
criticized China’s North Korea policy. In a rare act, journalists at
the Southern Weekend staged a strike in January 2013 over the removal of an editorial advocating freedoms and constitutional principles, news of which itself was censored.
China continued to violate internationally recognized worker
rights by not allowing workers the right to freely associate andform independent trade unions. As noted in the Worker Rights
section, despite limited efforts to promote the direct election ofworker representatives to state-controlled unions, union representatives remained generally ineffective in representing workers’ interests. Without adequate channels to protect their rights and express workplace grievances, China’s large migrant worker population, which has provided the low-cost labor to drive China’s
growth, continued to suffer exploitation, with studies showing thatless than 50 percent had labor contracts, and even fewer had pensions and medical insurance. At the same time, rising wages anda tightening labor market led companies in the electronics industry
and elsewhere to hire, in some cases with local government cooperation, underage workers and to exploit subcontracted workers
in violation of the law. In December 2012, the National People’s
Congress amended the PRC Labor Contract Law to address subcontracting abuses, but the effectiveness of implementation remains tobe seen.
In the Commercial Rule of Law section, the Commission noted
heavy state coordination of outbound investment, which has grownsignificantly in recent years, as part of a ‘‘go out’’ strategy targeting‘‘strategic industries’’ such as energy resources, metals, advanced
technology, and ‘‘famous brands.’’ An official urged Chinese companies investing abroad to keep a low profile to avoid the appearanceof state involvement, while the Chinese government offered preferential financing that created an uneven playing field in overseas
markets. The yuan remained significantly undervalued, according
to the U.S. Treasury Department. The WTO found that China had
imposed antidumping and countervailing duties on U.S. grainoriented electrical steel, U.S. chicken products, and European x-ray
inspection equipment in ways that were inconsistent with China’s
WTO obligations. Chinese officials continued to use technology
transfer as a precondition for market access, in violation of China’s

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WTO obligations and commitments made during the 2012 U.S.China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade. Weak protectionof intellectual property (IP) rights and policies encouraging Chineseacquisition of technology have led China to account for a reported
50 to 80 percent of international IP theft. New information thisyear revealed a massive cyber theft operation controlled by the
People’s Liberation Army. Problems with the rule of law contributed to ongoing food and product safety problems, including thecross-border movement of hazardous and illegal products.
The Commission observed ongoing noncompliance with standards
for fair trial rights and the right to be free from arbitrary detention
and torture as set forth in the ICCPR and the UDHR, as describedin this year’s Criminal Justice section. The revised PRC Criminal
Procedure Law (CPL) took effect on January 1, 2013; while the new
CPL is, for the most part, an improvement over its predecessor, it
fails to clearly stipulate the rights to remain silent and to be presumed innocent, and the right not to incriminate oneself. Article 73of the new CPL legalizes enforced disappearance (up to six months)
in contravention of international standards. Chinese authorities
continue to use the criminal justice system to suppress dissent andpunish activists and their family members—the criminal detentionof prominent rights activist Xu Zhiyong and the jailing of Chen
Kegui, the nephew of Chen Guangcheng, are just two examples.
The issue of confessions coerced through torture and wrongful convictions was once again in the spotlight, but it remains to be seen
whether the CPL’s new rule excluding the use of illegally obtained
evidence from criminal trials will actually curb the use of torturein criminal investigations.
The Commission notes in the Freedom of Religion section that
the Chinese government’s legal and policy framework for religion
violates international standards for freedom of religion, including
Article 18 of the UDHR. The PRC Constitution limits citizens’ ability to exercise their beliefs by protecting only ‘‘normal religious activities,’’ and the government continued to recognize only five religions—Buddhism, Catholicism, Taoism, Islam, and Protestantism—for limited state protections for religious activity. The government
and Party maintained strict ideological control and oversight overreligious groups, and a top official announced all clergy would be
registered with the government by the end of 2013. Chinese citizens who sought to practice their faith outside of state-approved
parameters continued to face harassment and detention. For example, Chinese officials revoked the title of auxiliary bishop frombishop Thaddeus Ma Daqin after he publicly withdrew from thestate-run Catholic Patriotic Association of China at his ordination
ceremony. In April 2013, a China-based magazine reported onclaims of torture and severe maltreatment of inmates at theMasanjia Women’s Reeducation Through Labor (RTL) Center in
Liaoning province, many of whom are believed to be Falun Gong
practitioners. Muslims were warned against going on Hajj pilgrimages not organized by the government. The government also continued to harass members of the Beijing Shouwang Church, a Protestant house church in Beijing municipality, and detained housechurch pastor Cao Nan and others for holding a religious gatheringin a public park in Shenzhen municipality.

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The Commission observed that Chinese officials continued to failto respond to Tibetan grievances in a constructive manner, instead
dealing with the 65 Tibetan self-immolations that occurred from
September 2012 through July this year by strengthening a security
crackdown that has infringed on Tibetans’ freedom of expression,association, and movement, as noted in the Tibet section. The selfimmolations peaked in November during the 18th Party Congress,
prompting officials to launch a troubling campaign to hold relatives, friends, and associates of the self-immolators criminally liable. Some self-immolators reportedly called for greater use of the
Tibetan language as they burned—an apparent indication of thesignificant threat some Tibetans believe official policies pose to Tibetan culture’s vibrancy and viability. Officials continued to emphasize economic development as the key to achieving ‘‘social stability,’’ even though some initiatives resulted in protests or alleged
harm to local communities. Talks between China and the Dalai
Lama remained stalled, but the publication of a Central Party
School academic’s remarks on the potential benefits of improved relations with the Dalai Lama suggested that some officials may beinterested in greater public discussion on the matter.
The Commission found that instances of unrest in the spring andsummer resulted in numerous deaths, with reported death tolls
ranging from dozens to 100 or possibly more, and raised concerns
about the failure of ethnic policy in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region to address the root causes of instability. As discussed
in the Xinjiang section, authorities continued to rely on heavyhanded security measures, including overly broad security sweeps
targeting the general population and top-down development that
disproportionately excludes Uyghurs, instead of pursuing inclusive,
democratic policies that respect religious, cultural, and linguistic
rights. Chinese officials violated Uyghurs’ freedom of movement,
preventing Uyghur scholar Ilham Tohti from traveling abroad anddenying passports to some Uyghurs. News surfaced that
Mirhemitjan Muzepper had been sentenced to 11 years in prison
for serving as a translator for a Hong Kong media organization reporting on the demolitions taking place in Kashgar’s Old City.
As discussed in the Ethnic Minority Rights section, some Mongols continued to face harassment and imprisonment for peacefulprotest and assertions of cultural identity, and some nomadic populations were forced to resettle away from grasslands. Authorities
continued to hold Mongol rights advocate Hada in extralegal detention, denying him treatment for serious mental health issues; andthey ordered Batzangaa, a former medical school principal who organized demonstrations to protest the government’s confiscation of
campus property in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, tobegin serving a three-year prison sentence.
China’s policy of interfering with and controlling the reproductive
lives of Chinese citizens, including through fines, withholding of
benefits, and forced sterilizations and abortions, continued to violate international human rights standards, as noted in the Population Planning section. In March 2013, China’s new leaders
merged the National Population and Family Planning Commission
with the Ministry of Health and transferred the responsibility ofdeveloping population planning policy to the National Development

10
and Reform Commission, a move some viewed as an opening for reform while others saw it as strengthening the family planning system. Calls for relaxing family planning policy continued, but local
authorities continued to aggressively push the policy, and news andsocial media continued to publicize cases of forced abortions andsterilizations across China.
Chinese authorities continued to enforce a household registration(hukou) system that denies citizens their right to freely determine
their permanent place of residence, and contributes to instability
by discriminating against rural migrants living in cities by denying
them social services because they lack urban hukous. As describedin the Freedom of Residence and Movement section, top officials announced that a plan to reform the system would be unveiled by the end of 2013 as part of a larger push for urbanization
to sustain China’s economic growth. Some officials experimented
with policies to expand educational and employment opportunities
for rural migrants in cities, but experts have said many local governments lack the resources to fully implement such reforms.
China continued to deny its citizens the right to freely leave thecountry by denying passports to a growing number of politicallysensitive individuals, including Tibetans, Uyghurs, and political activists and their family members. Human rights groups estimatethat at least 14 million people may be affected. Liu Xia, the wifeof the imprisoned 2010 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo, continued to be confined to her home, one of many ‘‘politically sensitive’’ individuals denied domestic freedom of movement.
The Commission observed that China continued to fall short ofcommitments in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women to ensure female representation ingovernment. As noted in the Status of Women section, female
representation at all levels of government continued to be low anddid not markedly improve following the leadership transition. Gender discrimination in education and employment remains widespread. New national-level domestic violence legislation promisedin state-run media reports has not materialized, and young femalerape victims received inadequate legal protection under the PRC
Criminal Law.
China has taken some steps to comply with the UN Protocol toPrevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children, including the issuance of a new nationalanti-trafficking action plan this year, as discussed in the Trafficking section. After nine consecutive years on the Tier 2 Watch
List, China was in June automatically downgraded to Tier 3, thelowest tier ranking, in the U.S. State Department’s 2013 Trafficking in Persons Report. Men, women, and children continue tobe trafficked to, from, and within China for purposes including
forced labor, forced marriage, and sexual exploitation.
In the North Korean Refugees in China section, the Commission noted that China continued to violate the 1951 UN Convention
relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol by detaining and repatriating North Korean refugees to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea despite the severe punishments they face
once returned. The Chinese government, in concert with North Korean officials, appeared to strengthen measures to stem the flow of11North Korean refugees into China. North Korean women in China
continued to be trafficked into forced marriage and commercial sexual exploitation. China continued to violate the Convention on the
Rights of the Child by repatriating North Korean women and separating them from their children born in China.
The Commission observed in the Environment section that
China faced severe pollution problems but still refused to provide
full transparency to its citizens or fully empower citizens throughlaw to enforce their rights. China’s open government information
regulations require governments to release information on the environment. Officials were more forthcoming about the linkage between toxic chemicals and ‘‘cancer villages’’ and began to disclose
abridged versions of environmental impact statements, but they refused to release information on soil pollution, claiming such information was a ‘‘state secret’’ in response to at least one citizen’s request. Citizens continued to be largely marginalized in the policymaking process, as authorities detained environmental advocatessuch as Liu Futang and Chen Yuqian, suppressed anti-pollution
demonstrations, and narrowed provisions in a new draft of the Environmental Protection Law to allow only a single governmentaffiliated environmental organization to file public interest suits
under the law.
China continued to deny citizens the right to participate in publicaffairs directly or through freely chosen representatives and to votein genuine elections by universal and equal suffrage, a standard set
forth in Article 21 of the UDHR and Article 25 of the ICCPR. As
discussed in the Institutions of Democratic Governance section, China’s new leaders were chosen in an opaque, non-democratic process. At all levels, from the judiciary and the National
People’s Congress to the media and universities, the Chinese Communist Party continued to dominate political affairs. Authorities
continued to detain or sentence democracy advocates, including Cao
Haibo and Liu Benqi, who joined a growing list of those punishedin recent years. The Chinese government continued to show little
tolerance for citizens considered to be politically sensitive whosought to participate in public affairs. For example, authorities arrested Peng Lanlan and harassed others for seeking information
regarding China’s submission for its Universal Periodic Review before the UN Human Rights Council in October 2013. Authorities
also arrested at least 25 anticorruption and social justice advocates
who called for officials to make public their personal assets or advocated on other issues.
In the Civil Society section, the Commission found that the
Chinese government’s overly broad restrictions on non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) and informal citizen networks continued to
fail to comply with freedom of association standards, as provided
under Article 20 of the UDHR and Article 22 of the ICCPR. The
government and Party reaffirmed their control over the development of NGOs in China, expressing preference to groups perceived
to support economic growth or provide social welfare services, but
harassing those engaged in issue advocacy or matters the government deems politically sensitive. The government pledged to issue
long-awaited regulatory changes by the end of 2013 to make it easi-

12
er for certain types of groups to register with the government, but
excluded political, legal, religious, and foreign NGOs.
The Access to Justice section highlighted the Chinese government’s lack of tolerance for citizens seeking effective remedies to official violations of their rights, contrary to Article 8 of the UDHR
and Article 2 of the ICCPR. During the 18th Party Congress in November 2012, officials reportedly ordered rights advocates, petitioners, and Falun Gong practitioners to serve reeducation throughlabor (RTL) to achieve ‘‘zero petitioning’’ and prevent protest in
Beijing during that period. Widespread media, scholarly, and government attention has focused on the Chinese government’s vague
statements about reform of the RTL system, possibly by the end of
this year. Harassment of rights defenders, political activists, andtheir families continued, and prominent human rights advocates
Gao Zhisheng and Ni Yulan continued to serve prison sentences. In
spite of the increasing number of individuals reportedly receiving
legal aid, the arrest in August 2013 of legal advocate Xu Zhiyong
on trumped-up charges of ‘‘gathering a crowd to disrupt publicorder’’ highlighted the government’s concerns over independent efforts to secure justice. Xu had founded the non-governmental organization Open Constitution Initiative in 2003, which authorities
banned in 2009, and is a leading proponent of the New Citizens’
Movement, a broad network of individuals promoting legal and political reforms, human rights, and social justice, among othercauses.
The Commission noted in the Public Health section that international health organizations commended China’s effective response to the H7N9 avian influenza outbreak in March 2013 andChina’s progress in building an emergency response structure in
the decade since the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS) outbreak. The Chinese public, however, continued to express concerns over the government’s capacity to protect publichealth and regulate food and drug safety. China’s first Mental
Health Law was passed in October 2012 and took effect in May
2013. Concerns remained regarding the lack of a guaranteed rightto appeal hospitalization and safeguards to prevent the continued
abuse of psychiatric commitment to punish petitioners, political activists, and others. The government also issued draft revisions ofregulations on education for persons with disabilities, for which
civil society organizations urged more precise definitions andamendments to comply with the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities. Despite laws prohibiting it, health-based
discrimination in access to education, medical treatment, and employment remained widespread.
In the Developments in Hong Kong and Macau section, theCommission noted that Hong Kong officials dismissed calls for aearly public consultation on electoral reform for the election of the
Chief Executive (CE) by universal suffrage, which is set to occur
in 2017, despite concern from the UN Human Rights Committee
over the ‘‘lack of a clear plan to institute universal suffrage.’’ Statements from mainland Chinese officials ruled out a CE nominatingprocess involving the broader voting public and stated that CE candidates in an election by universal suffrage would be required to
be trusted by the central government. The Hong Kong government

13
postponed a measure that would have made information aboutcompany directors less transparent. Mainland experts and officials
continued to dissuade Macau from pursuing universal suffrage. The
Chinese government and Macau officials reportedly stepped up efforts to regulate Macau’s gambling industry as part of a larger
campaign against corruption.
To fulfill the Commission’s mandate to compile and maintainlists of persons believed to be imprisoned, detained, placed underhouse arrest, tortured, or otherwise persecuted by the Chinese government due to the pursuit of internationally recognized humanrights, the Commission maintains an extensive database of politicalprisoners in China. According to the Political Prisoner Databasesection, as of September 1, 2013, the Commission staff had documented 1,304 cases of political and religious prisoners currently
known or believed to be detained or imprisoned, and 6,005 casesof prisoners who are known or believed to have been released or
executed, who died while imprisoned or soon after release, or who
escaped. The Commission notes that these numbers reflect the efforts by the Commission’s staff to document cases for which information is publicly available and that the actual number of cases ofcurrent political and religious imprisonment in China is likely to
be much higher.
The Commission’s Executive Branch members have participatedin and supported the work of the Commission. The content of thisAnnual Report, including its findings, views, and recommendations,does not necessarily reflect the views of individual Executive Branchmembers or the policies of the Administration.
The Commission adopted this report by a vote of 14 to 0.†

14
SPECIFIC FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A summary of specific findings follows below for each section ofthis Annual Report, covering each area that the Commission monitors. In each area, the Commission has identified a set of issues
that merit attention over the next year, and, in accordance with
the Commission’s legislative mandate, submits for each a set of recommendations to the President and the Congress for legislative or
executive action.
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
Findings• During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, Chinese officials continued to maintain a broad range of restrictions on
free expression that do not comply with international humanrights standards, including Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Articles 19 and 29 of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. While such standards permit states in limited circumstances to restrict expression to protect interests such as national security and publicorder, official Chinese restrictions covered a much broader
range of activity, including peaceful dissent and expression
critical of the Communist Party.
• According to the China Internet Network Information Center(CNNIC), the national-level administrative agency responsible
for Internet affairs in China, there were over 590 million Internet users in China by the end of June 2013, bringing the Internet penetration rate (i.e., the total number of Internet users divided by the total population) to 44.1 percent. The Chinese government has pledged to expand access to mobile technologies
and to increase government control over the Internet.
• During the 2013 reporting year, China’s Twitter-likemicroblogging sites continued to see strong growth in the number of users. China’s microblogging sites—including China’s
most popular microblog site, Sina Weibo—experienced dramatic growth with 309 million registered accounts at the endof 2012.
• The Chinese government reportedly increased pressure on
certain popular users of microblogging services, including those
who have posted blunt social criticisms or political commentaries. The growing popularity of services has allowed
some microbloggers to reach millions of users and to potentially shape public opinion. With growing concern about ‘‘online
rumors,’’ Chinese Internet authorities responded with a crackdown on high profile accounts and with a list of ‘‘seven bottomlines’’ for online activity. Some have alleged the crackdown on
prominent microblog users is politically based.
• While international and domestic observers continued tonote the vibrancy of Internet and cell phone use in China, Chinese government and Communist Party officials showed little
sign of loosening political control. Chinese officials remained
non-transparent in disclosing content that is blocked or why it
is blocked, and officials continued to block content arbitrarily

15
for purposes impermissible under international standards. The
online censorship and Web site closures, in some cases, appeared politically motivated and appeared to counter international standards on freedom of opinion and expression.
• Officials continued to restrict expression arbitrarily by abusing vague criminal law provisions, and imposing broad regulations and registration requirements on journalists, publishers,
news media, and Internet users.
• Government and Party officials continue to exercise control
over the press in violation of international standards. A January 2013 strike at the Southern Weekend, a progressive weekly
newspaper in Guangdong province, sparked public outrage andhighlighted the media’s lack of editorial independence.
• This past year the Commission continued to monitor harassment of domestic and foreign journalists in China. Chinese authorities, for instance, took actions to punish or suspend journalists for independent reporting. In other instances, foreignand Hong Kong journalists were harassed, intimidated, or assaulted.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Raise concerns over and draw enhanced international attention to the Chinese government’s continued insistence that its
restrictions on freedom of expression are consistent with international standards.
Æ Emphasize that the Chinese government’s position undermines international human rights standards for free expression, particularly those contained in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Articles 19
and 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Æ Emphasize to Chinese officials that Communist Party andgovernment censorship of the Internet and the press can leadto instability by eroding public faith in the media and government.
Æ Engage in dialogue and exchanges with Chinese officials on
the issue of how governments can best ensure that restrictions
on freedom of expression are not abused and do not exceed thescope necessary to protect national security, minors, and publicorder. Emphasize the importance of procedural protections
such as public participation in the formulation of restrictions
on free expression, transparency regarding the implementationof such restrictions, and the independent review of such restrictions.
Æ Urge Chinese officials to implement their calls for greatertransparency and public participation in lawmaking. Such discussions may be part of a broader discussion on how the U.S.
and Chinese Governments can work together to ensure theprotection of common interests on the Internet, including protecting minors, computer security, and privacy.
Æ Acknowledge the Chinese government’s efforts to expand access to the Internet and cell phones, especially in rural areas,

16
while continuing to press officials to comply with international
standards.
Æ Support the research and development of technologies thatenable Chinese citizens to access and share political and religious content that they are entitled to access and share underinternational human rights standards. Support practices andChinese-language tools and training materials that enable Chinese citizens to access and share content in a way that ensures
their security and privacy. Support the dissemination of online
Chinese-language information on the Internet, especiallythrough popular Chinese social media sites, that discusses therights and freedoms to which Chinese citizens are entitledunder international standards.
Æ Elevate concern over the increased harassment of foreign
journalists, who this past year have been beaten. Raise concerns over reports that authorities repeatedly have delayed ordenied the approval of journalists’ visa applications.
WORKER RIGHTS
Findings• During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese
government continued to prevent workers from exercising theirconstitutional right to freedom of association. Workers in
China are not guaranteed, either by law or in practice, fullworker rights in accordance with international standards, including the right to organize into independent unions. The AllChina Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU), the official union
under the direction of the Communist Party, is the only legal
trade union organization in China. Authorities continued thispast year to promote direct elections of trade union representatives, although questions remained over the ability of elections
to engender genuinely representative unions because of continued management influence over candidate selection and restrictions on worker participation in the election process.
• Genuine collective bargaining remains limited by the inability of local-level trade unions to effectively represent and advance the rights of workers in negotiations with employers anda lack of alternative union organizations to the ACFTU. Despite the ACFTU’s promotion of collective contracts and collective wage bargaining in recent years, the collective contract
and consultation process remains problematic in part because
trade unions lack autonomy and genuine worker representation.
• The Commission continued to observe reports in the past
year of workers organizing strikes and demonstrations in a variety of industries and regions across China, often prompted bysystemic labor-related grievances, such as factory closings or
relocations, nonpayment of wages and benefits, and abusive
management practices. Official unions at the local level frequently opposed worker-led actions and did not play an organizing role in them, while media reports indicated that government officials in some cases used force against or detained
demonstrating workers.

17• Changing demographic and economic shifts in recent years
have provided workers with greater bargaining power in theworkplace, increasing their determination to redress grievanceswith employers and press for better pay and working conditions. Moreover, growing expectations of younger generation
migrant workers with regard to working conditions and laborrights are seen as a driving factor behind the increased assertiveness of recent protests.
• Migrant workers remained largely marginalized and vulnerable to exploitation in the workplace, facing problems such as
wage arrears, social discrimination, and low levels of labor andsocial welfare protection. Working predominately in low-end industries requiring little technical skill, migrants face increased
risk for occupational injury and disease.
• Despite China’s laws and commitments under international
standards prohibiting child labor, the use of underage workers
remained evident in the electronics manufacturing industry,
with instances also reported in other sectors. Systemic problems in enforcement and a lack of sufficient resources reportedly continue to constrain efforts to reduce child labor.
• Subcontracted workers hired through labor employment
agencies remain particularly vulnerable to exploitation in theworkplace, often receiving lower wages and fewer benefits thanworkers hired through direct labor contracts with employers. A
series of amendments to the PRC Labor Contract Law, passed
in December 2012, contain provisions that could help reform
labor subcontracting practices. Continued poor enforcement
and opposition by some state-owned enterprises and nationaland local-level government offices, however, could weaken
those reforms.
• Average wage levels in China continued to increase this past
year, with reports suggesting that structural changes in China’s labor market, in particular a decline in the working age
population, in combination with sporadic labor shortages andthe relocation of manufacturing operations further inland or toSoutheast Asia, signify the decline of ‘‘cheap labor’’ in China.
• Despite continued wage growth, income inequality among
different regions and industrial sections has also increased,
greatly expanding the disparity between rich and poor. China’s
State Council released a long-awaited income distribution planin February 2013 that seeks to reduce income inequality andincrease household income. However, observers questioned
whether it can be fully implemented.
• Wage arrears and nonpayment of wages remained serious
problems this past year, particularly for migrant workers.
International media reports throughout 2013 indicated thatwage arrears were a primary factor behind worker-led protests,
especially in the weeks prior to the Chinese Lunar New Yearholiday.
• Chinese workers, especially those in the coal mining sector,
continued to face persistent occupational safety and healthrisks. Fatalities have been consistently reduced over the past
few years, but officially reported cases of disease have increased during the same period. Despite legal measures aimed

18
at preventing workplace accidents and establishing a regulatory system to inspect and handle safety violations, systemic
problems in implementation and enforcement, as well as thelack of meaningful worker participation in workplace decisions
that impact safety and health, continue to constrain efforts to
reduce industrial accidents.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Support projects promoting reform of Chinese labor laws andregulations to reflect internationally recognized labor principles. Prioritize projects that not only focus on legislative
drafting and regulatory development but also develop knowledge, expertise, and practical solutions to comply with internationally recognized labor principles at the enterprise level.
Æ Engage in dialogue with government officials, workers, andtrade union officials in locations that have achieved successful
cases of collective bargaining; identify ways to increase awareness of those experiences; and convey those experiences to officials and trade unions in areas that have had less success withcollective bargaining. Where possible, prioritize programs that
demonstrate the ability to conduct collective bargaining pilot
projects in enterprises with no functioning union present.
Æ Convey support for the effective use of worker-management
committees, functioning collective bargaining, and direct elections of trade union representatives. Engage in dialogue withgovernment and trade union officials, as well as employers to
identify opportunities to increase awareness of successful experiences with direct elections of trade union representatives andto provide elected trade union officials with ongoing training
and support. Support the U.S. Department of Labor’s (USDOL)
exchange with the China National Coal Association regarding
industry regulatory compliance, worker representation at coalmines, and safety and health improvements.
Æ Encourage the expansion of exchanges between U.S. collective bargaining practitioners and Chinese labor rights advocates in non-governmental organizations, the bar, academia,
and the official trade union. Prioritize exchanges that emphasize face-to-face meetings with hands-on practitioners andtrainers.
Æ Support capacity-building programs to strengthen Chineselabor and legal aid organizations involved in defending therights of workers. Encourage Chinese officials at local levels todevelop, maintain, and deepen relationships with labor organizations inside and outside of China, and to invite these groups
to increase the number of training programs in China. Support
programs that train workers in ways to identify problems at
the factory-floor level, conducting skills and problem-solving
training so they can communicate their concern to employers
effectively.
Æ Where appropriate, share the United States’ ongoing experience and efforts in protecting worker rights—through legal,

19
regulatory, or non-governmental means—with Chinese officials. Expand site visits and other exchanges for Chinese officials to observe and share ideas with U.S. labor rights groups,
lawyers, the USDOL, and other regulatory agencies at all levels of the U.S. Government that work on labor issues.
Æ Support USDOL’s exchange with China’s Ministry of Human
Resources and Social Security with regard to setting and enforcing minimum wage standards; strengthening social insurance; improving employment statistics; and promoting dialogue
and exchanges with China’s State Administration of Work
Safety (SAWS) regarding improving workplace safety andhealth. Support the annual labor dialogue with China that
USDOL started in 2010 and the annual safety dialogue started
in 2012. Support USDOL’s technical cooperation program withSAWS on workplace safety and health and the expansion ofmining cooperation into broad occupational safety and healthareas. Support pilot projects that establish public-private partnerships to address workplace safety and health concerns, andthe introduction of meaningful worker participation in management decisions important to workplace safety and health.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE
Findings• The revised PRC Criminal Procedure Law (CPL) took effecton January 1, 2013. While the law as written has many positive aspects, it fails to stipulate an explicit right to remain silent and right not to incriminate oneself; nor does it provide
a clear right to the presumption of innocence as required by
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
• If implemented effectively, the revised CPL will enhance theability of lawyers to better defend their clients and further therights of detained criminal suspects and defendants, for example, by facilitating meetings between lawyers and their detained clients. Preliminary reports based on limited data suggest that lawyers are finding it easier to meet with their detained clients, but that some problems remain.
• Chinese authorities continue to use vaguely defined crimes
to suppress and punish dissent and perceived challenges toChinese Communist Party rule. In addition to Article 105 of
the PRC Criminal Law, which criminalizes ‘‘subversion’’ and‘‘inciting subversion,’’ during this reporting year authorities
made ample use of vague crimes such as ‘‘unlawful assembly’’and ‘‘gathering people to disturb public order’’ to suppress
rights advocates and civil society activists. Public security officers arrested prominent rights activist Xu Zhiyong on August
22 on suspicion of ‘‘gathering people to disturb public order.’’• Chinese officials continue to harass and arbitrarily detain
rights advocates, civil society activists, writers, lawyers,
bloggers, and ordinary citizens who advocate for their own
rights or the rights of others. They may be sentenced to prison
for the peaceful exercise of their internationally recognizedhuman rights, or subjected to various forms of arbitrary or ex-20
tralegal detention, including confinement in ‘‘black jails,’’ administrative detention facilities including reeducation throughlabor (RTL) centers, unlawful confinement in their homes, orenforced disappearance.
• The issue of confessions coerced through torture and wrongful convictions garnered a great deal of attention during thisreporting year as case after case surfaced and senior judicial
officials condemned the practice. The revised CPL contains
new provisions for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence
from criminal trials, which, if implemented effectively, could
lead to a reduction in the number of coerced confessions andwrongful convictions.
• Despite the Chinese government’s continued efforts to address the problem, torture and abuse in places of detention in
China remain widespread. In April, a Chinese magazine published a detailed account of torture, abuse, and forced labor at
the Masanjia Women’s Reeducation Through Labor Center in
Liaoning province, which fuelled calls for reform of the RTL
system. Torture and the abuse of individuals detained in connection with the campaign against organized crime inChongqing municipality carried out by Bo Xilai, the former
Communist Party Secretary of Chongqing, have gradually
come to light. While some initial steps have been taken to provide redress to some of those wrongfully accused and convicted
during the campaign, much more remains to be done.
• Although the Chinese government continues to treat data on
the use of the death penalty as a state secret, estimates suggest that the number is steadily decreasing. Organs are still
harvested from executed prisoners. In March 2013, the Ministry of Health and the Chinese Red Cross formally launcheda national voluntary organ donation system, and in August, asenior health official reportedly announced that within two
years China would cease relying on organs of executed criminals for organ transplants.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Urge the Chinese government to publicly commit to a specific timetable for ratification of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which the Chinese government signed in 1998 but has not yet ratified.
Æ Encourage the Chinese government to move forward on its
stated goal to cease using the reeducation through labor (RTL)
system and urge the Chinese government to also abolish otherforms of extrajudicial administrative detention, and ensurethat the rights of Chinese citizens to a fair trial and due process of law under the UDHR and the ICCPR are guaranteed.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to release all Chinese citizens who have been detained or imprisoned for the lawful exercise of their fundamental human rights of freedom of expression, association, and peaceful assembly, as well as the rightto be free from arbitrary detention, including rights advocates

21
Xu Zhiyong, Ni Yulan, Gao Zhisheng, and Wang Bingzhang.
Press the government to release relatives of activists who havebeen unlawfully confined or imprisoned because of the lawful
exercise of human rights by their family members, such as Liu
Xia, the wife of Liu Xiaobo, and Chen Kegui, nephew of Chen
Guangcheng.
Æ Press China to sign and ratify the International Convention
for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance
and to extend an invitation to the UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances to visit China, whichissued a request to visit in February 2013.
Æ Support programs and international cooperation on issues
relating to the investigation of crimes, including evidence collection, in order to reduce Chinese law enforcement agencies’
reliance on confessions in criminal cases.
FREEDOM OF RELIGION
Findings• The Chinese government’s legal and policy framework for religion violates international human rights standards for freedom of religion, including Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Although the PRC Constitution statesthat all citizens enjoy ‘‘freedom of religious belief,’’ it limits citizens’ ability to exercise their beliefs by protecting only ‘‘normal
religious activities.’’ The government continued to recognize
only five religions—Buddhism, Catholicism, Taoism, Islam, andProtestantism—for limited state protections for religious activity, and the government has continued to outlaw some belief
systems, thereby denying members of these communities theright to practice their faith openly and without fear of government reprisal.
• Strict ideological control and government oversight over religious groups was maintained through religious affairs bureaus,
the Communist Party’s United Front Work Department, andthe five ‘‘patriotic’’ religious associations, one for each of therecognized religions. All clergy and religious organizations are
required to be registered with the government. A top religious
official announced that all clergy would be registered by theend of 2013. This past year, central government officials alsoannounced a plan to loosen some registration and administrative hurdles on social organizations that explicitly excluded religious organizations.
• Officials continued to monitor, control, restrict, and ‘‘guide’’
the religious activities of Buddhists in non-Tibetan areas ofChina, with a top official urging Buddhists to ‘‘embrace theleadership of the Party.’’ At least three sects of Buddhism continue to be banned as cults.
• Observers contend Chinese policies have divided Chinese
Catholics into ‘‘official’’ and ‘‘underground’’ churches. Catholics
in China continue to be denied the freedom to accept the authority of the Holy See to select bishops, and a new regulationon the selection of bishops that took effect in April 2013 expands the state’s role in the selection process and explicitly re-22quires bishop candidates to ‘‘endorse the Chinese Communist
Party’s leadership and the socialist system.’’ Officials at staterun Catholic organizations announced in December a decision
to revoke the title of auxiliary bishop from bishop Thaddeus
Ma Daqin after he publicly withdrew from the state-run Catholic Patriotic Association at his ordination ceremony in July
2012. Clergy continue to be detained for their underground activity or refusal to join the patriotic association, including
priest Song Wanjun.
• The Commission continued to observe reports of officials sentencing Falun Gong practitioners to long prison terms,
harassing lawyers who attempted to assist Falun Gong practitioners, and pressuring practitioners to renounce their beliefs.
The Commission also observed reports this past year regarding
official anti-cult efforts that placed an emphasis on the need toeducate the public to ‘‘resist’’ Falun Gong. In April 2013, an article published in the China-based Lens Magazine reported onclaims of severe torture and maltreatment of inmates at theMasanjia Women’s Reeducation Through Labor Center in
Liaoning province, many of whom are believed to be Falun
Gong practitioners.
• Chinese authorities continued to place curbs on Muslims’
ability to practice their religion and to emphasize the role ofIslamic clergy in promoting state policies. Authorities also continued to regulate the confirmation of Islamic religious leaders
and to monitor overseas pilgrimages in furtherance of statepolicy. Islamic clergy at a certification ceremony in February
2013 were told to ‘‘resolve to become politically reliable,’’ andlocal authorities throughout the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region (XUAR) warned religious believers against going on
Hajj pilgrimages not organized by the government. Authorities
in charge of religious affairs sought to portray violent clashes
that took place in the spring and summer of 2013 throughout
the XUAR as acts inspired by ‘‘religious extremism,’’ and urged
Muslim clergy to work against ‘‘religious extremist forces.’’• The Chinese government continued to control the doctrine
and activities of its official Protestant church and target members of unregistered house churches for harassment, detention,and other forms of abuse. The government continued its efforts
to prohibit worship gatherings of the Beijing Shouwang
Church, a house church of over 1,000 congregants in Beijing
municipality, denying the church’s appeal against local public
security officials for preventing the church from moving into
property it had purchased. State-sanctioned raids on housechurches continued. In April 2013, local authorities raided ahouse church in Alxa League, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, firing tear gas, detaining members of the congregation,and beating others. Officials in Shenzhen municipality detained house church pastor Cao Nan and others for holding a
religious gathering in a public park, and officials in Shanxi
province sentenced Li Wenxi and Ren Lancheng for ‘‘illegal
business operations’’ in connection with the printing and selling of religious publications.

23• The Chinese Taoist Association continued to work with the
Chinese government to ensure that Taoist religious groups ‘‘uphold the leadership of the Communist Party and the socialist
system.’’ At a November meeting, a top religious official reminded Taoist leaders that ‘‘studying and putting into practicethe spirit of the 18th Party Congress is the chief political task
for religious communities for the coming period of time.’’• Despite lacking formal central government recognition, somereligious communities have been able to operate inside China
and continue to appeal to the Chinese government for greater
recognition.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Call on the Chinese government to guarantee to all citizens
freedom of religion in accordance with Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and to remove the government’s framework for recognizing only select religious communities for limited state protections. Stress to Chinese authorities that China’s ideological ‘‘guidance’’ of religious groups andthe general public violates its citizens’ freedom of religious belief, and that China’s limited protections for ‘‘normal religious
activities’’ do not meet international standards for freedom of
religion. Stress to the Chinese government that the right tofreedom of religion includes: The right of Buddhists to carryout activities in temples independent of state controls over religion, the right of Buddhist clergy to select monastic teachers
under Buddhist procedures and standards, and the right of Tibetan Buddhists to express openly their respect or devotion to
Tibetan Buddhist teachers, including the Dalai Lama; the rightof Catholics to recognize the authority of the Holy See in matters relating to the practice of their faith, including to makebishop appointments; the right of Falun Gong practitioners tofreely practice Falun Gong inside China; the right of Muslims
to engage in religious outreach and preaching activities independent of state-set parameters and not face curbs on theirinternationally protected right to freedom of religion in thename of ‘‘upholding stability’’; the right of Protestants to worship free from state controls over doctrine and to worship in
unregistered house churches, free from harassment, detention,and other abuses; the right of Taoists to interpret their teachings free from government guidance.
Æ Call for the release of Chinese citizens confined, detained, or
imprisoned in retaliation for pursuing their right to freedom of
religion (including the right to hold and exercise spiritual beliefs). Such prisoners include: Sonam Lhatso (a Tibetan Buddhist nun sentenced in 2009 to 10 years’ imprisonment after
she and other nuns staged a protest calling for Tibetan independence and the Dalai Lama’s long life and return to Tibet);
Thaddeus Ma Daqin (the auxiliary bishop of the Shanghai diocese who has been under confinement since July 2012 for renouncing his affiliation with the Catholic Patriotic Associa-

24tion); Wang Zhiwen (a Falun Gong practitioner serving a 16year sentence for organizing peaceful protests by Falun Gong
practitioners in 1999); Nurtay Memet (a Muslim man sentenced to five years’ imprisonment for ‘‘superstition’’-related activity connected to his religion); Fan Yafeng (a legal scholar,
religious freedom advocate, and house church leader kept
under home confinement since November 2010 in connection
with his advocacy for unregistered Protestant communities andcoinciding with a broader crackdown on rights advocates); andother prisoners mentioned in this report and in the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database.
Æ Call on authorities to allow Chinese lawyers to freely takecases involving religious freedom.
Æ Call on officials to eliminate criminal and administrative
penalties that target religions and spiritual movements andthat have been used to punish Chinese citizens for exercising
their right to freedom of religion. Specifically, call for officials
to abolish Article 300 of the PRC Criminal Law (which criminalizes using a ‘‘cult’’ to undermine implementation of statelaws) and Article 27 of the PRC Public Security Administration
Punishment Law (which stipulates detention or fines for organizing or inciting others to engage in ‘‘cult’’ activities and forusing ‘‘cults’’ or the ‘‘guise of religion’’ to disturb social order
or to harm others’ health).
Æ Promote legal exchanges that bring Chinese experts to theUnited States and American experts to China to increaseknowledge of international human rights standards for the protection of freedom of religion. Promote cultural exchanges thatengage Chinese intellectuals in discussions regarding freedomof religion. Support non-governmental organizations that collect information on conditions for religious freedom in China
and that inform Chinese citizens how to defend their right tofreedom of religion. Support organizations that help religious
practitioners appeal prison sentences and orders to serve reeducation through labor stemming from citizens’ exercise of
freedom of religion; challenge government seizure of property;
and challenge job discrimination based on religion.
Æ Collaborate with the governments of countries that have
trade ties with China and that value freedom of religion, to advocate for freedom of religion within China.
ETHNIC MINORITY RIGHTS
Findings• During the 2013 reporting year, ethnic minorities faced challenges to their rights as provided in the PRC Regional Ethnic
Autonomy Law and international law. Authorities placed thestrictest controls over groups perceived as potential threats to‘‘stability,’’ including those living in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) and other Tibetan autonomous areas, the Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), and the Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region (IMAR). Authorities continued to detain,
harass, and imprison ethnic minority rights advocates who en-

25
gaged in peaceful protest and sought to assert their unique cultural identity.
• Government authorities continued to enforce grasslands policies that require herders and nomads to resettle in urban
areas or in larger, compact rural communities, portraying
these developments as a move to improve and ‘‘modernize’’ thelives of Mongols, Tibetans, Kazakhs, and other minority groups
and to combat grasslands degradation.
• In several instances in 2013, Mongol herders protested theappropriation of their grazing lands for military use and private development projects. Security personnel detained andbeat some of the herders, and obstructed the protests.
• Critics of official grasslands policies in the IMAR have raised
concerns over increased mining activities and a corresponding
loss of water and the production of toxic wastewater.
• During the 2013 reporting year, authorities in the IMAR
continued to hold Mongol rights advocate Hada in extralegal
detention and to deny him treatment for serious mental healthissues. Authorities in Hohhot city, IMAR, tightened restrictions
on the freedoms of movement and communication of Hada’s
wife, Xinna, and the couple’s son, Uiles.
• In April 2013, authorities arrested Batzangaa, a former medical school principal who had been under residential surveillance in Ordos municipality, IMAR, since January 2011. Authorities alleged that Batzangaa was attempting to flee thecountry with his wife and two children. Following his April
2013 arrest, authorities reportedly ordered Batzangaa, who organized demonstrations in 2009 to protest against the government’s confiscation of campus property, to begin serving athree-year prison sentence.
• On July 4, 2013, authorities in Uzumchin Right(Dongwuzhumuqin) Banner, Xilingol League, IMAR, reportedlyarrested Yunshaabiin Seevendoo, who had advocated for therights of Mongol herders, on fraud charges. Family members
reportedly said his health has deteriorated during his detention.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Support non-governmental organizations that addresshuman rights conditions for ethnic minorities in China, enabling them to continue their research and develop programs tohelp ethnic minorities increase their capacity to protect theirrights. Encourage such organizations to develop training programs on promoting economic development that includes consultation with and the participation of ethnic minority communities; to develop programs to protect ethnic minority languages, cultures, and livelihoods; and to develop programs that
document conditions and research rights abuses in the Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region, Tibet Autonomous Region, and other autonomous ethnic minority areas.

26Æ Support rule of law programs and exchange programs thatraise awareness among Chinese leaders of different models forgovernance that protect ethnic minorities’ rights and allow
them to exercise meaningful autonomy over their affairs, inline with both Chinese law and international human rights
standards.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to examine the efficacy of
existing grasslands policies in ameliorating environmental degradation and to take steps to ensure that the rights of herders
are also protected.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to investigate the loss ofgroundwater and the production of toxic wastewater due tomining activities in the IMAR, and to ensure that mining companies operating in the region adhere to state environmental
regulations.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to release people detained,
imprisoned, or otherwise held in custody for advocating ethnic
minority rights, including Mongol rights advocate Hada,
former medical school principal Batzangaa, herders’ rights advocate Yunshaabiin Seevendoo, and other prisoners mentioned
in this report and in the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database.
POPULATION PLANNING
Findings• In March 2013, China’s new leadership unveiled a plan for
restructuring agencies within the State Council, and part ofthis plan involves merging the National Population and Family
Planning Commission (NPFPC) and the Ministry of Health.
The restructure combines most of the responsibilities of theprevious two organizations into a new ‘‘National Health andFamily Planning Commission,’’ but transfers the responsibilityof creating population development policies and strategies—
previously held by the NPFPC—to the National Development
and Reform Commission. The full impact of these changes on
China’s family planning policies and their implementation remains to be seen. Meanwhile, government leaders, experts,
scholars, and citizens continued calls this year for population
policy reform.
• Chinese government officials continued to implement population planning policies that interfere with and control the reproductive lives of Chinese citizens, especially women. Officials
employed various methods including fines, withholding of social benefits and permits, forced sterilization, forced abortion,
and arbitrary detention to punish policy violators.
• The PRC Population and Family Planning Law is not consistent with the standards set forth in international agreements, including the 1995 Beijing Declaration and the 1994
Programme of Action of the Cairo International Conference on
Population and Development. Controls imposed on Chinese
women and their families, and additional abuses engenderedby the system, from forced abortion to discriminatory policies
against ‘‘out-of-plan’’ children, also violate standards in the27
Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. China is astate party to these treaties and has committed to upholding
their terms.
• Chinese law prohibits official infringement upon the rights
and interests of citizens while implementing population planning policies but does not define what constitutes a citizen’s
right or interest. Chinese law does not stipulate punishment
for officials who demand or implement forced abortions. Provincial population planning regulations in at least 22 of China’s 31 provinces explicitly endorse mandatory abortions, often
referred to as a ‘‘remedial measure’’ (bujiu cuoshi), as an official policy instrument.
• The Chinese government’s population planning policies continue to exacerbate the country’s demographic challenges,
which include an aging population, diminishing workforce, andskewed sex ratio.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Urge the Chinese government to seize the window of opportunity provided by the government restructuring and specifically the merger of the NPFPC and the Ministry of Health tocease restrictive family planning policies and population controls and begin to employ a human rights-based approach toproviding greater reproductive freedom and privacy for all citizens, especially women.
Æ Urge Chinese officials to reevaluate the PRC Population andFamily Planning Law and bring it into conformance with international standards set forth in international agreements, including the 1995 Beijing Declaration and the 1994 Programmeof Action of the Cairo International Conference on Population
and Development, as well as the Convention on the Rights of
the Child and the International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights.
Æ Urge China’s central and local governments to enforce vigorously provisions under Chinese law that provide for punishments of officials and other individuals who violate the rights
of citizens when implementing population planning policies
and to clearly define what these rights entail. Urge the Chinese government to establish penalties, including specificcriminal and financial penalties, for officials and individuals
found to commit abuses such as coercive abortion and coercive
sterilization—practices that continue in China. Urge the Chinese government to bar material, career, and financial incentives and disincentives that motivate officials to use coercive or
unlawful practices in implementing family planning policies.
Æ Support the development of programs and international cooperation on legal aid and training that help citizens pursue
compensation under the PRC State Compensation Law andthat help citizens pursue other remedies against the govern-

28
ment for injuries suffered as a result of official abuse related
to China’s population planning policies.
FREEDOM OF RESIDENCE AND MOVEMENT
Findings• The Chinese government continued to enforce the household
registration (hukou) system it first established in the 1950s.
This system limits the right of Chinese citizens to freely determine their place of residence. The hukou system classifies Chinese citizens as either rural or urban and confers legal rights
and access to social services based on that classification. The
hukou system discriminates against rural hukou holders who
migrate to urban areas by denying them equal access to public
services and social security benefits, as well as equal social,
employment, and educational opportunities. Such discrimination was especially prevalent this past year with respect to employment and access to urban higher educational opportunities.
• High- and local-level Chinese government officials continued
to emphasize the need for hukou reform, including Premier Li
Keqiang, who announced in May 2013 an urbanization plan tobe unveiled in late 2013 that would clarify the timing of proposed hukou reforms. Reforms could include land management
reform, improvements to public services and social security
systems, the urbanization of rural residents, and clarifying theapplication criteria for urban hukous.
• Some local governments have proposed or implemented policies that, for example, would abolish hukou classifications andinclude people under a single uniform hukou classification; expand access to school entrance exams in urban areas for thechildren of rural migrants; establish a points system to award
rural migrants more public services and opportunities; or grantan urban hukou to graduates of local colleges. However, scholars and journalists have expressed reservations about hukou
reform, citing local government opposition to the financial burden an influx of rural migrants would impose on public services and infrastructure.
• Chinese officials continued to deny citizens who criticize thegovernment their internationally recognized right to leave thecountry. During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, there
were numerous reports of political advocates and their family
members being denied exit from China or access to passports.
• The number of Chinese subject to international travel restrictions reportedly has jumped in recent years, and humanrights groups estimate that at least 14 million people may beaffected. Restrictions reportedly fall heaviest on Tibetans andUyghurs, with the U.S. State Department reporting that members of these groups ‘‘experienced great difficulty acquiring
passports.’’• Chinese authorities continued to violate the internationallyrecognized right which provides that ‘‘Everyone lawfully within
the territory of a State shall, within that territory, have theright to liberty of movement . . .’’ by restricting the domestic
movement of activists and their families as a form of harass-29
ment. Restrictions on the movement of activists reportedly increased during politically sensitive periods this past year.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Support programs, organizations, and exchanges with Chinese policymakers and academic institutions engaged in research and outreach to migrant workers in order to advancelegal assistance programs for migrant workers and encourage
policy debates on the hukou system.
Æ Encourage U.S. academic and public policy institutions to
consult with the Commission on avenues for outreach to Chinese academic and public policy figures engaged in policy debates on reform of the hukou system.
Æ Stress to Chinese government officials that noncompliancewith international agreements regarding freedom of movement
negatively affects confidence outside of China that the Chinese
government is committed to complying with international
standards more generally.
Æ Raise specifically Chinese authorities’ restrictions on the liberty of movement of rights defenders, advocates, critics, andtheir families, including, among others: Tibetan writer Tsering
Woeser; Uyghur academic Ilham Tohti; Liu Xia, the wife of imprisoned Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo; and Chen
Mingxian, the wife of democracy advocate Liu Xianbin.
STATUS OF WOMEN
Findings• Chinese laws, including the amended PRC Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests and the amended PRC
Marriage Law, contain provisions which aim to protect women’s rights; however, ambiguity and lack of clearly outlined responsibilities in China’s national-level legislation limit progresson concrete protections of women’s rights.
• In its domestic laws and policy initiatives and through its
ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Formsof Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), the Chinese government has committed to ensuring female representation ingovernment. After the Chinese Communist Party and government leadership transitions in November 2012 and March
2013, respectively, some top Party bodies increased female representation, while others decreased. Female representation decreased in the newly appointed State Council. Overall, female
representation in the central government still falls short ofinternational standards to which China has agreed. Female
participation in decisionmaking at the village level remains
low, underscoring long-held concerns about protection of rural
women’s rights and interests.
• China has committed under CEDAW to take ‘‘all appropriate
measures to eliminate discrimination against women in thefield of employment.’’ While China’s existing laws, such as the30
PRC Labor Law, the amended PRC Law on the Protection of
Women’s Rights and Interests, and the PRC Employment Promotion Law prohibit gender discrimination in employment,
women continue to experience widespread discrimination inareas including recruitment, promotion, wages, and retirement.
• Gender-based discrimination continues in Chinese universities, despite provisions in China’s Constitution and the PRC
Education Law that prohibit it. Universities across China implement gender quotas that require women to score higher
than men on their college entrance exams in order to be admitted into certain majors.
• Chinese national legal provisions on domestic violence lacka clear definition of domestic violence and do not specify the
responsibilities of public and private sector organizations inprevention, punishment, and treatment. Domestic violence reportedly remains pervasive, affecting men, women, and children. The Supreme People’s Court (SPC) announced plans to
issue standardized documents to guide adjudication in domestic violence criminal cases, noting insufficiencies in Chineselaw. The SPC also established several pilot programs tostrengthen trial procedures for domestic violence cases. Despitestate media reports that new domestic violence legislation
would be on the agenda in 2012, no drafts appear to have been
made publicly available.
• Chinese law fails to adequately define, prevent, and punish
acts of sexual violence against women, including rape, forced
prostitution, and sexual harassment. Chinese legislation does
not provide a clear definition of sexual harassment or specificstandards and procedures for prevention, reporting, and punishment, presenting challenges for victims in protecting theirrights. Several widely reported cases of sexual violence this reporting year exposed the need for stronger legal protections
and heightened awareness among law enforcement.
• Officials in localities across China continue to employ coercion and violence against women—including forced abortions,forced sterilizations, and forced contraceptive use—in their enforcement of national and local population planning policies.
Chinese law leaves women unprotected against such abuses.
Authorities also continue to use violence and abuse against
women in the enforcement of anti-prostitution laws. Suchtreatment is in violation of Chinese law.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Support programs in China that increase women’s politicalparticipation and leadership through U.S.-China exchanges
and international conferences. Support exchanges, training,
and legal programs that promote women’s land rights, especially in rural areas, and urge higher levels of government toincrease supervision over village committees to ensure that
local rules and regulations are in accordance with national-

31level laws and policies and to ensure adequate protection ofrural women’s rights and interests.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to take steps to faithfully enforce provisions in the PRC Labor Law, the amended PRC Law
on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests, and the
PRC Employment Promotion Law that prohibit gender discrimination. Urge Chinese officials in cities across China to
supplement these laws with local regulations that address andprovide punishments for all forms of gender discrimination in
employment. Support programs that teach women how to protect and advocate for their rights and interests in the workplace.
Æ Urge Chinese officials to put an end to gender-based quotasthat allow preference for men over women in certain fields ofstudy in Chinese universities.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to follow through on statedplans to enact comprehensive national-level legislation thatclearly defines domestic violence in criminal and civil law, allocates adequate resources, assigns responsibilities to government and civil society organizations in addressing domestic violence, and details punishments for offenders. Urge officials torelease drafts of such legislation for public comment.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to further revise the PRC Law
on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests or enact
new comprehensive national-level legislation to provide a clear
definition of sexual harassment and specific standards and procedures for prevention and punishment. Support technical assistance programs that increase awareness among judicial andlaw enforcement personnel of issues pertaining to violenceagainst women. One such area of U.S. technical assistancemight be in developing workplace protocols and reporting
mechanisms that ensure confidentiality and prevent retaliation.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to stop coercion and violenceagainst women during population planning implementationand to clarify provisions under Chinese law that would protect
women against such rights abuses. Urge the Chinese government to establish penalties, including specific criminal and financial penalties, for officials and individuals who engage incoercive or violent population planning enforcement, including
forced abortion, forced sterilization, and forced contraceptiveuse.
HUMAN TRAFFICKING
Findings• China remains a country of origin, transit, and destination
for the trafficking of men, women, and children. The majorityof human trafficking cases are domestic and involve trafficking
for sexual exploitation, forced labor, and forced marriage. The
full extent of the forced labor problem in China is unclear.
• The Chinese government acceded to the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children (UN TIP Protocol) in December 2009 and32
has since taken steps to revise legislation and update policy efforts. In the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the StateCouncil issued a new national anti-trafficking action plan,
which appears to contain some improvements in terminology
and objectives, and clearly lays out which government agencies
are responsible for implementation. It remains to be seen
whether authorities will provide adequate resources and training to local authorities for implementing the plan’s objectives.
• As Chinese law conflates human smuggling, illegal adoption,and child abduction with human trafficking, accurate official
statistics on the number of trafficking cases the government investigated and prosecuted during this reporting year are notavailable. In cooperation with international organizations, Chinese authorities took steps to improve protection, services, andcare for victims of trafficking, but continued to focus efforts
only on women and children. Chinese authorities did not release detailed information on services provided or the numberof victims identified and assisted.
• The Chinese government does not offer legal alternatives todeportation for foreign victims of trafficking and continues todeport North Korean refugees under the classification of ‘‘economic migrants,’’ regardless of whether or not they are victimsof trafficking.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Urge the Chinese government to abide by its commitments
under the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children; and tobring anti-trafficking legislation into alignment with international standards. Specifically, urge the Chinese government
to legally distinguish the crimes of human smuggling, child abduction, and illegal adoption from that of human trafficking,and to expand the current legal definition of trafficking to include all forms of trafficking, including offenses against adultmale victims, certain forms of non-physical coercion, and thecommercial sex trade of minors.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to implement goals in the
2013–2020 plan to combat trafficking that address root cultural and societal factors contributing to China’s trafficking
problem. These stated goals include eliminating traditional notions of female inferiority, improving women’s education, andensuring rural women’s property rights.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to provide more protective
services for trafficking victims. Support expanding training
programs for law enforcement personnel and shelter managers
that help raise awareness and improve processes for identifying, protecting, and assisting trafficking victims. Support
legal assistance programs that advocate on behalf of both foreign and Chinese trafficking victims.
Æ Object to the continued deportation of North Korean trafficking victims as ‘‘economic migrants.’’ Urge the Chinese gov-

33
ernment to abide by its international obligations under the1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its
1967 Protocol with regard to North Korean trafficking victims
and provide legal alternatives to repatriation.
NORTH KOREAN REFUGEES IN CHINA
Findings• During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese
government persisted in detaining and repatriating North Korean asylum seekers and refugees to the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea (DPRK), despite the severe punishments refugees face once returned. The Chinese government is obligatedunder the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951 Convention) and its 1967 Protocol to refrain from
repatriating North Koreans who left the DPRK for fear of persecution or who fear persecution upon return to the DPRK.
• The Chinese government appeared to strengthen measures
to stem the flow of North Korean refugees into China this past
year, including reportedly increasing security along the North
Korean border and implementing new campaigns to seek out
and repatriate refugees.
• Chinese authorities continue to collaborate with North Korean security officials, allowing them to operate within China
to apprehend North Korean refugees and disrupt organizations
that attempt to assist them. The number of refugees whoreached South Korea in 2012 dropped by 50 percent to 1,508
compared with 2,706 in 2011. As of July 2013, the number ofrefugees entering South Korea was slightly higher than for thesame period in 2012.
• North Korean women in China continue to be sold into
forced marriage and commercial sexual exploitation. The Chinese government’s repatriation of trafficked North Korean
women contravenes the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol,
as well as Article 7 of the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress
and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren (UN TIP Protocol).
• Children born to North Korean women and Chinese men are
increasingly being raised in China in households where either
the mother or both parents are absent. In some instances, Chinese authorities repatriate North Korean mothers to the
DPRK, while others flee to South Korea or other parts ofChina. Several experts and academic studies contend household registration (hukou) policies have largely changed in recent years to allow for a greater majority of children born toNorth Korean women in China to gain access to public education and social services, but general poverty and the continued threat of repatriation leaves these children and their families at risk. The Chinese government’s repatriation of North
Korean women who have given birth to a child in China violates its international obligations under the Convention of theRights of the Child, which prohibits separating children fromtheir mothers.

34
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Raise the issue of North Korean refugees in bilateral discussions with Chinese officials, particularly the U.S.-China
Human Rights Dialogue.
Æ Support the efforts of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to gain unfettered access toNorth Korean refugees in China. Encourage the Chinese government to work with the UNHCR in enacting its full mandate
and to operate in conformity with China’s obligations underthe 1951 Convention and its Protocol, as well as immediately
cease detaining and repatriating North Korean refugees in
China.
Æ Urge Chinese officials to grant residency status and relatedsocial benefits to North Korean women married to Chinese citizens. Urge the Chinese government to allow greater numbersof North Korean refugees to have safe haven and secure transit
until they reach third countries.
Æ Urge Chinese officials to abide by their obligations under the
UN TIP Protocol (Article 9) and CEDAW (Article 6) to prosecute human traffickers in northeastern China and along theborder with the DPRK.
Æ Support the efforts of the United Nations Commission of Inquiry on North Korea to document North Korean human rights
violations and determine the extent to which they amount tocrimes against humanity.
PUBLIC HEALTH
Findings• The Chinese government’s oversight of and response to public health matters came into sharp focus during the 2013 reporting year with an outbreak in March of the H7N9 avian influenza. International health organizations commended China’s
effective response to the outbreak and China’s progress inbuilding an emergency response structure in the decade since
the SARS outbreak in 2003. Two studies released in 2013 provided statistical evidence that link environmental pollution in
China to adverse health effects, including cancer and shorter
life spans. The Chinese public has expressed concerns over thegovernment’s capacity to protect public health and regulate
food and drug safety.
• As part of the larger government restructuring announced
during the National People’s Congress and Chinese People’s
Political Consultative Conference in March 2013, the Ministryof Health (MOH) and the National Population and Family
Planning Commission were merged into a single entity, theNational Health and Family Planning Commission. Some medical professionals expressed disapproval of the name change
and the lack of consultation prior to the announcement. ThenMOH Vice-Minister Dr. Huang Jiefu commented that themerged name might cause China ‘‘difficulties in its inter-35
national exchanges,’’ likely in light of international controversy
over China’s population planning policy.
• China’s first-ever Mental Health Law (MHL) was passed in
October 2012 and became effective on May 1, 2013, and aims
to ‘‘expand access to mental health services.’’ Another key goal
is to prevent cases of being ‘‘misidentified as mentally ill’’ (beijingshen bing), a practice which has been used by Chinese law
enforcement officials to involuntarily detain petitioners andothers in psychiatric facilities. International and Chinese civilsociety organizations and rights advocates have identified problematic provisions in the new MHL that may continue humanrights violations.
• The Chinese government issued draft revisions to the Regulations on Education for Persons with Disabilities (1994) for
public comment in February 2013, as part of its ongoing legislative efforts to strengthen the rights of persons with disabilities. Civil society organizations identified language needing
more precise definition and amendments that need further
work in order to comply with human rights standards in the
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities,
which China has signed and ratified.
• China’s existing legislative framework prohibits health-based
discrimination in access to employment, medical treatment,
and education, but there continues to be widespread discrimination due to a lack of compliance with the laws and inconsistencies between national laws and local regulations. Rights advocates and non-governmental organizations continue to request revisions to physical eligibility standards that disqualify
persons with disabilities and carriers of infectious diseases
from employment as civil servants and teachers. Disability
rights advocates lauded Guangdong province for removing discriminatory provisions in its teacher physical eligibility standards in May 2013.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Commend the Chinese government for its response to the
H7N9 avian influenza outbreak and urge its public health andfood and drug safety agencies to maintain a high level of vigilance and transparency in dealing with infectious disease outbreaks and other public health emergencies. Strengthen support to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention fortechnical exchanges with China, not only on disease surveillance and response but also on environment and health monitoring and response mechanisms.
Æ Encourage the development of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and media groups that advocate for consumer
rights in food and drug safety, public health, and disability
rights. Support efforts to raise the technical and operational
capacity of such NGOs, and provide opportunities for these organizations to participate in international forums on the rights
to health, food safety, and education.

36
Æ Urge the Chinese government to supervise implementationof the Mental Health Law to ensure that petitioners and others
are no longer ‘‘misidentified as mentally ill’’ (bei jingshen bing)and involuntarily committed to psychiatric facilities. Provide
support to Chinese civil society organizations and advocatesand legal and medical organizations in monitoring the implementation of the Mental Health Law, such as funding fortraining, research, and publication of findings.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to include people with disabilities and their representatives, and disability rights organizations not necessarily affiliated with the Chinese Federationof Disabled Persons, in the revisions to the Regulations on the
Education of Persons with Disabilities. Urge officials to ensurethat the revisions are in accord with the UN Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities on ‘‘reasonable accommodation,’’ ‘‘inclusive education,’’ and other internationally recognized standards. Where appropriate, share the United States’
ongoing experience and efforts in promoting the right to education for persons with disabilities—through legal, regulatory,
and non-governmental means—with Chinese officials. Expand
site visits and other exchanges for Chinese officials to observeand share ideas with U.S. disability rights groups, lawyers, theU.S. Department of Education, and other U.S. federal andstate agencies that work on ensuring educational opportunities
for persons with disabilities.
Æ Urge Chinese officials to focus attention on effective implementation of the laws and regulations that prohibit healthbased discrimination in access to employment, medical care,education, and a barrier-free environment. Ask Chinese officials about cases in which disability rights advocates have been
rebuffed in their applications for open government information.
THE ENVIRONMENT
Findings• Despite some progress during the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, pollution problems remained severe, and the associated financial costs continued to grow. News and other reports
highlighted major winter air pollution incidents, groundwatercontamination, soil pollution challenges, the link between toxic
chemicals and ‘‘cancer villages,’’ and problems associated withthe migration of polluting industries to western and poorer regions. Authorities were more transparent about the problemsof air and groundwater pollution, and toxic chemicals, thanthey were about soil contamination.
• During the reporting period, authorities continued to develop
a regulatory framework to address environmental problems,
despite significant limitations. Chinese leaders highlighted environmental protection as one of China’s ‘‘four basic principles,’’and Party leaders added commitments to ‘‘ecological civilization’’ to the Party constitution. Economic development, however, remains the ‘‘core concern.’’ Authorities released two
versions of the draft revisions to the Environmental Protection
Law to the public for comments, which contained some incen-

37
tives for greater transparency and official accountability. Environmental groups, experts, and the environmental ministry
pointed out other problems with the drafts related to environmental interest lawsuits and numerous other issues. Authorities appeared to restart stalled efforts to revise the PRC Air
Pollution Law, and to draft a major national soil pollution law.
In addition, the State Council issued ten policies on air pollution and an air pollution action plan.
• Significant challenges for the development of rule of law inthe sector remain, including legal violations, lax or arbitrary
enforcement, evaluation criteria prioritizing economic growth,corruption, lack of supervision, a weak environmental protection apparatus, and insufficient monitoring and environmental
penalties. Development of environmental public interest law
came to a standstill when the June draft of the revisions to theEnvironmental Protection Law stipulated that only the government-supported All-China Environment Federation would beallowed to bring public interest lawsuits. Legal remedies in environmental cases continue to be unreliable for several reasons,
including the reluctance of courts to accept cases, hesitation on
the part of lawyers to participate, mediation with a weak legal
basis, and the potential for forced mediation agreements. Citizens continued to take to the streets in efforts to resolve grievances.
• During the reporting year, Chinese citizens advocated for improvement of environmental quality, but during the course ofprotecting their rights or investigating claims of pollution,some people faced detention (Liu Futang), extralegal home confinement (Zhang Bing), harassment from officials (Chen
Yuqian and Mongolian herders), and beatings from unidentified individuals (an environmental journalist). Officials alsoquestioned environmental advocates, took extraordinary measures to prevent anti-pollution demonstrations, and censoredInternet postings, including those critical of planned projects.
• During the 2013 reporting year, citizens called for greater
environmental transparency, and environmental authorities
issued new internal rules to improve proactive disclosure ofabridged environmental impact assessment reports and otherinformation. Authorities in select cities began to make public
PM2.5 and air quality data using the revised air quality index.
Despite these new rules and measures, authorities’ proactive
disclosure of information remains irregular and censorship continues. According to one study, while a greater percentage ofenvironmental authorities responded to information requests,
disclosure was less comprehensive in more cases than in theprevious year.
• Grassland herder relocation programs, reportedly conductedby authorities to address grassland degradation as well as
modernize the animal husbandry industry, have also in somecases been involuntary.

38
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Call upon the Chinese government to cease punishing citizens for their grassroots environmental advocacy, for investigating pollution incidents, or for utilizing official and institutionalized channels to voice their environmental grievances or
to protect their rights. Support efforts by Chinese and U.S.
groups working in China to expand awareness of citizens’ environmental rights and to promote the protection of those rights.
Include environmental law issues in the bilateral human rights
and legal expert dialogues. In addition, include discussion ofhuman rights dimensions of climate change in the new U.S.China Climate Change Working Group.
Æ Support multilateral exchanges regarding environmental enforcement and compliance tools, including environmental insurance, market mechanisms, criminal prosecution of serious
environmental infringements, and public interest litigation
mechanisms. Encourage Chinese leaders to strengthen environmental impact assessment processes and citizen participationin those processes. Engage Chinese officials and others whoseek to devise a fair compensation system for people harmed
by pollution.
Æ Support continued expansion of environmental information
disclosure in China. Share U.S. Government experiences with
the Toxics Release Inventory Program and other U.S. programs
that seek to provide more environmental transparency. Support programs that educate Chinese citizens about China’s system of open government information. In addition, continue
U.S. Government engagement with relevant individuals andorganizations in developing China’s capacity to reliably measure, report, publicize, and verify emissions reduction strategies
and techniques.
Æ Encourage the development of environmental NGOs in
China, including by incorporating joint U.S.-China non-governmental participation into bilateral projects. Support efforts toraise the technical and operational capacity of Chinese environmental NGOs.
Æ Urge Chinese authorities to end nonvoluntary relocation of
nomadic herders and to conduct relocation programs in a manner consistent with international scientific and human rights
norms. To this end, urge authorities to consider the suggestions contained in the 2012 Report of the Special Rapporteuron the Right to Food; Addendum, Mission to China, to theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
CIVIL SOCIETY
Findings• Millions of civil society organizations operate in China, making contributions to public interest advocacy and the provisionof social services, organizing leisure activities, and promoting
farming and business development. Government-registered39
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) make up a subset ofcivil society organizations. Many NGOs are registered as businesses or are unregistered due to a restrictive regulatory environment. Individual advocates and informal networks also engage on issues of public interest in China.
• During the 2013 reporting year, Chinese government andCommunist Party policy documents reaffirmed government andParty leadership and control over the development of ‘‘socialorganizations,’’ the term commonly used to refer to NGOs. Chinese scholars have observed differentiated treatment of NGOs;
whereas the government is willing to support groups that areperceived to support economic growth or provide social welfare
services, the government continues to harass groups and individuals involved in issue advocacy or matters the government
deems politically sensitive.
• Human rights organizations have reported on a crackdown
beginning in spring 2013 on individual rights advocates, someof whom have an affiliation with the New Citizens’ Movement,a loose network of individuals who advocate for a range ofissues, such as political and legal reforms, human rights, andsocial justice. In July, the Beijing municipality Bureau of Civil
Affairs shut down the Transition Institute, a think tank which
conducts research on public interest issues, reportedly because
the Institute is not registered as an NGO.
• The government has pledged to issue long-awaited regulatory changes to the legal framework for social organization
registration and management by the end of 2013, including
permitting direct registration to allow organizations to registerat civil affairs bureaus without first securing a governmental
or quasi-governmental supervisory unit. Direct registration,
however, will be limited to business and industry associations,
technical and scientific associations, charitable organizations,and community service groups. Political, legal, and religious organizations, and foreign NGOs with representative offices in
China, will continue to be required to find a supervisory unit
and operate under the existing ‘‘dual management’’ system.
• Chinese government authorities at national and local levels
have allocated funds to procure services from non-governmentalorganizations as part of the development of a ‘‘non-state services sector.’’ Scholars and civil society experts have expressed
concerns that the fragmentary development of the regulatory
framework for government procurement from NGOs has created problems in the selection of service providers, contract implementation, and oversight of projects.
• China’s government-run charitable organizations, such as
the Red Cross of China, continue to face a confidence gap inthe eyes of Chinese citizens due to reports of misused donatedfunds and a lack of transparency in financial reporting. Private(non-governmental) charities have benefited from the credibility gap, as illustrated by the large amount of donations tosuch organizations in response to the Sichuan earthquake in
April 2013. The Chinese government reportedly is working ona national Charity Law, but has not yet issued a draft for public comment.

40
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Urge the Chinese government to revise its regulatory framework for social organizations in China to allow all non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to benefit from planned reforms
in accordance with the rights to freedom of association in Article 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights. Stress to Chinese authorities that freedom of association includes public advocacy on a range of issues. Call on the
Chinese government to cease harassment of NGOs and civil society advocates who work on rights protection and public advocacy.
Æ Encourage the Chinese government to establish a fair andtransparent framework for implementation and regulation of
government procurement of social services from NGOs. Where
appropriate, support technical exchanges for central- andprovincial-level Chinese officials to visit the United States toobserve U.S. federal and state practice in government procurement of services from NGOs.
Æ Take measures to facilitate the participation of Chinese citizens who work in the NGO sector in relevant international
conferences and forums. Increase support for training opportunities in the United States to build their leadership capacity innonprofit management, public policy, and public interest advocacy. Expand support to U.S. organizations that partner with
Chinese NGOs on projects to build the capacity of civil society
organizations in China.
INSTITUTIONS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE
Findings• At the 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist
Party in November 2012, a major political power succession
took place within the Party, which happens at 10-year intervals, and involved the extensive turnover of power to a slightly
younger cohort of political leaders in a non-transparent process. New Party General Secretary and President Xi Jinping appeared to act quickly in the first few months to move forwardwith his agenda and leadership style. Some international andChinese scholars, journalists, and commentators believe that
under the new echelon of top leaders, the prospects for political
reform in China appear dim.
• At the 18th Party Congress, the Party amended the Party
constitution to embrace ‘‘scientific development’’ (former Party
secretary Hu Jintao’s socio-economic theory), to declare that‘‘socialism with Chinese characteristics’’ is the reason behindall of China’s achievements, and to affirm that ‘‘reform andopening up are the path to a stronger China.’’• Following the 18th Party Congress, top Party leaders assumed leading posts in the Chinese government in a transferof government power that took place in March 2013. The newly
installed government leaders issued a plan for a major reshuf-

41
fling of State Council institutions and a ‘‘transformation of government functions.’’ The goals of the plan include improving
government efficiency, pushing forward reform toward ‘‘superministries,’’ and resolving issues in the relationships between
the government and the market, the government and society,and central and local entities.
• China’s political institutions do not comply with the standards defined in Article 25 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, which Chinese leaders have signed
and declared an intention to ratify. Nor do China’s political institutions comply with the standards outlined in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. The Communist Party continues
to dominate political affairs, allows only limited independent
political participation, and exerts control over the courts, theNational People’s Congress, the media, and state leadership
appointments. Officials took a variety of other actions to interfere in local congress elections and to prevent independent candidates from being nominated or elected as delegates. Additionally, officials established numerical requirements related to thecomposition of National People’s Congress delegates. During
this reporting year, the Party tried to exert greater influence
over university student groups and non-governmental andquasi-governmental organizations. In addition, developmentssuggest that the new Party Central Committee is exerting
more efforts to control currents in the ideological realm.
• Authorities continued to detain, arrest, and sentence democracy advocates who exercised their right to freedom of speech,of assembly, of association, and of demonstration as guaranteed in China’s Constitution and under international humanrights standards. This reporting year, authorities detained or
imposed prison sentences on democracy advocates Cao Haiboand Liu Benqi. Other democracy advocates given long prison
sentences in recent years remain imprisoned, including Chen
Wei, Chen Xi, Li Tie, Zhu Yufu, Xue Mingkai, Liu Xiaobo, Liu
Xianbin, Guo Quan, Zhou Yongjun, Xie Changfa, and Huang
Chengcheng.
• While top Chinese leaders have voiced support for greatertransparency, citizens continue to face challenges in accessing
information. In one example, authorities have suppressed citizen efforts to obtain information regarding China’s submission
for the October 2013 United Nations Human Rights Council
Universal Periodic Review process. Individuals seeking information reportedly were harassed, prevented from leaving theirhomes, detained, or formally arrested.
• Authorities have passed or are drafting major laws that havea bearing on when and how citizens may hold their authorities
accountable, including the PRC Civil Procedure Law, the PRC
Administrative Litigation Law, and the PRC Administrative
Reconsideration Law. The State Council issued plans to continue to strengthen administrative enforcement of laws andpolicies, partially by promoting administrative evaluation systems at the local level and strengthening support for ‘‘enforcement responsibility systems.’’

42• Chinese leaders and citizens continued to express concern
about official corruption, and many foreign and domestic business people reportedly think China’s legal environment has deteriorated. Top leaders link the Party’s legitimacy to its ability
to manage corruption. Authorities continued to issue regulatory measures to curb corruption. In September 2013, a court
sentenced Bo Xilai, the former Party Central Political Bureau
member and Chongqing municipality Party Secretary, to life
imprisonment for corruption. Central leaders have not, however, fully supported requirements for top officials to disclose
their assets, and continued to have little tolerance for nongovernmental anticorruption efforts. Against the backdrop ofstrong public demand for disclosure of officials’ finances, authorities criminally detained or arrested dozens of advocates
who made public appeals for top officials to disclose their finances, including anticorruption advocates such as Sun
Hanhui, Ding Jiaxi, Hou Xin, Yuan Dong, Zhang Baocheng,
Ma Xinli, Liu Ping, Zhao Changqing, and Wang Yonghong.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Take proactive steps to engage with the new cohort of Chinese leaders and to understand their plans for the future ofgovernance in China. Conduct reciprocal, high-level parliamentary exchanges to share information and hold trainings regarding the congressional and political systems in the U.S. andChina. Support efforts to research the implications of the Party
and government power transition and the restructuring ofState Council institutions, and to disseminate that information
widely. Support U.S. research programs that shed light on the
structure, functions, and development of the Chinese Communist Party, including its roles within government institutions, China’s legislature, the media, non-state-owned companies, and social organizations (non-governmental groups, foundations, and nonprofit organizations). Urge Chinese officials tofurther increase the transparency of Party affairs.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to release people detained
or imprisoned for exercising their right to freedom of association and assembly, for engaging in peaceful demonstrations, forcalling for transparency of officials’ personal finances, or for
calling for political reforms within China. Some of these prisoners have associated themselves with the New Citizens’ Movement and others are democracy advocates who are serving long
prison sentences.
Æ Support projects of U.S. or Chinese organizations that seek
to work with local Chinese governmental and non-governmentalorganizations to improve transparency and accountability, especially efforts to expand and improve China’s government information disclosure initiatives. Such projects might include
joint efforts to better publicize the Open Government Information (OGI) Regulations at local levels and to train citizens andgroups about how to submit OGI requests. Encourage Party

43
and government officials to ensure regulations, rules, and policies are made public. In addition, support projects that involvean exchange of information about bottom-up mechanisms toevaluate and hold government and Party officials accountableand emphasize the links between efficiency and accountability.
Æ Support programs that assist local governments, academics,
and the nonprofit sector in expanding transparent public hearings and other channels for citizens to participate in the policymaking process. Such programs could include pilot projects in
China in which citizens’ suggestions to authorities about draft
laws, regulations, or policies are made available to the public.
COMMERCIAL RULE OF LAW
Findings• The Chinese government and Communist Party continued toencourage state coordination of overseas investment activity as
part of a policy authorities commonly referred to as the ‘‘goout’’ strategy. Authorities continued to encourage Chinese businesses to invest abroad in part as a way to increase opportunities for Chinese enterprises to move up the value chain. As
part of the ‘‘go out’’ strategy, authorities targeted ‘‘strategic’’ industries, such as energy resources, metals, advanced technology, and ‘‘famous brands.’’• This past year, authorities took measures to reform China’sbanking system, which continued to give state-owned enterprises preferential access to loans. The People’s Bank of Chinaremoved a lower limit on loan interest rates but maintained an
upper limit on interest rates payable to depositors, which news
media noted could allow state-owned enterprises to secure
cheaper loans, as well as reduce the profits of smaller banks
and constrain the ability of households to accumulate savings.
• The yuan appreciated this past year, but the U.S. Treasury
Department reported that it ‘‘remains significantly undervalued.’’ Some Chinese officials called for a more market-based
approach to exchange rate policy, but the Chinese government
continued to interfere with the exchange rate through the accumulation of foreign exchange reserves.
• During the 2013 reporting year—more than a decade after
China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO)—
China continued to face allegations of violations of its WTO obligations, including antidumping and countervailing duties andsubsidies inconsistent with its WTO obligations. Since its accession to the WTO, China has been a respondent in 31 WTO
Dispute Settlement cases; this past year, the WTO found infavor of U.S. claims in three cases that the United Statesbrought against China, as well as European Union claims in
one case that the European Union brought against China.
• The Chinese government continued to take steps to improve
protection for intellectual property rights (IPR) this past year,
but weak protection and enforcement of IPR continued to contribute to theft of intellectual property. Theft of trade secrets,
in some cases reportedly authorized by the Chinese government, continued this past year, including the reported theft of44large amounts of data by an organization operating under the
People’s Liberation Army. In addition, Chinese officials continued to use technology transfer as a precondition for market access.
• This past year, the Ministry of Commerce published two newdraft regulations for public comment: the Provisions on Additional Restrictive Conditions for the Concentration of Business
Operators and the Interim Provisions Regarding the Application of Standards for Simple Cases of Concentration of Business Operators. Both reportedly are designed to clarify andstreamline the merger review and approval process, but expert
commentators expressed doubts that the provisions will havesuch an effect in practice.
• During this past year, food safety scandals continued toemerge in different parts of China, and hazardous and illegal
Chinese products continued to cross borders. Over a threemonth period, Chinese authorities took into custody 904 people
allegedly involved in selling rat, mink, and fox meat disguised
as mutton. Over a six-week period, authorities in Hong Kong
took into custody 879 people allegedly involved in smuggling
milk formula from Hong Kong into mainland China, as thequality of milk formula in mainland China remained a concern.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Develop and support a project surveying the role of China’s
industrial policies in the Chinese economy, including how thedevelopment of these policies and the role they play in directing China’s economy influence transparency, rule of law, andChina’s compliance with its international commitments.
Æ Include issues of commercial rule of law, investment subsidies, and retaliation for excercising legal rights in the U.S.China Strategic and Economic Dialogue and other commercial
dialogues, negotiations, and exchanges with China. Expand
dialogue with China through the U.S. Department of theTreasury, U.S. financial regulators, and the Small Business
Administration on financial sector reform issues, such as access to capital for small business, corruption, subsidies, andtaxpayer accountability. In addition, when necessary, continue
to enforce U.S. rights through mechanisms of the WTO. File acounter notification to the WTO regarding China’s subsidies,including its failure to report subsidies.
Æ Obtain details on the amount of Chinese investment (otherthan in financial instruments) in the United States—including
information on the distribution of that investment across different sectors of the economy, the criteria Chinese authorities
use in approving such investments, and how such investment
is financed. Obtain these details through bilateral dialogues
between the U.S. Trade Representative and U.S. Departmentof Commerce, and China’s Ministry of Commerce, National Development and Reform Commission, and State-Owned Assets
Supervision and Administration Commission.

45
Æ Support capacity-building programs for Chinese intellectual
property regulators on U.S. best practices in intellectual property rights protection. Obtain information from Chinese officials on the overarching goals and projected timeline of theChinese government’s current efforts to reform intellectual
property laws and regulations and to curb intellectual property
theft, including cyber theft. Support a project that seeks toquantify the scope of damages to the U.S. economy from Chinese intellectual property theft, and more aggressively investigate the links between specific companies, organizations, andentities within China and specific theft of U.S. intellectual
property. Conduct the project in a manner that protects theprivacy and confidentiality of companies, while offering thosecompanies incentives to participate.
Æ Strengthen and expand capacity-building programs for Chinese food safety regulators on U.S. best practices in food safety
programs. Pass legislation authorizing a larger U.S. Food andDrug Administration presence in China, with additional inspectors; support training programs conducted by U.S. inspectors, producers, and food safety experts; and ensure that regulated products imported from China into the United States are
certified by the relevant entities in China.
ACCESS TO JUSTICE
Findings• At a January 2013 meeting, the new Secretary of the Communist Party’s Political and Legal Affairs Commission reportedly announced plans for reform of the justice sector, reeducation through labor (RTL), petitioning, and the hukou (household registration) system. Public calls for reform of the RTL
system have been particularly strong during the 2013 reporting year, but observers are concerned that any changes will bein name only.
• During the 2013 reporting year, the Commission observed
the Chinese government and Communist Party’s widespreaduse of ‘‘stability maintenance’’ measures in advance of and during the 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist
Party. Government and Party officials reportedly ordered
rights advocates, petitioners, and Falun Gong practitioners, including Mao Hengfeng, Pei Fugui, Cui Fufang, Tong Guojing,
Shen Yongmei, Shen Lianman, and Qin Wei, to serve RTL sentences to achieve ‘‘zero petitioning’’ and prevent protest in Beijing during that period.
• Harassment of weiquan (rights defense) lawyers continued tofollow the trend of past years with the Chinese government
using a variety of measures, including license suspension, surveillance, and illegal detention, to intimidate lawyers. Prominent human rights advocates Gao Zhisheng and Ni Yulan continued to serve harsh prison sentences; authorities arrested
rights advocate Xu Zhiyong in August 2013 following several
months of ‘‘house arrest’’ and criminal detention.
• Official sources reported that the number of individuals who
received legal aid in China exceeded 1 million in 2012, a 21

46
percent increase over 2011. The Chinese government has
steadily increased funding of legal aid over the years, reportedly by almost 10 percent in 2012. The revised Criminal Procedure Law and supporting regulations expand the scope and eligibility of criminal suspects and defendants who may receive
legal aid, though scholars have raised concerns about whether
there are sufficient human, financial, and institutional resources to support expected increases in legal aid cases.
• Official harassment of family members of rights defenders
and political activists continued to take place during the 2013
reporting year. Chinese authorities used a range of methods
against family members, restricting their rights to freedom of
movement, expression, and livelihood.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Object to the continued harassment of rights defenders. Callfor the release of lawyers, activists, and others who have been‘‘disappeared,’’ are incarcerated, or are subject to unlawful
home confinement or other forms of extralegal detention, fortheir activities to defend and promote the rights of Chinese
citizens, including Xu Zhiyong, Gao Zhisheng, Ni Yulan, andothers mentioned in this report and in the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database. Urge the Chinese government to renew
professional licenses to the law firms and individual lawyers
denied renewal in 2013 and in past years for their work on
cases officials deem to be sensitive.
Æ Monitor the Chinese government’s stated plans to reform thereeducation through labor and petitioning systems by asking
Chinese officials about the substance of the reforms, and thetimeframe and benchmarks to assess progress. Recommend theestablishment of independent evaluation mechanisms that include the participation of civil society representatives, rights
defenders, and public interest lawyers.
Æ Object to the ongoing harassment and abuse of the family
members of petitioners and rights defenders. Call for the cessation of the denial of rights (including the refusal to issue
passports), physical violence, and detention of family members,
such as Liu Xia, the wife of Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu
Xiaobo; Chen Kegui, nephew of the prominent legal advocate
Chen Guangcheng; and Ablikim Abdureyim, one of the sons of
Uyghur rights advocate Rebiya Kadeer.
Æ Increase support to the U.S. Department of State’s International Visitors Leadership Program and other similar bilateral exchange programs that bring Chinese human rights lawyers, advocates, and scholars to the United States for study
and dialogue. Expand support to legal research and exchange
programs in the non-governmental and academic sector thatpartner with China’s human rights lawyers and public interest
legal organizations, and technical exchange and training programs with China’s official justice sector that promote court
independence.

47
Æ Encourage the Chinese government (in particular, the Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Education) to allocate more
funding to local bar associations and law school clinical legal
education programs to build a stronger foundation for legal aid
and public interest law, and enhance legal training to provide
legal aid services to persons with disabilities, petitioners, andthose seeking legal protection from domestic violence (including children), among other at-risk populations.
XINJIANG
Findings• Clashes that took place in the spring and summer of 2013
throughout the region resulted in numerous deaths, with reported death tolls ranging from dozens to 100 or possibly more,
and raised concerns about the failure of ethnic policy in the
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) to address theroot causes of regional instability. Overseas media and rights
groups reported instances involving security forces shooting
into crowds of Uyghurs, resulting in deaths and injuries. In
some cases, Uyghur residents of the XUAR reportedly committed deadly attacks on members of security forces, community workers, and others.
• Authorities reportedly conducted pervasive house searches
throughout the region in order to ‘‘maintain stability’’ and target peaceful expressions of religious belief among the Uyghur
population. Human rights advocates assert that widespread security checks have exacerbated tensions in the region.
• XUAR authorities continued intensive controls over religion,
especially Islam, posing a challenge for Uyghurs seeking topractice their religious beliefs outside of state control. Authorities continued to enforce tight restrictions over peaceful religious practices among the Uyghur population and carried out
targeted surveillance over individual religious believers.
• State-led development initiatives intensified during the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, drawing large amounts of stateand private investment and increased migration into the
XUAR. Development projects in the region raised concerns thatthey have brought disproportionately fewer economic, social,and cultural opportunities for Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in the region, as well as concerns over the effects suchprojects have had on the cultures and languages of thesegroups.
• Increased migration to the XUAR in recent years has reportedly heightened ethnic tensions in some areas and sparked
concerns among Uyghur residents regarding land rights andemployment opportunities. Regional development initiatives
brought increased Han Chinese migration to the XUAR during
the past year, and state-led programs provided assistance tomigrants and workers from other provinces, often in southernareas of the XUAR traditionally inhabited by Uyghurs andother ethnic minorities.
• In the past year, the XUAR government broadened the scopeof Mandarin-focused ‘‘bilingual education’’ in the region, a pol-48
icy some Uyghur students in the XUAR fear is aimed at assimilating young Uyghurs into Chinese society at the expenseof their Uyghur identity. Under ‘‘bilingual education,’’ class instruction takes place primarily in Mandarin Chinese, largely
replacing instruction in languages spoken by ethnic minority
groups. In recent years, some Uyghur students and teachers
have expressed concern over the compulsory nature of the region’s ‘‘bilingual’’ curriculum and the corresponding loss ofyoung Uyghurs’ ability to speak the Uyghur language.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Support legislation that expands U.S. Government resources
for raising awareness of human rights conditions in the XUAR,
for protecting Uyghur culture, and for increasing avenues for
Uyghurs to protect their human rights.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to reexamine the effectiveness of official policies toward ethnic minorities in the XUAR
and end its reliance on heightened security to respond to clashes in the region. Call on Chinese authorities to report transparently on conflict in the region.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to end pervasive housesearches in Uyghur neighborhoods throughout the XUAR,
which human rights advocates assert have exacerbated tensions in the region.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to adhere to its domestic
laws and regulations guaranteeing freedom of religious belief,
as well as international regulations guaranteeing religious
practice free from state restrictions.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to support development
policies in the XUAR that promote democratic decisionmaking
processes among local communities affected by development.
Call on central and XUAR authorities to ensure equitable development that not only promotes economic growth but also respects the broad civil and political rights of XUAR residents,and engages these communities in democratic decisionmaking.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to ensure the rights of ethnic minorities to protect property and enjoy equal access to employment opportunities in areas of the XUAR affected by development efforts. Call on central and XUAR authorities to enact
programs to actively preserve and maintain the culture andlivelihoods of Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in the faceof increased migration.
Æ Call on the Chinese government to consult with non-Han
parents, teachers, and students regarding what language or
languages of instruction should be used in XUAR schools, fromthe preschool to the university level. Call on Chinese officials
to provide parents and students a choice of instruction in the
Uyghur language and other non-Chinese languages prevalent
in the XUAR, as mandated in Article 4 of the Chinese Constitution and Article 10 of the PRC Regional Ethnic Autonomy
Law (REAL). Urge Chinese officials to support the develop-

49
ment of educational materials in the Uyghur language and inother non-Chinese languages.
TIBET
Findings• Formal dialogue between the Dalai Lama’s representatives
and Chinese Communist Party and government officials has
been stalled since the January 2010 ninth round, the longest
interval since such contacts resumed in 2002. The Commission
observed no indication during the 2013 reporting year of official Chinese interest in resuming a dialogue that takes into account Tibetan concerns regarding the Tibetan autonomous
areas of China.
• The Party and government failed this past year to respondto Tibetan grievances in a constructive manner or accept any
accountability for Tibetan rejection of Chinese policies. The frequency of Tibetan self-immolation reportedly focusing on political and religious issues increased during the Commission’s
2013 reporting year, peaking in October–November with 38
self-immolations preceding and during the 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party. During the period September 2012 through July 2013, 66 Tibetan self-immolations(60 fatal) took place. As self-immolation frequency increased,authorities strengthened a security crackdown infringing on Tibetans’ freedoms of expression, association, and movement, andcurtailed their ability to communicate or share information.
Self-immolations have shifted from an initial pattern of lessfrequent self-immolations mainly in Sichuan province with amajority of current or former monastics, to a pattern of more
frequent self-immolations mostly outside of Sichuan with a majority of laypersons.
• Tibetan self-immolators this past year continued to call for
the Dalai Lama’s return—a demand that when voiced during
a suicidal protest may signify intense resentment toward Chinese government and Communist Party intrusion into Tibetan
Buddhist affairs. The Party and government continued to create new and unprecedented control over Tibetan Buddhism,
along with maintaining established repressive policies. Effective December 2012, national measures required Tibetan Buddhist monastic teachers to submit every five years to a reassessment conducted by Party- and government-controlled Buddhist associations. Criteria include patriotism toward China,
supporting Party leadership, and accepting guidance fromgovernment- and Party-run offices. Reappointed teachers mustsign an agreement acknowledging such obligations. Officials
characterize the result of such policies as the ‘‘normal order’’of Tibetan Buddhism.
• This past year, some Tibetan self-immolators reportedly
called for greater use of the Tibetan language as they burned—
an apparent indication of the significant threat some Tibetans
believe Party and government policies pose to Tibetan culture’s
vibrancy and viability. In Qinghai province, thousands of Tibetan tertiary students protested against issues including gov-

50
ernment language policy after authorities required students tostudy an official booklet that some regarded as ‘‘derogatory’’ toward Tibetan language and that promoted using Mandarin. A
court sentenced eight of the students to imprisonment. Reportsof unofficial Tibetan initiatives to promote Tibetan language
emerged in Qinghai, Gansu, and Sichuan provinces.
• Officials continued to emphasize economic development as
the key to achieving ‘‘social stability,’’ even though some initiatives resulted in protests or alleged harm to local communities.
A Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) official said the LhasaShigatse railway will begin operation by the end of 2014. Official media reported the TAR government had settled (or resettled) ‘‘nearly 2.1 million’’ Tibetan farmers and herders during
2006–2012, and that ‘‘all farmers and herders’’ in the TAR
would be settled by the end of 2013. Media organizations reported on a landslide disaster at a gold mine and on environmental pollution that interfered with Tibetans’ ability to farmand maintain livestock. Government plans for construction ofhydroelectric projects along major Tibetan rivers attracted theinterest of news media and analysts.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Urge the Chinese government to resume contacts with theDalai Lama or his representatives and engage in dialogue
without preconditions. Such a dialogue should aim to protect
the Tibetan culture, language, religion, and heritage within the
Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) and the Tibetan autonomous
prefectures and counties in Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, andYunnan provinces. As tensions continue to rise in Tibetan
areas and Tibetans express their respect for the Dalai Lama,a Chinese government decision to engage in dialogue can resultin a durable and mutually beneficial outcome for the Chinese
government and Tibetans that will benefit local and regional
security in coming decades.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to consider the role of government regulatory measures and Party policies in the wave of Tibetan self-immolations. Point out to Chinese officials that, if
the government and Party address Tibetan grievances in a constructive manner, the results could benefit state security andsocial stability; point out to Chinese officials that strengthening the measures and policies that Tibetans resent is unlikely to promote ‘‘social stability’’ or a ‘‘harmonious society.’’Æ Convey to the Chinese government the urgent importance ofrefraining from expanding the use of intrusive management
and legal measures to infringe upon and repress Tibetan Buddhists’ right to the freedom of religion. Point out to Chinese officials that government control over periodic review and reappointment of Tibetan Buddhist teachers based on criteriasuch as upholding Communist Party leadership and accepting
guidance from government- and Party-run offices is inconsistent with state respect for ‘‘freedom of religious belief,’’ and51
that increased pressure on Tibetan Buddhists created by aggressive use of regulatory measures, ‘‘patriotic’’ and ‘‘legal’’
education, and anti-Dalai Lama campaigns is likely to harmsocial stability, not protect it. Urge the government to respect
the right of Tibetan Buddhists to identify and educate religious
teachers in a manner consistent with Tibetan Buddhist preferences and traditions.
Æ Request that the Chinese government follow up on a 2010
statement by the Chairman of the TAR government that
Gedun Choekyi Nyima, the Panchen Lama whom the Dalai
Lama recognized in 1995, is living in the TAR as an ‘‘ordinary
citizen’’ along with his family. Urge the government to invite
a representative of an international organization to meet with
Gedun Choekyi Nyima so that Gedun Choekyi Nyima can express to the representative his wishes with respect to privacy;
photograph the international representative and Gedun
Choekyi Nyima together; and publish Gedun Choekyi Nyima’s
statement and the photograph.
Æ Convey to the Chinese government the importance of respecting and protecting the Tibetan culture and language.
Urge Chinese officials to promote a vibrant Tibetan culture byhonoring the Chinese Constitution’s reference to the freedomsof speech, association, assembly, and religion, and refraining
from using the security establishment, courts, and law to infringe upon and repress Tibetans’ exercise of such rights. Urge
officials to respect Tibetan wishes to maintain the role of boththe Tibetan and Chinese languages in teaching modern subjects and not to consign Tibetan language to inferior status by
discontinuing its use in teaching modern subjects.
Æ Encourage the Chinese government to take fully into account the views and preferences of Tibetans when the government plans infrastructure, natural resource development, andsettlement or resettlement projects in the Tibetan areas ofChina. Encourage the Chinese government to engage with appropriate experts in assessing the impact of such projects andin advising the government on the implementation andprogress of such projects.
Æ Increase support for U.S. non-governmental organizations todevelop programs that can assist Tibetans to increase their capacity to peacefully protect and develop their culture, language, and heritage; that can help to improve education, economic, health, and environmental conservation conditions for
ethnic Tibetans living in Tibetan areas of China; and that create sustainable benefits for Tibetans without encouraging an
influx of non-Tibetans into these areas.
Æ Urge the Chinese government to refrain from using security
and judicial institutions to intimidate Tibetan communities byprosecuting and imprisoning Tibetans with alleged links to aself-immolator or for sharing self-immolation information. Continue to convey to the government the importance of distinguishing between peaceful Tibetan protesters and rioters; condemn the use of security campaigns to suppress human rights;
and request the Chinese government to provide complete details about Tibetans detained, charged, or sentenced for52
protest-related and self-immolation-related ‘‘crimes.’’ Continue
to raise in meetings and correspondence with Chinese officials
the cases of Tibetans who are imprisoned as punishment forthe peaceful exercise of human rights. Representative examples include: Monk Choeying Khedrub (sentenced to life imprisonment for printing leaflets); Bangri Chogtrul (regarded by Tibetan Buddhists as a reincarnated lama, serving a sentence of
18 years commuted from life imprisonment for ‘‘inciting
splittism’’); and nomad Ronggye Adrag (sentenced to 8 years’
imprisonment for shouting political slogans at a public festival).
DEVELOPMENTS IN HONG KONG AND MACAU
Findings• The Basic Laws of both Hong Kong and Macau confirm theapplicability of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) to both territories. The Basic Law of Hong
Kong provides specifically for universal suffrage, while Macau’s
Basic Law does not.
• Public demand grew for a more specific plan for election ofHong Kong’s Chief Executive (CE) through universal suffrage,
which is set to occur in 2017. In July 2013, Hong Kong’s current CE, CY Leung, dismissed calls for early public consultation on electoral reform. Mainland Chinese officials and experts continue to dissuade Macau from pursuing universal suffrage.
• Concerns also grew over central government interference inthe nomination of CE candidates in elections by universal suffrage, with statements from mainland Chinese officials rulingout a nominating process involving the broader voting public
and stating that candidates would be required to be trusted by
the central government.
• Two incidents this year highlighted ongoing challenges toHong Kong’s judicial and law enforcement independence. Hong
Kong authorities requested that Hong Kong’s highest court
refer to the National People’s Congress Standing Committee in
Beijing a key issue in a case involving the right of foreign domestic helpers to apply for Hong Kong permanent residence. In
another instance, former U.S. National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden was allowed to leave the territory despite a U.S. request for his provisional arrest. This incident
raises concerns over whether this was done at the request of
the central government. If so, it could be interpreted as thecentral government interfering in what should have been apurely internal Hong Kong law enforcement matter.
• The Hong Kong government made uneven progress toward
maintaining transparency. The government postponed implementation of a measure that would have redacted from public
corporate filings important identifying information of company
directors.
• Self-censorship by journalists and strong media ties to mainland China continued to threaten press freedom in Hong Kongand Macau, although in September 2012 Macau backed away

53
from a controversial plan to set up a ‘‘press accountability
board.’’• The gambling industry in Macau is reportedly tied to widespread corruption and the laundering of large amounts ofmoney out of mainland China. The Chinese government andMacau officials reportedly stepped up efforts to regulate
Macau’s gambling industry as part of a larger campaign by thecentral government against corruption.
Recommendations
Members of the U.S. Congress and Administration officials areencouraged to:Æ Urge in meetings with Hong Kong and central government
officials for Hong Kong authorities to prepare a clear plan witha specific timetable as soon as practicable for instituting universal suffrage for the election of the Chief Executive in 2017that meets the requirements of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and is developed with full
public participation. Include stops in Hong Kong and Macau
during trips to mainland China. U.S. Government delegations’meetings in Hong Kong should include meetings with membersof the Hong Kong Legislative Council, officials with the Hong
Kong government administration, members of the judiciary,
and representatives of reporters’ organizations. In Macau, delegations should meet with members of the Legislative Assembly, especially directly elected members, with the Macau government administration, and with leaders outside the government.
Æ Support and encourage agencies and organizations to explore
projects to monitor and strengthen democratic practices, press
freedom, and the rule of law in Macau.
Æ Commend Hong Kong for its commitment to transparency inlight of recent measures toward a public archives law andmaintaining public access to corporate directors’ identifying information, and emphasize the critical importance of transparency for maintaining confidence in business and U.S.-Hong
Kong relations.
Æ Urge Macau to develop law enforcement mechanisms forcombating money laundering, such as a mechanism to freeze
suspicious assets, establishing cash declaration requirementsfor visitors, lowering transaction reporting thresholds for casinos, and enhancing legal requirements for casino customer due
diligence.

54
POLITICAL PRISONER DATABASE
Recommendations
When composing correspondence advocating on behalf of a political or religious prisoner, or preparing for official travel to China,
Members of Congress and Administration officials are encouragedto:• Check the Political Prisoner Database (PPD) (http://
ppdcecc.gov) for reliable, up-to-date information on a prisoner
or groups of prisoners. Consult a prisoner’s database record formore detailed information about the prisoner’s case, including
his or her alleged crime, specific human rights that officials
have violated, stage in the legal process, and location of detention or imprisonment, if known.
• Advise official and private delegations traveling to China topresent Chinese officials with lists of political and religious
prisoners compiled from database records.
• Urge U.S. state and local officials and private citizens involved in sister-state and sister-city relationships with China
to explore the database, and to advocate for the release of political and religious prisoners in China.
A POWERFUL RESOURCE FOR ADVOCACY

The Commission’s 2013 Annual Report provides information
about Chinese political and religious prisoners 1 in the context ofspecific human rights and rule of law abuses. Many of the abuses
result from the Chinese Communist Party’s and government’s application of policies and laws. The Commission relies on the Political Prisoner Database (PPD), a publicly available online databasemaintained by the Commission, for its own advocacy and researchwork, including the preparation of the Annual Report, and routinely uses the database to prepare summaries of information
about political and religious prisoners for Members of Congress andAdministration officials. The Commission invites the public to readabout issue-specific Chinese political imprisonment in sections of
this Annual Report, and to access and make use of the upgraded
PPD at http://ppdcecc.gov. (Information about the PPD is available at http://www.cecc.gov/resources/political-prisoner-database.)
The PPD received approximately 84,500 online requests for prisoner information during the 12-month period ending August 31,
2013—an increase of approximately 36 percent over the 61,900 requests during the 12-month period ending August 31, 2012. During
the 12-month period ending in August 2013, the United States was
the country of origin of the largest share of requests for information, with approximately 31.9 percent of such requests—a decrease
from the 51 percent reported for the United States in the Commission’s 2012 Annual Report. China was second with approximately
29.2 percent (an increase compared to 20 percent in the 2012 reporting period), followed by Japan with 19.1 percent (compared to
1 percent in the 2012 reporting period), Germany (4.1 percent),
France (2.4 percent), the United Kingdom (2.2 percent), the Russian Federation (1.0 percent), Hong Kong (0.8 percent), the Netherlands (0.8 percent), and India (0.7 percent).

55
Approximately 56.8 percent of the approximately 84,500 requests
for PPD information were from numerical Internet addresses that
do not provide information about the name of the registrant or thetype of domain. That figure represents a substantial increase overthe 36 percent reported for such addresses during the period ending in August 2012 and may contribute to the proportional changes
reported for the following types of Internet domains.
Approximately 15.5 percent of the online requests for PPD information during the 12-month period ending August 31, 2013, originated from worldwide commercial (.com) Internet domains—a decrease from the 19 percent reported in the 2012 Annual Report.
Worldwide network (.net) domains were second with approximately
8.8 percent (compared to 16 percent in the 2012 reporting period),followed by U.S. Government (.gov) domains with 6.7 percent (compared to 11 percent in the 2012 reporting period), 2.8 percent fromdomains in Germany (.de), 1.5 percent from worldwide nonprofit organization (.org) domains, 1.4 percent from domains in France (.fr),
and 1.3 percent from U.S. education (.edu) domains.
POLITICAL PRISONERSThe PPD seeks to provide users with prisoner information thatis reliable and up to date. Commission staff members work tomaintain and update political prisoner records based on the staff
member’s area of expertise. The staff seek to provide objective analysis of information about individual prisoners, and about eventsand trends that drive political and religious imprisonment in
China.
As of September 1, 2013, the PPD contained information on
7,309 cases of political or religious imprisonment in China. Of
those, 1,304 are cases of political and religious prisoners currently
known or believed to be detained or imprisoned, and 6,005 arecases of prisoners who are known or believed to have been released, or executed, who died while imprisoned or soon after release, or who escaped. The Commission notes that there are considerably more than 1,304 cases of current political and religious imprisonment in China. The Commission staff works on an ongoingbasis to add cases of political and religious imprisonment to the
PPD.
The Dui Hua Foundation, based in San Francisco, and theformer Tibet Information Network, based in London, shared theirextensive experience and data on political and religious prisoners
in China with the Commission to help establish the database. The
Dui Hua Foundation continues to do so. The Commission also relies
on its own staff research for prisoner information, as well as on information provided by non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
other groups that specialize in promoting human rights and opposing political and religious imprisonment, and other public sourcesof information.
MORE POWERFUL DATABASE TECHNOLOGYThe PPD has served since its launch in November 2004 as aunique and powerful resource for the U.S. Congress and Administration, other governments, NGOs, educational institutions, and individuals who research political and religious imprisonment in

56
China, or who advocate on behalf of such prisoners. The July 2010
PPD upgrade significantly leveraged the capacity of the Commission’s information and technology resources to support such research, reporting, and advocacy.
The PPD aims to provide a technology with sufficient power tocope with the scope and complexity of political imprisonment in
China. The most important feature of the PPD is that it is structured as a genuine database and uses a powerful query engine.
Each prisoner’s record describes the type of human rights violation
by Chinese authorities that led to his or her detention. These types
include violations of the right to peaceful assembly, freedom of religion, freedom of association, and free expression, including thefreedom to advocate peaceful social or political change and to criticize government policy or government officials.
The design of the PPD allows anyone with access to the Internet
to query the database and download prisoner data without providing personal information to the Commission, and without the
PPD downloading any software or Web cookies to a user’s computer. Users have the option to create a user account, which allows
them to save, edit, and reuse queries, but the PPD does not require
a user to provide any personal information to set up such an account. The PPD does not download software or a Web cookie to auser’s computer as the result of setting up such an account. Saved
queries are not stored on a user’s computer. A user-specified ID(which can be a nickname) and password are the only information
required to set up a user account.

57
II. Human Rights
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSIONInternational Standards on Free Expression
While international standards permit states to restrict expression in limited circumstances, official Chinese restrictions during
the Commission’s 2013 reporting year covered a much broader
range of activity—including peaceful expression critical of the Chinese Communist Party and independent news reporting.1 Many official Chinese restrictions on free expression fail to comply withinternational human rights standards. Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and Articles 19 and 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights permit officials to restrict expression so long as it is (1) for the purposeof respecting the rights or reputations of others or protecting national security, public order, public health or morals, or the general
welfare; (2) set forth in law; and (3) necessary and the least restrictive means to achieve the purported aim.2 Regarding the first requirement, the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) has said restrictions on ‘‘discussion of government policies and political debate,’’ ‘‘peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including forpeace or democracy,’’ and ‘‘expression of . . . dissent’’ are inconsistent with Article 19 of the ICCPR, which the Chinese government signed in 1998 but has not yet ratified.3 In June 2012, theUNHRC passed a resolution supporting freedom of expression on
the Internet, affirming that ‘‘the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression, which is applicable regardless of frontiers and through any
media of one’s choice.’’ 4
Growth and Control of the Internet
EXPANDING OVERALL ACCESS, INTRODUCING NEW RESTRICTIONS

China’s Internet usage has experienced dramatic growth in recent years, particularly in the number of Internet users accessing
the Web through mobile devices. According to the China Internet
Network Information Center (CNNIC), the national-level administrative agency responsible for Internet affairs in China,5 there wereover 590 million Internet users in China by the end of June 2013,
bringing the Internet penetration rate (the total number of Internet
users divided by the total population) to 44.1 percent.6 By mid2013, China had more than 464 million people accessing the Internet from mobile devices—amounting to 78.5 percent of the total
Internet population.7 According to information from three of China’s leading telecommunications operators, there were 1.15 billion
mobile phone subscribers by March 2013.8
The Chinese government has pledged to expand access to mobile
technologies and the Internet, according to news reports.9 Chinese
officials expect the number of Internet users to grow to more than
800 million people by 2015, including more than 200 million ruralInternet users.10 In the 2012–2015 National Human Rights Action
Plan, the Chinese government sets its target of increasing Internet
penetration to more than 45 percent by 2015.11 During the Com-

58
mission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese government continued
steps to expand the country’s telecommunications infrastructure. In
February 2013, for instance, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology announced plans to increase access to broadband
services to cover 70 percent of Chinese Internet users by year’s
end.12
Despite the stated goals of increasing online access, official statements and state-run publications continue to emphasize strengthening the legal limits and management of Internet information
rather than protecting Internet freedoms.13 During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, Chinese officials and state-run media
outlets consistently used the threat of ‘‘online rumors’’ (wangluo
yaoyan) and ‘‘unhealthy information’’ (buliang xinxi) as a basis forincreased Internet controls and real-name registration requirements.14 In December 2012, the People’s Daily, the official news
media of the Chinese Communist Party, published a front-pagecommentary on Internet users’ legal obligations.15 The commentarystated, ‘‘Demanding that people all use the correct means to say
the correct things is not practical, but they must have a consciousness of the law and take responsibility for their words—this is amust.’’ 16 Officials emphasized controlling Internet content over thecourse of this past year.17 In May 2013, for instance, the State
Internet Information Office (SIIO) said that it was ‘‘waging a war
against online rumors’’ that ‘‘have impaired the credibility of online
media, disrupted normal communication order, and aroused great
aversion among the public.’’ 18
State-run media organizations and Chinese officials called forstricter regulations in late 2012, promoting Internet regulations asa necessary step in ‘‘protecting’’ Internet users’ privacy and online
information.19 On December 28, 2012, the National People’s Congress Standing Committee adopted a 12-article decision, titled ‘‘Decision on Strengthening Online Information Protection,’’ with new
regulations stipulating the collection of online personal information.20 According to multiple reports, new requirements mandating
Internet users to register accounts by using their real names generated controversy.21 In early September, the Supreme People’s
Court and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate also issued an official interpretation regarding re-posting defamatory content online
purportedly to protect users’ rights and reputations.22 The Interpretation states that Internet users could face up to three years’
imprisonment if defamatory content is reposted 500 times or isviewed 5,000 times online.23
Despite efforts to control Internet content and regulate accountregistration, Chinese activists and foreign media have noted the
difficulties that officials face in completely controlling this emerging and vibrant space for expression, including criticism of government policies and discussion of politically sensitive topics.24 An
April 2013 Economist article stated that the Internet in China, despite controls, has allowed new shifts of public consciousness andnew pressures for authoritarian responses: ‘‘. . . [E]ven casual
users can be drawn into political debates online, and the internet
is one place where people can speak their minds and criticise thegovernment relatively freely. . . . [B]eing able to express diverging
views collectively online is new. Millions of users are low-grade

59
subversives, chipping away at the imposing edifice of the partystate with humour, outrage and rueful cynicism.’’ 25
CENSORSHIP OF ONLINE CONTENTThis past year, Chinese authorities appeared to maintain or enhance policies to block and filter online content, particularly sensitive information about rights activists, official corruption, or collective organizing.26 According to the Open Net Initiative, the Chinese government ‘‘maintains one of the most pervasive and sophisticated regimes of Internet filtering and information control in theworld.’’ 27 Chinese officials remained non-transparent in disclosing
content that is blocked or why it is blocked.28 The online censorship and Web site closures, in some cases, appeared politically motivated and appeared to counter international standards on freedoms of opinion and expression.29 For example, in October 2012,
Chinese censors blocked access to the New York Times’ Englishand Chinese-language Web sites in response to articles describing‘‘hidden’’ wealth accumulated by former Premier Wen Jiabao’s family members.30 Also, international news media and foreign Web
sites reported that Chinese Internet censors blocked or partially
blocked a range of political names and phrases related to the 18th
National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party and to the anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen protests.31
International reporting and research continued to illustrate how
Chinese officials, Internet companies, and state-sponsored agentsare able to control access to and content on the Web.32 During thereporting year, the Chinese government allegedly enhanced its national system of surveillance and censorship (commonly known as
the Great Firewall or GFW), especially leading up to and throughout the 18th Party Congress.33 One U.S.-based study found that
Chinese censors ‘‘actively manipulated’’ search results related to18th Party Congress delegates.34 Another study argued that Chinese authorities censored comments online ‘‘to reduce the probability of collective action by clipping social ties whenever any collective movements are in evidence or expected’’—and ‘‘not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.’’ 35 Anotherstudy addressed the speed and efficiency of censors on China’s popular microblog platforms, finding that 30 percent of the deletions
took place within 30 minutes and 90 percent within the first 24
hours.36 A different study demonstrated how the China-onlyversion of Skype, the popular Internet-based communication software, allowed officials to intercept thousands of politically sensitive
text messages, while monitoring users’ communications.37
Chinese regulatory and legal measures do not clearly define prohibited online content. Internet regulations contain vague andbroad prohibitions on content that ‘‘harms the honor or interests of
the nation,’’ ‘‘spreads rumors,’’ or ‘‘disrupts national policies on religion.’’ 38 Chinese law does not define these concepts, nor does it
contain specific criteria to establish whether an action presents‘‘harm’’ to the ‘‘honor or interests of the nation.’’ 39 Since the concepts remain undefined, Chinese authorities broadly apply theseand other vague legal provisions to punish those seeking to express
opinions or share information.40 At the same time, the Chinese
government places the burden on Internet service and content pro-60
viders to monitor and remove content based on these vague standards and to maintain records of such activity and report it to thegovernment.41
CITIZEN AND GOVERNMENT USE OF MICROBLOGS

China’s Twitter-like microblogging (weibo) sites continued to see
strong growth in the number of users during this reporting year.42
By the end of 2012, according to the CNNIC, China’s microblogging
sites—including China’s two leading microblog platforms Sina
Weibo and Tencent (QQ) Weibo—had an estimated 309 million registered accounts, an increase of 58.73 million users from the endof 2011.43 While most weibo users access the microblogging sites
for entertainment or social purposes,44 many Chinese citizens continued to use the sites for individual expression, to raise issues ofpublic accountability, and to publicize important political developments.45 Despite China’s sophisticated censorship system, Chinese
citizens have consistently used the microblogging sites to bypass
conventional media constraints and circumvent censorship restrictions.46 In addition, businesses, journalists, and microbloggers usedvirtual private networks (VPNs), among other techniques, to accessthe U.S.-based microblogging service provider Twitter (which has
been blocked in China since July 2009 47), as well as other foreignbased social networking sites blocked in China.48
In the absence of independent domestic media, microblogging has
emerged as an alternative outlet for a range of independent opinions and news reporting. During this reporting year, microblog
users utilized the services to publicize various incidents or news
events—from air quality monitoring in Beijing 49 to the April 2013
earthquake in Ya’an municipality, Sichuan province.50 In November 2012, microblog users circulated information from a New YorkTimes article on the financial assets of former Premier Wen
Jiabao’s family members while official censors blocked the newspaper’s Web site and search terms related to the story.51 In response to the censorship, microblog users employed various related‘‘code words’’ and posted screenshots of the article to circumvent restrictions.52
The circulation of independent news and information on
microblogs appears, in some instances, to have sparked outrageover official abuses, particularly over local-level corruption.53
Microbloggers and citizen journalists have increasingly usedmicroblogging platforms to uncover official abuses or expose corruption, such as ill-gotten real estate assets or luxury items.54 In oneof the highest profile cases, Chinese authorities investigated National Development and Reform Commission Vice Chairman Liu
Tienan after a journalist publicly accused Liu of corruption andvarious wrongdoings on Sina Weibo.55 China’s new leadership andstate-run media appear to have acknowledged microblogging’s
growing utility in exposing corruption and in promoting transparency.56 In March 2013, for instance, Premier Li Keqiang said,‘‘There are already hundreds of millions of weibo users. If government information is not released in a timely manner this generates
animated discussion and speculation, and this can easily cause resentment among the people and give rise to negative influences, ul-

61timately putting the government on its back foot in doing its
work.’’ 57
In mid-2013, international media organizations reported increased government pressure on certain popular users of
microblogging services (commonly referred to as ‘‘Big V’s’’ becauseof their large followings and verified status), including those whohave posted blunt social criticisms or political commentaries.58 The
growing popularity of services has allowed some microbloggers toreach millions of users and to potentially shape public opinion.59
With growing concern about ‘‘online rumors,’’ 60 Chinese Internet
authorities responded with a crackdown on high-profile accounts 61
and with a list of ‘‘seven bottom-lines’’ for online activity.62 The‘‘seven bottom-lines,’’ according to state-run media, include upholding or maintaining: Laws and regulations, the system of socialism,
the national interest, the people’s legitimate rights and interests,social order, morality, and the accuracy of information.63 In an August 2013 Xinhua editorial, the official state-run news agency argued that, ‘‘as recognizable figures in the online world, ‘Big V’s’must have a stronger sense of social responsibility than ordinary
users.’’ 64 Some commentators, however, have alleged the crackdown on prominent microblog users is politically based.65 A September 2013 South China Morning Post article, for instance, reported that ‘‘[the] clampdown has been widely interpreted as an attempt to silence prominent liberal commentators.’’ 66
Seven Topics Off Limits for University Teaching
In May 2013, Chinese microblog users circulated information about areported official university directive, which outlined seven topics that
university professors were prohibited from mentioning in their classes.67
According to multiple reports, the seven topics were universal values,
press freedom, civil society, civil rights, the Communist Party’s historical mistakes, crony capitalism, and judicial independence.68 One professor reportedly said the Chinese Communist Party’s General Office
had issued the order and that ‘‘only a select group of teaching and administrative staff’’ had been briefed on it.69 A Shanghai-based law professor questioned whether the prohibitions would undermine fundamental university responsibilities: ‘‘Are we still a university if we are
not allowed to talk about civil rights and press freedom? ’’ 70 Some observers later linked this directive to a Party memo referred to as ‘‘Document No. 9,’’ which identified seven similar areas of concern.71 [Formore information on ‘‘Document No. 9,’’ see Section III—Institutions of
Democratic Governance.]

While China’s social media and microblogging sphere has provided space for citizens’ voices, the Chinese government has also
made use of the tools for official purposes. According to a report by
the Chinese Academy of Governance, the Chinese government had
more than 176,000 microblog accounts at the end of December
2012.72 The government microblogs were created ‘‘to communicate
with the public and provide services,’’ according to a research report cited by Xinhua.73 Official statements, in recent years, haveemphasized enhancing government presence on social media sites

62and ‘‘promoting social
microblogging accounts.74

harmony

andstability’’throughPunishment of Citizens’ Free Expression
CRIMINAL PUNISHMENT

Chinese authorities continued to use the criminal justice system
to detain and punish citizens exercising their constitutional rights
to ‘‘freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, ofprocession and of demonstration.’’ 75 Some of those punished during
the reporting year had previous records of criticizing the Chinese
government and Communist Party and of advocating for democracy
and human rights.76 In addition, Chinese criminal defense lawyers
and suspects in free speech cases continued to face substantial obstacles in ensuring that courts upheld procedural safeguards andthe right to a fair trial, as required by the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights.77 [For more information on rights
abuses related to criminal suspects, see Section II—Criminal Justice.]
Officials used vaguely worded criminal charges to detain rights
advocates,78 Internet writers,79 human rights lawyers,80 and citizen journalists 81 who engaged in peaceful expression and assembly. The following cases represent select detentions from the reporting year:• In November 2012, Beijing public security authorities criminally detained blogger Zhai Xiaobing on suspicion of ‘‘spreading
terrorist information’’ after he allegedly posted a satirical tweet
about the 18th Party Congress.82 Authorities released him
weeks later.83• On August 2, 2013, Beijing state security officials detained
journalist Chen Min, also known as Xiao Shu, after he helped
to organize a petition advocating the release of Xu Zhiyong, alegal scholar and rights advocate criminally detained in July
2013.84 According to an online statement released after the detention, Chen claimed authorities held him for 48 hours andthat ‘‘[a]t no point were any legal procedures undertaken.’’ 85• In May 2013, Beijing officials detained independent journalist, author, and filmmaker Du Bin after he released a bookon the 1989 Tiananmen protests and a documentary exposing
abuses within the Masanjia Women’s Reeducation ThroughLabor Center, located in Liaoning province.86 According tostatements made by Hu Jia, a prominent human rights activist, authorities allegedly criminally detained Du for his recent
work exposing human rights abuses.87 Authorities released Duon bail five weeks after his detention.88 As of September 2013,
he was awaiting trial on charges of ‘‘creating disturbances,’’which can carry a criminal sentence of up to 10 years’ imprisonment.89
During this reporting year, Chinese authorities released journalist and democracy advocate Shi Tao from prison in late August,after he served less than nine years of an April 2005 10-year prison
sentence for disclosing ‘‘state secrets’’ abroad.90

63
OFFICIAL HARASSMENT

This past reporting year, the Commission observed a range ofabuses related to the extralegal harassment of rights advocates,91
Internet writers,92 and family members of advocates,93 who sought
to exercise their rights to freedom of speech and assembly.94 The
following examples illustrate forms of official harassment:• In November 2012, Chinese authorities sent journalist Li
Yuanlong on forced ‘‘vacation’’ after he published a story aboutchildren who died of carbon monoxide poisoning in a Guizhou
province dumpster.95• In June 2013, Beijing authorities placed Tsering Woeser, aTibetan writer, blogger, and rights advocate, under ‘‘soft detention,’’ an extralegal form of home confinement, reportedly inconnection with her efforts to highlight Chinese human rights
abuses against Tibetans. She was reportedly also held under‘‘soft detention’’ in March 2013.96• In August 2013, East China University of Political Sciencesuspended outspoken Professor Zhang Xuezhong from teachingat the university, in apparent connection with his advocacy forconstitutionalism.97
In suppressing free speech rights, Chinese authorities not only
targeted Chinese citizens who sought to express their opinions
peacefully but also targeted their family members and acquaintances.98 In December 2012, Associated Press (AP) journalists visited Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo’s wife, Liu Xia, whom
authorities continue to hold under an extralegal form of home confinement.99 According to AP, ‘‘Liu Xia trembled uncontrollably andcried as she described how absurd and emotionally draining her
confinement under house arrest has been . . . .’’ 100
Press Freedom
Chinese government and Communist Party officials continue toexercise control over the press in violation of international standards. International experts have identified media serving ‘‘as government mouthpieces instead of as independent bodies operating in
the public interest’’ as a major challenge to free expression.101 In
its 2013 World Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders
ranked China 173rd out of 179 countries in terms of press freedoms, noting that ‘‘China shows no sign of improving. Its prisons
still hold many journalists and netizens, while increasingly unpopular Internet censorship continues to be a major obstacle to access to information.’’ 102
In the reporting year, Chinese officials called for enhancing controls over traditional media, specifically domestic media organizations quoting or reproducing content from foreign media.103 In an
April 2013 edition of the Red Flag Journal, a prominent Party publication, Ren Xianliang, Vice Chairman of the All-China Journalists
Association and Deputy Director of the Shaanxi Provincial Chinese
Communist Party Propaganda Department, argued that traditional
media and new media tools form ‘‘two distinct fields of public opinion’’ and that the Party must ‘‘have the courage to be hands on inits control’’ of the media.104 Top-level Chinese officials reportedly
took new steps to denounce press freedoms. For example, in an

64
April 2013 internal Party document (referred to as ‘‘Document No.
9’’), central Party authorities reportedly warned against ‘‘subversive trends,’’ including the Western concept of press freedoms.105
January 2013 Southern Weekend Protests
In January 2013, Chinese editors and staff at the Southern Weekend,a progressive weekly newspaper based in Guangdong province, staged arare strike after provincial propaganda authorities ordered the publication of a New Year editorial praising the Chinese Communist Party inplace of a previously prepared editorial calling for guarantees to constitutional rights.106 The earlier editorial, titled ‘‘China’s Dream, theDream of Constitutionalism,’’ called on leaders to uphold constitutional
principles and safeguard people’s freedoms.107 After staff submitted thearticle for review by official censors, editors returned a pro-Party message that angered Southern Weekend staff and former staff members.108
Southern Weekend journalists responded with a strike to express outrage and to demand editorial independence.109 In the days that followed,
hundreds of supporters reportedly gathered outside the newspaper’s
Guangzhou municipality headquarters in protest.110 Academics and celebrities posted online messages of support, condemned the censorship,
and called for Tuo Zhen, the provincial propaganda chief, to step
down.111
Chinese authorities took various steps to deescalate tensions related
to the strike and protests. The Central Propaganda Department orderedthat no media organization report, comment on, or forward any messages related to the article or the strike at Southern Weekend.112 On
January 8, 2013, the Global Times published an editorial suggestingthat activists, operating outside of the domestic media, were ‘‘incitingsome media to engage in confrontation,’’ while the editorial cautioned
the public to reject reforms that were ‘‘out of step with [China’s] politicaldevelopment.’’ 113
Following a reported compromise between Southern Weekend staff
and government officials, a former Southern Weekend opinion writerwrote a January 2013 editorial for the New York Times on the incident,
stating, ‘‘The crisis has subsided, but there is little room for future optimism, because the deep-seated question has not been resolved: Is there,in fact, room for professional journalism to survive and develop within
the system? ’’ 114
POLITICAL CONTROL OF MEDIA THROUGH REGULATION OF EDITORSAND JOURNALISTS

China’s media regulator, the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film, and Television, continued to enforce a systemof strict controls and licensing requirements. (In 2013, the General
Administration of Press and Publications (GAPP) and the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television merged to create theState Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film, and Television.115) All media organizations in China are subject to an extensive licensing system and government supervision.116 In orderto report the news legally, domestic newspapers, magazines, Web
sites, and journalists must obtain a license or accreditation fromthe government.117 Radio and television broadcast journalists, for65
instance, must pass a government-sponsored exam that tests themon subjects including basic knowledge of Marxist views of news andCommunist Party principles.118
In recent years, China’s media regulator has issued a range of
regulations to ‘‘strengthen management’’ and address official concerns over ‘‘false information’’ in news reports. In October 2011, the
GAPP, the former government agency responsible for monitoring
and regulating print-based media, released regulations on controlling use of ‘‘unverified information’’ by prohibiting journalists fromdirectly referencing information obtained from the Internet or social media in their reporting.119 Less than two years later, in April
2013, the newly merged State General Administration of Press,
Publication, Radio, Film, and Television issued a directive that officially bans journalists from using foreign media reports without authorization and forbids news editors from reporting information online that has not been verified through official channels.120 According to a Hong Kong-based media expert, officials may face challenges enforcing the regulations, as information often moves quickly on microblogs: ‘‘[Controlling press content] is very difficult toachieve when foreign stories are breaking over on Sina Weibo before [government agents] can put a stop to this whole process.’’ 121
PUNISHMENT OF DOMESTIC JOURNALISTS

While the 2012–2015 National Human Rights Action Plan announced official intentions to safeguard ‘‘the legitimate rights andinterests of news agencies, journalists, editors and other persons
concerned,’’ 122 during this reporting year, Chinese authorities took
actions to punish, suspend, or remove outspoken and independentjournalists and newspaper staff.123 In March 2013, Deng Yuwen,
an editor at a prominent Chinese Communist Party journal, was‘‘suspended indefinitely’’ after publishing an editorial that criticized
China’s ‘‘outdated’’ alliance with North Korea in the U.K.-based Financial Times.124 In August 2013, authorities in Chongqing municipality detained Liu Hu, a journalist for a Guangdong provincebased newspaper,125 under suspicion of ‘‘fabricating and spreading
rumors’’ in apparent connection with his online request that authorities investigate a former Chongqing official for corruption.126
In other instances, Chinese journalists faced threats or violence inattempting to investigate news stories.127 In July 2013, for instance, public security authorities in Hunan province threatened
and then assaulted two journalists attempting to report on protests
sparked by the death of a citizen assaulted by local chengguan, or
urban management officials.128 According to the Beijing News, a
popular newspaper, the public security officers threatened the journalists by saying, ‘‘Take no photos, or if you take any, you will die
here.’’ 129
Chinese journalists working for foreign-based Web sites andnewspapers also faced the threat of official reprisals for independent news reporting. In April 2013, Chinese authorities detained journalist Sun Lin, a reporter with the foreign-based Chinese news Web site Boxun, after he distributed online footage of aprotest over an elementary school’s expulsion of a rights advocate’s
daughter.130

66
HARASSMENT OF FOREIGN AND HONG KONG JOURNALISTSThis past year, the Commission continued to monitor harassmentof foreign journalists in China. In March 2013, unidentified men in
Beijing beat two Hong Kong journalists who were filming a Hong
Kong rights advocate’s attempt to visit Liu Xia, wife of imprisoned
Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo.131 Reports claim that as
many as a dozen unidentified men beat the journalists as they attempted to access the building where Liu Xia was being illegallydetained.132 After the attack, police authorities took away the Hong
Kong rights advocate.133 Also in March, Radio Free Asia reported
that a television crew working for Germany’s public broadcaster
ARD was pursued, forced off the road, and attacked following investigative reporting on urbanization in Hebei province.134 Following these actions, the International Federation of Journalists
issued a statement saying, ‘‘The media should be allowed to carryout its professional responsibilities in a public place without fearof harassment, intimidation or assault—particularly if the media isinvestigating suspicious activity.’’ 135 According to the Foreign Correspondent’s Club of China (FCCC), foreign journalists overall continued to face challenging work conditions and various forms ofharassment.136 In an FCCC annual survey released in July 2013,70 percent of journalists surveyed agreed that ‘‘conditions haveworsened or stayed the same as the year before.’’ 137

67
WORKER RIGHTS
Freedom of Association
The Chinese government continued to prevent workers from exercising their constitutional right to freedom of association 1 thispast year. Although the PRC Trade Union Law provides workers
with the right to participate in and form trade unions, it also restricts workers’ rights to freedom of association by requiring thatall union activity be approved by and structured under the AllChina Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU), an organization under
the direction of the Chinese Communist Party.2 Leading tradeunion officials hold concurrent high-ranking positions in the Party
and central and local government, undermining union autonomy
and giving the Party and government undue influence over union
policy and decisionmaking.3 The ACFTU constitution and the PRC
Trade Union Law highlight the dual mandates of the ACFTU toprotect the legal rights and interests of workers while supporting
the leadership of the Party and broader goals and interests of thegovernment,4 a problematic arrangement that labor experts claim
constrains the ACFTU from protecting the interests of workers.5
Generally speaking, unions at the enterprise level remain weakand non-democratic, with the majority of union officials appointed
directly or indirectly by employers and higher level trade unions.6
Increased labor activism in recent years has reportedly put mounting pressure on the ACFTU to institute union reform, yet continued structural weaknesses of trade union branches make improvements to union autonomy and worker advocacy difficult to achieve.7
Collective Bargaining
Genuine collective bargaining remains limited by the inability of
local-level trade unions to effectively represent and advance therights of workers in negotiations with employers. The PRC Labor
Law and related legislation provide a legal framework for tradeunions to negotiate collective contracts and engage in collective
consultations with employers on a wide range of issues.8 In recent
years, the ACFTU has vigorously promoted collective contracts andcollective wage bargaining as essential means for upholding ‘‘harmonious’’ labor relations and addressing workers’ grievances.9 Despite these developments, collective contract and consultation
mechanisms remain problematic, in part because trade unions lackautonomy and genuine worker representation.10 A 2013 researchstudy conducted by a Yunnan provincial government inspectiongroup on the implementation of provincial measures for collective
wage consultations identified a number of problems in the consultation process, despite an overall increase in collective wage contracts signed since 2011, including a lack of expertise in wage andcontract negotiations by union officials and a general misunderstanding and shortsightedness by employers of the benefits of collective negotiations.11 An official with the Yunnan provincial Bureau of Human Resources and Social Security further asserted that
because workers in general continued to occupy a weaker position
in relation to employers in the collective consultation process, manychoose not to push for collective negotiations, while in other in-68stances employers and union officials were found to put more emphasis on negotiating than on signing collective contracts, leading
to a process the official argued was ‘‘heavy on form, light on results.’’ 12 In one case in March 2013, workers at the Nanhai Honda
automotive plant in Guangdong province rejected what they considered to be an unfair collective wage agreement negotiated by plant
managers and the trade union, initiating a strike to pressure management to agree to higher wage increases.13 In other instances,
workers lacked knowledge of union functions altogether, preventing
them from accessing union representation. For example, a 2013
study jointly conducted by several Chinese universities found over
80 percent of workers polled at three different factories did notknow who their union representatives were.14
Union Elections Expand as Problems Persist
Authorities continued to promote direct election of trade union officials in pilot programs at several enterprises, mainly located in
Guangdong province.15 In January 2013, Zhao Xiaosui, Chairman of the
Guangzhou Municipal Federation of Trade Unions, announced plans tohold pilot trade union elections in 8 to 10 Guangzhou municipalitybased enterprises.16 In other cases, officials called for expanding alreadyestablished union election programs. In May 2013, Zhan Zhenbiao, Vice
Chairman of the Guangdong Provincial Federation of Trade Unions,called on officials to strengthen existing union election programs at 162
enterprises in Foshan municipality and further expand direct union
elections to an additional 61 enterprises in the area.17 In addition,
Foxconn, a Taiwanese-owned multinational electronics manufacturer,
publicized plans in February 2013 to ‘‘increas[e] the number of junioremployee’’ union representatives in its factories through direct elections.18
Despite these developments, recognition by Chinese and international
labor scholars of continued restrictions on worker participation in thenomination and election process have led to questions over the ability of
direct elections to engender genuinely representative unions.19 Moreover, individuals involved in organizing union elections have stated thatsignificant challenges remain in educating workers on the election process and the responsibilities of the elected union committees.20 A numberof observers have also indicated that recently elected union representatives lack necessary skills and experience needed to effectively run aunion and represent and advance the rights of workers.21 In one case in
February 2013, workers at the Ohms electronics factory in Shenzhen
municipality demanded the recall and reelection of their union chairman
after only recently electing him through direct elections in May 2012.22
According to a petition letter written by workers, demands for the recallof the union chairman stemmed from his inability to ‘‘fulfill his duties’’
and failure to effectively intervene in several contract disputes.23 A nongovernmental labor organization based in Hong Kong suggested thechairman lacked the necessary skills and support needed to play an effective role, further stating that demands for his recall highlighted ‘‘theimportance of not just holding elections but of ensuring that the elected
officials can actually perform the tasks they were entrusted with.’’ 24

69Worker Actions
During the past reporting year, the Commission continued to observe reports of workers organizing strikes and demonstrations ina variety of industries and regions across China.25 Strikes were
often prompted by systemic labor-related grievances, such as factory closings or relocation,26 nonpayment of wages and benefits,27
and abusive management practices.28 Official trade unions haveplayed no role in organizing strikes or demonstrations; instead,unions frequently oppose worker-led actions and urge workers toresolve their grievances through established legal channels.29 In
one case in March 2013, union officials at a Honda manufacturing
plant in Foshan municipality, Guangdong province, criticized workerorganized protests as illegal and unproductive.30 Media reports indicated officials in some cases used force against or detained demonstrating workers. For example in January 2013, public security
officials in Mayong city, Dongguan municipality, Guangdong, reportedly detained 27 worker representatives after they sought assistance from the local government in recovering wage arrears totaling 1.38 billion yuan (US$224 million) on behalf of 3,000 migrant construction workers.31 The Commission has observed reports in 2013 of officials using force to stop worker demonstrations
in locations including Shenzhen municipality; 32 Guangzhou municipality, Guangdong; 33 and Fengcheng city, Jiangxi province.34
Commentators in China and abroad have argued that demographic and economic shifts in recent years have provided workers
with greater bargaining power in the workplace, increasing theirdetermination to redress grievances with employers and press forbetter pay and working conditions.35 Moreover, experts contend thegrowing expectations of younger generation migrant workers withregard to working conditions and labor rights is a driving factor behind the increased boldness of recent protests.36 Compared withearlier generations, younger generation migrant workers havehigher levels of education, greater access to technology, and a deeper understanding of their rights.37 A number of reports indicatethat these workers have been at the forefront of recent strikes, including a demonstration in September 2012 at a Foxconn factoryin Taiyuan municipality, Shanxi province, in which over 40 people
were hospitalized after clashes with local authorities.38
Migrant Workers
Migrant workers—rural residents who have left their originalplace of residence to seek non-agricultural jobs in cities—remain
largely marginalized and vulnerable to exploitation, facing problems such as wage arrears,39 social discrimination,40 and low levelsof labor and social welfare protection.41 China’s total migrant population grew 3.9 percent in 2012 from the previous year to morethan 262 million.42 Working predominately in low-end industries
requiring little technical skill, such as construction, mining, andmanufacturing, migrants face increased risk for occupational injury
and disease.43 According to a report published in May 2013 by the
National Bureau of Statistics of China, over 50 percent of migrant
workers in 2012 did not sign labor contracts with their employers,44 leaving them vulnerable to abuse in the workplace and se-

70verely disadvantaged should they seek to recover wages or injury
compensation through the court system.45 The report also indicatedthat even with a slight overall increase from the previous year,
only a minority of migrants in 2012 had pensions (14.3 percent),
medical insurance (16.9 percent), occupational injury insurance (24percent), and unemployment insurance (8.4 percent).46 Moreover,migrants often lack urban residency status, preventing them fromaccessing public services in the cities where they live and work.47
A study published in February 2013 by Renmin University foundmigrants continued to consider themselves outsiders despite having
worked and lived in a city for many years, presenting a challenge
to government efforts to improve migrant integration into urban society.48
Child Labor
Despite China’s laws and commitments under international conventions prohibiting child labor, employers continued to hire underage workers this past year. As a member of the International
Labour Organization (ILO), China has ratified the two core conventions on the elimination of child labor.49 The PRC Labor Law andrelated legislation also prohibit the employment of minors under 16
years old.50 Despite these legal measures, systemic problems in enforcement and lack of sufficient resources reportedly continue toconstrain efforts to reduce child labor.51 At a two-day high-levelseminar on child labor held in September 2012, officials from the
Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security acknowledged forthe first time within China the challenge child labor posed, statinga need for improved legal enforcement and increased awareness ofprotection of children’s rights.52 While the extent of child labor in
China is unclear, in part because the government does not releasedata on the issue,53 domestic and international media reports fromthe past year indicate that the use of child labor remained evident
in the electronics manufacturing industry, with instances also reported in other sectors.54 Apple’s January 2013 Supplier Responsibility Report noted 74 cases of underage workers at one of its supplier facilities in Guangdong province, stating that a third-party
labor agency had ‘‘willfully and illegally recruited young workers,’’
reportedly conspiring with families to forge age verification documents.55
The perpetuation of child labor through the misuse of student
workers in ‘‘work-study’’ programs and other related activities also
continues to be a concern. National provisions prohibiting childlabor provide that ‘‘education practice labor’’ and vocational skills
training labor organized by schools and other educational and vocational institutions do not constitute child labor when such activities
do not adversely affect the safety and health of students.56 The
PRC Education Law also supports schools that establish workstudy programs, provided they do not negatively affect normal
studies.57 The Commission, however, has continued to observe reports 58 of ‘‘work-study’’ programs that violate Chinese law and appear inconsistent with ILO standards that permit vocational training programs for young persons so long as they relate to a courseof education under a school’s supervision or facilitate choice of an
occupation, among other requirements.59 Throughout the reporting

71
year, Chinese and international media reported on vocational
schools organizing compulsory internship programs of questionableeducational benefit in which students worked long hours underphysically demanding conditions. In March 2013, Chinese media
reported on a compulsory internship program in Guangdong province where technical school students were tasked with working
long hours at an electronics factory in violation of legal limits.60 According to reports, students who refused to participate in the internship program would not graduate from the technical school.
The school’s principal defended the program, stating that itstrengthened students’ ability to ‘‘endure hardships and work
hard.’’ 61 In October 2012, a Foxconn subsidiary in Yantai municipality, Shandong province, was found to have hired 56 underage interns.62 According to reports, students complained of working excessive overtime on tasks unrelated to their areas of study and receiving significantly lower wages than adult workers despite performing the same tasks.63 A vocational college, reportedly implicated in the Foxconn internship program, stated that students had
been working at the factory since 2010 as part of a government initiative to alleviate labor shortages.64 Some observers have notedthat a gradual tightening of the labor market in recent years has
prompted many companies to increasingly rely on student workers
to resolve labor shortages, often working with local governments to
put pressure on vocational schools to provide student interns.65
Subcontracted Labor
Subcontracted workers hired through labor employment agencies
remain particularly vulnerable to exploitation in the workplace,often receiving lower wages and fewer benefits than workers hired
through direct labor contracts with employers.66 Following implementation of the PRC Labor Contract Law in 2008, employers increasingly have used subcontracted workers, also known as dispatch labor, to circumvent the legal obligations and related financial costs associated with direct labor contracts.67 While the PRC
Labor Contract Law stipulates that subcontracted workers generally should be used only for ‘‘temporary, auxiliary, or substitutepositions,’’ they continue to be hired as long-term substitutes forregular employment in violation of the law.68 According to data released by the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) in2011 and 2012, China has between 27 and 37 million subcontracted
workers, working primarily in state-owned enterprises, in somecases accounting for two-thirds of the total workforce.69
In December 2012, the National People’s Congress passed
amendments to the PRC Labor Contract Law, effective July 1,
2013, focusing on provisions related to labor subcontracting.70 The
amendments include clearer definitions of the three types of positions that subcontracted workers can be used for and requires employers to apply the same compensation standards to both directly
hired and subcontracted laborers.71 Moreover, the amendments
raise business standards for employment agencies, requiring themto obtain operating permits from local labor authorities.72 Despite
these changes, Chinese labor experts and union officials have questioned whether upcoming regulations designed to implement theamendments may weaken reforms as a result of lobbying by state-

72
owned enterprises.73 Poor regulation of the labor subcontracting industry also continues to be a problem. Labor employment agencies
have been identified by observers in China and abroad as a common outlet through which child workers end up in factories.74 In
May 2013, Chinese media reported on the death of a 14-year-old
boy at an electronics factory in Dongguan city, Guangdong province, stating that the boy had been hired through an employment
agency which knowingly forged his identification documents.75
Prison Labor
The use of forced labor in China’s prison system remains inconsistent with Chinese law and in violation of international standards. The International Labour Organization’s (ILO) core conventions on forced and compulsory labor provide an exception for prison labor on condition that the use of such labor is consistent with
ILO guidelines.76 While China has not ratified either of the core
conventions on forced and compulsory labor, as a member of the
ILO, it remains obligated to respect a basic set of internationallyrecognized labor rights, including those associated with forced andcompulsory labor.77 Despite these obligations, exploitation of prison
labor, particularly in reeducation through labor (RTL) facilities, remains widespread, in part due to official corruption and the economic incentives prison labor offers local government.78 During thereporting year, Chinese and international media have reported on
abusive working conditions at RTL facilities throughout China,
stating that inmates are routinely forced to work long hours under
threat of physical abuse with little or no compensation.79 RTL officers reportedly solicit bribes from the families of inmates for theirearly release or better treatment.80 In a report published in May
2013 by Southern Weekend, a newspaper based in Guangzhou municipality, Guangdong province, former RTL officials acknowledgedusing ‘‘high-pressure policies such as beatings and [other] corporalpunishment’’ to enforce larger production quotas on uncooperative
prisoners, stating that the amount they could earn depended onwhether or not prisoners could meet or surpass given production
quotas.81
The export of prison products from China reportedly continues
despite China’s 1991 Provisions Reiterating the Prohibition on the
Export of Products Made by Prisoners Undergoing Reeducation
Through Labor.82 While the extent of prison labor in China remains unclear, U.S. government assessments, as well as international media reports from the past year, indicate prison laborhas been used to manufacture, among other products, toys, electronics, and clothing.83 The 1992 Memorandum of Understandingon Prison Labor and 1994 Statement of Cooperation between the
United States and China established mechanisms to safeguard
against the export of prison products to the United States.84 Despite these agreements, Chinese cooperation has reportedly beenslow and irregular in responding to U.S. concerns.85
Wages
Average wage levels in China continued to increase this past
year, continuing a trend over the decade from 2000 to 2010 that

73
saw real average wages more than triple.86 Reports suggest structural changes in China’s labor market, in particular a decline in
the growth of the working age population, are partially responsible
for the upward pressure on wages.87 Sporadic labor shortages in2013 88 and the relocation of manufacturing operations further inland or to Southeast Asia to offset rising costs, among other factors,
also suggest tightening labor market conditions.89 According tosome Chinese and international observers this combination of factors suggests the decline of ‘‘cheap labor’’ in China, as wages willcontinue to increase for the foreseeable future.90
Despite continued wage growth, income inequality among different regions and industrial sectors has also increased in recent
years, greatly expanding the disparity between rich and poor people.91 Chinese and international economists indicate that the annual rate of wage growth in China continues to fall in proportion
to gross domestic product,92 while wages for migrant workers remain far behind the national average.93 China’s State Council released a long-awaited income distribution plan in February 2013that seeks to reduce income inequality and increase household income through a series of measures, including doubling income levels by 2020 and broadening social welfare programs; 94 however, observers from China and abroad have criticized the plan for its lackof binding commitments and questioned whether it can be fully implemented.95
MINIMUM WAGE RATES

Local governments continued to raise minimum-wage levels thispast year in keeping with growth targets outlined in the 12th FiveYear Plan on Employment Promotion issued in 2011, which called
for minimum-wage levels to increase annually by 13 percent andreach 40 percent of the average wage of local urban workers by
2015.96 During the 2013 reporting year, the Commission observed
reports from Chinese media of increases in the statutory minimum
wage in 23 provincial-level jurisdictions and the Shenzhen Special
Economic Zone.97 Despite these increases, minimum-wage levels inmany locations continue to be below the 40-percent target outlinedin the 12th Five-Year Plan.98 Moreover, reports indicate rising living costs continue to erode wage gains as workers spend a greater
portion of their income on everyday necessities.99 In March 2013,
more than 250 workers from a wide range of professions inShenzhen municipality signed a petition protesting newly implemented minimum-wage standards, arguing that the increase wasinsufficient to cover rising living costs in Shenzhen.100
WAGE ARREARS AND NONPAYMENT OF WAGESWage arrears and nonpayment of wages remained serious problems this past year, particularly for migrant workers.101 According
to a report from the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, wage arrears cases increased 7.5 percent in 2012 from the previous year, concentrated predominantly in the construction andmanufacturing industries.102 Widespread use of subcontracting,among other factors, including tight credit controls and declining
export demand, remain the underlying causes for wage arrears
cases.103 As bank lending rates rise, debt-burdened industries face

74
increased difficulty paying workers, delaying payments, and insome instances defaulting and declaring bankruptcy, leaving workers with little recourse to recover unpaid wages.104 Central- andprovincial-level government officials have taken steps in the past
year to reduce cases of wage arrears, including streamlining procedures for investigating and resolving wage arrears claims, establishing contingency funds,105 and pursuing criminal charges
against employers guilty of nonpayment of wages.106 Despite thesemeasures, international media reports throughout 2013 indicatedthat wage arrears continued to be a primary factor behind workerled protests, especially in the weeks prior to the Chinese Lunar
New Year holiday.107
Occupational Safety
Workers in China continued to face occupational safety risks thispast year. The 2002 PRC Law on Production Safety and related
legislation contains a number of occupational health and safety
provisions aimed at preventing workplace accidents and establishing a regulatory system to inspect and handle safety violations.108 Despite these legal measures, systemic problems in implementation and enforcement, as well as the lack of meaningful
worker participation in workplace decisions that have an impact onsafety and health, continue to constrain efforts to reduce industrial
accidents.109 Moreover, unregistered and illegal manufacturing andmining operations continue to be prevalent throughout the country.110 Chinese officials have indicated that corruption and government protectionism for local industries has also hindered effective
safety oversight, causing many industrial accidents.111 Research
published in the Harvard Business Review in 2013 found workers
employed at enterprises in China with political connections were
five times as likely to die in an industrial accident.112 At a forum
held on production safety in May 2013, Director of the State Administration of Work Safety, Yang Dongliang, emphasized that
greater efforts were needed to ‘‘resolve problems of lax enforcement
and implementation.’’ 113
Workers in the construction, manufacturing, service, and mining
industries are most at risk for sustaining occupational injury or
disease.114 Although officially reported deaths from industrial accidents declined by 4.7 percent to 71,983 in 2012,115 Chinese scholars
and labor activists suggest the actual number could be significantly
higher due to underreporting.116 Chinese media continued to reporton cases in which mine managers and local officials concealed information about mine accidents.117 Despite a claimed 33 percent
decline in reported mine deaths in 2012,118 the death toll for workers in China’s coal industry remains more than 10 times the rate
in developed countries.119
Reports from non-governmental labor organizations and Chinese
and international media continue to highlight workplace abuses
and poor working conditions throughout China. Workers often cited
low wages, forced overtime, and harsh management practices assome of the major problems that they face.120 Allegations of abusive working conditions, for example, continued to surface at factories operated by Foxconn.121 While the Commission reported lastyear that Foxconn agreed to improve working conditions at its fac-

75
tories, including reducing overtime and ensuring overtime wages,
a number of labor experts in China and abroad indicate changes
have been minimal.122 Reports also indicated that some workers
are exposed to chemicals known to be harmful.123 In June 2013, afire at a poultry factory in Jilin province killed 120 people and left
77 injured.124 According to an investigation by Chinese officials,
locked emergency exits prevented workers from escaping, a problem that had been highlighted in previous industrial accidents. Investigators also identified poor safety supervision and insufficient
safety equipment and fire prevention training for workers as factors in the high number of casualties.125
Occupational Health
Officially reported cases of occupational disease have grown atincreasing rates in recent years, particularly for the lung disease
pneumoconiosis.126 According to figures from the Ministry of
Health, out of a total of 749,970 reported cases of occupationrelated disease at the end of 2010, 90 percent, or over 676,000,
were cases of pneumoconiosis.127 According to Chinese labor experts and lawyers, the total number could be closer to six million.128 Inadequate government supervision of industry compliancewith occupational health standards,129 illegal actions by employers,130 and a lack of knowledge among workers about health in theworkplace reportedly have contributed to high rates of occupational
disease.131
Workers’ Compensation
Obtaining compensation for work-related injury or occupational
disease in general remains a difficult and protracted process. Chinese labor and occupational-disease advocates contend that thelegal framework regulating compensation continues to be overly
complicated and time-consuming, taking anywhere between 2 tomore than 10 years for compensation claims to be processed, withno guarantee of success.132 Moreover, illegal practices and intransigence by employers and local governments, including refusing tohand over documents required for processing compensation claims,
failing to sign labor contracts or provide workers with statutory injury insurance, and refusing to accept liability for hazardous working conditions, further delay and complicate prospects for obtaining
compensation.133 Occupational-disease advocates insist processing
delays can be particularly harmful to workers suffering from pneumoconiosis—only 10 to 20 percent of patients reportedly obtain an
official diagnosis needed to receive benefits—contributing to thehigh death rate among sufferers.134 In some cases, workers withpneumoconiosis settled for one-off compensation payments to pay
for medical care, even though the compensation fails to cover costs
for ongoing treatment.135 A health expert with the Chinese Center
for Disease Control and Prevention stated that only 10 percent of
employees in China receive regular occupational-health services.136
Variations in local implementing regulations for national legislation on compensation also indicate that actual benefits can differ
significantly from region to region. In October 2012, the family of
Zhang Tingzhen, an employee at a Foxconn factory in Shenzhen

76
municipality who was severely disabled in a work-related accident,
brought a case before a labor arbitration tribunal over the company’s demands that Zhang travel to Huizhou municipality for adisability assessment, where compensation levels are substantiallylower than in Shenzhen.137 Zhang’s father reported that he received text messages from the company threatening to cut off funding for his son’s treatment if they did not travel to Huizhou, andthat he was beaten at one point by security officials when he tried
to retrieve his son’s personal items from the factory.138 Labor activists insist that Zhang’s case underlines a common practice by companies in China, in which employers sign labor contracts with employees in areas where compensation levels are comparatively low,
and then dispatch them to work in areas with higher compensation
rates.139
Amendments to the PRC Administrative Measures for the Diagnosis and Evaluation of Occupational Disease, effective April 10,
2013, contain provisions that could make it easier for workers toraise occupational disease claims, while also increasing the liabilityof employers.140 Most significantly, it gives workers the right to select the official hospital they will be diagnosed by, whereas previously local authorities would usually only accept a diagnosis froma hospital in the same jurisdiction as an employer, a prospect particularly problematic for migrant workers who may have alreadyleft the area after an illness developed.141

77
CRIMINAL JUSTICE
Introduction
During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, as in previous
years, developments in criminal justice were driven by the Chinese
government’s and Communist Party’s top priorities: maintaining‘‘social stability’’ and ensuring the Party’s continued monopoly onpolitical power.1 The Commission observed the politically motivateduse of criminal law and police power to suppress dissent and perceived challenges to Party rule. The arrest of anticorruption campaigners and well-known rights activist Xu Zhiyong, as well as thecriminal detention of prominent human rights advocate Guo
Feixiong (aka Yang Maodong), are just several examples from thisreporting year of the Party’s use of criminal law to silence its critics.2
In a major legal development this year, the new PRC Criminal
Procedure Law (CPL), which was adopted in March 2012 after
being discussed for many years, took effect on January 1, 2013.
While the revised law as written has numerous positive aspects, it
fails to incorporate several key rights for suspects and defendants,
such as a clear presumption of innocence and an explicit right toremain silent and not to incriminate oneself. Although it is too
early to determine if the new CPL is being effectively implemented,
preliminary reports suggest that new provisions aimed at enhancing the ability of lawyers to meet with detained clients are being
implemented, albeit unevenly.3 The 2012 CPL also contains newprovisions for the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence. If implemented, these measures could help address a major challenge forthe judicial system—confessions coerced through torture andwrongful convictions—a problem that took center stage this year as
numerous cases surfaced of individuals wrongfully convicted basedon coerced confessions.
Abuse of Police PowerAs the Commission noted in its 2012 annual report, China’s domestic security apparatus has grown significantly in stature andinfluence since 2007.4 Zhou Yongkang, who retired in fall 2012 as
the secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee Politicaland Legal Affairs Commission (PLAC), had amassed enormous
power.5 The PLAC, which is responsible for maintaining law andorder, has direct control over the police, prosecutors, and thecourts.6 Meng Jianzhu, former Minister of Public Security, is the
new PLAC secretary—a position that no longer has a seat on thedownsized Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party Central Committee, a move likely designed to prevent any one leader from becoming too powerful.7
Unchecked police power in Chongqing municipality under Bo
Xilai (who had close ties with Zhou Yongkang) was a defining characteristic of his campaign against organized crime in Chongqing
from 2008 to 2011.8 Over 3,000 people were convicted of various
crimes during the campaign, and many were tortured.9 Bo used thelaw not just to crack down on major criminals in Chongqing but
also to target his political rivals and seize private assets.10 Some

78
efforts are being made to provide redress for those wronged by Bo
and his former police chief Wang Lijun; for example, the Chongqing
Public Security Bureau is reinstating or otherwise providing redress to approximately 900 police officers who suffered unjust
treatment during the campaign.11 But, for those who have filed appeals claiming they were wrongfully convicted, the matter has been
deemed ‘‘sensitive,’’ and there has been little progress in redressingthese wrongs.12
Chinese authorities continue to use vaguely defined crimes tosuppress and punish dissent and perceived challenges to Party
rule. In addition to Article 105 of the PRC Criminal Law, which
criminalizes ‘‘subversion’’ and ‘‘inciting subversion,’’ 13 during thisreporting year authorities made ample use of such vague crimes as‘‘gathering people to disturb public order’’ and ‘‘unlawful assembly’’to suppress rights advocates and civil society activists.14 In midJuly, the Beijing Public Security Bureau (PSB) detained Xu
Zhiyong, a leading proponent of the New Citizens’ Movement—aloose network of individuals promoting a broad range of ideas including legal and political reforms, human rights, and social justice—on suspicion of ‘‘gathering people to disturb public order.’’ 15
On August 22, the Beijing PSB arrested him on the same charge.16
Guangzhou-based activist Guo Feixiong was detained on the samecharge on August 8.17 As of late August, dozens of anticorruption
advocates and other citizens reportedly affiliated with the New
Citizens’ Movement had been detained or arrested for peaceful assembly on various charges, including ‘‘unlawful assembly’’ and ‘‘inciting subversion.’’ 18
Authorities also continued to abuse their power to persecute relatives of activists.19 Chen Guangcheng’s nephew, Chen Kegui, wassentenced in November 2012 to three years and three months inprison for the ‘‘intentional wounding’’ of several township officials
in what international and domestic observers maintain was an actof self-defense, after a trial that one legal expert described ‘‘as a
judicial farce.’’ 20 Liu Xia, the wife of imprisoned Nobel Peace Prizelaureate Liu Xiaobo, remains unlawfully detained in her home.21 In
June, Liu Xia’s brother, Liu Hui, was sentenced to 11 years in prison for financial fraud; his appeal was denied in August.22
A symbol of unchecked police power is the urban management
law enforcement corps or ‘‘para-police’’ (chengguan), which has become synonymous with lawlessness and brutality in China.23
Chengguan enforce administrative regulations in the cities, often
using violent methods.24 In 2009, the Commission reported on theincreasing number of violent incidents perpetrated by chengguan
against unlicensed street vendors and others.25 In July 2013, theissue of the unregulated power of chengguan was once again in the
spotlight when chengguan in Linwu county, Hunan province, beatan unlicensed watermelon vendor to death, and, in a separate incident, when a man in a wheelchair, reportedly paralyzed by achengguan beating in 2005, detonated a bomb in the Beijing International Airport to draw attention to his unsuccessful efforts toseek redress.26 As in 2009, such incidents of chengguan violence
have prompted calls for reform of the chengguan system.27

79
Arbitrary Detention
The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention defines the deprivation of personal liberty to be ‘‘arbitrary’’ if it meets one of thefollowing criteria: (1) There is clearly no basis in law for such deprivation; (2) an individual is deprived of his or her liberty for having exercised rights under the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); or (3) there is grave noncompliance with fairtrial standards set forth in the UDHR and other international
human rights instruments.28
In addition to the many democracy and human rights advocates
who continue to be arbitrarily detained in prison under the second
and/or third criteria of the Working Group’s definition above (e.g.,
Liu Xiaobo, Chen Wei, Chen Xi, Guo Quan, Li Tie, Zhu Yufu, Liu
Xianbin, Gao Zhisheng, Ni Yulan, Wang Bingzhang), authorities
also detain Chinese citizens arbitrarily using other venues andmethods.29 Forms of arbitrary detention include, among others,‘‘soft detention’’ (ruanjin), ‘‘black jails’’ (hei jianyu), shuanggui (aform of Party discipline), enforced disappearance, and various
forms of administrative detention such as reeducation throughlabor, ‘‘custody and education’’ (for sex workers and their clients),
and compulsory drug treatment centers. Many forms of arbitrary
detention violate China’s own laws.30
SOFT DETENTIONSoft detention (ruanjin) includes a range of extralegal controls towhich an individual may be subjected, such as home confinement,
surveillance, restricted movement, and limitations on contact withothers.31 During this reporting year, authorities continued to use
ruanjin against individuals deemed ‘‘sensitive,’’ such as dissidents,rights defense lawyers, activists, civil society actors, and sometimes
their family members as well.32 Liu Xia’s ongoing unlawful homeconfinement (since October 2010) is an example of the use of
ruanjin against an activist’s spouse.33 Before Xu Zhiyong was
taken into custody in mid-July, he was unlawfully confined to hishome for three months.34 Police aim to keep ‘‘sensitive’’ individuals
under control and out of sight around major events or anniversaries such as the 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party and the anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen protests.35
SECRET DETENTION: ‘‘BLACK JAILS,’’ SHUANGGUI, ENFORCED
DISAPPEARANCE

According to the UN Committee against Torture, detention of individuals in secret detention facilities ‘‘constitutes per se disappearance.’’ 36 ‘‘Black jails’’ are secret detention facilities that operatecompletely outside of China’s official judicial and administrative
detention systems.37 Chinese authorities primarily use ‘‘black jails’’to detain petitioners who leave their hometown to seek redress at
higher levels for complaints they have relating to actions taken by
local government officials, such as forced evictions and land seizures.38 Although Chinese officials have occasionally taken legal
action against individuals involved in operating ‘‘black jails,’’ the80
facilities continue to exist because, as the Economist observed in
March, ‘‘[b]lack jails serve the interests of every level of government.’’ 39 The central government is determined to keep petitioners
off the streets of Beijing in order to ‘‘maintain stability,’’ and local
officials want to ensure that their careers are not adversely affected by disgruntled local residents causing ‘‘trouble’’ in Beijing.40
There were several hopeful signs with respect to ‘‘black jails’’
during this reporting year.41 In a rare move, Chinese authorities
released hundreds of petitioners detained in Jiujingzhuang, one of
Beijing’s largest ‘‘black jails,’’ in connection with Rule of Law Promotion Day on December 4.42 And, in February 2013, Xinhua reported that a Beijing court convicted 10 men from Henan province
for illegally detaining 11 petitioners from Henan in Beijing.43
Seven of the defendants received sentences ranging from six
months to two years; the other three were juveniles and given suspended sentences. Global Times reported that the petitioners were
not satisfied with the sentences, and believed that local officials
who were responsible for their illegal detention should have been
charged.44 Despite these and other efforts by the central government to rein in ‘‘black jails,’’ observers caution it is unlikely that
the Chinese government will dismantle the system anytime soon.45
Shuanggui (‘‘double regulation’’ or ‘‘double designation’’) is a formof extralegal detention used primarily for Chinese Communist
Party officials who are suspected of corruption or other infractions,but also for ‘‘cadres who have transgressed politically.’’ 46 Detainees
are held incommunicado with no access to a lawyer or family members.47 Secrecy and harsh interrogation methods further the main
objectives of shuanggui: the extraction of confessions.48 Former
Chongqing Party Secretary Bo Xilai was held under shuanggui
from March 2012 at least until his case was turned over to prosecutors in late September 2012.49 During Bo’s trial in late August
2013, Bo recanted confessions he had made while reportedly ‘‘underpressure’’ in shuanggui detention.50 On September 22, the Jinan
Municipal People’s Intermediate Court in Shandong province, convicted Bo of bribery, embezzlement, and abuse of power and sentenced him to life imprisonment; the court rejected Bo’s argumentthat his earlier confessions should be excluded as unlawfully obtained.51 During this reporting year, three Chinese officials diedwithin a three-month period while under shuanggui. Six Party investigators were put on trial in September for the ‘‘intentional infliction of harm leading to death’’ in connection with one of thosecases.52
Police relied on enforced disappearance (usually in the name of‘‘residential surveillance’’) in the crackdown following the calls for
Tunisian-style ‘‘Jasmine’’ protests in China in February 2011 tosuch an extent that the UN Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances issued a statement in April of that year expressing ‘‘serious concern’’ about the wave of disappearances in
China.53 The practice of enforced disappearance has not only continued since 2011, but is now codified in one of the most controversial revisions to the recently amended PRC Criminal Procedure
Law (CPL), which took effect on January 1, 2013.54 Article 73, or‘‘the disappearance clause,’’ provides that ‘‘residential surveillance’’of up to six months may be carried out in a ‘‘designated residence’’81(zhiding jusuo)—i.e., a place of the public security bureau’s choosing that is not an officially recognized place of detention—when
there is suspicion of the crime of endangering ‘‘national security,
terrorism, or serious bribery’’ and residential surveillance at thesuspect’s domicile may impede the investigation.55 Family members must be notified within 24 hours only of the fact of ‘‘residential surveillance in a designated location’’ and not of the person’s
whereabouts or the basis of detention.56 Even this minimal notification requirement may be waived if there is no way of notifying
the family (wufa tongzhi).57 The individual is thus held incommunicado, increasing the likelihood that he or she will suffer torture orabuse.58
ADMINISTRATIVE DETENTION

There are several different forms of administrative detention in
China, including reeducation through labor (RTL); ‘‘custody andeducation’’ (shourong jiaoyu), which is applied to sex workers andtheir clients; and ‘‘custody and rehabilitation’’ (shourong jiaoyang),
which targets juvenile delinquents (under the age of 16).59 Theseand other forms of extrajudicial administrative detention are arbitrary under international human rights standards because they
permit the deprivation of personal liberty without trial or conformance with other fair trial standards.60 In addition, they violate China’s own laws.61
The most prominent form of administrative detention in China,
RTL, has been the subject of intense public debate during this past
year,62 and the Chinese government has vowed to reform RTL by
the end of 2013.63 [See Section III—Access to Justice for more information.] Under the RTL system—which has become synonymouswith rampant official abuses—Chinese public security officers areauthorized to detain individuals without trial for a maximum termof three years, with the possibility of up to a one-year extension.64
There have been reports of RTL centers releasing detainees aheadof their scheduled release dates and of centers being repurposed ascompulsory drug treatment centers.65 Compulsory drug treatment
centers, however, present the same legal problems and humanrights issues as RTL, and they violate both Chinese and international law.66
Two other ‘‘quasi-RTL’’ measures are the relatively unknown‘‘custody and education’’ (C&E) and ‘‘custody and rehabilitation’’(C&R). C&E is a form of administrative detention that permits
Chinese police to send sex workers and their clients to detention
facilities for up to two years without trial or judicial oversight.67
As with RTL and compulsory drug treatment, C&E inmates are
subjected to forced labor, and rights abuses are rampant.68 Under
C&R, police may send juvenile offenders under the age of 16 to detention facilities for periods between one and three years without
due process of law. A recent editorial in the Southern Metropolitan
Daily argued that, because C&E and C&R suffer from the samelegal infirmities as RTL, they must be considered together in any
discussion of RTL reform.69

82
Access to Counsel
The 2012 PRC Criminal Procedure Law (CPL) contains several
positive developments with respect to access to counsel. For example, it expands the circumstances under which legal aid must be
provided for suspects and defendants (for example, if the suspect
is facing a possible life sentence or death)—a revision that may
raise the generally low rate of representation of defendants incriminal trials.70 The new CPL incorporates provisions from the2007 PRC Lawyers’ Law that seek to ameliorate the ‘‘three difficulties’’ defense attorneys typically face—gaining access both to detained clients and to prosecutor’s case files, and collecting evidence.71 Because the CPL clearly applies to the public security apparatus (the police had argued previously that the Lawyers’ Law
only applied to lawyers), the new CPL may ease the ‘‘three difficulties.’’ 72 The new CPL stipulates that a lawyer need only show‘‘three certificates’’ (i.e., a lawyers’ license, a law firm certificate,
and a client engagement letter), and the detention center must arrange for a meeting with the detainee within 48 hours of the request.73 Although it is too early to draw conclusions, preliminary
research conducted by Shangquan Law Firm, a Beijing-based firmthat specializes in criminal defense, suggests that there has been
substantial improvement in the ability of defense lawyers to meetwith their detained clients.74
The Shangquan report notes, however, that some problems still
exist in certain locations. For example, several detention centers in
different jurisdictions require the presence of two lawyers before ameeting will be arranged.75 Reminiscent of the ‘‘state secrets’’ exception under the prior CPL, public security officials can rely on avague exception in the new CPL to require defense attorneys tofirst obtain permission before they may meet with a detained suspect.76 Article 37 of the 2012 CPL requires prior permission incases involving the crimes of endangering state security, terrorism,or serious bribery.77 The law firm’s research found that public security agencies are interpreting these ‘‘three categories of cases’’(sanlei anjian) broadly and are invoking sanlei anjian as an excuse
to restrict or prohibit meetings between lawyers and their clients.78
The unevenness of implementation of the CPL provisions that address the ‘‘three difficulties’’ was highlighted in July by Cao
Jianming, the president of the Supreme People’s Procuratorate,
who referred to ‘‘local problems’’ as the cause.79
In ‘‘politically sensitive’’ cases, defendants still have difficulty not
only gaining access to counsel but also retaining counsel of theirown choosing. Authorities twice rejected requests by Xu Zhiyong’s
attorney, Liu Weiguo, to meet with Xu, and on one occasion evenheld Liu for six hours.80 Eventually a different attorney, Zhang
Qingfang, was permitted to meet with Xu.81 In August, lawyers for
Guo Feixiong were denied access to their detained client.82 Bo Xilai
was denied access to counsel for many months while he was heldin shuanggui,83 and lawyers retained by Bo’s family were denied
permission to represent him in court.84

83
Torture and Abuse in Custody
Despite the Chinese government’s continued efforts to address
the problem, torture and abuse in police stations, detention centers,
prisons, administrative detention facilities, and secret detention
sites remain widespread in China.85 In April 2013, a Chinese magazine published a detailed account of torture, abuse, and forcedlabor at the Masanjia Women’s RTL Center in Liaoning province,
sparking a great deal of online commentary and fueling calls forthe reform or abolition of RTL.86 In May, Southern Weekend published an exposé on corruption and forced labor in RTL centers
based on interviews with former RTL guards, one of whom isquoted as saying: ‘‘The reality is that we force RTL detainees towork and make money [for us]. That’s what every RTL center
does.’’ 87
Torture by police in the course of criminal investigations remains
a common problem.88 The government relies overwhelmingly on
confessions as evidence in criminal cases.89 Sex workers interviewed by Human Rights Watch describe how police beat themafter taking them into custody to try to force them to confess toprostitution.90 Many of the targets of Bo Xilai’s crackdown on organized crime in Chongqing have alleged that police tortured them toconfess.91 Gong Gangmo was reportedly tortured by police in partto coerce him to frame his lawyer, Li Zhuang, of the crime of suborning perjury.92 Gong has filed an appeal seeking to have his verdict overturned, as has Li. Gong, who has since apologized to Li
Zhuang for setting him up, will be assisted by Li in his appeal.93
The Chinese government has attempted to address the persistentproblem of forced confessions since at least 1997, without muchsuccess.94 During the 2013 reporting year, the issue of coerced confessions and wrongful convictions garnered a great deal of publicattention after a number of wrongful convictions came to light andhigh-level court officials made statements condemning the phenomenon.95 The 2012 PRC Criminal Procedure Law (CPL) contains
new provisions that aim to prevent confessions obtained throughtorture.96 The law incorporates a June 2010 rule prohibiting theuse of illegally obtained evidence in criminal proceedings.97 Moreover, Article 50 of the 2012 CPL contains a provision that prohibits
police, prosecutors, and judicial personnel from forcing a suspect toincriminate himself.98 Article 50 is not framed as a right held by
the suspect, however, and its potential for curbing abuse during interrogation is diminished by the retention of a provision from theprior CPL requiring that suspects have an obligation to answer theinterrogator’s questions ‘‘truthfully.’’ 99 The absence of an explicit
right to remain silent and a presumption of innocence may well undermine efforts to prevent coerced confessions, and the absence ofa right to legal counsel during a detained suspect’s first interrogation also increases the likelihood of abuse.100
It remains to be seen how the provisions in the new CPL regarding the exclusion of illegally obtained evidence will be implemented
in practice.101 Since the exclusionary rule was first issued in June
2010, there have been few reports of successfully excluded illegallyobtained evidence.102 It was only in September 2012 that themedia reported on the first case in Beijing in which a court ex-

84
cluded evidence that had been illegally obtained.103 At his trial Bo
Xilai argued, without success, that his shuanggui confession had
been illegally obtained and thus should be excluded.104
Wrongful convictions, as the president of the Zhejiang ProvinceHigh People’s Court stated in a media interview in March, ‘‘are basically all related to the coercion of confessions through torture.’’ 105
At the time of the interview, his court was dealing with two highprofile wrongful conviction cases, both of which involved confessions obtained through torture. In March, the court reversed theconvictions of Zhang Gaoping and his nephew, who had spent 10
years in prison for a rape and murder they did not commit.106 In
July, the court also overturned the convictions of five men who had
already served 18 years in prison for the robbery and murder of
two taxi drivers based on fingerprint evidence that was uncoveredin 2011.107 All five men said that their confessions were the resultof torture.108
In an article published in May, Shen Deyong, the Executive Vice
President of the Supreme People’s Court, wrote that wrongful convictions posed an ‘‘unprecedented challenge’’ to the court system.109
In addition to the harm wrongly decided decisions cause the parties
involved, Shen wrote, they also damage judicial authority and the
public’s faith in the law and rule of law.110 In July, the head of the
Guangdong Province High People’s Court criticized the fundamental structure of the judicial system as outdated and reflecting
a Soviet model in which courts are treated like any other government agency and thus are subject to various kinds of interference
and influence.111 In August, reportedly in response to the spate ofwrongful convictions that surfaced in 2013, the Communist Party
Central Committee Political and Legal Affairs Commission issued,
for the first time, guidelines on the prevention of wrongful judgments that mandate lifelong responsibility for police, prosecutors,
and judges involved in judgments later demonstrated to be
wrong.112
Death Penalty
As in previous years, the Chinese government continues to treat
data on the use of the death penalty as a state secret.113 Amnesty
International concluded, based on available information, that the
Chinese government executed more people in 2012 than the rest of
the world combined.114 The number of executions in China is steadily decreasing, however. The Dui Hua Foundation estimates that
3,000 prisoners were executed in China in 2012, a decrease of 25
percent from the 4,000 cases estimated for 2011.115 Tsinghua University law professor Yi Yanyou puts the figure at over 2,000.116
Despite the lack of transparency regarding many aspects of thedeath penalty, including the Supreme People’s Court review ofdeath penalty sentences,117 the Chinese media and public are paying increasing attention to fairness and procedural justice in death
penalty cases.118 In a case that received a great deal of attention
in the media and on the popular microblog site Sina Weibo, Zeng
Chengjie, a businessman and property developer from Hunan province, was convicted of fraudulent fundraising and executed on July
12.119 In contravention of Chinese law, authorities failed to notify
his family until after the fact.120 Within a few days after his

85daughter posted this news on Sina Weibo, it was forwarded morethan 70,000 times and had generated nearly 50,000 comments.121
Organs are still harvested from executed prisoners in China,122
and the extent to which rules requiring prior informed consent are
followed is unclear.123 In March 2012, then-Vice Minister of China’s Ministry of Health, Huang Jiefu, wrote that, of the organtransplant operations performed in China using organs from deceased donors (the majority of such operations), more than 90 percent of the donors were executed prisoners.124 In March 2013, theMinistry of Health and the Chinese Red Cross formally launcheda national voluntary organ donation system, but the number of organs donated during the three-year pilot program before the launch
was low—only 659 people donated a total of 1,804 major organs.125
According to the newly created National Health and Family Planning Commission (NHFPC), each year an estimated 300,000 people
need organ transplants, but only about 10,000 transplants are performed annually.126 In August 2013, Huang Jiefu, now the directorof a human organ transplant committee at the NHFPC, reportedly
announced that China would cease relying on the organs of executed prisoners within the next two years.127

86
FREEDOM OF RELIGION
International Standards
The Chinese government’s legal and policy framework for religion violates the protections for freedom of religion set forth in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 18of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, andother international human rights instruments.1 Although the PRC
Constitution states that all citizens enjoy ‘‘freedom of religious belief,’’ it limits citizens’ ability to exercise their beliefs by protecting
only ‘‘normal religious activities,’’ 2 a vaguely defined term that has
been used to suppress forms of religious activity protected underinternational human rights standards.3 The government has created a regulatory framework that recognizes only five religions—
Buddhism, Catholicism, Taoism, Islam, and Protestantism—forlimited state protections for religious activity,4 and the government
has continued to outlaw some belief systems,5 thereby denying
members of these communities the right to practice their faith
openly and without fear of government reprisal.
Regulatory and Policy Framework
During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese government continued to use law and policy as tools to restrain rather
than protect Chinese citizens’ right to freedom of religion. Althoughthe 2005 Regulation on Religious Affairs (RRA) and local government regulations protect some religious activities, such protection
is limited in scope and applies only to the five state-sanctioned religious communities.6 The RRA does not include criminal penalties
for violation of its provisions,7 but authorities use the PRC Criminal Law,8 anti-cult regulations,9 and various administrative punishments, including reeducation through labor,10 to punish or detain citizens for forms of religious practice deemed to fall outsideof approved parameters. Chinese government and Communist
Party control over religious affairs is exercised through the State
Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA) and lower level religious affairs bureaus (RABs) under the State Council,11 the Party’s
United Front Work Department (UFWD),12 and the five ‘‘patriotic’’religious associations: The Buddhist Association of China (BAC),
the Catholic Patriotic Association of China (CPA), the Islamic Association of China (IAC), the Three-Self Patriotic Movement ofProtestant Churches in China (TSPM), and the Chinese Taoist Association (CTA).13 All religious clergy are required to be registeredwith the government.14 In January 2013, a top religious official announced that all clergy would be registered by the end of theyear.15
CONTINUING RESTRICTIONS ON RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONREGISTRATION

Registration requirements for religious organizations 16 in China
continue to be highly restrictive, limiting the growth of religious
communities and the right to freedom of religion, assembly, and association.17 During the 2013 reporting year, the Chinese government announced an institutional reform plan that will loosen reg-

87
istration and administrative strictures on some social organizations, including charities and social services organizations, butwhich explicitly excludes religious organizations, among others.18
Religious organizations will continue to be required to operate
under a legal framework that requires the approval and oversightof a supervisory unit and registration with the relevant level ofcivil affairs bureau.19 A February 2012 opinion issued by SARA,
the UFWD, and four other government departments called for‘‘equal treatment’’ of religious groups in establishing charitable organizations and noted that ‘‘some localities and departments had
not yet adequately recognized the positive significance of religious
communities’ participation in charitable activities.’’ 20 It is unclear
how the government will facilitate religious communities’ legal participation in charitable and public interest activities given the exclusion of religious groups from the current social organization reform plan.21
China’s Religious Communities
BUDDHISM (NON-TIBETAN)

During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese government and Communist Party, through the State Administration
for Religious Affairs (SARA), local religious affairs bureaus, andthe state-run Buddhist Association of China (BAC), continued tomonitor, control, restrict, and ‘‘guide’’ the religious activities of
Buddhists in non-Tibetan areas of China.22 [For information on Tibetan Buddhists, see Section V—Tibet.] In a speech delivered at aceremony commemorating the 60th anniversary of the BAC in August 2013, Vice Premier and member of the Political Bureau of theCommunist Party Central Committee (Politburo) Liu Yandong stated her hope that Buddhists in China ‘‘adhere to the tradition of loving the country and loving religion, embrace the leadership of theParty’’; ‘‘love deeply’’ (re’ai) the Party, the nation, socialism, andthe masses; and ‘‘adhere to the road of socialism with Chinesecharacteristics.’’ 23 In October 2012, SARA and nine other centrallevel government agencies issued a joint opinion on the handlingof problems involved in the management of Buddhist monasteries
and Taoist temples, calling for tighter control and regulation of religious sites and personnel, and prohibiting unregistered organizations and religious sites from conducting religious activities or collecting religious donations.24
The Chinese government continues to ban at least three sects of
Buddhism it has labeled as ‘‘cults’’ (xiejiao): 25 Guanyin Famen,26
the True Buddha School (lingxian zhen fozong),27 and Yuandun
Famen.28 A prominent Guangdong province-based Buddhist leader,
Wu Zeheng, also known as Zen Master Xing Wu, has been monitored and harassed since his release from prison for ‘‘economic
crimes’’ in 2010.29 The Chinese government has also refused toissue Wu a passport, thereby preventing him from lecturing
abroad: ‘‘It’s just another way to punish people they don’t like,’’ Wu
told the New York Times in February.30

88
CATHOLICISM

Government control and interference. The Justice and Peace
Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic Diocese raised concerns
about the Chinese government’s policies toward the Catholic
Church in China in an ‘‘Opinion on Religious Freedom in China for
the UN Human Rights Council’s October 2013 Universal Periodic
Review’’ of the Chinese government’s human rights record. According to the opinion, the government’s policy of an ‘‘independent, autonomous, and self-administered’’ Church managed by two statecontrolled entities—the Catholic Patriotic Association of China(CPA) and the Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church in China(BCCC) 31—violates ‘‘the consciences of the faithful and basic
Catholic doctrine.’’ 32 The opinion asserts, moreover, that Chinese
government policies have divided Chinese Catholics into an ‘‘official’’ church and an ‘‘underground’’ church.33 An unofficial estimateof the total number of Catholics in China is approximately 12 million people, split more or less evenly between the official and underground churches.34
The Chinese government and Communist Party deny Catholics
in China the freedom to accept the authority of the Holy See to select bishops. Although the Commission reported that the Holy See
has had a quiet role in jointly approving some bishops in recent
years,35 four bishops were ordained in China between November
2010 and July 2012 without Holy See approval.36 In late 2012, the
BCCC adopted a new national regulation on the selection and ordination of bishops that took effect in April 2013; the Holy See andinternational observers suggest the new regulation strengthens a
hardline approach.37 The regulation explicitly requires bishop candidates to ‘‘endorse the Chinese Communist Party’s leadership andthe socialist system.’’ 38 The new regulation also expands the authority of the BCCC and the role of provincial-level religious affairs
bureaus in the selection and consecration process compared withan earlier (1993) regulation.39 In a recent example of government
interference, the Union of Asian Catholic News reported thatprovincial-level officials in Hubei province overruled Wuhan city
church leaders’ November 2012 decisions on upcoming parish assignments and transfers, dismissed two priests from the CPA, andwarned individual priests not to leave their parishes for their new
assignments.40
Detention of Catholic clergy. The detention of auxiliary
bishop Thaddeus Ma Daqin from the diocese of Shanghai municipality, was a prominent focus of international media coverage during the 2013 reporting year.41 Bishop Ma has been confined to theSheshan Seminary in Shanghai since his public withdrawal fromthe Catholic Patriotic Association of China (CPA) at his ordination
on July 7, 2012.42 The CPA and the BCCC subsequently announcedin December their decision to revoke Ma’s title of auxiliary bishop
and his membership as a clergyman in the CPA,43 noting their‘‘hope that the Shanghai diocese . . . learns a lesson from the incident.’’ 44 The Holy See denounced the state-run church’s action,
stating that ‘‘no episcopal conference, in any part of the world, has
the power to overrule the pontifical mandate . . .,’’ and asserted
that the Holy See continues to recognize Ma as auxiliary bishop of

89
Shanghai.45 Bishop Ma, whose selection and ordination were approved by both the Holy See and the CPA, was in line to succeed
bishop Aloysius Jin Luxian.46 Bishop Jin’s death in late April 2013at the age of 96 47 reportedly has left the Shanghai diocese—one of
the largest in China—without a bishop.48
The Justice and Peace Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic
Diocese noted cases of underground clergy who have been detainedand ‘‘disappeared’’ for their pastoral activity and refusal to join the
CPA,49 such as priests Ma Wuyong, Liu Honggeng, Lu Genjun, andelderly bishops Su Zhimin and Shi Enxiang.50 In a recent example,
the Cardinal Kung Foundation reported that, on August 7, 2013,10 public security officers from Zhangjiakou city, Hebei province,
took into custody Song Wanjun, a priest with the undergroundchurch.51 As of August 2013, his whereabouts were unknown.52
Other priests reportedly serving prison sentences are Li Huisheng
and Wang Zhong.53
China-Holy See relations. The Chinese government does not
maintain diplomatic relations with the Holy See, and there was noapparent progress in the normalization of relations during the 2013
reporting year.54 An October 2012 article by a senior cleric at theHoly See, Cardinal Fernando Filoni, however, raised his hope for‘‘sincere and respectful dialogue’’ by invoking a 2007 pastoral letterfrom Pope Benedict XVI to Chinese Catholics that had launched abrief period of improved relations between China and the Holy
See.55 During a press conference in March 2013, a Chinese Foreign
Ministry spokesperson stated that China’s policy has been ‘‘consistent and clear’’ that the Holy See must cut its ties with Taiwan
and ‘‘should not interfere in China’s internal affairs under thename of religion.’’ 56
FALUN GONG

The Commission continued to observe reports of arbitrary treatment of Falun Gong practitioners by Chinese security and judicial
authorities, in some cases involving physical and mental abuse.
Courts continued to sentence Falun Gong practitioners to longterms in prison.57 Authorities detained and harassed persons who
attempted to assist Falun Gong practitioners, including lawyers
Wang Quanzhang 58 and Cheng Hai.59 The Chinese Communist
Party and government continued to pressure Falun Gong practitioners to renounce their belief and practice. The Party and government refer to this process as ‘‘transformation through reeducation,’’or simply ‘‘transformation.’’ 60 From 2010 to 2012, the government
implemented a three-year, national campaign to increase efforts to‘‘transform’’ Falun Gong practitioners.61
The Commission also observed reports this past year regarding
official anti-cult efforts that placed an emphasis on the need toeducate the public to ‘‘resist’’ Falun Gong.62 An All-China Women’sFederation report stressed the need for the expansion of anti-cultcampaigns directed against Falun Gong throughout Chongqing municipality, including through mobile schools and mobile teams ofanti-cult educators.63 At an anti-cult symposium in Hangzhou city,
Zhejiang province, held in May, a provincial official emphasized theneed to bring anti-cult efforts ‘‘deep into the grassroots and into the90heart of the masses,’’ and to ‘‘vigorously carry out’’ education
against Falun Gong.64
In April 2013, an article published in the China-based Lens Magazine reported on claims of torture and severe maltreatment of inmates at the Masanjia Women’s Reeducation Through Labor (RTL)
Center in Liaoning province.65 According to the New York Times,
former detainees reported that approximately half of the people detained at the center are Falun Gong practitioners or members ofunderground churches.66 Former detainees at the center said authorities regularly tortured them with electric batons, handcuffed
them in painful positions for long periods of time, and locked themin tiny ‘‘punishment cells,’’ among other forms of mistreatment.67
Beginning in June 2013, Beijing authorities detained journalist Du
Bin for five weeks, on allegations he said were partly a result of
his film about the abuses at the Masanjia Women’s RTL Center.68
At a Commission hearing on December 18, 2012, Falun Gong
practitioner Hu Zhiming testified that, during the eight years andtwo months he spent in detention in several different locations in
China for practicing Falun Gong, authorities allowed prisoners tobeat him and subjected him to sleep deprivation, denial of medicalcare, and other types of abuse.69 At the same hearing, Bruce
Chung, a Falun Gong practitioner from Taiwan, testified about how
Chinese state security officials detained him for 54 days during avisit to Jiangxi province in the summer of 2012 and subjected him
to lengthy interrogation sessions without access to a lawyer in connection with his earlier efforts to broadcast Falun Gong materials
into China.70
ISLAM

Chinese authorities continued to place curbs on Muslims’ ability
to practice their religion and continued to emphasize the role of Islamic clergy in promoting state policies. In December 2012, at theconclusion of a training session for ‘‘Muslim patriotic religious figures,’’ Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) Party Committee member Shavket Imin stressed that ‘‘patriotic religious figures’’ should ‘‘relentlessly study the Party’s general and specificpolicies’’ and ‘‘actively guide the broad masses of religious believers
to continuously strengthen their national consciousness.’’ 71 In August 2013, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR) Party Secretary Li Jianhua told local Muslims in Yongning county, Yinchuan
city, to ‘‘unite to respond positively to the call of the Party and thegovernment,’’ and stressed the role of Muslims in the NHAR in promoting ethnic unity, social harmony, and stability.72
During the 2013 reporting year, Chinese authorities continued toregulate the confirmation of religious leaders and to monitor overseas pilgrimages in furtherance of state policy. Chinese authorities
guided the training of imams at 10 state-run Islamic institutes 73
and conducted regular training courses for Muslim clergy thatstressed adherence to Party religious and ethnic policies.74 Underthe 2006 Measures for Accrediting Islamic Clergy, the first requirement listed for government recognition of imams is that they must‘‘love the motherland, support the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party of China, comply with national laws,[and] safeguard national unity, ethnic unity, and social stability.’’ 75

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At an Islamic Association of China (IAC) certification ceremony for
Muslim religious clergy in February, Ma Jin, Deputy Director of
the Islamic Department of the State Administration for Religious
Affairs (SARA), told the newly accredited Islamic clergy he hoped
they would ‘‘resolve to become politically reliable.’’ 76 The IAC
worked to strengthen its system for organizing Hajj pilgrimages to
Mecca,77 and local authorities throughout the XUAR warned religious believers against going on Hajj pilgrimages not organized by
the government.78
Authorities also continued to exert influence over the teachingsof Muslim clergy, such as through the interpretation of Islamic
scripture. SARA reported in February 2013 that Chinese authorities had engaged in efforts to interpret Islamic scripture for morethan 10 years.79 SARA also reported that authorities had recently
distributed copies of compilations of state-prescribed teachings ofIslam to every mosque in the XUAR.80
Authorities in charge of religious affairs sought to portray violent
clashes that took place in the spring and summer of 2013 throughout the XUAR as acts inspired by ‘‘religious extremism,’’ and urged
Muslim clergy to work against ‘‘religious extremist forces’’ 81 andthe ‘‘three evil forces’’ 82 of terrorism, separatism, and religious extremism. In an August 2013 article on ‘‘religious extremism,’’
XUAR United Front Work Department Deputy Inspector Azat
Omer wrote that the ‘‘struggle with religious extremist forces’’ wasa ‘‘serious political struggle to defend the unification of the motherland and safeguard ethnic unity.’’ 83[For more information on state controls over Islam in the XUAR,
see Section IV—Xinjiang.]
PROTESTANTISM

The Chinese government continued to control the doctrine andactivities of its official Protestant church and to target members ofunregistered Protestant groups for harassment, detention, andother forms of abuse. The Three-Self Patriotic Movement of Protestant Churches in China (TSPM) and the China Christian Council(CCC) are the Protestant associations that manage registered
Protestants on behalf of the government and Party.84 Protestants
who choose not to affiliate with the TSPM must worship with unregistered ‘‘house churches,’’ which are often subject to interference, harassment, and abuses during peaceful religious activities. According to the United States Commission on International
Religious Freedom’s (USCIRF) 2013 Annual Report, ‘‘[t]he government largely tolerates groups that meet in homes or in small
groups, but continues to view with suspicion religious organizations
with extensive foreign ties, whose memberships grow too quickly,
whose leadership becomes too popular or organizes across provincial lines, or whose religious activities allegedly disrupt ethnic orsocial ‘harmony.’ ’’ 85
Interference with places of worship. Authorities continued tointerfere with the religious activities of registered and unregistered
Protestant congregations by pressuring landlords to terminate theirleases, conducting raids during religious gatherings, and threatening demolition of their buildings. The government continued its
efforts to prohibit worship gatherings of the Beijing Shouwang

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Church, a house church of over 1,000 congregants in Beijing municipality that has endured ongoing official harassment since atleast 2006.86 In September 2012, the church’s pastor applied for administrative review of actions the Beijing Public Security Bureau
had taken against the church, including preventing the churchfrom moving into property it had purchased.87 Two weeks later, theBeijing Municipal Government rejected the application, citing lackof evidence.88 In August 2013, the church reported that it was still
being forced to meet outdoors in public spaces.89 [For additional information on the ongoing detention and harassment of Shouwang
leaders and congregants, see Harassment and Detention below inthis section.]
Reports continued to emerge this year regarding state-sanctioned
raids on house churches across China. In Shandong province inApril and May, for example, authorities raided two house churches
in Linshu county, Linyi city, and Yutai county, Jining city, issued
ban orders to both on grounds of ‘‘illegal assembly,’’ confiscated donations, and imposed fines on members.90 According to Radio Free
Asia, these actions may have been part of an informal crackdown
against Protestant house churches launched by Shandong authorities in March.91 Also during this reporting year, authorities conducted raids on house church meetings—in some cases threateningor questioning attendees, and in other cases fining, beating, or detaining them—in other areas of China, including Beijing,92
Guizhou province,93 Heilongjiang province,94 the Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region,95 and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.96
Authorities in locations including Hubei,97 Jilin,98 and Henan
provinces also reportedly threatened churches with demolition oreviction. In one case in Zhengzhou city, Henan province, authorities repeatedly threatened a registered TSPM church with eviction
and demolition of their newly constructed, government-approved
building.99 In connection with these threats, the church building
has reportedly lost power and water, and has been rendered inaccessible twice after government-owned trucks blocked its doors
with piles of dirt and rocks.100
Harassment and detention. The Chinese government andCommunist Party continued to harass and detain Protestants who
worship outside of state-approved parameters. According to the
USCIRF 2013 Annual Report (USCIRF Report), authorities detained close to 1,500 Protestants over the 2013 reporting period.101
Members of house church congregations in particular remained
subject to official harassment and maltreatment. Throughout thereporting year, local- and national-level government offices issued
directives calling for the need to further monitor and control housechurches, in one case alluding to the alleged ‘‘instability’’ posed bytheir proliferation in recent years.102 Reported cases of harassment
throughout 2013 suggest authorities have heightened pressure on
house churches to register with local religious affairs bureaus andjoin state-sanctioned churches, in some instances leading to violence and the detention of house church members.103 In April 2013,
local authorities raided a house church in Alashan (Alxa) League,
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, firing tear gas, detaining
members of the congregation, and beating others in a move observ-

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ers contend was part of a greater push at the time by officials topressure house churches into joining state-sanctioned churches.104
Authorities also continued to detain and harass members of Beijing’s Shouwang Church. According to the USCIRF Report, authorities detained 900 Shouwang Church members over the 2013 reporting period, while others faced eviction from their homes, dismissalfrom government jobs, and the confiscation of Beijing residency
permits by authorities.105
In other cases, authorities imposed criminal penalties or imprisoned Protestants who worshipped or promoted religious activities
outside of state-approved parameters. The USCIRF Report indicated authorities sentenced up to 18 Protestant leaders to reeducation through labor or prison terms during the 2013 reportingyear.106 In December 2012, authorities in Shenzhen municipality,
Guangdong province, detained house church pastor Cao Nan andseveral other house church members on two separate occasions forholding a religious gathering in a public park.107 In the second instance of detention, authorities ordered Cao to serve 12 days of administrative detention for ‘‘falsely using the name of religion to disturb social order.’’ 108 In June 2013, the Xiaodian District People’s
Court in Taiyuan city, Shanxi province, sentenced Li Wenxi to two
years in prison and Ren Lacheng to a five-year prison term on
charges of ‘‘illegal business operations’’ connected to the printing
and selling of religious publications at the Taiyuan-based Enyu
bookstore.109 According to media reports, the Enyu bookstore sold
Christian literature and had a joint venture with a Beijing-based
Christian bookstore, where Li was a deputy manager.110 Ren was
also reportedly a central figure in unofficial university-based Christian associations in Taiyuan and had used Enyu as a meeting
place.111
Banned Protestant groups and designation of groups as‘‘cults.’’ The Chinese government and Party continue to prohibit
categorically some Protestant groups from exercising their right toreligious belief by criminalizing their communities as ‘‘cult organizations’’ (xiejiao zuzhi). The government has designated at least 18
Protestant groups as ‘‘cult organizations,’’ banning their practicethroughout the country.112 Moreover, the PRC Criminal Law includes provisions authorizing fines and imprisonment of up toseven years for forming or associating with ‘‘cult organizations.’’ 113
According to one Chinese freedom of religion advocate, authorities
have increasingly utilized criminal law statutes, including those
provisions related to ‘‘cult organizations,’’ to detain and imprison
house church leaders.114 In April 2013, authorities in Ye county,
Pingdingshan municipality, Henan province, sentenced housechurch pastor Hu Linpo and congregation members Han Hai, Yang
Lianbing, Zhang Mian, Cao Xia, Wang En, and Li Dan to prison
sentences ranging from three years to more than seven years for‘‘using a cult organization to undermine implementation of thelaw.’’ 115 Authorities reportedly first detained all seven individuals
in April 2012 during a house church raid.116 According to the Ye
County Procuratorate indictment notice, authorities accused the defendants of belonging to the Local Church, referred to by authorities as the ‘‘Shouters.’’ 117

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In December 2012, authorities throughout the country engaged
in a wide-ranging crackdown on followers of the Church of the Almighty God (CAG) in connection with their belief that December 21
was prophesied to be the date of the apocalypse.118 According toChinese official media, authorities in 16 provinces detained morethan 1,300 CAG followers in December 2012.119 In one case, authorities in Shaoguan city, Guangdong province, sentenced CAG
adherent Lai Yiwa to seven years’ imprisonment in April 2013 forreportedly photocopying and distributing pamphlets in December
2012 related to the apocalypse prophesy.120
TAOISM

The Chinese government continued its control over Taoists andTaoist activities. As in the past, the Chinese Taoist Association(CTA) continued to work with the Chinese government to ensurethat Taoist religious groups ‘‘uphold the leadership of the Communist Party and the socialist system,’’ ‘‘actively participate in socialist material, political, and spiritual civilization,’’ and ‘‘make acontribution to the protection of religious harmony, ethnic unity,social harmony, unity of the motherland, and world peace.’’ 121 Government agencies and the CTA continued to hold training sessions
for Taoist leaders, including a November 2012 meeting of the CTA
executive council to ‘‘study the spirit of the 18th National Congressof the Communist Party of China’’ 122 and a May 2013 study class
led by the State Administration for Religious Affairs (SARA) andattended by over 130 Taoist leaders from localities across China.123
In the November meeting, SARA Director Wang Zuo’an reminded
Taoist leaders in attendance that ‘‘studying and putting into practice the spirit of the 18th Party Congress is the chief political task
for religious communities for the coming period of time.’’ 124 He further noted that he hoped the Taoist community would gain a ‘‘deeper understanding of the greatness of the Chinese Communist
Party,’’ ‘‘more conscientiously accept the leadership of the Chinese
Communist Party,’’ and ‘‘take the path that conforms to socialist
society,’’ among other goals.125
OTHER RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIESIn the past year, the central government maintained its framework for recognizing only select religious communities for limited
government protections, and it did not enlarge this framework toaccommodate additional groups. Despite lacking formal central government recognition, however, some religious communities havebeen able to operate inside China.126 The Orthodox Church holds
services in some areas,127 and at least one provincial-level jurisdiction recognizes the Orthodox Church.128 In May 2013, the leaderof the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and
All Russia, made an official visit to China and met with top officials, including President Xi Jinping.129 During his visit, Kirill expressed his hope that Orthodox parishes would be permitted to register, and that a Chinese bishop would be appointed who could set
locations for worship and ordain priests.130 Under current Chinese
government regulations, foreign religious communities, including
communities not recognized as domestic religions by the govern-95
ment, may hold services for expatriates, subject to certain limitations and government control.131

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ETHNIC MINORITY RIGHTS
During the 2013 reporting year, ethnic minorities faced challenges to their rights as provided in the PRC Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law and international law.1 Authorities placed the strictest
controls over groups perceived as potential threats to ‘‘stability,’’ 2
including those living in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) andother Tibetan autonomous areas, the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region (XUAR), and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region(IMAR). Authorities continued to detain, harass, and imprison ethnic minority rights advocates who engaged in peaceful protest andsought to assert their unique cultural identity. [See Section IV—
Xinjiang and Section V—Tibet for additional information on theseareas. See text below for information on broader government policies toward ethnic minorities and on conditions in the IMAR.]
State Policy on Ethnic Minorities
Government and private development projects in ethnic minority
regions, together with the absence of institutionalized forums for
ethnic minorities to discuss and seek redress for their grievances,
led to tensions between local residents, railway workers, and government authorities.3 The expansion of top-down development initiatives 4 in the IMAR, while bringing some economic improvement
to areas inhabited by Mongols,5 has weakened Mongols’ ability topreserve their unique culture, language, and livelihoods.6
Grasslands Policy and Protests in Inner Mongolia
Central and regional government authorities continued to enforce
grasslands policies that require herders and nomads to resettle inurban areas or in larger, compact rural communities, portraying
these developments as a move to improve and ‘‘modernize’’ the livesof Mongols, Tibetans, Kazakhs, and other minority groups, andcombat grasslands degradation.7 Local governments throughout the
IMAR carried out propaganda campaigns in 2013 to promote national and regional regulations regarding the protection of grasslands.8 The regulations stipulate penalties for unauthorized use of
grasslands 9 but lack protections for the rights of herders.10 Critics
of official grasslands policies in the IMAR have raised concerns
over increased mining activities and a corresponding loss of waterin the region,11 while the policies are officially aimed at easing thedegradation of grasslands.12 In a report published in July 2013,
Greenpeace criticized state-owned coal mining company Shenhua
Group for draining the water supply 13 and causing the destructionof grasslands 14 in areas inhabited by Mongol farmers and herders
in the IMAR. The report states that Shenhua has extracted morethan 50 million tons of groundwater since 2007 in an area encompassing five villages in Uushin (Wushen) Banner, Ordos (E’erduosi)
municipality, IMAR,15 and produces an estimated 4.79 million tonsof toxic industrial wastewater per year.16 This wastewater is reportedly dumped into open sand pits in Ulan Moron (Wulanmulun)
township, Ejin Horo (Yijinhuoluo) Banner, Ordos (E’erduosi) municipality, IMAR,17 contradicting Shenhua’s claims that its coal-toliquid operations have ‘‘low water consumption’’ and ‘‘zero dis-

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charge.’’ 18 [For more information on rights abuses related to grasslands policies, see Section II—The Environment.]
In several instances during the 2013 reporting year, Mongol
herders sought to protest the appropriation of their grazing lands
for military use and private development projects.19 On August 19
in Uushin (Wushen) Banner, workers from China Railway 23rd Bureau reportedly beat to death Mongolian herder Bayanbaatar, who
was one of several herders protesting the railway bureau’s use of
his and other herders’ grazing land.20 In March 2013, herders from
Durbed (Siziwang) Banner, Wulanchabu municipality, IMAR, reportedly gathered at the train station in Hohhot city, seeking totravel to Beijing to protest the appropriation of their land for the
Beijing Military Command’s Zhurihe military training base.21 Police and government officials from Durbed traveled to Hohhot tostop the herders 22 and reportedly physically assaulted several
herders who resisted their orders to return to Durbed.23 Local authorities reportedly had sold the land to Chinese firms, including
two major mining companies.24 In July 2013, 38 Mongol herders reportedly gathered at the train station in Tongliao city, IMAR, seeking to travel to Beijing to protest their community’s September
2008 forced resettlement from the Khan Uul (Hanshan) Forest
Area to Lubei township, Zaruud Banner.25 Security personnel reportedly detained the 38 herders and beat those who resisted detention.26 In 2008, Tongliao city officials resettled 963 people from
Khan Uul, a government-designated nature preserve, with the stated aim of creating an area free of people and livestock.27 However,resettled herders from Khan Uul reportedly complained in March2013 that miners had begun operations in the area.28 Local government officials have positively assessed the prospects for mining exploration in the area.29
In July 2013, a herder in Ongniud (Wengniute) Banner, Chifeng
municipality, reportedly killed the head of a ‘‘livestock grazing prohibition team’’ and seriously injured another official while ‘‘defending his right to graze his livestock on his grazing land,’’ before committing suicide.30
Political Prisoners
The continued extralegal detention of Mongol rights advocate
Hada underscores the official repercussions Mongols may face forpromoting their rights. During the Commission’s 2013 reporting
year, authorities in Hohhot city, IMAR, tightened restrictions on
the movement and communications of Hada’s wife, Xinna, and thecouple’s son, Uiles.31 The heightened restrictions began after Xinna
gave interviews to international media and rights groups about
Chinese authorities’ treatment of Hada in extralegal detention andits harmful impact on his mental health.32 Xinna stated in theinterviews that Hada is suffering from depression and that authorities refused to allow him access to psychiatric care that was recommended by a physician.33 As of September 23, 2013, the whereabouts of Xinna and Uiles are unclear.34 As of the same date, Hada
remained in official custody without apparent legal basis 35 despite
his completion of a 15-year prison sentence on December 10,
2010.36 Authorities imprisoned Hada in 1995 after he organized98
peaceful protests for Mongols’ rights.37 Additional representative
cases follow:• On July 4, 2013, authorities in Uzumchin Right(Dongwuzhumuqin) Banner, Xilingol League, IMAR, reportedlyarrested Yunshaabiin Seevendoo, who had advocated for therights of Mongol herders, on fraud charges.38 Family members
reportedly said his health has deteriorated during his detention.39 Prior to his detention, Seevendoo had organized Mongol
herders to protest against illegal government and corporate expropriation of their grazing lands.40• On April 13, 2013, authorities in Guangzhou municipality,
Guangdong province, reportedly arrested Batzangaa, a former
medical school principal, after he allegedly attempted to flee
the country with his wife and two children.41 Batzangaa had
been under residential surveillance in Dongsheng district,Ordos (E’erduosi) municipality, IMAR, since January 2011. According to Radio Free Asia, authorities ordered Batzangaa tobegin serving a three-year prison sentence, starting on April
25, 2013, that had been handed down as a suspended sentence
in 2011.42 Batzangaa had attempted to seek refugee status in
Mongolia in October 2009 after organizing demonstrations toprotest against the government’s confiscation of campus property.43• In November 2012, the Tongliao Municipality People’s Courtin Tongliao city, IMAR, reportedly convicted author and rights
advocate Govruud Huuchinhuu on charges of ‘‘providing statesecrets to a foreign organization,’’ 44 a crime under Article 111of the PRC Criminal Law that ordinarily is punishable by noless than five years in prison and by life imprisonment in ‘‘especially serious’’ cases.45 Authorities originally placed
Huuchinhuu under home confinement in November 2010 after
she published calls on the Internet for Mongols to show support for the release of Hada.46
A number of other ethnic Mongols remain in prison or detention
or are presumed to remain in prison or detention for political reasons, including Erden-uul (pen name Unaga), who was detained in
December 2010, and Sodmongol, who was detained in April 2010.47

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POPULATION PLANNINGInternational Standards and China’s Population Policies
Chinese officials continue to actively promote and implement
population planning policies which, in both their nature and implementation, violate international standards. The PRC Population
and Family Planning Law and provincial implementing guidelines
limit couples’ freedom of reproductive choice by stipulating if,
when, and how often they may bear children.1 China’s current population planning policies still require married couples to obtain abirth permit to lawfully bear a child.2 The population planningpolicies of all of China’s 31 provincial-level jurisdictions limit couples to bearing one child.3 According to one team of demographic
experts, ‘‘[The Chinese government’s] policy of allowing all couples
to have only one child finds no equal in the world and it may be
one of the most draconian examples of government social engineering ever seen.’’ 4 Exceptions for couples who meet certain criteria
vary province-by-province,5 and include some exceptions for ethnic
minorities.6 Officials continue to coerce compliance with population
planning targets using methods including heavy fines,7 forced abortions,8 and forced sterilizations.9
Controls imposed on Chinese women and their families, and additional abuses engendered by China’s population and family planning system, violate standards in the 1995 Beijing Declaration andPlatform for Action 10 and the 1994 Programme of Action of the
Cairo International Conference on Population and Development.11
China participated as a state party in the negotiations and adoption of both.12 Acts of official violence committed in the implementation of population planning policies 13 and the fact that these acts
are not clearly punishable under Chinese law 14 contravene provisions under the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,15 which China hassigned and ratified.16 Further, discriminatory policies 17 against‘‘out-of-plan’’ children are in violation of the Convention on the
Rights of the Child 18 and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights.19 China is a state party to these treaties and has committed to uphold their terms.
Institutional Developments
Amid calls by Chinese government leaders,20 experts and scholars,21 and citizens 22 for the loosening or reform of China’s population policies, China’s new leadership unveiled a plan in March2013 for restructuring agencies within the State Council, including
merging the National Population and Family Planning Commission(NPFPC) and the Ministry of Health.23 The restructure combines
most of the responsibilities of the previous two organizations into
a new ‘‘National Health and Family Planning Commission’’(NHFPC),24 but transfers the responsibility of creating population
development policies and strategies—previously held by the
NPFPC—to the National Development and Reform Commission.25
Some domestic and overseas experts say that the restructuring andtransfer of certain population planning responsibilities suggests a
significant loss of power for the nation’s family planning body and100
a greater potential for population policy reform and eventual cancellation,26 while at least one Chinese academic expressed belief
that the merger ‘‘is in fact making the family planning body more
powerful.’’ 27
The government restructuring plan itself has a stated aim to‘‘better uphold the basic national family planning policy,’’ 28 andtop-level officials have reinforced in speeches that family planningwill be ‘‘beefed up, not weakened.’’ 29 The full impact of the dissolution of the NPFPC on family planning policies and local implementation remains to be seen. The NHFPC released an ‘‘Action Plan’’in August which ignited afresh citizens’ hopes for policy relaxation,30 but an NHFPC spokesman later clarified that the plan’scall for ‘‘improving the family-planning policy’’ should not beviewed ‘‘as a renewed sign of relaxing the policy to allow for a second child’’ 31—a hope held by many Chinese citizens.32 The spokesman also restated that China would adhere to its basic family planning policies for the long term.33
Coercive Implementation
Chinese law prohibits officials from infringing upon the rights
and interests of citizens while implementing population planningpolicies but does not define what constitutes a citizen’s right or interest.34 Chinese law reportedly does not stipulate punishment for
officials who demand or implement forced abortion.35 Furthermore,
provincial-level population planning regulations in at least 22 of
China’s 31 provincial-level jurisdictions explicitly endorse the practice, often referred to as a ‘‘remedial measure’’ (bujiu cuoshi), as an
official policy instrument.36 Officials also reportedly continue to use
other coercive methods—including forced abortion under arbitrary
detention,37 forced implantation of long-term birth control devices,38 and forced sterilization 39—to implement population planning policies.
OFFICIAL CAMPAIGNS

Language used in official speeches and government reports fromjurisdictions across China continued to reflect an emphasis on
strengthening enforcement measures with apparent disregard for
restraint. Between October 2012 and July 2013, the Commission
noted reports from at least eight provinces (Hubei,40 Guangdong,41Anhui,42 Shandong,43 Henan,44 Guizhou,45 Hunan,46 and Fujian 47)
using phrases such as ‘‘spare no efforts’’ (quanli yifu or fenli), ‘‘use
all means necessary’’ (qian fang bai ji), ‘‘implement ‘man-on-man’military tactics’’ (shixing ‘‘rendingren’’ zhanshu), ‘‘fight the familyplanning battle’’ (dahao jisheng gongjianzhan), and ‘‘assault andstorm the fortifications’’ (tuji gongjian) to urge officials to implement family planning measures. The implementation measures
promoted in these reports were harsh and invasive, including ‘‘remedial measures,’’ the ‘‘two inspections’’ (intrauterine device (IUD)
and pregnancy inspections),48 the ‘‘four procedures’’ (IUD implants,
first-trimester abortions, mid- to late-term abortions, and sterilization),49 and the collection of ‘‘social maintenance fees.’’ 50 For example, one report regarding population planning work in Gangkou
town, Chongyang county, Xianning municipality, Hubei province,

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recounted a local Party cadre’s speech in which he urged officials
to ‘‘overcome the slackening of efforts and war-weariness’’ and ‘‘continue to maintain a situation of high temperatures and high pressure’’ while implementing family planning work, which included
the ‘‘four procedures.’’ 51 Following his speech, 13 ‘‘team members’’
went into local villages to ‘‘find out the truth’’ on population planning compliance, implement ‘‘ ‘man-on-man’ military tactics,’’ retrieve those who had ‘‘skipped town,’’ and ‘‘take backwards villages
by storm,’’ according to the report.52
Representative Cases of Coercion(Arranged by Province)
Between July and September 2012, authorities in 23 of China’s 31 provincial-level jurisdictions published statements banning late-term 53
abortions.54 Following the announcements, reports documented that officials in these jurisdictions continued to use forced late-term abortions to
implement population planning policies:• Guizhou. In July 2013, local family planning officials reportedly
forced 18-weeks-pregnant Li Fengfei to the local family planning office
for a forced abortion. After beating her and breaking one of her teeth,
the officials reportedly forced her to fingerprint an abortion consent
form and subsequently injected her with several medications to induce
the abortion. The medications reportedly killed the fetus, but did not
successfully induce labor. Nine days following the induction, reports indicated that Li remained in the hospital in critical condition, as her
body had still not gone into labor.55 According to a September ChinaAid
report, authorities arrested Li on charges of embezzlement after she
spread information about her forced abortion on the Internet.56• Hubei. In May 2013, local family planning officials reportedly forced
Zhang Yinping, who was six months pregnant with an ‘‘out-of-plan’’child, to accompany them to the family planning office for an abortion.
Following the surgery, Zhang reportedly suffered from severe hemorrhaging, which caused her to die the next day. Zhang’s family reportedly protested at the family planning office following her death, and thecounty government mobilized public security personnel to stop the protest. Officials investigated the matter as a ‘‘medical accident’’ and ordered the surgery unit to suspend its practice.57• Anhui. In March 2013, local family planning officials reportedly detained a woman surnamed Lu, who was seven months pregnant with an‘‘out-of-plan’’ child, and took her to a local hospital for an abortion. Medical personnel at the hospital injected her with a substance that caused
an abortion two days later.58 In an interview cited in a March 25
ChinaAid report, Lu’s husband said that the family was seeking compensation from the government.59• Shandong. In October 2012, seven local family planning officials reportedly detained a woman surnamed Song who was six months pregnant with her third child. The officials took her to a hospital, stripped
her, tied her down, confiscated her belongings, forced her fingerprint
onto an abortion consent form, and injected her with a substance thatcaused an abortion. Reports noted that the experience caused her to suffer severe psychological trauma.60

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Representative Cases of Coercion—Continued(Arranged by Province)
Officials have also continued to implement forced contraceptive surgeries and sterilizations this reporting year:• Guizhou. In February 2013, seven or eight local family planning officials took Nie Changmin to a local family planning office and forced her
to undergo a sterilization procedure. Due to a mistake made during theprocedure, Nie required several additional weeks of medical treatment
in a nearby hospital. Nie reportedly had two ‘‘in-plan’’ daughters andsubsequently had an IUD inserted, all in compliance with local regulations.61• Hubei. In March 2013, local family planning officials visited the homeof 42-year-old Shen Hongxia and her husband and threatened court action if she did not undergo a surgical sterilization. Shen’s doctor had declared her medically unfit for sterilization, but she and her husband consented to further examination at the local family planning office. Instead of examining her, officials performed a sterilization surgery on
her, resulting in her death.62• Henan. In March 2013, local family planning officials ordered Wan
Liqiao to pay a 6,000 yuan (US$980) ‘‘protection fee’’ to avoid having toundergo a tubal ligation after her third pregnancy. One day later, andbefore she could come up with the fee, officials forced her into a van andtook her to the local family planning office, where they performed atubal ligation surgery on her without prior medical examination (shehas a rare blood type) and without obtaining her or her family’s writtenconsent.63• Yunnan. In July 2013, local family planning officials took away Guo
Xingcong for a sterilization procedure. Later the same day, his wife
found him dead at the door of their home after apparently having been
severely beaten. Officials reportedly claimed that he had committed suicide and buried the body quickly without the family’s approval. According to Guo’s family, even though he had never violated population planning policies, authorities had targeted him for years, demanding that hebe sterilized and that he pay a fine of 10,000 yuan (US$1,633) for exceeding the birth quota.64

Punishments for Non-Compliance
Chinese authorities continued to use various methods of punishment and reward to manage citizens’ compliance with population
planning policies. In accordance with national measures,65 local
governments direct officials to punish non-compliance with heavyfines, termed ‘‘social maintenance fees’’ (shehui fuyang fei), which
force many couples to choose between undergoing an unwanted
abortion and incurring a fine much greater than the average annual income of their locality.66 Furthermore, despite provisions in
the PRC Population and Family Planning Law that prohibit infringements on citizens’ personal, property, and other rights,67 officials in some cases threatened or imposed job termination,68 expulsion from the Communist Party,69 and violence 70 for family planning violations. In past years, reports have documented officials’
use of methods such as destruction of personal property and arbi-

103
trary detention to punish couples who did not comply with population planning policies.71
Authorities in some cases deny hukous—household registration
permits—to children based on their parents’ lack of compliancewith local population planning policies. Children who are born ‘‘outof-plan’’ may go without hukous until their parents pay the necessary ‘‘social maintenance fees’’ associated with their birth.72
These children are commonly referred to as ‘‘illegal residents’’(heihu) 73 and face considerable difficulty accessing social benefits
typically afforded to registered citizens, including health insurance,
public education, and pensions.74 A December 2012 South China
Morning Post report claimed that authorities in many Chinese cities also refuse to give hukous to ‘‘in-plan’’ newborns if their parents
had not immediately implemented contraceptive measures following the birth.75 [For additional discussion of China’s hukou system, see Section II—Freedom of Residence and Movement.]
Demographic Consequences
The Chinese government’s population planning policies continue
to exacerbate the country’s demographic challenges, which include
an aging population, diminishing workforce, and skewed sex ratio.
Affected in recent decades by government restrictions on the number of births per couple, China’s total fertility rate has dropped
from 6.1 births per woman in 1949 76 to an estimated 1.55 births
per woman in 2013,77 resulting in a serious demographic imbalancewith regard to China’s growing elderly population and shrinking
working-age population.78 Chinese authorities continue to implement a ban 79 on ‘‘non-medically necessary sex determination andsex-selective abortion,’’ 80 which some people reportedly continue topractice 81 in response to government-imposed birth limits and in
keeping with a traditional cultural bias for sons.82 As a result of
ongoing violations of the ban on sex-selective abortion, China’s
male-female ratio at birth is severely skewed.83 While Chinese
media reports that China’s sex ratio at birth has decreased in thepast few years,84 according to the UN Population Division, it remains the highest in the world.85 A 2010 study issued by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences reported that by 2020, the numberof Chinese males of marriageable age may exceed the number ofChinese females of marriageable age by 30 to 40 million.86 Reports
have also suggested a link between China’s large number of ‘‘surplus males’’ and an increase in the trafficking of women and children for forced marriage or commercial sexual exploitation.87
Reports indicate that China’s family planning policies and policy
implementers have contributed in part to what the state-controlled
Global Times has called China’s ‘‘massive and lucrative baby market.’’ 88 In one such case, state media reported in December 2012that a family planning official in Anxi county, Quanzhou municipality, Fujian province, faced charges for selling four infants aspart of a child laundering ring.89 Another local government official
in Quanzhou was implicated in the same ring for purchasing ababy boy with his wife.90 A January 2013 Chinese investigative report uncovered a separate case of hospital, civil affairs, health bureau, and orphanage officials in Guixi city, Yingtan municipality,
Jiangxi province, working together to illegally acquire babies from

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local hospitals or elsewhere and place them for either domestic orinternational adoption at a profit.91 An additional case emerged inAugust involving an obstetrician in Shaanxi province who allegedly
convinced a mother to relinquish her newborn son, claiming he wasseriously ill.92 The doctor reportedly sold the healthy newborn for
21,600 yuan (US$3,528) one day after his birth.93 Authorities detained the doctor and five other suspects, retrieved the baby fromnearby Henan province, and launched an investigation into several
similar cases connected to the same hospital.94 For years, reports
have indicated that Chinese children are viewed as commodities
which yield considerable profit in adoption 95 or forced labor situations.96

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FREEDOM OF RESIDENCE AND MOVEMENT
Freedom of Residence
The Chinese government continued to enforce the household registration (hukou) system, established in the 1950s.1 Initially used
to control migration of the rural population to China’s cities, thehukou system has developed into a ‘‘mechanism determining one’s
eligibility for full citizenship, social welfare, and opportunities forsocial mobility.’’ 2 The hukou system classifies Chinese citizens as
either rural or urban and accordingly confers legal rights and access to social services.3 The implementation of these regulations
discriminates against rural hukou holders who migrate to urban
areas by denying them equal access to public services and social security benefits, as well as equal social, employment, and educational opportunities.4 China’s hukou system conflicts with international human rights standards that guarantee freedom to choose
one’s residence and prohibit discrimination on the basis of ‘‘national or social origin[,] . . . birth or other status.’’ 5
Government officials and journalists estimate that there are between 170 and 260 million rural migrants living in cities; 6 thesepeople face challenges accessing social services because they lackurban hukous. According to a 2013 survey commissioned by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), nearly 45
percent of migrant workers living in cities reported not receivingsocial benefits, including health care and unemployment benefits.7
In cities including Beijing, Nanjing, Shanghai, Xi’an, Hangzhou,
and Zhengzhou, migrants (even those educated in the city) faced
restrictions when seeking employment,8 such as hiring policies favoring local hukou holders 9 or denial of employment due to lack of
a local hukou.10 Similarly, migrants working alongside local urban
hukou holders reportedly received lower salaries for performing
similar work.11 Moreover, children of migrants continued to be denied equal access to urban public education and higher educational
opportunities.12 Government efforts toward urbanization have fostered anger among rural residents 13 at the same time that competition for public resources and systemic discrimination stemmingfrom the hukou system has exacerbated tensions between urban
and rural residents.14
As in recent years, high-level officials and state-run media continued to emphasize the need for hukou reform as a part of a larger
urbanization policy, and China’s new leadership appeared toprioritize this urbanization policy with an aim to spur economic
growth.15 In May 2013, Premier Li Keqiang announced that a reform plan will be unveiled in late 2013 that will clarify the timingof proposed reforms and push ‘‘improvements to public services andthe social security system.’’ 16 In December 2012, the NDRC indicated that hukou reform, along with ‘‘improving’’ the land management system and research on measures to push the ‘‘urbanization’’of rural migrants, would be accelerated in 2013.17 One expert predicted that these reforms would provide ‘‘specific administrative
measures’’ to clarify application criteria for urban hukous.18 According to a June 2013 report on urbanization development delivered by the head of the NDRC, Xu Shaoshi, the government should‘‘gradually tear down household registration obstacles to facilitate

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the orderly migration of people from rural to urban areas.’’ 19 An
August 2012 report by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
stressed the difficulty of incorporating an estimated 500 million
rural residents into urban society over the next 20 years in part
because of the increasing need for limited resources.20 Scholars andjournalists have expressed reservations about the central government’s approach to hukou reform, citing local government opposition to the financial burden an influx of rural migrants would impose on public services and infrastructure.21
The Commission noted in its 2012 Annual Report a February
2011 State Council General Office circular outlining a series of reforms including relaxing hukou registration standards in countyand prefectural-level cities, prohibiting coercive requisition andconversion of rural residents’ land in exchange for urban hukous,and prohibiting any future policy attempting to use hukou status
as a prerequisite for access to social services.22 During the 2013 reporting year, several prefectural- and provincial-level jurisdictions
released implementation plans and opinions with respect to the circular.23
The Commission has observed implementation and expressions ofintent to implement hukou reform in the 2013 reporting year withvarying degrees of reception and success. In November 2012, theMinistry of Education expressed its intention to broaden education
access to children of migrants and other non-residents in urban
areas.24 Some local governments continued to relax hukou restrictions consistent with ongoing reform efforts. Beijing, Guangzhou,
and Shanghai municipalities issued measures to expand and promote equal access to educational opportunities for children of migrants.25 Despite efforts like these, thousands of migrant children
continued to be prohibited from taking entrance exams in their locations of residence and returned to their hometowns to take theseexams.26 In April 2013, authorities in Wuhan municipality, Hubei
province, issued an opinion that allows college graduates who havebeen employed in Wuhan within two years following graduation to
apply for a local hukou.27 In May 2013, Shanghai authorities
issued measures that provided a points system designed to allow
non-Shanghai residents to apply for a residence permit (juzhu
zheng) if they meet certain criteria. The measures went into effectin July.28 In May 2013, Guangzhou municipal authorities issued
measures to abolish hukou classifications and incorporate all residents under a single uniform hukou classification by 2014.29 At theprovincial level, the Guangdong provincial government continued topromote a work plan calling for all residents of Guangdong province to be included under a single uniform hukou classification by
2014.30 The actual implementation and results of these policies remain unclear.
International Travel
Chinese officials continued to deny citizens who criticize the government their internationally recognized right to leave the country.
Article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, which China has signed and committed to ratify, provides
that ‘‘[e]veryone shall be free to leave any country, including hisown.’’ 31 Under Article 12, countries may restrict this right but only

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in narrow circumstances to protect national security and certain
other public interests.32 Chinese law allows officials to bar those
who threaten state security from leaving the country,33 but in practice officials target a much broader range of activity, including theexpression of views critical of the government, or having a family
association with individuals expressing such views.34 A February
2013 article in the New York Times compared the Chinese government’s use of passport restrictions on political opponents to thepractices of the former Soviet Union.35 The number of Chinese subject to these restrictions reportedly has jumped in recent years, andhuman rights groups estimate that at least 14 million people may
be affected.36 Restrictions reportedly fall heaviest on Tibetans andUyghurs, with the U.S. State Department reporting that membersof these groups ‘‘experienced great difficulty acquiring passports.’’ 37
Tsering Woeser, the noted Tibetan writer, told the New York Times
that authorities feared these ethnic minorities, once abroad, would
expose harsh ethnic policies or interact with exile groups.38 In
March 2013, authorities blocked Woeser, who has been documenting Tibetan self-immolations, from traveling to the UnitedStates to receive the U.S. Department of State’s International
Women of Courage Award.39 In February, public security officials
prevented Ilham Tohti, the Uyghur academic and advocate for thereform of ethnic minority policies, from traveling to the UnitedStates for a fellowship at Indiana University.40
During the 2013 reporting year, there continued to be numerous
reports of political advocates and their family members being denied exit from China or access to passports. In April 2013, policeprevented prominent legal scholar and rights advocate Xu Zhiyong
from traveling to Hong Kong to attend a legal symposium.41 According to a February 2013 report, officials prevented the wife ofimprisoned democracy advocate Liu Xianbin from obtaining her
passport without explanation.42 Authorities also prevented thedaughter of democracy advocate Lu Gengsong from traveling toHong Kong in July 2013.43 The Chinese government granted passports to the brother and mother of legal advocate Chen
Guangcheng on the eve of a meeting between President Barack
Obama and President Xi Jinping in June 2013, after repeatedly denying their earlier passport requests.44
Domestic Movement
Article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights provides that ‘‘[e]veryone lawfully within the territory of aState shall, within that territory, have the right to liberty of movement and freedom to choose his residence.’’ 45 Chinese authorities
continue to violate this right by restricting the domestic movementof rights advocates 46 and their families 47 as a form of harassment,
frequently under the guise of ‘‘stability maintenance.’’ 48 A combination of police and guards reportedly confined Liu Xia, the wifeof imprisoned Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo, to her home
without a legal basis, a situation that has persisted for more than
two-and-a-half years since her husband was awarded the prize in2010.49 Roughly two dozen police guarded the home of Feng
Zhenghu, a Shanghai human rights activist, and enforced his extralegal home confinement for 268 days from February to Novem-

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ber 2012. During that time Feng was allowed to leave his home
only for police interrogations.50 Public security officials unlawfully
confined prominent legal scholar and rights advocate Xu Zhiyong
to his home for three months after police officers stopped him in
the airport to prevent him from traveling to Hong Kong in April
2013.51 Authorities increased restrictions on freedom of movement
during politically sensitive periods this past year, including the18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in November,52 the March meetings of the National People’s Congress
and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Congress,53 and theanniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen protests on June 4.54 For example, public security officials held Hubei-based rights defender
Liu Feiyue in a hotel and only allowed him out for meals throughout the 18th Party Congress,55 while shifts of three to four guards
monitored Anhui activist Wang Yixiang 24 hours a day around
June 4.56

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STATUS OF WOMEN
Women’s Political Decisionmaking
Through its international commitments and domestic laws andpolicies, the Chinese government has committed to ensure genderequal political participation; however, women remained underrepresented in government and Communist Party positions after leadership changes during this reporting year. In accordance with its
commitments under the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women,1 the Chinese government
has passed several laws 2 and policy initiatives 3 to promote genderequality in government. According to one UN expert, ‘‘Gender balance in public administration ensures that a wide enough range ofperspectives are consulted in policymaking to make tangible contributions to sustainable development.’’ 4 During the Commission’s
2013 reporting year, female representation increased slightly at thehighest levels of the central government but decreased in the Communist Party, and continued to fall far short of the 30 percent target that China has agreed to under international standards.5 During the November 2012 meeting of the 18th Party Congress, theCommunist Party appointed a new set of leaders for its top decisionmaking bodies, the Political Bureau of the Communist Party
Central Committee (Politburo) and the Politburo Standing Committee. Men continued to hold all seven positions 6 in the PolitburoStanding Committee, as has been the case since the Party’s establishment in 1949.7 Women held 2 out of 25 positions in the Politburo, up from 1 in the previous 17th Party Congress in 2007.8 Female members in the 205-person Communist Party Central Committee decreased from 13 to 10,9 but the ratio of female to maledelegates to the 18th Party Congress increased to 23 percent, up
from 20 percent in the previous congress.10 Similarly, the percentage of female delegates to National People’s Congresses has shown
little growth since the early 1970s.11 In March 2013, the government appointed a new set of ministers to the State Council, withwomen holding 2 out of 35 ministerial-level positions, down from4 in the previous State Council.12 On the 10-person State Council
Standing Committee there is now 1 female vice premier, Liu
Yandong.13
Women’s participation in decisionmaking at the village level remains low, underscoring long-held concerns about protection ofrural women’s rights and interests. Women reportedly led only 2.7
percent of local village committees as of November 2012.14 Women’s rights advocates have continued to raise concerns regarding
violations of women’s land use rights in rural areas due in part tounlawful village rules and agreements,15 rapid urbanization,16 andlow female representation in village committees.17
Gender-Based Discrimination
EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION

China has committed under international standards to taking‘‘all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against
women in the field of employment,’’ 18 yet women in China’s workforce continue to face many forms of discrimination. Several studies

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and reports released this year showed that gender discriminationin recruitment remained widespread and may have even increased,19 in some cases due to perceptions about gender differences in physical and mental capacities 20 and in other cases due
to women’s ‘‘pregnancy potential.’’ 21 Reports also highlighted the
intrusive gynecological examinations and related questioning thatwomen face when applying for civil service positions.22 An October
2012 study documented continued and significant wage discrimination in favor of men,23 and Chinese law continues to subject women
to mandatory retirement 5 to 10 years earlier than men.24 China’s
first local regulations on gender equality took effect in Shenzhen
municipality, Guangdong province, in January 2013,25 and, in February, China Daily reported that authorities in Beijing municipality released similar draft regulations for public comment.26 Such
local provisions, if implemented, could fill significant gaps in national-level legislation as they stipulate punishments for employers
who engage in discriminatory hiring practices.27 In January 2013,
a company in Guangzhou municipality, Guangdong, paid the firstreported compensation in a gender discrimination case in China
after the local department of human resources and social security
investigated Wen Yuxuan’s (alias) complaint that recruiters denied
her job application based on her gender. The case was resolved inmediation, and the company reportedly paid Wen 601 yuan
(US$97) and issued an apology, but did not appear to offer her ajob.28EDUCATION DISCRIMINATION

Gender-based discrimination remains a barrier for some young
women pursuing a university education in China, despite provisions in the PRC Education Law that prohibit discrimination on
several grounds including gender.29 Reports indicate that universities across China continue to implement long-administered gender quotas that require women to score higher than men on the college entrance exam (gaokao) for acceptance into certain majors.30
Advocates for gender equality in education reportedly filed an Open
Government Information request in July 2012, asking the Ministryof Education to clarify which majors are permitted to have gender
quotas for enrollment.31 In response, the Ministry of Education reported that gender quotas are permitted in military and national
defense, marine and mining, and some less-commonly studied foreign language majors.32
Violence Against WomenDOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence is prohibited and punishable under Chinese
law,33 yet the problem of domestic violence in China remains widespread.34 Current national-level legal provisions regarding domestic violence leave many victims unprotected by prohibiting domestic
violence without defining the term or clarifying the specific responsibilities of public and private sector organizations in prevention,
punishment, and treatment.35 As of December 2012, 28 provinciallevel jurisdictions and more than 90 cities across China had instituted local anti-domestic violence regulations or policies that ad-

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dress gaps in national-level legislation.36 Amid several high-profile
domestic violence cases involving women and children this year,37
Chinese advocates continued calls for national-level legislation thatspecifically addresses domestic violence.38 China’s 2012–2015 National Human Rights Action Plan, issued in June 2012, included
the goal to ‘‘formulate’’ a domestic violence law.39 State media also
reported in 2012 that domestic violence would be on the National
People’s Congress legislative agenda in 2012,40 but no drafts appear to have been made publicly available.41 A January 2013 Legal
Daily article reported that the Supreme People’s Court (SPC) plans
to issue standardized documents to guide adjudication in domestic
violence criminal cases. The article did not provide a timeline forthe release of these documents, but reported that the SPC had set
up pilot programs and trainings in six courts around the country
to strengthen trial procedures in criminal cases involving domestic
violence.42 A January 2013 Caixin Media report also noted that
Chinese courts have issued 200 protection orders since pilot programs on civil law protection orders began in 2008.43 Other Chinese state media and non-governmental organization (NGO) articles indicate, however, that many courts and law enforcement officials continue to treat reports of domestic violence as a privatefamily matter and do not take legal action in response to those reports.44
SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Women and children subjected to sexual violence 45 in China facedifficulties defending their rights. Reports regarding officials’ or
their associates’ involvement in sexual violence against women andgirls continued to emerge during the Commission’s reporting year,
igniting public fury at the lack of transparency and abuse of power
displayed among China’s elite.46 The May 2013 case of an official
and a primary school principal sexually assaulting six primaryschool girls overnight at a hotel in Hainan province,47 as well as
several similar cases reported shortly thereafter,48 exposed loopholes in China’s criminal law that protect perpetrators from themore serious charges of rape if they claim the act was consensualor if money was involved.49 Authorities beat and detained women’s
rights activist Ye Haiyan after she carried out a peaceful protest
outside of the Hainan principal’s school.50 In response to these sexual abuse cases, a group of women lawyers from across China reportedly joined together to provide legal assistance to victims ofsexual abuse.51
Sexual harassment, considered a form of violence against women
under international standards,52 is prohibited under Chineselaw; 53 however, due in part to the lack of a clear legal definitionand standards for prevention, reporting, and punishment,54 legal
experts continued calls this year for strengthened legislation on theissue.55 Chinese media reporting on sexual harassment this year
included a survey showing a perceived increase of sexual harassment in urban areas,56 a case of sexual harassment involving
Foxconn employees,57 and a case implicating a Guangdong province
official.58

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STATE-AUTHORIZED VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Officials in localities across China also continue to employ otherforms of coercion and violence against women—including forced
abortions, forced sterilizations, and forced contraceptive use—in
their enforcement of national and local population planning policies, in contradiction with international standards to which China
has agreed.59 Chinese law leaves women unprotected against suchabuses; for even though it prohibits officials from infringing upon
citizens’ rights and interests during population planning implementation, the law does not define what constitutes a citizen’s right orinterest,60 nor does it stipulate punishments for violations.61
Women engaging in sex work in China also report suffering frequent violence at the hands of authorities, including beatings andother forms of physical abuse, in order to coerce confessions.62 Although sex work is illegal under Chinese law,63 authorities are notpermitted to use physical violence or abuse against suspects whenenforcing these laws.64 According to a joint report issued by several
international non-governmental organizations regarding the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women, in China ‘‘[w]omen have few avenues for pursuing rights claims when their rights and interests
conflict with those of the government or its officials, or when discriminatory treatment they have suffered is perpetrated by a government agency. . . . [T]he absence of legal remedies and restrictions on freedom of association and expression leave women withlittle opportunity for challenging lack of government action or violations of their own rights.’’ 65 [For additional information on violence against women in the implementation of population planningpolicies, including specific case examples, see Section II—Population Planning.]

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HUMAN TRAFFICKING
TrendsChina remains a country of origin, transit, and destination for
the trafficking of men, women, and children, as defined under the
UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (UN TIP Protocol).1 The majority of trafficking cases are domestic; 2 however, human traffickers continue to traffic women and children from China to countries around the world.3 Women and girls also continue to be trafficked into China from countries across Asia, as well as from theAmericas, Europe, and Africa, for the purpose of forced marriage,
forced labor, and sexual exploitation.4 Cases of men and children
in China working under forced or otherwise exploitative labor conditions that constitute human trafficking under the UN TIP Protocol 5 also emerged during the Commission’s 2013 reporting year.6
The full extent of the forced labor problem in China remains unclear, as the Chinese government has not traditionally released
statistics on forced labor or trafficking of male victims.7 [See Section II—Worker Rights for more information on cases of forcedlabor and child labor this year.]
Anti-Trafficking Efforts
Since its accession to the UN TIP Protocol in 2009,8 the Chinese
government has steadily taken steps, in concert with other country
governments 9 and international non-governmental organizations,10
to revise domestic legislation, policies, and anti-trafficking efforts
to come into compliance. For example, in 2011, the National People’s Congress Standing Committee issued a revised PRC Criminal
Law strengthening provisions on forced labor.11 In January 2013,
the State Council took an additional step to bring government efforts into compliance with international standards by issuing the
China Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020),12
which is a revised version of its predecessor, the China Action Plan
to Combat Trafficking in Women and Children (2008–2012).13 The
new Action Plan appears to contain some improvements in terminology and objectives, and clearly lays out which government agencies are responsible for implementation.14 It remains to be seen
whether the State Council has provided adequate resources andtraining to local authorities for implementing the plan’s objectives.
Chinese authorities took limited steps this year to improve prevention, protection, and services for victims of trafficking, but did
not release detailed information on the services provided or thenumber of victims identified and assisted.15 Chinese officials reportedly established two shelters dedicated to assisting foreign trafficking victims in Yunnan and Guangxi provinces, but did not provide data on the number of victims assisted at these shelters or thetypes of services provided there.16 While the government reportedly
maintained four nationwide anti-trafficking hotlines,17 continued
training for law enforcement officials,18 and stepped up efforts tocooperate with the governments of bordering countries such as
Laos 19 and Burma,20 it is difficult to assess China’s progress inanti-trafficking efforts, as the government does not release data on

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the overall number of victims identified or assisted.21 After nineconsecutive years on the Tier 2 Watch List, China was in June
automatically downgraded to Tier 3, the lowest tier ranking, in the
U.S. State Department’s annual Trafficking in Persons (TIP) Report.22 The U.S. State Department’s 2013 TIP report stated that
China has been ‘‘deemed not to be making significant efforts tocomply with the minimum standards [for the elimination of trafficking].’’ 23 As a Tier 3 country, China could be subject to certain
U.S. government sanctions and penalties.24
Notable Changes in China’s 2013–2020
Anti-Trafficking Plan of Action
General:• Broadens the Chinese term for trafficking from ‘‘abduction and sale ofwomen and children’’ (guaimai funu ertong) to ‘‘abduction and sale ofpersons’’ (guaimai renkou).25• Presents ‘‘protecting China’s international image’’ (weihu woguoji
xingxiang) as one of the plan’s guiding principles.26• Calls for increased cooperation with UN organizations 27 and cites carrying out the UN TIP Protocol as one of the plan’s objectives.28• Urges all levels of government to factor implementation funds into
their budgets and to seek funding for anti-trafficking work from a variety of channels, including donations from civil society organizations, corporations, and individual donors, as well as international aid.29• Calls for improvements to China’s current laws, regulations, and policies to support anti-trafficking work. Specifically, the plan calls for revisions that will strengthen prosecution of buyers; 30 practically protect
victims’ lawful rights and interests; 31 and improve regulations regarding temporary and permanent guardianship for children.32
Prevention:• Calls for strengthening population planning services and management, while reducing unplanned pregnancies and ‘‘out-of-plan’’ births as
preventative measures in key regions of human trafficking.33 (The Commission notes that the Chinese government’s usage of the term ‘‘humantrafficking’’ here includes illegal adoption.34)• Calls for the regulation of marriage registration and of adoption channels.35• Calls upon specific government departments and the All-China Women’s Federation to ‘‘comprehensively tackle’’ China’s sex ratio imbalance; 36 revise local regulations and launch trainings to protect women’s
rights and interests and promote gender equality; 37 eliminate traditional notions of female inferiority and continuance of the family line
(through male heirs); 38 improve girls’ education; 39 and guarantee rural
women’s right to gender-equal land contracts, land distribution, compensation for land expropriation, and collective profit distribution.40• Calls for greater awareness, education, and training, including adding
anti-trafficking material to primary, middle, and secondary school curricula 41 and strengthening public education campaigns in borderareas.42

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Notable Changes in China’s 2013–2020
Anti-Trafficking Plan of Action—Continued
Protection:43• Clarifies responsibilities and calls upon officials not to abandon orcease investigations in child abduction cases; 44 clarifies procedures forrescued children; and calls for the use of China’s Anti-Trafficking DNA
Database to help match parents with rescued children.
• Calls for an ‘‘assistance and protection mechanism for vagrant minors,’’ with reliance on experts in social work and other fields for services, including psychological counseling, behavioral correction, cultural
education, skills training, and employment assistance.45• Expands available rehabilitation services—such as employment skills
training, guidance, and networking—to adult male trafficking victims.46
The previous plan had limited these employment services to women andminors over age 16.47

Anti-Trafficking Challenges
Additional revisions are needed to bring China’s domestic legislation into compliance with the UN TIP Protocol.48 For example,
while the PRC Criminal Law prohibits human trafficking,49 its provisions do not appear to cover all forms of trafficking, such as certain types of non-physical coercion 50 and the commercial sex tradeof minors.51 Nor does the definition of trafficking provided under
Article 240 of the PRC Criminal Law clearly include offenses
against male victims,52 although other articles in the same law address some aspects of these crimes.53 Each of these forms of trafficking are covered under Article 3 of the UN TIP Protocol.54 The
PRC Criminal Law’s trafficking definition is also overly broad insome aspects compared with the UN TIP Protocol, as it includes
the purchase or abduction of children for subsequent sale without
specifying the end purpose of these actions.55 Due to these key inconsistencies between the Chinese legal definition and international standards on human trafficking, Chinese official reports
and statistics on trafficking cases 56 do not provide an accurate picture of the number of trafficking cases being handled through thecriminal justice system in China.57
Several Chinese media reports in the past year highlighted cases
involving the purchase and sale of children—misidentifying themas ‘‘trafficking’’ cases—and indicated that a significant amount of‘‘anti-trafficking’’ work in China remains focused on these types ofcases.58 Under the UN TIP Protocol, the purchase or abduction ofchildren for subsequent sale constitutes trafficking only if the end
purpose of the sale is exploitation, such as sexual exploitation,
labor, or servitude.59
In addition, Chinese officials’ anti-trafficking work reflects a continued misalignment with international standards, especially in officials’ conflation of human trafficking with human smuggling andtheir subsequent treatment of trafficking victims as criminals.60
According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime, the main international body responsible for implementing the UN TIP Protocol,‘‘human trafficking’’ and ‘‘migrant smuggling’’ mainly differ withrespect to consent, exploitation, and transnationality.61 Commonly,

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human trafficking involves the exploitation of an individual (either
domestically or after they have crossed borders) without the individual’s consent, or if the individual initially consented, the consent
was ‘‘rendered meaningless by the coercive, deceptive, or abusive
actions of the traffickers,’’ whereas migrant smuggling involves the
cross-border transport of an individual with the individual’s consent and ends when the migrant arrives at his or her destination.62
In conflating the two, Chinese officials may consider an individual’s
illegal entry into China to be a crime of ‘‘human smuggling’’ andpunish the individual accordingly, while giving less consideration
to the role exploitation may have played in the border crossing.63
The Chinese government continues to deport all undocumented
North Koreans as illegal ‘‘economic migrants’’ and does not provide
legal alternatives to repatriation for foreign victims of trafficking.64[For more information, see Section II—North Korean Refugees in
China.]
Risk Factors
Chinese and international experts link China’s ongoing humantrafficking problem to several political, demographic, economic, andsocial factors. Reports indicate that China’s sex ratio 65—which has
become severely skewed against the backdrop of China’s population
planning policies and Chinese families’ preference for sons 66—hasincreased the demand for trafficking of women for forced marriage
and commercial sexual exploitation.67 A 2010 study issued by the
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences reported that, by 2020, thenumber of Chinese males of marriageable age may exceed the number of Chinese females of marriageable age by 30 to 40 million.68
In recent years, domestic and international observers have also
linked China’s trafficking problem with a lack of awareness among
potential victims, lack of education on trafficking prevention forvulnerable women and parents,69 challenging conditions in bordering countries such as poverty and limited job opportunities in
Burma and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,70 and corruption among Chinese law enforcement officials.71 [For additional
information on China’s skewed sex ratio, see Section II—Population
Planning.]
Representative Human Trafficking Cases
From the 2012 Reporting Year
(Arranged by Province)• Guangdong. In October 2012, officials in Guangdong province reportedly rescued four Colombian women who had been forced into sex work
during a raid on local entertainment venues.72 The women had reportedly been trafficked into China by a criminal syndicate operating out of
Colombia. The case raised concerns that trafficking syndicates arechoosing new countries of origin as other countries’ anti-trafficking efforts have strengthened.73

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Representative Human Trafficking Cases
From the 2012 Reporting Year—Continued(Arranged by Province)• Guangdong. In December 2012, an Internet user posted on Sina
Weibo that an employer from Dongguan city, Guangdong province, had
lured seven Chinese female students between the ages of 11 and 14 intoa van in Shaojue county, Sichuan province, to work in his toy factory.
The post spread quickly on the Internet, with citizens across China pressuring the Shaojue government to take action. The Shaojue government
investigated the case and reported that the girls were ‘‘living well, undersafe conditions,’’ but that authorities would retrieve them and returnthem to school as soon as their whereabouts were confirmed.74• Guangdong. In January 2013, a Vietnamese anti-trafficking worker
and a Vietnamese policeman posed as tourists and rescued two Vietnamese girls, ages 17 and 19, from a brothel in Guangdong province.
The girls had reportedly been ‘‘kidnapped, severely beaten, raped andsold’’ into sexual exploitation by members of an organized syndicate.75• Yunnan. A December 2012 report released by international non-governmental organization TrustLaw highlighted the cases of three Burmese women whom traffickers lured into China with false promises of
employment and subsequently sold into marriage to Chinese men. Oneof the women was trafficked as a minor and reported that she had lived
in a village in Yunnan for nearly five years and had given birth to twochildren. She reported that there were many Burmese women in forced
marriages in nearby villages in the area.76• Jilin, Heilongjiang, etc. In September 2012, police in Jilin province
reportedly arrested four North Koreans and one Chinese man for luring
12 North Korean women into China, forcing them to perform sexual
services for clients via the Internet, and then selling the women to buyers in Heilongjiang province and other parts of China.77 Police reportedly rescued and later repatriated all 12 victims to North Korea, where,according to North Korean sources cited in a Chosun Ilbo report, they
will face torture or death.78

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NORTH KOREAN REFUGEES IN CHINA
Unlawful Repatriation
During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese government continued to detain and repatriate North Korean refugees
to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), despite thesevere punishments refugees reportedly face once returned. The
Chinese government maintains that North Korean refugees in
China are illegal economic migrants 1 and continues its repatriation
policy based on a 1961 treaty with the DPRK and a subsequent1986 border protocol.2 China’s repatriation of North Korean refugees, including those who leave the DPRK for fear of persecution,
contravenes its international obligations under the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951 Convention) andits 1967 Protocol, to which China has acceded.3 While there is no
reliable information available on the number of North Korean refugees living in China—Chinese authorities do not release information on refugees, nor do they permit the Office of the UN HighCommissioner for Refugees to operate along China’s northeasternborder with the DPRK—international scholars and media estimate
the total number is currently between 11,000 and 50,000.4
During this reporting year, the Chinese government appeared tostrengthen measures to stem the flow of North Korean refugees
into China, including increasing security along the North Koreanborder and continuing campaigns to seek out and repatriate refugees.5 Sources cited by Chinese and South Korean media reported
that authorities in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin
province, initiated a program in March offering financial rewardsof up to 2,000 yuan (US$326) to Chinese citizens who provide information leading to the arrest of refugees.6 According to official reports, the program specifically aimed to ‘‘stop the illegal transboundary criminal situation at Yanbian . . . and strike at illegal
border crossers.’’ 7 Chinese villagers living in Yanbian attested tothe success of such programs, stating that the number of refugees
in the area had decreased significantly in comparison to previous
years.8 While trans-border criminal activity, including drug andhuman trafficking, remains a serious concern,9 Chinese security officials do not distinguish between criminals and refugees, leavingNorth Koreans who enter China as asylum seekers and refugees atrisk of detention and repatriation.
International media reports also indicate Chinese authorities
continued to collaborate with North Korean security officials, allowing them to operate within China to apprehend North Korean refugees and disrupt organizations that attempt to assist them.10
Sources cited by South Korean media noted the presence of North
Korean security agents at places commonly frequented by North
Koreans in China.11 One report further stated that four North Koreans were detained and repatriated by North Korean security
agents near Shenyang municipality, Liaoning province, in late
2012.12 According to human rights and refugee advocates, coordinated efforts by China and North Korea have made it increasingly
difficult for refugee advocates to operate on both sides of the border.13 In January 2013, the South Korean Ministry of Unification
announced the number of refugees reaching South Korea dropped

119
in 2012 by 50 percent to 1,508 compared with 2,706 in 2011.14 Experts suggest China’s tougher border security and crackdowns werein part responsible for the decline.15 As of July 2013, the numberof refugees entering South Korea was slightly higher than for thesame period in 2012.16
Punishment in the DPRKNorth Koreans forcibly repatriated by the Chinese government
face the threat of imprisonment, torture, and capital punishment in
the DPRK.17 Under North Korean Criminal Law, citizens who
leave the country without official permission can receive sentencesof up to two years’ imprisonment in a ‘‘labor-training camp.’’ 18 The
North Korean Ministry of Public Security adopted measures in2010 making defection a crime of ‘‘treachery against the nation,’’carrying a sentence of no less than five years’ imprisonment.19
North Koreans sentenced to prison terms reportedly face a combination of forced labor, physical abuse, and induced malnutrition
that results in a high number of deaths in detention.20 According
to interviews with former refugees, the severity of interrogation,
torture, and other punishments repatriated North Koreans face depends on North Korean authorities’ assessments of their conduct
while outside the country.21 North Korean authorities dispense
harsher punishment, including long sentences and possible execution, to repatriated North Koreans deemed to have committed ‘‘political’’ crimes, which include attempted defection; conversion to
Christianity; exposure to South Korean culture; and contact withreligious groups, South Koreans, or Americans.22 According to mostrecent estimates, North Korea’s prison population is believed to be
between 80,000 and 120,000 people.23
The North Korean government’s imprisonment and torture of repatriated North Koreans renders North Koreans in China refugees‘‘sur place,’’ or those who fear persecution upon return to theircountry of origin.24 Under the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol, China is obligated to refrain from repatriating refugees ‘‘surplace.’’ China is also obligated under the UN Convention against
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment to refrain from repatriating refugees if there are‘‘grounds for believing that they would be in danger of being subject to torture.’’ 25
North Korean Women and Trafficking
Lacking legal status and under constant threat of forced repatriation, North Korean women who stay in China and do not travel
directly to a third country remain vulnerable to abuse, trafficking,and exploitation. Independent experts estimate a majority of North
Korean refugees in China are women, of which some have been
trafficked into forced marriages or commercial sexual exploitation.26 Traffickers have used false promises to lure North Korean
women into China and in some cases have resorted to kidnapping.27 In some regions of northeast China, particularly in rural
areas, a shortage of marriageable women has created a market for
trafficked North Korean brides.28 Some women reportedly have

120
been sold and resold multiple times, and trafficked North Korean
women have testified to being beaten and sexually abused.29
The Chinese government’s repatriation of trafficked North Korean women contravenes the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol.30 China is obligated under Article 7 of the UN Protocol toPrevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children (UN TIP Protocol) to ‘‘consider adopting legislative or other appropriate measures that permit victims of trafficking to remain in its territory, temporarily or permanently . . .
giving appropriate consideration to humanitarian and compassionate factors.’’ 31 [See Section II—Human Trafficking for more information.]Children of North Korean and Chinese Parents
Children born to North Korean women and Chinese men are increasingly being raised in China in households where either themother or both parents are absent.32 In some instances, Chinese
authorities repatriate North Korean mothers to the DPRK, whileothers flee to South Korea or other parts of China.33 One demographic study published in 2013 estimated the population in northeast China of children born to North Korean women and Chinese
men since the late 1990s was between 15,000 and 25,000.34 Several
experts and academic studies contend household registration(hukou) policies have changed in recent years to allow for a greater
majority of children born to North Korean women in China to obtain official documentation needed to attend public school and gain
access to other social services.35 Despite these changes, generalpoverty and the continued threat of repatriation leaves these children and their families at risk.36 China’s repatriation policy is inviolation of its international obligations under the Convention of
the Rights of the Child, which prohibits separating children fromtheir mothers.37

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PUBLIC HEALTH
Public Health Challenges
The Chinese government’s oversight of and response to publichealth matters came into sharp focus during the Commission’s
2013 reporting year with an outbreak in March of the H7N9 avian
influenza.1 Despite initial questions about possible delays in government reporting,2 international experts favorably assessed theChinese government’s response to the outbreak and its coordination
with international health agencies,3 and remarked on China’s overall progress in building an infrastructure for emergency responseto epidemics since the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
outbreak in 2003.4 Adverse health effects of environmental pollution continue to be a public health challenge in China; 5 researchstudies published in 2013 confirmed links between water pollution
and higher cancer rates along the Huai River,6 and between air
pollution and shorter life spans in north China.7 In addition, citizens’ increasing concerns over food safety 8 and the quality of medical care 9 have ‘‘eroded trust in the government’s ability to regulate state and private enterprises and protect public health.’’ 10
Some government officials and a state-run media outlet reportedly
have attempted to censor information 11 or deny the severity of the
public’s concerns.12
Institutional and Legislative Developments
During the annual meetings of the National People’s Congress
and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC) in March 2013, the State Council announced the mergerof the Ministry of Health (MOH) and the National Population andFamily Planning Commission into the National Health and Family
Planning Commission, as a part of its larger governmental restructuring plan.13 At least 90 medical professionals from the CPPCC
reportedly disapproved of the change and the lack of public consultation over the selected name, arguing that the name ‘‘Ministryof Health’’ should be kept as is, since population planning is only
one part of the larger public health system.14 Dr. Huang Jiefu,
then-MOH Vice Minister, reportedly commented that using the
combined name might cause China to ‘‘encounter difficulties’’ in its
international exchanges,15 because of international controversy
over China’s population planning policy.16 [For further informationon the organizational merger, see Section II—Population Planning.]
China’s first-ever Mental Health Law (MHL) became effective on
May 1, 2013,17 and aims to ‘‘expand access to mental health services,’’ though one international expert noted that the MHL does not
sufficiently address the ‘‘stigma associated with mental illness’’ andthe ‘‘low rate of care-seeking.’’ 18 A Chinese civil society report released in mid-May 2013 highlighted concerns with rights protections in the new MHL for persons with mental illness, such as
guardians’ legal authority in the commitment process and the lackof a guaranteed right to appeal hospitalization.19 Discrepancies between the MHL and national and local legislation, according to the
U.S.-based Dui Hua Foundation, create ‘‘the potential for continued
use of abusive psychiatric commitment against petitioners, dis-122sidents, and others deemed to threaten China’s social and politicalorder.’’ 20 Local Chinese officials reportedly committed a petitioner
from Hunan province, Zhang Zhi, to a psychiatric facility sometimearound October 31, 2012,21 despite passage of the MHL in October
2012.
Strengthening the rights of persons with disabilities continued to
be an ongoing legislative focus in China.22 In February 2013, theState Council Legislative Affairs Office released a draft revision of
the 1994 Regulations on Education for Disabled Persons for publiccomment.23 Chinese and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) submitted recommendations and comments in response, many of which incorporated input from Chinese disability
rights advocates and persons with disabilities.24 Human Rights
Watch noted in its submission that use of ‘‘reasonable accommodation’’ in the draft, a term that promotes the right to equality for
persons with disabilities,25 lacks the clarity needed to comply with
the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)
standard of ‘‘necessary and appropriate modification and adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden . . . to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an
equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental freedoms.’’ 26 Chinese domestic organizations raised a concern that the
local-level advisory committees, which are responsible for assessing
students, do not require the inclusion of legal experts, or disabled
persons and their representatives.27 In addition, these organizations identified potential problems with mechanisms to remedy
parent grievances.28 The UN committee that reviewed China’s compliance with the CRPD in September 2012 recommended that the
Chinese government ‘‘reallocate resources from the special education system to promote . . . inclusive education in mainstream
schools, so as to ensure that more children with disabilities can attend mainstream education.’’ 29
Rights Protection and Health-Based Discrimination
China’s existing legislative framework prohibits health-based discrimination,30 yet discrimination in employment,31 access to medical treatment,32 and access to education 33 continued during the2013 reporting year, partially due to a lack of compliance with thelaws 34 and inconsistencies between national laws and local regulations.35 A 2012 National People’s Congress report found that, between 2007 and 2011, government departments in 29 provinces had
hired a total of only 92 persons with disabilities for civil servant
jobs, far below the government’s mandated provision that 1.5 percent of government and private enterprise jobs go to persons withdisabilities.36 In spite of compulsory education regulations andrights protections for disabled persons, official Chinese statistics
from 2010 estimate only 71 percent of children with disabilities attend school.37
Employment: During the 2013 reporting year, NGOs and disability rights advocates continued to focus attention on physical eligibility standards that have been used to refuse employment topersons with disabilities and those living with infectious diseases.38
In a November 2012 letter to the State Council Legislative Affairs
Office, a group of lawyers wrote that discriminatory provisions in123
the Civil Servant Recruitment Physical Examination Standards
contravene the Chinese Constitution’s protection of citizens’ rightto work.39 A local court reportedly upheld a decision that citedstate secrets as the reason to refuse an application for open government information on the number of civil servants with disabilities.40 As a State Party to the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, China has agreed to ‘‘take appropriate
measures to employ teachers, including teachers with disabilities’’and ‘‘[p]rohibit discrimination on the basis of disability with regard
to all matters concerning all forms of employment.’’ 41 Although
Guangdong province removed discriminatory provisions against
people with disabilities and people living with HIV/AIDS in its
physical standards for teachers in May 2013,42 according to a 2011
study, at least 19 provinces reportedly maintain discriminatory
provisions in physical standards for teachers.43 Human Rights
Watch pointed out that an amended article in the national draft
Regulations for the Education of Persons with Disabilities may
allow government departments and schools to ‘‘discriminate against
individuals on the basis of physical requirements.’’ 44
Access to Medical Treatment: Discrimination in access to
medical treatment for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) continues to be a challenge in China.45 In October 2012, a Chinese
NGO in Tianjin reported on a local man who had been denied
treatment for lung cancer at several hospitals due to his HIVpositive status.46 In November 2012, the Ministry of Health(MOH)—reportedly at the behest of Premier Li Keqiang 47—issued
a directive ordering hospitals to ‘‘take steps to guarantee the rightto medical treatment’’ for PLWHA.48 Beijing Aizhixing Institute, apublic health advocacy organization, however, raised a concern that
the MOH directive lacked enforcement provisions, such as punishments for hospitals that refuse treatment to PLWHA.49

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THE ENVIRONMENT
Pollution Challenges and Government Disclosure
Despite some progress in protecting the environment,1 environmental problems remain a major challenge, and in recent years,
the associated costs reportedly have increased.2 During 2012, there
were 542 environmental accidents, five of which were serious.3
News reports emphasized the highly visible ‘‘foggy and hazy’’ skies
that affected 20 provinces in early 2013,4 and which reportedly
reached Japan.5 The pollution events reportedly garnered extraordinary attention from citizens, the media, the government,6 anddeputies at the March meeting of the National People’s Congress,7
as well as increased forward momentum on some relevant legislation.8 These were not isolated incidents; outdoor air pollution has
been an ongoing challenge, posing serious health risks.9
Authorities irregularly disclosed information on pollution problems and their health impacts. Continuing a positive trend, theMinistry of Environmental Protection (MEP) acknowledged that
toxic chemicals have caused numerous acute air pollution incidents,10 posed a danger to numerous drinking water sources, andled to the emergence of ‘‘cancer villages,’’ among other health problems.11 Groundwater pollution continued to present difficulties,12and officials publicly disclosed some groundwater contamination
data.13 Authorities reportedly classified as bad nearly 60 percent of
the groundwater tested at monitoring sites in 198 cities during
2012.14 Soil pollution reportedly is also widespread. It possibly affects as much as one-fifth of China’s arable land based on 2010
data 15 and its possible impact on the food supply has been cause
for some concern,16 but authorities have so far been much lessforthcoming with soil contamination data.17
The problems created by the migration of polluting industries toChina’s western and poorer areas continue, including fast-paced
scaling up of mining in Tibet.18 Migration practices leave behindcontaminated sites,19 as well as create new problems in areas
where major pollutant reduction targets may be lower, and environmental protection capacity may lag behind more developed
coastal areas.20 Reportedly, only 2.8 percent of China’s 600,000 villages are included in environmental comprehensive control efforts.21
Regulatory Developments and Challenges to Rule of Law andAccountability
CONSTITUTIONAL AND OTHER LEGAL DEVELOPMENTS

During the reporting period, top Chinese Communist Party andgovernment leaders highlighted ‘‘ecological civilization’’ (shengtai
wenming) (apparently a complex concept that includes ecologicaland environmental protection, resource conservation, and sustainable development), as being tied to the four basic goals of a‘‘xiaokang’’ society (an all-around well-off society), and mandated
the establishment of ‘‘target systems,’’ ‘‘assessment measures,’’ and‘‘rewards and punishment mechanisms’’ related to the concept.22
Economic development, however, remains the ‘‘core concern.’’ 23 At
the 18th Party Congress in November 2012, leaders revised the125Chinese Communist Party Constitution to include one new sentence and a new paragraph that urge the promotion of ‘‘ecologicalcivilization’’ within the overall context of ‘‘China’s special socialist
enterprise.’’ 24 In addition, former President Hu Jintao 25 and Premier Li Keqiang 26 gave prominence to ‘‘ecological civilization’’ andenvironmental quality in national speeches.
In June, court and procuratorate authorities issued a joint interpretation clarifying the application of criminal provisions to environmental violations; it outlines specific standards for classifying
the severity of the impacts of environmental pollution, which thendetermines application of the sentencing guidelines in the PRC
Criminal Law.27 Other authorities focused some regulatory measures on issues of concern to Chinese citizens, including air pollution and soil pollution. In December, MEP mandated that 117 cities
will be responsible for specified pollutant reduction targets not already listed in the 12th Five-Year Plan, including PM2.5 andPM10.28 These reduction targets will be included in government responsibility assessments.29 After the winter air pollution events,
authorities reportedly restarted 30 stalled efforts to revise the PRC
Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law.31 In June, the StateCouncil reportedly issued ten policies intended to strengthen control over air pollution and in September issued the Atmospheric
Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan.32 During the reporting period, while authorities were not forthcoming with soil contamination data, legislators appeared to resuscitate efforts to draft
a major national soil pollution law by establishing a new draftinggroup,33 and the State Council announced designs for a new soil
contamination survey and a partial monitoring network,34 andplans for soil cleanup efforts.35
In addition, leaders took regulatory steps to address climatechange, some outlined in the ‘‘China 2012 Annual Report on Policies and Actions To Address Climate Change’’ 36 and in the white
paper, ‘‘China’s Energy Policy 2012.’’ 37 Shenzhen Special Economic
Zone passed local legislation to restrict greenhouse gas emissions,the first location in China to do so.38 Authorities also began to ‘‘research and establish’’ a national carbon emissions trading schemeand pilot trading markets.39 China also issued its first greenhousegas bulletin.40 In April 2013, China and the United States signed
a joint statement on climate change announcing the formation ofa Climate Change Working Group,41 and in June, agreed to work
together to reduce hydrofluorocarbons.42
Authorities opened the Environmental Protection Law (EPL)
draft revision for public comment in September 2012 43 and collected 11,748 comments.44 The draft revisions reportedly were
widely criticized.45 Governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) submitted suggestions regarding the draft, some urging for provisions providing for greater transparency and strengthening enforcement of laws and regulations and channels for public
participation.46 One Chinese environmental group commented thata June 2013 draft of the revised EPL contained language in linewith the group’s previous suggestions, including ones that related
to the pollution permit management system and daily penalties.47
The group and environmental experts, however, found other areas
in need of improvement and suggested placing greater emphasis on

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protecting citizens’ environmental rights; modifying the article related to public interest lawsuits to bring it more in line with the
Civil Procedure Law; strengthening public participation in environmental impact assessments; and disclosing enterprise pollution
monitoring information.48
CHALLENGES TO RULE OF LAW AND ACCOUNTABILITY

Significant challenges hinder the development of rule of law inthe area of environmental protection. Official reports highlighted
the number of environmental legal violations investigated and handled during 2012.49 Government interference, local protectionism,and lax or arbitrary enforcement are problematic.50 Related andadditional challenges include:• Official evaluation criteria and incentives that overemphasize economic development; 51• Inept or unethical behavior, disregard for environmental regulations, and corruption; 52• The lack of supervision over governments and individual officials acting above the law; 53• Investment in environmental protection is lower as a percent
of GDP than some Chinese scientists believe it should be (ithovers around 1.3 to 1.5 percent of GDP) and environmental
protection officials lack authority in some cases; 54 and• Insufficient monitoring as well as environmental penalties
that are too light to deter polluting behavior.55
Development of Environmental Public Interest Law Comes to aStandstill
The PRC Civil Procedure Law issued in August 2012 contained
an article permitting public interest suits by ‘‘agencies and relevantorganizations stipulated by law.’’ 56 The general legal foundation forthese types of cases, however, remains vague,57 the number of environmental cases remains minimal,58 and the June 2013 draft ofthe Environmental Protection Law stipulated that only one government-supported environmental group, the All-China Environment
Federation, will be allowed to bring environmental public interest
lawsuits.59 Other barriers to the development of public interest law
persist,60 including difficulties in obtaining evidence,61 the costs of
pursuing such suits by organizations,62 and the lack of authority
and capacity of the courts that take these cases.63
Despite these barriers, during the reporting period, the Chinese
media noted key environmental public interest cases. In a first, inlate September 2012, the Qingzhen Environmental Tribunal of thePeople’s Court in Qingzhen city, Guizhou province, heard a casebrought by an individual citizen, ‘‘supported’’ by the local
procuratorate.64 A second case involving illegal dumping of chromium sludge in Yunnan province, brought in part by two NGOs notdirectly affiliated with government agencies,65 is pending. The parties to this case reached an initial pre-trial agreement in late2012,66 but the defendant refused to sign the mediation decision at
the last moment.67 In a third case, officials reportedly pressured
lawyers representing an association to withdraw two cross-provin-127
cial cases against a company linked to an aniline chemical spill in
Shanxi province; local news called the cases ‘‘harmonized.’’ 68
Role of Environmental Courts and Unreliable Legal Remedies
China’s specialized environmental courts continue to proliferate—reportedly reaching at least 95 by 2013. These courts appear to be providing different functions from place to place 69 andsome of them are not handling many cases.70 Legal remedies in environmental cases continue to be unreliable as courts remain unwilling to accept some cases.71 Over 70 percent of grassroots environmental disputes reportedly are handled through mediation,
which has an ambiguous legal foundation and which may be forced
upon disputants.72 Sometimes citizens have taken to the streets inan effort to resolve grievances. Pollution and degradation problems
reportedly are among the primary triggers of environmental mass
incidents,73 and such incidents increased 30 percent in 2012.74 Environmental protests continued to be the largest in scale among incidents of unrest, and over 70 percent of the 47 environmental protests tracked by one organization involved clashes with police.75 In
some cases, authorities halted plans for projects after public protests.76
Suppression of Environmental Advocates and Protests
Chinese citizens advocated for the improvement of environmental
quality, but during the course of protecting their rights or investigating claims of pollution, some people faced detention, harassment from officials, or beatings:• In December 2012, authorities gave former forestry official
and environmentalist Liu Futang a three-year suspended sentence for allegedly engaging in ‘‘illegal business activities’’
linked to his self-publication—with a Hong Kong publication
number—of environmental exposés that may have embarrassed local government leaders.77• In January 2013, a journalist was reportedly beaten when hewent with staff from the All-China Environmental Federation—a government-funded non-governmental organization(NGO) 78—to take pictures of pollution linked to a paper company in Hunan province.79 County leaders investigated the delayed dispatch of police officers and inadequate environmental
oversight in the case,80 and police later detained two suspects
in the beating.81• In February, Chen Yuqian, an environmental advocate in
Zhejiang province, reported being attacked in his home andbeaten by more than 40 unidentified men after he publicly
challenged a local environmental official to swim in a polluted
local river.82 Chen had campaigned for years to get officials to
address water pollution problems.83 He blamed officials for thefive beatings he has endured over the last 10 years.84• As of late July 2013, farmer and environmentalist Zhang
Bing’s case remains in limbo. Zhang claimed pollution killed
nearly 2,000 kilos of his fish in 2009, and when he was notcompensated, he petitioned higher level authorities and talked
to the press.85 Authorities sentenced Zhang to two years in128
prison and three years’ probation on the charge of ‘‘extortion’’linked to his petitioning activities, but a higher court overturned that sentence twice.86 The procuratorate in Lujiang
county, Anhui province, as of July 2013, had not yet issued an
official decision declaring that it was not granting an indictment against Zhang, even though the Lujiang court had issued
a decision granting the procuratorate permission to withdraw
the suit against Zhang.87
Officials also questioned environmental advocates, took extraordinary measures to prevent anti-pollution and other demonstrations, and censored Internet postings.
• In November 2012, authorities questioned Chen Zuoliang
about giving foreign reporters pictures of the protests over construction of a paraxylene (PX) plant in Ningbo city, Zhejiang
province, and forced rights defender Wu Bin to return to his
home, possibly because he went to Ningbo to investigate theprotests.88• In May, authorities in Chengdu municipality, Sichuan province, reportedly took a variety of measures 89 and amassed astrong police presence to prevent a ‘‘walk’’ to protest against apetrochemical plant in nearby Pengzhou city,90 although theyclaimed the police deployment was an exercise to ‘‘support
earthquake relief.’’ 91 Officials reportedly restricted the freedomof movement of a number of rights advocates,92 deleted weibo
postings opposing the plant, and also warned a Chengdu
blogger to delete a petition voicing opposition to the plant,
which she had posted on the public comment page of the U.S.
White House Web site.93
During the reporting period, officials in various locations in the
Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region reportedly suppressed, sometimes using force, protests and appeal efforts by herders who were
unhappy about the loss of grasslands, land confiscation, and mine
pollution.94 Authorities reportedly also deleted Internet postings regarding herders’ grievances.95
Environmental Transparency and Public Participation
During the 2013 reporting year, citizens called for greater environmental transparency, and environmental authorities took steps
to improve proactive disclosure of information. In March, 23 environmental groups issued a plea for greater transparency regarding
pollution sources.96 The MEP issued an internal rule that environmental protection agencies at all levels post the abridged versionof environmental impact assessment (EIA) reports online as of September 1, 2012,97 and in October, rescinded a 2008 decision to exclude construction project EIA documents from the list of information subject to Open Government Information (OGI) requests.98 In
the same month, MEP issued a circular,99 which if implemented,
could potentially improve proactive disclosure of certain types of
EIA documents, ‘‘supervisory type’’ monitoring data, and information about specified types of environmental accidents.100 The circular, however, has numerous limitations.101 In steps forward, in
2012, select cities began to make public PM2.5 and air quality datausing the revised air quality index 102 and in 2013 officials released

129some information from an environmental impact assessment reportfor a refinery project in Kunming municipality.103
Despite these new rules and some progress, authorities’ proactive
disclosure of information remains irregular. According to one report, while there has been ‘‘definite’’ progress in disclosing air quality data, the number of cities that performed poorly outnumbered
the cities that performed relatively well.104 In January 2013, theState Council outlined plans to ‘‘actively push forward with orderlyhydropower development,’’ 105 including projects on the Nu
River.106 In relation to the plans, articles highlighted concerns
about transparency,107 as well as environmental protection,108 social impacts, downstream and cross-border impacts,109 and seismic
risks.110
During the reporting period, instances of environmental news
censorship include the following:• In March, officials in Changzhi city, Shanxi province, waitedfor five days to report an aniline chemical spill at a fertilizer
factory that affected more than one million people downstream.111• In May, authorities reportedly censored news of anti-pollution protests over construction of a lithium-ion battery plant inShanghai,112 and the ‘‘walk’’ in protest of a petrochemical plantpoised to open in Chengdu, Sichuan province.113• Authorities in Kunming, Yunnan province, allowed a protestof hundreds of people against construction of an oil refinery inMay, but they reportedly censored critical comments about the
project and told state-owned enterprise employees not to participate or post comments online about the protest.114
Kunming officials also blocked access to a related EIA reporton the grounds that it involved ‘‘secret documents.’’ 115
OPEN GOVERNMENT INFORMATION

Since the passage of the Open Government Information Regulation (OGI) in 2007,116 citizens have become more proactive in requesting environmental data, with some success, but barriers totransparency remain. In April 2013, the Ministry of Land and Resources responded to an OGI request regarding groundwater quality by sending 400 pages of data.117 In another positive development, a government-funded environmental group won a court caseagainst an environmental protection bureau for not releasing information.118 One OGI study found that a greater percentage of environmental authorities responded to information requests than in
the previous year; however, the depth of transparency dropped in
35 percent of the locations surveyed.119 In some cases, city government officials refused to provide lists of companies that had beenpunished for polluting behaviors.120 Despite public calls by Premier
Li Keqiang to proactively disclose environmental pollution information that affects citizens’ interests,121 central officials refused toprovide information about soil contamination in response to a request, stating that the data was a ‘‘state secret,’’ 122 which reportedly prompted criticism.123

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PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
PROCESSES

Central authorities expressed aspirations to expand public participation in decisions about environmental assessments of projects.
In fall 2012, central authorities issued guiding opinions 124 or
measures 125 stipulating that specified agencies should establish social risk assessment mechanisms during the preparatory phase ofdomestic large-scale fixed asset investment projects, reportedly atleast in part to reduce the number of environmental mass incidents.126 During the reporting period, MEP announced plans inAugust 2012 127 and in January 2013 128 to clarify processes for
public participation and expanding transparency of EIA processes.
The 2012–2017 MEP work plan for key projects, however, did notappear to contain concrete mechanisms to achieve these goals, although it included the aims of ‘‘mobilizing’’ and ‘‘proactively guiding participation by all people.’’ 129 Despite authorities’ declarationsof support for participation, considerable barriers remain.130

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III. Development of the Rule of Law
CIVIL SOCIETY
Introduction
Chinese non-governmental organizations (NGOs) number in the
millions,1 and illustrate wide breadth and increasingly complex levels of organization on issue advocacy,2 social service provision,3 andshared interests,4 as well as in business promotion 5 and farming.6
Government-registered social organizations 7 (shehui zuzhi) makeup a subset of Chinese NGOs: Official statistics reported 491,961
registered social organizations in 2012, an increase of approximately 13.3 percent over 2011,8 that consist of 268,000 social associations (shehui tuanti) such as membership groups and trade associations, 221,000 non-governmental, nonprofit organizations(minban feiqiye danwei) such as community development and social
services providers, and 2,961 foundations (jijinhui) such as public
and private organizations engaged in charitable and philanthropic
work.9 Many Chinese NGOs are registered as business entities orremain unregistered due to obstacles in registering as social organizations,10 yet they play an active role in promoting the public interest in environmental protection, protecting the rights of migrant
workers, and fighting health-based discrimination, among other advocacy issues.11 Chinese scholars estimate between 3 to 10 million
unregistered NGOs.12 Nor is civil society activity found only withinorganizations: During the 2013 reporting year, the Commission observed individuals and informal networks engaging the government
on issues of public interest.13
Government and Party Control
The Chinese government and Communist Party continue to acknowledge the developing role of social organizations in China, yet
an April 2013 Party document leaked in August portrays civil society and public participation as threats to the government andParty for which stricter ideological control is necessary.14 The senior leadership’s public policy statements during the 2013 reporting
year repeat earlier policy guidance in the government and Party’s
approach toward control of social organization growth: The government should (1) ‘‘lead in the healthy and orderly development of social organizations’’ 15 and (2) accelerate the ‘‘establishment of Party
leadership, government responsibility, societal support and public
participation.’’ 16 A Central Party School researcher, however, anticipates a potentially more dynamic relationship between the government and non-governmental organizations based on the 18th
Party Congress report’s instruction that the government and Party‘‘accelerate the formation of a system of modern social organizations in which government functions are separated from those ofsocial organizations, rights and responsibilities are clearly delineated, and social organizations exercise autonomy in accordancewith the law.’’ 17
Chinese scholars and civil society advocates describe a system of‘‘graduated control,’’ or differentiated treatment by the government,
based upon where an organization falls along a spectrum of polit-

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ical sensitivity, which can range from ‘‘low-level’’ and ‘‘infrequent’’monitoring to ‘‘ruthlessly crack[ing] down’’ on operations, activities
and individuals.18 One aspect of this control can be illustrated byefforts to build up the presence of the Communist Party (‘‘Partybuilding’’) to guide and monitor social organizations,19 and potentially exert influence that might compromise organizations’ decisionmaking and activities.20 For example, in May 2013, Foshan
city, Guangdong province, issued draft regulations on government
procurement of services that suggest authorities will give preference in awarding contracts to social organizations which meet
Party-building requirements, such as having Party members
among the organizations’ full-time staff or establishing an internal
Party branch.21 [See Section III—Institutions of Democratic Governance for further examples.]Civil society organizations that the government perceives as politically sensitive face government interference under the guise of‘‘stability maintenance,’’ particularly during anniversaries andlarge-scale political events.22 In advance of the 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in November 2012 23 andthe annual meetings of the National People’s Congress and Chinese
People’s Political Consultative Conference in March 2013, international media reported on heightened surveillance, harassment,
and extralegal detention of civil society advocates.24 Chinese andinternational human rights organizations have drawn attention toa government crackdown on citizen rights’ advocates beginning in
spring 2013.25 Chinese authorities reportedly have detained or arrested dozens of rights advocates, including Xu Zhiyong, a leading
proponent of the New Citizens’ Movement, a loose network of individuals who advocate for legal and political reforms, human rights,
and social justice.26 On July 18, officials from the Beijing municipality Bureau of Civil Affairs (BCA) shut down the Transition Institute, a think tank established in 2007 that researches public interest issues such as the taxation system, industry regulation, public participation, and economic development.27 The BCA officials reportedly shut down the think tank because it had not registeredwith the BCA, although the think tank’s founder noted that it was
registered as a business entity, similar to many other think tanks
in China.28
During the 2013 reporting year, several civil society organizations sought legal or administrative redress in response to government harassment. A public interest organization that works on
anti-discrimination advocacy won a legal case in March 2013
against a hotel in Suzhou city for breach of contract due to the cancellation of the group’s hotel reservation for a public interest lawyers’ workshop in the spring of 2012.29 Local police acknowledgedthat they had demanded the cancellation because of a ‘‘stability
maintenance’’ order.30 In contrast, in December 2012, a court inShenzhen municipality dismissed a lawsuit brought by a migrant
workers’ services organization in Shenzhen that had been forcibly
evicted from multiple locations during a crackdown on labor NGOs
in 2012.31 The Beijing Shouwang Church, an unregistered Protestant house church in Beijing municipality, took legal action against
the Beijing police in late September 2012 for preventing the congregation’s worship for more than one year, but the Beijing govern-

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ment’s legal affairs office reportedly rejected the church’s application for administrative review.32
Regulatory and Legislative Developments
The central government’s institutional reform plan (fang’an)issued in March 33 has scheduled the release of long-awaited revisions 34 to the three key administrative regulations on social organization management 35 for the end of 2013.36 An official from the
Ministry of Civil Affairs (MCA) stated in an interview that the revisions will address registration,37 lay out a division of functions
between the government (e.g., inter-bureau coordination, policy andguidance, oversight, and legal enforcement) and social organizations (e.g., sector-based codes of conduct), and encourage selfregulation and mutual support.38 MCA officials reportedly are encouraging local governments to formulate implementation policies
in advance of the forthcoming revisions.39 In July, the Yunnan provincial government, for example, released drafts of four regulatory
documents that include provisions to forbid current government officials to be the ‘‘responsible person’’ (i.e., a person with legal responsibilities) for non-governmental organizations; bar the government from engaging in public fundraising, except in case of natural
disaster; and increase the number of representatives from social organizations in Yunnan’s provincial leadership entities, e.g., theParty, the People’s Congress, and the People’s Consultative Congress.40
At the March 2013 session of the National People’s Congress(NPC), Vice Premier Ma Kai announced that direct registration—
whereby social organizations would no longer require a governmentor quasi-governmental sponsor for registration as required under
the current regulations (‘‘dual management’’) 41—will be permitted
for business and industry associations, technical and scientific organizations, charities, and rural and urban community development groups under the government’s institutional reform plan.42
The plan, moreover, may allow the registration of more than one
social organization per jurisdiction working on a particular industry,43 which is a limitation on registration in the current regulations.44 Yet Ma added that ‘‘[p]olitical and legal groups, religious
groups, and foreign NGOs with [a] domestic representative office. . . will continue to be required to secure sponsor organizations’’
for the existing dual management process.45 The exclusion of political and legal groups 46 from the new policy appears to contradict
comments made in March 2012 by Minister of Civil Affairs Li
Liguo on equal treatment for human rights and political groups in
the registration and review process.47 The Chinese government’s
limitations on NGO registration contravene the right to freedom of
association provided in China’s constitution and in Article 22 of theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which provides that: ‘‘No restrictions may be placed on the exercise of [thefreedom of association] other than those which are prescribed bylaw and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interestof national security or public safety . . .’’ 48
Local authorities began experiments in direct registration of social organizations in Shenzhen municipality and Guangdong province in 2009, and in 19 provinces 49 in 2011,50 though reports sug-134gest that the implementation of direct registration has been uneven. Guangdong reportedly experienced a 15.1 percent increase in
the number of social organizations by the end of 2012,51 but a university survey in 2012 of public interest organizations that were
newly registered as non-governmental, nonprofit organizations in
Guangdong found that many faced increased taxes, expenses, andadministrative work following registration.52 While some of these
post-registration challenges may derive from ‘‘growing pains’’ related to NGO operational capacity,53 local civil affairs bureaus reportedly face challenges due to insufficient staffing and regulatory
guidance on how to process applications for registration.54 According to NGO advocates, some bureaus are not registering public interest groups and service providers because of a ‘‘conservative’’ 55
approach in authorizing registration. For example, organizations
working on rural women’s rights, service provision to persons with
developmental disabilities, and outreach to populations at greaterrisk of HIV/AIDS infection, have reported being unable to directly
register as social organizations in Beijing despite Beijing municipality’s early participation as a direct registration site.56
GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT OF PUBLIC SERVICES FROM NGOSOver the past decade, several Chinese municipalities launchedexperiments in government procurement of public services (e.g.,elder care, community corrections, and poverty alleviation) from social organizations,57 reflecting the Chinese government’s efforts totransfer some government functions to NGOs 58 and develop a‘‘non-state social service sector.’’ 59 Local governments have begun
formulating project catalogues and budgets, selection and oversightprocesses, and standards of transparency and accountability.60 The
piecemeal development of the regulatory framework, however, has
negatively affected the implementation and supervision of procurement processes and service delivery, according to some commentators.61 In a May 2013 speech, Premier Li Keqiang urged officials
to ‘‘increase efforts to purchase basic public services, and promptly
formulate and introduce guiding opinions for the government topurchase services from social organizations.’’ 62 The central government reportedly has allocated about 200 million yuan (US$32.08
million) to procure services and training from NGOs in 2013, approximately the same amount of funding allocated in 2012.63
Some civil society advocates have raised concerns that direct registration and the expansion of government procurement of public
services from NGOs will not necessarily benefit grassroots (caogen)NGOs. NGOs unable to register as social organizations are ineligible for government contracts, tax-exempt status, and public fundraising, among other possible benefits of formal registration.64
Some grassroots NGOs in Foshan city, Guangdong province, for example, believe that eligibility requirements for government procurement projects are too difficult to meet, current policy is unclear, and communication channels are lacking.65 In an analysis of
60 grassroots organizations in 2011 and 2012, scholars from the
Chinese University of Hong Kong speculated that grassroots NGOs
may be ‘‘further marginalized by losing out in the new game ofcompeting for official funding and support.’’ 66

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DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CHARITY SECTOR

Chinese legal scholars have identified ‘‘conspicuous problems’’ inthe regulatory framework for charities, despite central and local
government efforts in 2012 to improve transparency and accountability.67 These problems, such as a lack of a ‘‘[legal] definition andidentity’’ for charitable organizations or uniform legal rules infundraising; haphazard approaches to handling volunteers andtheir services; a high threshold for charitable organizations’ registration and management; and a tax exemption policy without
supporting mechanisms for implementation,68 have hindered thedevelopment of the charitable sector.69 Registration for religious organizations, many of which have made charitable contributions to
disaster relief and poverty alleviation, remains a ‘‘forbidden zone,’’according to a scholar from Anhui province.70 A national charity
law has been on the State Council and National People’s Congress
legislative agenda for several years 71 and China’s state-run media
agency Xinhua reported in December 2012 that a draft is underway.72 The Commission has not observed official announcements
on a timeframe for the Charity Law’s completion. Wang Zhenyao,
director of the Philanthropy Research Institute at Beijing Normal
University, has recommended that the draft be made public inorder to benefit from public opinion.73
Reports of financial mismanagement at the Red Cross of China 74
and other state-run foundations 75 since the 2008 earthquake in
Sichuan province have diminished the credibility of China’s
government-run charitable organizations,76 and prompted calls forstronger regulation of the charitable sector.77 Official statistics
from the Ministry of Civil Affairs China Charity Donation Information Center showed an almost 20 percent overall reduction in charitable donations in 2012 from 2011.78 Despite information disclosure
regulations, 60 percent of China’s foundations reportedly ‘‘failed tomake public their annual financial report, although they are legallyobliged to do so.’’ 79 In the wake of the April 2013 earthquake in
Ya’an city, Sichuan province, public debates on the lack of transparency and accountability in state-run charities reportedly led to
the Hong Kong Legislative Council’s initial refusal to donate
HKD100 million (US$12,887,300) 80 to relief efforts and to Hong
Kongers’ launch of a ‘‘Not One Cent’’ campaign.81 ‘‘Non-governmental’’charitable organizations have benefited from government-run charities’ credibility crisis; 82 the Global Times, an English-language
arm of China’s state-run media agency Xinhua, reported that in thedays after the Ya’an earthquake, donations to a private foundation
were more than 10 million yuan (US$1,592,230) compared to
30,000 yuan (US$4,783) donated to the Red Cross of China.83

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HIV/AIDS Grassroots Organizations
China’s grassroots (caogen) organizations working on HIV/AIDS issues
are of particular relevance during the 2013 reporting year in light of the
cessation of major international funding from The Global Fund to Fight
AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (The Global Fund) at the close of
2013.84 Grassroots NGOs have played a significant role in China in
HIV/AIDS health prevention and control, and the protection of the legal
rights of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), yet UNAIDS reported
in 2012 that ‘‘to date, only a small fraction of HIV [NGOs] have legal
status.’’ 85 Although The Global Fund spurred the Chinese government
to engage more deeply with domestic civil society organizations over the
past decade,86 resulting in some successful cooperation between the government and grassroots organizations,87 grassroots HIV/AIDS NGOs reportedly are ‘‘heavily dependent’’ on funding from international organizations.88 The government gradually has acknowledged the importanceof HIV/AIDS non-governmental organizations,89 notably on November
26, 2012, when then-Vice Premier Li Keqiang met with HIV/AIDS NGO
representatives 90 and reportedly stated ‘‘non-governmental organizations, ‘grassroots organizations,’ best understand the conditions andneeds of PLWHA’’ and play an ‘‘indispensable’’ role in the fight against
HIV/AIDS.91 An October 2012 report from The Global Fund, however,raised concerns that ‘‘there is still no strong and sustainable national
funding mechanism or technical support for ensuring service quality isin place to support CBOs [community-based organizations].’’ 92

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INSTITUTIONS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE
18th Party Congress: Leadership Transition, Party Constitution
Amendment, and Reform
During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, a major politicalpower succession took place within the Chinese Communist Party,
which happens at 10-year intervals.1 This top leadership transition,
timed with the 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist
Party in November 2012, involved the extensive turnover of power
to a slightly younger cohort 2 of political leaders in a non-transparent process.3 Propaganda officials dictated how news outlets
were to cover the 18th Party Congress and the transfer of power.4
Some international scholars called the transition peaceful and orderly, and a ‘‘step forward in the institutionalization of Chinese
leadership politics.’’ 5 The transition took place amid factional
struggles and a scandal resulting in the downfall of Bo Xilai, ahigh-ranking official many believed was in contention for a top
leadership position, and his wife Gu Kailai.6 [See Corruption andAnticorruption Measures in this section.] One international scholar
believes the transition denoted an advance in the ‘‘institutionalization of leadership politics,’’ and reinforced collective leadership at
the top of the Party, meaning Xi Jinping—Party General Secretary,
President, and Chairman of the Military Commission—is the ‘‘firstamong equals.’’ 7 The former Prime Minister of Australia believedthat Xi would be a strong leader and a key political player.8 Xi appeared to act quickly in the first few months to move forward withhis agenda and leadership style,9 although some sources point out
that retired Chinese leaders still may play a role in political affairs.10
At the 18th Party Congress, Party leaders also passed a resolution 11 to amend the Party constitution to include the following revisions, among others: 12• To uphold ‘‘scientific development’’ (former Party General
Secretary Hu Jintao’s socio-economic theory that ‘‘puts people
first and calls for comprehensive, balanced and sustainable development’’ 13) as a guiding ideology;• To adhere to the idea that ‘‘the fundamental reason behindall of China’s achievements and progress since the reform andopening up policy was introduced is, in the final analysis, that
the Party has blazed a path of socialism with Chinese characteristics . . . .’’Some international and Chinese scholars, journalists, and commentators believe that under the new echelon of top leaders, theprospects for political reform in China appear dim, although there
is some variance of opinion,14 and some note that it is too early totell.15 In speeches, leaders have defended the Party’s hold on
power,16 promised to combat corruption,17 pledged to make the government more efficient,18 and vowed to promote the ‘‘China
dream,’’ which includes ‘‘national rejuvenation’’ and a more pronounced role for China in the international arena.19 While early in
2013, Xi Jinping reportedly emphasized that ‘‘no organization or individual should be put above the constitution and the law,’’ 20 healso ‘‘demanded a return to traditional Leninist discipline’’ in a talk138
in a private setting.21 Xi said the Party should be able ‘‘to put up
with’’ criticism and correct mistakes,22 but he also urged officials
not to ‘‘allow any subversive errors when it comes to the fundamental issues.’’ 23 An international scholar pointed out that authorities appear not to have abandoned the Party’s fundamental
Maoist approach to divide people into the vague and undefined categories of friend or foe and to deal with perceived enemies harshly,24 which may lead to the abuse of authority.
New Government Leadership and Government Structural Reform
After the fall 2012 political power transition within the Party,
the new cohort of top Party leaders assumed the most senior postsin the government in March 2013 during the National People’s
Congress (NPC) and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative
Conference (CPPCC) meetings (Two Sessions).25 During the Two
Sessions, Chinese leaders also passed a plan for a major reshufflingof State Council institutions and a ‘‘transformation of government
functions,’’ after the plan had been approved by the Party Central
Committee in November 2012.26 Authorities provided numerous
reasons for the restructuring, including: 27• Improving government efficiency;• Reducing special transfer payments and fee collections;• Eliminating overlapping government responsibilities;• Pushing forward reform toward ‘‘super ministries’’; and• Reducing micro-management.
At the heart of the reforms are plans to complete 72 changes togovernment functions and other tasks,28 which are assigned to specific government organizations for completion over the next three
to five years.29 As part of the plan, authorities made the following
major changes: 30• Reduced by 2 the number of ministries and commissions thatmake up the State Council, bringing the total to 25, and reduced by 2 the number of other ministerial-level organs;• Separated the commercial and non-commercial aspects ofmanaging China’s railways;• Merged the National Population and Family Planning Commission and the Ministry of Health into a new National Healthand Family Planning Commission;• Established the State Food and Drug Supervision and Management Administration; and• Reorganized the National Oceanic Administration and the
National Energy Administration.
Reach of the State Under One-Party Rule
China’s political institutions continue to be out of compliancewith the standards defined in Article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,31 which China has signed anddeclared an intention to ratify; 32 nor have Chinese officials complied with the standards outlined in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.33
The Communist Party continues to dominate political affairs, allows only limited independent political participation, and exerts
control over the courts,34 the NPC, the media,35 and state leader-

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ship appointments.36 For example, this can be seen at the NPC
meeting this year where nearly 35 percent of the delegates concurrently held positions as leading officials in the Party and government.37 In another example, in September 2012, central Party leaders issued an opinion that may further strengthen the Party’s control over human resources affairs.38 Party-building and Party-loyalty efforts focused on accounting firms,39 the People’s Armed Police,40 and Internet companies, such as the Sina Corporation.41
The Party also exerts influence over non-governmental andquasi-governmental organizations, including university student
groups,42 in part through its Party-building efforts within these organizations, as well as by establishing its own Party-organized social organizations.43 For example, various Party organizations indifferent locations over the last few years have established, arerunning, or are supporting ‘‘social affairs (or work) committees’’ 44
and Party-sponsored community service and nonprofit organizations, among others.45 Through these organizations, the Party may
engage in the monitoring of groups and activities.46
In addition, developments suggest the Party is exerting more effort to control the ideological realm. In April, the Office of theParty Central Committee reportedly issued a circular to selectParty officials around China, titled Document No. 9, which discusses seven ideological threats to the Party’s grip on power that‘‘require attention.’’ 47 These threats are preaching about Westernconstitutional democracy, universal values, civil society, neo-liberalism, journalistic freedom, historical nihilism—negating the history of the Party, and questioning socialism with Chinese characteristics.48 One account of the circular said officials need to ‘‘cut off
at the source channels for disseminating erroneous currents ofthought.’’ 49 In addition, state media suggests that the Party believes China is in a ‘‘struggle in the ideological sphere’’ 50 and theParty has initiated an ideological ‘‘rectification campaign.’’ 51 For
example, in May and August 2013, a wave of articles, which one
report considered to have some powerful political backing, appeared on the Internet attacking constitutionalism, after other articles were posted that had more positive views of constitutionalism.52 Also in May, Party and education leaders jointly issued
an additional opinion with 16 requirements to ‘‘strengthen theranks of young university teachers and improve (their) ideologicaland political qualities . . . .’’ 53‘‘Social Stability’’ and ‘‘Social Risk Assessments’’
In August 2012, to prevent and resolve ‘‘social contradictions’’ 54
and apparently to ‘‘maintain social stability,’’ the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) issued a provisional measure that stipulates central and provincial authorities should establish and utilize ‘‘social stability risk assessment’’ mechanisms to investigate and analyze the ‘‘social stability’’ risks associated withlarge-scale fixed asset investment projects that affect the interestsof citizens.55 If implemented, the NDRC will not examine and approve projects assessed to be of medium or high social risk.56 In
Nanjing municipality, enterprises reportedly do their own assessment reports for their own projects and send them to the government for examination and approval.57 Nanjing officials reportedly

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conduct these assessments for 700 to 900 ‘‘incidents’’ or projects annually.58
Official Actions Against Democracy Advocates
During the reporting period, authorities detained or arrested
more than 60 citizens 59 exercising their right to freedom of speech,
association, and assembly, some of whom reportedly associatedthemselves with the New Citizens’ Movement. The New Citizens’
Movement is a loose network of individuals promoting a broad
range of ideas including legal and political reforms, human rights,
and social justice.60 Some people who associated themselves with
the Movement assembled in groups for meals and engaged in advocacy or peaceful demonstration activities.61 One international nongovernmental organization linked these detentions and arrests
with a notice issued by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate callingon prosecutors to combat activities construed as ‘‘unlawful assembly and gathering a crowd to disrupt social order,’’ which are associated with the ‘‘goal of subverting state power.’’ 62 Another news
article linked these detentions to the central Party Document No.
9 issued in April, which reportedly says activists ‘‘have stirred up
trouble about disclosing officials’ assets, using the Internet to fightcorruption, media controls and other sensitive topics, to provoke
discontent with the party and government.’’ 63 [See Official Corruption and Anticorruption Measures in this section.] Authorities also
continued to harass, detain, and impose prison sentences on democracy advocates and their families who exercised their rights to freedoms of speech, assembly, association, and demonstration. A list ofrepresentative cases follows:• Democracy advocate Zhu Yufu, jailed in February 2012 for‘‘inciting subversion of state power,’’ reportedly is seriously ill,but authorities have denied him access to medicine and turned
down repeated requests for medical parole.64 Reports also suggest Zhu may be being abused in prison.65 Officials reportedly
have kept some members of Zhu’s family under surveillance,and harassed and warned them to keep quiet about Zhu’scase.66• In December 2012, villagers Song Jianzhong, Luo Yonghong,
Ma Zhizheng, Hao Sen, Zhao Daqing, Zhao Zhenhai, and Ma
Huimei lost their court case contesting their sentences imposedin relation to 2010 protests against alleged voting irregularities
in a village committee election in Raolefu, a village in suburban Beijing. On appeal, however, the court reduced their prison terms.67 Authorities also changed the charges against themfrom ‘‘gathering to assault state organs’’ to the lesser crime of‘‘gathering to disturb social order.’’ 68• In October 2012, court officials sentenced Cao Haibo, anInternet cafe owner in Kunming municipality, Yunnan province, who founded an online discussion group that discussed
democracy and constitutionalism, to eight years in prison on
the charge of ‘‘subversion of state power.’’ 69 The case involved
questionable legal procedures and officials warned Cao’s wife
not to talk about her husband’s situation.70

141• Authorities indicted democracy advocate Liu Benqi in March2013 on the charge of ‘‘inciting subversion of state power.’’ 71
Reports asserted he had been tortured and abused while in detention.72 In addition, authorities ordered Liu Benqi’s ex-wife,
Liu Ying, to serve one year of reeducation through labor, possibly in connection to her conversations with international
media about her ex-husband’s case.73
In addition, officials restricted the movements of, harassed, orbeat up several other democracy and human rights advocates, including Guizhou province resident Liao Shuangyuan.74 Yao Lifa, an
independent elections advocate, went missing on March 4 for morethan 13 days and authorities reportedly have restricted his movements since February 2013.75 Officials also intimidated or detained
family members of other advocates, including Zhang Anni, thedaughter of democracy activist Zhang Lin.76 In July, authorities
criminally detained Zhang Lin on charges of ‘‘gathering a crowd to
disrupt social order’’ and questioned him about who was organizing
and funding rights defender activities on behalf of his daughter.77
In August, authorities formally arrested Zhang on the samecharge.78
Party and Government Accountability and Transparency
LIMITS OF TRANSPARENCY AND OPEN GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS

While top Chinese leaders have voiced support for greater transparency, citizens continue to face challenges in accessing government information. In a speech in March 2013, Premier Li Keqiang
reportedly raised six demands for anticorruption and clean government work for 2013, including open government affairs and making
the exercise of authority transparent.79 Some ministries and local
governments reportedly improved communications with the public,80 but according to one Chinese research institute’s report, several problems persist, including officials who do not proactively
offer information, do not provide information when rules say theyshould, or do not provide full information.81 In October 2012, theMinistry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) denied a request under the Open
Government Information (OGI) regulation regarding China’s reportfor its UN Human Rights Council Universal Periodic Review (UPR)in October 2013, saying some of the information was ‘‘secret’’ andnot ‘‘suited’’ to be released.82 Beijing resident Shi Hongping tried
to sue the MFA, but the Beijing Municipal No. 2 Intermediate People’s Court refused to accept the case on the grounds that submitting a report for the UPR is a diplomatic action involving foreign
affairs and legislation dictates that courts ‘‘cannot accept litigation
brought by citizens against state actors [in areas] such as national
defense and foreign affairs.’’ 83 Authorities also reportedly harassed,
prevented from leaving their homes, or detained individuals seeking information about the formulation of China’s second National
Human Rights Action Plan (2012–2015) (HRAP).84 Authorities
eventually lifted the restrictions on all of these individuals except
for Peng Lanlan, whom they formally arrested on charges of ‘‘obstructing official business’’ and held in detention for a year before
releasing her.85 Peng surveyed petitioners for their opinions about

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human rights conditions in China and collected signatures as partof the OGI application for information about the HRAP.86
PEOPLE’S CONGRESSES

Towards the end of 2012, China completed the most recent cycleof direct elections for local people’s congress delegates. During theelection cycle the Internet provided a new platform for ‘‘independent candidates,’’ but authorities took a variety of steps to suppress their election efforts. At the lowest administrative levels, including the county and township levels, citizens, in theory, directly
vote for people’s congress delegates.87 Above this level, people’s congresses elect delegates for congresses at the next highest level.88
Ten or more citizens may nominate ‘‘independent candidates,’’ otherwise known as ‘‘voter-nominated’’ candidates.89 One source reported that during the 2011–2012 election cycle there were thousands of independent candidates, known partially because of theirpresence on the Internet.90 Reports surfaced, however, noting that
authorities in some locations did not accept the nomination of someof these ‘‘voter-nominated’’ candidates.91 In this election cycle, as inprevious cycles, large numbers of ‘‘independent candidates’’ were
winnowed out, leaving few to compete in elections.92 One source
considers this cycle of elections the darkest (for independent candidates) in the last 30 years.93
In 2012, Chinese authorities issued a draft decision with numerical requirements related to characteristics of delegates to be chosen for the 12th National People’s Congress in March 2013. Fourmain goals reportedly guided the numerical requirements for thecomposition of the Congresses’ delegates: equity among rural andurban areas, equity among regions, equity among nationalities, andthat they ‘‘should be broadly representative’’ and ‘‘include an appropriate number of grassroots, worker, farmer, and intellectual delegates.’’ 94 The resulting composition of the Congress’s delegatesroughly mirror the requirements.95 For example, the numerical requirement for delegates from minority populations was ‘‘around 12
percent’’ with at least one delegate from each of China’s official minority groups.96 After selection processes were completed, nearly
13.7 percent of the delegates were from minority populations andall 55 of the minority groups were represented.97 The percentagesof ‘‘front line workers and farmers, and professional and technicaldelegates’’ were slated to increase, which they did by over 5 and1.2 percent respectively.98
This year at the meetings of the National People’s Congress andChinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (Two Sessions),
delegates voted on six work reports and overall, there were 30 percent more negative votes for all of the reports combined than there
were last year.99 In one example, out of 2,948 delegates, 120 delegates abstained from voting on the work report of the Supreme
People’s Court and 605 delegates voted to oppose the report, which
received the highest number of negative votes during the Two Sessions.100
GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTABILITY

Authorities are drafting or have passed national laws that regulate when and how citizens may hold authorities accountable. Work

143
to discuss and revise the PRC Administrative Litigation Law 101 is
ongoing and the State Council work plan for the upcoming year reportedly includes the task of reviewing the PRC Administrative Reconsideration Law.102
During the reporting period, the State Council issued plans toimprove top-down accountability systems and strengthen administrative enforcement of laws and regulations. In April, the StateCouncil issued an opinion that included the goal of ‘‘improving asystem to constrain and supervise the operation of authority.’’ 103
The State Council also reported that it took steps to strengthen
evaluations of local governments and officials, incorporated administrative work into the comprehensive government work assessment systems, and ‘‘guided’’ local governments and ministries to introduce administrative ‘‘enforcement responsibility systems.’’ 104
In line with these goals, central authorities continued to takesteps to promote the use of only legal and standardized ‘‘red letter
documents’’ (‘‘hongtou wenjian’’)—rules issued by local governments.105 During 2012, the State Council reportedly registered
1,393 regulations and rules of local congresses, governments, anddepartments, and took steps to resolve conflicts between the local
rules and major laws.106 One international academic report notedthat citizens have the right to request a review of legislative conflicts, but relevant agencies have not formally responded to such requests.107 In some cases, however, central authorities reportedly
have reacted by amending the regulations in question, by making
statements in the media about the requests, or by inviting the citizens who made the request to participate in consultations.108
OFFICIAL CORRUPTION AND ANTICORRUPTION MEASURES

Chinese leaders 109 and citizens 110 continued to express concern
about official corruption, and some foreign and local business people reportedly believe China’s legal environment has deteriorated.111 Top leaders link the Party’s legitimacy to its ability to
manage corruption. In a speech to the Central Committee on November 19, 2012, President Xi Jinping said, ‘‘facts have shown that
if corruption becomes increasingly severe, it will ultimately lead tothe ruin of the Party and the country!’’ and ‘‘[c]orruption wasamong the most important of the reasons’’ for ‘‘social contradictions’’ leading to social unrest and the collapse of political power insome countries.112 The corruption case against Bo Xilai, former
Party Central Political Bureau member and Chongqing Party Secretary, who was charged with bribery, embezzlement, and abuse of
power, opened for trial on August 22, 2013.113 On September 22,
2013, the Jinan Municipal People’s Intermediate Court, Shandong
province, sentenced Bo to life imprisonment, deprivation of politicalrights for life, mandatory return of specified stolen monies, andconfiscation of all personal assets.114 Authorities reportedly denied
Bo his choice of a lawyer and he was held by Party disciplinary officials for months under shuanggui,115 a form of arbitrary detention utilized by the Party to investigate officials.116
Authorities continued to highlight anticorruption efforts and toissue regulatory measures to curb corruption. Premier Li Keqiang
reportedly indicated that anticorruption work would be included inlocal government, administrative departments, and leading cadre

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performance evaluations.117 In addition, in November 2012,procuratorate provisions included a new standard for the crime of‘‘especially serious bribery,’’ and stipulated heavier sentences forthis crime.118 In January 2013, two judicial interpretations issued
jointly by the Supreme People’s Court and the Supreme People’s
Procuratorate came into force; one regarding the application of thelaw in handling criminal bribery cases,119 and the other an interpretation on the handling of dereliction of duty criminal cases,
which reportedly clarified the standards for categorizing specificcrimes.120
SUPPRESSION OF WHISTLEBLOWERS & DEMANDS FOR DISCLOSURE OF
OFFICIALS’ ASSETS

During the reporting period, officials have detained a number of
online corruption whistleblowers 121 and have had little tolerance
for citizens and non-governmental organizations in various locations that have expressed demands for disclosure of officials’ assets.
As of mid-September 2013, officials in various locations reportedly
had detained nearly 60 people who participated in petition drives
or demonstrations calling for more transparency of government officials’ finances, who called for the release of detained advocates, or
who engaged in other related political advocacy efforts, and authorities formally arrested 29 of those people.122 Information onsome of those cases follows:• In November 2012, a group of petitioners sent a letter toformer Premier Wen Jiabao asking him to disclose his financial
assets. At least one of the petitioners reported being locked ina detention center in Beijing municipality for 40 days for signing the letter.123• In December 2012, more than 2,000 people took to thestreets of Shanghai municipality calling on officials to disclose
their personal assets, income, and investments, as well as
those of their spouses and children.124• Officials detained anticorruption advocates Sun Hanhui andDing Jiaxi,125 who reportedly were involved in collecting thousands of signatures for an open letter to the National People’s
Congress, urging members of the Party Central Committee todisclose to the public their family assets to reassure citizens
that they are not corrupt.126 Authorities reportedly censoredthe letter and deleted blog postings by the organizers.127• In late March, Beijing officials criminally detained
anticorruption advocates Hou Xin, Yuan Dong, Zhang
Baocheng, and Ma Xinli on suspicion of ‘‘unlawful assembly’’for unfurling a banner with anticorruption slogans in a busy
shopping area along with a number of other people.128 Authorities later released Hou Xin on bail pending investigation.129• In April, officials detained other anticorruption advocates, including Zhao Changqing and Wang Yonghong, on suspicion of‘‘unlawful assembly,’’ 130 and Li Wei, another anticorruption
advocate.131 In response, individuals and a group issued open
letters demanding that authorities release the anticorruption
advocates.132 In addition, public security personnel detained
former independent people’s congress candidate Liu Ping and
in July indicted Liu on charges of ‘‘unlawful assembly,’’ ‘‘gath-145
ering a crowd to disrupt public order,’’ and ‘‘using a cult todamage enforcement of the law.’’ 133
Despite strong public demand for disclosure of officials’ finances,134 some of China’s elite appear to be resistant to moving
forward with requirements for top officials to disclose their assets.135 One member of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection reportedly pointed to the extensive wealth of officials andnoted that ‘‘to publicize any of them would lead to public anger.’’ 136
A limited number of locations have initiated pilot projects wherein
officials disclose their assets within the Party or to their own organizations, but rarely to the public at large.137 Many local governments and administrative institutions also have not disclosed information on expenditures for overseas trips, official receptions andentertainment, and vehicles, otherwise known as the ‘‘threepublics,’’ despite requirements to do so.138

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COMMERCIAL RULE OF LAW
During the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, the Chinese government and Communist Party continued to promote and develop
a state-led growth model, 12 years after China’s accession to theWorld Trade Organization (WTO) and 5 years after the onset of the
global financial crisis. Authorities encouraged national coordinationof overseas investment activity, including targeted investment inindustries they deemed strategic, and China’s state-owned enterprises continued to play a leading role in that investment activity.
Authorities implemented banking reforms, although state-owned
enterprises maintained preferential access to loans. China’s currency—the yuan—appreciated during the past year, but it remained undervalued, and the Chinese government continued tointerfere with the exchange rate. The United States and othercountries continued to pursue action against China through WTO
mechanisms, and China faced allegations of trade violations, including antidumping and countervailing duties and subsidies inconsistent with its WTO obligations. Intellectual property rights violations, including state-authorized theft of trade secrets, remained asignificant issue of concern this past year, and problems with therule of law contributed to ongoing food and product safety problems, including the cross-border movement of hazardous and illegal
products.
Outbound Investment
China’s outbound investment continued to grow during the Commission’s 2013 reporting year, setting new records. Based on data
provided by the Heritage Foundation, China’s outbound investment
grew by an average of 39.59 percent per year from 2005 to 2012,1
reaching a record annual high of US$79.7 billion in 2012.2 Somesources reportedly estimated different outbound investment figuresfor 2012; 3 for example, the Economist Intelligence Unit estimateda figure of US$115 billion in 2012.4 According to the same Economist Intelligence Unit report, from 2011 to 2012, China’s outboundinvestment (excluding tax havens) jumped from 16th place to 3rdplace worldwide, behind the United States and Japan.5
The Chinese government and Communist Party continued to encourage state-led coordination of overseas investment activity as
part of a policy authorities commonly referred to as the ‘‘go out’’strategy (‘‘zou chu qu’’ zhanlue). As GDP growth in China haslargely slowed since 2007,6 authorities have encouraged Chinese
businesses to invest abroad in part as a way to increase opportunities for Chinese enterprises to move up the value chain.7 In a January 2013 Caixin article, Yi Gang—Deputy Governor of the People’s Bank of China 8 and Administrator of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange 9—said that the ‘‘go out’’ strategy ‘‘waselevated to the level of national strategy’’ between 2000 and 2008,
and that, beginning in 2008, the ‘‘go out’’ strategy became a way
to guard against the vulnerability of China’s export-led growthmodel and take advantage of cheaper, post-financial crisis assets indeveloped countries.10 Yi added that Chinese enterprises should‘‘be low profile . . . and minimize the appearance of government involvement to avoid policy resistance and barriers to approval.’’ 11

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The 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic and Social Development (‘‘12th Five-Year Plan’’)—a Party-initiated plan that outlines
broadly, inter alia, strategies for economic growth for the period
from 2011 to 2015 12—outlined the ‘‘go out’’ strategy at the national
level.13 State-owned enterprises continued to account for the majority of China’s overseas investment,14 although the role of private
enterprises reportedly increased last year.15
The government and Party also continued to emphasize the importance of investment abroad in certain ‘‘strategic’’ industries thispast year. The 12th Five-Year Plan noted the importance of ‘‘fostering the development of strategic emerging industries,’’ 16 such as
new information technology and new energy,17 as well as the importance of overseas investment generally in energy resources,
technology, and ‘‘famous brands.’’ 18 According to state-run broadcaster China Central Television, Chen Yuan, Vice Chairman of theChinese People’s Political Consultative Conference,19 Chairman
and Party Secretary of the China Development Bank,20 and headof the China Enterprises Investment Association (CEIA) 21—an organization that operates under the ‘‘guidance and supervision’’ ofthe Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and the Ministry of Civil
Affairs 22—emphasized at a December 2012 CEIA meeting that sectors such as energy, mining, electricity, telecommunications, petrochemicals, and machinery manufacturing were important.23 Chinese enterprises reportedly continued to seek investment opportunities abroad in at least some of the above sectors this past year.24
In 2012, China invested more money overseas in the energy sector
than in any other sector,25 followed by the metals sector.26 In April
2013, China signed a free-trade agreement with Iceland,27 a development that some sources described as an attempt to gain accessto energy reserves, rare earths and other minerals, and strategic
shipping lanes.28
State-controlled organizations continued to offer preferential
terms for investment and export project financing in locations
around the world this past year. In July 2012 testimony before theU.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Fred Hochberg, Chairman and President of the Export-Import Bank of the UnitedStates, argued that the state-owned Export-Import Bank of
China 29 (‘‘China Exim Bank’’) was able to create an uneven ‘‘playing field’’ in Africa in part by offering financing on ‘‘terms and conditions better than commercial banks’’ 30 and by requiring ‘‘preferential access to natural resources’’ in the host country in returnfor financing.31 This past year, construction continued on a reported US$5 billion project to build a city near Minsk, the capitalof Belarus, for which Chinese authorities agreed to provide low-interest financing.32 Both China Exim Bank and the China Development Bank—which operates under the State Council 33—reportedly
agreed to provide financing for the project.34 One former
Belarusian official reportedly said that Chinese authorities agreed
to provide low-interest financing on the condition that half thevalue of that financing was spent on Chinese materials, technology,
or labor.35 The same former official said, ‘‘The loan conditions arehighly advantageous . . . . It doesn’t make sense for us to evenconsider financing from other banks.’’ 36

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Financial Reforms
This past year, authorities took measures to reform China’sbanking system, which continued to give state-owned enterprises(SOEs) preferential access to loans. For example, in late July 2013,
the People’s Bank of China (PBOC) removed a lower limit on loaninterest rates,37 but it maintained an upper limit on interest rates
payable to depositors.38 Chinese and non-Chinese media noted that
this combination of policies could allow SOEs—who reportedly already enjoyed preferential access to loans compared to smaller borrowers 39—to secure cheaper loans, as well as reduce the profits ofsmaller banks and constrain the ability of households to accumulate savings.40 Faced with difficulties securing financing, somesmaller businesses in recent years reportedly have relied on lending outside the regulated banking system,41 some forms of which
are referred to as ‘‘shadow banking.’’ 42 A May 2013 report by
JPMorgan Chase Bank, Hong Kong, estimated ‘‘shadow banking’’
in China at 69 percent of GDP and 27 percent of bank assets at
the end of 2012.43 In some cases, small businesses that turned toloans outside the regulated banking system paid significantly higher rates than those with access to formal bank loans.44 For example, one financial analyst estimated that small businesses pay a
premium of 20 to 30 percent over a base lending rate, while stateowned borrowers typically borrow at a discount from the baserate.45
In a July 28, 2013, announcement, the National Audit Office said
that it would ‘‘organize auditing offices nationwide to conduct auditing of government debt.’’ 46 The announcement did not elaborate
further, but according to international media sources, the audit
may reflect official concerns over debt held by SOEs and local governments,47 which some sources estimated at US$2 trillion to US$3
trillion.48 From late 2008 to August 2013, authorities reportedly
made ‘‘[US$6.2] trillion of bank loans available to state-owned companies and local governments.’’ 49 In one case, in early August
2013, the state-owned Agricultural Bank of China reportedly
agreed to lend 250 billion yuan (US$40.8 billion) 50 to Shanghai
municipality.51 According to unidentified sources reportedly within
the Shanghai city government, the loan was part of an ‘‘unofficial
economic stimulus’’ that would support projects including the establishment of a Disneyland theme park and a ‘‘free-trade zone’’ inShanghai.52 Many local governments, which retain 25 percent ofvalue-added tax revenue—75 percent goes to the central government—and whose officials depend on economic growth for political
success, reportedly continued to borrow heavily to finance local development projects without devising plans to avoid default.53
Foreign Exchange Control
The yuan remained undervalued this past year, despite an increase in its value and calls by Chinese authorities to liberalize exchange rate controls. In an April 2013 report, the U.S. Treasury
Department said that the yuan ‘‘remains significantly undervalued’’ 54 and that the ‘‘process of exchange rate adjustment remains incomplete,’’ 55 although the yuan reportedly appreciatedagainst the U.S. dollar this past year.56 The Wall Street Journal

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reported that the yuan appreciated 1 percent against the U.S. dollar in 2012 and 1.6 percent from January to May 2013.57 In a report to the National People’s Congress in March 2013, then-Premier Wen Jiabao said that the government ‘‘should steadily carryout reforms to make interest rates and the RMB exchange rate
more market-based,’’ 58 but exchange rate policy this past year did
not necessarily reflect a more market-based approach. For example,
the U.S. Treasury Department cited accumulations of foreign exchange reserves—reportedly US$34.7 billion in the fourth quarterof 2012 59 and US$128 billion in the first quarter of 2013 60—assigns of increasing Chinese government intervention in the exchange rate.61 In March 2013, Xia Bin, then-adviser to the People’s
Bank of China (PBOC)—the central bank of China, which operates
under the State Council 62—reportedly called for ‘‘more power [forthe PBOC] in the areas of some short-term and specific monetary
policy adjustment and operations,’’ 63 although he did not call fora more market-based approach in these areas.
This past year, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange(SAFE) issued the Circular Regarding Improving and Adjusting
Policies on the Management of Direct Investment and Foreign Exchange,64 which loosened several aspects of foreign exchange control in an attempt to facilitate trade and overseas investment.65
For example, the circular removed the requirement that SAFE approve the establishment of several kinds of foreign exchange accounts,66 as well as the requirement that SAFE approve the reinvestment of yuan revenues by foreign investors.67 The circular also
allowed foreign-invested enterprises to make loans to their foreign
parent companies under certain conditions.68
China in the World Trade Organization
During this reporting year—more than a decade after China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) 69—China continued to face allegations from multiple countries of violations of its
WTO obligations. Since its accession to the WTO, China has beena respondent in 31 WTO Dispute Settlement cases; 70 this past
year, the WTO found in favor of U.S. claims in three cases that theUnited States brought against China, as well European Union
claims in one case that the European Union brought against
China.71 WTO panels found that the Ministry of Commerce(MOFCOM) had imposed antidumping and countervailing duties on
U.S. grain-oriented electrical steel, U.S. chicken products, and European x-ray inspection equipment in ways that were inconsistent
with China’s WTO obligations.72 China did not appeal the findingsin the chicken case or x-ray case this past year; 73 in the steel case,the WTO’s Appellate Body upheld the panel report’s findings in October 2012 upon appeal.74 A July 2013 MOFCOM statement announced MOFCOM had ‘‘re-examined some procedures and physical issues, on which the original antidumping measures and theoriginal countervailing measures were based.’’ 75 The statement announced a revised set of antidumping and countervailing duties on
U.S. grain-oriented electrical steel, but it did not identify or discussthe ‘‘issues’’ in the original examination.76 In July 2012, the UnitedStates requested consultations with China regarding antidumping
and countervailing duties affecting U.S. automobiles,77 while a case150
involving alleged subsidies to Chinese manufacturers of automobiles and automobile parts remained in consultations.78 In February 2013, the WTO Secretary General composed a panel to consider the claims of the United States.79 In another case, a WTO
panel found that China acted inconsistently with its WTO obligations by maintaining China UnionPay—a Chinese company—as amonopoly supplier for yuan-denominated transactions with bankcards issued in China and used in Hong Kong and Macau.80 According to the WTO, China reported in July 2013 that it had ‘‘fully
implemented’’ the findings in this case, but the United States ‘‘did
not agree’’ and ‘‘would monitor and review China’s actions.’’ 81
China did not fulfill its notification obligations under the WTO’s
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement) this past year. The SCM Agreement requires WTO members
to submit notifications of their subsidies by June 30 of each year,82
but a February 2013 joint report by the Office of the United States
Trade Representative and the U.S. Department of Commerce foundthat China’s most recent notification was in 2011, covering the period 2005 to 2008, and was incomplete.83 On September 17, 2012,
the United States requested consultations with China regarding alleged subsidies in the automobile and auto parts industries,84 including ‘‘grants, reduced corporate income tax rates and low-costlending from state-owned banks.’’ 85
Non-Chinese companies continued to report an unequal businessenvironment in China when competing against Chinese companies.
For example, according to a US-China Business Council (USCBC)
report from 2012, some U.S. companies surveyed by the USCBC reported their Chinese competitors ‘‘may have preferential accessfrom licensing approvals to government contracts to financing andother areas, giving them a competitive edge.’’ 86 According to the
USCBC, ‘‘nearly half’’ of U.S. companies surveyed reported thatthey ‘‘see protectionism in the way the administrative licensing
process is managed,’’ 87 some reported that they experienced unequal enforcement of laws when compared to Chinese companies,88and some reported they continued to face market access barriers in
the investment and service sectors.89 Such practices appear to violate the core WTO principle of national treatment.90 [See Antitrust
Developments below for discussion of possible unequal treatment inpricing and bribery investigations.]
Fifth U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue
Chinese officials reportedly announced plans to undertake several newcommercial reforms during the fifth U.S.-China Strategic and Economic
Dialogue (‘‘the Dialogue’’), held in July 2013. For example, Chinese officials pledged to negotiate a bilateral investment treaty (BIT) with theUnited States and address market access issues in the negotiations.91
Chinese officials reportedly committed to negotiate using a ‘‘negative
list’’ approach, through which China would begin with a ‘‘presumption of
openness’’ and then create exceptions to open market access on a caseby-case basis.92

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Fifth U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue—Continued
In addition, Chinese officials reportedly pledged to include ‘‘substantial improvements’’ in their next offer to join the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA), which they said they planned to submit later in
2013.93 The GPA is a WTO agreement designed to increase transparency in government procurement, prevent protection of domestic
products or suppliers, and prevent discrimination against foreign products or suppliers.94 The United States, the European Union, and otherparties to the GPA previously called for several improvements to China’s proposal to join the GPA, including coverage for state-owned enterprises, expanded coverage for businesses below the central-government
level, and lower thresholds for the application of non-discrimination provisions.95 During the Dialogue, Chinese officials reportedly said ‘‘they
would be responsive to U.S. requests [. . .] to increase the coverage of
sub-central entities in [the] new offer, and [. . .] might lower thethresholds above which the GPA’s non-discrimination disciplines
apply.’’ 96 According to a May 2013 Global Times article, the total government procurement market in China was an estimated US$1 trillion,
growing at over 20 percent per year.97

Intellectual Property Rights
The Chinese government continued to take steps to improve intellectual property rights (IPR) protections this past year, but weakprotection and enforcement of IPR continued to contribute to IPR
violations. This past year, the State Intellectual Property Officeoutlined broad guidelines for protecting intellectual property (IP) as
part of its 2013 National Intellectual Property Strategy,98 and thenumber of civil and criminal IPR cases, as well as county-level
courts that can hear IPR cases, reportedly increased this past
year.99 IPR violations remained widespread, however. In a May
2013 report, the Commission on the Theft of American Intellectual
Property noted that efforts to improve IPR protections were too
slow to prevent increasing theft 100 and that Chinese policies encouraging the acquisition of technology created incentives for IPR
violations.101 According to the same report, China accounted for an
estimated 50 to 80 percent of international IP theft.102 This year,
China remained on the Priority Watch List of the Office of theUnited States Trade Representative (USTR),103 where it has been
every year since 2006.104 Countries on the Priority Watch List are
the ‘‘focus of increased bilateral attention’’ regarding problems with‘‘IPR protection, enforcement, or market access for persons relying
on intellectual property.’’ 105 USTR noted this past year that ‘‘salesof IPR-intensive goods and services in China remain disproportionately low when compared to sales in similar markets that provide
a stronger environment for IPR protection and market access.’’ 106
Theft of trade secrets, in some cases reportedly authorized by the
Chinese government, continued this past year. USTR noted in its
2013 Special 301 Report that the theft of trade secrets is a growing
area of concern 107 and that such theft continued to occur in China
through circumstances involving ‘‘departing employees, failed joint
ventures, cyber intrusion and hacking, and misuse of information
submitted to government entities for purposes of complying with

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regulatory obligations.’’ 108 U.S. information security company
Mandiant noted in a February 2013 report that, since 2006, an organization operating under the People’s Liberation Army that theMandiant report referred to as ‘‘Unit 61398’’ 109 stole ‘‘hundreds ofterabytes of data from at least 141 organizations’’ 110—of which 115
were located in the United States 111—from a ‘‘wide range of industries.’’ 112 The 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic and Social Development designated several industries as ‘‘strategic emerging industries,’’ 113 and the Mandiant report noted that, of theseven industries in which Mandiant observed cyber-attacks from
Unit 61398, four matched those ‘‘strategic emerging industries.’’ 114[See Outbound Investment above for more information.]
Chinese officials continued to use technology transfer as a precondition for market access this past year. According to a 2013 report by the American Chamber of Commerce, in the People’s Republic of China, 35 percent of companies surveyed reported they
were ‘‘still concerned about de facto technology transfer as a requirement for market access.’’ 115 The percentage of survey respondents that said de facto requirements for technology transfer
were increasing rose from 27 percent in 2012 to 37 percent in2013.116 Using technology transfer as a precondition for certain
forms of market access violates commitments in China’s Protocol ofAccession to the WTO 117 and commitments that China reportedly
made during the 23rd U.S.-China Joint Commission on Commerce
and Trade in late December 2012.118
The Chinese government continued to revise a wide variety of IP
laws and regulations this past year as part of a process that USTR
referred to as a ‘‘sweeping legal reform effort.’’ 119 In January 2013,
the State Council amended the PRC Copyright Law Implementing
Regulations,120 the Information Network Broadcasting Rights Protection Regulations,121 and the Computer Software Protection Regulations,122 increasing the administrative penalties authorizedunder each.123 The State Intellectual Property Office (SIPO), National People’s Congress Standing Committee, and National Copyright Administration reportedly continued to deliberate on draft
amendments to the PRC Patent Law,124 PRC Trademark Law,125
and PRC Copyright Law,126 respectively, this past year. The draft
amendment to the Trademark Law contains provisions that require
trademark applicants to adhere to the ‘‘principle of good faith,’’ 127
and it increases maximum damages in cases where violations are
deemed ‘‘serious.’’ 128 The draft amendment to the Patent Law expands the role of administrative authorities responsible for managing patents. For example, under the proposed amendment, administrative agencies would have the authority to investigate casesof patent violations that ‘‘allegedly disrupt market order,’’ 129 as
well as additional authority to fine perpetrators in certain cases.130
According to SIPO, granting additional authority to administrative
authorities would, among other things, help reduce ‘‘litigation fatigue’’ 131 and high costs 132 associated with bringing patent infringement cases to court. Some commentators, however, expressed
concern that the amendment would shift authority away from thecourts to administrative authorities. For example, Liu Chuntian,Professor at the Renmin University of China Law School,133 reportedly said the proposed amendments might ‘‘hurt the balance of153
power and the rule of law. . . . If the administrative agencies are
given more power, then there is some concern that the courts
might become more like an administrative agency instead of acting
as an independent judiciary.’’ 134 Other examples of legislative reform include SIPO’s November 2012 publication for public commentof a draft of the Service Invention Regulations 135—designed toclarify and protect the rights of inventors and their employers 136—
and the State Administration for Industry and Commerce’s August2012 release of the fifth draft of the Guide on Antimonopoly Enforcement in the Field of Intellectual Property Rights (theGuide).137 The Commission did not observe an official draft of the
Guide, but according to the Legal Daily, the fifth draft of the guide,inter alia, prohibits price fixing of products with intellectual property by competing companies.138
Amendment to the Civil Procedure Law
An amendment to the PRC Civil Procedure Law took effect on January 1, 2013,139 and some expert commentators noted it could bringgreater clarity, transparency, and efficiency to commercial litigation andarbitration in China.140 For example, the amended law requires courts
to write out judgments and rulings and explain in writing the reasoning
behind them; 141 the amended law also provides that the public may
look up judgments and rulings, but not those that concern state secrets,
trade secrets, or personal privacy.142 In addition, the amended law provides that parties to a dispute may apply to a court for measures designed to preserve assets and evidence prior to litigation or arbitration.143 The amended law also allows parties to apply to a court tofreeze the assets of another party or order another party to take or nottake certain actions in the event that a judgment will be difficult to enforce or that one party’s interests may be harmed; 144 and it allows thecourts to take such measures on their own, if necessary.145

Antitrust Developments
This past year, the Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) published
for public comment two new draft regulations—the Provisions on
Additional Restrictive Conditions for the Concentration of Business
Operators (‘‘Restrictive Conditions Provisions’’) 146 and the Interim
Provisions Regarding the Application of Standards for Simple
Cases of Concentration of Business Operators (‘‘Simple Cases Provisions’’) 147—both reportedly designed to clarify and streamline
merger review and approval processes.148 This past year, expert
commentators continued to criticize the merger review and approval processes for being long and for advancing industrial policy,149 and noted that the two new provisions had shortcomings.
For example, law firm Clifford Chance noted in an April 2013 analysis that it is unclear whether or not the Restrictive Conditions
Provisions will shorten the merger review process, given that in atleast two recent cases reviews have exceeded statutory limits.150
The Simple Cases Provisions outline criteria by which MOFCOM
may or may not classify certain kinds of mergers as ‘‘simple
cases,’’ 151 but, as law firm Herbert Smith Freehills noted in a May
2013 analysis, the Simple Cases Provisions do not provide guide-154
lines for the treatment of cases after they are classified as ‘‘simple
cases.’’ 152
This past year, the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) imposed penalties on companies operating outside of
China, reportedly the first time it had done so.153 On January 4,
2013, the NDRC reported that it had fined six companies a totalof 353 million yuan (US$56.5 million) 154 for participating in a cartel (‘‘LCD Cartel’’) to fix prices of liquid crystal display (LCD)
screens sold into the Chinese market.155 According to the NDRC
report, during the period from 2001 to 2006, representatives of thesix companies—LG and Samsung of South Korea and Chimei, AU
Optronics, Chunghwa Picture Tubes, and Hannstar of Taiwan—
met in Taiwan and South Korea a total of 53 times to exchange information on the worldwide LCD market and to set prices for LCD
screens.156 The NDRC reported that it brought the action against
the LCD Cartel under the 1998 PRC Pricing Law 157—which covers
collusion to manipulate market prices 158—rather than the 2008
PRC Antimonopoly Law,159 because the Antimonopoly Law did notcome into effect until 2008,160 after the activities in question allegedly took place.
The NDRC action raised certain issues concerning the NDRC’s
adherence to the letter of the law. For example, Article 2 of thePricing Law provides that it shall apply to pricing acts carried out
inside China.161 The Pricing Law does not forbid extraterritorial
application, but it does not provide for such extraterritoriality. In
addition, under the PRC Administrative Punishment Law, the applicable statute of limitations within which authorities would haveneeded to take action is two years,162 but the NDRC brought thisaction long after the conduct occurred. Regarding when the limitation period begins if the conduct has not been discovered, antitrustlawyer Marc Waha reportedly said, ‘‘At least in other legal systems,
when one speaks of a two year limitation period you are talking
about a four year maximum period. That is how it would work inother jurisdictions, but the rules are not clear in China.’’ 163 Finally, the NDRC reportedly announced that the members of the
LCD Cartel ‘‘proposed’’ corrective actions reportedly similar to
those the Ministry of Commerce (MOFCOM) has imposed in merger filing cases under the Antimonopoly Law.164 As a January 7,
2013, commentary by O’Melveny & Myers noted, however, the
NDRC had not issued measures that ‘‘[govern] the enforcement ofremedial commitments in the merger context.’’ 165
China’s pricing and bribery investigations in subsequent cases
involving dairy suppliers and drug manufacturers reportedly haveraised concerns over unequal treatment in favor of Chinese businesses and, in particular, large state-owned enterprises. In September the President of the European Union Chamber of Commerce in China, David Cucino, said, ‘‘In pricing investigations,some of the chamber’s member companies believe there is disproportion in how foreign companies are covered on this issue whencompared with Chinese rivals.’’ 166 Jeremie Waterman of the U.S.
Chamber of Commerce, said that Chinese authorities had initiatedcases against Chinese companies, but that ‘‘nearly all large Stateowned enterprises have been exempt from enforcement actions todate.’’ 167 [For more information on unequal treatment of Chinese

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and non-Chinese businesses, see China in the World Trade Organization in this section.]
Consumer Product Safety
During this past year, food safety scandals continued to emerge
in different parts of China. For example, the Ministry of Public Security reported that, over the course of a three-month campaignthat began on January 25, 2013, public security authorities took
into custody 904 people allegedly involved in various ‘‘meat productoffenses,’’ including the sale of fake meat products.168 Later reports
from Chinese and international media revealed that those involved
were suspected of selling rat, fox, and mink meat disguised as mutton and beef, among other offenses.169 In another case, authorities
in Guangzhou municipality, Guangdong province, reportedly foundthat over 44 percent of rice and rice products they tested contained
unsafe levels of cadmium.170 Authorities at the Guangzhou Municipal Food and Drug Supervision and Management Bureau reportedly said that it was ‘‘not convenient to reveal’’ which brands carried the affected rice.171 In another case, the Nanchang County
People’s Court, in Nanchang municipality, Jiangxi province, reportedly sentenced six people to up to five years in prison for disguisingused cooking oil—which reportedly can contain carcinogens—as
new and selling it.172 Similarly, a court in Guangdong reportedly
sentenced three people for buying and reselling used oil.173
Hazardous and illegal Chinese products continued to cross borders into other markets during this past reporting year. In May
2013 testimony before the Commission, Steven Solomon, Associate
Director for Global Operations and Policy in the Office of Global
Regulatory Operations and Policy of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, reported that 3 percent of food, 8 percent of animal
food, and 5 percent of drugs and biologics imported into the UnitedStates came from China.174 In one case, according to a report from
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), authorities in
New York reportedly charged five individuals and five corporations
after they allegedly imported ‘‘hazardous and counterfeit’’ toys from
China into the United States.175 One ICE official reportedly said,‘‘The people and companies involved in this illegal trade not only
allegedly infringed on intellectual property rights, they placed thelives of innocent children in danger. . . . They allegedly sold toys
with high lead content and cheap knock offs with substandard
parts that break easily and pose a choking hazard.’’ 176 According
to an October 2012 Der Spiegel article, hazardous Chinese products—including glass chips among pumpkin seeds, maggots inpasta, cadmium in dried anchovies, contaminated strawberries, andantibiotics in shrimp—reached a variety of European Union countries in late 2012.177
In addition, concerns over contaminated milk powder in mainland China 178 prompted mainland Chinese travelers to bring illegal quantities of milk powder from Hong Kong back to mainland
China. Between March 1 and April 23, 2013, authorities in Hong
Kong reportedly took into custody 879 people allegedly involved insmuggling milk powder from Hong Kong into mainland China.179
According to an April 2013 Bloomberg article, on March 1, Hong
Kong authorities limited the amount of milk powder that travelers

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may take out of Hong Kong after concerns about the quality of milk
powder in mainland China prompted large numbers of Chinese
travelers to buy milk powder in Hong Kong and take it back tomainland China.180 According to central government news agency
Xinhua, the State Council announced plans to increase safetymeasures in China’s milk industry.181 Under the plan, the government reportedly would adopt new quality standards and would ‘‘intensify the crackdown on milk powder-related violations.’’ 182

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ACCESS TO JUSTICE
Introduction
Chinese citizens face formidable obstacles in seeking remedies togovernment actions that violate their legal rights and constitutionally protected freedoms. International human rights standards
require effective remedies for official violations of citizens’ rights.
Article 8 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that‘‘Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent
national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted
him by the constitution or by law.’’ 1 Article 2 of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which China hassigned but not yet ratified, requires that all parties to the ICCPR
ensure that persons whose rights or freedoms are violated ‘‘have aneffective remedy, notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by persons acting in an official capacity.’’ 2
Legal Reform
During the 2013 reporting year, the Commission observed key
leadership changes in the Chinese Communist Party and government’s legal sectors, and official statements on the potential reformof controversial mechanisms within the legal system. The new Supreme People’s Court (SPC) President Zhou Qiang has academic
and professional training in legal affairs, unlike his predecessor,
Wang Shengjun, who had a security background.3 The new Secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee’s Political andLegal Affairs Commission (PLAC), Meng Jianzhu, does not have aconcurrent government appointment as head of public security ora seat among the seven-member Standing Committee of the Central Committee’s Political Bureau as did his predecessor, Zhou
Yongkang, which suggests a downgrade of the PLAC after a decadeof powerful growth.4 At a January 2013 meeting of the PLAC, fourareas of legal reform for the coming year were announced: The justice sector,5 the reeducation through labor (RTL) system,6 citizen
petitioning, and the household registration (hukou) system.7 [Forinformation on hukou system reform, see Section II—Freedom of
Residence and Movement.]
JUSTICE SECTOR REFORM

While China’s Constitution provides for the exercise of judicial
independence in Article 126, the Constitution’s preamble establishes the leadership of the Communist Party over all other institutions.8 An academic report on justice sector reform during the latest round of judicial reforms (2008–2012) concludes that ‘‘fundamentally, there has been no progress in judicial fairness, credibility, or authority’’ and ‘‘judicial independence has deteriorated,’’even though there was some progress on technical matters, such as
court fee guarantees, uniformity of adjudication, disclosure, andregulatory constraints.9 Achieving judicial independence, it goes on
to say, will require ‘‘clarifying’’ (liqing) the relationship between the
judiciary and the Party.10 The State Council’s October 2012 white
paper on judicial reform in China states that the ‘‘objectives of China’s judicial reform’’ include ‘‘ensur[ing] that the people’s courts

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and people’s procuratorates exercise adjudicative power and procuratorial power fairly and independently’’ and ‘‘establish[ing] an impartial, efficient and authoritative socialist judicial system,’’ 11 but
makes no mention of the Communist Party or the role of the Party’s Political and Legal Affairs Commission (PLAC) over the
courts.12 References to judicial independence in the departing Supreme People’s Court (SPC) president Wang Shengjun’s work report in March,13 led at least one commentator to suggest that judicial independence may be a key agenda item for future judicial reform.14 The focus of the next round of judicial reforms will likely
be spelled out in the SPC’s next five-year plan covering 2014–2019 15 as well as in forthcoming PLAC announcement(s) on its institutional priorities for legal reform.16
REEDUCATION THROUGH LABOR

The reeducation through labor (RTL) system operates entirely
outside of the judicial system and is influenced but not constrainedby the PRC Criminal Law. RTL is a system of administrative punishment that enables law enforcement officials to incarcerate Chinese citizens at RTL centers for a maximum initial period of three
years, with the possibility of an extension of up to one year.17 Chinese and international legal commentators state that RTL not only
violates China’s international human rights obligations,18 but also
violates its own laws and constitutional protections.19 With a reported 350 RTL detention centers nationwide and estimates ofmore than 100,000 detainees,20 authorities use the RTL system todetain petitioners seeking redress for official abuses, practitionersof the Falun Gong spiritual movement,21 and minor offenders—including drug users and sex workers—whose alleged misconduct is
not a criminal offense under Chinese law.22
During the 2013 reporting year, high-profile individual cases 23
and an exposé on harsh conditions at a women’s RTL center in
Liaoning province 24 focused national attention in China on the useof RTL and strengthened calls for its reform and even abolition.25
Although several provinces reportedly began to ‘‘transition’’ RTL
centers into compulsory drug treatment facilities,26 to discontinue
issuing RTL sentences,27 and to operate rehabilitation and corrections pilot sites,28 the government and Party’s position on RTL reform, nevertheless, remains ambiguous. PLAC Secretary Meng
Jianzhu’s reported comment in January to ‘‘halt’’ RTL has shiftedto vague plans for reform,29 as when Premier Li Keqiang told aMarch press conference in Beijing that plans to reform China’s
RTL system ‘‘might be unveiled’’ by the end of the year.30 Similarly, the government’s submission to the UN Human Rights Council for the October 2013 Universal Periodic Review affirms an intention to reform RTL but provides no timeframe for reform.31 The
vagueness of official pronouncements has raised concerns that extralegal detention may continue, albeit under a different name.32
CITIZEN PETITIONING

The petitioning, or xinfang (letters and visits), system exists toprovide a channel, outside court challenges, for citizens to appeal
government, court, and Communist Party decisions and to present
their grievances.33 Citizens often turn to petitioning as a means to159seek redress for a wide range of disputes—such as forced evictions
and land expropriation,34 wage arrears,35 unpaid pensions to military veterans,36 and unpaid compensation required under healthrelated regulations 37—due to institutional weaknesses in the judiciary and limits on citizens’ ability to air grievances. A prominent
Chinese economist reportedly estimated 20 million petitioners in
2012, including repeated filings and petitions at various levels ofgovernment.38 Chinese authorities, however, announced an 11-percent decrease in the total number of petitions during 2012 at ateleconference of the heads of Letters and Visits Bureaus in January 2013, a continuation of an eight-year decrease from 2005, when
12.6 million petitions were officially reported.39
Prior to and during the 18th Party Congress in November 2012,
the Commission observed nationwide ‘‘petitioning stability maintenance work’’ (xinfang weiwen gongzuo) to achieve ‘‘zero petitioning,’’ particularly targeting potential petitioners’ travel to Beijing.40 While some localities advised officials to mobilize into work
teams 41 and resolve petitioner grievances with more service-oriented attitudes,42 some official guidance also suggested 24-hour
surveillance of long-time petitioners and other ‘‘stability maintenance’’ measures.43 A Chinese rights advocate described the controlof petitioners for the 18th Party Congress as ‘‘comparatively muchbigger than in the past,’’ 44 borne out by reports of evictions from‘‘petitioner villages’’ in Beijing,45 detention in ‘‘black jails,’’ 46 and
RTL detention for several Shanghai petitioners 47 and rights advocates, including Mao Hengfeng,48 Cui Fufang,49 Tong Guojing,50
Shen Yongmei,51 and Shen Lianman.52 Caixin Media, a domestic
Chinese news organization known for its investigative work, reported on the beating death of a petitioner from Henan province as
he was taken from Beijing by provincial ‘‘black security guards’’ on
the eve of the Party Congress.53
Even with increased repression of petitioners throughout the fallof 2012 54 and in early 2013 prior to the annual meetings of the National People’s Congress (NPC) and China People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) (Two Sessions) in March,55 government officials at the Two Sessions nevertheless discussed possible
reform of the petitioning system. Former CPPCC head Jia Qinglin
called for establishing a mechanism to end ‘‘abnormal petitioning,’’ 56 a broad term that denotes repeated petitioning, disruptive conduct, multiple participants, or ‘‘leap-frogging administrative
levels’’ to complain to higher level officials.57 One CPPCC official
recommended hearings or assessments for complex cases.58 Petitioning bureaus and other agencies with petitioning offices appear
to be strengthening prohibitions against intercepting ‘‘ordinary’’ petitioners, characterizing interceptions as an ‘‘incorrect practice’’(cuowu zuofa).59 In May, Chinese state media reported that, beginning in March 2013, the State Letters and Visits Bureau had temporarily suspended issuance of the monthly ranking of provinces
based on the number of ‘‘abnormal petitioning’’ incidents eachmonth.60 A journalist from Yunnan province, however, illustrated
the lack of central-local policy coordination by reporting on theAnhui Provincial Communist Party Standing Committee’s recommendation to start ‘‘abnormal petitioning’’ rankings for Anhuicounty- and district-level governments on June 1, 2013.61

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Harassment of Human Rights Lawyers and Defenders
The Commission observed instances of government harassment,62 detention,63 and physical violence against weiquan (rights
defense) 64 lawyers during the 2013 reporting year, continuing apattern of human rights violations against rights defenders documented in prior years.65 During the annual license renewal period
in May 2013, the Beijing Justice Bureau reportedly did not renew
licenses of approximately 10 law firms and possibly dozens ofweiquan lawyers,66 many of whom have provided legal counsel inreligious freedom, state security, and reeducation through laborcases.67 International news media also reported that authorities
have shut down the blogs of lawyers involved in rights defense,68
and placed at least one lawyer on a government list of so-called‘‘key persons’’ (zhongdian renyuan, i.e., a person of ‘‘key’’ interest
to security authorities).69 Local law enforcement also reportedly detained and beat a group of weiquan lawyers who went to Sichuanprovince in May 2013 to investigate an allegedly illegal detention
center.70
The Commission continues to monitor the cases of Chinese lawyers and rights defenders detained and imprisoned for their humanrights advocacy, such as Xu Zhiyong,71 Gao Zhisheng,72 and Ni
Yulan.73 In July 2013, authorities detained and subsequently arrested prominent rights advocate, Xu Zhiyong, reportedly in connection with his advocacy of citizen rights and official transparency.74 Gao Zhisheng, well-known for his legal defense of
marginalized citizens and religious practitioners,75 is serving aprison term in Akesu (Aksu) prefecture, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, on the charge of ‘‘inciting subversion of state
power.’’ 76 His brother and father-in-law visited him in January
2013 at the prison—the first time authorities permitted them to do
so in nine months 77—but authorities prohibited any discussion of
Gao’s prison conditions, legal case, or wife and children.78 In April
2012, authorities in Beijing sentenced Ni Yulan, a housing rights
advocate, and her husband Dong Jiqin, to two years and eightmonths 79 and two years in prison, respectively, following a crackdown on rights defenders and others in spring 2011.80 Authorities
refused a medical parole request for Ni submitted in October
2012: 81 Ni is permanently disabled as a result of police abuse,82
and reportedly suffers from thyroid disorders.83
Efforts To Expand Legal Aid
The Chinese government continues to increase funding available
for legal aid in order to expand access to institutions that assist
citizens with legal claims and disputes.84 According to official statistics, in 2012 there was a 21-percent increase over 2011 in theprovision of legal aid in China, with more than 1,140,000 recipientsof legal aid and total national funding of 1.4 billion yuan (US$224
million), an increase of 9.9 percent.85 Although approximately
60,000 persons with disabilities received legal aid in 2012—an increase of 11.5 percent 86—the UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities raised concerns that China has not allocatedsufficient ‘‘human and financial resources’’ to provide legal aid
services to persons with disabilities in its review of China’s compli-

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ance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
in September 2012.87 Scholars currently estimate that the rate oflegal representation for defendants in criminal cases is less than 30
percent,88 yet the expansion of legal aid under the revised Criminal
Procedure Law (CPL) is likely to multiply the number of criminalcases, thus resulting in a need for even more funding and criminal
defense lawyers.89 Under the Regulations Regarding Criminal Procedure Law Legal Aid Work issued in February 2013 (effective on
March 1) 90 that provide guidance to legal practitioners on implementation of the revised CPL,91 investigating agencies (e.g., theProcuratorate or public security bureau) are required to inform defendants of their right to counsel; and defendants—and their family
members—may apply for legal aid at all stages of a case.92 The
new regulations also stipulate that criminal suspects or defendants
will not have to show economic need to apply for legal aid in cases
where there is evidence of mental disability; where other defendants in the same case have employed defense counsel; where the‘‘procuratorate has appealed’’; or where the case may have ‘‘significant social impact.’’ 93
Abuse of Family Members of Rights Defenders and Political Activists
During the 2013 reporting year, the Commission observed reports ofongoing official harassment of family members of rights defenders andpolitical activists. Chinese authorities used a range of methods, such as
intimidation, extralegal detention, imprisonment, and physical violenceagainst these individuals.94• Chen Guangcheng.95 Multiple family members of the prominent
legal advocate Chen Guangcheng have suffered abuse in connection with
Chen’s rights advocacy in China and his departure to the United Statesin 2012.96 These include his nephew, Chen Kegui, who was sentenced in2012 to three years and three months in prison for an alleged assault ona group of plainclothes officials and hired personnel who broke into hishome in the middle of the night; 97 his elder brother, Chen Guangfu; 98
his sister-in-law, Ren Zongju; 99 and his mother, Wang Jinxiang.100• Hada.101 Xinna, the wife of rights advocate Hada, and the couple’sson, Uiles, have spent years under surveillance, sometimes in detention
centers,102 in connection to Hada’s efforts to preserve Mongolian ethnic
identity in Inner Mongolia.103 During this reporting year, authorities
limited their rights to freedom of movement and communication.104• Liu Xiaobo.105 Liu Xia, wife of Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu
Xiaobo, reportedly has been confined to her home under 24-hour surveillance since October 2010, without cell phone or Internet access.106 In
June 2013, Chinese authorities sentenced Liu Xia’s brother, Liu Hui, to
11 years in prison for fraud, but Liu Xia and others assert that Liu
Hui’s sentence is retribution against Liu Xiaobo and Liu Xia.107

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Abuse of Family Members of Rights Defenders and Political Activists—
Continued• Rebiya Kadeer.108 Family members of Uyghur human rights activist
Rebiya Kadeer have faced official persecution,109 including home eviction,110 loss of livelihood,111 and extralegal detention.112 One of hersons, Ablikim Abdureyim, is serving a nine-year prison term on the
charge of ‘‘instigating and engaging in secessionist activities.’’ 113
Other family members of rights defenders and political activists who
have been harassed and are mentioned in this report include Zhang
Anni, the daughter of Zhang Lin; 114 Liu Ying, the ex-wife of Liu
Benqi; 115 and some relatives of Zhu Yufu.116 [For further information,see Section III—Institutions of Democratic Governance.]

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IV. Xinjiang
Human rights conditions in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region (XUAR) remained poor during the Commission’s 2013 reporting year. Central and regional Chinese Communist Party andgovernment authorities carried out campaigns focused on security
and stability to enforce harsh security controls and limit the freedoms of movement and expression throughout the XUAR. Deadly
clashes that took place in the spring and summer raised concerns
about the failure of ethnic policy in the XUAR to address the root
causes of regional instability. Overseas media and rights groups reported instances during which security forces shot into crowds of
Uyghurs, resulting in deaths and injuries. In some cases, Uyghur
residents of the XUAR reportedly committed deadly attacks onmembers of security forces, community workers, and others. Pervasive house searches throughout the region, as well as surveillanceof individual religious believers, reportedly targeted peaceful expressions of religious belief among the Uyghur population, heightening tensions in the region. Intensified regional development
projects raised concerns over disproportionate economic, social, andcultural opportunities for Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in
the region, as well as concerns over the effect such projects have
had on the cultures and languages of these groups.
Security Measures and Conflict
XUAR officials strengthened security measures in a bid to ‘‘maintain stability’’ and ‘‘fight terrorism’’ in the region, using methods
some observers criticized as repressive and counterproductive.1 In
November 2012, on the sidelines of the 18th National Congress of
the Chinese Communist Party in Beijing, XUAR government chairperson Nur Bekri warned of the ‘‘three evil forces’’ (terrorism, separatism, and religious extremism) in the region, saying the fightagainst separatism in the region would be ‘‘long-term, complicatedand fierce.’’ 2 According to official statistics released in January
2013, regional authorities allocated 9.34 billion yuan (US$1.5 billion) to the public security sector in 2012, a 23-percent increaseover 2011.3
Instances of violence throughout the spring and summer reportedly resulted in numerous deaths, both Han Chinese and Uyghur,with reported death tolls ranging from dozens to 100 or possibly
more. An April 23, 2013, clash between local residents, community
workers, and police in Siriqbuya (Selibuya) township, Maralbeshi(Bachu) county, Kashgar prefecture, reportedly resulted in thedeaths of 21 people.4 Official media accounts of the incident described it as a terrorist attack during which the attackers killed 15
community workers and police.5 Some reports from overseas media
and human rights groups questioned authorities’ portrayal ofevents as terrorist in nature.6 A Uyghur rights advocate reportedly
asserted that a search of residents’ homes had sparked the violence.7 Similar searches are routinely conducted throughout the
XUAR to ‘‘maintain stability.’’ 8 On August 12, 2013, the Kashgar
Prefecture Intermediate People’s Court sentenced two Uyghur men
to death and three others to terms ranging from nine years to life
for taking part in the violence.9

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Xinhua reported that on June 26, 2013, in Lukchun (Lukeqin)
township, Pichan (Shanshan) county, Turpan prefecture, ‘‘knifewielding rioters’’ attacked police stations and other governmentbuildings before police fired on them.10 Official media reported onJune 28 that 35 people had died, including 24 killed by assailants
and 11 shot and killed by police, and 21 people had been injuredin the incident.11 Regional officials reported that on August 15,
attackers killed Turpan Islamic Association Vice Chairman
Abdurehim Damolla in front of his home.12 According to Radio Free
Asia (RFA), attackers targeted Damolla for supporting a government crackdown in the wake of the June 26 violence.13
Some overseas media reports and human rights advocates questioned the official narrative regarding the incident on June 26 in
Turpan prefecture, including the death toll 14 and details of what
took place,15 and raised concerns about the role that repressive
policies had played in contributing to deadly clashes in the region.16 Media reports and human rights advocates cited religious
repression,17 house searches,18 and housing redevelopment policies 19 among the factors exacerbating regional tension.
House searches were reportedly also related to two separate
deadly incidents in May and June. On May 9, a Uyghur farmer,
whom authorities believed had been involved in an earlier deadly
clash, reportedly stabbed two village officials to death in Uchar(Wuqia) township, Yengisar (Yingjisha) county, Kashgar prefecture,
while they were conducting house searches, and authorities subsequently beat the farmer to death.20 On June 30, authorities reportedly shot and killed a Uyghur man in Artush (Atushi) city, Qizilsu
Kyrgyz (Kezilesu Kirghiz) Autonomous Prefecture, after he fatally
stabbed a police officer and injured two others during a housesearch.21 Additionally, on June 28, security forces reportedly shotand killed a Uyghur man in Uchturpan (Wushi) county, Aksu prefecture, after he stabbed and injured two people, including at least
one police officer, when they pressed him to shave off his beard.22
On June 28, 2013, President Xi Jinping reportedly convened ameeting of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of theCommunist Party Central Committee (Politburo) to discuss the
clashes in the XUAR, and two Politburo members, Meng Jianzhu
and Yu Zhengsheng, subsequently traveled to the region.23 In June
and July, in the lead-up to the anniversary of demonstrations andriots that took place on July 5, 2009, in Urumqi city,24 officials carried out displays of military and paramilitary force in Urumqi andother areas of the XUAR, and instituted 24-hour security patrols
in some locations.25 Some human rights advocates and international observers expressed concern about the security buildup,
together with what they viewed as authorities’ failure to address
the root causes of violence.26
In June and August, several incidents reportedly occurred involving security forces’ deadly use of force against crowds of Uyghurs.
According to official media, on June 28, security forces detained
people involved in a ‘‘group disturbance’’ in Hanerik (Hanairike)township, Hotan county.27 Overseas media and rights groups reported that security forces fired on a crowd of Uyghurs in Hanerik,
resulting in a number of deaths and injuries, with reported death
tolls ranging from up to 15 people to more than 100.28 RFA re-165
ported that on August 8, a clash between police and local residents
in Aykol township, Aksu city, Aksu prefecture, over religious restrictions led to the deaths of at least three Uyghurs when security
forces fired on a crowd of protestors.29 [See Freedom of Religion inthis section for more information on the clash in Aksu.] Overseas
media reported that on August 20 in Yilikqi township, Kargilik(Yecheng) county, Kashgar prefecture, Chinese police shot andkilled 22 Uyghurs they suspected of terrorism, while the Uyghurs
were performing prayers.30 Official media confirmed the raid, providing information about a Chinese police officer killed in the incident, but did not confirm or deny the 22 Uyghur casualties.31
On August 23, in Kuybagh (Kuiyibage) township, Poskam (Zepu)
county, Kashgar prefecture, security forces reportedly shot andkilled 12 Uyghurs and injured 20 authorities said were engaging
in building and testing explosives at a ‘‘terrorist’’ facility.32
Official media reported in March that courts in Kashgar prefecture and the Bayangol Mongol Autonomous Prefecture had sentenced 20 Uyghurs to prison terms ranging from five years to life
for their involvement in ‘‘terrorist’’ and ‘‘separatist’’ activities.33
Chinese authorities stated that the 20 men had used the Internet
and cell phones to commit ‘‘terrorist’’ and ‘‘separatist’’ crimes, inaddition to organizing religious activities, buying weapons, andplanning to attack police officers.34 Some overseas media andhuman rights groups criticized the sentences given to the 20 men,questioning official accusations of terrorism and expressing doubts
over authorities’ use of criminal charges to prosecute Internet andcell phone use.35
Criminal Law and Access to Justice
Chinese government and official media reports in 2013 underscored the XUAR criminal justice system’s frequent use of chargesof ‘‘endangering state security’’ (ESS).36 An article published by the
Dui Hua Foundation, a human rights advocacy organization, in
March 2013 stressed that, while ESS trials had declined in the
XUAR, the number of these trials in the XUAR continued to represent a highly disproportionate ratio of the total number of ESS
trials throughout China.37 According to Dui Hua estimates, basedon official statistics, the XUAR accounted for half of first-instance
ESS trials throughout China between 2008 and 2010, although lessthan 2 percent of China’s population lives in the XUAR.38 According to the second annual work report of the XUAR High People’s
Court, issued in January 2013, 314 criminal trials involving ESS
crimes were conducted in 2012, a 24 percent decline from 2011 figures.39
Authorities reportedly detained 12 students in early May 2013 at
Tarim University, located in Ala’er city, Aksu prefecture.40 On May
27, authorities reportedly released all 12 students.41 Ablimit,
Dilshat, Alimjan, Ekber, and Abdureshit were released on bail.42
The conditions of their bail, which will remain in place until May
27, 2014, include restrictions on their movement.43 Alimjan was reportedly detained again by Ala’er public security officials for abouta day beginning on June 21,44 and was beaten during both periodsof detention.45

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Development Policy
During the 2013 reporting year, XUAR officials accelerated largescale development plans throughout the region, including in theareas of infrastructure,46 transportation,47 energy exploitation,48
urban and rural construction,49 education,50 and employment.51
XUAR authorities oversaw billions of yuan in investment in stateled development projects and sought to attract private domestic
and foreign investment in the region, touting it as an economic hub
for central, western, and southern Asia.52 Regional officials reiterated development goals first announced at the Xinjiang Work
Forum in 2010 53 and reiterated strategies for economic and political development that prioritize state economic and political goals
over respecting the rights of XUAR residents,54 including thoseoutlined in the PRC Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law.55 International observers have expressed concerns over the expropriationand destruction of ethnic minority residents’ property and a lack ofprotections for cultural heritage related to urban development initiatives in the region.56
In 2013, regional officials oversaw the growth of ‘‘counterpart
support’’ programs that bring funding and personnel assistance to
the XUAR for development initiatives from provinces and cities
outside of the region,57 stressing the patriotic nature of promoting
regional economic development.58 Counterpart provinces and cities
reportedly provided 149.3 billion yuan (US$24.3 billion) in aid to
the XUAR in 2012, a 37.3-percent increase over the previous
year.59
Increased migration to the XUAR in recent years has reportedly
heightened ethnic tensions in some areas and sparked concerns
among Uyghur residents regarding land rights and employment opportunities.60 Regional development initiatives brought increased
Han Chinese migration to the XUAR during the past year, often
into southern areas of the XUAR traditionally inhabited by
Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities, and state-led programs provided assistance to migrants and workers from other provinces.61
This past year, reports cited Uyghurs’ concerns over government
authorities’ expropriation of their land,62 inadequate government
compensation for expropriated land then sold at a higher price toChinese buyers,63 and government subsidies given only to new Han
Chinese migrants that allowed them to save money to purchasemore land.64 The growth of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) 65 in southern areas of the XUAR, billed by Chinese leaders as a conduit for regional development in the aftermathof the July 2009 demonstrations and riots, has brought thousandsof Han Chinese migrants into areas near the majority-Uyghur cityof Hotan.66
During the reporting period, authorities intensified housing construction and demolition projects in rural and urban areas of the
XUAR, in areas inhabited by Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities.67 ‘‘Counterpart support’’ projects provided hundreds of millionsof yuan for construction and resettlement efforts.68 In 2013, regional authorities continued work to relocate and resettle farmers
and herders away from grasslands, as part of programs that XUAR
authorities publicize as improving farmers’ and herders’ living con-

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ditions.69 These policies have impacted affected groups with livelihoods based on traditional nomadic herding practices.70 According
to official statistics released in May 2013, authorities resettled
136,800 herders in the XUAR between 2010 and 2012, comprising49.2 percent of the total population of herders in the XUAR.71
Demolitions in Kashgar’s Old City
Authorities continued to demolish and redevelop the Old City
section of Kashgar city,72 raising concerns over the corresponding
loss of unique cultural heritage 73 and the resettlement of 220,000
Uyghur residents.74 The Old City demolitions, along withdemolitions in other areas of the XUAR, have been carried out inline with broader development initiatives and a five-year demolition project launched in 2009.75 Since demolitions began in 2009,
authorities have reportedly disregarded Uyghur residents’ concerns
over demolition efforts,76 in spite of official pledges to consult residents for their opinions.77 Groups promoting the protection of cultural heritage have outlined concerns over a lack of transparency
in the process of planning and implementing the demolitions, andhave expressed concern over officials’ failure to consider alternatives to the wholesale demolition of Old City buildings.78
Labor
DISCRIMINATION

Some government and private employers in the XUAR continued
to discriminate against non-Han job candidates. As in past years,
some job announcements reserved positions exclusively for Han
Chinese in civil servant posts and private-sector jobs, in contravention of provisions in Chinese law that forbid ethnic discrimination.79 Private and public employers also continued to reserve morepositions for men, leaving non-Han women to face both ethnic andgender discrimination in the employment process.80 A study conducted by the University of Melbourne, Australia, and published in
November 2012, found that Han Chinese residents of the XUAR
are much more likely than Uyghur residents to secure employment
in high-paying, high-status occupations, a trend that has exacerbated ethnic tensions in the region.81
LABOR TRANSFERS AND FORCED LABOR

Regional officials continued to carry out programs that send
young non-Han men and women outside of the XUAR for employment, under the slogan of ‘‘transferring the excess rural labor
force.’’ According to a January 2013 official news report, more than
2.7 million people had been transferred to jobs outside of theirhome area or outside of the XUAR in 2012,82 an increase from 2.58
million people in 2011.83 As documented by the Commission in recent years, some participants and their family members have reported coercion to participate in the programs, the use of underage
workers, and exploitative working conditions.84 XUAR authorities
also reportedly forced some Uyghur farmers to perform road-building and agricultural work without pay, although such ‘‘free labor’’
programs officially had been abolished.85

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Freedom of Expression
Local governments in the XUAR continued to implement censorship campaigns focused on religious and political publications during the reporting period. The campaigns have targeted pirated andpornographic items in addition to publications deemed ‘‘illegal’’solely because of their religious or political content.86 For instance,
in March 2013, the XUAR Transportation Department published astatement indicating that, in 2012, regional transportation officials
had uncovered 4,469 copies of ‘‘illegal religious publications,’’ aspart of a campaign to ‘‘sweep away pornography.’’ 87
Uyghurs continued to serve prison sentences as a result of exercising their right to free speech. In February 2013, Uyghur Online,
a Web site focused on Uyghur issues, reported that, in April 2009,
the Kashgar Municipality Intermediate People’s Court sentenced
Uyghur translator Mirhemitjan Muzepper to 11 years in prison for‘‘inciting splittism of the state,’’ information that authorities had
not publicized.88 The court had connected Muzepper’s sentence tohis work as a temporary translator for a Hong Kong media organization reporting on the demolitions taking place in Kashgar’s Old
City.89
Passport and Exit Restrictions
During the reporting year, Chinese officials implemented restrictions on passports and international and domestic travel for
Uyghurs, highlighting official restrictions on Uyghurs’ freedom of
movement.90 In February 2013, Chinese authorities reportedly detained Beijing-based Uyghur scholar Ilham Tohti, who founded the
Web site Uyghur Online, at the Beijing Capital International Airport, preventing him from boarding a flight to the United States.91
Tohti reportedly held a valid passport and had been issued a visa
for educational exchange to the United States, where he planned
to take up a visiting scholar position at Indiana University.92 Authorities also held and interrogated Uyghur university student
Atikem Rozi in February 2013, after she attempted to apply for a
passport for the second time in order to study abroad.93 The Toqsu(Xinhe) County Foreign Affairs Office in Aksu prefecture reportedly
informed Rozi that the passport denial was due to the fact that she
was ‘‘politically unqualified.’’ 94 In July 2013, Rozi reported her belief that police had detained her friend Mutellip Imin—a Uyghurstudying abroad in Turkey who had performed volunteer work for
Uyghur Online 95—on July 15 at the Beijing Capital International
Airport as he prepared to fly back to Turkey from Beijing.96 As of
September 23, 2013, the Commission had not observed any news
regarding Mutellip’s release from detention. [See Section II—Freedom of Residence and Movement for additional information on freedom of movement in China.]
Forced Return of Uyghur Asylum Seekers and Migrants
The deportation and reports of the sentencing of Uyghur asylum
seekers this past year highlighted the dangers facing Uyghur refugees and asylum seekers in neighboring countries that are under
the influence of Chinese economic and diplomatic power. In December 2012, Malaysian authorities deported six Uyghur asylum seek-

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ers to China, although the UN High Commissioner for Refugees
was still reviewing their asylum claims.97 Malaysian authorities reportedly had detained the six Uyghurs earlier in 2012 for allegedly
attempting to leave Malaysia on forged passports.98 Two international human rights groups raised questions regarding the Chinese government’s role in the forced return, one of several documented cases of forced deportation of Uyghurs to China in recent
years.99 In another case, Radio Free Asia (RFA) reported in December 2012 that, according to a Malaysian lawyer, 11 Uyghurs previously deported from Malaysia in August 2011 had been charged
with terrorism and separatism; according to relatives and friends,
the men had been sentenced to prison for terms of up to 15 years
on charges of separatism.100
Freedom of Religion
XUAR authorities continued intensive controls over religion, especially Islam, posing a challenge for Uyghurs seeking to maintaintheir religious beliefs outside of state control.101 Authorities continued to enforce tight restrictions over peaceful religious practices
among the Uyghur population, and carried out targeted surveillance of individual religious believers.102 A report issued by a
Uyghur human rights organization in April 2013 outlined concerns
over religious policies implemented by central and local authorities,
which the group said ‘‘have progressively narrowed the definitionof lawful [religious] activity’’ among Uyghurs.103 The report also
highlighted concerns over a lack of transparency in religious regulations, official limitations on religious pilgrimages, and otherissues related to official restrictions on Uyghurs’ religious practices.104
On August 7, on the eve of the Eid holiday marking the end of
the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, police in Aykol township,
Aksu prefecture, reportedly sought to prevent residents from another village from engaging in cross-village worship,105 and detained several Uyghur men for engaging in ‘‘illegal religious activities.’’ 106 In the early morning hours of August 8, after hundreds ofpeople gathered in protest, throwing stones and bricks, security
forces reportedly fired on the crowd, killing at least three Uyghurs
and injuring at least a dozen.107 Around 10 to 12 police officers reportedly also sustained injuries in the clash.108 Police reportedlyarrested more than 90 people after the incident.109 Central government propaganda authorities reportedly forbade Chinese media
from reporting on the confrontation, which officials described as ‘‘rioting and looting.’’ 110
Together with widespread security checks, police raids, andhouse searches among the Uyghur population aimed partially at
cracking down on ‘‘illegal religious activities,’’ 111 authorities in the
XUAR reportedly subjected Uyghurs practicing traditional Islamic
customs to close scrutiny. Authorities in Bulaqsu township, Shufu
county, Kashgar prefecture, reportedly kept registers related to‘‘stability maintenance’’ efforts that detailed the personal information of local religious believers and their family members.112 The
registers included information such as whether or not female Muslims wore a veil and when they started wearing it, as well as whattime a student of the Quran received Quranic instruction.113 A

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Uyghur resident of Keriya (Yutian) county, Hotan prefecture, told
RFA in May 2013 that local officials in his township maintained
registration books documenting religious believers,114 and a resident of Urumqi city reportedly told RFA that officials maintainedsuch documents throughout the XUAR.115
Regional authorities carried out training sessions for religious
clergy throughout the XUAR, placing an emphasis on reinforcing
patriotism and opposing ‘‘illegal religious activities.’’ 116 At a training session for ‘‘patriotic religious figures’’ in Urumqi in March
2013, XUAR government chairperson Nur Bekri expressed hopesthat attendees would become ‘‘politically reliable’’ ‘‘patriotic religious figures’’ who would ‘‘guide religion to adapt to socialist society.’’ 117 Chinese government- and Communist Party-led ideologicalcampaigns encouraging students and youth in the XUAR to refrainfrom engaging in ‘‘illegal religious activities’’ were frequent andwidespread throughout this reporting period.118
Local governments in 2013 also continued to train women religious specialists, known as büwi,119 using legal restrictions thatplace them under strict state control.120 According to an official
media report, in December 2012, the Kashgar Women’s Federation
sent 19 büwi and other female religious figures to trainings in six
eastern Chinese cities, stressing that the women should, upon theirreturn, transmit the Party’s policies on ethnic minorities and religion, and propagate ethnic unity.121
Authorities in Kashgar city reportedly detained 23-year-old
Uyghur Nurmemet Ismail without charge for 63 days beginning on
March 1, 2013, for selling the Quran and Quranic study aids.122
Authorities’ exact reasons for detaining Ismail are unclear,123 but
regional religious regulations stipulate that government approval isrequired for the sale and distribution of religious material, andthese regulations may have been a factor in Ismail’s detention.124
Some Uyghur Muslims and Christians continued to serve prison
sentences as a result of exercising their faith.125 According to a
January 2013 RFA report, authorities reduced family visits tojailed Uyghur pastor Alimjan Yimit from once a month to once
every three months.126
As in 2012,127 local government officials throughout the XUAR
reportedly maintained restrictions over Uyghurs’ observance ofRamadan, prohibiting minors from entering mosques,128 and forbidding government officials, students, and teachers from fasting.129 According to Uyghur Online, in July 2013, county officials
fired Abduhelil Ablimit, a staff member at a county government office in Shule county, Kashgar prefecture, for fasting.130 Local officials also placed restrictions on cross-village worship during theRamadan period.131 [See Section II—Freedom of Religion for additional information on religion in China, including cases of religious
repression in the XUAR.]
Language Policy and ‘‘Bilingual Education’’In the past year, the XUAR government broadened the scope of
Mandarin-focused ‘‘bilingual education’’ in the region, a policy someUyghur students in the XUAR fear is aimed at assimilating young
Uyghurs into Chinese society at the expense of their Uyghur identity.132 The expansion of the policy was carried out in line with tar-

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gets set in 2010 to universalize and develop ‘‘bilingual education’’in preschool through secondary school instruction throughout theregion.133 Under ‘‘bilingual education,’’ class instruction takes place
primarily in Mandarin Chinese, largely replacing instruction inlanguages spoken by ethnic minority groups.134 In recent years,
some Uyghur students and teachers have expressed concern overthe compulsory nature of the region’s ‘‘bilingual’’ curriculum andthe corresponding loss of young Uyghurs’ ability to speak the
Uyghur language.135
The number of students enrolled in ‘‘bilingual education’’ has increased rapidly in the past several years. According to the People’s
Daily, at the end of 2012, 1.41 million students were enrolled in‘‘bilingual education’’ from the preschool through the secondary
school level in the XUAR, making up 55 percent of the XUAR ethnic minority student population.136 This represents a 41.6-percent
increase in the ‘‘bilingual’’ student population over 2009.137 According to China News Service, from 2008 to 2012, central and regional
authorities invested 5 billion yuan (US$816 million) on preschool‘‘bilingual education’’ initiatives, establishing 2,237 ‘‘bilingual’’nursery schools throughout the region.138
Population Planning Policies
Government authorities throughout the XUAR promoted familyplanning campaigns targeting Muslim ethnic minorities, and compelling Islamic religious figures to promote state family planningpolicies. Authorities continued to issue monetary rewards to ethnic
minority households who have fewer children than allowed under
XUAR population and family planning regulations.139 The rewards
are issued according to a ‘‘special rewards system’’ for non-Han
households that includes a ‘‘fewer births, faster wealth’’ (shaoshengkuaifu) program.140 The system is one of the reward mechanisms
present throughout China’s population planning system, thoughwith special focus on ethnic minority households.141
In 2013, authorities in the XUAR and some other regions ofChina with Muslim populations continued to report on the implementation of a program entitled ‘‘Muslim Reproductive Health
Project’’ (musilin shengzhi jiankang xiangmu).142 Official reports
have described the project’s aims as providing reproductive healthinformation and health checks for Muslim women of reproductive
age while ‘‘creating a harmonious happy family.’’ 143 Official media
reports this past year emphasized the need to improve the effectiveness of project efforts, including through Islamic religious leaders’ promotion of the project among local Muslims.144

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V. Tibet
Status of Negotiations Between the Chinese Government and theDalai Lama or His Representatives
Formal dialogue between the Dalai Lama’s representatives andChinese Communist Party and government officials has beenstalled since the January 2010 ninth round,1 the longest interval
since such contacts resumed in 2002.2 The Commission observed no
indication during the 2013 reporting year of official Chinese interest in resuming a dialogue that takes into account Tibetan concerns in the Tibetan autonomous areas of China.3 In December
2012, then-U.S. Department of State Special Coordinator for Tibetan Issues Maria Otero called on the Chinese government to ‘‘engage in dialogue with the Dalai Lama or his representatives without preconditions.’’ 4
In June 2013, Professor Jin Wei, with the Central Party School,stated in an interview that, if the Party ‘‘can use creative ideas tobreak the impasse’’ in dialogue, it would ‘‘promote social stability
and prevent the creation of long-lasting nationality wounds.’’ 5 Jin
noted that the Party ‘‘cannot simply treat [the Dalai Lama] as anenemy,’’ recommended ‘‘restarting the talks,’’ and suggested discussing that the Dalai Lama visit Hong Kong ‘‘in his capacity asa religious leader.’’ 6
Tibetan Self-Immolation
The frequency of Tibetan self-immolation reportedly focusing on
political and religious issues increased during the Commission’s
2013 reporting year, peaking in October–November 2012 with 38
self-immolations 7 preceding and during the Communist Party Central Committee’s 18th Congress.8 Reports of self-immolators’ calls
for Tibetan freedom and the Dalai Lama’s return continued 9 andremained concurrent with government use of regulatory measures
to control and repress principal elements of Tibetan culture, including Tibetan Buddhist monastic institutions,10 and with the apparent collapse of the China-Dalai Lama dialogue.11 Tibetans haveself-immolated in 10 of 17 prefectural-level areas of Tibetan autonomy and 1 ordinary prefecture.12

173

For a list of Commission summaries on Tibetan self-immolations
that contain maps such as this one, please visit http://
www.cecc.gov/tibetan-self-immolations-0.

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The Party and government failed this past year to respond to Tibetan grievances in a constructive manner or accept any accountability for Tibetan rejection of Chinese policies. Officials characterized the crisis as the result of an external conspiracy to undermine
China’s internal security and social stability.13 In response, officials
maintained policies and practices that exacerbate tension.14 In December 2012, then-Special Coordinator for Tibetan Issues Maria
Otero cited examples: 15• ‘‘Severe government controls on Tibetan Buddhist religious
practice and monastic institutions’’;• ‘‘Education practices that undermine the preservation of Tibetan language’’;• ‘‘Intensive surveillance, arbitrary detentions and disappearances of Tibetans, including youth and Tibetan intellectual andcultural leaders’’;• ‘‘Escalating restrictions on news, media and communications’’; and• ‘‘The use of force against Tibetans seeking peacefully to exercise their universal human rights.’’
A Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson in December 2012 denied that issues regarding Tibetan culture, language, and religion
had a role in what a reporter called ‘‘the current tense situation.’’ 16
The spokesperson blamed ‘‘the Dalai clique’’—the Dalai Lama andorganizations and individuals the Party associates with him—asserting that ‘‘Tibet-related issues are not issues of ethnicity, religion, or human rights’’ but of ‘‘China’s sovereignty and territorial
integrity.’’ 17 Officials continued to use state-run media to discredit
self-immolators, depicting them in a pejorative manner (e.g., as aweak, flawed, or distressed individual,18 ‘‘copy-cat,’’ 19 or terrorist 20).
TIBETAN SELF-IMMOLATIONS REPORTED OR BELIEVED TO FOCUS ON
POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES (SEPTEMBER 2012–JULY 2013)
See CECC 2012 Annual Report for Self-Immolations 1–50 (February 2009–August 2012) 21
No.

Date of SelfImmolation

Name
Sex / Approx. Age

Occupation
Affiliation

Self-Immolation Location (Prov. / Pref./County)Status201251

September 29

Yungdrung
M/27

Layperson

Qinghai / Yushu
TAP / Zaduo
countyDeceased 22

52

October 4

Gudrub
M/43

Layperson(writer)

TAR / Naqu pref. /Naqu county

Deceased 23

53

October 6

Sanggye Gyatso
M/27

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan
TAP / Hezuo
city

Deceased 24

54

October 13

Tamdrin Dorje
M/early 50s

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan /Hezuo

Deceased 25

55

October 20

Lhamo Kyab
M/27

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /Xiahe county

Deceased 26

175
TIBETAN SELF-IMMOLATIONS REPORTED OR BELIEVED TO FOCUS ON POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES (SEPTEMBER 2012–JULY 2013)—CONTINUED
See CECC 2012 Annual Report for Self-Immolations 1–50 (February 2009–August 2012) 21
No.

Date of SelfImmolation

Name
Sex / Approx. Age

Occupation
Affiliation

Self-Immolation Location (Prov. / Pref./County)Status56

October 22

Dondrub
M/about 65

HusbandGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 27

57

October 23

Dorje Rinchen
M/58

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 28

58
59

October 25

Tsepo, M/20
Tenzin, M/25

Laypersons(cousins)

TAR / Naqu / Biru
countyDeceased
Unknown 29

60

October 26

Lhamo Tseten
M/24

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 30

61

October 26

Thubwang Kyab
M/23

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 31

62

November 4

Dorje Lhundrub
M/25

Husband, father, artist

Qinghai /Huangnan TAP /Tongren county

Deceased 32

63
64
65

November 7

Dorje, M/15
Samdrub, M/16
Dorje Kyab, M/16

Monks
NgoshulMonastery

Sichuan / Aba
T&QAP / Aba
countyDeceased
Hospitalized
Hospitalized 33

66

November 7

Tamdrin Tso
F/23

MotherQinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 34

67

November 7

Tsegyal
M/27

Father

TAR / Naqu / Biru

Deceased 35

68

November 8

Kalsang Jinpa
M/18

Formermonk
Rongbo Monastery

Qinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 36

69

November 10

Gonpo Tsering
M/19

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan /Hezuo

Deceased 37

70

November 12

Nyingkar Tashi
M/24

Husband

Qinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 38

71

November 12

Nyingchag Bum
M/16

Layperson

Qinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 39

72

November 15

Tenzin Drolma
F/23

Layperson

Qinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 40

73

November 15

Khabum Gyal
M/18

Layperson

Qinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 41

74

November 17

Chagmo Kyi
F/26

MotherQinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 42

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TIBETAN SELF-IMMOLATIONS REPORTED OR BELIEVED TO FOCUS ON POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES (SEPTEMBER 2012–JULY 2013)—CONTINUED
See CECC 2012 Annual Report for Self-Immolations 1–50 (February 2009–August 2012) 21
Name
Sex / Approx. Age

Occupation
Affiliation

Self-Immolation Location (Prov. / Pref./County)No.

Date of SelfImmolation

75

November 17

Sangdrag
Tsering
M/24

Husband andfatherQinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 43

76

November 19

Wangchen Norbu
M/25

Layperson

Qinghai / Haidong
pref. / Xunhua
SAC

Deceased 44

77

November 20

Tsering Dondrub
M/35

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 45

78

November 22

Lubum Gyal
M/18

Layperson

Qinghai /Huangnan /TongrenDeceased 46

79

November 22

Tamdrin Kyab
M/23

Formermonk
Shitsang
MonasteryGansu / Gannan /Luqu county

Deceased 47

80

November 23

Tamdrin Dorje
M/29

Head ofhouseholdQinghai /Huangnan /Zeku county

Deceased 48

81

November 25

Sanggye Drolma
F/17

Nun
Mindrol
Dargyling
Nunnery

Qinghai /Huangnan /Zeku

Deceased 49

82

November 26

Wanggyal
M/about 20

Student

Sichuan / Ganzi
TAP / Seda
countyUnknown 50

83

November 26

Konchog Tsering
M/18

HusbandGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 51

84

November 26

Gonpo Tsering
M/24

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /LuquDeceased 52

85

November 27

Kalsang Kyab
M/24

Nomad

Sichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai county

Deceased 53

86

November 27

Sanggye Tashi
M/18

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 54

87

November 28

Bande Khar
(Wangden
Khar)
M/21

Layperson

Gansu / Gannan /Hezuo

Deceased 55

88

November 29

Tsering Namgyal(Tsering Tashi)
M/31

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /LuquDeceased 56

89

November 30

Konchog Kyab
M/29

FatherSichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Deceased 57

90

December 2

Sungdu Kyab
M/17

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Hospitalized 58

Status177
TIBETAN SELF-IMMOLATIONS REPORTED OR BELIEVED TO FOCUS ON POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES (SEPTEMBER 2012–JULY 2013)—CONTINUED
See CECC 2012 Annual Report for Self-Immolations 1–50 (February 2009–August 2012) 21
No.

Date of SelfImmolation

Name
Sex / Approx. Age

Occupation
Affiliation

Self-Immolation Location (Prov. / Pref./County)Status91

December 3

Lobsang Gedun(Lobsang
Geleg)
M/29

Monk
Penag Monastery

Qinghai / Guoluo
TAP / Banma
countyDeceased 59

92

December 8

Pema Dorje
M/23

FarmerGansu / Gannan /LuquDeceased 60

93

December 8

Konchog
Phelgyal(Konchog
Phelgye)
M/24

Monk
Sumdo Monastery

Sichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Deceased 61

94

December 9

Wangchen Kyi(Rinchen Kyi)
F/17

Student

Qinghai /Huangnan /Zeku

Deceased 62

2013
95

January 12

Tsering Tashi(Tsebe)M/22

HusbandGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 63

96

January 18

Tsering
Phuntsog(Drubchog)
M/28

Husband andfatherSichuan / Aba /Hongyuan county

Deceased 64

97

January 22

Konchog Kyab
M/23

Husband, father, farmer

Gansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 65

98

February 3

LobsangNamgyal
M/37

Monk
Kirti Monastery

Sichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Deceased 66

99

February 13

Drugpa Khar
M/26

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 67

100

February 17

Namlha Tsering
M/49

Husband andfatherGansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 68

101
102

February 19

Rinchen, M/17
Sonam Dargye,
M/18

Laypersons

Sichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Bothdeceased 69

103

February 24

Phagmo Dondrub
M/early 20s

FarmerQinghai / Haidong/ Hualong HAC

Deceased 70

104

February 25

Tsezung Kyab
M/27

Farmer andnomad

Gansu / Gannan /LuquDeceased 71

105

February 25

Sangdrag
M/unknown

Monk
Diphu Monastery

Sichuan / Aba /AbaHospitalized 72

178
TIBETAN SELF-IMMOLATIONS REPORTED OR BELIEVED TO FOCUS ON POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ISSUES (SEPTEMBER 2012–JULY 2013)—CONTINUED
See CECC 2012 Annual Report for Self-Immolations 1–50 (February 2009–August 2012) 21
No.

Date of SelfImmolation

Name
Sex / Approx. Age

Occupation
Affiliation

Self-Immolation Location (Prov. / Pref./County)Status106

March 13

Konchog
WangmoF/28–31

Wife andmotherSichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Deceased 73

107

March 16

Lobsang Thogme
M/28

Monk
Kirti Monastery

Sichuan / Aba /Aba

Deceased 74

108

March 24

Kalkyi
F/30

Wife andmotherSichuan / Aba /Rangtang county

Deceased 75

109

March 25

Lhamo Kyab
M/43

Forest ranger

Gansu / Gannan /Xiahe

Deceased 76

110

March 26

Konchog Tenzin
M/28

Monk
Mogri Monastery

Gansu / Gannan /LuquDeceased 77

111

April 16

Chugtso
F/20

Wife andmotherSichuan / Aba /Rangtang

Deceased 78

112
113

April 24

Lobsang Dawa,
M/20
Konchog Oezer,
M/23

Monks
Tagtsang
Lhamo
Monastery

Sichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Bothdeceased 79

114

May 27

Tenzin Sherab
M/31

Layperson

Qinghai / Yushu /Qumalai county

Deceased 80

115

June 11

WangchenDrolmaF/31

Nun
DragkarNunnery

Sichuan / Ganzi /Daofu county

Deceased 81

116

July 20

Konchog Sonam
M/17

Monk
Sogtsang
Monastery

Sichuan / Aba /Ruo’ergai

Deceased 82

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THE ‘‘OPINION’’

Information in this report and the Commission’s 2012 Annual
Report 83 demonstrates a shift from an initial pattern of less frequent self-immolations mainly in Sichuan with a majority of current or former monastics,84 to a pattern of more frequent
self-immolations mostly outside of Sichuan with a majority oflaypersons.85 The shift was pronounced during the October–November surge: of 38 self-immolations reported, 32 were outside
Sichuan, and 29 of the 32 were laypersons.86

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Coinciding with that shift, on or about December 3, 2012, the Supreme People’s Procuratorate, the Supreme People’s Court, and theMinistry of Public Security jointly issued the ‘‘Opinion on HandlingSelf-Immolation Cases in Tibetan Areas in Accordance With the
Law’’ (the Opinion).87 The Opinion called for persons officials characterize as ‘‘principal culprits’’ linked to self-immolation to faceprosecution for ‘‘intentional homicide,’’ as well as for criminal prosecution for activities including gathering at self-immolation sites tomourn, or offering donations to self-immolators’ relatives.88 The
relative sizes of the Tibetan monastic and secular communities suggest one basis for official concern over the spread of self-immolationfrom one community to the other. The lay Tibetan population isabout 44 times greater than the monastic population—approximately 140,000 monks and nuns 89 among a total Tibetan population of approximately 6.28 million.90
By early February 2013, official media reported nearly 90 formal
arrests linked to self-immolation cases since October–November
2012 in Gansu and Qinghai provinces.91 Indicative examples of Tibetans detained (some imprisoned) for alleged links to a self-immolator or self-immolation, or for sharing self-immolation information,with timelines at least in part after the Opinion’s issue, follow.
• October 23, 2012. Officials detained six Tibetans at the siteof Dorje Rinchen’s self-immolation in Xiahe (Sangchu) county,
Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP).92 On January
31, 2013, the Gannan Intermediate People’s Court sentenced
four of them to up to 12 years’ imprisonment for ‘‘intentional
homicide’’ and two to up to 4 years for ‘‘picking quarrels andprovoking troubles.’’ 93• After November 19. Following his detention, on February
8, 2013, the Huangnan Intermediate People’s Court in
Huangnan (Malho) TAP sentenced a monk to 13 years’ imprisonment for ‘‘inciting’’ homicide and separatism in a case where
someone decided not to self-immolate.94• Likely December. Officials detained at least nine Tibetans
in connection with Tsering Namgyal’s November 29 self-immolation in Luqu (Luchu) county, Gannan.95 On February 28,
2013, the Gannan Intermediate People’s Court sentenced threeof them to up to 15 years’ imprisonment for ‘‘intentional homicide.’’ 96• Possibly December. Officials detained three Tibetans in
Haidong prefecture, Qinghai.97 On March 18, 2013, theHaidong Intermediate People’s Court sentenced them to up to
six years’ imprisonment for using ‘‘self-immolation incidents’’ todisseminate pro-independence information.98• December 3. After the December 2 self-immolation of
Sangdu Kyab in Xiahe on December 3, security officials reportedly detained five Bora Monastery monks for interrogation.99• After December 9. After the December 9 self-immolation of
Wangchen Kyi in Zeku (Tsekhog) county, Huangnan, officials
detained five Tibetans described as friends or family of self-immolators.100• Around December 24. Following the November 29 selfimmolation of Tsering Namgyal in Luqu county, security offi-

181
cials reportedly detained eight Tibetans for sharing information on the self-immolation.101• Possibly early 2013. Following the detention of four Tibetans in Huangnan, on April 13, 2013, the Huangnan Intermediate People’s Court sentenced the Tibetans to up to six
years’ imprisonment for ‘‘inciting separatism’’ by sharing selfimmolation information with domestic and overseas groups.102• January. Officials detained seven Tibetans in connection
with Sanggye Gyatso’s October 6, 2012, self-immolation in
Hezuo (Tsoe) city, Gannan.103 Police characterized the case as‘‘organized and premeditated homicide’’ because three detainees allegedly discussed self-immolation, contacted a Tibetan organization in India, and sent self-immolation information outof China.104• July. In a Sichuan province case, officials reportedly detained six Tibetans, including five monks, after monk Konchog
Sonam self-immolated on July 20 in Ruo’ergai (Dzoege) county,
Aba (Ngaba) Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture.105
The examples above are among 112 cases 106 in the Commission’s
Political Prisoner Database as of September 1, 2013, of detention
or imprisonment linked to self-immolation or the issue of selfimmolation since August 2012.107
THE CRACKDOWN

As self-immolation frequency increased, authorities strengthened
a security crackdown based on the premise of ‘‘stability maintenance’’ 108 that infringed on Tibetans’ freedoms of expression, association, and movement, and curtailed their ability to communicate
or share information.109 Examples follow.
• Expression. The Opinion established a legal pretext forpunishing Tibetans who expressed views sympathetic to selfimmolators or self-immolation 110 by providing a broad basis
for characterizing such expression as ‘‘inciting’’ self-immolation.111• Association, movement. Authorities interfered with Tibetans’ right to associate with other Tibetans within local communities,112 within wider Tibetan areas,113 and with persons living abroad.114 Human Rights Watch reported establishment ofneighborhood security ‘‘grids’’ in the TAR,115 and a program toclassify Tibetan villagers individually based on religious andpolitical factors.116• Communication, information. Authorities interfered with
communication,117 preventing Tibetans from sharing or receiving information on self-immolations and other topics deemedharmful to ‘‘social stability,’’ 118 as well as accessing international news.119
Religious Freedom for Tibetan Buddhists
Tibetan self-immolators this past year continued to call for the
Dalai Lama’s return 120—a demand that when voiced during a suicidal protest may signify intense resentment toward Chinese government and Communist Party intrusion into Tibetan Buddhist affairs. The trend of creating new and unprecedented control 121 over182
the religion continued,122 along with maintaining established repressive policies.123 Officials characterize the result of such policies
as the ‘‘normal order’’ of Tibetan Buddhism.124
Unofficial reports in June 2013, if accurate, indicated a potentially positive development. Beginning in August 2013, officials in
Hainan (Tsolho) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP), Qinghai
province, said they would ‘‘experiment’’ with allowing monks andnuns to ‘‘revere, respect, and follow’’ the Dalai Lama in his capacity
as a religious leader.125 The reports emerged the same month asremarks by a Central Party School professor calling for engagement with the Dalai Lama in his capacity as ‘‘a religious leader’’and ceasing to treat him ‘‘as an enemy.’’ 126
By July 2013 official reports discounted prospects for a less hostile policy toward the Dalai Lama.127 A July 11 notice reportedlyissued by the Guoluo (Golog) TAP United Front Work Department
warned Tibetans not to believe ‘‘rumors’’ of a ‘‘new policy’’ permitting ‘‘freedom to venerate the Dalai Lama’s portraits, and soon.’’ 128 The notice cited Yu Zhengsheng, a member of the Standing
Committee of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party Central
Committee 129 and Head of the Central Committee CoordinatingGroup for Tibet Affairs,130 stating that the Dalai Lama is ‘‘always
engaged in secessionist activities.’’ 131 The notice instructed Tibetan
Buddhists to ‘‘separate themselves politically’’ from the Dalai
Lama,132 but did not address the Dalai Lama’s status as a religious
figure.
On July 6, 2013, the Dalai Lama’s birthday, People’s Armed Police (PAP) in Daofu (Tawu) county, Ganzi (Kardze) TAP, Sichuanprovince, reportedly ‘‘opened fire’’ on ‘‘hundreds’’ of Tibetans returning from a hillside location where they conducted religious observances.133 PAP reportedly wounded 10–16 Tibetans with what
may have been anti-riot projectiles and beat or tortured other Tibetans.134
Developments consistent with established policies this past year
include the following examples.
• Reassessment, reappointment of Tibetan Buddhist
teachers. Effective December 2012, national measures required Tibetan Buddhist monastic teachers 135 to submit, every
five years, to a reassessment 136 conducted by Party- 137 andgovernment-controlled Buddhist associations.138 Criteria include patriotism toward China,139 supporting Party leadership,140 and accepting guidance from government- and Partyrun offices.141 Reappointed teachers must sign an agreement
acknowledging such obligations.142 Teachers who ‘‘forfeit’’ appointment credentials are deemed unqualified to teach.143• More ‘‘harmonious model monastery’’ awards. Following the May 2012 initial round of such awards,144 officials
recognized 100 TAR monasteries and nunneries and over 7,500‘‘patriotic, law-abiding, and advanced monks and nuns’’ in December.145 An abbot speaking at the ceremony described patriotism toward China as ‘‘an unshirkable responsibility’’ of Tibetan Buddhists and likened ‘‘safeguarding the unification of
the motherland’’ to a duty of ‘‘disciples of Buddha.’’ 146• Aggressive ‘‘legal education’’ campaigns. Officials continued to enforce ‘‘education’’ focusing on government legal

183
measures to pressure Tibetans into complying with policies
that obstruct their freedom of religion.147 On January 14, 2013,
authorities reportedly ‘‘detained’’ or ‘‘disappeared’’ 14 seniormonastic officials from four of Lhasa’s premier Tibetan Buddhist institutions after summoning them to a local meeting.
Authorities removed them to a monastery in Naqu (Nagchu)
prefecture for ‘‘political education.’’ 148
Status of Tibetan Culture
This past year, some Tibetan self-immolators reportedly called
for greater use of the Tibetan language as they burned 149—an apparent indication of the significant threat some Tibetans believe
Party and government policies pose to Tibetan culture’s vibrancy
and viability. The Commission’s 2012 Annual Report noted that asenior Party official 150 advocated in February 2012 for ethnic‘‘amalgamation,’’ 151 ending minority-language education programsto achieve ‘‘desegregation,’’ 152 and ‘‘popularizing’’ the use of Mandarin Chinese ‘‘without fail.’’ 153 In December 2012, then-Special
Coordinator for Tibetan Issues Maria Otero observed that ‘‘official
rhetoric that denigrates the Tibetan language’’ is a factor that ‘‘has
further exacerbated tensions.’’ 154
Indicative developments this past year include the following examples.
• More language protests in Qinghai Province.155 On November 26 156 and 28,157 2012, thousands of Tibetan tertiary
students protested against issues including government language policy. Authorities had required students to study an official booklet that some regarded as ‘‘derogatory’’ toward Tibetan language and that promoted using Mandarin.158 According to the booklet, bilingual education 159 would help ‘‘ethnic
minorities to promote their culture and reach its pinnacle.’’ 160
A November 9 protest involving thousands of Tibetan middle
school students at another Qinghai location also involved language rights, among other things.161• Qinghai student protesters imprisoned. On April 10,
2013, the Gonghe (Chabcha) County People’s Court sentenced
eight Hainan Professional Training School 162 students to imprisonment 163 for ‘‘illegal assembly’’ 164 during the November
26 protest.165 One report described them as ‘‘school prefects orclass monitors’’ 166 and noted that students resented the booklet’s use in ‘‘political education’’ classes.167 An unidentified
Qinghai court reportedly sentenced a middle school student accused of ‘‘organizing’’ the November 9 protests to four years’
imprisonment.168• Citizens promote Tibetan language. Reports of unofficial
Tibetan initiatives to promote Tibetan language emerged in
Qinghai, where organizers of the Mother Tongue Protection Association observed UN-recognized International Mother Language Day; 169 in Gansu, where posters described the languageas ‘‘the golden cup that holds the essence of Tibetan culture’’
and urged Tibetans to ‘‘give up impure mixed speech forever’’; 170 and in Sichuan, where township authorities banned
informal classes on Tibetan language and culture.171

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Economic Development Policy and Implementation
Officials continued to emphasize economic development as the
key to achieving ‘‘social stability’’ 172 even though some initiatives
resulted in protests 173 or alleged harm to local communities 174—
including a reported self-immolator’s call for protection of Tibet’s‘‘fragile environment.’’ 175 The Party and government maintained
the development strategy announced at the January 2010 Fifth
Tibet Work Forum 176—adherence to a model based on ‘‘Chinesecharacteristics’’ and retaining ‘‘Tibetan traits.’’ 177 Government ‘‘investment’’ in China’s western areas—a program launched in 2000
as ‘‘Great Western Development’’ (xibu da kaifa) 178—almost tripled
in 2012 compared with 2011, state-run media reported.179
Indicative developments this past year include the following examples.
• Railroad construction. A Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)
official said the Lhasa-Shigatse railway will begin operation by
the end of 2014.180 Previous estimates ranged from 2010 181 to2015.182 TAR officials expressed concern that a National People’s Congress decision to dismantle the Ministry of Railroads 183 could hinder railroad construction on the Tibetan plateau by making unprofitable services harder to finance.184• Forced settlement.185 Official media reported that the TAR
government would settle 460,000 farmers and herders in 2013,
and that ‘‘nearly 2.1 million’’ had been settled (or resettled)during 2006–2012.186 Party Secretary Chen Quanguo said in
September 2012 that ‘‘all farmers and herders’’ in the TAR
would be settled by the end of 2013.187 A 2011 government
opinion called for nationwide settlement of herders to be ‘‘basically’’ accomplished by 2015.188• Mining. International media organizations reported on a
March 2013 landslide disaster at a TAR gold mine in Lhasa
municipality,189 and on environmental pollution that interferedwith Tibetans’ ability to farm and maintain livestock.190 In a
May 2013 protest, 3,500 Tibetans in Biru (Driru) county, Naqu
(Nagchu) prefecture, reportedly confronted arriving workers
they suspected to be miners and asked them to ‘‘leave our resources where they are.’’ 191 Such reports are concurrent with
TAR policy to increase the mining share of TAR GDP fromabout 3 percent in 2010 to between 30 and 50 percent by
2020.192• Hydropower. Government plans for construction of hydroelectric projects along major Tibetan rivers attracted the interest of news media and analysts.193 A blog maintained by a
Canada-based Tibetan published detailed information in March2013 on each project’s location, capacity, and status.194
Summary: Tibetan Political Detention and Imprisonment
As of September 1, 2013, the Commission’s Political Prisoner
Database (PPD) contained 1,531 records—a figure certain to be far
from complete—of Tibetan political prisoners detained on or after
March 10, 2008, the beginning of a period of mostly peaceful political protests that swept across the Tibetan plateau.

185
Among the 1,531 PPD records of Tibetan political detentions reported since March 2008 are 28 Tibetans ordered to serve reeducation through labor (23 are believed released upon completing theirterms) and 328 Tibetans whom courts sentenced to imprisonment
ranging from six months to life (142 are believed released upon
sentence completion).195 Of the 328 Tibetan political prisoners sentenced to imprisonment since March 2008, sentencing information
is available for 315 prisoners, including 309 with fixed-term sentences averaging 4 years and 8 months, based on PPD data as of
September 1, 2013.
CURRENT TIBETAN POLITICAL DETENTION AND IMPRISONMENTAs of September 1, 2013, the PPD contained records of 642 Tibetan political prisoners believed or presumed currently detained
or imprisoned. Of those, 622 are records of Tibetans detained on orafter March 10, 2008; 196 20 are records of Tibetans detained prior
to March 10, 2008. PPD information for the period since March 10,
2008, is certain to be far from complete.
Of the 622 Tibetan political prisoners who were detained on orafter March 10, 2008, and who were believed or presumed to remain detained or imprisoned as of September 1, 2013, PPD data
indicated that:• 314 (51 percent) are Tibetan Buddhist monks, nuns, teachers, or trulkus.197• 550 (88 percent) are male, 46 (7 percent) are female, and 26
are of unknown gender.
• 288 (46 percent) are believed or presumed detained or imprisoned in Sichuan province; the rest are believed or presumed detained or imprisoned in the Tibet Autonomous Region(143), Qinghai province (122), Gansu province (68), and the
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (1).
• Sentencing information is available for 182 prisoners: 176 reportedly were sentenced to fixed terms ranging from 1 year
and 6 months to 20 years,198 and 6 were sentenced to life imprisonment or death with a 2-year reprieve.199 The average
fixed-term sentence is 6 years and 3 months. Seventy-nine (43percent) of the prisoners with known sentences are Tibetan
Buddhist monks, nuns, teachers, or trulkus.
Sentencing information is available for 16 of the 20 Tibetan political prisoners detained prior to March 10, 2008, and believed imprisoned as of September 1, 2013. Their sentences range from 8
years to life imprisonment; the average fixed-term sentence is 13
years and 1 month.

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VI. Developments in Hong Kong and Macau
Hong Kong
While in practice Hong Kong residents enjoy greater freedom
than citizens of mainland China, the Commission continued to observe developments that raise concerns about the commitment of
the central and Hong Kong governments to Hong Kong’s autonomy
and freedoms. Hong Kong’s Basic Law guarantees the freedoms ofspeech, religion, and assembly, promises Hong Kong a ‘‘high degreeof autonomy,’’ and confirms the applicability of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) to Hong Kong.1
The Basic Law also states that the ‘‘ultimate aim’’ is the election
by universal suffrage of Hong Kong’s top official—the Chief Executive (CE)—and Hong Kong’s Legislative Council (LegCo).2 In March
2013, the UN Human Rights Committee reviewed Hong Kong forcompliance with the ICCPR and expressed ‘‘concern about the lackof a clear plan to institute universal suffrage and to ensure theright of all persons to vote and to stand for election without unreasonable limitations.’’ 3 The committee urged the Hong Kong government to ‘‘outline clear and detailed plans on how universal andequal suffrage might be instituted.’’ 4
UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE AND AUTONOMY

The Basic Law states that the CE is to be elected by universal
suffrage ‘‘upon nomination by a broadly representative nominating
committee in accordance with democratic procedures.’’ 5 A 2007 National People’s Congress Standing Committee (NPCSC) decision
further specified that the CE ‘‘may’’ be elected through universal
suffrage in 2017, after which LegCo member elections may follow
suit.6 In its submission to the UN Human Rights Committee regarding Hong Kong’s compliance with the ICCPR, the Hong Kong
government confirmed the 2017 time frame for implementation ofuniversal suffrage for electing the CE and indicated that universal
suffrage for elections of all LegCo members would be implemented
in 2020.7 Currently 35 of the 70 LegCo members are elected
through Functional Constituencies, most with fewer than 1,500 voters that can include companies with multiple votes; a similarly disproportionate system is used to select the 1,200 members of theelection committee that chooses the CE.8
Large numbers of Hong Kong residents continued advocating foruniversal suffrage as local officials deferred discussion of electoral
reform. Public support grew 9 for the Occupy Central movement,
which plans to mobilize 10,000 protesters to occupy Hong Kong’s financial district in July 2014 if the government has not issued auniversal suffrage plan meeting international standards by thattime.10 Other mass demonstrations have recently compelled government action. In October 2012, for example, the Hong Kong government formally shelved a patriotic education curriculum 11 that
had been criticized by tens of thousands of protestors as politicalindoctrination.12 In July 2013, Chief Executive CY Leung dismissed calls for early public consultation on electoral reform while
maintaining that he did not need the central government’s permis-

188sion to launch such consultations.13 Pro-democracy advocates fearthat delays will leave insufficient time for public consultation.14
Statements by central government officials this past year raised
concerns over central government interference in the nomination of
CE candidates to run in elections by universal suffrage. During themost recent CE election in March 2012, the central government reportedly wielded heavy influence in the selection of its favored candidate CY Leung, after dropping support for Henry Tang, who had
become the subject of controversies.15 In August 2013, the directorof the central government’s liaison office in Hong Kong rejected a
pro-democracy party legislator’s proposal to allow candidates who
receive a certain number of voters’ nominations to run for CE, instead saying that the election committee that currently selects the
CE should form the basis of the committee that selects the CE candidates in an election by universal suffrage.16 A pro-democracy legislator criticized the current election committee as ‘‘based on a very
narrow electorate’’ and ‘‘not a broadly representative committee.’’ 17
In March, the chairman of the Law Committee under the National
People’s Congress Standing Committee listed a set of requirements
for CE candidates to meet, one of which is that they must be trusted by the central government.18 The chairman said such candidates
could criticize the central government, but they could not, for example, consider the central government an opponent, citing a prodemocracy legislator as an example.19
Two incidents this year highlighted ongoing challenges to Hong
Kong’s judicial and law enforcement independence. In a case involving the rights of domestic helpers to seek permanent residency,
the Hong Kong government took the unusual step of requestingthat Hong Kong’s highest court refer a key issue for interpretation
to the National People’s Congress Standing Committee, which was
expected to side with the Hong Kong government’s position.20 The
court sided with the Hong Kong government by ruling in March2013 against permanent residency for domestic helpers while saying it did not need to seek the central government’s interpretationin this particular instance.21 In another case, local authorities delayed action on a U.S. request for the provisional arrest of former
U.S. National Security Agency contractor Edward Snowden, whichallowed him to leave Hong Kong.22 Unnamed sources cited in a
New York Times article claimed the Chinese government directed
local authorities to allow Snowden’s departure.23 Local officials
maintained that their law enforcement process remained independent.24
PRESS FREEDOM

Despite enjoying greater press freedom than mainland China,
Hong Kong journalists and media organizations continued to reportpressure and harassment. Assaults or instances of harassment
against Hong Kong journalists reportedly rose to 18 (7 occurring in
mainland China), an increase over the 1 to 2 assaults reported on
average in recent years.25 Among the most heavily targeted media
outlets was the Next Media group, which reported four incidents inJune 2013.26 The Hong Kong Journalists Association claims thatHong Kong and central government authorities have been largely
unresponsive to inquiries regarding the attacks.27 According to a1892012 survey, more than one-third of Hong Kong journalists reportedly admitted to self-censorship,28 which they attribute in part toeditorial pressure from media owners with significant political andeconomic interests in mainland China.29 Over half the owners ofHong Kong’s 30 major media outlets have been appointed as representatives to either the central government’s top legislative or political advisory body.30 Several major newspapers have reportedly
set up special committees of largely mainland Chinese membershipto vet articles before publication, which bears similarities to editorial practices in media outlets in mainland China.31
TRANSPARENCY

During the last year, the Hong Kong government made uneven
progress toward maintaining transparency. Access to government
records was hampered by the loss or destruction of public documents by government offices.32 Local activists say that civil servants may dispose of files because there is no existing legislation toregulate recordkeeping.33 In June 2013, a Hong Kong Law Reform
Commission sub-committee began work to review the current stateof management of government records, study relevant laws in otherjurisdictions, and make recommendations for possible regulatory
reforms.34 In addition, the Ombudsman of Hong Kong opened aninvestigation into the ‘‘access to information regime and Government’s records management system’’ in January 2013.35
The government postponed implementation of a measure in
March 2013 that would have redacted from public corporate filings
important identifying information about company directors—thetype of information that was used by Bloomberg and the New YorkTimes to uncover the alleged vast wealth of China’s top politicalfamilies.36 Proponents of the measure cited the privacy rights of directors while opponents warned that it would harm the reputationof Hong Kong’s financial markets for transparency and ‘‘risk turning Hong Kong into an opaque offshore tax shelter for China’s plutocrats.’’ 37
Macau
Macau’s Basic Law differs from Hong Kong in several aspects, including the absence of any language regarding ‘‘universal suffrage,’’although it does include a provision making the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) applicable to Macau.38
The Commission observed that while Macau residents continued toenjoy greater freedom than citizens of mainland China, the lack of
democratic elections in line with the ICCPR and threats to thefreedoms of press and assembly in Macau remain ongoing challenges. In its Concluding Observations on Macau’s compliance with
the ICCPR issued earlier this year, the UN Human Rights Committee urged Macau to ‘‘outline a clear and comprehensive plan ofaction and set timelines for the transition to an electoral system
based on universal and equal suffrage . . . .’’ 39
POLITICAL AND PRESS FREEDOMS

Mainland experts and officials have dissuaded Macau from pursuing universal suffrage.40 In March 2013, Political Bureau Stand-190
ing Committee member Yu Zhengsheng advised a private audienceof Hong Kong and Macau officials that their governing administrations could not be opposed to the central government.41 The chairperson of the UN Human Rights Committee expressed concern inMarch 2013 that despite public consultation, the government had
made no further efforts toward universal suffrage.42 Self-censorshipand heavy local government funding of Macau media persist, andjournalists report that articles with dissenting views are sometimes
altered or deleted.43 In September 2012, the Macau government
withdrew parts of a bill that would have established a ‘‘press accountability board.’’ 44 Macau residents continued to organize protests on a range of social and political issues, but in some cases
faced police retaliation, including confiscation of news materials
and detention.45
CORRUPTION

The gambling industry in Macau is reportedly tied to widespread
corruption and the laundering of large amounts of money out of
mainland China.46 This movement of money through Macau is
fueled by a ‘‘junket’’ system, which reportedly aids mainland VIPpatrons in bypassing China’s limits on how much money can betaken out of China.47 Casinos and junkets account for a large portion of Macau’s annual revenue,48 and one Macau academic estimates that US$202 billion in ill-gotten funds are channeledthrough Macau each year.49
During the reporting year, the Chinese government and Macau
officials reportedly stepped up efforts to regulate Macau’s gamblingindustry as part of a larger campaign by the central government
against corruption.50 In November 2012, authorities issued updated
guidelines to junket operators intended to increase reporting on thetransactions of gaming clients and, in a high-profile incident, detained more than half a dozen people in the junket business.51 In
July 2013, a U.S. official told the U.S.-China Security and Economic Review Commission that Macau had taken some steps to address money laundering deficiencies noted in a 2007 evaluation bya regional anti-money laundering group, including performing regular risk assessments of gaming operators and junkets and enhancing the oversight of junkets operators.52 The official noted, however, that Macau still needed to incorporate a ‘‘freezing mechanism’’ into its anti-money laundering framework, lower its reporting threshold for large transactions, and implement an ‘‘effective
cross-border cash declaration system.’’ 53 In June 2013, Macau’s Financial Intelligence Office announced that it was considering a‘‘cross-border cash declaration system.’’ 54

191
VII. Endnotes†Voted to adopt: Senators Brown, Baucus, Levin, Feinstein, and Merkley; Representatives
Smith, Wolf, Meadows, Pittenger, Walz, Kaptur, and Honda; Under Secretary Sánchez and Assistant Administrator Biswal.
Did not vote: Deputy Secretary Harris.
Notes to Section I—Political Prisoner Database
1 The Commission treats as a political prisoner an individual detained or imprisoned for exercising his or her human rights under international law, such as peaceful assembly, freedom of
religion, freedom of association, free expression, including the freedom to advocate peaceful social or political change, and to criticize government policy or government officials. (This list isillustrative, not exhaustive.) In most cases, prisoners in the PPD were detained or imprisoned
for attempting to exercise rights guaranteed to them by China’s Constitution and law, or byinternational law, or both. Chinese security, prosecution, and judicial officials sometimes seek
to distract attention from the political or religious nature of imprisonment by convicting a defacto political or religious prisoner under the pretext of having committed a generic crime. In
such cases, defendants typically deny guilt but officials may attempt to coerce confessions using
torture and other forms of abuse, and standards of evidence are poor. If authorities permit adefendant to entrust someone to provide him or her legal counsel and defense, as China’s Criminal Procedure Law guarantees in Article 32, officials may deny the counsel adequate access tothe defendant, restrict or deny the counsel’s access to evidence, and not provide the counsel adequate time to prepare a defense.

192
Notes to Section II—Freedom of Expression
1 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘World Report 2013—Events of 2012,’’ 31 January 13; Freedom
House, ‘‘Freedom of the Press 2013: China,’’ May 2013.
2 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 19(3).
China has signed and stated its intent to ratify the ICCPR. Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A (III) of 10 December
48, arts. 19, 29. The UN Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to
Freedom of Opinion and Expression has also used this three-factor test to describe the standard
for determining when a restriction is permissible under Article 19, paragraph 3 of the ICCPR.
UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protectionof the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, Frank La Rue, 16 May 11, A/HRC/17/27,
para. 24.
3 UN GAOR, Hum. Rts. Coun., 12th Sess., Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights,
Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to Development,
adopted by Human Rights Council resolution 12/16, A/HRC/RES/12/16, 12 October 09, para.
5(p)(i); State Council Information Office, ‘‘Progress in China’s Human Rights in 2012,’’ reprinted
in Xinhua, 14 May 13.
4 UN GAOR, Hum. Rts. Coun., 20th Sess., Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights,
Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to Development,
Agenda Item 3, A/HRC/20/L.13, 29 June 12; ‘‘Human Rights Council Backs Internet Freedom,’’
Agence France-Presse, reprinted in Google, 5 July 12.
5 Lu Wei, ‘‘Chinese Domain Set To Surf,’’ China Daily, 7 July 10.
6 China Internet Network Information Center, ‘‘The 32nd Statistical Report on Internet Development in China’’ [Di 32 ci zhongguo hulian wangluo fazhan zhuangkuang tongji baogao], July
2013, 5.
7 Ibid.
8 Christina Lo, ‘‘China Mobile Subscribers Up 1.2 Pct to 1.15 Bln in March,’’ Reuters, 26 April
13.
9 For more information, see ‘‘Faster Internet To Reach More Parts of China,’’ Xinhua, 17 April
13; Shen Jingting, ‘‘China Mobile To Expand 4G Network,’’ China Daily, 21 June 12.
10 Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, ‘‘Internet Industry ‘12th Five-Year’ Development Plan’’ [Hulianwang hangye ‘‘shi’er wu’’ fazhan guihua], 4 May 12; ‘‘Chinese Internet
Users To Hit 800m by 2015,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 5 May 12.
11 State Council Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11 June 12, sec. I(6).
12 ‘‘4M Broadband To Cover 70% of Chinese Users,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 27 February 13.
13 ‘‘Chinese Official Media Focuses on Internet Management; Internet Users Worry About
Limits to Anticorruption’’ [Zhongguo guan mei jujiao wangguan wangmin danxin fanfu shouxian], BBC, 23 December 12; ‘‘Opinion: Strengthening of Internet Management Has Won Popular Support’’ [Sheping: jiaqiang hulianwang guanli shi de renxin de], Global Times, 21 December 12; ‘‘China Continues To Strengthen Internet Management; Internet Spring Difficult Now’’[Zhongguo chixu jiaqiang wangguan wangluo chuntian nan xian], BBC, 21 December 12.
14 See, e.g., ‘‘Expert: Three Characteristics of Online Rumors Cause Great Harm; Should
Heavily Punish Rumor Mongers’’ [Zhuanjia: san tedian zhi wangluo yaoyan weihai da yingjiazhong chengzhi zaoyao zhe], People’s Daily, 4 June 13; Liu Chang, ‘‘Use Laws and Supervision To Control Online Rumors’’ [Yong falu he jianguan ezhi wangluo yaoyan], Global Times,
27 May 13; Jing Ping, ‘‘The Fundamental Policy of Curbing Online Rumors’’ [Ezhi wangluo
yaoyan de zhiben zhi ce], Beijing Daily, 9 April 13.
15 Mo Jinjin, ‘‘The Internet Is Not Outside the Law’’ [Wangluo bushi fawai zhidi], People’s
Daily, 18 December 12.
16 David Bandurski, ‘‘People’s Daily: Be Good Online,’’ China Media Project, 18 December 12.
17 See, e.g., John Kennedy, ‘‘New Propaganda Chief Reappears, Calls for Greater Internet Control,’’ South China Morning Post, 7 December 12; Jia Ruijin, ‘‘Wang Junmin’s Research on Internet Propaganda and Management Work’’ [Wang junmin diaoyan hulianwang xuanchuan guanli
gongzuo], Dazhong Net, 15 June 13; ‘‘Wu Bangguo: All Areas of Society Strongly Appeal forStrengthened Internet Management’’ [Wu bangguo: shehui ge fangmian qianglie huyu jiaqiang
wangguan], BBC, 8 March 13.
18 ‘‘China Waging War Against Online Rumors,’’ Xinhua, 2 May 13.
19 ‘‘NPC Reviews Internet Info Protection Law,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 24 December 12; ‘‘China’s Top Legislature Mulls Internet Regulatory Measures,’’ Xinhua, 24 December 12.
20 ‘‘China’s Legislature Adopts Online Info Rules To Protect Privacy,’’ Xinhua, 28 December
12.
21 See, e.g., Joe McDonald, ‘‘China Real-Name Registration Is Now Law in Country,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Huffington Post, 28 December 12; Keith Bradsher, ‘‘China Toughens Its
Restrictions on Use of the Internet,’’ New York Times, 28 December 12; Zhao Yinan and Zhang
Chunyan, ‘‘Real Names Required,’’ China Daily, 29 December 12.
22 Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Interpretation on Some Questions Regarding Applicable Law When Handling Uses of Information Networks To Commit Defamation and Other Such Criminal Cases [Guanyu banli liyong xinxi wangluo shishi feibang dengxingshi anjian shiyong falu ruogan wenti de jieshi], passed 2 September 13 (SPP), 5 September
13 (SPC), effective 10 September 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Cracks Down on Online Opinion
Makers,’’ New York Times, 10 September 13.
23 Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Interpretation on Some Questions Regarding Applicable Law When Handling Uses of Information Networks To Commit Defamation and Other Such Criminal Cases [Guanyu banli liyong xinxi wangluo shishi feibang deng193
xingshi anjian shiyong falu ruogan wenti de jieshi], passed 2 September 13 (SPP), 5 September
13 (SPC), effective 10 September 13, art. 2.
24 Committee to Protect Journalists, ‘‘China’s New Leadership Faces Censorship Challenge,’’
11 March 13; Ai Weiwei, ‘‘China’s Censorship Can Never Defeat the Internet,’’ Guardian, 15
April 12; Sophie Beach, ‘‘Challenged in China: Beyond Censors’ Reach, Free Expression Thrives,
To a Point,’’ Committee to Protect Journalists, 11 March 13; Gary King et al., ‘‘How Censorshipin China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression,’’ American Political
Science Review, May 2013, 1–18; ‘‘China’s Internet: ‘A Giant Cage,’ ’’ Economist, 6 April 13.
25 ‘‘China’s Internet: ‘A Giant Cage,’ ’’ Economist, 6 April 13.
26 Vernon Silver, ‘‘Cracking China’s Skype Surveillance Software,’’ Bloomberg, 8 March 13; Andrew Phelps, Nieman Journalism Lab, ‘‘Reverse Engineering Chinese Censorship: When and
Why Are Controversial Tweets Deleted? ’’ 30 May 12; Gary King et al., ‘‘How Censorship in
China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression,’’ American Political
Science Review, May 2013, 1–18; David Bamman et al., ‘‘Censorship and Deletion Practices in
Chinese Social Media,’’ First Monday, Vol. 17, No. 3, 5 March 12; Wang Xinyu, ‘‘ ‘Naked Official’
Keywords Censored in China,’’ New Tang Dynasty Television, 1 March 13.
27 Open Net Initiative, ‘‘Country Report: China,’’ 9 August 12, 271.
28 Oiwan Lam, ‘‘China: Various Aspects of Censorship,’’ Global Voices Online, 17 March 10;
Jedidiah R. Crandall et al., ‘‘Chat Program Censorship and Surveillance in China: Tracking
TOM-Skype and Sina UC,’’ First Monday, Vol. 18, No. 7 (1 July 13); Adam Taylor, ‘‘Why China’s
Enormous Twitter Rival Blocks Searches Related to ‘Hair Bacon,’ ’’ Business Insider, 4 September 13. These sources provide information about the types of ongoing censorship in China
and the lack of censorship transparency.
29 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, Frank La Rue, 16 May 11, A/HRC/
17/27, para. 24.
30 Keith Bradsher, ‘‘China Blocks Access to Times After Article,’’ New York Times, 25 October
12.
31 See, e.g., Michelle FlorCruz, ‘‘China’s Twitter Censors Party Congress Chatter,’’ International Business Times, 9 November 12; Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘Tiananmen Square Online
Searches Censored by Chinese Authorities,’’ Guardian, 4 June 13; ‘‘Censors Ban Talk Online ofTiananmen Massacre,’’ Radio Free Asia, 28 May 13. For Commission analysis, see ‘‘Chinese Censors Limit Online Content for the 18th Party Congress,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission
on China, 21 December 12.
32 For previous reporting on this issue, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 50–
53.
33 Jonathan Ansfield, ‘‘Chinese Authorities Putting Pressure on Businesses To Help Censor
the Web,’’ New York Times, 13 November 12; Brian Spegele and Paul Mozur, ‘‘China Hardens
Grip Ahead of Party Meeting,’’ Wall Street Journal, 10 November 12; Zhang Zihan, ‘‘ForeignRun VPNs Illegal in China: Govt,’’ Global Times, 14 December 12.
34 Jason Ng and Pierre Landry, ‘‘The Political Hierarchy of Censorship: An Analysis of Keyword Blocking of CCP Officials’ Names on Sina Weibo Before and After the 2012 National Congress (S)election,’’ Eleventh Chinese Internet Research Conference, 15 June 13.
35 Gary King et al., ‘‘How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression,’’ American Political Science Review, May 2013, 1–18.
36 Tao Zhu et al., ‘‘The Velocity of Censorship: High-Fidelity Detection of Microblog Post Deletions,’’ Arvix.org, 4 March 13.
37 Jeffrey Knockel, Jedidiah R. Crandall, and Jared Saia, ‘‘Three Researchers, Five Conjectures: An Empirical Analysis of TOM-Skype Censorship and Surveillance,’’ University of New
Mexico, Department of Computer Science; Jeffrey Knockel, ‘‘What Keywords Trigger TOM-Skype
Censorship and Surveillance? ’’ Jeffrey Knockel’s Personal Web site, last visited 24 September
13; Vernon Silver, ‘‘Cracking China’s Skype Surveillance Software,’’ Businessweek, 8 March 13.
38 State Council, Measures for the Administration of Internet Information Services[Hulianwang xinxi fuwu guanli banfa], issued and effective 25 September 00, art. 15.
39 Ibid. For more information on non-transparent censorship legislation, see Freedom House,‘‘Freedom on the Net 2012: China,’’ 24 September 12, 17–18.
40 Freedom House, ‘‘Freedom on the Net 2012: China,’’ 24 September 12, 18.
41 State Council, Measures for the Administration of Internet Information Services[Hulianwang xinxi fuwu guanli banfa], issued and effective 25 September 00, arts. 15–16; Provisions on the Administration of Internet News Information Services [Hulianwang xinwen xinxi
fuwu guanli guiding], issued and effective 25 September 05, arts. 19–21.
42 China Internet Network Information Center, ‘‘The 31st Statistical Report on Internet Development in China’’ [Di 31 ci zhongguo hulian wangluo fazhan zhuangkuang tongji baogao], January 2013, 36; Yang Cheng, ‘‘New Media Development Report: Are Most Microblog Users Fromthe ‘Three Lows? ’ ’’ [Xin meiti fazhan baogao: weibo yonghu duoshi ‘‘sandi renqun? ’’] China
Youth Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 5 July 13.
43 China Internet Network Information Center, ‘‘The 31st Statistical Report on Internet Development in China’’ [Di 31 ci zhongguo hulian wangluo fazhan zhuangkuang tongji baogao], January 2013, 36.
44 David Barboza, ‘‘Despite Restrictions, Microblogs Catch on in China,’’ New York Times, 15
May 11.
45 See, e.g., Brice Pedroletti, ‘‘China’s Citizen Journalists Finding the Mouse Is Mightier Than
the Pen,’’ Guardian Weekly, 11 April 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Renewed Restrictions
Send Online Chill,’’ 4 January 13; Jill Levine, ‘‘Microblogs in China: Digital Democracy,’’ Tea
Leaf Nation, 4 July 13.
46 Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘In China, Microblogging Sites Become Free-Speech Platform,’’ Washington Post, 27 March 11; Rachel Lu, ‘‘What Happens to Free Speech on Weibo After Real Name
Registration,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 28 February 12.

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47 Owen Fletcher and Dan Nystedt, ‘‘Internet, Twitter Blocked in China City After Ethnic
Riot,’’ CIO, 6 July 09.
48 Mark McDonald, ‘‘Adding More Bricks to the Great Firewall of China,’’ New York Times,
23 December 12.
49 ‘‘Microblogs: Small Beginnings,’’ Economist, 6 April 13; Edward Wong, ‘‘China Lets Media
Report on Air Pollution Crisis,’’ New York Times, 14 January 13; Wayne Ma, ‘‘Beijing Pollution
Hits Highs,’’ Wall Street Journal, 14 January 13.
50 Ning Hui, ‘‘Social Media’s Role in Earthquake Aftermath Is Revealing,’’ Tea Leaf Nation,
22 April 13.
51 Anne Henochowicz, China Digital Times, ‘‘Sensitive Words: Wen Jiabao’s Family Wealth,’’
26 October 12; Rachel Lu, ‘‘Some Call NYT an Inadvertent ‘Puppet’ in Wake of Exposé on Chinese PM,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 26 October 12; Minami Funakoshi, ‘‘Chinese Online Reaction to New
York Times Pulitzer Becomes Case Study in Censorship,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 16 April 13.
52 Rachel Lu, ‘‘Some Call NYT an Inadvertent ‘Puppet’ in Wake of Exposé on Chinese PM,’’
Tea Leaf Nation, 26 October 12; Minami Funakoshi, ‘‘Chinese Online Reaction to New YorkTimes Pulitzer Becomes Case Study in Censorship,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 16 April 13.
53 For more information, see ‘‘Weibo: An Eye on Corruption,’’ CNTV, 11 March 13; Gu
Yongqiang, ‘‘Bringing Down ‘Watch Brother’: China’s Online Corruption-Busters Tread a Fine
Line,’’ Time, 10 October 12; Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘Chinese Official Sacked After ‘Citizen Journalists’ Expose Extravagant Banquet,’’ Guardian, 25 April 13; Jonas Parello-Plesner and MichaelAnti, ‘‘The Weibo Generation Can Reboot China,’’ Financial Times, 21 January 13.
54 For more information, see Brice Pedroletti, ‘‘China’s Citizen Journalists Finding the Mouse
Is Mightier Than the Pen,’’ Guardian Weekly, 11 April 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Chinese Officials
Find Misbehavior Now Carries Cost,’’ New York Times, 25 December 12.
55 ‘‘Xinhua Insight: Real-Name Whistleblowing Fuels China’s Online Anti-Corruption Efforts,’’
Xinhua, 14 May 13.
56 Guo Jinchao, ‘‘Li Keqiang Talks Open Government, Must ‘Tell the Truth, Be Completely
Honest’ With the Masses’’ [Li keqiang tan zhengwu gongkai: yao xiang qunzhong ‘‘shuo
zhenhua, jiao shidi’’], China News Service, 26 March 13; Charles Zhu, ‘‘Social Media’s Potential
To Transform Chinese Governance,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 9 May 12.
57 Guo Jinchao, ‘‘Li Keqiang Talks Open Government, Must ‘Tell the Truth, Be Completely
Honest’ With the Masses’’ [Li keqiang tan zhengwu gongkai: yao xiang qunzhong ‘‘shuo
zhenhua, jiao shidi’’], China News Service, 26 March 13; David Bandurski, ‘‘Li Keqiang Urges
More Information Openness,’’ China Media Project, 27 March 13.
58 Brian Spegele, ‘‘Party Urges Popular Weibo Users To Think of ‘National Interests,’ ’’ WallStreet Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 26 August 13; ‘‘Big Vs and Bottom Lines,’’ Economist, 31 August 13; ‘‘China Steps Up Campaign Against Major Opinion-Leading Bloggers, To
Wrest Control of Internet,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 19 August 13.
59 ‘‘Big Vs and Bottom Lines,’’ Economist, 31 August 13.
60 Yiqin Fu, ‘‘China’s Crackdown on Social Media: Who Is in Danger? ’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 2 September 13; Adam Taylor, ‘‘China’s War on Online Gossip Is Starting To Get Scary,’’ Business
Insider, 31 August 13; ‘‘China Voice: China Resolves To Root Out Online Rumors,’’ Xinhua, 21
August 13.
61 Malcolm Moore, ‘‘China Launches New Crackdown on Internet Celebrities,’’ Telegraph, 13
May 13; ‘‘Big Vs and Bottom Lines,’’ Economist, 31 August 13.
62 ‘‘Seven Bottom Lines That All Internet Users Should Observe’’ [Qitiao dixian quanti
wangmin yinggai gong shou], Xinhua, 14 August 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Nationwide
Arrests of Activists, Critics Multiply,’’ 30 August 13; Adam Minter, ‘‘China’s Top Tweeters
Under Fire,’’ Bloomberg, 27 August 13; Dong Haibo, ‘‘Web Celebrities Should Follow Bottom
Line,’’ China Daily, 21 August 13.
63 ‘‘Seven Bottom Lines That All Internet Users Should Observe’’ [Qitiao dixian quanti
wangmin yinggai gong shou], Xinhua, 14 August 13.
64 Wu Dingping, ‘‘Xinhua Commentary: Why Microblogging’s ‘Big V’s’ Must Discuss Social Responsibility’’ [Xinhuawang ping: weibo ‘‘da V’’ wei he geng yao jiang shehui zeren], Xinhua, 11
August 13.
65 ‘‘Outspoken Chinese American Investor Charles Xue Detained in Beijing ‘Prostitution
Bust,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 26 August 13; Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Opponents Turn to ChineseClassics To Protest Anti-Rumour Crackdown,’’ South China Morning Post, 2 September 13.
66 Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Opponents Turn to Chinese Classics To Protest Anti-Rumour Crackdown,’’
South China Morning Post, 2 September 13.
67 Sophie Beach, China Digital Times, ‘‘Press Freedom, Other Topics Off Limits for Academics,’’ 10 May 13; ‘‘Exposure of Universities’ ‘Seven Don’t Mentions’ Sparks Heated Debate’’[Zhongguo gaoxiao ‘‘qi bu jiang’’ bei puguang yinfa re yi], Radio Free Asia, 10 May 13.
68 Benjamin Carlson, ‘‘7 Things You Can’t Talk About in China,’’ Global Post, 3 June 13; ‘‘Exposure of Universities’ ‘Seven Don’t Mentions’ Sparks Heated Debate’’ [Zhongguo gaoxiao ‘‘qi bu
jiang’’ bei puguang yinfa re yi], Radio Free Asia, 10 May 13.
69 Raymond Li, ‘‘Seven Subjects Off Limits for Teaching, Chinese Universities Told,’’ South
China Morning Post, 11 May 13.
70 Ibid.
71 Willy Lam, ‘‘Xi and China’s Seven Taboos,’’ Deutsche Welle, 10 June 13; ‘‘Xi Jinping’s New
Policy: After the Seven Unmentionables, There Are Another 16 Articles’’ [Xi jinping xinzheng:qi bu jiang hou you you shiliu tiao], BBC, 28 May 13.
72 ‘‘China Has Over 170,000 Govt Microblogs,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 27 March
13.
73 Ibid.
74 See, e.g., ‘‘Government Microblogging ‘Choir’ Sings the Positive Energies of a Harmonious
Society’’ [Zhengwu weibo ‘‘hechang tuan’’ chang xiang hexie shehui zheng nengliang], Star Online, 20 June 13; Liu Fengping, Suichuan Political-Legal Committee, ‘‘Suichuan County Political-

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Legal Committee Opens Government Microblog To Maintain Stability and Promote Social Harmony’’ [Sui chuan xianwei zhengfa wei kaitong zhengwu wei bo weiwen cu hexie], 28 April 13.
75 PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15 March 99,
14 March 04, art. 35. See also CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 54.
76 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocatesof Public Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Activist Detainedon Suspicion of ‘Inciting Subversion of State Power’ After Calling for Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 9 May 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China: End Escalating Criminalizing Peaceful Assembly and Free Expression,’’ 17 July 13; ‘‘China Detains Activist Xu Zhiyong,’’ BBC, 17
July 13.
77 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 14. China
has signed and stated its intent to ratify the ICCPR. Human Rights in China, ‘‘Online Activist
Sentenced to 8 Years for Subversion; Lawyer Raises Procedural Concerns,’’ 5 November 12.
78 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocatesof Public Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Online Activist
Sentenced to 8 Years for Subversion; Lawyer Raises Procedural Concerns,’’ 5 November 12;
Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Nationwide Arrests of Activists, Critics Multiply,’’ 30 August 13.
79 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Jiangsu Citizen Gu Yimin Arrested for ‘Inciting Subversion ofState Power,’ ’’ 18 June 13; Gillian Wong, ‘‘Zhai Xiaobing, Chinese Blogger, Arrested For Twitter
Joke About China’s Government,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Huffington Post, 21 November
12.
80 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Nationwide Arrests of Activists, Critics Multiply,’’ 30 August
13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocatesof Public Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13; ‘‘Veteran Chinese Rights Lawyer Held on
Public Order Charges,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19 August 13.
81 ‘‘China Detains Journalist and Photographer Du Bin,’’ BBC, 13 June 13; Reporters Without
Borders, ‘‘Citizen Journalist on Trial Over Self-Published Books About Environment,’’ 11 October 12; ‘‘Chinese Journalist Held For Filming School Campaign,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 April 13.
82 Gillian Wong, ‘‘Zhai Xiaobing, Chinese Blogger, Arrested For Twitter Joke About China’s
Government,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Huffington Post, 21 November 12. See also ‘‘Beijing
Authorities Detain Blogger for Satirical Tweet About 18th Party Congress,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 21 December 12.
83 ‘‘Qin Yongmin, Zhai Xiaobing Released in Succession’’ [Qin yongmin, zhai xiaobing xianhou
huoshi], Radio Free Asia, 12 December 12. See also ‘‘Beijing Authorities Detain Blogger for Satirical Tweet About 18th Party Congress,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 21
December 12.
84 Jane Perlez, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Detained in Beijing, One Day After Human Rights Talk
With U.S.,’’ New York Times, 2 August 13; Luisetta Mudie, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Vows To FightFor Anti-Graft Detainees,’’ Radio Free Asia, 5 August 13.
85 Luisetta Mudie, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Vows To Fight For Anti-Graft Detainees,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 5 August 13.
86 Edward Wong, ‘‘Journalist Held in Beijing, Friends Say,’’ New York Times, 12 June 13;‘‘China Detains Journalist and Photographer Du Bin,’’ BBC, 13 June 13.
87 ‘‘China Detains Journalist and Photographer Du Bin,’’ BBC, 13 June 13; ‘‘Beijing Police For
First Time Confirm Criminal Detention of Independent Reporter Du Bin’’ [Beijing jingfang
shouci zhengshi duli jizhe du bin bei xingju], BBC, 13 June 13.
88 Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Independent Filmmaker Du Bin Released on Bail in Beijing,’’ South China
Morning Post, 9 July 13.
89 Ibid.
90 Neil Gough, ‘‘Chinese Democracy Advocate Is Freed After 8 Years in Prison,’’ New YorkTimes, 7 September 13; ‘‘China Releases Prominent Dissident Early—Group,’’ Reuters, 8 September 13. For more information on this case, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Databaserecord 2004–05482.
91 See, e.g., Mimi Lau, ‘‘Sex-Worker Rights Activist Ye Haiyan and Family Kicked Out of
Guangdong,’’ South China Morning Post, 8 July 13; Wei De, ‘‘Well-Known Human Rights Activist Hu Jia Beaten Until Bleeding by Beijing Domestic Security Protection Officers’’ [Zhuming
weiquan renshi hu jia bei beijing guobao ouda chuxie], China Free Press, 15 March 13; Andrew
Jacobs, ‘‘China Presses Crackdown on Campaign Against Graft,’’ New York Times, 21 April 13;‘‘Gansu Lawyer Wang Fengjun Drugged and Beaten by Police Investigators for Handling Casework; Another Internet User Calling for Disclosure of Public Property Criminally Detained’’[Gansu lushi wang fengjun ban’an zao xingjing duda beijing you yi wangyou xu caichan gongshi
bei xingju], Radio Free Asia, 8 July 13.
92 ‘‘Tibetan Writer Woeser Again Placed Under House Arrest,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 June 13;
Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Chinese Blogger Thrives as Muckraker,’’ New York Times, 5 February 13; TomPhillips, ‘‘Chinese Blogger ‘Gagged’ After Attacking Government for Treatment of Poor,’’ Telegraph, 19 July 13.
93 Isolda Morillo and Alexa Olesen, ‘‘AP Exclusive: China Nobel Wife Speaks on Detention,’’
Associated Press, 6 December 12; ‘‘Clashes as Activist’s Daughter Is Denied Schooling,’’ RadioFree Asia, 8 April 13.
94 PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15 March 99,
14 March 04, art. 35.
95 Josh Chin, ‘‘Forced ‘Vacation’ for Man Who Broke Dumpster Death Story,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 23 November 12.
96 ‘‘Tibetan Writer Woeser Again Placed Under House Arrest,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 June 13.
97 ‘‘Chinese Professor Banned From Classrooms Over Speech,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in
Asahi Shimbun, 24 August 13; ‘‘Law Professor Suspended From Teaching for Pro-Constitu-

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tionalism Expressions,’’ China Change, 25 August 13; ‘‘Shanghai Lawyer Suspended Over Constitutional Campaigns,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 August 13.
98 See, e.g., Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Chinese Blogger Thrives as Muckraker,’’ New York Times, 5 February 13.
99 Isolda Morillo and Alexa Olesen, ‘‘AP Exclusive: China Nobel Wife Speaks on Detention,’’
Associated Press, 6 December 12.
100 Ibid.
101 UN Human Rights Council, ‘‘Tenth Anniversary Joint Declaration: Ten Key Challenges to
Freedom of Expression in the Next Decade,’’ Addendum to Report of the Special Rapporteur on
the Promotion and Protection of the Rights to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, 25 March
10, A/HRC/14/23/Add. 2, art. 1(a).
102 Reporters Without Borders, ‘‘2013 World Press Freedom Index’’ 30 January 13; Olga
Khazan, ‘‘Map: Where Reporters Have the Least Freedom,’’ Washington Post, 30 January 13.
103 Gao Yu, ‘‘Beijing Observation: Regressing Further From ‘Five Nos,’ ’’ Seeing Red in China(blog), 16 May 13; ‘‘China’s Control of the Internet Activities of Media Professionals Causes Concern’’ [Zhongguo kongzhi meitiren wangluo huodong yin guanzhu] BBC, 17 April 13; Ren
Xianliang, ‘‘Comprehensively Planning Two Public Opinion Fields, Concentrating Positive Social
Energy’’ [Tongchou liang ge yulun chang ningju shehui zheng nengliang], Red Flag Journal, reprinted in Seeking Truth, 13 April 13.
104 Ren Xianliang, ‘‘Comprehensively Planning Two Public Opinion Fields, Concentrating Positive Social Energy’’ [Tongchou liang ge yulun chang ningju shehui zheng nengliang], Red Flag
Journal, reprinted in Seeking Truth, 13 April 13. For an English translation of Ren Xianliang’s
remarks, see David Bandurski, ‘‘Party Must Grab the Agenda, Says Official,’’ China Media
Project, 12 April 13; Gao Yu, ‘‘Beijing Observation: Regressing Further From ‘Five Nos,’ ’’ Seeing
Red in China (blog), 16 May 13.
105 Chen Xi, ‘‘ ‘Mingjing Magazine’: Exclusive Entire Text of Disseminated Chinese Communist
Document No. 9’’ [‘‘Mingjing yuekan’’ dujia quanwen kan fa zhonggong 9 hao wenjian], Mingjing
Magazine, 19 August 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Takes Aim at Western Ideas,’’ New York Times,
19 August 13.
106 ‘‘China Newspaper Journalists Stage Rare Strike,’’ BBC, 7 January 13.
107 ‘‘ ‘Southern Weekend’ New Year’s Message, Comparison of the Two Versions’’ [‘‘Nanfang
zhoumo’’ yuandan xianci liang banben bijiao], BBC, 4 January 13; ‘‘Journalists Confront China
Censors Over Editorial,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in USA Today, 4 January 13; Keith B.
Richburg, ‘‘Chinese Journalists Mount Rare Protest Over an Alleged Act of Government Censorship,’’ Washington Post, 4 January 13; International Federation of Journalists, ‘‘Journalists
Strike Against Censorship in Mainland China,’’ 7 January 13.
108 Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘Chinese Journalists Mount Rare Protest Over an Alleged Act of Government Censorship,’’ Washington Post, 4 January 13.
109 Edward Wong, ‘‘Protest Grows Over Censoring of China Paper,’’ New York Times, 7 January 13; Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘China Anti-Censorship Protest Attracts Support Across Country,’’
Guardian, 7 January 13.
110 Ibid.
111 Edward Wong, ‘‘Protest Grows Over Censoring of China Paper,’’ New York Times, 7 January 13.
112 International Federation of Journalists, ‘‘Journalists Strike Against Censorship in Mainland China,’’ 7 January 13.
113 ‘‘Southern Weekend Issue Prompts Soul-Searching Over Media’s Role,’’ Global Times, 8January 13.
114 Xiao Shu, ‘‘Dim Hopes for a Free Press in China,’’ New York Times, 14 January 13.
115 ‘‘China To Merge Press, Broadcasting Regulators,’’ Xinhua, 10 March 13; ‘‘State General
Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television Hangs a Sign; Cai Fuchao andJiang Jianguo Joint Photo’’ [Guojia xinwen chuban guangdian zongju guapai cai fuchao jiang
jianguo heying], China News Service, 22 March 13.
116 He Qinglian, The Fog of Censorship: Media Control in China (New York: Human Rights
in China, 2008), 25.
117 State Council Information Office and Ministry of Information Industry, Provisions on the
Administration of Internet News Information Services [Hulianwang xinwen xinxi fuwu guanli
guiding], issued and effective 25 September 05, arts. 7, 8, 11; General Administration of Pressand Publication, Regulations on the Administration of Publishing [Chuban guanli tiaoli], issued
25 December 01, effective 1 February 02, art. 15; General Administration of Press and Publication, Measures for Administration of News Reporter Cards [Xinwen jizhe zheng guanli banfa],
issued 24 August 09, effective 15 October 09, arts. 11, 12, 16.
118 Zhejiang Province Radio, Film and Television Bureau, ‘‘2010 Nationwide Radio and Television Editors and Reporters, Broadcasters, and Hosts Qualification Exam’’ [2010 nian quanguo
guangbo dianshi bianji jizhe, boyin yuan zhuchi ren zige kaoshi dagang], 30 July 10, chap. 2,
art. 6.
119 General Administration of Press and Publication, ‘‘Several Provisions To Prevent andGuard Against False Reporting’’ [Guanyu yanfang xujia xinwen baodao de ruogan guiding], 19
October 11, art. 1(4); Michael Wines, ‘‘China Rolls Out Tighter Rules on Reporting,’’ New YorkTimes, 11 November 11.
120 Pu Yasu, ‘‘SARFT to Enhance Control Over Editors’ Online Activities’’ [Xinwen chuban
guangdian zongju jiang jiaqiang caibian renyuan wangluo huodong guanli], China Press andPublishing Journal, reprinted in Xinhua, 16 April 13.
121 Tom Phillips, ‘‘Chinese Journalists Banned from Quoting Foreign Media,’’ Telegraph, 17
April 13.
122 State Council Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11 June 12, sec. I (6).

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123 For more information, see Deng Yuwen, ‘‘China Should Abandon North Korea,’’ Financial
Times, 27 February 13; ‘‘Chinese Editor Fired Over Call To Abandon N.Korea,’’ Chosun Ilbo,
1 April 13; Kentaro Koyama, ‘‘China Magazine Spikes Taiwan Issue, Fires Staff,’’ Asahi
Shimbun, 23 March 13.
124 Deng Yuwen, ‘‘China Should Abandon North Korea,’’ Financial Times, 27 February 13;‘‘Chinese Editor Fired Over Call To Abandon N.Korea,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 1 April 13; Jane Perlez,‘‘Penalty for Chinese Editor Critical of Korea Stance,’’ New York Times, 1 April 13.
125 Committee to Protect Journalists, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Who Raised Corruption Charges
Jailed,’’ 29 August 13.
126 ‘‘Police Hold Chongqing Journalist Who Exposed Graft,’’ Radio Free Asia, 23 August 13;
Committee to Protect Journalists, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Who Raised Corruption Charges Jailed,’’
29 August 13.
127 Reporters Without Borders, ‘‘Take No Photos or You Will Die Here,’’ 19 July 13.
128 Ibid.; Liu Gang, ‘‘In Hunan, Two Reporters Interviewing Melon Vendors About Death Beaten by Police’’ [Hunan 2 ming jizhe caifang gua fan siwang shijian bei jingcha ouda], Oriental
Daily, 18 July 13.
129 Reporters Without Borders, ‘‘Take No Photos or You Will Die Here,’’ 19 July 13; Liu Gang,‘‘In Hunan, Two Reporters Interviewing Melon Vendors About Death Beaten by Police’’ [Hunan
2 ming jizhe caifang gua fan siwang shijian bei jingcha ouda], Oriental Daily, 18 July 13.
130 Reporters Without Borders, ‘‘RWB Calls for the Immediate and Unconditional Release of
Boxun Journalist Sun Lin,’’ reprinted in Boxun, 26 April 13.
131 Verna Yu, ‘‘Hong Kong Journalists, Activist Beaten Outside Home of Wife of Dissident Liu
Xiaobo,’’ South China Morning Post, 9 March 13.
132 Committee to Protect Journalists, ‘‘Hong Kong Journalists Beaten in Beijing,’’ 11 March
13; Verna Yu, ‘‘Hong Kong Journalists, Activist Beaten Outside Home of Wife of Dissident Liu
Xiaobo,’’ South China Morning Post, 9 March 13.
133 Verna Yu, ‘‘Hong Kong Journalists, Activist Beaten Outside Home of Wife of Dissident Liu
Xiaobo,’’ South China Morning Post, 9 March 13.
134 Committee to Protect Journalists, ‘‘Top Chinese Reporter Fired as Thugs Attack FilmCrew,’’ Radio Free Asia, 1 March 13; ‘‘German TV Crew Attacked While Filming in China,’’ 4
March 13.
135 International Federation of Journalists, ‘‘Journalists Attacked in Hong Kong and Mainland
China,’’ 23 April 13.
136 Foreign Correspondents’ Club of China, ‘‘Annual Working Conditions Survey,’’ reprinted inCommittee to Protect Journalists, 11 July 13.
137 Ibid.

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Notes to Section II—Worker Rights
1 PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15 March 99,
14 March 04, art. 35.
2 PRC Trade Union Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo gonghui fa], issued and effective 3
April 92, amended 27 October 01, art. 3; Constitution of the Chinese Trade Unions [Zhongguo
gonghui zhangcheng], adopted 26 September 03, amended 21 October 08, General Provisions.
3 For example, during the past year, ACFTU Chairman Li Jianguo was concurrently a member of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party Central Committee. See All-China Federation of Trade Unions, Yan Yan, ‘‘Li Jianguo Elected Chairman of All-China Federation of Trade
Unions’’ [Li jianguo dangxuan zhonghua quanguo zong gonghui zhuxi], People’s Daily, 1 March
13. See also Lu Jianmin, ‘‘The Trade Union System Within Collective Bargaining in China’’ [Lujianmin: zhongguo jiti tanpan zhong de tizhi gonghui], Leader, reprinted in Consensus Net, 7
May 13; Li Honghuo, ‘‘The System Really Has To Operate in Order To Contain Conflict’’ [Zhidu
zhenshi yunzhuan caineng kongzhi chongtu], Dongguan Daily, 20 May 13.
4 PRC Trade Union Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo gonghui fa], issued and effective 3
April 92, amended 27 October 01, art. 4; Constitution of the Chinese Trade Unions [Zhongguo
gonghui zhangcheng], effective 26 September 03, amended 21 October 08, General Provisions.
5 Elaine Sio-ieng Hui, ‘‘How Direct Are the ‘Direct Elections’ of Trade Union Officials in
China? ’’ Global Labour Column, Number 109, October 2012; Working Conditions and Worker
Rights in China: Recent Developments, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 31 July 12, Written Statement Submitted by Mary E. Gallagher, Associate Professor of
Political Science and Director of the Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 10.
6 Wu Jiajie, ‘‘Trade Unions Must Return to Their Functional Role’’ [Gonghui yao xiang zishenzhineng juese huigui], Dongguan Daily, 20 May 13; Lu Jianmin, ‘‘The Trade Union System
Within Collective Bargaining in China’’ [Lu jianmin: zhongguo jiti tanpan zhong de tizhi
gonghui], Leader, reprinted in Consensus Net, 7 May 13; Elaine Sio-ieng Hui, ‘‘How Direct Are
the ‘Direct Elections’ of Trade Union Officials in China? ’’ Global Labour Column, Number 109,
October 2012.
7 Elaine Sio-ieng Hui, ‘‘How Direct Are the ‘Direct Elections’ of Trade Union Officials in
China? ’’ Global Labour Column, Number 109, October 2012.
8 PRC Labor Law [Zhongguo renmin gongheguo laodong fa], issued 5 July 94, effective 1 January 95, arts. 8, 33. See also PRC Trade Union Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo gonghui fa],issued and effective 3 April 92, amended 27 October 01, art. 18; PRC Labor Contract Law[Zhongguo renmin gongheguo laodong hetong fa], issued 29 June 07, effective 1 January 08,
amended 28 December 12, arts. 6, 51–56.
9 Suo Hanxue, ‘‘70 Percent of Line Workers Not Satisfied With Existing Wages, Ministry of
Human Resources and Social Security Intends To Push for Wage Negotiations’’ [Qi cheng yixian
gongren buman xianyou gongzi renshibu ni tui gongzi xieshang], China Business, reprinted in
Sina, 9 March 13; Yang Mingqing, ‘‘Vigorously Promote Collective Wage Negotiations, Actively
Advance Harmonious Labor Relations’’ [Dali tuixing gongzi jiti xieshang jiji cujin laodong guanxi
hexie], Workers’ Daily, 23 January 13; Fan Xi and Chu Hang, ‘‘Collective Wage Negotiations
Allow Workers To Enjoy ‘the Right To Speak’ on Income’’ [Gongzi jiti xieshang, rang laodongzhe
xiangyou shouru ‘‘huayu quan’’], Xinhua, 1 May 13.
10 Lu Jianmin, ‘‘The Trade Union System Within Collective Bargaining in China’’ [Lu jianmin:zhongguo jiti tanpan zhong de tizhi gonghui], Leader, reprinted in Consensus Net, 7 May 13;
Wu Jiajie, ‘‘Trade Unions Must Return to Their Functional Role’’ [Gonghui yao xiang zishenzhineng juese huigui], Dongguan Daily, 20 May 13; Lei Xiaotian, ‘‘Reshaping the Government’s
Role in Collective Consultations’’ [Zhengfu zai jiti xieshang zhong zai juese chongsu], Chinese
Cadres Tribune, reprinted in Theory Net, 7 May 13.
11 Chen Xiaobo and Zhang Xiaoyu, ‘‘Awkward Situation of Collective Wage Consultations’’[Gongzi jiti xieshang yu ganga], Yunnan Daily, reprinted in Collective Bargaining Forum, 1 August 13.
12 Ibid.
13 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Nanhai Honda Workers Obtain Higher Salaries After One Day
Strike’’ [Nanhai bentian gongren zai wei qi yitian de bagong hou huode geng gao gongzi], 25
March 13.
14 Zhang Ke, ‘‘Research Report Uncovers Foxconn ‘Real Trade Unions’ Merely for Decoration’’[Diaoyan baogao jiemi: fushikang ‘‘zhenzheng gonghui’’ zhishi baishe], First Financial, 1 May
13.
15 Zheng Caixiong, ‘‘Trial Begins To Elect Trade Union Chiefs,’’ China Daily, 15 January 13;
Wang Daobin, ‘‘Trial Direct Elections of Union Chairpersons Will Be Carried Out This Year’’[Jinnian jiang shidian gonghui zhuxi zhixuan], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 15 January 13;
Zhu Jun, ‘‘Ningbo, Yingzhou District, Tangxi Town Attempts Direct Elections of Enterprise
Union Chairpersons’’ [Ningbo yingzhou qu tangxi zhen changshi qiye gonghui zhuxi zhixuan],Ningbo Net, reprinted in Collective Bargaining Forum, 20 May 13; Yao Xuepei, ‘‘61 Enterprises
Carry Out Direct Elections of Union Chairpersons’’ [61 jia qiye tuixing zhixuan gonghui zhuxi],
Gaoming Today, 10 May 13. For previous reporting on direct union elections, see, e.g., CECC,
2012 Annual Report, 60.
16 Zheng Caixiong, ‘‘Trial Begins To Elect Trade Union Chiefs,’’ China Daily, 15 January 13;
Wang Daobin, ‘‘Trial Direct Elections of Union Chairpersons Will Be Carried Out This Year’’[Jinnian jiang shidian gonghui zhuxi zhixuan], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 15 January 13.
17 Yao Xuepei, ‘‘61 Enterprises Carry Out Direct Elections of Union Chairpersons’’ [61 jia qiye
tuixing zhixuan gonghui zhuxi], Gaoming Today, 10 May 13.
18 Clare Jim and Jonathan Standing, ‘‘Foxconn Says To Boost China Worker Participation inUnion,’’ Reuters, 4 February 13; Michelle Chan, ‘‘Can We Trust Foxconn’s New ‘Democratic’ Chinese Factories? ’’ In These Times, 11 February 13.

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19 ‘‘Foxconn Plans To Establish Genuinely Representative Trade Unions in Chinese Factories’’[Fushikang zhongguo gongchang ni chengli zhenzheng ju daibiaoxing gonghui], Voice of America, 5 February 13; ‘‘Foxconn Prepares To Establish Trade Unions in China That Are Genuinely
Representative of Worker Rights and Interests’’ [Fushikang zhunbei zai zhongguo chenglizhenzheng daibiao gongren quanyi de gonghui], Radio Free Asia, 4 February 13; Clare Jim andJonathan Standing, ‘‘Foxconn Says To Boost China Worker Participation in Union,’’ Reuters, 4February 13.
20 Kathrin Hille and Rahul Jacob, ‘‘China Wary Amid Push for Workers’ Union Poll,’’ Financial Times, 3 February 13.
21 Li Yulin, ‘‘After the Direct Election of Unions’’ [Zhixuan gonghui zhihou], China Fortune,
3 September 12; China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Shenzhen Workers Demand Ouster of Trade Union
Chairman After ‘Model Election,’ ’’ 8 March 13; Sun Tianming, ‘‘Enterprise Direct Union Elections: A Rare Democratic Practice’’ [Qiye gonghui zhixuan: nande de minzhu caolian], Southern
Metropolitan Daily, 27 June 13.
22 Li Xiaoxu, ‘‘First Directly Elected Union Chairman in Shenzhen Suspected of Not Doing
Enough To Defend Legal Rights Faces Joint Declaration for His Dismissal’’ [Shenzhen shouwei
zhixuan gonghui zhuxi yi yin weiquan bu li zao lianming bamian], Yangcheng Evening News,
1 March 13; ‘‘Why We Want To Recall the Labour Union Chairman,’’ China Labour Net, 12
March 13.
23 ‘‘Why We Want To Recall the Labour Union Chairman,’’ China Labour Net, 12 March 13.
24 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Shenzhen Workers Demand Ouster of Trade Union Chairman After‘Model Election,’ ’’ 8 March 13.
25 ‘‘Worker Protests Continue To Emerge in Guangdong’’ [Guangdong lianxu chuxian gongchao], Radio Free Asia, 24 April 13; ‘‘Multiple Worker Protests Emerge in Guangdong’’[Guangdong gong chao duo chu yongxian], Radio Free Asia, 8 March 13; Jennifer Cheung, China
Labour Bulletin, ‘‘China Sees Upsurge in Worker Protests Prior to Lunar New Year,’’ 8 February 13; Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Strikes and Worker Protests in China’sService Sector on the Increase,’’ 7 May 13.
26 ‘‘Over a Thousand Workers in Shenzhen Block Roads, Riot Police Release Tear Gas To Drive
Away Workers’’ [Shenzhen yu qian gongren du lu fangbaojing fang cuileidan qugan], Radio Free
Asia, 23 May 13; ‘‘Shenzhen Shoe Factory Goes Bankrupt, 500 Workers Demanding Back Wages
Assaulted by Riot Police’’ [Shenzhen xie chang daobi wu bai gongren taoxin zao tejing ouda],
Radio Free Asia, 27 May 13; Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Strike and Worker Protests in China’s Service Sector on the Increase,’’ 7 May 13; ‘‘A Thousand Workers in Foshan
Strike for Two Days, Factory Threatens To Fire Those Workers Who Don’t Return to Work’’[Foshan qian ming gongren lianxu liang ri bagong gongchang weixie bu fugong jiu kaichu],Radio Free Asia, 7 June 13; ‘‘Longgang District, Shenzhen Workers From Two Factories Stage
Collective Strikes’’ [Shenzhen longgang qu liang chang yuangong jiti bagong], Radio Free Asia,
21 June 13.
27 ‘‘Several Hundred Dye Factory Workers Block Roads Seeking Back Wages’’ [Shubairanchang gongren du lu zhui tao qianxin], Radio Free Asia, 1 May 13; ‘‘Labor Rights Damaged,
Chongqing and Shenzhen Have Labor Strikes’’ [Laogong quanyi shousun chongqing, shenzhen
xian gong chao], Radio Free Asia, 30 April 13; Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘China
Sees Upsurge in Worker Protests Prior to Lunar New Year,’’ 8 February 13.
28 ‘‘Thousand Workers at Foxconn Jiangxi Factory Unsatisfied With Wages and Treatment
Demonstrate’’ [Fushikang jiangxi gongchang qian ren buman xinzi daiyu shangjie youxing],
West Net, reprinted in First Financial, 13 January 13; Fiona Tam, ‘‘1,000 Workers Hold Managers Hostage in Shanghai Labour Row,’’ South China Morning Post, 21 January 13.
29 Eli Friedman, ‘‘China in Revolt,’’ Jacobin, Issue 7–8, August 2012.
30 Huang Xiaoqing et al., ‘‘Workers at Nanhai Honda Stop Working Seeking Raise in Salary’’[Nanhai bentian gongren tinggong qiu jiaxin], Yangcheng Evening News, 20 March 13; China
Labour Bulletin, ‘‘China’s Workers Demand a Better Trade Union,’’ 22 March 13.
31 According to media reports, authorities released 19 of the 27 workers a day later. The Commission has not observed subsequent reports on the eight workers not released. ‘‘Guangdong
Highway Owner Withholds Hunan Migrant Workers’ Billion Yuan in Wages Leading to Mass
Incident’’ [Guangdong gaosulu yezhu tuoqian hunan mingong shang yi yuan gongzi yinfa qunti
shijian], Radio Free Asia, 3 February 13; ‘‘Migrant Worker Salary Demands Frequent In All
Parts of the Country, Government Blindly Suppresses To Maintain Stability’’ [Nongmingong
taoxin gedi pin fa zhengfu wei weiwen yiwei da ya], Radio Free Asia, 4 February 13.
32 ‘‘Shenzhen Shoe Factory Goes Bankrupt, 500 Workers Demanding Back Wages Assaulted
by Riot Police’’ [Shenzhen xie chang daobi wu bai gongren taoxin zao tejing ouda], Radio Free
Asia, 27 May 13; ‘‘Over a Thousand Workers in Shenzhen Block Roads, Riot Police Release Tear
Gas To Drive Away Workers’’ [Shenzhen yu qian gongren du lu fangbaojing fang cuileidan
qugan], Radio Free Asia, 23 May 13; ‘‘Taiwanese Enterprise Closes Still Owing Wages, Over
Hundred Petitioning Workers Arrested’’ [Tai qi jieye qianxin shangfang gongren bai duo renbeibu], Radio Free Asia, 20 March 13.
33 ‘‘Thousands Striking in Guangzhou in Bloody Clash With Police; Hundreds of Workers at
Guizhou Weapons Factory Go to the Streets Seeking Pay’’ [Guangzhou qian ren bagong yu jing
liuxue chongtu guizhou jun xie chang shubai yuangong shangjie zheng xinchou], Radio Free
Asia, 30 January 13; ‘‘Hundreds of Migrant Workers at Guangdong Provincial Government Demanding Back Wages Dispersed, Over a Hundred Petitioners in Shanxi Imprisoned for Petitioning at Two Sessions’’ [Shubai nongmingong yue fu taoxin zao qusan shanxi yu bai fangmin
lianghui qingyuan bei guanya], Radio Free Asia, 24 January 13.
34 ‘‘Thousands of Workers at Foxconn Jiangxi Factory Unsatisfied With Wages Demonstrateon the Streets’’ [Fushikang jiangxi gongchang qian ren buman xin zi daiyu shangjie youxing],
West Net, reprinted in First Financial, 13 January 13.
35 Eli Friedman, ‘‘China in Revolt,’’ Jacobin, Issue 7–8, August 2012; Working Conditions andWorker Rights in China: Recent Developments, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Com-

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mission on China, 31 July 12, Written Statement Submitted by Mary E. Gallagher, Associate
Professor of Political Science and Director of the Center for Chinese Studies, University ofMichigan, 3–4; ‘‘Worker Strikes Break Out in Hangzhou and Other Places, Citizens Rights Defense Awareness Gradually Increasing’’ [Hangzhou deng di fasheng yuangong bagong shijian
gongmin weiquan yishi zhujian zengqiang], Radio Free Asia, 4 March 13.
36 ‘‘Investigation States Not Paying Migrant Workers Overtime Wages Is Still Comparatively
Common Occurrence’’ [Diaocha cheng bu zhifu nongmingong jiaban gongzi xianxiang rengjiaowei changjian], China Youth Daily, reprinted in Sina, 7 February 13; Han Dongfang, ‘‘China’s Workers Unite,’’ New York Times, 8 November 12.
37 Kevin Voigt, ‘‘China’s Workforce at a Crossroads,’’ CNN, 21 March 13; William Wan,‘‘Foxconn Riots in China Seen as Likely To Recur,’’ Washington Post, 25 September 12; Yu Ran,‘‘Young Job Seekers Expect More Than Just Wages,’’ China Daily, 21 February 13; National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘2012 Nationwide Migrant Worker Monitoring Survey Report’’ [2012nian quanguo nongmingong jiance diaocha baogao], 27 March 13.
38 William Wan, ‘‘Foxconn Riots in China Seen as Likely To Recur,’’ Washington Post, 25 September 12; Alexandra Ho and Tim Culpan, ‘‘Foxconn Workers Labor Under Guard After Riot
Shuts Plant,’’ Bloomberg, 26 September 12; Lin Qiling, ‘‘Taiyuan Foxconn Brawl Persists for
Four Hours; Alleged Beating by Security Guards Lead to Brawl’’ [Taiyuan fushikang qun ou
chixu 4 xiaoshi jucheng yin baoan daren yinfa], Beijing News, reprinted in Xinhua, 25 September 12.
39 Li Li, ‘‘Legal Expert: Evidence Is the Achilles Heel in Migrant Workers’ Difficulty Obtaining
Back Wages’’ [Falu zhuanjia: zhengju shi nongmingong taoxin nan de sixue], China Youth Daily,
28 February 13; ‘‘For Migrant Workers Seeking To Recover Wages in Hebei, 95 Percent of Wage
Arrears Occur in the Construction Sector’’ [Hebei sheng wei nongmingong zhui tao gongzi 95%
qianxin fasheng zai jianzhu lingyu], Great Wall Net, reprinted in China News Service, 16 January 13.
40 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Employment Discrimination in China,’’ 20 November 12; Jiang
Chunyuan, ‘‘ ‘Migrant Workers Prohibited From Using Toilet’: Discrimination and Arrogance Behind Signboard’’ [‘‘Nongmingong jinzhi ruce’’: gaoshipai hou de aoman yu pianjian], Xinhua, 26
March 13.
41 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Employment Discrimination in China,’’ 20 November 12; Zi
Xiuchun, ‘‘Lawyer Huang Leping’s Letter: The Five Main Problems in Migrant Workers’ Lives
I Hope Committee Delegates Address’’ [Huang leping lushi laixin: nongmingong shenghuo wu
da nanti xiwang dedao daibiao weiyuan guanzhu], Workers’ Daily, reprinted in Beijing Yilian
Labor Law Aid and Research Center, 6 March 13.
42 National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘2012 Nationwide Migrant Worker Monitoring Survey Report’’ [2012 nian quanguo nongmingong jiance diaocha baogao], 27 March 13.
43 Zi Xiuchun, ‘‘Lawyer Huang Leping’s Letter: The Five Main Problems in Migrant Workers’
Lives I Hope Committee Delegates Address’’ [Huang leping lushi laixin: nongmingong shenghuo
wu da nanti xiwang dedao daibiao weiyuan guanzhu], Workers’ Daily, reprinted in Beijing
Yilian Labor Law Aid and Research Center, 6 March 13.
44 National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘2012 Nationwide Migrant Worker Monitoring Survey Report’’ [2012 nian quanguo nongmingong jiance diaocha baogao], 27 March 13.
45 Li Li, ‘‘Legal Expert: Evidence Is the Achilles Heel in Migrant Workers’ Difficulty Obtaining
Back Wages’’ [Falu zhuanjia: zhengju shi nongmingong taoxin nan de sixue], China Youth Daily,
28 February 13; Li Keyong, Fu Yongtao et al., ‘‘Labor Law, Those Clauses That Are Ignored(Policy Focus)’’ [Laodong fa, na xie bei moshi de tiaokuan (zhengce jujiao)], People’s Daily, 1
March 13.
46 National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘2012 Nationwide Migrant Worker Monitoring Survey Report’’ [2012 nian quanguo nongmingong jiance diaocha baogao], 27 March 13.
47 Zi Xiuchun, ‘‘Lawyer Huang Leping’s Letter: The Five Main Problems in Migrant Workers’
Lives I Hope Committee Delegates Address’’ [Huang leping lushi laixin: nongmingong shenghuo
wu da nanti xiwang dedao daibiao weiyuan guanzhu], Workers’ Daily, reprinted in Beijing
Yilian Labor Law Aid and Research Center, 6 March 13; Sun Yangshuang, ‘‘New Generation
Migrant Workers ‘Merge Into the City,’ a Long Road’’ [Xinshengdai nongmingong ‘‘rong cheng,’’lu you duo yuan], Jilin Daily, reprinted in Worker’s Daily, 25 March 13; ‘‘China’s Hukou System
Puts Migrant Workers at Severe Economic Disadvantage,’’ Public Radio International, 1 May
13.
48 Zhuang Pinghui, ‘‘Migrant Workers Feel Like Outsiders in Mainland Cities, Says Survey,’’South China Morning Post, 3 March 13; Huang Chen, ‘‘Investigation of Migrant Worker Happiness: Although Income Has Increased, Still Consider Themselves the Lowest Rung of Society’’[Nongmingong xingfu gan diaocha: shouru sui zeng reng ziren ‘‘diceng’’], Caixin, 28 February
13.
49 ILO Convention (No. 138) Concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, 26 June73; ILO Convention (No. 182) Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, 17 June 99.
50 PRC Labor Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo laodong fa], issued 5 July 94, effective 1 January 95, amended 10 October 01, art. 15. See also PRC Law on the Protection of Minors[Zhonghua renmin gongheguo wei chengnian ren baohu fa], issued 4 September 91, effective 1
January 92, art. 28. See generally Provisions on Prohibiting the Use of Child Labor [Jinzhi
shiyong tonggong guiding], issued 1 October 02, effective 1 December 02.
51 International Trade Union Confederation, ‘‘Report for the WTO General Council Review of
the Trade Policies of the People’s Republic of China,’’ June 2012, 16; International Labour Organization, ‘‘Observation (CEACR)—adopted 2010, published 100th ILC session (2011) C138—Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)—China,’’ adopted 2010, published 100th ILC Session
2011.
52 International Labour Organization, ‘‘Address at the High-Level Meeting on the Applicationof Child Labour Conventions Ratified by China,’’ 6 September 12; International Labour Organi-

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zation, ‘‘Information Document on Ratifications and Standards-Related Activities,’’ International
Labour Conference, 102nd Session, 2013, 17.
53 International Labour Organization, ‘‘Observation (CEACR)—C138—Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)—China,’’ adopted 2010, published 100th ILC Session 2011.
54 See, e.g., Apple Inc., ‘‘Apple Supplier Responsibility 2013 Progress Report,’’ January 2013,18; ‘‘Underage Foxconn Interns Return to School,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 17 October
12; Min-Jeong Lee, ‘‘Samsung Under Watch for China Labor Practices,’’ Wall Street Journal, 18
December 12; ‘‘Unable To Recruit Workers, Child Laborers Used as Substitutes, Clothing Factory in Jiaozhou Reformed’’ [Zhao budao gongren na tonggong dingshang jiaozhou yi fuzhuangchang bei zhenggai], Online Textile City, 12 April 13; Rao Dehong, ‘‘7 Female Primary SchoolStudents From Liangshan Lured To Work in Dongguan Will Be Returned to School’’ [7 ming
liangshan xiaoxue nu sheng bei you zhi dongguan wugong jiang bei jiehui fanxiao shangxue],
Southern Metropolitan Daily, 6 December 12.
55 John Paczkowski, ‘‘Apple Busts Supplier for Underage Labor in Latest Responsibility Report,’’ All Things Digital, 24 January 13; Apple Inc., ‘‘Apple Supplier Responsibility 2013
Progress Report,’’ January 2013, 18.
56 State Council, Provisions on Prohibiting the Use of Child Labor [Jinzhi shiyong tonggong
guiding], issued 1 October 02, effective 1 December 02, art. 13.
57 PRC Education Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiaoyu fa], issued 18 March 95, effective
1 September 95, amended 27 August 09, art. 58.
58 See, e.g., Raymond Li, ‘‘Foxconn Flouts Labour Law With Under-16 Interns in Shandong,’’
South China Morning Post, 17 October 12; Lin Yimin and He Daolan, ‘‘Young Student Interns
Become Assembly Line Workers? ’’ [Xuesheng zi shixi bian liushui gong?], Guangzhou Daily, 14
March 13.
59 See International Labour Organization (ILO), Convention concerning Minimum Age for Admission to Employment (No. 138), adopted by 58th Session ILC 26 June 73, entry into force 19
June 76, art. 6. ILO guidelines on the subject of vocational training, apprenticeships and related
internships vis-à-vis child labor permits such work ‘‘in accordance with conditions prescribed by
the competent authority’’ and in programs involving education, training, or ‘‘guidance or orientation [on] . . . the choice of an occupation or of a line of training.’’ See also ILO Recommendation
146 on the Minimum Age for Admission to Employment, item 12.2. The General Conference of
the ILO adopted Recommendation 146 relating to the 1973 Minimum Age Convention, whichurged that measures ‘‘be taken to safeguard and supervise the conditions in which children andyoung persons undergo vocational orientation and training within undertakings, training institutions and schools for vocation or technical education and to formulate standards for their protection and development.’’ See also International Labour Organization, Convention concerning
Forced or Compulsory Labour (No. 29), adopted by 14th ILC Session 28 June 30, entry into force
1 May 32; International Labour Office, General Survey Concerning the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), and the Abolition of Forced Labor Convention, 1957 (No. 105), International
Labour Conference, 96th Session, 2007, 19–20. ILO’s Committee of Experts noted that vocational training does not necessarily constitute compulsory work or service within the meaningof the Forced Labour Convention (No. 29), but states that ‘‘. . . vocational training usually entails a certain amount of practical work, and for that reason, the distinction between training
and employment is sometimes difficult to draw. It is therefore only by reference to the various
elements involved in the general context of a particular scheme of training that it becomes possible to determine whether such scheme is unequivocally one of vocational training or on thecontrary involves the exaction of work or service within the definition of ‘forced or compulsory
labor.’ ’’
60 Lin Yimin and He Daolan, ‘‘Young Student Interns Become Assembly Line Workers? ’’[Xuesheng zi shixi bian liushui gong?], Guangzhou Daily, 14 March 13; Lin Yimin and He
Daolan, ‘‘Student Factory Interns Act as Laborers, Working 11 Hour Days, Schools Do the Negotiating’’ [Xuesheng gongchang shixi bei dang laogong meitian gan 11 xiaoshi xiao fang yijiaoshe], Guangzhou Daily, reprinted in China News Service, 15 March 13.
61 Lin Yimin and He Daolan, ‘‘Young Student Interns Become Assembly Line Workers? ’’[Xuesheng zi shixi bian liushui gong?], Guangzhou Daily, 14 March 13.
62 ‘‘Underage Foxconn Interns Return to School,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 17 October
12.
63 Ibid.; David Pierson, ‘‘Chinese Factory Giant Employed Underage Interns on AssemblyLine,’’ Los Angeles Times, 30 October 12.
64 Raymond Li, ‘‘Foxconn Flouts Labour Law With Under-16 Interns in Shandong,’’ South
China Morning Post, 17 October 12.
65 Lucy Hornby, ‘‘Use of Student Interns Highlights China Labor Shortage,’’ Reuters, 6 January 13; Wang Xian and Li Nan, ‘‘Foxconn Stages Recruitment Frenzy, Numerous University
Students ‘Forced Into Internships’ ’’ [Fushikang shangyan zhao gong kuangchao duodi gaoxiao
xuesheng ‘‘bei shixi’’], China National Radio, 7 September 12.
66 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Debate on Revisions to Labour Contract Law Delayed Because of
Deluge of Submissions,’’ 31 October 12; Pang Le, ‘‘Dispatch Laborers Hope for Equal Pay for
Equal Work’’ [Laowu paiqian panwang tonggongtongchou], Xi’an Daily, reprinted in NetEase,
11 September 12.
67 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Debate on Revisions to Labour Contract Law Delayed Because of
Deluge of Submissions,’’ 31 October 12.
68 Article 66 of the PRC Labor Contract Law states that ‘‘labor dispatch generally carries out
temporary, supplementary, or substitution work positions.’’ PRC Labor Contract Law [Zhongguo
renmin gongheguo laodong hetong fa], issued 29 June 07, effective 1 January 08, amended 28
December 12, art. 66; ‘‘China Aims To Ensure ‘Equal Pay for Same Job,’ ’’ Xinhua, reprinted in
People’s Daily, 25 December 12; Chu He, ‘‘Workers’ Daily Commentary: Who Should Be Alertto the ‘Reverse of Labor Dispatch? ’ ’’ [Gongbao shiping: ‘‘nixiang laowu paiqian’’ shei gai
jingxing?], Workers’ Daily, 17 June 13.

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69 Sources citing data from the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) in 2011 and2012 report the total number of subcontracted workers in China as between 27 and 37 million;
however, other reports state the total number is closer to 60 million. See Chen Xin, ‘‘Legislators
Review Labor Law Revision on Regulating Outsourcing,’’ China Daily, 25 December 12; Kevin
Slaten and Xue Chao, ‘‘Wages Rising in Chinese Factories? Only for Some,’’ In These Times,
18 March 13; Liu Xiaojie and Liu Chunxiu, ‘‘Dispatch Labor Industry Thresholds To Rise’’[Laowu paiqian hangye menkan jiang tigao], 21st Century Business Herald, 22 November 12;
Huang Yan, et al., ‘‘Flood of Labor Dispatch in Enterprises Common Phenomenon, Dispatch
Workers Face Unequal Pay for Equal Work’’ [Qiye laowu paiqian fanlan xianxiang pubian
laowugong mianlin tonggong butong chou], Economic Information, reprinted in People’s Daily,
6 July 12; Zhang Zhilong, et al., ‘‘Xinhua Viewpoint: Labor Dispatch Personnel ‘Unequal Pay
for Equal Work’ Problem Draws Concern’’ [Xinhua shidian: laowu paiqian renyuan ‘‘tonggong
butong chou’’ wenti yin guanzhu], Xinhua, 16 January 13.
70 National People’s Congress, Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress Decision
Regarding Amendments to PRC Labor Contract Law [Quanguo renmin daibiao dahuichangwuweiyuanhui guanyu xiugai ‘‘zhonghua renmin gongheguo laodong hetong fa’’ dejueding], 29 December 12.
71 Ibid., arts. 66, 63.
72 Ibid., art. 57.
73 Zou Mingqiang, ‘‘On the Eve of the Implementation of Amendments to PRC Labor Contract
Law, the Public Looks Forward To Improving the Unfair Circumstances of Dispatch Laborers’’[‘‘Laodong hetong fa (xiuzheng an)’’ jijiang zhengshi shishi, gaishan laowu paiqiangong de bu
gongping jingyu cheng gongzhong qidai], Workers’ Daily, 16 June 13; Jiang Yunzhang, ‘‘Second
Examination of Amendments to Labor Contract Law Postponed’’ [Laodong hetong fa xiugai ershen tuiyan], Economic Observer, 27 October 12.
74 Kevin Slaten and Xue Chao, ‘‘Wages Rising in Chinese Factories? Only for Some,’’ In These
Times, 18 March 13; Li Shulong, ‘‘Dongguan Child Laborer Dies: 14-Year-Old Country Boy on
the Assembly Line’’ [Dongguan tonggong zhi si: zou shang liushui xian de 14 sui xiangxia haizi],
Southern Daily, 31 May 13.
75 Li Shulong, ‘‘Dongguan Child Laborer Dies: 14-Year-Old Country Boy on the AssemblyLine’’ [Dongguan tonggong zhi si: zou shang liushui xian de 14 sui xiangxia haizi], Southern
Daily, 31 May 13.
76 International Labour Organization, Convention concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour(No. 29), adopted by 14th ILC Session, 28 June 30, entry into force 1 May 32, art. 2.2(c); International Labour Organization, Convention concerning the Abolition of Forced Labour (No. 105),
adopted by 40th ILC Session, 25 June 57, entry into force 17 January 59, art. 1. Article 2.2(c)of the Convention concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour allows for ‘‘any work or service exacted from any person as a consequence of a conviction in a court of law, provided that the said
work or service is carried out under the supervision and control of a public authority and thatthe said person is not hired to or placed at the disposal of private individuals, companies or
associations.’’
77 International Labour Organization, ‘‘Ratifications of the Fundamental Human Rights Conventions by Country,’’ last visited on 6 September 13; International Labour Organization, ILO
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 18 June 98, art. 2. Other rights
member countries are obligated to respect include the effective abolition of child labor; the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation; and freedom of associationand the ‘‘effective recognition’’ of the right to collective bargaining.
78 Frank Langfitt, ‘‘Ex-Inmates Speak Out About Labor Camps as China Considers ‘Reforms,’ ’’National Public Radio, 22 February 13; Chai Huiqun, ‘‘Confessions of Disgraced RTL Officers’’[Luoma laojiao jingcha de jiantao], Southern Weekend, 2 May 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Behind Cry
for Help From China Labor Camp,’’ New York Times, 11 June 13.
79 Chai Huiqun, ‘‘Confessions of Disgraced RTL Officers’’ [Luoma laojiao jingcha de jiantao],Southern Weekend, 2 May 13; Lisa Murray and Angus Grigg, ‘‘Qantas in China Prison Labour
Row,’’ Australian Financial Review, 26 June 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Behind Cry for Help From
China Labor Camp,’’ New York Times, 11 June 13.
80 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Behind Cry for Help From China Labor Camp,’’ New York Times, 11 June
13; Chai Huiqun, ‘‘Confessions of Disgraced RTL Officers’’ [Luoma laojiao jingcha de jiantao],Southern Weekend, 2 May 13.
81 Chai Huiqun, ‘‘Confessions of Disgraced RTL Officers’’ [Luoma laojiao jingcha de jiantao],Southern Weekend, 2 May 13.
82 State Council, Provisions Reiterating the Prohibition on the Export of Products Made by
Prisoners Undergoing Reeducation Through Labor [Guanyu chongshen jinzhi laogai chanpin
chukou de guiding], issued and effective 5 October 91, art. 4.
83 U.S. Department of Labor, List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor, September 2012, 17; Lisa Murray and Angus Grigg, ‘‘Qantas in China Prison Labour Row,’’ Australian Financial Review, 26 June 13; Frank Langfitt, ‘‘Ex-Inmates Speak Out About Labor
Camps As China Considers ‘Reforms,’ ’’ National Public Radio, 22 February 13.
84 Memorandum of Understanding Between the United States of America and the People’s Republic of China on Prohibiting Import and Export Trade In Prison Labor Products, effective 7
August 92; Statement of Cooperation on the Implementation of the Memorandum of Understanding Between the United States of America and the People’s Republic of China on Prohibiting Import and Export Trade in Prison Labor Products, 14 March 94.
85 ‘‘Experts Say Products Made By Chinese Prison Labor Still Enter US,’’ Voice of America,
1 November 09.
86 International Labour Organization, ‘‘Global Wage Report 2012/13: Wages and Equitable
Growth,’’ 2013, 20.
87 The National Bureau of Statistics of China reported in January 2013 that China’s workingage population shrank by 3.45 million in 2012. National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘China’s

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Economy Achieved a Stabilized and Accelerated Development in the Year of 2012,’’ 18 January
13. According to Cai Fang, director of the Institute of Population and Labor Economics under
the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the working-age population will fall by as much as 30
million by 2020. Chen Xin, ‘‘Labor Force ‘At Turning Point,’ ’’ China Daily, 6 November 12. See
also Tom Orlik, ‘‘China: The Jobs Report,’’ Wall Street Journal, 15 March 13; Kathrin Hille andRahul Jacob, ‘‘China: Beyond the Conveyor Belt,’’ Financial Times, 14 October 12; China Labour
Bulletin, ‘‘Wages in China,’’ 10 June 13.
88 Xu Weiwei, ‘‘China’s Labor Shortage Worsens as Migrants Find Work at Home,’’ Morning
Whistle, 19 February 13.
89 Ding Qingfen and Qiu Quanlin, ‘‘Higher Costs Forcing Firms To Relocate,’’ China Daily, 21
October 12; Keith Bradsher, ‘‘Wary of China, Companies Head to Cambodia,’’ New York Times,
8 April 13; Tim Culpan, ‘‘Foxconn Inland Push Spurred by Labor, BI Says,’’ Bloomberg, 3 March
13.
90 These changes have also prompted observers to question whether China has reached the
Lewis Turning Point, the point when a country’s excess labor is exhausted, industrial wages
rise, industrial profits shrink, and investment declines. See International Monetary Fund, Mitali
Das and Papa N’ Diaye, ‘‘Chronicle of a Decline Foretold: Has China Reached the Lewis Turning
Point? ’’ IMF Working Paper, January 2013, 3, 17; International Labour Organization, ‘‘Global
Wage Report 2012/13: Wages and Equitable Growth,’’ 2013, 20; ‘‘All-China Federation of Trade
Unions: Labor Income as Proportion of GDP Continues 22-Year Decline’’ [Zhongguo zonggonghui: laodongzhe shouru zai GDP zhong zhan bi lianxu 22 nian xiajiang], Gu Hantai Net,
14 March 13.
91 Kevin Yao and Aileen Wang, ‘‘China Lets Gini Out of the Bottle; Wide Wealth Gap,’’ Reuters, 18 January 13; China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Wages in China,’’ 10 June 13.
92 International Labour Organization, ‘‘Global Wage Report 2012/13: Wages and Equitable
Growth,’’ 2013, 42; ‘‘All-China Federation of Trade Unions: Labor Income as Proportion of GDP
Continues 22-Year Decline’’ [Zhongguo zong gonghui: laodongzhe shouru zai GDP zhong zhanbi lianxu 22 nian xiajiang], Gu Hantai Net, 14 March 13.
93 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Wages in China,’’ 10 June 13.
94 State Council, ‘‘Several Opinions Regarding Deepening Reform of the Income Distribution
System’’ [Guanyu shenhua shouru fenpei zhidu gaige ruogan yijian], issued 3 February 13.
95 ‘‘China Approves Income Plan as Wealth Divide Poses Risks,’’ Bloomberg, 5 February 13;‘‘China’s Inequality,’’ Financial Times, 10 February 13.
96 State Council, ‘‘12th-Five Year Plan on Employment Promotion (2011–2015)’’ [Cujin jiuye
guihua (2011–2015 nian)], 24 January 12.
97 Li Jinlei, ‘‘24 Provinces and Cities Raise Minimum Wage Standards, Shanghai Leading
With 1,620 Yuan (Chart Attached)’’ [24 sheng shi shangtiao zuidi gongzi biaozhun shanghai
1620 yuan jushou (fubiao)], China News Service, 1 September 13; Zhang Jun, ‘‘Fujian Raises
Minimum Wage Levels, Monthly Minimum Wage in Quanzhou and Other Areas is 1,050 Yuan’’[Fujian shangtiao zuidi gongzi biaozhun quanzhou gedi zuidi meiyue 1050 yuan], Dongnan Net,
reprinted in Sohu, 14 August 13. As of September 9, 2013, the Commission had not observed
reports of minimum wage increases in Qinghai and Hunan provinces, the Tibet Autonomous Region, or Chongqing municipality.
98 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Wages in China,’’ 10 June 13.
99 Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘China’s Workers Continue To Demand Higher
Pay,’’ 9 April 13; Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Minimum Wage Increases in 2012
Fail To Provide Workers With a Living Wage,’’ 13 December 12; China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Wages
in China,’’ 10 June 13.
100 Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘China’s Workers Continue To Demand Higher
Pay,’’ 9 April 13.
101 Li Li, ‘‘Legal Expert: Evidence is the Achilles Heel in Migrant Workers’ Difficulty Obtaining Back Wages’’ [Falu zhuanjia: zhengju shi nongmingong taoxin nan de sixue], China Youth
Daily, 28 February 13.
102 He Yong and Pan Yue, ‘‘All-China Federation of Trade Unions: Problem of Wage Arrears
Rebounds, Debt Settling Situation Increasingly Grim’’ [Quanguo zonggonghui: tuoqian gongzi
wenti fantan qing qian xingshi qu yanjun], People’s Daily, reprinted in China News Service, 16
January 13.
103 Fan Zhengwei, ‘‘Wage Arrears Problem is Multiple Layers of Subcontracting, Little Legal
Precedence in Punishing Malicious Wage Arrears Causes Inadequate Deterrence’’ [Qianxin
wenti cengceng zhuan bao eyi qianxin zui pan li shao weishe li buzu], People’s Daily, reprinted
in China News Service, 16 January 13; Yu Hu et al., ‘‘Migrant Workers’ Rights Report’’[Nongmingong weiquan baogao], Chongqing Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 14 December 12;
Zhao Lei, ‘‘Workers Assured of Wages Ahead of Festival,’’ Changjiang Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 21 January 13.
104 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Wages in China,’’ 10 June 13.
105 Sichuan Provincial People’s Government, ‘‘General Office of the Sichuan Provincial People’s
Government Notification Regarding Establishing System of Accountability for Handling Wage
Arrears In the Construction Field’’ [Sichuan sheng renmin zhengfu bangongting guanyu jianli
jianshe shigong lingyu qianxin chuli zerenzhi de tongzhi], 3 December 12; ‘‘Ministry of Human
Resources and Social Security Discusses Migrant Workers’ Wage Claims: Establish a ‘Green
Channel’ for Speedy Recovery’’ [Renshi bu tan nongmingong taoxin: jian ‘‘luse tongdao’’ kuaisu
jiejue], China News Service, 25 January 13; Yu Lixiao and Chen Jian, ‘‘Beijing Official: Must
Maintain High Pressure Posture on Wage Arrears Activity’’ [Beijing guanyuan: yao dui qianxin
xingwei baochi gaoya taishi], China News Service, 26 January 13.
106 Supreme People’s Court, Supreme People’s Court Interpretation Regarding Several Questions in the Application of the Law in the Trial of Criminal Cases for the Refusal to Pay Labor
Remuneration [Zuigao renmin fayuan guanyu shenli ju bu zhifu laodong baochou xingshi anjian
shiyong falu ruogan wenti de jieshi], issued 14 January 13, effective 23 January 13.

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107 Jennifer Cheung, China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘China Sees Upsurge in Worker Protests Prior
to Lunar New Year,’’ 8 February 13; ‘‘Migrant Worker Salary Demands Frequent in All Partsof the Country, Government Blindly Suppresses to Maintain Stability’’ [Nongmingong taoxin
gedi pin fa zhengfu wei weiwen yiwei daya], Radio Free Asia, 4 February 13.
108 For more information, see PRC Production Safety Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
anquan shengchan fa], passed 29 June 02, effective 1 November 02; PRC Mine Safety Law[Zhonghua renmin gongheguo kuangshan anquan fa], passed 7 November 92, effective 1 May
93; State Council, Regulations on Labor Protection in Workplace Where Toxic Substances are
Used [Shiyong youdu shipin zuoye changsuo laodong baohu tiaolie], issued and effective 30 April
02.
109 See, e.g., Fiona Tam, ‘‘Grim Fate of Migrant Workers Maimed in China’s ‘Black Factories,’ ’’South China Morning Post, 21 November 12; Christina Larson, ‘‘In China, Politically Connected
Firms Have Higher Worker Death Rates,’’ Business Week, 28 January 13; Chen Xin, ‘‘Sites Still
Hold Dangers for Construction Crews,’’ China Daily, 17 September 12.
110 Wang Huan, ‘‘China Will Ban or Close 20,000 Non-Coal Mines Over the Next Three Years’’[Woguo weilai san nian jiang qudi guancai yue 2 wan zuo fei meikuang shan], Yicai Net, 19
September 12; Fiona Tam, ‘‘Grim Fate of Migrant Workers Maimed in China’s ‘Black Factories,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 21 November 12.
111 Wang Xiaodong, ‘‘Risks of Accident are ‘Striking,’ ’’ China Daily, 19 June 13; Christina
Larson, ‘‘In China, Politically Connected Firms Have Higher Worker Death Rates,’’ Bloomberg,
28 January 13.
112 Raymond Fisman and Yongxiang Wang, ‘‘The Unsafe Side of Chinese Crony Capitalism,’’
Harvard Business Review, January–February 2013.
113 Office of Safety Administration, ‘‘Yang Dongliang: Strict Pledge to Constantly Open Up
New Phase for Production Safety Work’’ [Yang Dongliang: yan zi dang tou buduan kaichuang
anquan shengchan gongzuo xin jumian], reprinted on PRC Central People’s Government Web
site, 10 May 13.
114 Zi Xiuchun, ‘‘Lawyer Huang Leping’s Letter: The Five Main Problems in Migrant Workers’
Lives I Hope Committee Delegates Address’’ [Huang Leping lushi laixin: nongmingong shenghuo
wu da nanti xiwang dedao daibiao weiyuan guanzhu], Workers’ Daily, reprinted in Beijing
Yilian Labor Law Aid and Research Center, 6 March 13.
115 National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘China Economic and Social Development Statistics
2012 Report’’ [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo 2012 nian guomin jingji he shehui fazhan tongji
gongbao], 22 February 13.
116 Fiona Tam, ‘‘Grim Fate of Migrant Workers Maimed in China’s ‘Black Factories,’ ’’ South
China Morning Post, 21 November 12; ‘‘China Cuts Coal Deaths,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 February
13.
117 ‘‘China Cuts Coal Deaths,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 February 13; Chao Xiangrong, ‘‘Jilin
Jiapigou Gold Mine Fire Incident Only Reported 9 Hours After Developed’’ [Jilin jiapigou
jinkuang huozai shi fa 9 xiaoshi cai shangbao], China Radio International, 16 January 13; Chen
Weiwei and Zhu Liyi, ‘‘State Coal Supervision Bureau Reports on Three Recent Coal Mine Accidents, Requires Reports Not Be Delayed or Concealed’’ [Guojia mei jian ju tongbao jinqi san qi
meikuang shigu yaoqiu bude chi bao manbao], Xinhua, 25 September 12.
118 National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘China Economic and Social Development Statistics
2012 Report’’ [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo 2012 nian guomin jingji he shehui fazhan tongji
gongbao], 22 February 13.
119 ‘‘China Cuts Coal Deaths,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 February 13; ‘‘2012 Coal Mine Mortality
Rate Dropped to 0.374 Per Million Tons’’ [2012 nian meikuang baiwandun siwanglu jiang zhi
0.374], International Coal Net, 28 January 13; China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Report Claims Coal
Mine Deaths in China Fell By One-Third in 2012,’’ 29 January 13.
120 Students and Scholars Against Corporate Misbehavior, ‘‘[Report] Apple Fails in Its Responsibility To Monitor Suppliers,’’ 26 February 13; Students and Scholars Against Corporate Misbehavior, ‘‘Widespread Labour Abuses at Disney and Mattel Factories ICTI Doesn’t Care About
Labour Rights Standards,’’ reprinted in Scribd, 7 January 13; China Labor Watch, ‘‘Investigative
Report of HTNS Shenzhen CO., Ltd. (Huizhou Branch),’’ 14 December 12; Charles Kernaghan,Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights, ‘‘Toys From Hell: Walmart & Disney,’’ December
2012.
121 ‘‘Thousands of Workers at Foxconn Jiangxi Factory Unsatisfied With Wages and Treatment
Demonstrate’’ [Fushikang jiangxi gongchang qian ren buman xinzi daiyu shangjie youxing],
West Net, reprinted in Caijing, 13 January 13; David Barboza, ‘‘Group Says Deaths Show Problems Remain at Foxconn,’’ New York Times, 20 May 13.
122 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 66–67; ‘‘Have Foxconn Working Conditions Improved? ’’ [Fushikang de gongzuo tiaojian gaishan le ma?], Radio Free Asia, 17 May 13; ‘‘Thousands of Workers at Foxconn Jiangxi Factory Unsatisfied With Wages and Treatment Demonstrate’’ [Fushikang jiangxi gongchang qian ren buman xinzi daiyu shangjie youxing], West
Net, reprinted in Caijing, 13 January 13; Isaac Shapiro and Scott Nova, ‘‘Still Polishing Apple:
Second FLA Report Misleads on Labor Rights Progress,’’ Economic Policy Institute Blog, 7 June
13.
123 Students and Scholars Against Corporate Misbehavior, ‘‘[Report] Apple Fails in its Responsibility to Monitor Suppliers,’’ 26 February 13; ‘‘34 Workers Poisoned by Alkane Used to Clean
Cellphone Screens, Some Cases So Severe Workers Unable to Take Care of Themselves’’ [34gongren caxi shouji pingmu wan zhongdu yanzhong zhe shenghuo buneng zili], Legal Daily, reprinted in Phoenix Net, 26 September 12; Students and Scholars Against Corporate Misbehavior, ‘‘Widespread Labour Abuses at Disney and Mattel Factories ICTI Doesn’t Care About
Labour Rights Standards,’’ 7 January 13.
124 ‘‘Xinhua Insight: Fatal Fire Rings Alarm For Factory Safety,’’ Xinhua, 5 June 13; ‘‘China
Gov’t Blames Company, Inspectors for ‘Extremely Chaotic’ Safety at Poultry Plant in Fire,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 6 June 13.

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125 Ibid.
126 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 65; Zheng Li, ‘‘Work-Related Injury Insurance‘Too High to Reach’; Migrant Workers with Pneumoconiosis Urgently Need ‘Survival Money’ ’’[Gongshang baoxian ‘‘gao buke pan’’ chenfei nongmingong jixu ‘‘huoming qian’’], Workers’ Daily,
28 February 13; Pan Qi, ‘‘Migrant Workers With Pneumoconiosis Exceed 6 Million in China,
Lack of Labor Contracts Makes Defending Rights Difficult’’ [Woguo chenfeibing nongmingong
chao 600 wan wu laodong hetong zhi weiquan nan], Legal Daily, reprinted in Sina, 6 February
13.
127 Pan Qi, ‘‘Migrant Workers With Pneumoconiosis Exceed 6 Million in China, Lack of Labor
Contracts Makes Defending Rights Difficult’’ [Woguo chenfeibing nongmingong chao 600 wan wu
laodong hetong zhi weiquan nan], Legal Daily, reprinted in Sina, 6 February 13.
128 ‘‘Black Lung Patients Often Face A Long Wait For Compensation,’’ China Daily, 25 March
13; Lan Fang, ‘‘Public Interest Group Indicates Rate of Occupational Injury Perhaps Higher
Than Official Statistics’’ [Gongyi tuanti zhi gongshang fashang lu huo gaoyu guanfang tongji],
Caixin, 28 April 13.
129 See, e.g., He Huifeng, ‘‘Toxic Gas Cloud at Honghu Factory Leaves 20 in Hospital,’’ South
China Morning Post, 24 October 12; C. Custer and L. Li, ‘‘The Real Dangers in China’s Mines,’’
2Non, 18 December 12.
130 Li Keyong, Zhou Rui et al., ‘‘Labor Law, Those Clauses That Are Ignored (Policy Focus)’’[Laodong fa, na xie bei moshi de tiaokuan (zhengce jujiao)], People’s Daily, 1 May 13; ‘‘Investigation States That Defending the Rights of Pneumoconiosis Sufferers Stuck in Difficult Situation,
Majority Have Not Signed Labor Contracts’’ [Diaocha cheng chenfeibing ren weiquan xian kunju
duoshu mei qianding laodong hetong], Guiyang Evening News, reprinted in China News Service,
22 January 13.
131 Chen Xin, ‘‘Sites Still Hold Dangers for Construction Crews,’’ China Daily, 17 September
12; C. Custer and L. Li, ‘‘The Real Dangers in China’s Mines,’’ 2Non, 18 December 12.
132 Zi Xiuchun, ‘‘Lawyer Huang Leping’s Letter: The Five Main Problems in Migrant Workers’
Lives I Hope Committee Delegates Address’’ [Huang leping lushi laixin: nongmingong shenghuo
wu da nanti xiwang dedao daibiao weiyuan guanzhu], Workers’ Daily, reprinted in Beijing
Yilian Labor Law Aid and Research Center, 6 March 13; Chen Xin and He Dan, ‘‘Black Lung
Patients Often Face a Long Wait for Compensation,’’ China Daily, 25 March 13.
133 Echo Hui, ‘‘In China, Losing Battle Against Lung Disease and Workers’ Rights,’’ South
China Morning Post, 3 July 13; Fiona Tam, ‘‘Grim Fate of Migrant Workers Maimed in China’s‘Black Factories,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 21 November 12; ‘‘Female Worker Becomes Temporary Worker After Injury, Judge: Gate Card Proves Labor Relation’’ [Nu gong shoushang houcheng linshigong faguan: menka ke zhengming laodong guanxi], Dahe Net, reprinted in China
News Service, 4 July 13; Jiang Jie, ‘‘Black Lung Sufferers Receive Govt Damages,’’ Global
Times, 8 July 13.
134 ‘‘Work Related Injury Insurance ‘Too High to Reach’; Migrant Workers With Pneumoconiosis Urgently Need ‘Survival Money’ ’’[Gongshang baoxian ‘‘gao buke pan’’ chenfei
nongmingong jixu ‘‘huoming qian’’] Workers’ Daily, 28 February 13; Pan Qi, ‘‘Migrant Workers
With Pneumoconiosis Exceed 6 Million in China, Lack of Labor Contracts Makes Defending
Rights Difficult’’ [Woguo chenfeibing nongmingong chao 600 wan wu laodong hetong zhi
weiquan nan], Legal Daily, reprinted in Sina, 6 February 13. The PRC Regulations on Occupational Injury Insurance stipulate that workers must obtain an official occupational disease or
injury diagnosis to be considered for compensation. See PRC Regulations on Occupational Injury
Insurance [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo gongshang baoxian tiaoli], issued 27 April 03, amended
20 December 10, effective 1 January 11, art. 18.
135 Jiang Jie, ‘‘Black Lung Sufferers Receive Govt Damages,’’ Global Times, 8 July 13.
136 Chen Xin and He Dan, ‘‘Black Lung Patients Often Face a Long Wait for Compensation,’’China Daily, 25 March 13.
137 Huang Yuli, ‘‘Tribunal Hears Case of Injured Foxconn Worker,’’ China Daily, 31 October
12; Tan Ee Lyn, ‘‘Family of Brain-Damaged Worker Takes Foxconn to Court in China,’’ Reuters,
30 October 12.
138 Tan Ee Lyn, ‘‘Worker’s Injury Casts Harsh New Light on Foxconn and China,’’ Reuters,
10 October 12; ‘‘Foxconn Engineer’s Workplace Injury Leads to Compensation Dispute, Father
Beaten by Security’’ [Fushikang gongchengshi gongshang yin peichang jiufen fuqin ceng zao
baoan bao da], Shenzhen News, 28 September 12.
139 Tan Ee Lyn, ‘‘Family of Brain-Damaged Worker Takes Foxconn to Court in China,’’ Reuters, 30 October 12.
140 Measures on the Administration of Diagnosis and Evaluation of Occupational Diseases[Zhiyebing zhenduan yu jianding guanli banfa], issued 28 March 02, amended 19 February 13,
effective 10 April 13, art. 19, 22, 23–28, 44.
141 Ibid., art. 19. See also China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Compensation for Work-Related Injury andOccupational Disease in China,’’ last visited 16 August 13.

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Notes to Section II—Criminal Justice1 ‘‘Bizarrely Consistent: A Crackdown on Legal Activists,’’ Economist, 27 July 13.
2 ‘‘China’s Wrong Turn,’’ Washington Post, 22 July 13; Jeffrey Wasserstrom, ‘‘A Reformist Chinese Leader? Stop Fooling Yourself,’’ Time, 22 July 13; Donald Clarke et al., ‘‘Xu Zhiyong Arrested: How Serious Can Beijing Be About Political Reform? ’’ ChinaFile, 18 July 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘Prominent Advocate Held in Southern China,’’ New York Times, 17 August 13; ‘‘Chinese
Police Arrest Rights Activist Xu Zhiyong,’’ Reuters, reprinted in Radio Australia, 23 August 13.
See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2005–00199 on Xu Zhiyong and 2005–
00143 on Guo Feixiong (Yang Maodong) for more information on these cases.
3 Jerome A. Cohen, Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Criminal Justice in China: From the Gang of Four
to Bo Xilai,’’ 25 July 13, 11; Shangquan Law Firm, ‘‘Investigative Report on the Implementationof the New Criminal Procedure Law (2013, Q1)’’ [Xin xingsufa shishi zhuangkuang diaoyan
baogao (2013 nian diyi jidu)], 4 June 13.
4 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 69–70. The authority, staff, and budgets of law
enforcement agencies have grown substantially since 2008.
5 Ibid.; Jeremy Page, ‘‘China Reins in New Security Boss’s Clout,’’ Wall Street Journal, 20 November 12; Jerome A. Cohen, Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Criminal Justice in China: From the Gangof Four to Bo Xilai,’’ 25 July 13, 6.
6 Willy Wo-Lap Lam, ‘‘The Politics of Liu Xiaobo’s Trial,’’ in Liu Xiaobo, Charter 08 and theChallenges of Political Reform in China, eds. Jean-Philippe Béja et al. (Aberdeen, Hong Kong:
Hong Kong University Press, 2012), 261.
7 ‘‘Meng Jianzhu Appointed Head of CPC Political and Legal Affairs Commission,’’ Xinhua, 19
November 12; CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 70; Jeremy Page, ‘‘China Reins in
New Security Boss’s Clout,’’ Wall Street Journal, 20 November 12; Jerome A. Cohen, Human
Rights Watch, ‘‘Criminal Justice in China: From the Gang of Four to Bo Xilai,’’ 25 July 13, 6–
7; Keith Zhai, ‘‘Security Tsar Meng Jianzhu Criticises Interference in Court Proceedings,’’ South
China Morning Post, 9 January 13.
8 ‘‘Zhou Yongkang, Former Security Tsar Linked to Bo Xilai, Faces Corruption Probe,’’ South
China Morning Post, 30 August 13; Christopher Bodeen, ‘‘Zhou Yongkang, China Security Chief,
Investigated as Bo Xilai Scandal Expands,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Huffington Post, 19
April 12; Luo Jieqi and He Xin, ‘‘In Bo Xilai’s City, a Legacy of Backstabbing,’’ Caixin, 7 December 12; Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘After Bo’s Fall, Chongqing Victims Seek Justice,’’ Washington Post,
19 April 12.
9 Luo Jieqi and He Xin, ‘‘In Bo Xilai’s City, a Legacy of Backstabbing,’’ Caixin, 7 December
12; Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘After Bo’s Fall, Chongqing Victims Seek Justice,’’ Washington Post, 19
April 12.
10 Tania Branigan, ‘‘China Indicts Bo Xilai for Corruption,’’ Guardian, 25 July 13; Keith B.
Richburg and Andrew Higgins, ‘‘Bo Xilai’s Ouster Seen as Victory for Chinese Reformers,’’
Washington Post, 15 March 12; Gillian Wong, ‘‘China Moves To Right Wrongs in City Bo Once
Ruled,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Yahoo! News, 3 December 12; Yu Xiaodong, ‘‘Policing the
Police,’’ NewsChina Magazine, March 2013.
11 Gillian Wong, ‘‘China Moves To Right Wrongs in City Bo Once Ruled,’’ Associated Press,
reprinted in Yahoo! News, 3 December 12.
12 Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘After Bo’s Fall, Chongqing Victims Seek Justice,’’ Washington Post, 19
April 12; Louisa Lim, ‘‘Targets of Disgraced Bo Xilai Still Languish in Jail,’’ National PublicRadio, 27 May 13; Gillian Wong, ‘‘China Moves To Right Wrongs in City Bo Once Ruled,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Yahoo! News, 2 December 12.
13 PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], issued 1 July 79, amended 14
March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 105(1) and(2).
14 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China: End Escalating Crackdown Criminalizing Peaceful Assembly and Free Expression,’’ 17 July 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Crackdown on
Anticorruption Activists Escalates,’’ 9 June 13; ‘‘Beijing Scholar Xu Zhiyong Criminally Detained; Rights Defense Lawyer Says Types of Political Cases Are Expanding’’ [Beijing xuezhe
xu zhiyong bei jingfang xingshi juliu weiquan lushi cheng zhengzhi lei anjian you kuoda qushi],
Voice of America, 16 July 13; ‘‘In Videotaped Message, Jailed Chinese Activist Urges Citizens
To Unite for Democracy,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 8 August 13.
15 Front Line Defenders, ‘‘China: Formal Arrest of Human Rights Defender Mr. Xu Zhiyong,’’
27 August 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘Formal Arrest of Advocate Is Approved by China,’’ New YorkTimes, 23 August 13; Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Leading Citizen Movement Activist Xu Zhiyong Arrested,’’ South China Morning Post, 31 July 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Individuals
Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 18 September 13; Xu Zhiyong,‘‘China’s New Citizens’ Movement’’ [Zhongguo xin gongmin yundong], Xu Zhiyong’s Blog, 15 November 12.
16 Ibid.
17 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Urgent: Well-Known Rights Defender Guo Feixiong Is
Criminally Detained’’ [Jinji guanzhu: zhuming weiquan renshi guo feixiong bei xing ju], 17 August 13. For more information on Guo Feixiong, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2005–00143.
18 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 28 August 13; ‘‘Officials Detain Xu Zhiyong Amidst a Crackdown on Individuals Calling for Greater Government Accountability,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 1 August 13; Calum MacLeod, ‘‘China Silences Anti-Corruption Activists,’’ USA Today,
30 July 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China: End Escalating Crackdown Criminalizing
Peaceful Assembly and Free Expression,’’ 17 July 13.

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19 Peter Ford, ‘‘Briefing: 5 Things To Know About China’s Crackdown on Critics,’’ Christian
Science Monitor, 15 August 13.
20 Jerome A. Cohen, ‘‘Will 2013 See Progress in China’s Rights Protection? ’’ South China
Morning Post, reprinted in Council on Foreign Relations, 11 December 12; Peter Ford, ‘‘Familyof Blind Activist Chen Guangcheng ‘Tormented’ in China,’’ Christian Science Monitor, 2 May
13.
21 Edward Wong, ‘‘China Sentences Brother-in-Law of Nobel Laureate to 11 Years on Fraud
Charges,’’ New York Times, 9 June 13; Michael Martina, ‘‘Kin of Jailed Chinese Nobel Winner
Liu Xiaobo Sentenced to 11 Years in Prison,’’ Reuters, reprinted in NBC News, 9 June 13.
22 Ibid.; ‘‘Beijing Court Rejects Appeal by Nobel Laureate’s Liu Xiaobo’s Brother-in-Law,’’ Reuters and Associated Press, reprinted in South China Morning Post, 17 August 13.
23 Austin Ramzy, ‘‘Above the Law? China’s Bully Law-Enforcement Officers,’’ Time, 21 May
09; Joel Martinsen, ‘‘A Practical Handbook for Beating Street Vendors,’’ Danwei, 22 April 09;
Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Beat Him, Take Everything Away’: Abuses by China’s Chengguan ParaPolice,’’ 23 May 12.
24 David Bandurski, ‘‘Brutal Killing of (Citizen Journalist) Wei Wenhua Underscores the Evils
of China’s ‘Urban Management’ System,’’ China Media Project, 10 January 08; ‘‘Beijing Guide
on How To Beat Law-Breakers Sparks Outrage,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in Asia One,
23 April 09; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Death of Watermelon Vendor Sets Off Outcry in China,’’ New YorkTimes, 20 July 13; Peter Ford, ‘‘China’s ‘Para-Police’ Brutality Under Scrutiny,’’ Christian
Science Monitor, 22 July 13; Stanley Lubman, ‘‘The Ticking Bomb of China’s Urban Para-Police,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 8 August 13; Human Rights Watch,‘‘ ‘Beat Him, Take Everything Away’: Abuses by China’s Chengguan Para-Police,’’ 23 May 12.
25 CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 93.
26 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Death of Watermelon Vendor Sets Off Outcry in China,’’ New York Times,
20 July 13; Michelle FlorCruz, ‘‘Beijing Airport Explosion Caused by Man Disgruntled About Accident That Left Him Paralyzed,’’ International Business Times, 22 July 13; Stanley Lubman,‘‘The Ticking Bomb of China’s Urban Para-Police,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report(blog), 8 August 13; Kevin McGeary, ‘‘Beijing Airport Bomber Is an Aggrieved Chengguan Victim
From Dongguan,’’ Nanfang Insider, 22 July 13.
27 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing, July 19–25,’’ 25 July 13;
Stanley Lubman, ‘‘The Ticking Bomb of China’s Urban Para-Police,’’ Wall Street Journal, China
Real Time Report (blog), 8 August 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Beat Him, Take Everything
Away’: Abuses by China’s Chengguan Para-Police,’’ 23 May 12; CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10
October 12, 131; Jeremy Chan, ‘‘China To Revise Policy Toward Peddlers,’’ Wall Street Journal,
11 August 09; ‘‘Legal Status To Be Granted to Street Vendors’’ [Liudong tanfan youwang hefa
shengcun], Caijing, 22 July 09.
28 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Working Group on Arbitrary Detention Fact Sheet No. 26, May 2000, sec. IV(B); International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66,
entry into force 23 March 76, arts. 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 27; Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR), adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A (III) of 10 December
48, arts. 7, 10, 13, 14, 18, 19, 21. The rights and freedoms protected under the second category
include those in Articles 7, 10, 13, 14, 18, 19, and 21 of the UDHR and in Articles 12, 18, 19,
21, 22, and 27 of the ICCPR; CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 70–71.
29 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2004–03114 on Liu Xiaobo, 2011–
00175 on Chen Wei, 2008–00379 on Chen Xi, 2008–00668 on Guo Quan, 2010–00616 on Li Tie,
2004–02253 on Zhu Yufu, 2004–04614 on Liu Xianbin, 2005–00291 on Gao Zhisheng, 2005–
00285 on Ni Yulan, and 2004–04650 on Wang Bingzhang, for more information on these cases.
30 See, e.g., CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 71; PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15 March 99, 14 March 04, arts. 35, 37, 41; PRC
Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1 July 79,
amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 3; PRC Public Security Administration Punishment Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo zhian guanli chufa fa], passed 28 August 05, effective 1 March 06, arts. 3, 9, 10, 16; PRC Legislation Law [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo lifa fa], passed 15 March 00, effective 1 July 00, art. 8(v).
31 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 71.
32 See, e.g., Jerome A. Cohen, Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Criminal Justice in China: From theGang of Four to Bo Xilai,’’ 25 July 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘In the Name of ‘Stability’: 2012 Annual Report on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders in China,’’ March 2013,
1; Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Country Reporton Human Rights Practices—2012, China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong and Macau),’’ 19 April 13,1.
33 Michael Martina, ‘‘Kin of Jailed Chinese Nobel Winner Liu Xiaobo Sentenced to 11 Yearsin Prison,’’ Reuters, 9 June 13. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2010–
00629, for more information on Liu Xia.
34 David Bandurski, ‘‘Citizens Issue Statement on Xu Zhiyong Detention,’’ China Media
Project, 21 July 13.
35 See, e.g., Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Weighty Times, Aggressive Measures: China
Must End Heightened Crackdown Ahead of Party Congress,’’ 1 November 12; ‘‘China Cracks
Down Ahead of Leadership Meeting,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in CBC News, 6 November 12;
Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘ ‘Charter 08’ Signatories Launch Anti-Soft Detention AntiSurveillance United Movement’’ [Lingba xianzhang qianshu ren faqi ‘‘fan ruanjin fan jiankong
lianhe da xingdong’’], 20 June 09; CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 88, 95.
36 UN Committee against Torture, Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under
Article 19 of the Convention: Concluding Observations of the Committee against Torture: China,
CAT/C/CHN/CO/4, 12 December 08, para. 14. The 1992 United Nations Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance provides that an ‘‘enforced disappearance’’208
occurs when individuals are detained or abducted ‘‘or otherwise deprived of their liberty by officials of different branches or levels of Government, or by organized groups or private individuals
acting on behalf of, or with the support, direct or indirect, consent or acquiescence of the Government, followed by a refusal to disclose the fate or whereabouts of the persons concerned ora refusal to acknowledge the deprivation of their liberty, which places such persons outside theprotection of the law.’’ UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from
Enforced Disappearance, A/RES/47/133, 18 December 92. In February 2009, during its Universal
Periodic Review by the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review at the UN Human
Rights Council, the Chinese government rejected the recommendation that it should consider
ratifying the International Convention for Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearance, adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 2006. UN GAOR, Hum. Rts. Coun.,
11th Sess., Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review—China, A/HRC/11/
25, 3 March 09, paras. 38, 84, 117. The delegations from Mexico and Argentina offered this recommendation.
37 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘An Alleyway in Hell’: China’s Abusive ‘Black Jails,’ ’’ November
2009, 40–43.
38 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Silencing Complaints: Human Rights Abuses Against
Petitioners in China,’’ 14 March 08, 5–7.
39 ‘‘Urban Stability: Treating the Symptoms,’’ Economist, 2 March 13.
40 Ibid.; Ren Zhongyuan, ‘‘The Death of a Petitioner,’’ Caixin, 14 December 12; Josh Chin,‘‘Beijing Court Takes Rare Swipe at ‘Black Jails,’ ’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report(blog), 5 February 13.
41 Mandy Zuo and Shi Jiangtao, ‘‘Many Freed From Beijing’s Biggest ‘Black Jail,’ ’’ South
China Morning Post, 6 December 12; ‘‘Urban Stability: Treating the Symptoms,’’ Economist, 2
March 13; Verna Yu, ‘‘Rare Victory for Petitioners as 10 Hired Thugs Are Convicted Over ‘Black
Jail,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 6 February 13.
42 Mandy Zuo and Shi Jiangtao, ‘‘Many Freed From Beijing’s Biggest ‘Black Jail,’ ’’ South
China Morning Post, 6 December 12.
43 ‘‘10 People Sentenced for Illegally Detaining Petitioners in Beijing’’ [Shi ming feifa jujin lai
jing shangfang renyuan zhe bei panxing], Xinhua, 5 February 13; Verna Yu, ‘‘Rare Victory for
Petitioners as 10 Hired Thugs Are Convicted Over ‘Black Jail,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 6
February 13; Josh Chin, ‘‘Beijing Court Takes Rare Swipe at ‘Black Jails,’ ’’ Wall Street Journal,
China Real Time Report (blog), 5 February 13; ‘‘Unhappy With Sentences,’’ Global Times, 7 February 13.
44 ‘‘Unhappy With Sentences,’’ Global Times, 7 February 13; Verna Yu, ‘‘Rare Victory for Petitioners as 10 Hired Thugs Are Convicted Over ‘Black Jail,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 6 February 13.
45 Mandy Zuo and Shi Jiangtao, ‘‘Many Freed From Beijing’s Biggest ‘Black Jail,’ ’’ South
China Morning Post, 6 December 12; ‘‘Urban Stability: Treating the Symptoms,’’ Economist, 2
March 13; Verna Yu, ‘‘Rare Victory for Petitioners as 10 Hired Thugs Are Convicted Over ‘Black
Jail,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 6 February 13.
46 ‘‘Official Discipline: Policing the Party,’’ Economist, 1 September 12; CECC, 2008 Annual
Report, 31 October 08, 35; Flora Sapio, ‘‘Shuanggui and Extralegal Detention in China,’’ China
Information, Vol. 22, No. 1 (2008), 7, 12.
47 ‘‘Official Discipline: Policing the Party,’’ Economist, 1 September 12; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Accused Chinese Party Members Face Harsh Discipline,’’ New York Times, 15 June 12.
48 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Accused Chinese Party Members Face Harsh Discipline,’’ New York Times,
15 June 12; Steven Jiang, ‘‘Investigators Who Drowned Chinese Official Charged With Assault,’’
CNN, 6 September 13.
49 Donald Clarke, ‘‘The Bo Xilai Trial and China’s ‘Rule of Law’: Same Old, Same Old,’’ Atlantic, 21 August 13.
50 Keith Zhai, ‘‘Defiant Bo Xilai Claims He Was Coerced Into Graft Confession,’’ South China
Morning Post, 23 August 13; Steven Jiang, ‘‘Investigators Who Drowned Chinese Official
Charged With Assault,’’ CNN, 6 September 13; Donald Clarke, ‘‘The Bo Xilai Trial and China’s‘Rule of Law’: Same Old, Same Old,’’ Atlantic, 21 August 13; Keith Zhai, ‘‘Bo Xilai Trial Transcripts Censored, Say Court Sources,’’ South China Morning Post, 26 August 13; Jerome A.
Cohen, Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Criminal Justice in China: From the Gang of Four to Bo Xilai,’’
25 July 13, 2.
51 Bai Tiantian, ‘‘Life in Jail for Bo Xilai,’’ Global Times, 23 September 13; ‘‘Judgment in First
Instance Trial of Bo Xilai for Bribery, Embezzlement, and Abuse of Power (Full Text)’’ [Bo xilai
shouhui, tanwu, lanyong zhiquan an yishen panjueshu (quanwen)], People’s Daily, reprinted in
China News Service, 22 September 13.
52 Sui-Lee Wee, ‘‘Six Chinese Officials Stand Trial for Torture in Landmark Case,’’ Reuters,
16 September 13.
53 Joshua D. Rosenzweig et al., ‘‘Comments on the 2012 Revision of the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike McConvilleand Eva Pils (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2013), 461–62; Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘In the Name of ‘Stability’: 2012 Annual Report on the Situation of Human
Rights Defenders in China,’’ March 2013, 5; UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights, ‘‘China: UN Expert Body Concerned About Recent Wave of Enforced Disappearances,’’
8 April 11.
54 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘In the Name of ‘Stability’: 2012 Annual Report on the
Situation of Human Rights Defenders in China,’’ March 2013, 5–7; Amnesty International,‘‘Briefing on China’s 2013 Criminal Procedure Law: In Line With International Standards? ’’
July 2013, 16.
55 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 73.
56 Ibid.

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57 Ibid.
58 Amnesty International, ‘‘Briefing on China’s 2013 Criminal Procedure Law: In Line With
International Standards? ’’ July 2013, 16–17; Joshua D. Rosenzweig et al., ‘‘Comments on the2012 Revision of the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike McConville and Eva Pils (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2013), 461–462, 464; Conor Foley, The Human Rights Centre, University of Essex,‘‘Combating Torture: A Manual for Judges and Prosecutors,’’ last visited 13 August 13, paras.
2.12, 2.13; UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 20: Replaces General Comment
7 Concerning Prohibition of Torture and Cruel Treatment or Punishment (Art. 7) 03/10/1992,
CCPR General Comment No. 20 (General Comments) Article 7 (Forty-fourth session, 1992),
para. 11.
59 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘RTL Reform Underway, but Undercover,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights
Journal, 19 June 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in
China,’’ May 2013, 17.
60 See, e.g., UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Working Group on Arbitrary Detention Fact Sheet No. 26, May 2000, sec. IV(B); International Covenant on Civil andPolitical Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, arts. 9, 14; Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR), adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A (III) of 10 December
48, arts. 8–11; CECC 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 70–71. China became a signatory to
the ICCPR on October 5, 1998, but has yet to ratify the treaty. As a signatory, the Chinese
government is obligated as a matter of international law to refrain from taking actions thatwould undermine the purpose of the treaty.
61 See, e.g., The End of Reeducation Through Labor? Recent Developments and Prospects for
Reform, Staff Roundtable of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 9 May 13, Written Statement Submitted by Ira Belkin, Executive Director, U.S.-Asia Law Institute, New York
University School of Law; ‘‘Special Topic Paper: Prospects for Reforming China’s Reeducation
Through Labor System,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 9 May 13; Chinese
Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Re-Education Through Labor Abuses Continue Unabated: OverhaulLong Overdue,’’ 4 February 09.
62 ‘‘Special Topic Paper: Prospects for Reforming China’s Reeducation Through Labor System,’’Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 9 May 13, 2.
63 Ibid.
64 State Council, ‘‘Supplementary Decision of the State Council Regarding Reeducation
Through Labor’’ [Guowuyuan guanyu laodong jiaoyang wenti de buchong jueding], issued 29 November 79, art. 3; see also ‘‘Special Topic Paper: Prospects for Reforming China’s Reeducation
Through Labor System,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 9 May 13, 2–3.
65 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘RTL Reform Underway, but Undercover,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights
Journal, 19 June 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in
China,’’ May 2013, 17.
66 See Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Where Darkness Knows No Limits’: Incarceration, Ill-Treatment and Forced Labor as Drug Rehabilitation in China,’’ 7 January 10, 1–3, 19. The 2008 AntiDrug Law authorizes police to send suspected drug users to compulsory treatment centers fora minimum of two years with a possible extension of an additional year without trial or judicial
supervision. PRC Anti-Drug Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jindufa], enacted 29 December
07, effective 1 June 09, art. 47. In practice, deprivation of personal liberty in drug detention
centers can last up to six years. Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Court Ruling Deals Public Blow to China’sLabor-Camp System,’’ 15 July 13. In March 2012, 12 UN agencies issued a joint statement calling for an end to compulsory drug treatment and rehabilitation centers, finding not only thatthey violate a wide range of human rights but also that they threaten the health of those detained. See UNAIDS, ‘‘Joint UN Statement Calls for the Closure of Compulsory Drug Detention
and Rehabilitation Centers,’’ 8 March 12.
67 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in China,’’ May 2013,15–16.
68 Ibid., 16.
69 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Limits of Public Outrage: RTL and Custody and Education,’’ Dui Hua
Human Rights Journal, 9 July 13, translating ‘‘In the Name of Rule of Law, Sort Out ‘QuasiRTL Measures’ as One Package’’ [(Shelun) yi fazhi mingyi yi lanzi qingli ‘‘lei laojiao cuoshi’’],Southern Metropolitan Daily, 29 June 13.
70 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 34; Elizabeth M.
Lynch, ‘‘Who Will Be Watched: Margaret K. Lewis on China’s New CPL and Residential Surveillance,’’ China Law and Policy (blog), 25 September 12.
71 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, arts. 37–41. See also Sun
Jibin, ‘‘How ‘Three Difficulties’ of Criminal Defense Became ‘10 Difficulties’ ’’ [Xingshi bianhu‘‘san nan’’ weihe bian ‘‘shi nan’’], Legal Weekly, 20 January 11; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10
October 11, 83.
72 Joshua D. Rosenzweig et al., ‘‘Comments on the 2012 Revision of the Chinese Criminal Procedure Law,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike McConvilleand Eva Pils (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2013), 491–93; Elizabeth M.
Lynch, ‘‘Who Will Be Watched: Margaret K. Lewis on China’s New CPL and Residential Surveillance,’’ China Law and Policy (blog), 25 September 12; Jerome A. Cohen, Human Rights Watch,‘‘Criminal Justice in China: From the Gang of Four to Bo Xilai,’’ 25 July 13, 11.
73 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 37.

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74 Shangquan Law Firm, ‘‘Investigative Report on the Implementation of the New Criminal
Procedure Law (2013, Q1)’’ [Xin xingshi susongfa shishi qingkuang diaoyan baogao (2013 diyijidu)], 23 April 13.
75 Ibid.
76 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 37.
77 Ibid.
78 Shangquan Law Firm, ‘‘Investigative Report on the Implementation of the New Criminal
Procedure Law (2013, Q1)’’ [Xin xingshi susongfa shishi qingkuang diaoyan baogao (2013 diyijidu)], 23 April 13.
79 ‘‘Supreme People’s Procuratorate: Protect Lawyers’ Right To Review Case Files and Right
To Know; Promote the Profession According to Law’’ [Zuigaojian: baozhang lushi yuejuan quanhe zhiqing quan cujin yifa zhiye], Xinhua, reprinted in China Law Info, 17 July 13.
80 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Xu Zhiyong’s Lawyer Accuses Police and Detention Center ofRights Violations,’’ 22 July 13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Xu Zhiyong’s Lawyer Liu Weiguo in
Custody, Rights Group Is Shut Down,’’ 18 July 13; ‘‘Despite Detentions, Chinese Anti-Corruption
Activists Press On,’’ Voice of America, 19 July 13.
81 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Lawyer Meets With Xu Zhiyong,’’ 25 July 13 (lawyer not identified); ‘‘In Videotaped Message, Jailed Chinese Activist Urges Citizens To Unite for Democracy,’’
Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 8 August 13. During attorney Zhang Qingfang’s
meeting with Xu on August 1, Zhang shot a short video of Xu calling on Chinese citizens towork together as citizens to promote democracy and rule of law in China. Chris Buckley, ‘‘Formal Arrest of Advocate Is Approved by China,’’ New York Times, 23 August 13.
82 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Support Group Says Police Unlawfully Block Lawyers From Meeting With Guo Feixiong,’’ 27 August 13.
83 ‘‘Lawyer Gu Yushu Says Not Allowed To Represent Bo Xilai,’’ Reuters, reprinted in South
China Morning Post, 8 August 13; Jerome A. Cohen, Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Criminal Justicein China: From the Gang of Four to Bo Xilai,’’ 25 July 13, 5.
84 ‘‘Lawyer Gu Yushu Says Not Allowed To Represent Bo Xilai,’’ Reuters, reprinted in South
China Morning Post, 8 August 13. According to the South China Morning Post, two lawyers,
Li Xiaolin and Shen Zhigeng, whom the Bo family reportedly hired earlier, said in 2012 thatthey were not permitted ‘‘to either see Bo or represent him.’’ In August 2013, Gu Yushu, a lawyer whom Bo’s sister had retained, said that authorities had not granted him permission to represent Bo in court. See also Sui-Lee Wee, ‘‘Lawyer Says Not Allowed To Represent China’s Disgraced Bo Xilai,’’ Reuters, reprinted in Guardian, 8 August 13; Barbara Demick, ‘‘Bo Xilai’s
Wealth on Trial in China,’’ Los Angeles Times, 11 August 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Answers
One Question About Trial: A Date,’’ New York Times, 18 August 13; Donald Clarke, ‘‘The Bo
Xilai Trial and China’s ‘Rule of Law’: Same Old, Same Old,’’ Atlantic, 21 August 13.
85 Wu Danhong, ‘‘Dependence on Confessions Persists Despite Legal Reforms,’’ Global Times,
20 August 12; Chen Weijun, ‘‘The Scourge of Torture ‘Still Widespread’ in Chinese Social System,’’ Asia News, 24 July 13; Ira Belkin, ‘‘China’s Tortuous Path Toward Ending Torture in
Criminal Investigations,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike
McConville and Eva Pils (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2013), 93; Amnesty
International, ‘‘Briefing on China’s 2013 Criminal Procedure Law: In Line With International
Standards? ’’ July 2013, 21; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘(En)countering Torture in China [Part 1 of2],’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 30 August 12. See also UN Committee against Torture,
41st Session, Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under Article 19 of the Convention: Concluding Observations of the Committee against Torture—China, CAT/C/CHN/CO/4,
12 December 08, paras. 11–12.
86 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Magazine Exposé Reinvigorates Calls To End RTL,’’ Dui Hua Human
Rights Journal, 11 April 13; Chris Luo, ‘‘Women ‘Chained Up and Tortured’ in Labour Camp,’’South China Morning Post, 9 April 13.
87 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘RTL Detainees Pressed To Work, Paying To Leave, Officers Say,’’ Dui
Hua Human Rights Journal, 5 August 13, translating Chai Huiqun, ‘‘Confessions of Disgraced
RTL Officers; RTL Centers: Labor First? ’’ [Luoma laojiao jingcha de jiantao; laojiaosuo: laodong
di yi?], Southern Weekend, 2 May 13. See also Tom Phillips, ‘‘Chinese Official Speaks Out After
Being Jailed for Criticising Bo Xilai,’’ Telegraph, 22 November 12.
88 Wu Danhong, ‘‘Dependence on Confessions Persists Despite Legal Reforms,’’ Global Times,
20 August 12; Chen Weijun, ‘‘The Scourge of Torture ‘Still Widespread’ in Chinese Social System,’’ Asia News, 24 July 13; Ira Belkin, ‘‘China’s Tortuous Path Toward Ending Torture in
Criminal Investigations,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike
McConville and Eva Pils (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2013), 93; Amnesty
International, ‘‘Briefing on China’s 2013 Criminal Procedure Law: In Line With International
Standards? ’’ July 2013, 21; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘(En)countering Torture in China [Part 1 of2],’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 30 August 12.
89 Wu Danhong, ‘‘Dependence on Confessions Persists Despite Legal Reforms,’’ Global Times,
20 August 12; Elizabeth M. Lynch, ‘‘Margaret K. Lewis: What To Expect With China’s New
CPL,’’ China Law and Policy (blog), 23 September 12 (observing that ‘‘[c]onfessions are still kingin China’’); Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘(En)countering Torture in China [Part 1 of 2],’’ Dui Hua
Human Rights Journal, 30 August 12. See also Ira Belkin, ‘‘China’s Tortuous Path Toward Ending Torture in Criminal Investigations,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in
China, eds. Mike McConville and Eva Pils (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.,
2013), 94, 116–17.
90 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in China,’’ May 2013,24–25.
91 Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘After Bo’s Fall, Chongqing Victims Seek Justice,’’ Washington Post, 19
April 12.

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92 Luo Jieqi and He Xin, ‘‘In Bo Xilai’s City, a Legacy of Backstabbing,’’ Caixin, 7 December
12; Luo Jieqi, ‘‘Days of Pain on Chongqing’s Torture Mountain,’’ Caixin, 7 December 12; Wang
Heyan, ‘‘Defense Lawyer Seeks To Clear His Name—and Accuser’s,’’ Caixin, 6 November 12.
93 Wang Heyan, ‘‘Defense Lawyer Seeks To Clear His Name—and Accuser’s,’’ Caixin, 6 November 12.
94 Ira Belkin, ‘‘China’s Tortuous Path Toward Ending Torture in Criminal Investigations,’’ inComparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike McConville and Eva Pils
(Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 2013), 94–95.
95 Stanley Lubman, ‘‘What China’s Wrongful Convictions Mean for Legal Reform,’’ Wall Street
Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 17 July 13; ‘‘Bizarrely Consistent: A Crackdown on
Legal Activists,’’ Economist, 27 July 13.
96 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, arts. 54–58; Amnesty
International, ‘‘Briefing on China’s 2013 Criminal Procedure Law: In Line With International
Standards? ’’ July 2013, 18–19.
97 Supreme People’s Court, Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Ministry of Public Security, Provisions Concerning Questions About Exclusion of Illegal Evidence in Handling Criminal Cases[Guanyu banli xingshi anjian paichu feifa zhengju ruogan wenti de guiding], issued 24 June 10,
effective 1 July 10.
98 PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingshi susong fa], enacted 1
July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 50.
99 Ibid., art. 118; Wu Danhong, ‘‘Dependence on Confessions Persists Despite Legal Reforms,’’
Global Times, 20 August 12; Elizabeth M. Lynch, ‘‘Margaret K. Lewis: What To Expect With
China’s New CPL,’’ China Law and Policy (blog), 23 September 12.
100 Amnesty International, ‘‘Briefing on China’s 2013 Criminal Procedure Law: In Line With
International Standards? ’’ July 2013, 13, 15.
101 Ibid., 18–19.
102 Elizabeth M. Lynch, ‘‘Margaret K. Lewis: What To Expect With China’s New CPL,’’ China
Law and Policy (blog), 23 September 12; ‘‘First Case of a Beijing Court Activating Procedures
To Exclude Illegally Obtained Evidence’’ [Beijing fayuan shouci qidong feifa zhengju paichu
chengxu pan’an], China National Radio, reprinted in China Law Info, 16 September 12.
103 ‘‘First Case of a Beijing Court Deciding To Exclude Illegally Obtained Evidence’’ [Beijing
fayuan shouci qidong feifa zhengju paichu chengxu pan’an], China National Radio, reprinted in
China Law Info, 16 September 12. The court nevertheless convicted the defendant of drug trafficking and sentenced him to life, based on other evidence.
104 Yuan Yuan, ‘‘All Eyes Focused,’’ Beijing Review, No. 36, 5 September 13; Donald Clarke,‘‘Random Thoughts From Day 2 of the Bo Xilai Trial,’’ Chinese Law Prof Blog, 23 August 13.
105 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Targeting Evidence To End Wrongful Execution,’’ Dui Hua Human
Rights Journal, 14 March 13.
106 Liu Dong, ‘‘Efficient Injustice,’’ Global Times, 31 March 13; Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘China Suspects Presumed Guilty Until Proven Innocent,’’ Guardian, 20 May 13.
107 Stanley Lubman, ‘‘What China’s Wrongful Convictions Mean for Legal Reform,’’ WallStreet Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 17 July 13; ‘‘18 Years Later, 5 Acquitted of Taxi
Slayings,’’ China Daily, 2 July 13.
108 ‘‘18 Years Later, 5 Acquitted of Taxi Slayings,’’ China Daily, 2 July 13.
109 Shen Deyong, ‘‘How We Should Guard Against Wrongful Convictions’’ [Women yingdang
ruhe fangfan yuanjia cuoan], China Court News, reprinted in People’s Daily, 6 May 13 (English
translation available at the ChinaLawTranslate Web site, titled ‘‘SPC Executive Vice-President
Shen Deyong on Wrongful Cases,’’ 10 July 13); Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘How Many More Sacrifices
Until Rule of Law Reigns? ’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 9 May 13; Stanley Lubman, ‘‘What
China’s Wrongful Convictions Mean for Legal Reform,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time
Report (blog), 17 July 13.
110 Shen Deyong, ‘‘How We Should Guard Against Wrongful Convictions’’ [Women yingdang
ruhe fangfan yuanjia cuoan], China Court News, reprinted in People’s Daily, 6 May 13 (English
translation available at the ChinaLawTranslate Web site, titled ‘‘SPC Executive Vice-President
Shen Deyong on Wrongful Cases,’’ 10 July 13).
111 Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Guangdong Chief Justice Calls for Reform of China’s ‘Soviet’ Court System,’’ South China Morning Post, 3 July 13; Stanley Lubman, ‘‘What China’s Wrongful Convictions Mean for Legal Reform,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 17 July 13;‘‘Bizarrely Consistent: A Crackdown on Legal Activists,’’ Economist, 27 July 13.
112 ‘‘New Guideline Can Safeguard Judicial Independence,’’ Xinhua, 13 August 13; ‘‘Central
Committee Political and Legal Affairs Commission Issues First Guiding Opinion on Preventing
Wrongful Judgments’’ [Zhongyang zhengfawei chutai shou ge fang yuanjia cuoan zhidao yijian],
Xinhua, 13 August 13; ‘‘Lifelong Responsibility,’’ China Daily, 15 August 13; Wang Zhenghua,‘‘Court Strikes Down Murder Conviction,’’ China Daily, 15 August 13.
113 Biao Teng, ‘‘Chinese Death Penalty: Overview and Prospect,’’ East Asian Law Journal, Vol.
1, No. 2 (2010), 87; Amnesty International, ‘‘Death Sentences and Executions 2012,’’ April 2013,2; ‘‘The Death Penalty: Strike Less Hard,’’ Economist, 3 August 13.
114 Amnesty International, ‘‘Death Sentences and Executions 2012,’’ April 2013, 18–19.
115 John Kamm, ‘‘Trying Juveniles,’’ New York Times, 29 November 12; Dui Hua Foundation,‘‘China Under the Microscope: The Second Universal Periodic Review,’’ 28 February 13; Dui HuaFoundation, ‘‘Our Work: Criminal Justice,’’ last visited 8 August 13; ‘‘The Death Penalty: StrikeLess Hard,’’ Economist, 3 August 13.
116 Xiaoqing Pi, ‘‘Tough Questions After Chinese Court Mishandles Execution,’’ Wall Street
Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 16 July 13.
117 Joshua Rosenzweig, ‘‘China’s National Verdict Database and the Death Penalty,’’
Siweiluozi’s Blog, 3 July 13.

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118 See, e.g., Xiaoqing Pi, ‘‘Tough Questions After Chinese Court Mishandles Execution,’’ WallStreet Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 16 July 13; World Coalition, China Against the
Death Penalty, Report 2012, last visited 27 September 13, 1, 4; Biao Teng, ‘‘Chinese Death Penalty: Overview and Prospect,’’ East Asian Law Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2 (2010), 90; Zi Heng Lim,‘‘Why China Executes So Many People,’’ Atlantic, 9 May 13; Josh Chin, ‘‘Video Reignites Death
Penalty Debate in China,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 13 August 13.
119 See, e.g., Xiaoqing Pi, ‘‘Tough Questions After Chinese Court Mishandles Execution,’’ WallStreet Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 16 July 13; ‘‘The Death Penalty: Strike Less
Hard,’’ Economist, 3 August 13; ‘‘Court Blasted for Failure To Notify Family in Swift Execution,’’Global Times, 15 July 13; Ren Zhongyuan, ‘‘Executed Businessman’s Assets Sold for a Bargain,
Lawyer Says,’’ Caixin, 16 July 13; Ren Zhongyuan, ‘‘Closer Look: When Hunan Didn’t BotherTo Tell a Family It Was Killing One of Theirs,’’ Caixin, 15 July 13; Voice of America, ‘‘Zeng
Chengjie Secretly Executed; Internet Users Paying Attention to Hidden Details Behind theCase’’ [Zeng chengjie bei mimi chujue wangyou guanzhu anzi beihou heimu], 15 July 13.
120 Xiaoqing Pi, ‘‘Tough Questions After Chinese Court Mishandles Execution,’’ Wall Street
Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 16 July 13; ‘‘Court Blasted for Failure To Notify Family
in Swift Execution,’’ Global Times, 15 July 13; ‘‘China’s Implementation of the Death Penalty
Explained: Prisoner Has Right To See Family Before Execution’’ [Zhongguo sixing zhixing
chengxu jiedu: zuifan xing xing qian you jian jiashu quanli], Chengdu Business Daily, reprinted
in China Law Info, 17 July 13.
121 Xiaoqing Pi, ‘‘Tough Questions After Chinese Court Mishandles Execution,’’ Wall Street
Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 16 July 13; Liang Chao, ‘‘Zeng Chengjie’s Daughter
Apologizes to Changsha Intermediate Court, Says She Only Wants To Get Her Father’s Remains’’ [Zeng chengjie nuer xiang changsha zhongyuan zhi qian cheng zhi xiang nadao fuqin
guhui], Jinghua Net, reprinted in Xinhua, 14 July 13. Zeng’s case is similar to that of Wu Ying,a woman entrepreneur from Wenzhou who was initially sentenced to death for illegal fundraising in 2009. Following a protest on the Internet in which people questioned the severity ofWu Ying’s punishment, she was given a suspended death sentence (i.e., death with a two-year
reprieve) instead. Another Wenzhou businesswoman, Lin Haiyan, was also sentenced to deathearlier this year for illegal fundraising (US$100 million). The Supreme People’s Court is currently reviewing her death sentence. See ‘‘Underground Lender Gets Death Sentence in China,’’
Associated Press, reprinted in New York Times, 20 May 13.
122 Christopher Bodeen, ‘‘China Eliminating Reliance on Executed Prisoners for Organs, but
Cultural Attitudes a Barrier,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Vancouver Sun, 17 May 13.
123 Biao Teng, ‘‘Chinese Death Penalty: Overview and Prospect,’’ East Asian Law Journal, Vol.
1, No. 2 (2010), 87, 89; Ying Yang, ‘‘Death Row Inmates Number One Organ Donors in China,’’
Deutsche Welle, 9 March 12.
124 Jiefu Huang et al., ‘‘A Pilot Programme of Organ Donation After Cardiac Death in China,’’
Lancet, Vol. 379, No. 9818 (2012), 862–63. As part of the institutional reforms approved by the
National People’s Congress during its meeting in March 2013, the Ministry of Health wasmerged with the National Population and Family Planning Commission to create the new National Health and Family Planning Commission. See ‘‘National Health and Family Planning
Commission,’’ Global Times, last visited 14 August 13.
125 Yaqiu Wang, ‘‘In China Execution Done Behind Closed Doors Raises Questions About Dubious Organ Transplant Practices,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 18 July 13; ‘‘China Will Formally Launch
Organ Transplantation [Donor System]; Organs Will Be Allocated According to 3 Main Principles’’ [Woguo jiang zhengshi qidong qiguan yizhi; qiguan fenpei jiang zuncong 3 da yuanze],
Beijing Evening News, reprinted in Xinhua, 26 February 13; ‘‘Ministry of Health: China’s Organ
Donation Pilot Site Only Received 659 Voluntary Donations in 3 Years’’ [Weishengbu: zhongguo
qiguan juanxian shidian 3 nian jin 659 lie ziyuan juanxian], People’s Daily, reprinted in China
Law Info, 19 April 13.
126 Wen Ya, ‘‘Organ Sourcing To See Overhaul,’’ Global Times, 16 August 13; ‘‘China To Phase
Out Use of Executed Prisoners’ Organs for Transplants,’’ Reuters, reprinted in South China
Morning Post, 16 August 13.
127 Ibid. See also ‘‘Executed Prisoners Are Still Main Source for Organ Transplants in China,’’
Deutsche Welle, 21 December 12; CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 113.

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Notes to Section II—Freedom of Religion
1 The term ‘‘freedom of religion’’ used in this section encompasses the more broadly articulated
freedom of ‘‘thought, conscience, and religion.’’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),
adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A (III) of 10 December 48, art.
18. For protections in international law, see Article 18 in the UDHR; International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI)of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 18; International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI)of 16 December 66, entry into force 3 January 76, art. 13(3) (requiring States Parties to ‘‘ensure
the religious and moral education of . . . children in conformity with [the parents’] own convictions’’); Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession by UN General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 89, entry into
force 2 September 90, art. 14; Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance andof Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly
resolution 36/55 of 25 November 81. See General Comment No. 22 to Article 18 of the ICCPR
for an official interpretation of freedom of religion as articulated in the ICCPR. UN Human
Rights Committee General Comment No. 22: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience, andReligion (Art. 18), CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, 30 July 93, para. 1. China is a party to the ICESCR
and the CRC, and a signatory to the ICCPR. The Chinese government has committed itself to
ratifying, and thus bringing its laws into conformity with, the ICCPR and reaffirmed its commitment on April 13, 2006, in its application for membership in the UN Human Rights Council.
China’s top leaders have also stated on other occasions that they are preparing for ratificationof the ICCPR, including in March 18, 2008, press conference remarks by then Premier Wen
Jiabao; in a September 6, 2005, statement by Luo Gan, State Councilor and member of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party Central Committee, at the 22nd World Congress on Law;
in statements by Wen Jiabao during his May 2005 Europe tour; and in a January 27, 2004,
speech by former Chinese President Hu Jintao before the French National Assembly. In 2009,
China affirmed this commitment during the Universal Periodic Review of China’s human rights
record before the UN Human Rights Council. UN GAOR, Hum. Rts. Com., 11th Sess., Reportof the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review—China, A/HRC/11/25, 29 May 09, para.
114 (1). In addition, China’s first National Human Rights Action Plan (2009–2010) affirms theprinciples in the ICCPR, and China’s second National Human Rights Action Plan (2012–2015)
states that the government ‘‘has continued to carry out administrative and judicial reforms andprepare the ground for approval’’ of the ICCPR. See State Council Information Office, ‘‘National
Human Rights Action Plan of China (2009–2010),’’ reprinted in China Daily, 13 April 09; StateCouncil Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11
June 12, sec. V(1).
2 PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15 March 99,
14 March 04, art. 36.
3 For specific examples of the range of religious activities protected under international law,see, e.g., General Comment No. 22 to Article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. General Comment No. 22: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion (Art. 18), CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, 30 July 93, paras. 1, 2, 4. The Chinese government denies protected activities such as the ‘‘freedom to prepare and distribute religious texts or publications’’ (General Comment No. 22, para. 4). For restrictions on the publication of religious materials, see State Administration for Religious Affairs, Regulation on Religious Affairs [Zongjiao
shiwu tiaoli], issued 30 November 04, effective 1 March 05, art. 7. For an interpretation of theprovision protecting ‘‘normal religious activities’’ in the Regulation on Religious Affairs, written
by drafters of the regulation, see Shuai Feng and Li Jian, Interpretation of the Regulation on
Religious Affairs [Zongjiao shiwu tiaoli shiyi], (Beijing: Beijing Religious Culture Press, 2005),
19. See also page 6 of the preface of the book, noting the authors’ status as drafters of the RRA.
4 The central government has referred to the five religions as China’s main religions, but inpractice the state has created a regulatory system that institutionalizes only these five religions
for recognition and legal protection. See, e.g., State Council Information Office, White Paper on
Freedom of Religious Belief in China [Zhongguo de zongjiao xinyang ziyou zhuangkuang], reprinted in China Net, 1 October 97. This white paper states that there is a ‘‘great diversity of
religious beliefs’’ in China, with the ‘‘main religions’’ being Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism. Wording from this white paper is also posted as a statement of current
policy on the Web sites of the United Front Work Department, the agency that oversees religious affairs within the Communist Party, and the State Administration for Religious Affairs.
Some local regulations on religious affairs define ‘‘religion’’ to mean only these five religions.
See, e.g., Sichuan Province Regulation on Religious Affairs [Sichuansheng zongjiao shiwu tiaoli],issued 9 May 00, amended 30 November 06, art. 2; Henan Province Regulation on Religious Affairs [Henansheng zongjiao shiwu tiaoli], issued 30 July 05, effective 1 January 06, art. 2. Thereis limited formal tolerance outside this framework for some ethnic minority and ‘‘folk’’ religious
practices. Kim-Kwong Chan and Eric R. Carlson, Religious Freedom in China: Policy, Administration, and Regulation (Santa Barbara: Institute for the Study of American Religion, 2005), 9–
10, 15–16.
5 See Falun Gong within this section for detailed information.
6 Regulation on Religious Affairs (RRA) [Zongjiao shiwu tiaoli], issued 30 November 04, effective 1 March 05. For an overview of the general requirements within the RRA and an analysisof several provincial-level regulations, see ‘‘Zhejiang and Other Provincial Governments Issue
New Religious Regulations,’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update, June 2006,
9–10.
7 The Regulation on Religious Affairs (RRA) provides administrative penalties, such as fines,
for violations of its stipulations. Regulation on Religious Affairs [Zongjiao shiwu tiaoli], issued
30 November 04, effective 1 March 05, arts. 40, 41. Such administrative penalties also include

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the possibility of limited short-term detention under the Public Security Administration Punishment Law. Regulation on Religious Affairs [Zongjiao shiwu tiaoli], issued 30 November 04, effective 1 March 05, arts. 39, 40, 43; Public Security Administration Punishment Law [Zhonghua
renmin gongheguo zhi’an guanli chufa fa], issued 28 August 05, effective 1 March 06, art. 27.
The RRA is not authorized to provide for criminal penalties. At the same time, like other regulations, the RRA includes boilerplate language referring to the necessity of pursuing a criminal
investigation if a ‘‘crime is constituted.’’ For example, where ‘‘anyone uses religion to carry out
such illegal activities as harm state security or public security, infringe upon citizens’ right ofthe person and democratic rights, impair the administration of public order, or infringe upon
public or private property,’’ criminal charges are to be pursued where a ‘‘crime is constituted.’’Regulation on Religious Affairs [Zongjiao shiwu tiaoli], issued 30 November 04, effective 1
March 05, art. 40.
8 The government uses Article 300 of the Criminal Law to punish activities deemed to be cultrelated. Chinese authorities also punish religious adherents by prosecuting them under other
Criminal Law provisions, such as by portraying the printing and distribution of religious literature, a freedom protected under international human rights law, as the crime of ‘‘illegal operation of a business’’ (art. 225). PRC Criminal Law, enacted 1 July 79, amended 14 March 97,
effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December
02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, arts. 225, 300. See discussionof the cases of Li Wenxi and Ren Lacheng in Protestantism within this section for examples
of authorities’ use of Art. 225 to punish persons who distribute religious literature.
9 Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on Banning Heretical
Cult Organizations, Preventing and Punishing Cult Organizations [Guanyu chudi xiejiao zuzhi,
fangfan he chengzhi xiejiao huodong de jueding], issued 30 October 99.
10 Administrative punishments can range from a warning or fine to detention in a reeducation
through labor (RTL) center for up to three years, with the possibility of a one-year extension.
Forms of administrative detention include, among others, short-term detention under the Public
Security Administration Punishment Law, RTL, forced psychiatric commitment, forced drug detoxification, and work-study schools.
11 Fenggeng Yang, Religion in China: Survival and Revival Under Communist Rule (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2012), 78–84.
12 The United Front Work Department (UFWD) is directly subordinate to the Communist
Party Central Committee and is the key organization through which the Party implements control of religion. See Fenggeng Yang, Religion in China: Survival and Revival Under Communist
Rule (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 78–79. The senior officials of the UFWD arelisted in ‘‘Chinese Communist Party 18th Central Committee,’’ Chinese Communist Party 18th
Central Committee, reprinted in Sina, 18 April 13.
13 Fenggeng Yang, Religion in China: Survival and Revival Under Communist Rule (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2012), 81. According to this book, ‘‘In practice, the SARA andlower-level RABs usually rule through the so-called patriotic religious associations. The associations of the five official religions are nongovernmental organizations in name, but they function
as an extension and delegation of the RAB.’’14 ‘‘China To Register All Clergy,’’ Xinhua, 8 January 13.
15 The official claimed the requirement would protect the rights of religious worshippers and‘‘help the public identify fake staff.’’ ‘‘China To Register All Clergy,’’ Xinhua, 8 January 13.
16 The term ‘‘religious organization’’ (zongjiao tuanti) or ‘‘religious-type of social organization’’(zongjiaolei shehui zuzhi or shehui tuanti) refer here to registered religious groups, such as
Catholic dioceses, Muslim congregations, Protestant congregations, as well as to charitable organizations established by registered religious organizations, all of which are under the oversightof the five Patriotic religious associations, the relevant level religious affairs bureau, and therelevant civil affairs bureau.
17 Zhang Qianfan and Zhu Yinping, ‘‘Religious Freedom and Its Legal Restrictions in China,’’
Brigham Young University Law Review, Vol. 2011, No. 3, 790–95 (recent online version of article dated 31 January 13); Fenggang Yang, Religion in China: Survival and Revival Under Communist Rule (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 74–78. For a discussion of how the restrictive regulatory framework has limited the growth of religious venues, materials, and clergy,
see Yang, Religion in China, 149–154. For registration challenges to religious organizations’ establishing charitable organizations, see Zhang Zhipeng, ‘‘Let Legal Entity Status Help Advancethe ‘Rapid Development’ of the Religious Charity Sector’’ [Rang falu shiti diwei zhutui zongjiao
gongyi cishan shiye ‘‘tengfei’’], China Ethnicity News, reprinted in China Ethnic Religions Net,
18 June 13.
18 ‘‘Third Plenary Meeting of the First Session of the 12th National People’s Congress: Full
Text Record’’ [Shierjie quanguo renda yici huiyi disan quanti huiyi wenzi shilu], Xinhua, 10
March 13.
19 Ibid. See State Administration for Religious Affairs, Regulation on Religious Affairs[Zongjiao shiwu tiaoli], issued 30 November 04, effective 1 March 05, chap. 2; State Council Religious Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Civil Affairs, Implementing Measures on the Management of
the Registration of Religious Social Organizations [Zongjiao shehui tuanti dengji guanli shishi
banfa], issued 6 May 91, arts. 2–7, 9–10; State Council, Regulations on the Registration andManagement of Social Organizations [Shehui tuanti dengji guanli tiaoli], issued and effective
25 October 98, arts. 3, 7–19.
20 State Administration for Religious Affairs, Chinese Communist Party Central Committee
United Front Work Department, National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of
Civil Affairs, Ministry of Finance, and State Administration of Taxation, Opinion Encouraging
and Standardizing Involvement by Religious Organizations in Charitable Activities [Guanyu guli
he guifan zongjiaojie congshi gongyi cishan huodong de yijian], 16 February 12, paras. 1, 2(2)–(3).

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21 See Zhang Zhipeng, ‘‘Let Legal Entity Status Help Advance the ‘Rapid Development’ of the
Religious Charity Sector’’ [Rang falu shiti diwei zhutui zongjiao gongyi cishan shiye ‘‘tengfei’’],China Ethnicity News, reprinted in China Ethnic Religions Net, 18 June 13.
22 This sub-section addresses what official sources refer to as hanchuan fojiao, i.e., ‘‘Han’’ or
Mahayana Buddhism, and nanchuan fojiao, i.e., Pali (Theravada) Buddhism, which is practiced
mainly by the Dai ethnic group and other ethnic minorities in Yunnan province. Tibetan Buddhism, the third major school of Buddhism in China, is discussed in Section V—Tibet. Tibetan
Buddhism is not practiced solely by Tibetans; recently a growing number of Han Chinese haveembarked on the study of Tibetan Buddhism. Calum MacLeod, ‘‘In China, Tensions Rising Over
Buddhism’s Quiet Resurgence,’’ USA Today, 2 November 11. For information on the different
schools of Buddhism recognized by the Chinese government, see, e.g., State Council Information
Office, White Paper on Freedom of Religious Belief in China [Zhongguo de zongjiao xinyangziyou zhuangkuang], reprinted in China Net, 1 October 97, sec. I; David A. Palmer, ‘‘China’s
Religious Danwei: Institutionalising Religion in the People’s Republic,’’ China Perspectives, No.
4 (2009), 26; ‘‘Three Main Schools Discuss Buddhist Doctrine: Experience Buddhism’s Wisdom’’[San da yuxi tan fofa: ganshou fojiao de zhihui], China Net, 26 April 12. For examples of continued state control over religious activities and practices of Buddhists during this reporting year,
see, e.g., State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘State Administration for Religious Affairs
2013 Main Work Points’’ [Guojia zongjiao shiwu ju 2013 nian gongzuo yaodian], 18 January 13;
State Administration for Religious Affairs, Opinion on Handling Problems Involved With theManagement of Buddhist Monasteries and Taoist Temples [Guanyu chuli sheji fojiao simiao,
daojiao gongguan guanli youguan wenti de yijian], 8 October 12; State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘Notice Regarding the Issuing of ‘Measures Regarding Evaluation and Commendation of the Nationwide Establishment of Advanced Units and Advanced Individuals in Harmonious Buddhist and Taoist Temples and Churches’ ’’ [Quanguo chuangjian hexie siguan jiaotang
xianjin jiti he xianjin geren pingbi biaozhang banfa], 6 July 13.
23 ‘‘Vice Premier Liu Yandong: Speech at Meeting Commemorating the 60th Anniversary of
the Buddhist Association of China’’ [Liu yandong fuzongli: zai zhongguo fojiao xiehui chengli 60
zhounian jinianhui shang de jianghua], Buddhist Association of China, 26 August 13.
24 State Administration for Religious Affairs, Opinion on Handling Problems Involved With
the Management of Buddhist Monasteries and Daoist Temples [Guanyu chuli sheji fojiao simiao,
daojiao gongguan guanli youguan wenti de yijian], 8 October 12; ‘‘China Bans Profiteering From
Religious Activity,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 22 October 12.
25 Qi Zhijiang, ‘‘A Discussion of the Connections and Differences Between Religions andCults,’’ Kaifeng Network, reprinted in China Anti-Cult Association, 11 November 11.
26 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘The Cult of Buddha,’’ Dialogue, Issue 52, 29 August 13; ‘‘Introduction
to the China Anti-Cult Association,’’ China Anti-Cult Association, 9 February 13; Tianjin AntiCult Association, ‘‘Which Organizations Has the Ministry of Public Security Designated as
Cults? ’’ 22 October 12; CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 115.
27 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘The Cult of Buddha,’’ Dialogue, Issue 52, 29 August 13; ‘‘Introduction
to the China Anti-Cult Association,’’ China Anti-Cult Association, 9 February 13; Tianjin AntiCult Association, ‘‘Which Organizations Has the Ministry of Public Security Designated as
Cults? ’’ 22 October 12.
28 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘The Cult of Buddha,’’ Dialogue, Issue 52, 29 August 13; Tianjin AntiCult Association, ‘‘Which Organizations Has the Ministry of Public Security Designated as
Cults? ’’ 22 October 12.
29 Christian Solidarity Worldwide, ‘‘Wu Zeheng, A Buddhist Patriarch, Suffers Ongoing Harassment After Serving Eleven Years in Prison,’’ 22 March 12; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Three
Documents Related to the Case of Buddhist Leader Wu Zeheng,’’ 22 September 11.
30 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit: China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 22
February 13.
31 For background information on the history and function of the state-led patriotic religious
associations, see David A. Palmer, ‘‘China’s Religious Danwei,’’ China Perspectives, Vol. 4(2009), 19–21, 25.
32 Hong Kong Catholic Diocese, ‘‘Justice and Peace Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic Diocese Opinion on Religious Freedom in China for the UN Human Rights Council’s Universal
Periodic Review’’ [Xianggang tianzhujiao zhengyi heping weiyuanhui jiu lianheguo renquanlishihui pubian dingqi shenyi jizhi you guan zhonghua renmin gongheguo zongjiao ziyou deyijianshu], 18 July 13.
33 Ibid.
34 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘China Reportedly Strips Shanghai Bishop of His Title,’’ New York Times,
12 December 12.
35 Thérèse Postel, ‘‘Can Pope Francis Go to China? ’’ Century Foundation (blog), 13 March 13.
See also CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 80; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October
11, 96; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October 10, 101; CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October
09, 119; CECC, 2008 Annual Report, 31 October 08, 78.
36 Hong Kong Catholic Diocese, ‘‘Justice and Peace Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic Diocese Opinion on Religious Freedom in China for the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights’
Universal Periodic Review’’ [Xianggang tianzhujiao zhengyi heping weiyuanhui jiu lianheguo
renquan lishihui pubian dingqi shenyi jizhi, you guan zhonghua renmin gongheguo zongjiao
ziyou de yijianshu], 18 July 13.
37 Anthony E. Clark, ‘‘China Renews Tension With the Vatican,’’ Catholic World Report, 24
May 13; Michelle FlorCruz, ‘‘China Quietly Revises Church Regulations Requiring GovernmentApproved Catholic Bishops,’’ International Business Times, 24 May 13.
38 Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church of China, Regulation on the Election and Consecration of Bishops [Zhongguo tianzhujiao zhujiaotuan guanyu xuansheng zhujiao de guiding],
adopted 12 December 12, effective 8 April 13.

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39 Ibid.; Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church of China Regulation on the Election andConsecration of Bishops [Zhongguo tianzhujiao zhujiaotuan guanyu xuansheng zhujiao de guiding], passed 17 May 93. The new regulation requires local dioceses to apply in writing to theprovincial-level Bureaus of Religious Affairs for permission to elect new bishops. Moreover, abishop election work committee shall be formed—under the guidance of the Bureau of Religious
Affairs—responsible for formulating election measures, recommending representatives to theelection committee and the total number of representatives, selecting one to three candidates,and overseeing of the election process.
40 ‘‘Two Priests Dismissed in Wuhan,’’ Union of Asian Catholic News, 21 December 12.
41 See, e.g., Sandro Magister, ‘‘Shanghai, a Strong and Hard-Pressed Diocese,’’ Chiesa Espress
Online (blog), 3 May 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘China Reportedly Strips Shanghai Bishop of His
Title,’’ New York Times, 12 December 12; ‘‘Vatican Slams Chinese Official Church in Bishop
Row,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in South China Morning Post, 14 December 12; N.J.
Viehland, ‘‘With No Bishop, Shanghai Priests Concerned About Masses, Pilgrimages,’’ CatholicNews Service, 22 May 13; Tom Phillips, ‘‘Shanghai’s Catholic Church in Disarray,’’ Telegraph,
12 July 13.
42 Sandro Magister, ‘‘Shanghai, a Strong and Hard-Pressed Diocese,’’ Chiesa Espress Online(blog), 3 May 13; ‘‘Aloysius Jin Luxian Dies at 96; Shanghai Bishop,’’ Associated Press, 30 April
13. A media source reported that Bishop Ma may have been transferred temporarily to Beijing
during funeral services for Bishop Jin. See Wang Zhicheng, ‘‘Msgr. Jin Luxian’s Funeral Without Bishop Ma Daqin,’’ Asia News, 29 April 13.
43 ‘‘Chinese
Catholic Association and [Bishops] Conference Spokesperson Comments’’[Zhongguo tianzhujiao yihui yituan fayanren tanhua], Catholic Church in China, 14 December
12; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘China Reportedly Strips Shanghai Bishop of His Title,’’ New York Times,
12 December 12; Didi Kirsten Tatlow, ‘‘Farewell to an Enigmatic Chinese Bishop,’’ New YorkTimes, 29 April 13.
44 ‘‘Chinese
Catholic Association and [Bishops] Conference Spokesperson Comments’’[Zhongguo tianzhujiao yihui yituan fayanren tanhua], Catholic Church in China, 14 December
12.
45 Sandro Magister, ‘‘Shanghai, a Strong and Hard-Pressed Diocese,’’ Chiesa Espress Online(blog), 3 May 13; ‘‘Vatican Slams Chinese Official Church in Bishop Row,’’ Agence FrancePresse, reprinted in South China Morning Post, 14 December 12.
46 ‘‘Aloysius Jin Luxian Dies at 96; Shanghai Bishop,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Los Angeles Times, 30 April 13.
47 Although several international media sources have noted Bishop Jin’s age at death as 97,
the Vatican Radio news item on his death provides his date of birth—June 20, 1916—confirmingthat Bishop Jin was 96 at his death. See ‘‘China: Secretary of State Note on Death of Bishop
Jin Luxian,’’ Vatican Radio, 30 April 13.
48 N.J. Viehland, ‘‘With No Bishop, Shanghai Priests Concerned About Masses, Pilgrimages,’’
Catholic News Service, 22 May 13; Tom Phillips, ‘‘Shanghai’s Catholic Church in Disarray,’’
Telegraph, 12 July 13.
49 Hong Kong Catholic Diocese, ‘‘Justice and Peace Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic Diocese Opinion on Religious Freedom in China for the UN Human Rights Council’s Universal
Periodic Review’’ [Xianggang tianzhujiao zhengyi heping weiyuanhui jiu lianheguo renquanlishihui pubian dingqi shenyi jizhi, you guan zhonghua renmin gongheguo zongjiao ziyou deyijianshu], 18 July 13, paras. 19, 26.
50 Ibid., paras. 18, 20. For further information on the case of Bishop Su Zhimin, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–05380. For further information on the caseof Bishop Shi Enxiang, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–05378.
51 The Cardinal Kung Foundation, ‘‘Arrest of an Underground Catholic Priest in Hebei Province and an Appeal to the Chinese Authorit[ies] To Release Religious Prisoners,’’ 9 August 13;‘‘Hebei Underground Catholic Priest Arrested,’’ AsiaNews, 10 August 13.
52 Ibid.
53 ‘‘Hebei Underground Catholic Priest Arrested,’’ AsiaNews, 10 August 13.
54 Nailene Chou Wiest, ‘‘Time for Sino-Vatican Rapprochement,’’ Caixin, 18 March 13; Christopher Bodeen, ‘‘China Maintains Hard Line on Ties With Vatican,’’ Associated Press, 14 March
13; Wang Zhaokun and Mauro Lovecchio, ‘‘Beijing-Vatican Breakthrough Not Expected,’’ Global
Times, 15 March 13.
55 Pope Benedict XVI, ‘‘Letter of the Holy Father to the Bishops, Priests, Consecrated Persons
and Lay Faithful of the Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China,’’ 27 May 07; Cardinal
Fernando Filoni, ‘‘Five Years After the Publication of Benedict XVI’s Letter to the Church in
China,’’ Tripod, Winter 2012, Vol. 32, No. 167. Cardinal Filoni lived in Hong Kong from 1992–
2001. He currently is prefect of the Rome-based Congregation for Evangelization of Peoples
which is responsible for international missionary work. See Profile of The Congregation for the
Evangelization of Peoples, The Vatican, last visited 3 September 13. See also Thérèse Postel,‘‘Can Pope Francis Go to China? ’’ Century Foundation (blog), 13 March 13.
56 Wang Zhaokun and Mauro Lovecchio, ‘‘Beijing-Vatican Breakthrough Not Expected,’’ Global
Times, 15 March 13.
57 See, e.g., ‘‘Illegal Second Instance Trial at Ningxia’s Intermediate Court; Lawyers Defend
Ma Xiongde’s Innocence’’ [Ningxia wuzhong zhongyuan feifa ershen; lushi wei ma xiongde wuzui
bianhu], Clear Wisdom, 20 March 13; ‘‘Mr. Yang Wenqing, Ms. Qu Zebi, and Ms. Zhou Xulin
Sentenced to Prison,’’ Clear Wisdom, 21 February 13; ‘‘Six Practitioners Sentenced to Prison in
Penglai City,’’ Clear Wisdom, 6 February 13; ‘‘Zhang Lin and Three Other Falun Gong Practitioners from Xi’an Municipality Illegally Sentenced,’’ Clear Wisdom, 5 February 13; ‘‘Retired
Teacher Ms. Pei Shanzhen From Shanghai Once Again Secretly Sentenced to Prison,’’ Clear
Wisdom, 3 January 13.

217
58 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Rights Defense Lawyer Detained After Court Appearance,’’ 5
April 13; ‘‘Lawyer Wang Quanzhang Is Released Two Days Early from Detention’’ [Lushi wangquanzhang bei ju liang ri tiqian huoshi], Radio Free Asia, 8 April 13.
59 Malcolm Moore, ‘‘Chinese Lawyers Targeted As Xi Jinping Tightens Control,’’ Telegraph, 20
August 13; Maya Wang, ‘‘Xi Jinping’s First 100 Days: Still Waiting for Human Rights Progress,’’
Global Post, 9 July 13.
60 See, e.g., Xiang Yang, China Anti-Cult Association, ‘‘Basic Thoughts on Preparing for theTransformation Through Reeducation Assault and Consolidation Battle’’ [Dahao jiaoyu
zhuanhua gongjian yu gonggu zhengti zhang de jiben sikao], 5 August 10; Gao Peiquan, ‘‘Our
School Holds General Assembly To Commend the Conclusion of the Work in the Transformation
Through Reeducation Assault and Consolidation Battle’’ [Woxiao zhaokai jiaoyu zhuanhua
gongjian yu gonggu zhengti zhang gongzuo zongjie biaozhang dahui], Journal of Shihezi University, 30 November 12.
61 CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 99–101.
62 All-China Women’s Federation, ‘‘The Vigorous Anti-Cult Work of All Levels of Women’s Federation Organizations in Chongqing Has Achieved Outstanding Results’’ [Chongqing shi gejifulian zuzhi dali kaizhan fan xiejiao gongzuo chengxiao xianzhu], 1 August 13; Pucheng County
Public Security Bureau, ‘‘In Order To Resist Cults, One Must Adhere to the Four Combinations’’[Jujue xiejiao bixu jianchi sige jiehe], 6 June 13.
63 All-China Women’s Federation, ‘‘The Vigorous Anti-Cult Work of All Levels of Women’s Federation Organizations in Chongqing Has Achieved Remarkable Results’’ [Chongqing shi gejifulian zuzhi dali kaizhan fan xiejiao gongzuo chengxiao xianzhu], 1 August 13.
64 ‘‘First Meeting of Zhejiang Public Anti-Cult Work Meeting and Anti-Cult Symposium Heldin Hangzhou’’ [Shoujie zhejiang sheng minjian fan xiejiao gongzuo huiyi jifan xiejiao xueshu
yantaohui zai hangzhou zhaokai], Qianjiang Tide, 3 May 13.
65 ‘‘Lens Magazine: Exposé on Liaoning’s Masanjia Women’s RTL Center’’ [Shijue zazhi: jiemi
liaoning masanjia nuzi laojiaosuo], Lens Magazine, reprinted in China Digital Times, 7 April 13.
66 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Behind Cry for Help From China Labor Camp,’’ New York Times, 11 June 13.
67 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Dui Hua: Magazine Exposé Reinvigorates Calls to End RTL,’’ 11
April 13; Didi Kirsten Tatlow, ‘‘Story of Women’s Labor Camp Abuse Unnerves Even China,’’
New York Times, 11 April 13; Chris Luo, ‘‘Women ‘Chained Up and Tortured’ in Labour Camp,’’South China Morning Post, 9 April 13; ‘‘Lens Magazine: Exposé on Liaoning’s Masanjia Women’s RTL Center’’ [Shijue zazhi: jiemi liaoning masanjia nuzi laojiaosuo], Lens Magazine, reprinted in China Digital Times, 7 April 13.
68 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Is Released on Bail,’’ New York Times, 8 July 13;‘‘China Releases Journalist Du Bin From Detention,’’ BBC, 9 July 13. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2013–00206, for more information on Du Bin’s case.
69 Falun Gong in China: Review and Update, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 December 12, Testimony of Mr. Hu Zhiming, Twice-Imprisoned Falun Gong
Practitioner.
70 Falun Gong in China: Review and Update, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 December 12, Testimony of Mr. Bruce Chung, Falun Gong Practitioner Detained in China [in 2012].
71 ‘‘Xinjiang’s Third Round of Training for Islamic Patriotic Religious Figures Trains 38,000
People’’ [Xinjiang di san lun yisilan jiao aiguo zongjiao renshi peixun 3.8 wan renci], Xinjiang
Daily, reprinted in PRC Central People’s Government, 26 December 12.
72 Zhang Xiaofang et al., ‘‘Ningxia Muslims Celebrate Eid, Li Jianhua, Liu Hui and Others
Visit and Pay Respects to Muslim Public’’ [Ningxia musilin huandu kai zhaijie li jianhua liu
hui deng kanwang weiwen musilin qunzhong], Ningxia Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 10 August 13.
73 State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘2013 National Islamic Institute Work Situation
Seminar Held in Beijing’’ [2013 nian quanguo yisilan jiao jingxueyuan gongzuo qingkuang
jiaoliuhui zai jing zhaokai], 31 January 13.
74 ‘‘Xinjiang’s Third Round of Training for Islamic Patriotic Religious Figures Trains 38,000
People’’ [Xinjiang di san lun yisilan jiao aiguo zongjiao renshi peixun 3.8 wan renci], Xinjiang
Daily, reprinted in PRC Central People’s Government, 26 December 12; ‘‘Strengthen the Popularization of the Field of Religion and Thematic Education, Promote Ethnic Unity and Religious
Harmony’’ [Jiaqiang zongjiao lingyu pufa he zhuti jiaoyu cujin minzu tuanjie, zongjiao hexie],
China Ethnicity and Religion Net, 16 July 13.
75 State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘Measures for Accrediting Islamic Clergy’’[Yisilan jiao jiaozhi renyuan zige rending banfa], 20 December 10.
76 State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘Islamic Association of China Convenes Association Certification Ceremony for Muslim Clergy’’ [Zhongguo yisilan jiao xiehui juban ben xiehui
yisilan jiao jiaozhi renyuan banzheng yishi], 25 February 13.
77 Islamic Association of China, Circular Regarding the Launch of the Islamic Association ofChina’s Hajj Personnel Management System [Guanyu zhongguo yixie chaojin renyuan guanlixitong kaitong shiyong de tongzhi], 27 June 13; State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘2012
Work Situation Report of the State Administration for Religious Affairs’’ [Guojia zongjiao shiwu
ju 2012 nian gongzuo qingkuang baogao], 18 January 13.
78 See, e.g., Liu Zhenxiang, Dorbiljin (Emin) County Government, ‘‘Emin County Adopts a
Number of Measures To Safeguard the Ramadan Period’’ [Emin xian caiqu duo xiang cuoshi
quebao zhaiyue qijian], 5 July 13; ‘‘Yining County Issues Leaflets Regarding the ‘10 Prohibited’
Illegal Religious Activities’’ [Yining xian fabu zhizhi feifa zongjiao huodong ‘‘shi bu zhun’’xuanchuan dan], Uyghur Online, 15 July 13.
79 State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘Strengthen the Results and Application of Scriptural Interpretation and Promote the Harmonious Development of Society’’ [Qianghua jiejingchengguo yingyong cujin shehui hexie fazhan], 4 February 13.
80 Ibid.

218
81 Gu Ruizhen, ‘‘Yu Zhengsheng: Fully Implement Central Policies and Arrangements, Strongly Complete Stability and Prosperity Work in Xinjiang’’ [Yu zhengsheng: quanmian guanche
zhongyang juece bushu, zhashi zuohao wen jiang xing jiang gongzuo], Xinhua, 28 May 13.
82 Islamic Association of China, ‘‘IAC Press Spokesperson Issues Statement Regarding the Violent Terrorist Attacks in Xinjiang’’ [Zhongguo yisilan jiao xiehui xinwen fayanren jiu xinjiang
fasheng de baoli kongbu xiji anjian fabiao tanhua], reprinted in State Administration for Religious Affairs, 30 July 13.
83 Azat Omer, ‘‘Religious Extremist Ideology Is a ‘Cancer’ Harming Society’’ [Zongjiao jiduan
sixiang shi weihai shehui de ‘‘duliu’’], Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 16 August 13.
84 According to the charters of the TSPM and CCC, among each organization’s duties are to:‘‘Under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party and the People’s Government, unite all
the country’s Protestants; fervently love socialism and the motherland; respect the country’s
Constitution, laws, regulations, and policies; [and] actively participate in the construction of asocialist society with Chinese characteristics.’’ Three-Self Patriotic Movement, Charter of the
National Committee of Three-Self Patriotic Movement of the Protestant Churches in China[Zhongguo jidu jiao sanzi aiguo yundong weiyuanhui zhangcheng], issued 12 January 08, art.
6(1); China Christian Council, Charter of the China Christian Council [Zhongguo jidu jiao xiehuizhangcheng], passed 12 January 08, art. 7(1).
85 U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), ‘‘Tier 1 Countries of Particular Concern—China,’’ Annual Report 2013, 30 April 13, 36–37.
86 See e.g., ‘‘Beijing’s Shouwang Church Denounces Police Repression,’’ Asia News, 21 September 12; ‘‘Police Stop Illegal House Church Service,’’ Global Times, reprinted in Beijing News,
22 August 12; Carsten T. Vala, ‘‘Protestant Christianity and Civil Society in Authoritarian
China,’’ China Perspectives, No. 3 (2012), 50; Liu Peng, Pu Shi Institute for Social Sciences,‘‘How To Treat House Churches: A Review of the Beijing Shouwang Church Incident,’’ 16 February 12; ‘‘Update: New Year Brings Renewed Efforts To Prevent Worship at Shouwang
Church,’’ Voice of the Martyrs, 19 January 12; Beijing Shouwang Church, ‘‘An Explanation of
the Issue of Worshiping Outside’’ [Huwai jingbai wenti jieda], 4 April 11; Chris Buckley and
Sui-Lee Wee, ‘‘Beijing Church Faces Eviction in Tense Times,’’ Reuters, 3 April 11; Verna Yu,‘‘Fears of More Pressure on Underground Churches,’’ South China Morning Post, 1 April 11; Beijing Shouwang Church, ‘‘Beijing Shouwang Church March 2011 Open Letter to Congregation’’[Beijing shouwang jiaohui 11 nian 3 yue gao huizhong shu], reprinted in ChinaAid, 4 April 11.
See also ‘‘Beijing Authorities Harass and Detain Shouwang Church Members,’’ CongressionalExecutive Commission on China, 1 July 11.
87 ChinaAid, ‘‘Shouwang Church Applies for Administrative Review, Using the Law To Defend
Religious Rights,’’ 20 September 12; Verna Yu, ‘‘Shouwang Church Takes Legal Action Against
Cops for Religious Persecution,’’ South China Morning Post, 21 September 12.
88 Beijing Shouwang Church, ‘‘Shouwang Church Announcement Concerning the Application
for Administrative Reconsideration,’’ reprinted in ChinaAid, 6 October 12.
89 Beijing Shouwang Church, ‘‘Beijing Shouwang Church Announcement on Outdoor Worship
Service on August 11,’’ reprinted in ChinaAid, 13 August 13. For other examples of authorities
detaining Shouwang church members or otherwise preventing them from attending services during this reporting year, see Beijing Shouwang Church, ‘‘Beijing Shouwang Church Announcement on Outdoor Worship Service on July 21,’’ reprinted in ChinaAid, 24 July 13; Beijing
Shouwang Church, ‘‘Beijing Shouwang Church Announcement on Outdoor Worship Service on
March 17, 2013,’’ reprinted in ChinaAid, 19 March 13; Beijing Shouwang Church, ‘‘Beijing
Shouwang Church Announcement on Outdoor Worship Service on December 30, 2012,’’ reprinted
in ChinaAid, 4 January 13.
90 ‘‘China’s House Church Crackdown Gathers Pace,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 June 13.
91 Ibid.
92 ‘‘Beijing Chaoyang Police Raid House Church Symposium, Force Registration’’ [Beijing
chaoyang jingcha chuangru jiating jiaohui yantaohui qiangxing dengji], Radio Free Asia, 27 February 13.
93 ‘‘Guizhou, Tongren House Church Gathering Suffers Assault’’ [Guizhou tongren jiating
jiaohui juhui zao chongji], Radio Free Asia, 22 August 13.
94 ChinaAid, ‘‘Vicious Persecution of House Churches in Heilongjiang and Shandong, Presbyterian Federation of Beijing Calls for Prayers (photo),’’ 21 February 13.
95 ChinaAid, ‘‘Two More House Churches Raided in Xinjiang,’’ 22 July 13; ‘‘China: House
Church Accused of Being Religious Cult Raided,’’ Christian Today, 1 April 13; ChinaAid,‘‘Xinjiang Kucha House Church Raided,’’ 28 September 12.
96 ChinaAid, ‘‘House Church in Alxa Left Banner, Inner Mongolia, Violently Banned in Late
April’’ [Neimenggu azuoqi yi jiating jiaohui si yuedi bei baoli qudi], 23 May 13.
97 ChinaAid, ‘‘Christian Salvation Church in Wuhan City Faces Illegal Forced Demolition,’’ 25
September 12.
98 ChinaAid, ‘‘A TSPM Church in Yushu City, Jilin Province Is Persecuted by Both the Government and the Developer Due to Demolition and Removal,’’ 27 September 12.
99 ‘‘Officially-Recognized Church Threatened With Forced Eviction’’ [Guanfang renke jiaotang
zao bi qian bei konghe], Radio Free Asia, 7 August 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Zhengzhou: Sunzhuang Christian Church Doorway Blocked by Transported Dirt Again’’ [Zhengzhou: sunzhuang jidu jiaotang
zaici bei yuntu dumen], 6 August 13.
100 Ibid.
101 U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), ‘‘Tier 1 Countries of Particular Concern—China,’’ Annual Report 2013, 30 April 13, 36.
102 See, e.g., Lu Huaying, Xihu District People’s Congress Standing Committee Office, ‘‘Reflections Regarding Strengthening and Innovation of Management of Places of Worship’’ [Guangyu
jiaqiang he chuangxin zongjiao changsuo guanli de sikao], reprinted in Hangzhou People’s Congress, 26 June 13; State Administration for Religious Affairs, ‘‘State Administration for Religious Affairs 2013 Main Work Points’’ [Guojia zongjiao shiwuju 2013 nian gongzuo yaodian], 18

219January 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Local Government in Shandong Province Launches City-Wide Investigation of ‘Privately Established Religious Meeting Sites,’ ’’ 1 April 13.
103 See, e.g., ‘‘A Number of House Church Gatherings in Shandong, Linzi Attacked’’ [Shandong
linzi duo jia jiating jiaohui juhui zaodao chongji], Radio Free Asia, 16 August 13; ‘‘China Probes
House Churches in Intelligence Sweep,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 March 13; ‘‘Guizhou, Tongren
House Church Gathering Attacked’’ [Guizhou tongren jiating juhui zao chongji], Radio Free
Asia, 22 August 13; ‘‘Inner Mongolian House Church Suppressed’’ [Neimenggu jiating jiaohuishou daya], Radio Free Asia, 20 June 13.
104 ‘‘Inner Mongolian House Church Suppressed’’ [Neimenggu jiating jiaohui shou daya], RadioFree Asia, 20 June 13.
105 U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), ‘‘Tier 1 Countries of Particular Concern—China,’’ Annual Report 2013, 30 April 13, 37.
106 Ibid., 36.
107 Tom Phillips, ‘‘Chinese Preacher Arrested for Hymn Session,’’ Telegraph, 6 February 13;
ChinaAid, ‘‘Shenzhen House Church’s Cao Nan Brings Administrative Suit Against Futian Public Security Branch’’ [Shenzhen jiating jiaohui de cao nan, yifa xingzheng qisu futian gongan
fenju], 4 February 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Well-Known Preacher Detained for Second Time This Monthfor Preaching in Shenzhen Park,’’ 21 December 12.
108 Tom Phillips, ‘‘Chinese Preacher Arrested for Hymn Session,’’ Telegraph, 6 February 13;
ChinaAid, ‘‘Shenzhen House Church’s Cao Nan Brings Administrative Suit Against Futian Public Security Branch’’ [Shenzhen jiating jiaohui de cao nan, yifa xingzheng qisu futian gongan
fenju], 4 February 13.
109 ‘‘Christian Booksellers Li Wenxi Sentenced to 2 Years, Ren Lacheng Sentenced to 5 Years’’[Jidutu shu shang li wen xi bei pan 2 nian ren la cheng bei pan 5 nian], Radio Free Asia, 19June 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Verdict Regarding Enyu Bookstore’s Case Has Been Determined: Lacheng
Ren Sentenced to Five Years in Prison, Wenxi Li to Two Years,’’ 19 June 13; ChinaAid,‘‘Newsflash: Shanxi Enyu Bookstore Case Announce Sentences Ren Lacheng 5 Years and Li
Wenxi 2 Years’’ [Kuaixun: shanxi en yu shufang jiao an xuanpan ren la cheng 5 nian li wen
xi 2 nian], 18 June 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Well-known Human Rights Lawyer Zhu Jihu’s Argument at
Trial of Imprisoned Christian Bookstore Manager Li Wenxi,’’ 29 May 13; ‘‘Two Christians in
Taiyuan Sentenced for ‘Illegally Operating a Bookstore’ ’’ [Taiyuan liang jidutu yin ‘‘feifa
jingying shudian’’ bei panxing], Radio Free Asia, 19 June 13. See the Commission’s Political
Prisoner Database, records 2013–00217 on Ren Lacheng and 2013–00216 on Li Wenxi, for more
information on these cases.
110 Ibid. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2013–00217 on Ren
Lacheng and 2013–00216 on Li Wenxi, for more information on these cases.
111 Ibid. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2013–00217 on Ren
Lacheng and 2013–00216 on Li Wenxi, for more information on these cases.
112 Tianjin Anti-Cult Organization, ‘‘What Are the Cult Organizations the Ministry of Public
Security Has Identified? ’’ [Gonganbu rending de xiejiao zuzhi you na xie?], 22 October 12. See
also Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘The ‘Cult’ of Buddha,’’ Dialogue, 29 August 13.
113 PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14
March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 300.
114 ‘‘Guizhou, Tongren House Church Gathering Assaulted’’ [Guizhou tongren jiating juhui zao
chongji], Radio Free Asia, 22 August 13.
115 ChinaAid, ‘‘7 House Church Leaders in Henan, Pingdingshan Receive Heavy Sentences
Year After Arrest and Criminal Detention, Triggering International Mainstream Media Attention’’ [Henan pingdingshan 7 wei jiating jiaohui lingxiu xingjiu daibu yi nian hou zaodao
zhongpan, yinfa guoji zhuliu meiti guanzhu], 22 April 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Update: Pingdingshan,
Henan Province Prosecution Case Escalates, 7 Christians Arrested for ‘Cult Crimes,’ ’’ 4 June
12; ChinaAid, ‘‘Seven Christians in Henan Province Convicted of Cult Crimes, Sentenced to Prison Terms of Three to 7–1/2 Years,’’ 27 April 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Seven House Church Christians inHenan Province Have Been Charged with Engaging in Cult Activities,’’ 25 November 12. See
the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2013–00168 on Han Hai, 2013–00172 on
Hu Linpo, 2013–00173 on Yang Lianbing, 2013–00174 on Zhang Mian, 2013–00175 on Cao Xia,
2013–00176 on Wang En, and 2013–00177 on Li Dan, for more information on these cases. See
also PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14
March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 300.
116 ChinaAid, ‘‘7 House Church Leaders in Henan, Pingdingshan Receive Heavy Sentences
Year After Arrest and Criminal Detention, Triggering International Mainstream Media Attention’’ [Henan pingdingshan 7 wei jiating jiaohui lingxiu xingjiu daibu yi nian hou zaodao
zhongpan, yinfa guoji zhuliu meiti guanzhu], 22 April 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Update: Pingdingshan,
Henan Province Prosecution Case Escalates, 7 Christians Arrested for ‘Cult Crimes,’ ’’ 4 June
12; ChinaAid, ‘‘Seven Christians in Henan Province Convicted of Cult Crimes, Sentenced to Prison Terms of Three to 7–1/2 Years,’’ 27 April 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Seven House Church Christians inHenan Province Have Been Charged with Engaging in Cult Activities,’’ 25 November 12. See
the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2013–00168 on Han Hai, 2013–00172 on
Hu Linpo, 2013–00173 on Yang Lianbing, 2013–00174 on Zhang Mian, 2013–00175 on Cao Xia,
2013–00176 on Wang En, and 2013–00177 on Li Dan, for more information on these cases.
117 Ibid. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2013–00168 on Han Hai,
2013–00172 on Hu Linpo, 2013–00173 on Yang Lianbing, 2013–00174 on Zhang Mian, 2013–
00175 on Cao Xia, 2013–00176 on Wang En, and 2013–00177 on Li Dan, for more informationon these cases.
118 ‘‘More Than 1300 People from ‘Almighty God’ Cult Organization Contained, Most From
Qinghai and Guizhou’’ [‘‘Quanneng shen’’ xiejiao zuzhi 1300 duo ren bei kongzhi qinghai guizhou
zui duo], China Network, reprinted in Xinhua, 21 December 12; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘China’s

220‘Almighty God’ Rises With Threat of Apocalypse,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 17 December12.
119 ‘‘More Than 1300 People From ‘Almighty God’ Cult Organization Detained, Most From
Qinghai and Guizhou’’ [‘‘Quanneng shen’’ xiejiao zuzhi 1300 duo ren bei kongzhi qinghai guizhou
zui duo], China Network, reprinted in Xinhua, 21 December 12.
120 Li Ling and Wang Cian, ‘‘ ‘Almighty God’ Cult Believer From Shaoguan, Guangdong Sentenced to 7 Years’’ [Guangdong shaoguan yi ‘‘quan neng shen’’ xiejiao xintu huoxing qi nian],
China News Service, 2 April 13; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Prisoner Update,’’ 29 August 13. See
also the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, records 2013–00293 on Lai Yiwa, for more
information on this case.
121 Chinese Taoist Association, ‘‘Introduction to the Association’’ [Xiehui jianjie], last visited
27 August 13.
122 China Religion, ‘‘China Taoist Association Convenes the Third Meeting of the Eighth Executive Council To Study the Spirit of the 18th National Congress’’ [Zhongguo daojiao xiehui
zhaokai bajie sanci changwu lishihui xuexi dang de shibada jingshen], 26 November 12.
123 PRC Central Government, ‘‘SARA Hosts 2013 Study Class for Taoist Representatives Nationwide’’ [Guojia zongjiaoju juban 2013 nian quanguo daojiao jie daibiao renshi dushu ban], 21
May 13. See also An Baijie, ‘‘Taoist Leaders Focus on Preserving Values,’’ China Daily, 5 June 13.
124 China Religion, ‘‘China Taoist Association Convenes the Third Meeting of the Eighth Executive Council To Study the Spirit of the 18th National Congress’’ [Zhongguo daojiao xiehui
zhaokai bajie sanci changwu lishihui xuexi dang de shibada jingshen], 26 November 12.
125 Ibid.
126 For example, see the discussion in this section on the Orthodox Church in China. In addition, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints reported in March 2013 that worship services for Chinese citizens are held separately from those for foreign passport holders and thatbranches for Chinese citizens ‘‘are directed by their own local priesthood leaders.’’ Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Newsroom, ‘‘New Church Website Will Help Chinese Nationals, Church Leaders Around the World,’’ 15 March 13.
127 Xuyang Jingjing, ‘‘Orthodox Christians in China Seeking Official Recognition,’’ Global
Times, 15 May 13. According to the Global Times, there are four Orthodox churches in Chinathat are approved for religious activities. These churches are located in Harbin municipality,
Heilongjiang province; Erguna city, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; Urumqi city, Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR); and Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, XUAR.
128 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Implementing Measures for the Management ofVenues for Religious Activity [Neimenggu zizhiqu zongjiao huodong changsuo guanli shishi
banfa], issued 23 January 96, effective 23 January 96, art. 2.
129 Gianni Valente, ‘‘Patriarch Kirill Pays Historical Visit to China,’’ Vatican Insider, 11 May 13.
130 Russian Orthodox Church, Department for External Church Relations, ‘‘Patriarch Kirill:
The Dreams of the Chinese Orthodox Church’s Bright Future Begins To Come True,’’ 13 May 13.
131 Provisions on the Management of the Religious Activities of Foreigners Within the PRC[Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jingnei waiguoren zongjiao huodong guanli guiding], issued 31
January 94, effective 31 January 94, art. 4; Detailed Implementing Rules for the Provisions on
the Management of the Religious Activities of Foreigners Within the PRC [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo jingnei waiguoren zongjiao huodong guanli guiding shishi xize], issued 26 September
00, effective 26 September 00, arts. 7, 17(5).

221
Notes to Section II—Ethnic Minority Rights
1 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 27. See generally PRC
Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minzu quyu zizhi fa], issued 31
May 84, effective 1 October 84, amended 28 February 01.
2 ‘‘Political Commissar of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps: Resolutely Crack
Down on Harmful Separatist Activities’’ [Xinjiang shengchan jianshe bingtuan zhengwei: jianjue
daji fenlie pohuai huodong], China News Service, reprinted in Sohu, 6 May 13; ‘‘China President
Calls for Stability in Xinjiang,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in West Australian, 26 April
13.
3 See ‘‘Grasslands Policy and Protests in Inner Mongolia’’ below for more information.
4 See, e.g., ‘‘Inner Mongolia’s Two Sessions: Acceleration of Development in Tertiary Industries
Has Become a Bright Spot’’ [Nei menggu lianghui: jiakuai fazhan disan chanye cheng liangdian],
New Northern Net, reprinted in Imosi.com, 31 January 13; Zhao Yunping and Han Shumei,‘‘Inner Mongolia: Accelerate the Development of County Economic Coordination for Urban and
Rural Development’’ [Nei menggu: jiakuai fazhan xianyu jingji tongchou chengxiang quyu
fazhan], Inner Mongolia Daily, reprinted in China County Economics, 18 January 13.
5 See, e.g., ‘‘Little Hu and the Mining of the Grasslands,’’ Economist, 14 July 12; Lin Chao,‘‘Salary of Rural Herders in Inner Mongolia Surpasses That of Urban Residents for Two Consecutive Years’’ [Nei menggu nongmumin shouru zengsu lianxu liang nian chaoguo chengzhen
jumin], Xinhua, reprinted in Central Government of the People’s Republic of China, 20 February
13; Yang Zuokun et al., ‘‘Striving To Improve the Lives of the People—Inner Mongolian Representatives to the 18th Party Congress Discuss People’s Livelihood’’ [Nuli rang renminguoshang genghao shenghuo—nei menggu shibada daibiao tan minsheng], Inner Mongolia
Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 10 November 12.
6 See, e.g., ‘‘Little Hu and the Mining of the Grasslands,’’ Economist, 14 July 12; Human
Rights in China, ‘‘China: Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions,’’ 2007, 14,
26–28; Richard Fraser, ‘‘Forced Relocation Amongst the Reindeer—Evenki of Inner Mongolia,’’
Inner Asia, Vol. 12, Issue 2 (2010), reprinted in Academia.edu.
7 Wang Hao et al., ‘‘Farmers Turn Urban in Ordos,’’ China Daily, 19 February 13; ‘‘Herdsman
on New Road to a Happy Life,’’ China Daily, reprinted in CRIenglish, 20 November 12; Li
Baozhen and Liu Ning, ‘‘Bayingol, Luntai County Herders Move Into Peaceful Resident, Prosperous Citizen Houses, Enjoy ‘New Life’ ’’ [Bazhou luntai xian nongmumin banjin anju fumin
fang xiangshou ‘‘xin shenghuo’’], Xinhua, 5 November 12; Li Li, ‘‘(A Winter View of TibetLinzhi) Herders on the Bangjietang Grassland’’ [(Dongji kan xizang-linzhi) bangjietang caoyuan
shang de mumin renjia], China Tibet Online, 26 January 13; Wang Jianting, ‘‘Xinjiang Wuqia
Herders Put Down Their Whips and Use Modernized Agriculture To Become Rich’’ [Xinjiang
wuqia mumin fangxia mabian liyong xiandaihua nongye zhifu], China News Service, 27 May
13; Wei Zhiyuan, ‘‘Kazakh-Style Small ‘Villas’ Make Xinjiang Burqin County ‘Nomad Settlement’
Full of Spring’’ [Hasake shi xiao ‘‘bieshu’’ rang xinjiang buerjin xian ‘‘mumin dingju’’ manmuchun], People’s Daily, 11 May 13. For information on grasslands policy in earlier years, see, e.g.,
CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 88–89, 119, 149.
8 Hulunbeir City Grassland Bureau of Supervision and Management, ‘‘The Three Levels ofDistricts, Cities and Banners in Inner Mongolia Jointly Held a Publicity Activity on the Grasslands Law’’ [Nei menggu qu shi qi sanji lianhe juban caoyuan pufa xuanchuan huodong], 16
April 13; ‘‘The City Launches Activities for 2013 Grasslands Law Awareness Month’’ [Quanshi
qidong 2013 nian caoyuan pufa xuanchuan yue huodong], Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
Bureau of Ulanqab City, reprinted in Ulanqab Government, 8 April 13.
9 See, e.g., ‘‘The Newly Revised ‘Regulations on the Protection of Inner Mongolian Grasslands’
Take Effect Today’’ [Xin xiuding de ‘‘nei menggu zizhiqu jiben caoyuan baohu tiaoli’’ jinri qizhengshi shixing], Xinhua, 1 December 11; ‘‘Chinese Pasture Region Charges Fees for Grassland
Exploitation,’’ Xinhua, 28 February 12.
10 China’s Ethnic Regional Autonomy Law: Does It Protect Minority Rights? Staff Roundtableof the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 11 April 05, Testimony of Christopher P.
Atwood, Associate Professor, Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University. For
Commission analysis, see ‘‘State Council Opinion Bolsters Grazing Ban, Herder Resettlement,’’
Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 October 11.
11 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Dr. Chuluu Ujiyediin Speaks at‘Promoting Human Rights, Democracy and Freedom in East Turkistan, Tibet, Southern Mongolia and the People’s Republic of China,’ ’’ 31 March 13; Nick Holdstock, ‘‘China Says It Is Improving the Lives of Ethnic Minorities in Inner Mongolia. Don’t Be Fooled,’’ Independent, 16
April 13; Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, ‘‘Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) Individual Stakeholder Submission to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights regarding the Universal Periodic Review of the People’s Republic ofChina During the 17th Session, Oct–Nov 2013,’’ February 2013; J. Carl Ganter, ‘‘J. Carl Ganter:
The Biggest Story of Our Lifetime Is Water,’’ Circle of Blue, 28 March 13.
12 ‘‘The Newly Revised ‘Regulations on the Protection of Inner Mongolian Grasslands’ Take Effect Today’’ [Xin xiuding de ‘‘nei menggu zizhiqu jiben caoyuan baohu tiaoli’’ jinri qi zhengshi
shixing], Xinhua, 1 December 11.
13 Greenpeace, ‘‘Thirsty Coal 2,’’ 23 July 13, 17–37.
14 Ibid., 5, 12, 18–25, 28–32, 36–37, 53–54, 65.
15 Ibid., 18–20, 34.
16 Ibid., 39, 41–51.
17 Ibid., 38–51.
18 ‘‘Chinese Coal Company Releasing Toxic Wastewater, Greenpeace Says,’’ Reuters, reprinted
in Guardian, 23 July 13; ‘‘Greenpeace Accuses Chinese Coal Company of Draining Water Re-

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sources,’’ Voice of America, 23 July 13; Greenpeace, ‘‘Thirsty Coal 2,’’ 23 July 13, Report Summary, 39, 41.
19 ‘‘Herders Blocked From Protest Marches to Beijing,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 March 13; ‘‘Herders
Protest Loss of Land,’’ Radio Free Asia, 9 October 12; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Herders’ Protests Put Down, Internet Posts Removed,’’ 6 March 13; Southern
Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Mongolian Herders Protest China’s Illegal Occupation of Their Land and Defamation of Their Ancestors,’’ 8 October 12; Southern Mongolian
Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Thirty Eight Displaced Herders from Zaruud Banner Arrested and Detained in Protest,’’ 19 July 13; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information
Center, ‘‘Mongolian Herders Beaten and Injured in a Clash With the Chinese,’’ 20 May 13; ‘‘Police Probe Fresh Clashes in Inner Mongolia,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 May 13.
20 Rachel Vandenbrink, ‘‘Inner Mongolian Herder Beaten to Death in Land Clash,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 23 August 13; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Update to the
Murder of Bayanbaatar: Central Government Involved, Family Rejects Negotiation,’’ 22 August
13; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘One More Mongolian Herder Killedby the Chinese Defending His Grazing Land,’’ 20 August 13. Bayanbaatar’s daughter-in-law reportedly stated that government authorities subsequently confined around 80 of his family members to a funeral home and kept them under heavy police surveillance. Bayanbaatar’s deathmarks the first reported killing of a Mongol herder who was protesting corporate use of grazing
land since two coal workers hit and killed herder Mergen on May 10, 2011, an incident that
contributed to protests involving thousands of people in the following weeks. For Commission
analysis, see ‘‘Mongols Protest in Inner Mongolia After Clashes Over Grasslands Use, Mining
Operations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 1 July 11. See also CECC, 2011
Annual Report, 10 October 11, 108.
21 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Herders’ Protests Put Down,
Internet Posts Removed,’’ 6 March 13; ‘‘Herders Blocked From Protest Marches to Beijing,’’
Radio Free Asia, 7 March 13.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Thirty Eight Displaced Herders
from Zaruud Banner Arrested and Detained in Protest,’’ 19 July 13; ‘‘Herders Blocked from
Travel to Beijing,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19 July 13.
26 Ibid.
27 State Forestry Administration Sanbei Forest Construction Bureau, ‘‘For the Inner Mongolia
Hanshan Nature Preserve, the Effects of Contraction and Transfer Are Positive’’ [Nei menggu
hanshan ziran baohu qu shousuo zhuanyi xiaoguo hao], reprinted in China Forestry Net, 15 December 09.
28 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Thirty Eight Displaced Herders
from Zaruud Banner Arrested and Detained in Protest,’’ 19 July 13; ‘‘Herders Blocked From
Travel to Beijing,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19 July 13.
29 Wang Jinlong, ‘‘Non-Ferrous Geological Exploration’’ [Youse dizhi kancha], Inner Mongolia
Regional News Net, 11 November 12. See also ‘‘List of Achievements of the Inner Mongolia Bureau of Non-Ferrous Geological Exploration Prospecting’’ [Nei menggu youse dikanju zhao kuang
chengguo yi lan], China Non-Ferrous Metals Mineral Resources Information Net, 20 March 13.
30 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘One More Mongolian Herder
Killed by the Chinese Defending His Grazing Land,’’ 20 August 13. The Southern Mongolian
Human Rights Information Center reported that the attack and suicide took place in Ongniud(Wengniute) Banner, Ulanhot (Wulanhaote) municipality, but Ongniud Banner is located in
Chifeng municipality.
31 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Hada and Family Members Still
Missing,’’ 24 February 13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Lawyer Asks for Immediate Release ofMongolian Dissident Hada; Family Provides Further Details on Hada’s Condition,’’ 29 January
13.
32 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Mongolian Dissident Hada in 23rd Month of Unlawful Detention
After Long Prison Term; Family Appeals for International Attention,’’ 22 October 12; ‘‘Wife ofMongolian Activist Speaks Out Against Chinese Harassment,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in
Guardian, 15 October 12.
33 Ibid.
34 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Hada and Family Members Still
Missing,’’ 24 February 13; ‘‘Profiles in Dissidence: Why China Is Crushing a Mongolian Intellectual,’’ Global Post, 5 March 13.
35 Ibid.
36 ‘‘Inner Mongolian Activist in Safe, Healthy State: Official,’’ Xinhua, 6 March 13; Southern
Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Hada and Family Members Still Missing,’’ 24
February 13.
37 For Commission analysis on Hada, Xinna, and Uiles, see ‘‘Authorities Heighten Persecutionof Detained Mongol Rights Advocate’s Wife and Son,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 13 December 12. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2004–02045(Hada), record 2010–00704 (Xinna), and record 2010–00705 (Uiles) for more information onthese cases.
38 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Mongolian Herder’s Rights Defender in Poor Health at Chinese Detention Center,’’ 2 September 13; Richard Finney, ‘‘Advocate
for Inner Mongolian Herdsmen in ‘Failing Health’ in Jail,’’ Radio Free Asia, 3 September 13.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Mongol-Tibetan Medical School
Principal Imprisoned for Alleged Escape Attempt,’’ 10 May 13.

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42 ‘‘Mongolian Medical College Founder Jailed for Three Years,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 May 13.
43 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Mongol-Tibetan Medical School
Principal Imprisoned for Alleged Escape Attempt,’’ 10 May 13; ‘‘Founder of Mongolian Medicine
College in Inner Mongolia Detained’’ [Nei menggu yi meng zang yiyao xuexiao chuangshi renbeibu], Radio Free Asia, 20 October 09; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center,‘‘Deported United Nations Refugee Applicant Batzangaa Tried in China,’’ 17 January 11. See
the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2009–00435, for more information on thecase.
44 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Southern Mongolian Dissident
Writer Wins Hellman/Hammett Grant,’’ 20 December 12.
45 Ibid.; PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended
14 March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 111.
46 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Dissident Writer Huuchinhuu
Beaten Repeatedly,’’ 29 September 11; ‘‘Dissident Suffers Beatings in Detention,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 29 September 11. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2010–00597,
for more information on the case.
47 For more information on these cases, see, e.g., ‘‘Inner Mongolia Writer Unaga Secretly Detained for Publishing New Book’’ [Neimeng zuojia wunaga ni chuban xinshu zao mimi daibu],
Radio Free Asia, 19 January 11; ‘‘Mongol Writer Unaga Secretly Arrested in Inner Mongolia’’[Mongghul yazghuchisi unaga ichki mongghulda mexpiy tutuldi], Radio Free Asia, 18 January
11; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Southern Mongolian Dissident
Writer, Author of ‘Forefront of Independence’ Arrested and Detained,’’ 23 January 11; UN
Human Rights Council, Report by the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Cases Examined by the Special Rapporteur (June2009–July 2010), A/HRC/15/37/Add.1, reprinted in UN Office of the High Commissioner for
Human Rights, 15 September 10. Official Chinese information is not available regarding thecurrent legal status of Erden-uul and Sodmongol. See also the Commission’s Political Prisoner
Database for more information on the cases of Erden-uul (record 2011–00072) and Sodmongol(record 2010–00146).

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Notes to Section II—Population Planning
1 PRC Population and Family Planning Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo renkou yu jihua
shengyu fa], adopted 29 December 01, effective 1 September 02, art. 18. According to Article
18, ‘‘The State maintains its current policy for reproduction, encouraging late marriage andchildbearing and advocating one child per couple. Where the requirements specified by laws andregulations are met, plans for a second child, if requested, may be made.’’ Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘I Don’t Have Control Over My Own Body,’’ 21 December 10, 6–7. Implementing regulations in different provinces vary on the ages at which couples may give birth andthe number of children they are permitted to have.
2 See, e.g., Beijing Municipal Commission on Population and Family Planning, ‘‘Beijing Municipal Birth Services Certificate Management Measures’’ [Beijing shi shengyu fuwu zheng guanli
banfa], 7 April 12; Guizhou Province Ninth People’s Congress Standing Committee, ‘‘Guizhou
Province Population and Family Planning Regulations’’ [Guizhou sheng renkou yu jihua
shengyu tiaoli], 29 September 02; Population and Family Planning Commission of Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region, ‘‘Regional Population and Family Planning Work Guide’’ [Qunei
renkou jihua shengyu banshi zhinan], last visited 10 September 13.
3 See Gu Baochang et al., ‘‘China’s Local and National Fertility Policies at the End of theTwentieth Century,’’ Population and Development Review, Vol. 33, No. 1, Table 1 (2007).
4 Feng Wang et al., ‘‘Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China’s OneChild Policy? ’’ Population and Development Review, Vol. 38 (2012), 115–16.
5 These criteria include such conditions as: the first child was medically diagnosed as handicapped, both members of the couple are only children, the couple are rural residents and theirfirst child was a girl, the couple are remarried, and so forth. Gu Baochang et al., ‘‘China’s Local
and National Fertility Policies at the End of the Twentieth Century,’’ Population and Development Review, Vol. 33, No. 1, Table 1 (2007).
6 Ethnic minority couples (couples in which at least one parent belongs to an officially recognized ethnic minority group) are permitted to bear a second child in all provincial-level jurisdictions except Jiangsu, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Beijing. Ethnic minority couples are permitted tobear a third child if they meet certain criteria in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; theTibet Autonomous Region; the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region; and Heilongjiang, Fujian,Hainan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Qinghai, and Ningxia provinces. Gu Baochang et al., ‘‘China’s Local and National Fertility Policies at the End of the Twentieth Century,’’ Population andDevelopment Review, Vol. 33, No. 1, Table 1 (2007). In Hubei province, both members of thecouple must belong to an ethnic minority to be able to bear a second child. Population and Family Planning Commission of Hubei Province, ‘‘Hubei Provincial Population and Family Planning
Regulations’’ [Hubei sheng renkou yu jihua shengyu tiaoli], 2 February 09.
7 See, e.g., Shaanxi Provincial Government, Shaanxi Provincial Implementing Measures forCollection and Management of Social Maintenance Fees [Shaanxi sheng shehui fuyang fei
zhengshou guanli shishi banfa], issued 8 June 04, effective 1 August 04, art. 5(1). In Shaanxi
province, individuals in violation of local population planning regulations can each be fined
three to six times the amount of the average annual income of a resident in their locality, sometimes more, based on statistics from the previous year. ‘‘Fengdu County Population and Family
Planning Administrative Fines, Administrative Penalties Program and Standards’’ [Fengdu xian
renkou he jihua shengyu xingzheng zhengshou, xingzheng chufa xiangmu ji biaozhun], Fengdu
County Population and Family Planning Network, 27 November 11. As noted in this document,
residents of Fengdu county, Chongqing municipality, are subject to fines amounting to two tonine times the local average annual income from the previous year if they have an out-of-planchild or illegally adopt (two to six times the local average annual income) or have a child outof wedlock (six to nine times the local average annual income). See also ‘‘Cost of a Second Child:
Pair Fined 1.3m Yuan,’’ Shanghai Daily, reprinted in China Internet Information Center, 31
May 12; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘I Don’t Have Control Over My Own Body,’’ 21 December 10, 19–20.
8 See, e.g., ChinaAid, ‘‘Hubei Jiayu—Pregnant Woman Forced To Abort on May 23 Dies’’[Hubei jiayu—yunfu 5 yue 23 ri bei qiangzhi yinchan siwang], 25 May 13; ‘‘Anhui Fengyang
Seven-Month Fetus Forcibly Aborted, Shocking Bloody Photo’’ [Anhui fengyang 7 yue da taier
bei qiangzhi liuchan xielinlin tupian chumu jingxin], Sound of Hope, 25 March 13; Women’s
Rights in China, ‘‘Women’s Rights in China: Forced Abortion Phenomenon in China’s Rural
Areas Still Serious’’ [Zhongguo fuquan: zhongguo nongcun qiangzhi liuchan xianxiang yiran
yanzhong], reprinted in Monitor China, 28 October 12.
9 ChinaAid, ‘‘In Tears, Victim Denounces the Violence Committed by Family Planning Officials
in Guizhou in Early 2013,’’ 26 February 13; Zhan Caiqiang, ‘‘Hubei Tongshan Woman ‘Sterilized
to Death,’ Officials Pay 1,000,000 To Buy Out [Victims’] ‘Right To Hold [Them] Accountable’ ’’[Hubei tongshan—funu ‘‘jieza zhisi’’ guanfang 100 wan maiduan ‘‘zhuize quanli’’], Yunnan Info
Daily, 9 April 13; ‘‘Henan—Nursing Mother Failed To Pay 6,000 Yuan Protection Fee, Forcibly
Sterilized’’ [Henan—buru qi funu wei jiao 6 qian yuan baohu fei bei qiangzhi jieza], China Net,
reprinted in Southern Daily, 24 April 13.
10 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), adopted at the Fourth World Conferenceon Women on 15 September 95, and endorsed by UN General Assembly resolution 50/203 on
22 December 95, paras. 9, 17. The Beijing Declaration states that governments which participated in the Fourth World Conference on Women reaffirmed their commitment to ‘‘Ensure thefull implementation of the human rights of women and of the girl child as an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of all human rights and fundamental freedoms; . . .’’ (para. 9) and ‘‘areconvinced that . . . [t]he explicit recognition and reaffirmation of the right of all women to control all aspects of their health, in particular their own fertility, is basic to their empowerment;. . .’’ (para. 17).
11 Programme of Action of the Cairo International Conference on Population and Development,
18 October 94, paras. 7.2, 8.25. Paragraph 7.2 of the Programme of Action of the Cairo Inter-

225
national Conference on Population and Development states that, ‘‘Reproductive health therefore
implies that people . . . have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, whenand how often to do so. Implicit in this last condition are the right of men and women to be
informed and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family planning of their choice . . . .’’ Paragraph 8.25 states, ‘‘In no case should abortion be promoted asa method of family planning.’’
12 United Nations, ‘‘Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women,’’ 1996, Chap. II., para.
3; Chap. VI, para. 12. China was a state party at the Fourth World Conference on Women,
which adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. United Nations Population Information Network, A/Conf.171/13: Report of the International Conference on Population andDevelopment, 18 October 94, Chap. II, sec. C, Chap. VI, sec. 1. China was one of the participating States at the International Conference on Population and Development, which reachedgeneral agreement on the Programme of Action. The Programme of Action is provided as anannex to the above ICPD report.
13 For two recent examples of acts of official violence in the implementation of population planning policies, see ChinaAid, ‘‘Hubei Jiayu—Pregnant Woman Forced To Abort on May 23 Dies’’[Hubei jiayu—yunfu 5 yue 23 ri bei qiangzhi yinchan siwang], 25 May 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘In Tears,
Victim Denounces the Violence Committed by Family Planning Officials in Guizhou in Early
2013,’’ 26 February 13.
14 Yan Shuang, ‘‘Fury Over Forced Abortion,’’ Global Times, 14 June 12. For one U.S. scholar’sanalysis of Chinese law with regard to forced abortions, see Stanley Lubman, ‘‘The Law on
Forced Abortion in China: Few Options for Victims,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 4 July 12. PRC Population and Family Planning Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
renkou yu jihua shengyu fa], passed 29 December 01, effective 1 September 02, arts. 4, 39. Article 4 of the PRC Population and Family Planning Law (PFPL) states that officials ‘‘shall performtheir administrative duties strictly in accordance with the law, and enforce the law in a civilmanner, and they may not infringe upon the legitimate rights and interests of citizens.’’ Article
39 states that an official is subject to criminal or administrative punishment if he ‘‘infringes
on a citizen’s personal rights, property rights, or other legitimate rights and interests’’ or‘‘abuses his power, neglects his duty, or engages in malpractices for personal gain’’ in the implementation of population planning policies.
15 UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 39/46 of 10 December 84, arts. 1, 4. In
2008, the Committee against Torture noted with concern China’s ‘‘lack of investigation into thealleged use of coercive and violent measures to implement the population policy.’’ UN Committee
against Torture, 41st Session, Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under Article 19 of the Convention: Concluding Observations of the Committee against Torture—China,
CAT/C/CHN/CO/4, 12 December 08, para. 29.
16 See United Nations Treaty Collection, Chapter IV, Human Rights, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, last visited 10 September 13. China signed the convention on December 12, 1986, and ratified it on October 4,
1988.
17 Children born ‘‘out-of-plan’’ in China may be denied household registration (hukou) and thus
face barriers to accessing social benefits including health insurance and education. See Chinese
Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘I Don’t Have Control Over My Own Body,’’ 21 December 10, 26.
18 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession by UN General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 89, entry into
force 2 September 90, China signed 29 August 90, ratified 2 March 92, arts. 2–4, 6, 24, 26, 28.
Article 2 of the CRC calls upon States Parties to ‘‘respect and ensure the rights set forth . . .
to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of thechild’s or his or her parent’s or legal guardian’s . . . national, ethnic or social origin . . . birthor other status.’’ Article 24 sets forth the right of the child to access healthcare, Article 26 sets
forth the right of the child to social security, and Article 28 sets forth the right of the childto free primary education and accessible secondary education and higher education.
19 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted by UN General
Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 3 January 76, China
signed 27 October 97, ratified 27 March 01, art. 10(3). Article 10(3) calls upon States Parties
to recognize that ‘‘Special measures of protection and assistance should be taken on behalf of
all children and young persons without any discrimination for reasons of parentage or other conditions.’’
20 Sui-Lee Wee and Hui Li, ‘‘Insight: The Backroom Battle Delaying Reform of China’s OneChild Policy,’’ Reuters, 8 April 13; ‘‘National People’s Congress Representative Suggests Relaxing to a Two-Child Policy, Says No Reply to Previous Two Times She Proposed This’’ [Renmin
daibiao jianyi kaifang ertai cheng qian liangci ti an wei huo huifu], Sina, 5 April 13; Laurie
Burkitt, ‘‘Pressure Rises on China To Scrap One-Child Policy,’’ Wall Street Journal, 18 January
13.
21 ‘‘Think Tank Calls for Loosening of One-Child Policy,’’ Xinhua, 27 October 12; Laurie
Burkitt, ‘‘Pressure Rises on China To Scrap One-Child Policy,’’ Wall Street Journal, 18 January
13; Fang Xiao, ‘‘China’s One-Child Policy May Be Relaxed Province by Province,’’ Epoch Times,
5 March 13.
22 David Wertime, ‘‘Online Poll Shows Overwhelming Support for End to China’s One-Child
Policy,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 2 November 12; Kim Wall, ‘‘What China’s ‘One-Child Policy’ Really
Looks Like—A View From the Grassroots,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 17 March 13.
23 ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan jigou
gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an], Xinhua, 10 March 13, item II; ‘‘China To Merge Health
Ministry, Family Planning Commission,’’ Xinhua, 10 March 13; ‘‘Explanation of the State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Change Plan’’ [Guanyu guowuyuan jigou gaige hezhineng zhuanbian fang’an de shuoming], Xinhua, 10 March 13.

22624 ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan jigou
gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an], Xinhua, 10 March 13 (Open Source Center, 10 March 13),
item II. The plan states that the responsibilities of the new National Health and Family Planning Commission will include ‘‘unified planning on resource allocation for medical care, publichealth, and family planning services, organize and establish a national basic drug system, formulate the family planning policy, oversee and regulate public health and medical care services,and take charge of such work as family planning administration and services.’’
25 Ibid. The plan states that, ‘‘the State Population and Family Planning Commission’s duties
of studying and drawing up the population development strategy and program and the population policy will be taken up by the National Development and Reform Commission.’’ See also
Mou Xu, ‘‘Xinhua Insight: Combining Population and Economic Policy To Push Development,’’
Xinhua, 13 March 13.
26 Laurie Burkitt, ‘‘One-Child Policy: Law Still in Effect, but Police, Judges Fired,’’ Wall Street
Journal, 12 March 13. According to population expert Wang Feng, cited in the Wall Street Journal, ‘‘My reading is that will mean that population control targets will be weaker and weakerover time. And we will see that the one-child policy era is over. The way to interpret this isthat the laws are still in effect, but the judges and the policemen have all been fired. Soon thelaws will also change.’’ Laurie Burkitt, ‘‘Agency Move Hints at Shift in China’s One-Child Policy,’’ Wall Street Journal, 11 March 13. According to Cheng Li, cited in the Wall Street Journal,‘‘This is a signal to an end of a policy that in reality isn’t in line with China’s other reforms.’’
27 Bai Tiantian, ‘‘Govt Shake-Up for Efficiency,’’ Global Times, 11 March 13. According to one
professor of demography cited in the Global Times, ‘‘The merge with the health ministry is infact making the family planning body more powerful.’’28 ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan jigou
gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an], Xinhua, 10 March 13, item II.
29 These officials included Wang Feng, deputy head of the State Commission Office for Public
Sector Reform, Ma Kai, secretary-general of the State Council, and Vice Premier Liu Yandong.
See, e.g., Mou Xu, ‘‘Xinhua Insight: Combining Population and Economic Policy To Push Development,’’ Xinhua, 13 March 13; ‘‘China To Merge Health Ministry, Family Planning Commission,’’ Xinhua, 10 March 13; ‘‘Vice Premier Urges Reform for Health, Family Planning Organs,’’
Xinhua, 18 March 13.
30 National Health and Family Planning Commission, ‘‘National Health and Family Planning
Commission Implements ‘Serving the People’s Health Action [Plan]’ ’’ [Guojia weisheng jisheng
wei shishi ‘‘fuwu baixing jiankang xingdong’’], 6 August 13; He Huifeng, ‘‘Hopes for One-Child
Policy Fix Tempered,’’ South China Morning Post, 8 August 13.
31 He Huifeng, ‘‘Hopes for One-Child Policy Fix Tempered,’’ South China Morning Post, 8 August 13.
32 Wan Mi et al., ‘‘Over Fifty Percent of 1400 People [Surveyed] Wish To Have Second Child’’[1400 ren chaoguo wucheng yuan sheng ertai], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 4 August 13; Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Most Chinese Want To Have Second Child, Says Survey,’’ South China Morning
Post, 5 August 13.
33 ‘‘Relaxation of One-Child Policy Still Being Mulled,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 3
August 13.
34 PRC Population and Family Planning Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo renkou yu jihua
shengyu fa], passed 29 December 01, effective 1 September 02, arts. 4, 39. Article 4 of the PRC
Population and Family Planning Law (PFPL) states that officials ‘‘shall perform their administrative duties strictly in accordance with the law, and enforce the law in a civil manner, andthey may not infringe upon the legitimate rights and interests of citizens.’’ Article 39 states that
an official is subject to criminal or administrative punishment if he ‘‘infringes on a citizen’s personal rights, property rights, or other legitimate rights and interests’’ or ‘‘abuses his power, neglects his duty, or engages in malpractices for personal gain’’ in the implementation of population planning policies.
35 Yan Shuang, ‘‘Fury Over Forced Abortion,’’ Global Times, 14 June 12. For one U.S. scholar’sanalysis of Chinese law with regard to forced abortions, see Stanley Lubman, ‘‘The Law on
Forced Abortion in China: Few Options for Victims,’’ Wall Street Journal, 4 July 12.
36 This number is based on Commission analysis of population planning measures. These jurisdictions include Tianjin, Liaoning, Jilin, Guangdong, Fujian, Hebei, Hubei, Chongqing,
Shaanxi, Ningxia, Shanxi, Xinjiang, Henan, Qinghai, Jiangxi, Sichuan, Anhui, Gansu, Yunnan,
and Guizhou. For two specific examples, see ‘‘Revised ‘Guangdong Province Population and Family Planning Regulations’ Published’’ [Xiuding hou de ‘‘guangdong sheng renkou yu jihua
shengyu tiaoli’’ gongbu], Guangzhou Beiyun District Zhongloutian Public Information Net, 29
June 09 and ‘‘Jiangxi Province Population and Family Planning Regulations’’ [Jiangxi shengrenkou yu jihua shengyu tiaoli], Jiangxi News Net, 11 April 09. The Beijing Municipal Population and Family Planning Commission clearly draws the link between the term ‘‘remedial
measures’’ and abortion: ‘‘Early term abortion refers to the use of surgery or pharmaceutics toterminate a pregnancy before the 12th week of gestation; it is a remedial measure taken after
the failure of contraception.’’ Beijing Municipal Population and Family Planning Commission,‘‘Early Term Abortion’’ [Zaoqi rengong liuchan], 10 April 09.
37 See, e.g., ChinaAid, ‘‘Hubei Jiayu—Pregnant Woman Forced To Abort on May 23 Dies’’[Hubei jiayu—yunfu 5 yue 23 ri bei qiangzhi yinchan siwang], 25 May 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Another
Bloody One-Child Case in China: Seven-Months Pregnant Mother in Anhui Forcibly Aborted by
Lethal Injection (Warning: Graphic Photo),’’ 25 March 13; Women’s Rights in China, ‘‘Women’s
Rights in China: Forced Abortion Phenomenon in China’s Rural Areas Still Serious’’ [Zhongguo
fuquan: zhongguo nongcun qiangzhi liuchan xianxiang yiran yanzhong], 28 October 12.
38 Peony Lui, ‘‘Outcry Over Blunders of China’s One-Child Policy,’’ South China Morning Post,
19 December 12.
39 ChinaAid, ‘‘In Tears, Victim Denounces the Violence Committed by Family Planning Officials in Guizhou in Early 2013,’’ 26 February 13; Zhan Caiqiang, ‘‘Hubei Tongshan Woman

227‘Sterilized to Death,’ Officials Pay 1,000,000 To Buy Out [Victims’] ‘Right To Hold [Them] Accountable’ ’’ [Hubei tongshan—funu ‘‘jieza zhisi’’ guanfang 100 wan maiduan ‘‘zhuize quanli’’],Yunnan Info Daily, 9 April 13; ‘‘Henan—Nursing Mother Failed To Pay 6,000 Yuan Protection
Fee, Forcibly Sterilized’’ [Henan—buru qi funu wei jiao 6 qian yuan baohu fei bei qiangzhi
jieza], China Net, reprinted in Southern Daily, 24 April 13.
40 ‘‘Yuyue Town Spares No Efforts in Promoting Health and Family Planning Work’’ [Yuyue
zhen quanli yifu tuijin chuang wei he jisheng gongzuo], Jiayu Net, 15 April 13; Luo Hongwei,
Population and Family Planning Commission of Huanggang, ‘‘Hongan County Prominent ‘Five
Key Points’ Vigorous Promotion of the Present Population and Family Planning Work’’ [Hongan
xian tuchu ‘‘wuge zhongdian’’ jiji tuijin dangqian renkou jisheng gongzuo], 19 July 13;
Chongyang County People’s Government, ‘‘Gangkou Township Uses All Its Strength To Promote
Family Planning Work’’ [Gangkou xiang quanli tuijin jihua shengyu gongzuo], 28 March 13.
41 Lechang City Population and Family Planning Bureau, ‘‘Lechang City Pingshi Town Sounda Mobilization Order for the Spring Family Planning Concentrated Services Activities’’ [Lechangshi pingshi zhen chuixiang chunji jisheng jizhong fuwu huodong dongyuan ling], last visited 19
September 13; Zhuhai City Xiangzhou District Family Planning Bureau, ‘‘City, District Population and Family Planning Department Leaders Go to Qianshan Neighborhood To Inspect Family Planning Welcoming and Inspection Work’’ [Shi, qu renkou jisheng ju lingdao dao qianshan
jiedao jiancha jisheng yingjian gongzuo], 1 February 13.
42 Linquan County People’s Government, ‘‘Speech at the County Government Fourth Plenary
Conference on Honest and Clean Government Work’’ [Zai xian zhengfu disi ci quanti huiyi jilianzheng gongzuo huiyi shang de jianghua], 26 February 13.
43 Zhang Xuan, ‘‘Huayu Town Four Measures To Help Spring Family Planning Services Work
Reach the Desired Goal’’ [Huayu zhen si cuoshi zhuli chunji jisheng fuwu gongzuo daowei], Oriental Holy City Net, 19 April 13; Shanting District Family Planning Bureau, ‘‘District Family
Planning Bureau’s Four Measures for Making Great Efforts in Implementing Present Work’’ [Qujishengju sixiang cuoshi zhuahao dangqian gongzuo luoshi], 22 April 13.
44 People’s Government of Henan Province, ‘‘Hebi City Population and Family Planning Work
Meeting Requirements’’ [Hebi shi renkou he jihua shengyu gongzuo huiyi yaoqiu], 1 April 13.
45 Huang He and Chen Longbin, Guizhou Population Net, ‘‘Youmai Township Strictly Controls
Early Marriages and Early Pregnancies, Urges Family Planning Work To Ascend the Stairs’’[Youmai xiang yankong zaohun zaoyu cu jisheng gongzuo shang taijie], 13 March 13; Zhang
Miaohui, Hongfenghu Town Party and Government Administration Office, ‘‘Storm the Fortifications and Overcome Difficulties, Strongly Grasp the Ten Links of Work, Spare No Efforts To
Promote Achievement of the ‘Three Years Three Strides’ Goals in Family Planning Work’’[Gongjian ke’nan zhashi zhuahao shi huanjie gongzuo fenli tuijin jisheng gongzuo ‘‘sannian sankuayue’’ mubiao shixian], 19 April 13.
46 Wang Hongbin, Pingjiang County People’s Government, ‘‘Speech at Central Pingjiang County Committee Work Meeting’’ [Zai zhonggong pingjiang xianwei gongzuo huiyi shang dejianghua], 25 February 13.
47 Jianou City People’s Government, ‘‘Xiaoqiao Town Launches Focused Publicity Activities on
Implementation of ‘Four Procedures’ ’’ [Xiaoqiao zhen kaizhan luoshi ‘‘sishu’’ jizhong xuanchuan
huodong], 27 May 13; Jin’an District Population and Family Planning Bureau, ‘‘Entire District
Population and Family Planning Work Regular Meeting Convenes’’ [Quanqu renkou jishenggongzuo lihui zhaokai], 7 December 12.
48 For two such examples in which authorities reported on the implementation of the ‘‘two examinations and four procedures,’’ see Jianou City People’s Government, ‘‘Xiaoqiao Town
Launches Focused Publicity Activities on Implementation of ‘Four Procedures’ ’’ [Xiaoqiao zhen
kaizhan luoshi ‘‘sishu’’ jizhong xuanchuan huodong], 27 May 13; Jin’an District Population andFamily Planning Bureau, ‘‘Entire District Population and Family Planning Work Regular Meeting Convenes’’ [Quanqu renkou jisheng gongzuo lihui zhaokai], 7 December 12. Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘I Don’t Have Control Over My Own Body,’’ 21 December 10, 2. According
to Chinese Human Rights Defenders, some government reports refer to ‘‘three examinations,’’
instead of two. The third examination in these references is an examination for the presenceof a gynecological disease or illness.
49 For an official government report enumerating the ‘‘four procedures,’’ see Yancheng District
People’s Government, ‘‘The Four Surgeries in Family Planning’’ [Jihua shengyu sixiang
shoushu], last visited 20 June 13.
50 See, e.g., Zhang Miaohui, Hongfenghu Town Party and Government Administration Office,‘‘Storm the Fortifications and Overcome Difficulties, Strongly Grasp the Ten Links of Work,
Spare No Efforts To Promote Achievement of the ‘Three Years Three Strides’ Goals in Family
Planning Work’’ [Gongjian ke’nan zhashi zhuahao shi huanjie gongzuo fenli tuijin jishenggongzuo ‘‘sannian san kuayue’’ mubiao shixian], 19 April 13; Lechang City Population and Family Planning Bureau, ‘‘Lechang City Pingshi Town Sound a Mobilization Order for the Spring
Family Planning Concentrated Services Activities’’ [Lechang shi pingshi zhen chuixiang chunji
jisheng jizhong fuwu huodong dongyuan ling], 22 March 13.
51 Chongyang County People’s Government, ‘‘Gangkou Township Uses All Its Strength To Promote Family Planning Work’’ [Gangkou xiang quanli tuijin jihua shengyu gongzuo], 28 March
13.
52 Ibid.
53 The term ‘‘late-term abortion’’ (dayuefen yinchan) is commonly used to refer to abortions
performed between gestational weeks 14 to 28. See, e.g., ‘‘What are the Consequences of Late
Term Abortion? Can Women Who Have Aborted Still Get Pregnant? ’’ [Dayue yinchan de houguo
you naxie? yinchan hou nuren hai neng zai huaiyun ma?], Sina Lady, reprinted in Xinhua, 19June 12.
54 All Girls Allowed published a report documenting the use of varieties of the phrase ‘‘prohibit’’ (jinzhi or yanjin) or ‘‘put an end to’’ (dujue) ‘‘late-term abortions’’ (dayuefen yinchan) instatements dating between July 5 and September 12, 2012, from governments in 23 of China’s

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31 provincial-level jurisdictions, including Anhui, Beijing, Chongqing, Fujian, Gansu,
Guangdong, Guizhou, Hebei, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jilin, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Liaoning, Inner
Mongolia Autonomous Region, Qinghai, Shandong, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan, Yunnan, andZhejiang. Provincial-level jurisdictions not included on this list are: Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hainan, Heilongjiang, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Shanghai, Tianjin, Tibet
Autonomous Region, and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. See All Girls Allowed, ‘‘Chinese
Provinces That Banned Late-Stage Abortion Following Feng Jianmei’s Forced Abortion,’’ 25 September 12.
55 ChinaAid, ‘‘Guizhou Jinsha County Family Planning Committee Forcibly Aborts, Mother
Critically Ill’’ [Guizhou jinsha xian jisheng wei qiangzhi duotai yunfu shengming chuiwei], 18
July 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘Family Planning Committee in Jinsha County, Guizhou Province, Forces
Woman To Undergo Abortion, Leaving Her in Critical Condition,’’ 18 July 13.
56 ChinaAid, ‘‘Li Fengfei Arrested After Exposing Forced Abortion, Guizhou Province Law
Firm Provides Defense,’’ 9 September 13.
57 ChinaAid, ‘‘Hubei Jiayu—Pregnant Woman Forced To Abort on May 23 Dies’’ [Hubei jiayu—
yunfu 5 yue 23 ri bei qiangzhi yinchan siwang], 25 May 13; Steven Ertelt, ‘‘China: Mother Dies
After Forced Abortion at Six Months,’’ LifeNews, 29 May 13.
58 ‘‘Anhui Fengyang Seven-Month Fetus Forcibly Aborted, Shocking Bloody Photo’’ [Anhui
fengyang 7 yue da taier bei qiangzhi liuchan xielinlin tupian chumu jingxin], Sound of Hope,
25 March 13.
59 ChinaAid, ‘‘Another Bloody One-Child Case in China: Seven-Months Pregnant Mother in
Anhui Forcibly Aborted by Lethal Injection (Warning: Graphic Photo),’’ 25 March 13.
60 Women’s Rights in China, ‘‘Women’s Rights in China: Forced Abortion Phenomenon in China’s Rural Areas Still Serious’’ [Zhongguo fuquan: zhongguo nongcun qiangzhi liuchan xianxiang
yiran yanzhong], 28 October 12; Kat Lewis, All Girls Allowed, ‘‘Chinese Officials Force Abortionon 6-Month Pregnant Woman,’’ reprinted in LifeNews, 24 October 12.
61 ChinaAid, ‘‘In Tears, Victim Denounces the Violence Committed by Family Planning Officials in Guizhou in Early 2013,’’ 26 February 13.
62 ChinaAid, ‘‘Mother of Two in Hubei Province Dies From Forced Sterilization Operation Ordered by Family Planning Officials Against Doctor’s Advice,’’ 6 April 13; Zhan Caiqiang, ‘‘Hubei
Tongshan Woman ‘Sterilized to Death,’ Officials Pay 1,000,000 To Buy Out [Victims’] ‘Right To
Hold [Them] Accountable’ ’’ [Hubei tongshan—funu ‘‘jieza zhisi’’ guanfang 100 wan maiduan‘‘zhuize quanli’’], Yunnan Info Daily, 9 April 13. According to these reports, local officials promised Shen’s family 1 million yuan (US$161,755) in compensation on the condition that they ‘‘voluntarily give up the pursuit of accountability.’’ According to the Yunnan Info Daily report, family planning efforts in Shen Hongxia’s home county intensified after the county had received thelowest score in the province on the previous year’s population planning work report.
63 ‘‘Henan—Nursing Mother Failed To Pay 6,000 Yuan Protection Fee, Forcibly Sterilized’’[Henan—buru qi funu wei jiao 6 qian yuan baohu fei bei qiangzhi jieza], China Net, reprinted
in Southern Daily, 24 April 13.
64 ‘‘Chinese Man Dies After Attempted Forced Sterilization,’’ Radio Free Asia, 13 August 13.
65 PRC Measures for Administration of Collection of Social Maintenance Fees [Shehui fuyang
fei zhengshou guanli banfa], issued 2 August 02, effective 1 September 02, arts. 3, 7.
66 All Girls Allowed, ‘‘One-Child Policy Fines Relative to Income Levels in China,’’ 1 November
12. See, e.g., Shaanxi Provincial Implementing Measures for Collection and Management of Social Maintenance Fees [Shanxi sheng shehui fuyang fei zhengshou guanli shishi banfa], issued
8 June 04, effective 1 August 04, art. 5(1). In Shaanxi province, individuals in violation of local
population planning regulations can each be fined three to six times the amount of the average
income of a resident in their locality, sometimes more, based on their income compared to theaverage income of rural residents the previous year. ‘‘Fengdu County Population and Family
Planning Administrative Fines, Administrative Penalties Program and Standards’’ [Fengdu xian
renkou he jihua shengyu xingzheng zhengshou, xingzheng chufa xiangmu ji biaozhun], Fengdu
County Population and Family Planning Network, 27 November 11. As noted in this document,
residents of Fengdu county, Chongqing municipality, are subject to fines amounting to two tonine times the local average annual income from the previous year if they have an out-of-planchild or illegally adopt (two to six times the local average annual income) or have a child outof wedlock (six to nine times the local average annual income).
67 PRC Population and Family Planning Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo renkou yu jihua
shengyu fa], adopted 29 December 01, effective 1 September 02, art. 39. According to Article
39, officials are to be punished either criminally or administratively for the following acts: ‘‘(1)infringing on a citizen’s personal rights, property rights or other legitimate rights and interests;(2) abusing his power, neglecting his duty or engaging in malpractices for personal gain; (3) demanding or accepting bribes; (4) withholding, reducing, misappropriating or embezzling funds
for family planning or social maintenance fees; or (5) making false or deceptive statistical dataon population or family planning, or fabricating, tampering with, or refusing to provide suchdata.’’
68 The threat of job termination specifically applied to civil servants. See, e.g., ‘‘Fujian Civil
Servants Who Have Extra Births, or Births Out of Wedlock Will Be Expelled From Their Positions’’ [Fujian gongwuyuan duo shengyu, hunwai shengyu jiang kaichu gongzhi], China Daily,
15 December 12.
69 See, e.g., ‘‘Guangdong: Party Members, State Employees Who Go Abroad and Have an Extra
Child Will Be Expelled From the Party and Fired’’ [Guangdong: dangyuan, guojia gongzuo
renyuan fu guo (jing) wai chaosheng jiang bei kaichu dangji gongzhi], Xinhua, 17 January 13.
70 Women’s Rights in China, ‘‘Women’s Rights in China: Forced Abortion Phenomenon in China’s Rural Areas Still Serious’’ [Zhongguo fuquan: zhongguo nongcun qiangzhi liuchan xianxiang
yiran yanzhong], 28 October 12; ChinaAid, ‘‘Mother of Two in Hubei Province Dies From Forced
Sterilization Operation Ordered by Family Planning Officials Against Doctor’s Advice,’’ 6 April
13; ‘‘Chinese Man Dies After Attempted Forced Sterilization,’’ Radio Free Asia, 13 August 13.

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71 See, e.g., Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘I Don’t Have Control Over My Own Body,’’
21 December 10, 19–23. See also CECC, 2008 Annual Report, 31 October 08, 97.
72 See, e.g., Huang Xiuli, ‘‘ ‘Illegal Residents’ Born in Excess [of Family Planning Policies]: Living Like Shadows’’ [Chaosheng ‘‘heihu’’ de rensheng: xiang yingzi yiyang huozhe], Southern
Weekend, reprinted in Phoenix Net, 4 June 13; Mu Guangzong, ‘‘The Travails of Having a Second Child,’’ China Daily, 28 May 13. See also, Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘I Don’t HaveControl Over My Own Body,’’ 21 December 10, 13, 26. According to the CHRD report, ‘‘The management of the hukou system is the domain of the Ministry of Public Security and it refuses
to issue hukous to children without birth permits, children of unmarried parents, and children
whose parents for some reasons have not completed the required procedures. Without a hukou,
a child cannot apply for an ID card and thus does not have a legal identity, is not a citizen
and consequently is deprived of the rights accorded to other Chinese citizens.’’
73 Huang Xiuli, ‘‘ ‘Illegal Residents’ Born in Excess [of Family Planning Policies]: Living Like
Shadows’’ [Chaosheng ‘‘heihu’’ de rensheng: xiang yingzi yiyang huozhe], Southern Weekend, reprinted in Phoenix Net, 4 June 13.
74 Ibid.; ‘‘Separate and Unequal,’’ China Economic Review, 5 April 12; Yan Hao and Li Yanan,‘‘Urban Hukou, or Rural Land? Migrant Workers Face Dilemma,’’ Xinhua, 10 March 10; Tao
Ran, ‘‘Where There’s a Will, There’s a Way To Reform,’’ China Daily, 22 March 10.
75 Peony Lui, ‘‘Outcry Over Blunders of China’s One-Child Policy,’’ South China Morning Post,
19 December 12.
76 ‘‘Total Population, CBR, CDR, NIR and TFR in China (1949–2000),’’ China Daily, 20 August
10.
77 U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, ‘‘The World Factbook,’’ last visited 12 September 13.
While China’s National Bureau of Statistics estimated China’s fertility rate at 1.8 in 2007, in
May 2011, a group of Chinese academics publicly disputed the number, stating that it had been‘‘grossly overestimated.’’ These academics estimated in 2011 that China’s total fertility rate moreaccurately stood anywhere from 1.63 to below 1.5. See ‘‘China’s Total Fertility Rate Grossly
Overestimated: Academic,’’ Caijing, 17 May 11.
78 ‘‘China’s Working-Age Population Drops in 2012,’’ Xinhua, 18 January 13; Deirdre Wang
Morris, ‘‘China’s Aging Population Threatens Its Manufacturing Might,’’ CNBC, 24 October 12.
79 State Council, PRC Outline for the Development of Children (2011–2020) [Zhongguo ertongfazhan gangyao (2011–2020 nian)], issued 30 July 11, sec. 3(5)5. State Council Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11 June 12, sec. III(3). The
National Human Rights Action Plan states, ‘‘Discrimination against girls will be eliminated. The
state . . . bans identification of the sex of a fetus for other than medical purposes and termination of pregnancy in the case of a female fetus.’’ See also ‘‘Ban on Sex Testing To Help Balance Girl-Boy Ratio,’’ Global Times, reprinted in People’s Daily, 25 May 12.
80 Liang Chen, ‘‘Boys Preferred, Lucrative Trade Remains in Illegal Fetus Gender Identification,’’ Global Times, 21 March 13; Wang Qingyun, ‘‘Crackdown Begins on Illegal Reproductive
Clinics,’’ China Daily, 26 March 13.
81 For discussion of the continued practice and its impact, see ‘‘Liang Chen, ‘‘Boys Preferred,
Lucrative Trade Remains in Illegal Fetus Gender Identification,’’ Global Times, 21 March 13.
See also PRC Population and Family Planning Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo renkou yu
jihua shengyu fa], adopted 29 December 01, effective 1 September 02, art. 22. According to Article 22, ‘‘Discrimination against, maltreatment, and abandonment of baby girls are prohibited.’’For regulations prohibiting the practices of non-medically necessary gender determination tests
and sex-selective abortion, see State Commission for Population and Family Planning, Ministryof Health, State Food and Drug Administration, ‘‘Regulations Regarding the Prohibition of NonMedically Necessary Gender Determination Examinations and Sex-Selective Termination ofPregnancy’’ [Guanyu jinzhi fei yixue xuyao de taier xingbie jianding he xuanze xingbie derengong zhongzhi renshen de guiding], issued 29 November 02, effective 1 January 03. For discussion of these regulations, see ‘‘China Bans Sex-Selection Abortion,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in
China Net, 22 March 03.
82 Shan Juan, ‘‘Gender Imbalance Set To Ease,’’ China Daily, 30 March 12. According to Zhai
Zhenwu, head of the social population college at Renmin University, there is a deeply rooted
tradition of son preference, and this tradition remains in some areas, such as Guangdong province. Zhai also noted that ‘‘as fertility rates declined due to the family planning policy, the figure
for male births surged ahead.’’ See also ‘‘Preference for Boys by Migrants,’’ China Internet Information Center, 15 December 11.
83 ‘‘China’s Sex Ratio at Birth Declines 4 Years in a Row,’’ Xinhua, 5 March 13. According
to Xinhua, China’s sex ratio at birth in 2012 was 117.7 males for every 100 females.
84 Ibid. According to Xinhua, China’s sex ratio at birth in 2012 was 117.7 males for every 100
females, down from 117.78 in 2011, 117.94 in 2010, and 119.45 in 2009. See also ‘‘China’s Sex
Ratio at Birth Dropping,’’ North Side Net, translated in Women of China, 12 July 12. According
to the North Side Net report, China’s sex ratio at birth in 2008 was 120.56.
85 Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations
Secretariat, ‘‘World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision,’’ June 2013; According to United
Nations Population Division statistics, China’s sex ratio at birth (SRB) from 2005–2010 was thehighest in the world at 117 males per 100 females born. Equally as high was Azerbaijan’s sex
ratio at 117, followed by Armenia’s at 115, and India’s and Georgia’s at 111. ‘‘China’s Sex Ratio
at Birth Dropping,’’ North Side Net, translated in Women of China, 12 July 12. According to
the North Side Net report, which cites a 2012 National Population and Family Planning Commission Bulletin, ‘‘China’s sex ratio at birth in 2011 was 117.78, representing a drop of 0.16
compared to 2010. . . . The ratios of 2008, 2009 and 2010 were respectively 120.56, 119.45 and117.94.’’86 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ‘‘Difficulty Finding a Wife in 10 Years: 1 Out of Every
5 Men To Be a Bare Branch’’ [10 nian zhihou quqi nan, 5 ge nanren zhong jiuyou 1 geguanggun], 27 January 10.

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87 See, e.g., Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State,‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 129; World Health Organization, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations Population Fund, United Nations Children’s Fund, and United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowermentof Women, ‘‘Preventing Gender-Biased Sex Selection,’’ 14 June 11, 5; Susan W. Tiefenbrun andChristie J. Edwards, ‘‘Gendercide and the Cultural Context of Sex Trafficking in China,’’ 32
Fordham International Law Journal 731, 752 (2009); Therese Hesketh et al., ‘‘The Effect of China’s One-Child Family Policy After 25 Years,’’ New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 353,
No. 11 (2005), 1173; Nicholas Eberstadt, ‘‘A Global War Against Baby Girls: Sex-Selective Abortion Becomes a Worldwide Practice,’’ Handbook of Gender Medicine, reprinted in All Girls Allowed, 1 May 11. According to the Eberstadt article, ‘‘Some economists have hypothesized thatmass feticide, in making women scarce, will only increase their ‘value’—but in settings where
the legal and personal rights of the individual are not secure and inviolable, the ‘rising valueof women’ can have perverse and unexpected consequences, including increased demand forprostitution and an upsurge in the kidnapping and trafficking of women (as is now reportedly
being witnessed in some women-scarce areas in Asia)[.]’’
88 For Global Times reference, see Zhu Shanshan, ‘‘Shandong Baby Trafficking Ring Taken
Down,’’ Global Times, 4 November 11. For recent domestic reports, see, e.g., ‘‘Xinhua Investigation: Resold Several Thousand Miles Away, Changed Hands 7 Times—Tracing the Chain ofBlack [Market] Baby Trafficking Driven by Huge Profit’’ [Xinhua diaocha: zhuanmai shu qianli,daoshou da 7 ci—zhuizong baoli qudong xia de heise fanying lian], Xinhua, 24 December 12;
Zhou Ping, ‘‘Two Officials Also Detained for Human Trafficking,’’ Global Times, 26 December
12. For international reports, see, e.g., Chen Weijun, ‘‘One Child Policy Leads to Baby Selling,’’
Asia News, 4 January 13; ‘‘What Is Fuelling Child Abduction in China? ’’ Al Jazeera, 27 December 12.
89 ‘‘Xinhua Investigation: Resold Several Thousand Miles Away, Changed Hands 7 Times—
Tracing the Chain of Black [Market] Baby Trafficking Driven by Huge Profit’’ [Xinhua diaocha:
zhuanmai shu qianli, daoshou da 7 ci—zhuizong baoli qudong xia de heise fanying lian], Xinhua,
24 December 12; Zhou Ping, ‘‘Two Officials Also Detained for Human Trafficking,’’ Global Times,
26 December 12. See also, Malcolm Moore, ‘‘Chinese Family Planning Official Caught Trafficking in Children,’’ Telegraph, 4 January 13.
90 ‘‘Xinhua Investigation: Resold Several Thousand Miles Away, Changed Hands 7 Times—
Tracing the Chain of Black [Market] Baby Trafficking Driven by Huge Profit’’ [Xinhua diaocha:
zhuanmai shu qianli, daoshou da 7 ci—zhuizong baoli qudong xia de heise fanying lian], Xinhua,
24 December 12; Zhou Ping, ‘‘Two Officials Also Detained for Human Trafficking,’’ Global Times,
26 December 12.
91 ‘‘Jiangxi Guixi Welfare Institution Exposed, Suspected of Being Involved in ‘Reselling of Infants’ ’’ [Jiangxi guixi fuliyuan bei pu shexian ‘‘daomai yinger’’], Shenzhen Consumer Online, 25
January 13. For an English translation of this article, see C. Custer, ‘‘Translation: Guixi Orphanage Implicated in Re-Selling of Babies,’’ China Geeks, 13 February 13.
92 Ma Lie and Lei Lei, ‘‘Doctor Suspected of Child Trafficking,’’ China Daily, 3 August 13.
93 ‘‘China Vows To Seriously Punish Newborn Traffickers,’’ Xinhua, 6 August 13.
94 Ibid.
95 See, e.g., ‘‘Left Behind Children Become High Risk Group for Trafficking, Expert Suggests‘Criminal Punishment for Child Buying’ ’’ [Liushou ertong cheng bei guai gaowei qunti zhuanjia
jianyi ‘‘maitong ruxing’’], Southern Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 27 May 13; Liu Baijun,‘‘Representative Chen Xiurong Suggests Punishing the Buyer Market in the Trafficking of
Women and Children’’ [Chen xiurong daibiao jianyi chengzhi guaimai funu ertong maifang
shichang], Legal Daily, 12 March 12; Zhu Shanshan, ‘‘Shandong Baby Trafficking Ring Taken
Down,’’ Global Times, 4 November 11; ‘‘China Babies ‘Sold for Adoption,’ ’’ BBC, 2 July 09; Patricia J. Meier, ‘‘Small Commodities: How Child Traffickers Exploit Children and Families in Adoption and What the United States Must Do To Fight Them,’’ Journal of Gender, Race & Justice,Vol. 12, No. 1, 16 September 08, 10–11; Beth Loyd, ‘‘China’s Lost Children,’’ ABC News, 12 May
08; Peter S. Goodman, ‘‘Stealing Babies for Adoption,’’ Washington Post, 12 March 06.
96 See, e.g., Rao Dehong, ‘‘7 Female Primary School Students From Liangshan Lured to Workin Dongguan Will Be Returned to School’’ [7 ming liangshan xiaoxue nusheng bei you zhi
dongguan wugong jiang bei jiehui fanxiao shangxue], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 6 December
12; ‘‘8 Sentenced for Abducting, Murdering Children in China as Govt Tries To Combat Trafficking,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 15 August 11.

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Notes to Section II—Freedom of Residence and Movement
1 PRC Regulations on Household Registration [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo hukou dengji
tiaoli], issued and effective 9 January 58.
2 Kam Wing Chan, ‘‘Crossing the 50 Percent Population Rubicon: Can China Urbanize to Prosperity? ’’ Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol. 53, No. 1 (2012), 67–68.
3 Ibid., 66–67.
4 Ibid., 67.
5 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, arts. 2(1), 12(1),12(3), 26. China has signed and expressed intent to ratify the ICCPR. Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A (III) of 10
December 48, arts. 2, 13(1).
6 ‘‘Ma Jiantang: Resolutely Taking a Path of New Increase—National Statistics Bureau Chief
Is Guest in Xinhua Interview’’ [Ma jiantang: jianjue zou yi tiao xin zengzhang zhi lu—guojia
tongjiju juzhang zuoke xinhuawang fangtan], National Bureau of Statistics of China, 16 July
13; Wang Su, ‘‘Cracking the Hukou Code to Hasten Urbanization,’’ Caixin, 7 August 13.
7 Xu Xiaodan et al., ‘‘Survey on Rural Workers and Urbanization: Close to Half of MigrantWorkers in Cities Have No Social Security’’ [Nongminhua yu chengzhenhua diaocha: jin ban
jincheng nongmingong wu shehui baozhang], Ban Yue Tan, reprinted in China News Service,
9 July 13. The survey, conducted by Ban Yue Tan Social Conditions and Public Opinion Research Center at the behest of the National Development and Reform Commission, revealed that54.81 percent of migrant workers in cities responded that they participated in social security
programs.
8 ‘‘Work Units Must Hire More Workers, Which Aspects Show Employment Discrimination? ’’[Danwei xuyao zhaoshou yuangong, jiuye qishi biaoxian zai na xie fangmian?], Fabang Net, 16
January 13; Fan Chunxu et al., ‘‘This Year’s Graduating Students Encounter Household Registration and Age Restrictions While Seeking Employment’’ [Yingjie shengqiu zhi yu hujinianling xianzhi], Beijing News, 20 May 13; Wan Jing, ‘‘Enterprises and Work Unit Hiring Notices Become Household Residence Discrimination Disaster Zones’’ [Shiye danwei cheng zhaopinhuji qishi zhongzaiqu], Legal Daily, 29 May 13.
9 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Graduate Makes Formal Complaint Against Local Government for
Hukou Discrimination,’’ 16 May 13; Cao Jingmei, ‘‘Scholar: Hukou Discrimination is Regrettably
China’s Greatest Unfairness’’ [Xue zhe: huji qishi kong shi zhongguo jiuye zui da bu gongping],
Sound of Hope, 15 May 13; ‘‘Employment Discrimination Inventory: Educational Background is
Checked Back Three Generations, Requirements for Hukou and Appearance’’ [Jiuye qishi
pandian: xueli cha sandai hukou xiangmao you yaoqiu], China Newsweek, reprinted in Sina, 22
May 13.
10 ‘‘China’s First Court Case of Hukou-Based Employment Discrimination’’ [Zhongguo hujijiuye qishi di yi an], Radio Free Asia, 15 May 13. The Nanjing Municipal Human Resources
and Social Security Bureau passed over a recent female college graduate from Anhui province
for a job opportunity due to her rural Anhui hukou. Dong Wanyu, ‘‘Woman From Anhui Blocked
From Accepting Employment Position in Nanjing Because of Household Registration’’ [Anhui yi
nu nanjing ying pin yin huji shou fang], Yangtse Evening Post, 15 April 13.
11 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Employment Discrimination in China,’’ 20 November 12.
12 Barbara Demick, ‘‘Red Tape Bars Many Students from China’s Top Colleges,’’ Los Angeles
Times, 25 July 13; Wei Xue, ‘‘Non-Beijing Hukou Exam Students Who Returned Home to Take
Test State Grades Changed From Excellent to ‘Poor,’ Their Spirits Have Dropped Significantly’’[Fei jingji kaosheng huixiang gaokao: chengji youxiu bian ‘‘diandi’’ xinli luocha da], China National Radio, 7 June 13; Liu Jinsong, ‘‘ ‘Non-Household Registration’ Protester Zhan Haite’’ [‘‘Fei
huji’’ kangzhengzhe zhan haite], Economic Observer, reprinted in Phoenix Net, 30 November 12;
Zhan Haite, ‘‘Teen Girl Makes Case for Change,’’ China Daily, 7 December 12.
13 Koh Gui Qing, ‘‘Beatings, Evictions Reveal Ugly Side of China’s Local Debt Pile,’’ Reuters,
2 September 13; ‘‘Land Clashes Spring From ‘Colonial’ Spread of Cities,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11
March 13; ‘‘Chinese Voice Anger and Nostalgia Over Urbanization,’’ New York Times, 16 June13.
14 ‘‘China Urbanization to Hit Roadblocks Amid Local Opposition,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13;
Yin Yeping, ‘‘Locals Oppose Changes to Gaokao Policy,’’ Global Times, 22 October 12; Wei Xue,‘‘Non-Beijing Hukou Exam Students Who Returned Home to Take Test State Grades Changed
From Excellent to ‘Poor,’ Their Spirits Have Dropped Significantly’’ [Fei jingji kaosheng
huixiang gaokao: chengji youxiu bian ‘‘diandi’’ xinli luocha da], China National Radio, 7 June
13.
15 Jin Hui, ‘‘Reform of Hukou, Land, and Financial Systems, Elimination of the Two Layered
Structure’’ [Gaige huji tudi caizheng zhidu pochu er yuan jiegou], Economic Information Daily,
30 August 13; ‘‘New Urbanization Requires Participation from Corporations and Entrepeneurs’’[Xinxing chengzhenhua xuyao qiye he qiyejia canyu], Beijing News, 12 August 13; ‘‘China Urbanization To Hit Roadblocks Amid Local Opposition,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13.
16 ‘‘State Council: Residential Permit Administrative Measures To Be Released and Reform ofHousehold Registration System To Be Advanced Within the Year’’ [Guowuyuan: nian nei chutai
juzhuzheng guanli banfa tuijin huji gaige], Guandian Real Estate Net, 7 May 13; ‘‘China’s
Hukou System Puts Migrant Workers at Severe Economic Disadvantage,’’ The World, PublicRadio International, 1 May 13; ‘‘Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang Ph.D Theses Both Mention Hukou Reform’’ [Xi jinping li keqiang boshi lunwen jun ti huji gaige], Chengdu Evening News, 20 May
13.
17 Zhou Yu, ‘‘National Development and Reform Commission: Next Year Will Accelerate Reform of the Household Registration System’’ [Fagaiwei: ming nian jiang jiakuai huji zhidu
gaige], Beijing Times, reprinted in The People’s Daily, 19 December 12; ‘‘Elimination of Household Registration Barriers Suggested,’’ Xinhua, 27 June 13.

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18 ‘‘Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang Ph.D Theses Both Mention Hukou Reform’’ [Xi jinping li keqiang
boshi lunwen jun ti huji gaige], Chengdu Evening News, 20 May 13.
19 ‘‘Elimination of Household Registration Barriers Suggested,’’ Xinhua, 27 June 13; Wu Nan,‘‘China Eases Household Registration Rules,’’ South China Morning Post, 28 June 13.
20 Kan Feng, ‘‘2012 Cities Bluebook: Development of China’s Cities Face Ten Major Challenges’’ [2012 nian chengshi lanpishu: zhongguo chengshi fazhan mianlin shi da tiaozhan],China News Service, 14 August 12; Liu Rong, ‘‘City Bluebook: 500 Million Farmers Will Need
To Be ‘Urbanized’ in the Next 20 Years’’ [Chengshi lanpishu: weilai 20 nian you jin 5 yinongmin xuyao ‘‘shiminhua’’], People’s Daily, 15 August 12. The original report does not appear
to be publicly available. Yu Qian, ‘‘More Than Half of All Chinese Live in Cities, As Rural Exodus Continues,’’ Global Times, 15 August 12.
21 Sun Xuemei, ‘‘Experts Say Household Registration System Reform Encounters Opposition
from Local Governments Causing Difficulty in Implementation’’ [Zhuanjia cheng huji zhidu
gaige zao difang zhengfu fandui zhi qi nan luoshi], Beijing Times, 12 November 12; ‘‘Xi Jinping,
Li Keqiang Ph.D Theses Both Mention Hukou Reform’’ [Xi jinping li keqiang boshi lunwen jun
ti huji gaige], Chengdu Evening News, 20 May 13; ‘‘China Urbanization to Hit Roadblocks Amid
Local Opposition,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13; ‘‘Accounting for the Costs of Hukou Reform’’ [Hujigaige de chengben zhang], Caixin New Century, No. 30, 5 August 13.
22 State Council General Office, Circular Regarding the Active and Sound Implementation ofHousehold Registration Management System Reform [Guowuyuan bangongting guanyu jiji
wentuo tuijin huji guanli zhidu gaige de tongzhi], issued 26 February 11; ‘‘State Council General
Office Issues Circular Regarding the Active and Sound Implementation of Household Registration Management System Reform’’ [Guowuyuan bangongting fabu guanyu jiji wentuo tuijin hujiguanli zhidu gaige de tongzhi], Xinhua, 24 February 12; Jiang Yunxin, ‘‘China Puts Forward
Clear Urbanization Pathway for the First Time; Guarantees Reasonable Housing Requirements’’[Woguo shouci mingque chu chengzhenhua lujing baozhang heli zhufang xuqiu], Beijing News,
27 June 13.
23 The Commission observed implementation opinions and plans of the 2011 Circular and its
related hukou reforms in several provinces, municipalities, prefectures and provincial-level autonomous regions. These include Ma’anshan Prefecture in Anhui province, the Xinjiang Uyghur
Autonomous Region and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. See General Office of theMa’anshan Prefectural People’s Government, General Office of the Ma’anshan Prefectural People’s Government Implementing Opinion Regarding the Active and Sound Promotion of Household Registration Management System Reform [Ma’anshanshi renmin zhengfu bangongshi
guanyu jiji wentuo tuijin huji guanli zhidu gaige de shishi yijian], issued 7 March 13; Xinjiang
Uyhgur Autonomous Region Public Security Bureau, Xinjiang Uyhgur Autonomous Region Public Security Bureau Implementation Details on Furthering Reform of the Household Registration
Management System (Trial) [Xinjiang weiwuer zizhiqu gong’anting guanyu tuijin huji guanlizhidu gaige de shishi xize (shixing)], effective 1 September 12; General Office of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region People’s Government, General Office of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region People’s Government Implementing Opinion on Deepening Reform of the Household Registration Management System [Neimenggu zizhiqu renmin zhengfu bangongting
guanyu shenhua huji guanli zhidu gaige de shishi yijian], issued 29 May 11.
24 Chang Meng, ‘‘MOE Wants to Broaden Gaokao Access,’’ Global Times, 27 November 12.
25 Beijing Municipal People’s Government, Beijing Municipal Department of Education andFour Other Departments Circular Regarding the Dissemination of the ‘‘Work Plan for the Accompanying Children of Migrant Workers to Take Entrance Examinations in Beijing After Receiving Compulsory Education’’ [Guanyu zhuanfa shijiaowei deng si bumen zhiding de ‘‘jinchengwugong renyuan suiqian zinu jieshou yiwu jiaoyu hou zai jing canjia shengxue kaoshi gongzuo
fang’an’’ de tongzhi], issued 29 December 12, reprinted in Beijing Education Services Research;
Shanghai Municipal People’s Government General Office, Shanghai Municipal Department of
Education and Four Other Departments Circular Regarding the Dissemination of the ‘‘Work
Plan for the Accompanying Children of Migrant Workers to Take Entrance Examinations inShanghai After Receiving Compulsory Education’’ [Guanyu zhuanfa shijiaowei deng si bumen
zhiding de ‘‘jincheng wugong renyuan suiqian zinu jieshou yiwu jiaoyu hou zai hu canjia
shengxue kaoshi gongzuo fang’an’’ de tongzhi], issued 27 December 12, reprinted in Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial People’s Government
General Office, Guangdong Province Department of Education and Other Departments Circular
Pertaining to ‘‘How To Do a Good Job on Disseminating the Work Opinion on the Children of
Migrant Workers Taking Entrance Examinations in Guangdong After Receiving Compulsory
Education’’ [Guangdongsheng renmin zhengfu bangongting zhuanfa shengjiaoyuting deng
bumen guanyu zuohao jincheng wu gongrenyuan suiqian zinu jieshou yiwu jiaoyu hou zai wo
sheng canjia shengxue kaoshi gongzuo yijian de tongzhi], issued 29 December 12. See also ‘‘Authorities Issue New Education Policies for Children of Migrant Workers,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 2 April 13.
26 Wei Xue, ‘‘Non-Beijing Hukou Exam Students Who Returned Home To Take Test State
Grades Changed from Excellent to ‘Poor,’ Their Spirits Have Dropped Significantly’’ [Fei jingji
kaosheng huixiang gaokao: chengji youxiu bian ‘‘diandi’’ xinli luocha da], China National Radio,
7 June 13; Yin Yeping, ‘‘Locals Oppose Changes to Gaokao Policy,’’ Global Times, 22 October
12; Barbara Demick, ‘‘Red Tape Bars Many Students from China’s Top Colleges,’’ Los Angeles
Times, 25 July 13; ‘‘Migrants Banned From Beijing Exam,’’ Radio Free Asia, 23 November 12.
27 Wuhan Municipal People’s Government, Wuhan Municipal People’s Government’s Opinion
on Further Encouraging Graduates to Work and Innovate in Wuhan [Wuhanshi renmin zhengfu
guanyu jinyibu guli gaoxiao biyesheng zai han chuangxin chuangye de yijian], issued 10 April
13; ‘‘Restrictions on College Graduates Setting Up Residence in Wuhan, Hubei Again Relaxed’’[Hubei wuhan biyesheng luohu zai fangkuan], Xinhua, reprinted in People’s Daily, 21 May 13;
An Baijie, ‘‘Wuhan Lifts Hukou Restrictions on College Students,’’ China Daily, 10 May 13.

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28 Shanghai Municipal People’s Government, Shanghai Municipality Residence Permit Administrative Measures [Shanghaishi juzhuzheng guanli banfa], passed 20 May 13, effective 1 July13, chap. 2, art. 9, 18. The points system replaces Shanghai’s original classification system.
Those non-Shanghai residents with steady employment who have participated in their work
unit’s social security system for at least six months, or those who rely on or live with family
members with a Shanghai hukou, or have attended school or undertaken advanced studies inShanghai for six months or more are eligible to participate in this system and apply for a residence permit (juzhu zheng). See also Li Xin and Tian Xiaodong, ‘‘Shanghai’s Residential Permit
Regulation Point System To Replace Classification System in Determining Children’s Access to
Education’’ [Hu juzhuzheng guanli banfa jifen zhi daiti fenlei, fenzhi jueding zinu jiuxue],
Xinming Net, 19 June 13.
29 Guangzhou Municipal Public Security Bureau, Guangzhou Municipal Public Security Bureau Department of Residence Explanation on Main Questions Regarding the Handling of
Changing Household Registration [Guangzhou gong’an huzheng bumen jieda banli huanfa
hukoubu yewu redian wenti], 6 May 13; General Office of the Guangzhou Municipal People’s
Government, Guangzhou Municipal Party Committee, ‘‘Guiding Opinion Regarding the Acceleration of the Unification of the New Structure for Urban and Rural Economic and Social Development’’ [Guanyu jiakuai xingcheng chengxiang jingji shehui fazhan yitihua xin geju de shishi
yijian], 18 May 09; Zheng Caixiong, ‘‘Guangzhou Moves to Abolish Rural Hukou,’’ China Daily,
10 May 13; ‘‘Guangzhou Household Registration Reform, A Single Urban/Rural Household Registration Classification To Be Realized by 2014’’ [Guangzhou huji gaige 2014 nian jiang shixian
chengxiang yige hukou], Guangzhou Local Treasure, 19 December 12.
30 General Office of the Guangdong Provincial People’s Government, ‘‘Work Plan To Further
Promote the Equalization and Comprehensive Reform of Basic Public Services (2012–2014)’’[Shenru tuijin jiben gongong fuwu jundenghua zonghe gaige gongzuo fang’an (2012–2014 nian)],
17 April 12, sec. 2, art. 2; Hong Yiyi, ‘‘Household Registration System Reform Allows Residents
to Enjoy Equal Status’’ [Huji zhidu gaige rang jumin xiang tongdeng daiyu], Southern Daily,
8 January 13.
31 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 12(2). A similar protection granting ‘‘everyone . . . the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return
to his own country’’ is provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. See Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A
(III) of 10 December 48, art. 13(2).
32 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 12(3).
33 PRC Passport Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo huzhao fa], issued 29 April 06, effective
1 January 07, art. 13(7); PRC Exit and Entry Control Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo chujing
rujing guanli fa] issued 30 June 12, effective 1 July 13, art. 12(5).
34 For examples of restrictions on international travel of rights advocates, see Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘Rights Lawyer Tang Jitian Was Blocked from Going to Hong Kong’’[Weiquan lushi tang jitian chu guan qianwang xianggang bei zu], 15 January 13; Chinese
Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Ding Hongfen Applies to Get a Passport, Wuxi City Public Security
Office Denies Approval’’ [Ding hongfen shenqing qianfa huzhao, wuxi shi gonganju buyu
pizhun], 5 January 13; Gillian Wong, ‘‘Denied Passport, Tibet Poet Can’t Receive US Award,’’
Associated Press, 8 March 13. For examples of restrictions on international travel of family
members of rights advocates, see Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘The Wife of Famous Chinese Political Prisoner Liu Xianbin Has Been Unable To Obtain Her Passport With No Hopefor Visiting Her Daughter During Chinese New Year’’ [Dalu zhuming zhengzhifan liu xianbin
qizi chen mingxian huzhao wufa banli chunjie tanwang nuer wuwang], 8 February 13;‘‘Shandong Police Deny Chen Family Passport Bid,’’ Radio Free Asia, 22 February 13; Chinese
Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Daughter of Zhejiang Dissident Lu Gengsong Again Prevented from
Traveling to Hong Kong’’ [Zhejiang yiyirenshi lu gengsong nuer qu xianggang zaici bei zu], 9July 13.
35 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit: China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 22
February 13.
36 Ibid.; Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, Country
Report on Human Rights Practices—2012, China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong and Macau), 19
April 13; ‘‘Beijing Refuses To Issue Passports To Strictly Control Entry and Exit, 14 Million on
the Blacklist’’ [Beijing ju fa zhengzhao yankong churujing 1400 wan ren shang heimingdan],Radio Free Asia, 25 February 13.
37 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, Country Reporton Human Rights Practices—2012, China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong and Macau), 19 April 13;
Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit: China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 22 February 13; ‘‘Beijing Refuses To Issue Passports To Strictly Control Entry and Exit, 14 Million
on the Blacklist,’’ [Beijing ju fa zhengzhao yan kong churujing 1400 wan ren shang heimingdan],Radio Free Asia, 25 February 13.
38 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit: China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 22
February 13.
39 Gillian Wong, ‘‘Denied Passport, Tibet Poet Can’t Receive US Award,’’ Associated Press, 8
March 13; Secretary of State John Kerry, Remarks at the International Women of CourageAwards, Dean Acheson Auditorium, 8 March 13.
40 Andrews Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit: China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 22
February 13.
41 Xu Zhiyong, ‘‘Cause and Effect—A Dialogue on the New Citizens’ Movement’’ [Yinguo—yici
guanyu xin gongmin yundong de duihua], Xu Zhiyong Collected Works (blog), 24 April 13; Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Leading Citizen Movement Activist Xu Zhiyong Arrested,’’ South China Morning
Post, 17 July 13. This international symposium to which Xu was invited commemorated the an-234niversary of the beating death of Sun Zhigang, who died after being taken into police custodyfor registration permit questioning in 2003. After Sun’s death, Xu worked with other activists
to abolish ‘‘custody and repatriation’’ centers. For more information, see Zan Aizong, ‘‘Rights Defense and ‘Non-Violent Non-Cooperation,’ ’’ Human Rights in China, China Rights Forum, Issue
1, 2009; Keith J. Hand, ‘‘Using Law for a Righteous Purpose: The Sun Zhigang Incident and
Evolving Forms of Citizen Action in the People’s Republic of China,’’ Columbia Journal ofTransnational Law 45, 2006, 114–95. For more information on the case of Xu Zhiyong, see ‘‘Officials Detain Xu Zhiyong Amidst a Crackdown on Individuals Calling for Greater Government
Accountability,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 1 August 13.
42 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘The Wife of Famous Chinese Political Prisoner Liu
Xianbin Has Been Unable to Obtain Her Passport and Is Therefore Unable to Visit Her Daughter During Chinese New Year’’ [Dalu zhuming zhengzhifan liu xianbin qizi chen mingxian
huzhao wufa banli chunjie tanwang nuer wuwang], 8 February 13.
43 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Daughter of Zhejiang Dissident Lu Gengsong Again
Prevented from Traveling to Hong Kong’’ [Zhejiang yiyirenshi lu gengsong nuer qu xianggang
zaici bei zu], 9 July 13.
44 ‘‘Shandong Police Deny Chen Family Passport Bid,’’ Radio Free Asia, 22 February 13; Edward Wong, ‘‘Family of China Rights Advocate Given Passports,’’ New York Times, 7 June 13.
45 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 12(1). Similar protection granting ‘‘everyone . . . the right to freedom of movement and residence within the bordersof each state’’ is provided for in the See Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly resolution 217A
(III) of 10 December 48, art. 13(1).
46 See, e.g., ‘‘Zhang Lin and Daughter Successfully Flee Anhui to Start New Life’’ [Zhang lin
funu chenggong taoli anhui guo xin shenghuo], Radio Free Asia, 19 June 13; ‘‘Ilham Tohti Again
Placed Under Home Confinement, Uyghur Students Who Posted Online Are Detained’’[Yilihamu zaidu zao ruanjin weizu xuesheng wangluo fa wen bei zhua], Radio Free Asia, 31 July
13.
47 See, e.g., ‘‘Chen Guangfu Forced to Return Home From Shanghai Visit,’’ Radio Free Asia,
20 August 13; Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Hada and Family Members Still Missing,’’ 24 February 13. For more information on the case of Hada and his family,see ‘‘Authorities Heighten Persecution of Detained Mongol Rights Advocate’s Wife and Son,’’Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 13 December 12.
48 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘In the Name of ‘Stability,’ 2012 Annual Report on the
Situation of Human Rights Defenders in China,’’ March 2013, 1, 4–6.
49 Jared Genser, ‘‘In China, Repression is a Family Affair,’’ Wall Street Journal, 25 April 13.
See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2010–00629 for information on Liu
Xia’s case.
50 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘In the Name of ‘Stability,’ 2012 Annual Report on the
Situation of Human Rights Defenders in China,’’ March 2013, 4–5; Human Rights Watch,‘‘China: End Unlawful Practice of House Arrest,’’ 24 October 12. See the Commission’s Political
Prisoner Database record 2008–00228 for information on Feng Zhenghu’s case.
51 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Detains a Leading Human Rights Advocate,’’ New York Times, 17
July 13; Xu Zhiyong, ‘‘Cause and Effect—A Dialogue on the New Citizens’ Movement’’ [Yinguo—
yici guanyu xin gongmin yundong de duihua], Xu Zhiyong Collected Works (blog), 24 April 13.
For more information on the case of Xu Zhiyong, see ‘‘Officials Detain Xu Zhiyong Amidst a
Crackdown on Individuals Calling for Greater Government Accountability,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 1 August 13.
52 ‘‘Activists Released After Congress,’’ Radio Free Asia, 16 November 12.
53 ‘‘As National CPPCC Opens Many Rights Activists Faced With Different Degrees of Soft Detention’’ [Quanguo zhengxie kaimu duoming weiquan renshi zaodao butong chengdu de ruanjin],Radio Free Asia, 3 March 13.
54 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Anhui Dissident Wang Yixiang Has Dealt with Restricted Movement as June 4th Approaches’’ [Anhui yiyirenshi wang yixiang yin liusi linjin bei
xianzhi renshen ziyou], 2 June 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘As June 4th Approaches
Zhejiang Democracy Party Members Receive Stricter Controls’’ [Liusi linjin zhejiang
minzhudang ren shou yan kong], 1 June 13.
55 ‘‘Activists Released After Congress,’’ Radio Free Asia, 16 November 12.
56 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Anhui Dissident Wang Yixiang Has Dealt with Restricted Movement as June 4th Approaches’’ [Anhui yiyirenshi wang yixiang yin liusi linjin bei
xianzhi renshen ziyou], 2 June 13.

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Notes to Section II—Status of Women
1 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, adopted andopened for signature, ratification, and accession by UN General Assembly resolution 34/180 of
18 December 79, entry into force 3 September 81. China signed the convention on July 17, 1980,
and ratified it on November 4, 1980. See United Nations Treaty Collection, Chapter IV, Human
Rights, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, last visited 14 September 12. Under Article 7 of CEDAW, China is committed to ensuring the rightof women, on equal terms with men, ‘‘to participate in the formulation of government policy andthe implementation thereof and to hold public office and perform all public functions at all levelsof government.’’
2 The PRC Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests and the PRC Electoral Lawof the National People’s Congress and Local People’s Congresses stipulate that an ‘‘appropriate
number’’ of female deputies should serve at all levels of people’s congresses. PRC Law on theProtection of Women’s Rights and Interests [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo funu quanyi baozhangfa], passed 3 April 92, effective 1 October 92, amended 28 August 05, art. 11; PRC Electoral
Law of the National People’s Congress and Local People’s Congresses [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo quanguo renmin daibiao dahui he difang geji renmin daibiao dahui xuanju fa],passed 1 July 79, amended 10 December 82, 2 December 86, 28 February 95, 27 October 04,
14 March 10, art. 6.
3 State Council Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11 June 12, sec. III(2); State Council, ‘‘PRC Outline for the Development of Women(2011–2020)’’ [Zhongguo funu fazhan gangyao (2011–2020)], issued 30 July 11, sec. 3(4).
4 Christophe Bahuet, ‘‘The Importance of Women’s Leadership,’’ China Daily, 6 November 12.
5 The target of 30 percent female representation in leadership positions by 1995 was set by
the UN Commission on the Status of Women at its 34th session in 1990. ‘‘Target: 30 Percent
of Leadership Positions to Women by 1995—United Nations Commission on the Status of
Women,’’ UN Chronicle, June 1990, reprinted in Popline.
6 China’s Politburo Standing Committee decreased from nine members in the prior two Party
Congresses to seven members in the 18th Party Congress. See Edward Wong and Jonathan
Ansfield, ‘‘Changing of the Guard: Grabs for Power Behind Plan to Shrink Elite Circle,’’ New
York Times, 1 November 12.
7 Jaime A. FlorCruz and Jethro Mullen, ‘‘After Months of Mystery, China Unveils New Top
Leaders,’’ CNN, 16 November 12. Prior to the appointment of China’s new leadership, some political observers had speculated that Liu Yandong might have become the first woman promoted
to the Politburo Standing Committee. See Zhuang Pinghui, ‘‘Breaking the Glass Ceiling in the
Politburo Standing Committee,’’ South China Morning Post, 19 September 12.
8 State Councilor Sun Chunlan reportedly joined State Councilor Liu Yandong as the second
woman to hold a position on the Political Bureau of the Communist Party Central Committee.
See Benjamin Kang Lim and Michael Martina, ‘‘China’s Politburo Has More Women, Is Younger—But Barely,’’ Reuters, 15 November 12.
9 ‘‘Members of the 18th CPC Central Committee,’’ Xinhua, 14 November 12; Kerry Brown,‘‘Chinese Politics—Still a Man’s World,’’ CNN, Global Public Square (blog), 27 August 12. According to the Global Public Square blog report, the number of women on the previous (17th)
Communist Party Central Committee was 13 out of 204 members. See also Didi Kirsten Tatlow,‘‘Chinese Women’s Progress Stall on Many Fronts,’’ New York Times, 6 March 12.
10 He Dan and Zhu Zhe, ‘‘Women Assume Bigger Role,’’ China Daily, 8 November 12. According to the China Daily, 521 of 2,270 (22.95 percent) of the delegates to the 18th Party Congress
were female, up from 20 percent at the 17th Party Congress in 2007, and 18 percent at the
16th Party Congress in 2002. See also National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘Number of Deputies to All the Previous National People’s Congresses’’ [Lijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui
daibiao renshu], China Statistical Yearbook 2012, 2012, Table 23–1. According to the 2012
China Statistical Yearbook, female representation in China’s parliament has stayed around 21
percent since the late 1970s.
11 National Bureau of Statistics of China, ‘‘Number of Deputies to All the Previous National
People’s Congresses’’ [Lijie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui daibiao renshu], China Statistical
Yearbook 2012, 2012, Table 23–1.
12 Li Bin (Minister of the new National Health and Family Planning Commission) and Wu
Aiying (Minister of Justice) are reported to be the only female members of China’s newly appointed State Council. The number used to be 4 out of 35. See ‘‘China Unveils New Cabinet
Amid Function Reform,’’ Xinhua, 17 March 13. See also Jen-Kai Liu, ‘‘The Main National Leadership of the PRC,’’ China Data Supplement, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, Vol. 19, No.
3 (2011), 3; Michael Forsythe and Yidi Zhao, ‘‘Women Knowing China Men Rule Prove Mao’s
Half the Sky Remains Unfulfilled,’’ Bloomberg, 23 June 11.
13 Only four women since 1949 have served in this high-ranking position; of these, Wu Yi
served most recently, and retired in 2008. See All-China Women’s Federation, ‘‘China’s Four Female Vice Premiers Since 1949,’’ 22 March 13. See also Jen-Kai Liu, ‘‘The Main National Leadership of the PRC,’’ China Data Supplement, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, Vol. 19, No.
3 (2011), 3.
14 Christophe Bahuet, ‘‘The Importance of Women’s Leadership,’’ China Daily, 6 November 12;
Julie Makinen, ‘‘Where are China’s Women Leaders? ’’ Los Angeles Times, reprinted in Christian
Science Monitor, 14 November 12.
15 Rangita de Silva de Alwis, ‘‘Women Leading in Lawmaking in China—Introduction,’’ Global
Women’s Leadership Initiative, Wilson Center, February 2013, 7.
16 Li Huiying, ‘‘Women Leading in Lawmaking in China—The Pain of Chinese Urbanization:
Strengthening of Gender Layering,’’ Global Women’s Leadership Initiative, Wilson Center, February 2013, 14–18.

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17 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, ‘‘Asia-PacificCalls for Urgent Increase to Low Participation of Women in Politics,’’ 4 February 13.
18 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, adopted andopened for signature, ratification, and accession by UN General Assembly resolution 34/180 of
18 December 79, entry into force 2 September 81, art. 11. China signed the convention on July17, 1980, and ratified it on November 4, 1980. See United Nations Treaty Collection, Chapter
IV, Human Rights, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women, last visited 14 September 12.
19 Liu Xiaonan, ‘‘Women Leading in Lawmaking in China—Research Report on Employment
Discrimination in 2011 Civil Service Recruitment,’’ Global Women’s Leadership Initiative, Wilson Center, February 2013, 20, 22–23. For additional examples of gender discrimination in hiring, see Chen Xin, ‘‘Gender Bias Seen in Job Fair Ads,’’ China Daily, 25 February 13; Peter
Kuhn and Kailing Shen, ‘‘Gender Discrimination in Job Ads: Evidence From China,’’ Department of Economics, University of California Santa Barbara, 6 June 12; Zhou Xiangyi, Zhang Jie,and Song Xuetao, ‘‘Gender Discrimination in Hiring: Evidence from 19,130 Resumes in China,’’Xi’an Jiaotong University, Texas A&M University, North Carolina State University, 3 January
13.
20 Rangita de Silva de Alwis, ‘‘Women Leading in Lawmaking in China—Introduction,’’ Global
Women’s Leadership Initiative, Wilson Center, February 2013, 2–3.
21 Guo Huimin, ‘‘Women Leading in Lawmaking in China—Pregnancy Discrimination: Abrogation and Restoration of Rights,’’ Global Women’s Leadership Initiative, Wilson Center, February
2013, 56.
22 Amy Li, ‘‘Job-seekers in Wuhan Protest Government-Imposed Gynaecological Tests,’’ South
China Morning Post, 28 November 12.
23 Raef Lawson, Institute of Management Accountants, ‘‘Salary Survey,’’ October 2012, 41. According to the IMA report, Chinese women’s salary is on average about 58.6 percent that ofmen’s, and their total compensation is on average about 54 percent that of men’s.
24 Currently, retirement ages for male and female government and Party officials are 60 and
55, respectively, while retirement ages for male and female workers in general are 60 and 50,
respectively. For regulations on retirement ages for most workers, see State Council Provisional
Measures on Workers’ Retirement and Withdrawal from Office [Guowuyuan guanyu gongren
tuixiu, tuizhi de zanxing banfa], 24 May 78, art. 1. For regulations on extended retirement ages
for cadres, see State Council Provisional Measures on the Settlement of Elderly, Weak, Sick,and Disabled Cadres [Guowuyuan guanyu anzhi lao ruo bing can ganbu de zanxing banfa], 2June 78, art. 4. See also, ‘‘China’s Compulsory Retirement Age for Males and Females Challenged for Violating Constitution’’ [Woguo nannu tuixiu nianling guiding bei tiqing weixian
shencha], Legal Morning Post, reprinted in China Law Education Net, 16 March 06. For information on the current debate about raising the retirement age, see Chen Xin, ‘‘Retirement Age
Will Be Pushed Back: Minister,’’ China Daily, 22 March 11; Mark W. Frazier, ‘‘No Country for
Old Age,’’ New York Times, 18 February 13.
25 Shenzhen Municipal People’s Congress Standing Committee, Shenzhen Special Economic
Zone Gender Equality Promotion Regulations [Shenzhen jingji tequ xingbie pingdeng cujin
tiaoli], passed 28 June 12, issued 10 July 12, effective 1 January 13. See also ‘‘Shenzhen Passes
China’s First Anti-Gender Discrimination Law,’’ China Briefing, 23 August 12.
26 Chen Xin, ‘‘Gender Bias Seen in Job Fair Ads,’’ China Daily, 25 February 13.
27 Ibid. ‘‘Huang Yizhi of Beijing Ruifeng Law Firm said labor laws have made gender discrimination in employment illegal but they lack language on fines for violations . . . Huang saidlabor authorities’ efforts to design codes to fine violators could serve as a deterrent to employers
and also help encourage victims to seek protection of their rights.’’
28 Zhuang Qinghong and Zhang Yiting, ‘‘First Successful Compensation in Gender Discrimination Case’’ [Xingbie qishi an shouci chenggong huopei], China Youth Daily, reprinted in Xinhua,
31 January 13.
29 PRC Education Law [Zhongguo renmin gongheguo jiaoyu fa], issued 18 March 95, effective
1 September 95, art. 9.
30 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Employment Discrimination in China,’’ 20 November 12; Didi
Kirsten Tatlow, ‘‘Women in China Face Rising University Entry Barriers,’’ New York Times, 7
October 12. According to one woman cited in The New York Times, universities ‘‘make it harderfor women to get in to study Arabic’’ because university administrators ‘‘believe that Arab nations don’t want to deal with women.’’
31 Luo Wangshu, ‘‘Ministry Defends Gender Ratios for Colleges,’’ China Daily, 17 October 12.
For additional information on the use of gender-based quotas by Chinese universities, see China
Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Employment Discrimination in China,’’ 20 November 12.
32 Luo Wangshu, ‘‘Ministry Defends Gender Ratios for Colleges,’’ China Daily, 17 October 12.
33 PRC Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
funu quanyi baozhang fa], enacted 3 April 92, effective 1 October 92, amended 28 August 05,
art. 46; PRC Marriage Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo hunyin fa], passed 10 September 80,
effective 1 January 81, amended 28 April 01, art. 3; PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo xingfa], passed 1 July 79, amended 14 March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended
25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06,
28 February 09, 25 February 11, arts. 234, 236, 237, 260.
34 Legal Daily reported in January 2013 that one in three families have experienced domestic
violence, and statistics released by the All-China Women’s Federation in the same month suggest one in four women have experienced domestic violence. Zhou Bin, ‘‘Plans To Issue Standardized Document Guiding Domestic Violence Criminal Trials’’ [Ni chutai guifanxing wenjian
zhidao jiabao xing’an shenpan], Legal Daily, 13 January 13; Zhao Wen, ‘‘Domestic Violence Occurs in 1/4 Chinese Homes,’’ Shanghai Daily, 23 January 13. According to the All-China Women’s Federation statistics cited in Shanghai Daily, of the women surveyed who reported experiencing domestic violence, around 5 percent reported physical violence, and a large majority of

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these cases affected rural women. See also Lin Zhiwen and Wang Biaochen, All-China Women’sFederation, ‘‘Domestic Violence and Family Issues in Guangdong Province,’’ 11 April 13.
35 PRC Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
funu quanyi baozhang fa], passed 3 April 92, effective 1 October 92, amended 28 August 05,
art. 46; PRC Marriage Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo hunyin fa], passed 10 September 80,
effective 1 January 81, amended 28 April 01, art. 3. For Chinese experts’ discussion of the shortcomings of current national-level legislation, see Ng Tze Wei, ‘‘A Clear Definition of Domestic
Violence Is Needed To Curb the Crime,’’ South China Morning Post, 7 February 13; Huang Yuli
and He Dan, ‘‘Call for Action on Domestic Violence,’’ China Daily, 26 November 12; ‘‘China
Scholars Call for Attention on ‘Anti-Domestic Violence’ Legislation’’ [Zhongguo xuezhe huyu
guanzhu ‘‘fan jiating baoli’’ lifa], Radio Free Asia, 13 January 10; Li Fei, ‘‘All-China Women’sFederation Strongly Promotes Anti-Domestic Violence Legislation’’ [Quanguo fulian litui fan
jiating baoli lifa], People’s Representative News, 31 December 09. See also ‘‘All-China Women’sFederation Proposes, Highlights Need for Draft Anti-Domestic Violence Legislation,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 2 February 10.
36 You Chunliang, ‘‘28 Provinces, Districts, and Cities in China Have Issued Anti-Domestic Violence Local Regulations or Policies’’ [Quanguo yi you 28 ge sheng qu shi chutai fan jiating baoli
difangxing fagui huo ce], Legal Daily, 6 December 12.
37 Wu Jie, ‘‘The Shadow of Domestic Violence: Another Incident of Child Abuse in Shenzhen
Ends Up as Homicide Case’’ [Jiabao yinying: shenzhen zaixian nue’er zhisi an], Southern Weekend, 31 December 12; Lin Zhiwen and Wang Biaochen, All-China Women’s Federation, ‘‘Domestic Violence and Family Issues in Guangdong Province,’’ 11 April 13; ‘‘Two Cases Shine Spotlighton China Domestic Violence,’’ BBC, 5 February 13; Zhang Shan, ‘‘Woman Can’t Bear Domestic
Violence, Uses Hammer To Beat Husband to Death, Buries Corpse in Dry Well’’ [Nuzi bukan
jiabao chi tiechui zasi zhangfu hou jiang shiti pao kujing], West Net, reprinted in Phoenix Net,
22 March 13.
38 Beijing Children’s Legal Aid and Research Center, ‘‘Don’t Let Children Grow Up With Domestic Violence’’ [Bie rang haizi zai jiabao de yinying xia chengzhang], 12 October 12; Huang
Yuli and He Dan, ‘‘Call for Action on Domestic Violence,’’ China Daily, 26 November 12; Ng Tze
Wei, ‘‘A Clear Definition of Domestic Violence Is Needed To Curb the Crime,’’ South China
Morning Post, 7 February 13; ‘‘Push for Domestic Violence Laws in China,’’ CCTV, 8 March 13;
Zhang Yiqian, ‘‘Battered But Not Beaten,’’ Global Times, 18 February 13. For information on
calls for national-level legislation in previous years, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October
12, 102; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 124; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October 10, 132.
39 State Council Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11 June 12, sec. III(2).
40 He Dan, ‘‘Domestic Violence Law Should Be Broad,’’ China Daily, 12 March 12.
41 Ng Tze Wei, ‘‘A Clear Definition of Domestic Violence Is Needed To Curb the Crime,’’ South
China Morning Post, 7 February 13. As of this February 2013 South China Morning Post article,
no drafts had been tabled. In addition, the Commission has observed no reports of the issue
of a draft between February and August 2013.
42 Zhou Bin, ‘‘Plans To Issue Standardized Document Guiding Domestic Violence Criminal
Trials’’ [Ni chutai guifanxing wenjian zhidao jiabao xing’an shenpan], Legal Daily, 13 January
13.
43 Lan Fang, ‘‘China’s Courts Experiment With Issuance of Protection Orders Against Domestic Violence’’ [Zhongguo fayuan shixing qianfa renshen baohu ling fan jiating baoli], Caixin, 30
January 13.
44 ‘‘Push for Domestic Violence Laws in China,’’ CCTV, 8 March 13; ‘‘Domestic Violence,’’
China Daily, 5 February 13.
45 The World Health Organization defines sexual violence as ‘‘any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed, against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their relationshipto the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work.’’ World Health Organization, ‘‘Violence Against Women,’’ Fact Sheet No. 239, November 2012. For information on
trends of sexual violence in China, see Women’s Watch-China, ‘‘E–Newsletter 86 of WW–China,’’
February 2013, 8–10.
46 Women’s Watch-China, ‘‘E–Newsletter 86 of WW–China,’’ February 2013, 13; ‘‘Official Gets
18–Year Sentence for Graft, Rape,’’ Shanghai Daily, reprinted in China Internet Information
Center, 20 February 13; ‘‘Li Guanfeng Charged With Rape,’’ China Daily, 7 March 13; Scott
Murdoch, ‘‘Chinese Party Cadre Sun Dejiang Sacked After Rape Claims,’’ Australian, 5 December 12; Sophie Song, ‘‘China’s ‘Child Rape Isn’t Rape’ Law Is Sparking Outrage,’’ International
Business Times, 13 May 13.
47 Wu Xiaofeng and Xing Dongwei, ‘‘Hainan, Wanning Primary School Principal Takes 4
Young Girls to Hotel, Government Worker Takes 2 Young Girls to Hotel’’ [Hainan wanning yixiao xiaozhang dai 4 younu kaifang zhengfu zhiyuan dai 2 younu kaifang], Legal Daily, 13 May
13; Mimi Lau, ‘‘Hainan Province Teacher, City Official Arrested Over Sex Assault of Six Girls,’’
South China Morning Post, 14 May 13.
48 See Wang Aihua et al., ‘‘Commentary: Keep Perverted Teachers Far Away From Young
Girls!’’ [Shuping: rang selang jiaoshi yuanli younu!], Xinhua, 29 May 13; ‘‘China’s Supreme
Court Vows To Protect Children,’’ Associated Press, 29 May 13; Zhou Wenting, ‘‘Schoolchildren
Taught To Avoid Sexual Assault,’’ China Daily, 30 May 13.
49 Sophie Song, ‘‘China’s ‘Child Rape Isn’t Rape’ Law Is Sparking Outrage,’’ International
Business Times, 13 May 13. Chinese authorities have also gone to the other extreme in prosecuting such cases, as seen in the execution this past year of a teacher surnamed Bao for raping
and sexual assaulting several of his students. Sun Ying, ‘‘Teacher Who Raped or Behaved Lewdly With Female Students Is Executed, Supreme People’s Court: No Mercy in This Regard’’238[Jiaoshi qiangjian weixie nusheng bei chusi zui gaofa: duici jue bu shouruan], China RadioInternational, 30 May 13.
50 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Women’s Rights Worker Ye Haiyan’s Detention Gives
Rise to Fierce Citizen Protest’’ [Nuquan gongzuozhe ye haiyan bei juliu yinfa minjian qianglie
kangyi], 31 May 13.
51 ‘‘Women Lawyers To Campaign for China’s Sex Abuse Victims,’’ Radio Free Asia, 3 June
13.
52 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), adopted at the Fourth World Conferenceon Women on 27 October 95, and endorsed by UN General Assembly resolution 50/203 on 22
December 95, item 115. According to the 1995 Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action,‘‘Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including
rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions andelsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution.’’53 PRC Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
funu quanyi baozhang fa], passed 3 April 92, effective 1 October 92, amended 28 August 05,
arts. 40, 58; State Council, Special Provisions for the Work Protection of Female Employees [Nuzhigong laodong baohu tebie guiding], issued and effective 28 April 12, art. 11. See also Women’s
Watch-China, ‘‘Annual Report 2008,’’ 23 October 09, 30.
54 Ibid.
55 Cao Yin, ‘‘What Can Be Done To Prevent Sexual Harassment,’’ Xinhua, 13 March 13.
56 Canton Public Opinion Research Center, ‘‘Urban Residents Perceive an Increase in Sexual
Harassment, Hope To Expand the Strength of Punishments’’ [Shimin renwei xing saorao
zengduo, pan jiada chufa lidu], 25 February 13.
57 Ma Yujia, ‘‘Foxconn Employees Suffer Sexual Harassment,’’ China Internet Information
Center, 22 February 13.
58 ‘‘Official Suspended After Sexual Harassment Scandal,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in CRIEnglish,
24 May 13.
59 Lin Li and Han Mei, ‘‘Seven-Month Fetus in Fengyang, Anhui Forcibly Aborted, Shocking
Bloody Photo’’ [Anhui fengyang 7 yue da taier bei qiangzhi liuchan xie linlin tupian chumu
jingxin], Sound of Hope, 25 March 13; ChinaAid, ‘‘In Tears, Victim Denounces the Violence Committed by Family Planning Officials in Guizhou in Early 2013,’’ 26 February 13; Zhan Caiqiang,‘‘Hubei Tongshan Woman ‘Sterilized to Death,’ Officials Pay 1,000,000 To Buy Out [Victims’]‘Right To Hold [Them] Accountable’ ’’ [Hubei tongshan—funu ‘‘jieza zhisi’’ guanfang 100 wan
maiduan ‘‘zhuize quanli’’], Yunnan Info Daily, 9 April 13; ‘‘Henan—Nursing Mother Failed To
Pay 6,000 Yuan Protection Fee, Forcibly Sterilized’’ [Henan—buru qi funu weijiao 6 qian yuanbaohu fei bei qiangzhi jieza], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 24 April 13. According to the 1995
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, ‘‘Acts of violence against women also include forced
sterilization and forced abortion, coercive/forced use of contraceptives, female infanticide andprenatal sex selection.’’ Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), adopted at the
Fourth World Conference on Women on 27 October 95, and endorsed by UN General Assembly
resolution 50/203 on 22 December 95, item 115.
60 PRC Population and Family Planning Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo renkou yu jihua
shengyu fa], passed 29 December 01, effective 1 September 02, arts. 4, 39. Article 4 of the PRC
Population and Family Planning Law (PFPL) states that officials ‘‘shall perform their administrative duties strictly in accordance with the law, and enforce the law in a civil manner, andthey may not infringe upon the legitimate rights and interests of citizens.’’ Article 39 states that
an official is subject to criminal or administrative punishment if he or she ‘‘infringes on a citizen’s personal rights, property rights, or other legitimate rights and interests’’ or ‘‘abuses hisor her power, neglects his or her duty, or engages in malpractices for personal gain’’ in the implementation of population planning policies.
61 Yan Shuang, ‘‘Fury Over Forced Abortion,’’ Global Times, 14 June 12. For one U.S. scholar’sanalysis of Chinese law with regard to forced abortions, see Stanley Lubman, ‘‘The Law on
Forced Abortion in China: Few Options for Victims,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 4 July 12.
62 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in China,’’ May 2013,23–24.
63 National People’s Congress Standing Committee, Decision of the National People’s CongressStanding Committee on the Strict Prohibition of Prostitution and Whoring [Quanguo renmin
daibiao dahui changwu weiyuanhui guanyu yanjin maiyin piaochang de jueding], issued and effective 4 September 09; PRC Public Security Administration Punishment Law [Zhonghua
renmin gongheguo zhian guanli chufa fa], passed 28 August 05, effective 1 March 06, arts. 66,
67, 74. See also Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in China,’’
14 May 13, 14.
64 Ministry of Supervision, Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, Ministry of Public Security, Regulations on the Discipline of Policemen [Gongan jiguan renmin jingcha jilu
tiaoling], issued 21 April 10, effective 1 June 10, art. 11. See also Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘Swept
Away’: Abuses Against Sex Workers in China,’’ 14 May 13, 23.
65 Human Rights in China, Asia Monitor Resource Centre, China Labour Bulletin, and Hong
Kong Industrial Committee, ‘‘Report on Implementation of CEDAW in the People’s Republic ofChina,’’ December 1998, 6.

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Notes to Section II—Human Trafficking
1 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime, adopted by General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 00, entered into force 25
December 03. This protocol is also commonly referred to as the Palermo Protocol because it was
adopted in Palermo, Italy, in 2000.
2 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking
in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 128–129.
3 Ibid., 128. See also, for example, ‘‘Wisconsin Restaurant Owner Charged With Human Trafficking,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Wisconsin Gazette, 18 April 13; ‘‘Chinese Chef Slave
Forced To Sleep in Cage in Amsterdam,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in South China Morning Post, 22 February 13; ‘‘Trial Against Chinese Traffickers,’’ Austrian Times, 15 January 13.
4 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking
in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 128. See also, e.g., Phillip Martin, ‘‘Human Trafficking: Taken Into China,’’ WGBH, 22 January 13; ‘‘China Arrests Traffickers of N. Korean
Women,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 17 January 13; ‘‘Myanmar’s Trafficked Brides Fill China’s Shortage of
Women,’’ TrustLaw, 4 December 12; Zhang Yan, ‘‘Efforts Boosted Against Human Trafficking,’’
China Daily, 22 January 13.
5 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (UN TIP Protocol), Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime, adopted by General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November
00, entered into force 25 December 03, art. 3. According to Article 3(a) of the UN TIP Protocol,‘‘ ‘Trafficking in persons’ shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction,of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving
or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour orservices, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.’’
6 See, e.g., China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Police Detain Five in Tianjin for Use of Forced Labour,’’
4 December 12; Rao Dehong, ‘‘7 Female Primary School Students From Liangshan Lured To
Work in Dongguan Will Be Returned to School’’ [7 ming liangshan xiaoxue nusheng bei you zhi
dongguan wugong jiang bei jiehui fanxiao shangxue], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 6 December
12.
7 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking
in Persons Report 2012—China,’’ 19 June 12, 118. According to this report, ‘‘The [Chinese] government did not release any statistics relating to the trafficking of forced labor victims or the
trafficking of men.’’
8 ‘‘China’s Top Legislature Ends Bimonthly Session, Adopts Tort Law,’’ Xinhua, 26 December09.
9 Zhang Yan, ‘‘Efforts Boosted Against Human Trafficking,’’ China Daily, 22 January 13. According to this report, ‘‘China has signed the Mekong River Sub-regional Cooperation Anti-trafficking Memo with Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam and Cambodia, to establish annual high-levelexchanges. The ministry has also set up eight border offices with neighboring countries.’’
10 Ibid. According to this report, ‘‘In November, the ministry and the International Organization for Migration, which is based in Switzerland, held a seminar in the Chinese capital attended by 60 frontline police officers from 10 provinces and regions. . . . The team also arranges
regular training with the International Center for Missing and Exploited Children, in the US,
and the US central bureau of Interpol.’’
11 The revised legislation broadens the scope of activity considered punishable for forced laborand strengthens punishments for ‘‘serious’’ crimes of forced labor; however, the legislation still
does not clearly define what constitutes forced labor. PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14 March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended
25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06,
28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 244; ‘‘Eighth Amendment to the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China’’ [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa xiuzheng’an (ba)], 25 February 11,
item 38. See also CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 129.
12 State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13.
13 State Council General Office, ‘‘China’s National Plan of Action on Combating Trafficking in
Women and Children (2008–2012)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai funu ertong xingdong jihua(2008–2012 nian)], 13 December 07.
14 See table titled ‘‘Notable Changes in China’s 2013–2020 Anti-Trafficking Plan of Action’’ fordetailed information on these changes.
15 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 130. According to this report, ‘‘the Chinese
government claimed that out of the 1,400 shelters serving a wide variety of people, including
victims of crime and the homeless, five were dedicated to care for victims of human trafficking;victims also had access to basic services at China’s general-purpose shelter network. The government also reported that two additional shelters were established in [Yunnan province andGuangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region] to protect and assist foreign trafficking victims. However,
the government did not report the number of victims assisted or the services provided to thevictims.’’
16 Ibid. According to this report, ‘‘The government also reported that two additional shelters
were established in [Yunnan province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region] to protect andassist foreign trafficking victims. However, the government did not report the number of victims
assisted or the services provided to the victims.’’

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17 Ibid.
18 Ibid. According to this report, ‘‘The Supreme People’s Court holds both semi-annual and annual training courses on human trafficking and anti-trafficking in provinces in China where
there is a higher prevalence of human trafficking. In July 2012, an anti-trafficking training
course was held in Yunnan province attended by over 300 judges.’’19 ‘‘Laos, China Map Out Measures To Tackle Human Trafficking,’’ Asia News Net, 10 May
13.
20 ‘‘China, Myanmar Step Up Human Trafficking Crackdown,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China
Daily, 15 May 13.
21 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 130. According to this report, ‘‘The government’s lack of transparency prevents an accurate assessment of its efforts; it has never provided
any data on the number of victims it has identified or assisted.’’22 Ibid., 129.
23 Ibid.
24 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2011—Definitions and Methodology,’’ June 2011, 14. According to thisreport, ‘‘Pursuant to the TVPA, governments of countries on Tier 3 may be subject to certain
sanctions, whereby the U.S. government may withhold or withdraw nonhumanitarian, nontrade-related foreign assistance. In addition, countries on Tier 3 may not receive funding forgovernment employees’ participation in educational and cultural exchange programs. Consistent
with the TVPA, governments subject to sanctions would also face U.S. opposition to assistance(except for humanitarian, trade-related, and certain development-related assistance) from international financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World
Bank.’’
25 State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13.
26 Ibid., Sec. 1(1). The 2008–2012 Plan of Action did not contain this phrase. State Council
General Office, ‘‘China’s National Plan of Action on Combating Trafficking in Women and Children (2008–2012)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai funu ertong xingdong jihua (2008–2012 nian)], 13
December 07.
27 This effort is to be headed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Public Security, and the Ministry of Commerce, in cooperation with the All-China Women’s Federation.
State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec.
2.6.2(2).
28 This effort is to be headed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in cooperation with the Supreme People’s Court, the Supreme People’s Procuratorate, the Ministry of Public Security, andthe Ministry of Justice. State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking
in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)],
2 March 13, sec. 2.6.2(6).
29 State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec.
3(2).
30 This work is to be headed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Justice. StateCouncil General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’[Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec. 2.4.2(1).
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 In the 2008–2012 Plan of Action, there had been no mention of family planning. State Council General Office, ‘‘China’s National Plan of Action on Combating Trafficking in Women andChildren (2008–2012)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai funu ertong xingdong jihua (2008–2012 nian)],
13 December 07. In the 2013–2020 Action Plan, however, officials are urged to ‘‘strengthen family planning services and pregnancy management in key areas of human trafficking criminal activity, reduce unexpected pregnancies and out-of-plan births, and immediately report related information.’’ This work is to be headed by the National Population and Family Planning Committee, in cooperation with the Ministry of Public Security and the Ministry of Health. StateCouncil General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’[Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec. 2.1.2(2).
34 The PRC Criminal Law defines trafficking as ‘‘abducting, kidnapping, buying, trafficking in,fetching, sending, or transferring a woman or child, for the purpose of selling the victim.’’ PRC
Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14 March 97,
effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December
02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 240.
35 This work is to be headed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. State Council General Office,‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai
renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec. 2.1.2(3).
36 State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec.
2.1.2(3).
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 This work is to be headed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Justice. StateCouncil General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’[Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec. 2.5.2(1).
42 Ibid.

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43 Victim protection efforts under the ‘‘3P’’ paradigm include rescue, rehabilitation, and reintegration. U.S. Department of State, ‘‘The 3Ps: Prevention, Protection, Prosecution,’’ 27 June
11.
44 This work is to be headed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Justice. StateCouncil General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’[Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec. 2.2.2(1).
45 This work is to be headed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs and the Ministry of Public Security, in cooperation with the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Construction, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Human Resources andSocial Security, the Communist Youth League, and the All-China Women’s Federation. See
State Council General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec.
2.1.2(2).
46 This work is to be headed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Justice. StateCouncil General Office, ‘‘China Action Plan To Combat Trafficking in Persons (2013–2020)’’[Zhongguo fandui guaimai renkou xingdong jihua (2013–2020 nian)], 2 March 13, sec. 2.3.2(4).
47 State Council General Office, ‘‘China’s National Plan of Action on Combating Trafficking in
Women and Children (2008–2012)’’ [Zhongguo fandui guaimai funu ertong xingdong jihua(2008–2012 nian)], 13 December 07, sec. 4.4.2(2).
48 Topics that need to be addressed in domestic legislation to bring it into compliance with
the UN TIP Protocol include protection and rehabilitation of victims of trafficking (see UN TIP
Protocol, Article 6.3), addition of non-physical forms of coercion into the legal definition of trafficking (see UN TIP Protocol, Article 3(a)), commercial sexual exploitation of minors (see UN
TIP Protocol, Article 3(c and d)), and trafficking of men (covered under the definition of ‘‘trafficking in persons’’ in Article 3(a) of the UN TIP Protocol). See UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress
and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United
Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted by General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 00, entered into force 25 December 03. See also Office To Monitor
and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report
2009—China,’’ 16 June 09, 106. ‘‘China’s definition of trafficking does not prohibit . . . offenses
committed against male victims . . . .’’49 The PRC Criminal Law defines trafficking as ‘‘abducting, kidnapping, buying, trafficking in,fetching, sending, or transferring a woman or child, for the purpose of selling the victim.’’ PRC
Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, effective 1 October 97,
amended 14 March 97, 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December 02, 28
February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 240.
50 Ibid., arts. 240, 244, 358. For additional information on this topic, see Office To Monitor
and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report
2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 130. According to this report, ‘‘it remains unclear whether [articles
240, 244, and 358] have prohibited the use of common non-physical forms of coercion, such as
threats of financial or reputational harm, or whether acts such as recruiting, providing, or obtaining persons for compelled prostitution are covered.’’51 PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14
March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, arts. 240(4),244, 358(3). See also Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Departmentof State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 130. ‘‘[I]t remains unclear
whether, under Chinese law, children under the age of 18 in prostitution are considered victimsof trafficking regardless of whether force is involved.’’52 The PRC Criminal Law defines trafficking as ‘‘abducting, kidnapping, buying, trafficking in,fetching, sending, or transferring a woman or child, for the purpose of selling the victim.’’ PRC
Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14 March 97,
effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December
02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 240.
53 Ibid., arts. 244, 358. See also Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S.
Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2009—China,’’ 16 June 09, 106. ‘‘China’s
definition of trafficking does not prohibit non-physical forms of coercion, fraud, debt bondage,
involuntary servitude, forced labor, or offenses committed against male victims, although some
aspects of these crimes are addressed in other articles of China’s criminal law.’’
54 UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized
Crime (UN TIP Protocol), adopted by General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15 November 00,
entered into force 25 December 03, art. 3(a). Article 3(a) of the UN TIP Protocol states: ‘‘ ‘Trafficking in persons’ shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt
of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, offraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or
receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over anotherperson, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.’’
55 The PRC Criminal Law defines trafficking as ‘‘abducting, kidnapping, buying, trafficking in,fetching, sending, or transferring a woman or child, for the purpose of selling the victim.’’ PRC
Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 14 March 97,
effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December
02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 240.
56 ‘‘China Busts Trafficking Ring, 89 Children Rescued,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted inYahoo!, 24 December 12; ‘‘Trial Against Chinese Traffickers,’’ Austrian Times, 15 January 13;‘‘China Arrests Traffickers of N. Korean Women,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 17 January 13.

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57 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 130. According to this report, ‘‘While trafficking crimes could perhaps be prosecuted under general statutes related to fraud and deprivation of liberty, authorities did not report using these specific provisions to prosecute and punish
trafficking offenders. The government reported law enforcement statistics that included incarceration of sex and labor trafficking offenders involving women and children victims. The government reported that police cracked down on 10,000 alleged human trafficking organized crimegroups and placed over 80,000 alleged suspects in criminal detention. However, due to the government’s continued conflation of human smuggling, child abduction, and fraudulent adoptions
with trafficking offenses and its lack of judicial due process and transparency, it is difficult toascertain how many trafficking cases the government actually investigated and prosecuted during the reporting period. It therefore was difficult to accurately assess Chinese anti-trafficking
law enforcement efforts, including the government’s statistics on trafficking related investigations, prosecutions, and convictions.’’
58 ‘‘Left Behind Children Become High Risk Group for Trafficking, Expert Suggests ‘Criminal
Punishment for Child Buying’ ’’ [Liushou ertong cheng bei guai gaowei qunti zhuanjia jianyi‘‘maitong ruxing’’], Southern Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 27 May 13; ‘‘63 Trafficked Children Rescued in China,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Internet Information Center, 10 March 13;‘‘89 Children Rescued in Chinese Trafficking Ring Bust,’’ Xinhua, 24 December 12.
59 The end result of exploitation is one of the required elements of a trafficking case under
Article 3 of the UN TIP Protocol. UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention
against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted by General Assembly resolution 55/25 of 15
November 00, entered into force 25 December 03, art. 3(c).
60 CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 175. For more information on distinctions between ‘‘human smuggling’’ and ‘‘human trafficking,’’ see U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, ‘‘Fact Sheet: Human Smuggling and Trafficking,’’ 16 January 13.
61 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons and Migrant Smuggling,’’ last visited 2 July 13.
62 Ibid.
63 Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 130.
64 Ibid., 130–31. According to this report, ‘‘Chinese authorities continued to forcibly repatriate
North Korean refugees. The government continued to treat North Koreans found in China asillegal economic migrants, despite credible independent reporting that many North Korean female refugees in China are trafficking victims. The government detained and deported such refugees to North Korea, where they may face severe punishment, even death, including in North
Korean forced labor camps. The Chinese government did not provide North Korean trafficking
victims with legal alternatives to repatriation. Chinese authorities sometimes prosecuted citizens who assisted North Korean refugees and trafficking victims, as well as those who facilitated illegal border crossings.’’
65 Xinhua reported in March 2013 that China’s sex ratio at birth in 2012 was 117.7 [as provided in source] males for every 100 females, down from 117.78 in 2011, 117.94 in 2010, and119.45 in 2009. See ‘‘China’s Sex Ratio at Birth Declines 4 Years in a Row,’’ Xinhua, 5 March
13. According to a March 2012 China Daily article, ‘‘it is estimated that by 2020, China will
have 24 million more men than women of marriageable age.’’ Shan Juan, ‘‘Gender Imbalance
Set To Ease,’’ China Daily, 30 March 12. A previous study issued by the Chinese Academy ofSocial Sciences reported that, by 2020, the number of Chinese males of marriageable age may
exceed the number of Chinese females of marriageable age by 30 to 40 million. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ‘‘Difficulty Finding a Wife in 10 Years: 1 Out of Every 5 Men To Be
a Bare Branch’’ [10 nian zhihou quqi nan, 5 ge nanren zhong jiuyou 1 ge guanggun], 27 January
10.
66 ‘‘China’s Sex Ratio at Birth Declines 4 Years in a Row,’’ Xinhua, 5 March 13. See also Mikhail Lipatov et al., ‘‘Economics, Cultural Transmission, and the Dynamics of the Sex Ratio at
Birth in China,’’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 105, No. 49 (December 2008), 19171. According to this study, ‘‘The root of the [sex ratio]
problem lies in a 2,500-year-old culture of son preference.’’ Wei Xing Zhu et al., ‘‘China’s Excess
Males, Sex Selective Abortion and One Child Policy: Analysis of Data From 2005 National Intercensus Survey,’’ British Medical Journal, 9 April 09, 4–5.
67 See, e.g., Office To Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State,‘‘Trafficking in Persons Report 2013—China,’’ 19 June 13, 129. According to the report, ‘‘The
Chinese government’s birth limitation policy and a cultural preference for sons, create a skewed
sex ratio of 118 boys to 100 girls in China, which served as a key source of demand for the
trafficking of foreign women as brides for Chinese men and for forced prostitution.’’ See also‘‘The Burmese Brides Trafficked Into China To Marry Total Strangers,’’ Metro UK, 11 February
13. According to this report, ‘‘ ‘Because of the one child policy, Chinese people prefer to havea male, rather than a female. There’s a big gap. That’s why rural Chinese men are trying to
get a bride from other countries, like Burma, Vietnam or Cambodia. Burma is one of the mainones.’ Police Colonel Nyunt Hlaing, from Burma’s Transnational Crime Department’s anti-trafficking unit, said: ‘China’s one-child policy is the main cause of the problem.’ ’’
68 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, ‘‘Difficulty Finding a Wife in 10 Years: 1 Out of Every
5 Men To Be a Bare Branch’’ [10 nian zhihou quqi nan, 5 ge nanren zhong jiuyou 1 geguanggun], 27 January 10.
69 ‘‘Chinese Women Taught To Avoid People-Traffickers,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily,
8 March 10.
70 ‘‘The Burmese Brides Trafficked Into China To Marry Total Strangers,’’ Metro UK, 11 February 13. According to one person cited in this report, ‘‘Women become brokers because they
can approach the young women and cultivate their trust . . . people are desperate to get out

243of poverty.’’ See also Kathleen E. McLaughlin, ‘‘Borderland: Sex Trafficking on the ChinaMyanmar Border,’’ Global Post, 26 October 10; ‘‘Women Tricked, Trafficked Into China,’’ RadioFree Asia, 4 March 11; Zhang Yan, ‘‘More Women Kidnapped for Brides,’’ China Daily, 3 December 11. According to the China Daily report, ‘‘[the director of the Ministry of Public Security’s
anti-trafficking office] said the lack of natural barriers, such as rivers or mountains in the border areas between China and Southeast Asian countries, in addition to poverty in some regionsin these countries, contribute to the rising trafficking of foreign women.’’71 Echo Hui, ‘‘Websites Sell Burmese Brides to Chinese Bachelors,’’ Irrawaddy, 12 December
12.
72 Zhang Yan, ‘‘Efforts Boosted Against Human Trafficking,’’ China Daily, 22 January 13.
73 Ibid.
74 Rao Dehong, ‘‘7 Female Primary School Students From Liangshan Lured To Work in
Dongguan Will Be Returned to School’’ [7 ming liangshan xiaoxue nusheng bei you zhi dongguan
wugong jiang bei jiehui fanxiao shangxue], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 6 December 12;
Michelle FlorCruz, ‘‘Weibo: How China’s Twitter Has the Power To Save Children, and Why
That Worries the Government,’’ International Business Times, 6 December 12.
75 Phillip Martin, ‘‘Human Trafficking: Taken Into China,’’ WGBH, 22 January 13.
76 ‘‘Myanmar’s Trafficked Brides Fill China’s Shortage of Women,’’ TrustLaw, 4 December 12.
For additional stories of Burmese women trafficked into China for forced marriage, see Tyler
Chapman, ‘‘Speaking Out To Combat Trafficking,’’ Radio Free Asia, 30 November 12; Echo Hui,‘‘Websites Sell Burmese Brides to Chinese Bachelors,’’ Irrawaddy, 12 December 12; ‘‘The Burmese Brides Trafficked Into China To Marry Total Strangers,’’ Metro UK, 11 February 13.
77 ‘‘Jilin Yanji Criminal Gang Trafficking 20 Foreign Women Caught, Culprits Had Been Trafficked’’ [Jilin yanji tuanhuo guaimai 20 ming waiji funu bei zhua zhufan ceng bei guai],
NetEase, 16 January 13.
78 ‘‘China Arrests Traffickers of N. Korean Women,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 17 January 13.

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Notes to Section II—North Korean Refugees in China
1 Patrick Goodenough, ‘‘China Spurns U.N. Criticism After Sending N. Korean Refugees Backto Uncertain Fate,’’ CNS News, 4 June 13; ‘‘North Korean Workers in China Face Stepped-Up
Restrictions,’’ Radio Free Asia, 15 March 13.
2 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Ministry of State Security, People’s Republic of China
Ministry of Public Security, Mutual Cooperation Protocol for the Work of Maintaining National
Security and Social Order in the Border Area, signed 12 August 86, art. 4, reprinted in North
Korea Freedom Coalition. The protocol commits each side to treat as illegal those border crossers who do not have proper visa certificates, except in cases of ‘‘calamity or unavoidable factors.’’
According to a report commissioned by the UNHCR, the validity of ‘‘this document cannot be
authenticated, but it does not seem implausible.’’ James Seymour, ‘‘China: Background Paperon the Situation of North Koreans in China,’’ commissioned by UNHCR, Protection Information
Section, January 2005, 13.
3 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951 Convention), 28 July 51 by the UN
Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons convened under
General Assembly resolution 429(V) of 14 December 50, arts. 1, 33. Article 1 of the 1951 Convention defines a refugee as someone who, ‘‘owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted forreasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwillingto avail himself of the protection of that country . . . .’’ Article 33 of the 1951 Convention mandates that ‘‘[n]o Contracting State shall expel or return (‘refouler’) a refugee in any mannerwhatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.’’ UN Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees (1967 Protocol), adopted by UN General
Assembly resolution A/RES/2198 of 16 December 66, entry into force 4 October 67. The Chinese
government acceded to the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol in September 1982, but has
not adopted legislation to implement the treaties.
4 Andrei Lankov, ‘‘Kim Cracks Open Refugee Issue,’’ Asia Times, 5 January 13; Hazel Smith,
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, ‘‘Explaining North Korean Migration to
China,’’ November 2012, 3; Roberta Cohen, ‘‘North Koreans in China in Need of International
Protection,’’ Forced Migration Review, reprinted in Brookings Institution, December 2012; ‘‘Park
Geun-hye Will Discuss North Korean Refugee Issue With Xi Jinping in Visit to China’’ [Piaojinhui fanghua jiang yu xi jinping tan tuobeizhe wenti], Duowei, 19 June 13.
5 Kwanwoo Jun, ‘‘North Korean Defector Arrivals Plunge in South in 2012,’’ Wall Street Journal, 2 January 13; Zhao Jiayue, ‘‘China North Korean Border: Buying ‘North Korean Refugees’
To Be Wives’’ [Zhong chao bianjing: mai ‘‘tuobeizhe’’ dang xifu], Southern People Weekly, reprinted in Ta Kung Pao, 14 March 13; Matthew Pennington, ‘‘US To Press China Over Repatriation of NKoreans,’’ Associated Press, 22 April 13; ‘‘China Arrests Traffickers of N.Korean
Women,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 17 January 13. For reports on past campaigns to crack down on North
Korean refugees in China, see, e.g., CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 108; CECC,
2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 131; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October 10, 140–41.
6 Life Fund For North Korean Refugees, ‘‘China Promises Bounty on All NK Refugees Turned
In,’’ 31 April 13; Zhao Jiayue, ‘‘China North Korean Border: Buying ‘North Korean Refugees’
To Be Wives’’ [Zhong chao bianjing: mai ‘‘tuobeizhe’’ dang xifu], Southern People Weekly, reprinted in Ta Kung Pao, 14 March 13.
7 Life Fund For North Korean Refugees, ‘‘China Promises Bounty on All NK Refugees Turned
In,’’ 31 April 13.
8 Zhao Jiayue, ‘‘China North Korean Border: Buying ‘North Korean Refugees’ To Be Wives’’[Zhong chao bianjing: mai ‘‘tuobeizhe’’ dang xifu], Southern People Weekly, reprinted in Ta
Kung Pao, 14 March 13.
9 ‘‘ ‘Ice’ Use Spreads, Worsening North Korea’s Drug Addiction Problem,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19
September 13; ‘‘Crystal Meth and Tesco,’’ Economist, 16 February 13; ‘‘NK’s Massive Drug Trafficking Angers China: Source,’’ Dong-A Ilbo, 5 July 11; ‘‘Revealed: How is North Korea Circulating Methamphetamines into the Northeast? China is Furious’’ [Jiemi: chaoxian ruhe xiang
dongbei toufang bingdu? Zhongguo fanu le], Phoenix Weekly, reprinted in Wenxuecity, 15 October 11; ‘‘Jilin Yanji Criminal Gang Trafficking 20 Foreign Women Caught, Culprits Had Been
Trafficked’’ [Jilin yanji tuanhuo guaimai 20 ming waiji funu bei zhua zhu fan ceng bei guai],
New Culture News, reprinted in NetEase, 16 January 13.
10 Cho Jong Ik, ‘‘Defection a Major Concern for the Kims,’’ Daily NK, 10 December 12; Lee
Sang Yong, ‘‘NSA Tracking China Permit Violators,’’ Daily NK, 6 November 12. For reports on
previous collaboration between Chinese and North Korean security officials, see, e.g., CECC,
2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 108; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 131.
11 Cho Jong Ik, ‘‘Defection a Major Concern for the Kims,’’ Daily NK, 10 December 12; Lee
Sang Yong, ‘‘NSA Tracking China Permit Violators,’’ Daily NK, 6 November 12.
12 Lee Sang Yong, ‘‘NSA Tracking China Permit Violators,’’ Daily NK, 6 November 12.
13 Choe Sang-Hun, ‘‘Fleeing North Korea Is Becoming Harder,’’ New York Times, 4 January
13.
14 Kwanwoo Jun, ‘‘North Korean Defector Arrivals Plunge in South in 2012,’’ Wall Street Journal, 2 January 13.
15 Ibid.; Courtland Robinson, ‘‘The Curious Case of North Korea,’’ Forced Migration Review,
Edition 43, May 2013, 53–54.
16 ‘‘Defector Numbers Show Slight Rise,’’ Daily NK, 22 July 13; ‘‘N. Korean Defectors in S.
Korea on the Rise,’’ Yonhap News Agency, 21 July 13. According to the Ministry of Unification,a total of 717 refugees entered South Korea in the first half of 2013, a slight increase from 710
in the first half of 2012. However, only 320 refugees entered in the first quarter of 2013, marking a 10 percent decline from 2012. See ‘‘Number of N. Korean Defectors Falls 10%,’’ Yonhap
News Agency, reprinted in Korea Herald, 11 April 13.

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17 The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘‘Report of the Special Rapporteuron the Situation of Human Rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Marzuki
Darsuman,’’ 1 February 13, Annex I, para. 21, 16.
18 Ibid., Annex I, para. 39, 19; Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, ‘‘Repression and Punishment in North Korea: Survey Evidence of Prison Camp Experiences,’’ Politics, Governance, andSecurity Series, No. 20, East-West Center, 5 October 09, 11–12.
19 The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘‘Report of the Special Rapporteuron the Situation of Human Rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Marzuki
Darsuman,’’ 1 February 13, Annex I, para. 39, 19; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘North Korea: Denialof Rights Forces Back Refugees,’’ 30 May 13.
20 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘North Korea: Denial of Rights Forces Back Refugees,’’ 30 May 13;
David Hawk, The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, ‘‘The Hidden Gulag,’’ 2012,
120–21; Esther Felden, ‘‘Tortured, Beaten, Starved: Life in a Korean Gulag,’’ Deutsche Welle,
18 June 13.
21 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘North Korea: Denial of Rights Forces Back Refugees,’’ 30 May 13;
David Hawk, The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, ‘‘The Hidden Gulag,’’ 2012,
123–31.
22 David Hawk, The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, ‘‘The Hidden Gulag,’’ 2012,
119–21; ‘‘Two North Korean Christians Killed for Their Faith,’’ Open Door USA, 18 January 13.
23 David Hawk, ‘‘North Korea’s Hidden Gulag: Interpreting Reports of Changes in the PrisonCamps,’’ The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, 27 August 13, 33; Chico Harlan,‘‘Population of North Korea’s Gulag Has Shrunk, Experts Say,’’ Washington Post, 12 September
13. Some refugee activists estimate would-be refugees account for up to 5 percent of the total
North Korean prison population, with one North Korean human rights researcher pointing toa ‘‘five-fold rise’’ in the number of detained refugees over the last 10 years. Chris Brummitt,‘‘ ‘Tightening the Noose’: Crackdown on Defectors Fills North Korean Prison Camps,’’ AssociatedPress, reprinted in NBC News, 12 June 13.
24 Under the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol, the Chinese government is obligated torefrain from repatriating refugees ‘‘sur place.’’ UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights, ‘‘Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951
Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees,’’ January 1992, Section
B(4)(b), paras. 94–105.
25 UN Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, adopted by the UN General Assembly 10 December 84, entry into force 26 June
87, art. 3. Article 3 states that ‘‘No State Party shall expel, return (‘refouler’) or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture.’’ The Chinese government ratified the Convention on 4 October88.
26 Courtland Robinson and Keumsoon Lee, ‘‘Population Estimation of North Korean Refugees
and Migrants and Children Born to North Korean Women in Northeast China: Results from a2012 Study in Heilongjiang Province,’’ Korea Institute for National Unification (KINU), 12
March 13, 5, 21, 24. Robinson and Lee estimate between 80 and 90 percent of the North Koreanborn population in northeast China are women. Brian Marten, ‘‘Perilous Passage: Human Trafficking and the ‘Underground Railroad,’ ’’ NK News, 11 February 13; Journalist and writer
Melanie Kirkpatrick estimates 75 percent of North Korean refugees in China are women. Kim
So Yeol, ‘‘An Interview with Christian Activist Tim Peters, Founder of Helping Hands,’’ Network
for North Korean Democracy and Human Rights, 27 February 13. North Korean refugee activist
Tim Peters estimates between 70 and 80 percent of North Korean refugees in China are women.
For cases of trafficking and abuse of female refugees, see Kim Kwang Jin, ‘‘2 Murdered in
Human Trafficking Incident,’’ Daily NK, 3 January 13; Zhao Jiayue, ‘‘China North Korean Border: Buying ‘North Korean Refugees’ To Be Wives’’ [Zhong chao bianjing: mai ‘‘tuobeizhe’’ dangxifu], Southern People Weekly, reprinted in Ta Kung Pao, 14 March 13.
27 Melanie Kirkpatrick, Escape From North Korea: The Untold Story of Asia’s Underground
Railroad (New York: Encounter Books, 2012), 83; ‘‘China Arrests Traffickers of N.Korean
Women,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 17 January 13.
28 Melanie Kirkpatrick, Escape From North Korea: The Untold Story of Asia’s Underground
Railroad (New York: Encounter Books, 2012), 83; Brian Marten, ‘‘Perilous Passage: Human Trafficking and the ‘Underground Railroad,’ ’’ NK News, 11 February 13; Markus Bell, ‘‘Empire andTrafficking in Northeast Asia,’’ Foreign Policy in Focus, reprinted in Asia Times, 5 June 13.
29 Catherine Porter, ‘‘A North Korean Refugee’s Tale of Tragedy and Bravery,’’ Toronto Star,
23 May 13; ‘‘China Arrests Traffickers of N.Korean Women,’’ Chosun Ilbo, 17 January 13; Brian
Marten, ‘‘Perilous Passage: Human Trafficking and the ‘Underground Railroad,’ ’’ NK News, 11
February 13.
30 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (1951 Convention), 28 July 51 by the UN
Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons convened under
General Assembly resolution 429(V) of 14 December 50, arts. 1, 31–33; UN Protocol Relating
to the Status of Refugees (1967 Protocol), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution A/RES/
2198 of 16 December 66, entry into force 4 October 67.
31 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women andChildren (UN TIP Protocol), supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime, adopted and opened for signature, ratification, and accession
by General Assembly resolution A/RES/55/25 of 15 November 2000, entry into force 29 September 03, art. 7.
32 Courtland Robinson and Keumsoon Lee, ‘‘Population Estimation of North Korean Refugees
and Migrants and Children Born to North Korean Women in Northeast China: Results Froma 2012 Study in Heilongjiang Province,’’ Korea Institute for National Unification (KINU), 12
March 13, 6.

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33 Ibid.;

Life Fund for North Korean Refugees, ‘‘Stateless Foster Children in China,’’ 1 June

13.
34 Courtland Robinson and Keumsoon Lee, ‘‘Population Estimation of North Korean Refugees

and Migrants and Children Born to North Korean Women in Northeast China: Results Froma 2012 Study in Heilongjiang Province,’’ Korea Institute for National Unification (KINU), 12
March 13, 29–30.
35 Ibid., 27; Christine Hong, ‘‘The Fiction of the North Korean Refugee Orphan,’’ US-Korea Institute at SAIS, 38 North (blog), 19 September 12; Cho Jung-hyun et al., Korea Institute for
National Unification (KINU), ‘‘White Paper on Human Rights in North Korea—2013,’’ July 2013,468.
36 Courtland Robinson and Keumsoon Lee, ‘‘Population Estimation of North Korean Refugees
and Migrants and Children Born to North Korean Women in Northeast China: Results Froma 2012 Study in Heilongjiang Province,’’ Korea Institute for National Unification (KINU), 12
March 13, 6; Life Fund for North Korean Refugees, ‘‘Stateless Foster Children in China,’’ 1 June
13.
37 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the UN General Assembly resolution
44/25 of 20 November 89, entry into force 2 September 90, art. 9. Article 9 calls on state partiesto ‘‘ensure that a child shall not be separated from his or her parents against their will.’’ The
Chinese government ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child on March 2, 1992.

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Notes to Section II—Public Health
1 Keith Bradsher, ‘‘China’s Actions in Flu Cases Draw Critics,’’ New York Times, 10 April 13;
Yanzhong Huang, ‘‘The Rise of a Deadly New Strain of Bird Flu: Has China Handled This Properly So Far? ’’ Council on Foreign Relations, Asia Unbound (blog), 1 April 13.
2 Keith Bradsher, ‘‘China’s Actions in Flu Cases Draw Critics,’’ New York Times, 10 April 13;
Amy Li, ‘‘Shanghai Stifled Flu ‘Rumours’ in Early Days, Says Report,’’ South China Morning
Post, 10 April 13.
3 Lisa Schnirring, Center for Infectious Disease Research & Policy, University of Minnesota,‘‘Global Health Groups Weigh in on H7N9 Threat,’’ 20 May 13. World Health Organization(WHO) Director-General Margaret Chan reportedly ‘‘praised China’s quick response and its
transparency in sharing clinical investigation and virus information with the global health community.’’ Natasha Khan and Daryl Loo, ‘‘Deadly Lessons From SARS Spur Global Reaction to
Bird Flu,’’ Bloomberg, 9 April 13; Food and Drug Safety, Public Health and the Environment,
Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 22 May 13, Testimony of Rear
Admiral Anne Schuchat, M.D., Director, National Center for Immunization & Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 3–4, 6–7.
4 Natasha Khan and Daryl Loo, ‘‘Deadly Lessons From SARS Spur Global Reaction to Bird
Flu,’’ Bloomberg, 9 April 13; Food and Drug Safety, Public Health and the Environment, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 22 May 13, Testimony of Rear Admiral Anne Schuchat, M.D., Director, National Center for Immunization & Respiratory Diseases,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,4, 6.
5 Gonghuan Yang et al., ‘‘Rapid Health Transition in China 1990–2010: Findings from the
Global Burden of Disease Study,’’ Lancet, Vol. 381, Issue No. 9882 (2013), 1987–2015.
6 Wei Mingyan, ‘‘ ‘Economic Development Can’t Come at the Cost of the People’s Health’ ’’[‘‘Jingji fazhan buneng yi minzhong jiankang wei daijia’’], Beijing News, 29 June 13. According
to the Beijing News, findings from an eight-year research study commissioned by the StateCouncil found higher than average cancer rates along the Huai River.
7 Edward Wong, ‘‘Pollution Leads to Drop in Life Span in Northern China, Study Finds,’’ New
York Times, 8 July 13. Wong cites to a study, ‘‘Evidence on the Impact of Sustained Exposure
to Air Pollution on Life Expectancy From China’s Huai River Policy,’’ published in the U.S.
Science journal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, based on data analysis of Chinese sources from 1981 through 2001. See Yuyu Chen et al., ‘‘Evidence on the Impact of Sustained Exposure to Air Pollution on Life Expectancy From China’s Huai River Policy,’’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 110, No. 32 (8 July 13), 12936–12941.
8 Zhao Yinan, ‘‘Food, Medicine Safety Cases on Rise,’’ China Daily, 1 August 12; Pew Global
Attitudes Project, Pew Research Center, ‘‘Growing Concerns in China About Inequality, Corruption,’’ 16 October 12. According to the 2012 Pew research report, ‘‘[f]our years ago, just 12%
rated food safety a very big problem; today, it’s 41%. The percentage expressing very serious
concerns about the safety of medicine has more than tripled, from 9% in 2008 to 28% today.’’
9 E Fan, ‘‘Food Products Remain Greatest Source of Worry, Improving Social Security Is Obvious’’ [Shipin reng shi zuida bu’an shehui zhi’an gaishan mingxian], Xiaokang Magazine, Vol. 6,
3 June 13. Based on Xiaokang Magazine’s research, food safety and medical care are first andsecond place among the top five concerns among the Chinese public. See, e.g., ‘‘Survey: Only
10% of Chinese Patients Trust Doctors’’ [Diaocha: zhongguo jin 10% de huanzhe xinren yisheng],
Radio Free Asia, 18 March 13. According to a survey in Shandong raised by members of theChinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, credibility in the health system includes alow level of trust in medical doctors and a high rate of disputes over medical treatment.
10 ‘‘China’s Shaken Trust,’’ Wall Street Journal, 23 April 13; Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘Inside China’s ‘Cancer Villages,’ ’’ Guardian, 4 June 13; ‘‘Towards Better Health for People in China,’’ Lancet, Vol. 381, No. 9882 (8 June 13), 1959.
11 According to Guardian reporter Jonathan Kaiman, following the Ministry of Environmental
Protection’s February 2013 mention of ‘‘cancer villages’’ in its most recent five-year plan, political leaders ‘‘renounced the report’s wording’’ and urged media censorship at local levels. See
Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘Inside China’s ‘Cancer Villages,’ ’’ Guardian, 4 June 13.
12 Yanzhong Huang, ‘‘Fatal Misperception: How Unsafe Is Chinese Food? ’’ Council on Foreign
Relations, Asia Unbound (blog), 10 July 13; Li Jing, ‘‘People’s Daily Says Chemical Paraxylene
Is No More Harmful Than Coffee,’’ South China Morning Post, 25 June 13.
13 ‘‘China To Merge Health Ministry, Family Planning Commission,’’ Xinhua, 10 March 13.
14 Zan Xin, ‘‘90 CPPCC Members Jointly Propose Retaining Ministry of Health’s OriginalName’’ [90 ming zhengxie weiyuan lianming tiqing baoliu weishengbu yuanming], Caixin, 12
March 13.
15 Lin Yunshi, ‘‘The Name ‘National Health and Family Planning Commission’ Raises Debate’’[‘‘Weisheng he jihua shengyu weiyuanhui’’ mingcheng yin zhengyi], Caixin, 12 March 13.
16 Chen Qiulin, ‘‘Using Institutional Reform To Promote Reform of Family Planning and
Health Care’’ [Yi jigou gaige tuidong jisheng, yiliao gaige], Financial Times, 3 April 13.
17 PRC Mental Health Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jingshen weisheng fa], passed 26
October 12, effective 1 May 13; Zhang Youyi, ‘‘Mental Health Law: A Step Forward,’’ Caijing,
6 November 13. For further information on the 27 years of preparation and debates on the development of the Mental Health Law, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 112–13;
CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 136–38.
18 Michael R. Phillips, ‘‘Can China’s New Mental Health Law Substantially Reduce the Burden of Illness Attributable to Mental Disorders? ’’ Lancet, Vol. 381, No. 9882 (8 June 13), 1964–
1966.
19 Li Qiumeng, ‘‘Civil Society Report Says Mental Health Law Is Insufficient: Guardians’ Authority Too Large’’ [Minjian baogao cheng jingshen weishengfa cun buzu: jianhuren quanli

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guoda], Jinghua Daily, reprinted in Global Times, 13 May 13. See also Michael R. Phillips,
Hanhui Chen, et al., ‘‘China’s New Mental Health Law: Reframing Involuntary Treatment,’’
American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 170, No. 6, 1 June 13, 588–591. According to Phillips etal., ‘‘With the exception of forensic cases (which are regulated according to China’s revised
Criminal Procedures Law), the process of involuntary admission is not directly supervised bya court, but patients and family members are empowered to take the case to court if they believe
the required procedures have been mismanaged. China’s approach may be contrasted with thatof countries that provide direct judicial review of all involuntary admissions and free legal representation.’’ For a comparative analysis on rights protections for the mentally ill in the revised
Criminal Procedure Law and the new Mental Health Law, see Jeremy Daum, ‘‘Still Crazy After
All These Years,’’ China Law Translate, 20 May 13.
20 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Involuntary Commitment: Ankang Regs vs Mental Health Laws,’’
Dui Hua Reference Materials, 29 November 12. See also, Chinese Human Rights Defenders,‘‘ ‘The Darkest Corners’: Abuses of Involuntary Psychiatric Commitment in China,’’ 6 August 12.
21 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing, December 6–13, 2012,’’14 December 12.
22 State Council Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2012–2015),’’ 11 June 12, section III, part 5. In addition to the new Mental Health Law, passed on
October 24, 2012, the State Council passed on June 28, 2012, new Regulations on the Construction of a Barrier-Free Environment. See PRC People’s Republic of China Mental Health Law(Full Text) [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jingshen weisheng fa (quanwen)], passed 26 October
12, effective 1 May 13, Xinhua, 26 October 12; State Council, Regulations on the Constructionof a Barrier-Free Environment [Wu zhang’ai huanjing jianshe tiaoli], passed 13 June 12, effective 1 August 12.
23 State Council Legislative Affairs Commission, Circular on the ‘‘Regulations on the Education of Persons With Disabilities (Amended Draft) (Manuscript) Public Solicitation of Opinions’’ [Canjiren jiaoyu tiaoli (xiuding cao’an) (song shen gao) gongkai zhengqiu yijian de tongzhi],
27 February 13.
24 Equity and Justice Initiative, ‘‘Human Rights Watch Sends Opinion to China State Council
Legislative Affairs Commission Office Regarding ‘Regulations on the Education of Persons with
Disabilities’ Draft Revision’’ [Renquan guancha zuzhi zhi zhongguo guowuyuan fazhi bangongshi
guanyu ‘‘canjiren jiaoyu tiaoli’’ xiuding cao’an de yijian], 31 March 13; Human Rights Watch,‘‘China: Submission by Human Rights Watch to the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council,’’ 18 May 13 (the submission is dated 25 March 13); Sweet Road, ‘‘The Sweet Road: Recommendations for the Draft Revision of the ‘Regulations on Education for Persons With Disabilities’ to the State Council Legislative Affairs Commission’’ [Ganzhilu: wei ‘‘canjiren jiaoyu tiaoli(xiugai cao’an)’’ jianyan zhixin guowuyuan fazhiban], reprinted in Justice for All, 24 March 13;
One Foundation, ‘‘Public Participation in Legislation on Regulations on Education for Persons
With Disabilities, Airing the Voices of Persons With Disabilities’’ [Minjian canyu canji ren jiaoyu
tiaoli lifa, fachu canzhang renshi de shengyin], 20 March 13. According to the One Foundation
article, the One Foundation, One Plus One (Yi Jia Yi), and the Beijing Children’s Legal Aid andResearch Center, together with disability rights advocates, parents of disability rights advocates,and public interest lawyers, jointly submitted recommendations to the Legislative Affairs Commission on the draft Regulations.
25 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Submission by Human Rights Watch to the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council,’’ 18 May 13 (the submission is dated 25 March 13).
26 Ibid. For examples of the definition of reasonable accommodation in several countries’ disability legislation, see UN General Assembly, Ad Hoc Committee on a Comprehensive and Integral International Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities, 7th Session, ‘‘The Concept of Reasonable Accommodation in Selected National Disability Legislation,’’ Department of Economic and Social Affairs, A/AC.265/2006/CRP.1,
7 December 05.
27 Sweet Road, ‘‘The Sweet Road: Recommendations for the Draft Revision of the ‘Regulations
on Education for Persons With Disabilities’ to the State Council Legislative Affairs Commission’’[Ganzhilu: wei ‘‘canjiren jiaoyu tiaoli (xiugai cao’an)’’ jianyan zhixin guowuyuan fazhiban], reprinted in Justice for All, 24 March 13; One Foundation, ‘‘Public Participation in Legislation on
Regulations on Education for Persons With Disabilities, Airing the Voices of Persons With Disabilities’’ [Minjian canyu canji ren jiaoyu tiaoli lifa, fachu canzhang renshi de shengyin], 20
March 13.
28 Sweet Road, ‘‘The Sweet Road: Recommendations for the Draft Revision of the ‘Regulations
on Education for Persons with Disabilities’ to the State Council Legislative Affairs Commission’’[Ganzhilu: wei ‘‘canjiren jiaoyu tiaoli (xiugai cao’an)’’ jianyan zhixin guowuyuan fazhiban], reprinted in Justice for All, 24 March 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Submission by Human
Rights Watch to the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council,’’ 18 May 13 (the submission
is dated 25 March 13).
29 UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Concluding Observations on theInitial Report of China, Adopted by the Committee at Its Eighth Session, 15 October 12.
30 See, e.g., PRC Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo canjiren baozhangfa], passed 28 December 90, amended 24 April 08, effective 1 July08, arts. 3, 25, 30–40; PRC Employment Promotion Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiuye
cujin fa], passed 30 August 07, effective 1 January 08, arts. 3, 29, 30; PRC Law on the Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo chuanranbing fangzhi fa],issued 21 February 89, amended 28 August 04, art. 16; State Council, Regulations on the Treatment and Control of HIV/AIDS [Aizibing fangzhi tiaoli], passed 18 January 06, effective 1 March
06, art. 3. For the Commission’s coverage of health-based discrimination in recent years, see
CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 112–13; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11,
136–37; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October 10, 148–49; and CECC, 2009 Annual Report,
10 October 09, 183–85.

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31 China Labour Bulletin, ‘‘Employment Discrimination in China,’’ 20 November 12; ‘‘More
Than 40% of China’s Rural Disabled Persons Live Below the Poverty Line’’ [Zhongguo you 40%
yishang de nongcun canjiren shenghuo zai pingkun xian yixia], Radio Free Asia, 28 August 12;
Zhang Xuhong, ‘‘Individual With Outstanding Grades Refused Employment, First Case of AIDS
Employment Discrimination in Jiangxi Took Legal Action Yesterday’’ [Chengji youyi xiaohuo zao
julu jiangxi aizibing jiuye qishi diyi an zuo qisu], Jiangxi Daily, 27 November 12.
32 Zhang Han, ‘‘Where Can People Living With HIV Get Operations? ’’ [HIV ganranzhe
shoushutai zai na?], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 20 December 12.
33 For examples of health-based discrimination in access to education, see Liang Chen, ‘‘When
B Is Worse Than F,’’ Global Times, 5 September 12 (Hepatitis B); Huang Yuli, ‘‘Principal Defends Rejecting Autistic Boy,’’ China Daily, 21 September 12 (autism); ‘‘Feeling Their Way,’’
Economist, 13 July 13 (visual impairment); ‘‘AIDS Guarantees Have Not Been Implemented,
Targeted Solutions Are Difficulty Piled Upon Difficulty’’ [Aizibing baozhang wei luoshi jiuzhi
mubiao nan shang nan], Radio Free Asia, 22 November 12 (HIV/AIDS).
34 Can Xin, ‘‘Closer Look: Efforts To Protect HIV/AIDS Patients’ Rights Fall Short,’’ Caixin,
27 November 12.
35 Zheng Xiaoqian and Shi Caiying, ‘‘At Least 20 Provinces and Municipalities Have Teacher
Physical Standards That Might Discriminate Against Persons With Disabilities’’ [Zhishao 20 ge
shengshi jiaoshi zige tijian biaozhun shexian qishi canji ren], Dahe Net, reprinted in Economic
Daily, 10 September 11. See also, ‘‘Many Provinces Stipulate People Suffering From High Blood
Pressure Should Not Become Teachers, Probably Employment Discrimination’’ [Duosheng guiding gaoxieya huanzhe bude dang jiaoshi, she jiuye qishi], Modern Express, reprinted in China
Law Information, 8 January 13.
36 He Dan, ‘‘Disability Rights Advocates Call for Equal Employment,’’ China Daily, 4 December 12.
37 One Plus One, ‘‘Implementation in China of the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities,’’ submission to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights, Committee on the Rights of Persons With Disabilities, 7th Session, March 2012, 20.
38 For an account of long-term advocacy to stop employment discrimination against carriersof Hepatitis B, see Fu Hualing, ‘‘Embedded Socio-Legal Activism in China: The Case of
Yirenping,’’ Hong Kong Law Journal, Vol. 42, Part 2 (2012). On recent efforts of NGOs and disability rights advocates, see ‘‘Jiangxi AIDS Discrimination Case: First To Receive Compensation’’ [Jiangxi aizi qishi di yi an huo buchang], Radio Free Asia, 24 January 13; ‘‘Guangdong’sPlan To Prevent People Infected With Sexually-Transmitted Diseases and HIV/AIDS From
Teaching Raises Debate’’ [Guangdong ni jinzhi huan xingbing aizibingzhe dang jiaoshi yin
zhengyi], Xinhua, reprinted in China Law Information, 7 January 13; ‘‘Guangdong Bureau of
Education Prohibits AIDS Carriers From Becoming Teachers, Public Interest Organization Suggests Abolishing’’ [Guangdong jiaoyuting jin aizibingzhe dang jiaoshi, gongyi zuzhi jianyi
quxiao], Legal Daily, 11 January 13. There also were open government information requests
from disability rights activists on the number of disabled persons hired as civil servants during
the 2013 reporting year. See ‘‘Disabled Youth in Henan Requests the Chinese [Government] Release Information About Civil Service Recruitment of the Disabled’’ [Henan canji qingnian
yaoqiu zhongguo gongbu gongwuyuan luqu canji ren qingkuang], Radio Free Asia, 3 December
12; Jiang Gewei, ‘‘Why Is the Number of Civil Servants Who Are Disabled Persons a State Secret? ’’ [Gongwuyuan zhong canzhang ren shuliang heyi cheng guojia mimi], Hunan Broadcast
Network Legal Weekly, 24 May 13.
39 Wan Jing, ‘‘Six Lawyers Demand an Investigation of the Legality of the Civil Servant Physical Examination Standards’’ [Liu lushi yaoqiu shencha gongwuyuan tijian biaozhun hefaxing
wenti], Legal Daily, 30 November 12. Several of the lawyers who sent the letter were involvedin the four known HIV/AIDS employment discrimination lawsuits. They also noted that employment discrimination violates China’s Employment Promotion Law and the Regulations to Prevent and Control HIV/AIDS.
40 Jiang Gewei, ‘‘Why Is the Number of Civil Servants Who Are Disabled Persons a State Secret? ’’ [Gongwuyuan zhong canzhang ren shuliang heyi cheng guojia mimi], Hunan Broadcast
Network Legal Weekly, 24 May 13.
41 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, adopted by UN General Assembly
resolution 61/106 of 13 December 06, entry into force 3 May 08, art. 24(4), art 27(1). China
signed the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) on March 30, 2007,
and ratified it on August 1, 2008.
42 Zhang Renwang, ‘‘Persons With Disabilities From 19 Provinces and Cities Thank
Guangdong for Eliminating Discriminatory Provisions in the Teacher Physical Examination
Standards’’ [19 shengshi canzhang renshi ganxie yue shanchu jiaoshi tijian canzhang qishi
tiaokuan], Southern Daily, 20 May 13.
43 Zheng Xiaoqian and Shi Caiying, ‘‘At Least 20 Provinces and Municipalities Have Teacher
Physical Standards That Might Discriminate Against Persons With Disabilities’’ [Zhishao 20 ge
shengshi jiaoshi zige tijian biaozhun shexian qishi canji ren], Dahe Net, reprinted in Economic
Daily, 10 September 11. Presumably Guangdong province’s revisions to its teacher physical eligibility standards reduced by at least one the total number of provisions with discriminatory regulations. See also, ‘‘Many Provinces Stipulate People Suffering From High Blood Pressure Should
Not Become Teachers, Probably Employment Discrimination’’ [Duosheng guiding gaoxieya
huanzhe bude dang jiaoshi, huo she jiuye qishi], Modern Express, reprinted in China Law Information, 8 January 13.
44 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Submission by Human Rights Watch to the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council,’’ 18 May 13, no. 6 (the submission is dated 25 March 13).
45 Zhang Han, ‘‘Where Can People Living With HIV Get Operations? ’’ [HIV ganranzhe
shoushutai zai na?], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 20 December 12; ‘‘AIDS Patients Face Discrimination at China Hospitals,’’ Voice of America, 30 November 12.

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46 Zhang Han, ‘‘Where Can People Living With HIV Get Operations? ’’ [HIV ganranzhe
shouxutai zai na?], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 20 December 12.
47 ‘‘China Orders Hospitals To Treat HIV/Aids Patients,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted inSouth China Morning Post, 24 November 12.
48 Ministry of Health, Circular on Strengthening Medical Treatment Services for People Living
With AIDS and Carriers of HIV [Weishengbu guanyu jiaqiang aizibing huanzhe he bingdu
ganranzhe yiliao fuwu gongzuo de tongzhi], 23 November 12.
49 Wen Ya, ‘‘MOH’s Notice Not Enough To Help HIV/AIDS Patients: NGOs,’’ Global Times,
26 November 12.

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Notes to Section II—The Environment
1 National Development and Reform Commission, ‘‘Report on the Implementation of the 2012
Plan for National Economic and Social Development and on the 2013 Draft Plan for National
Economic and Social Development,’’ reprinted in Wall Street Journal, 5 March 13, 5. The reportstated that in 2012 the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide decreased by 4.52 percent
and 2.77 percent, respectively; that chemical oxygen demand and ammonia nitrogen in water
decreased by 3.05 percent and 2.62 percent, respectively; and that carbon dioxide emissions perunit of GDP decreased by 5.02 percent. The report also indicated some advances in afforestationand grassland restoration, and increases in daily capacity of wastewater and garbage treatment.
For additional information on environmental conditions in China, see the Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘2012 Report on China’s Environmental Conditions’’ [2012 Zhongguo
huanjing zhuangkuang gongbao], 28 May 13 (click on link to PDF); and for information on ‘‘ecological progress,’’ see the State Council Information Office, ‘‘Progress in China’s Human Rights
in 2012,’’ reprinted in Xinhua, 14 May 13, sec. 5.
2 Edward Wong, ‘‘Cost of Environmental Damage in China Growing Rapidly Amid Industrialization,’’ New York Times, 29 March 13. Degradation reportedly cost China 3.5 percent of GDP
in 2010, three times as much as it did in 2004.
3 Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘2012 Report on China’s Environmental Conditions’’[2012 Zhongguo huanjing zhuangkuang gongbao], 28 May 13, 21 (click on link to PDF).
4 Ministry of Civil Affairs, ‘‘Ministry of Civil Affairs, Office of the National Disaster Reduction
Commission Issues 2013 First Quarter National Disaster Situation’’ [Minzheng bu, guojia jianzai
weiyuanhui bangongshi fabu 2013 nian yijidu quanguo zaiqing], 8 April 13. China reportedly
experienced 11 instances of very visible, large-scale ‘‘foggy and hazy’’ skies, the most since 1961,
that affected 20 provinces during the winter months and lasted for a total of 20 to more than
30 days depending on the area.
5 Alexander Martin, ‘‘Kumamoto Residents Stay Indoors Amid China Pollution Fears,’’ WallStreet Journal, 5 March 13. Japanese officials suggested residents on one island stay in theirhomes because pollution surpassed safety standards.
6 Edward Wong, ‘‘In China, Widening Discontent Among the Communist Party Faithful,’’ New
York Times, 19 January 13; Edward Wong, ‘‘China Lets Media Report on Air Pollution Crisis,’’New York Times, 14 January 13; Barbara Finamore et al., ‘‘Air Pollution Crisis Gives New Momentum to Environmental Regulation in China,’’ Natural Resources Defense Council, Switchboard Blog (Barbara Finamore’s blog), 22 February 13.
7 Yang Wanli and Qiu Quanlin, ‘‘A New Environment for Fight Against Pollution,’’ China
Daily, 19 March 13. According to the China Daily report, air pollution was a hot topic at themeetings of the National People’s Congress and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Congress, with at least 20 deputies including the topic in their speeches. Wang Tao, ‘‘The Flavorof the ‘Atmosphere’ During the Political Season of the Two Sessions’’ [Lianghui zhengzhi jili de‘‘kongqi’’ weidao], Southern Weekend, 1 March 13; Sun Siya, ‘‘Environmental Protection Becomes CPPCC Hot Proposal; Conference Members Suggest Adding Environmental Rights toConstitution’’ [Huanbao cheng zhengxie ti’an redian weiyuan jianyi gongmin huanjing quan ruxian], Beijing Times, reprinted in China Environmental News, 3 March 13.
8 Barbara Finamore et al., ‘‘Air Pollution Crisis Gives New Momentum to Environmental Regulation in China,’’ Natural Resources Defense Council, Switchboard Blog (Barbara Finamore’s
blog), 22 February 13. According to this article, the episodes of serious air pollution prompted
the government to move forward with tougher fuel standards and to advance revisions to the
PRC Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The Ministry of Environmental Protection alsoplans to issue stricter emission control standards for certain heavily polluting industries.
9 Edward Wong, ‘‘Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China,’’ New YorkTimes, 1 April 13. This NYT article reported that in 2010 what was called ‘‘ambient particulatematter pollution’’ was the fourth-leading risk factor linked to deaths, and outdoor pollution wasa factor in 1.2 million premature deaths the same year. Verna Yu, ‘‘Judge Officials on Health,Environment Too: Expert,’’ South China Morning Post, 7 March 13. The SCMP reported thata doctor in China said air pollution was a major contributor to respiratory diseases. ‘‘Law
Amendment Urged To Combat Air Pollution,’’ China Internet Information Center, reprinted in
Ministry of Environmental Protection, 25 February 13. The article reported that the Beijing
Health Bureau showed air pollution was among the main causes for a 56 percent surge in lungcancer rates between 2001 and 2010. Greenpeace, ‘‘Dangerous Breathing: PM2.5: Measuring the
Human Health and Economic Impacts on China’s Largest Cities,’’ 18 December 12. The
Greenpeace report stated that the PM2.5 levels (particulate matter with a diameter smaller than
2.5 μm) in certain regions in China during selected periods were two to four times higher thanthe World Health Organization’s air quality guidelines.
10 Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘ ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan on Prevention and Control ofEnvironmental Risks From Chemicals’’ [Huaxuepin huanjing fengxian fangkong ‘‘shierwu’’
guihua], issued 7 February 13. Fifty-one percent of the sudden environmental accidents that occurred between 2008 and 2011 were linked to hazardous chemicals.
11 Ibid. This follows a similar acknowledgement in 2010 linking pollution along the Huai River
with the high number of cancerous tumors found in residents along the river as described in
the Caijing article below. Xu Chao, ‘‘The Relationship Between Huai River Basin Pollution andCancer Basically Established’’ [Huaihe liuyu wuran yu aizheng guanxi jiben zhengshi], Caijing,
27 December 10.
12 Feng Jie and Wang Tao, ‘‘Groundwater Contamination Prevention and Control’s ‘Underground History’ ’’ [Dixiashui fangzhi de ‘‘dixia shi’’], Southern Weekend, 28 February 13; Wang
Qian and Li Jing, ‘‘Groundwater Gets Worse, Land Agency Says,’’ China Daily, 21 October 11.
According to the China Daily article, in 2011, authorities reportedly classified as bad more than
57 percent of the groundwater monitored in 182 cities.

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13 Luna Lin, ‘‘Beijing Campaigners Praise ‘Unexpected’ Release of Water Quality Data,’’
Chinadialogue, 4 April 13.
14 Li Tianyang, ‘‘Li Tianyang: Must Find Out About the Real Situation and Move Forward To
Remediate Groundwater’’ [Li tianyang: dixiashui wuran zhengzhi yao yu modi bingjin], BeijingTimes, reprinted in Southern Net, 22 April 13.
15 Xie Qingyu, ‘‘Before the End of This Year Pearl River Delta Will Introduce Comprehensive
Soil Pollution Control’’ [Zhusanjiao jinnian di qian shishi turang wuran zonghe zhili], Southern
Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 14 June 13.
16 ‘‘China’s Toxic Rice Bowl,’’ Wall Street Journal, 22 May 13; Josh Chin and Te-Ping Chen,‘‘Officials Try To Calm Rice Fears,’’ Wall Street Journal, 22 May 13; Brian Spegele, ‘‘China To
Survey Soil Amid Fears Over Rice,’’ Wall Street Journal, 12 June 13. The May 2013 revelationthat in Guangzhou municipality more than 40 percent of a small number of samples of rice soldon the market were contaminated with cadmium raised anxieties about soil pollution.
17 Tania Branigan, ‘‘Chinese Pollution Study ‘Blocked on Grounds of State Secrecy,’ ’’ Guardian, 26 February 13; Dong Zhengwei, ‘‘Ministry of Environmental Protection Indicates Methodology of Soil Pollution Survey Factor in Not Disclosing Data on Prevention and Control Measures’’ [Huanbaobu gaozhi turang wuran diaocha fangfa chengyin fangzhi cuoshi shuju bu
gongkai], Sina Blogs (Dong Zhengwei’s blog), 25 February 13. For more information on Dong
Zhengwei’s open government information request and application for administrative reconsideration, and the official response, see Dong Zhengwei, ‘‘Administrative Reconsideration Requests
Ministry of Environmental Protection To Disclose Information on Soil Pollution Survey Data’’[Xingzheng fuyi qingqiu huanbaobu gongkai turang wuran diaocha shuju xinxi], Sina Blogs(Dong Zhengwei’s blog), 27 February 13; Dong Zhengwei, ‘‘Ministry of Environmental Protection
Acknowledges Nationwide Soil Contamination Survey Data Should Be Made Public’’[Huanbaobu queren quanguo turang wuran zhuangkuang diaocha shuju yingdang xiang shehui
gongkai], Sina Blogs (Dong Zhengwei’s blog), 9 May 13. For Commission analysis, see ‘‘Soil Contamination Data Remains a State Secret Leaving Citizens Uninformed About Potential Pollution
Hazards,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 21 May 13.
18 Richard Finney, ‘‘Chinese Mines Pollute Tibet’s Rivers, Streams,’’ Radio Free Asia, 6 May
13.
19 Xie Dan, ‘‘Purifying ‘Poisoned Land’ Is Mysterious Business’’ [‘‘Dudi’’ jinghua qianyi shenmi
shengyi], Southern Weekend, 19 March 12.
20 Xu Nan and Zhang Chun, ‘‘The Chase for Growth in Western China Could Cause ‘Huge
Surge in Pollution,’ ’’ Chinadialogue, 23 January 13; Nadya Ivanova, ‘‘Toxic Water: Across Muchof China, Huge Harvests Irrigated With Industrial and Agricultural Runoff,’’ Circle of Blue, 18
January 13. Circle of Blue quoted an expert as saying, ‘‘Pollution is getting worse and worse
here. Many heavy metal companies and plants have moved to Gansu from the east . . . .’’Thomas Stevenson, ‘‘The Dirty Secret Behind Shanghai’s Bluer Skies,’’ Tea Leaf Nation, 6 December 12. The Tea Leaf Nation article discusses the relocation of industries to Yunnan province
and the resulting pollution and health problems. He Tao and Gao Shengke, ‘‘Western-Bound Industrial Shift Raises Environmental Concern,’’ Caijing, 31 July 12. According to Caijing, mostlead-acid battery factories in one town in Jiangxi province moved there from Jiangsu andZhejiang provinces because there were weaker environmental policies in the Jiangxi town.
Susan Shifflett, ‘‘Paradigm Shift in Chinese Environmental Sector Needed, Says Activist Wang
Canfa,’’ Environmental Change and Security Program, Woodrow Wilson Center(NewSecurityBeat Blog), 21 March 13.
21 Liu Xiaoxing, ‘‘Don’t Let Rural Environment Become a Forgotten Corner’’ [Bie rang nongcun
huanjing cheng bei yiwangjiaoluo], China Environmental News, 11 March 13.
22 ‘‘Hu Jintao Report at the 18th Party Congress of the Chinese Communist Party’’ [Hu jintao
zai zhongguo gongchandang di shiba ci quanguo daibiao dahui shang de baogao], Xinhua, 17
November 12, items 2 and 8; Meng Si, ‘‘An Insight Into the Green Vocabulary of the Chinese
Communist Party,’’ Chinadialogue, 15 November 12. The term ‘‘ecological civilization’’ appearedin policy documents first in 2007, when former Party General Secretary and President Hu
Jintao included the concept as being tied to the four basic goals of a ‘‘xiaokang’’ society (an allaround well-off society).
23 ‘‘Hu Jintao Report at the 18th Party Congress of the Chinese Communist Party’’ [Hu jintao
zai zhongguo gongchandang di shiba ci quanguo daibiao dahui shang de baogao], Xinhua, 17
November 12, Item 2.8.
24 Chinese Communist Party Constitution, adopted 6 September 82, amended 1 November 87,
18 October 92, 18 September 97, 14 November 02, 21 October 07, 14 November 12, General Program. The following is a Commission translation of the paragraph: ‘‘The Chinese Communist
Party leads the people in building a socialist ecological civilization. It will establish an ecologicalcivilization ethos that respects, accommodates, and protects nature; uphold the basic national
policies of natural resource conservation and environmental protection; adhere to the guiding
principle of giving high priority to conservation [of resources], protection [of the environment],
and natural restoration [of the ecosystem]; and adhere to the path of civilized development withincreased production, prosperous living, and a good ecological environment. In order to create
a good working and living environment for the people and to realize the sustainable development of the Chinese nation, the Party will do its utmost to construct a conservationist and environmentally friendly society, which forms the spatial framework [similar to spatial planning] forindustrial structures, production methods, and ways of living, that conserves resources and protects the environment.’’ For the official Xinhua English translation of this paragraph, see ‘‘Full
Text of Constitution of Communist Party of China,’’ Xinhua, 18 November 12, General Program.
Li Jing, ‘‘Pollution Targets Will Test New Leadership,’’ South China Morning Post, 15 November
12. One Chinese expert noted that ‘‘promoting ecological harmony’’ was quite a vague conceptthat did not provide much guidance about how to balance economic growth and the environment.

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25 ‘‘Hu Jintao’s Report at the 18th Party Congress of the Chinese Communist Party’’ [Hujintao zai zhongguo gongchandang di shiba ci quanguo daibiao dahui shang de baogao], Xinhua,
17 November 12, item 8.4. Hu said, ‘‘[R]esource consumption, environmental damage and ecological efficiency shall be included in systems for evaluating economic and social development,in order to establish a system of targets, evaluation and rewards and punishments that reflects
the requirements of an ecological civilization.’’ Leslie Hook, ‘‘China: Green Revolution Becomesa Plank of Beijing Political Agenda,’’ Financial Times, 25 November 12.
26 ‘‘Li Keqiang: Study the Spirit of the 18th Party Congress, Advance Sustainable and Healthy
Economic Development and Social Progress’’ [Li keqiang: xuexi dang de shibada jingshen cujin
jingji chixu jiankang fazhan he shehui jinbu], People’s Daily, 21 November 12, item 2(3). Li said
that construction of an ‘‘ecological civilization’’ would be prominent and incorporated in economic, political, cultural, and social development. ‘‘Li Keqiang: Cannot Sacrifice the Environment Which Would in Return Bring an Increase in Citizen Dissatisfaction’’ [Li keqiang: buneng
yi xisheng huanjing lai huanqu renmin bing bu manyi de zengzhang], Xinhua, 17 March 13.
At the March meeting of the National People’s Congress, Li Keqiang said that while advancing
China’s economy and developing, it is necessary to ‘‘let citizens breathe clean air, drink safe
water, and be reassured of edible food.’’ Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘In China, New Premier Says He Seeks
a Just Society,’’ New York Times, 17 March 13. According to this New York Times article, Li
Keqiang encouraged the media and the public to hold him accountable if the government does
not clean up water pollution and the food supply.
27 Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate, ‘‘Supreme People’s Court andSupreme People’s Procuratorate Interpretation of Certain Issues Related to Laws Applicable in
Criminal Cases of Environmental Pollution’’ [Zuigao renmin fayuan, zuigao renmin jianchayuan
guanyu banli huanjing wuran xingshi anjian shiyong falu ruogan wenti de jieshi], 17 June 13.
28 ‘‘China Releases Air Pollution Reduction Plan, Vows PM
2.5 Cut,’’ Xinhua, 5 December 12;
State Council, ‘‘State Council Response Letter Regarding the ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control in Key Regions’’ [Guowuyuan guanyu zhongdian quyu daqi wuran
fangzhi ‘‘shierwu’’ guihua de pifu], 27 September 12; Ministry of Environmental Protection,‘‘ ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control in Key Regions’’ [Zhongdian
quyu daqi wuran fangzhi ‘‘shierwu’’ guihua], issued October 2012. See also ‘‘China To Cap Pollutant Emissions in Six Industries,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in Beijing Review, 7 March 13.
29 State Council, ‘‘State Council Response Letter Regarding the ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan for Air
Pollution Prevention and Control in Key Regions’’ [Guowuyuan guanyu zhongdian quyu daqi
wuran fangzhi ‘‘shierwu’’ guihua de pifu], 27 September 12; Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘ ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control in Key Regions’’[Zhongdian quyu daqi wuran fangzhi ‘‘shierwu’’ guihua], issued October 2012.
30 Barbara Finamore et al., ‘‘Air Pollution Crisis Gives New Momentum to Environmental Regulation in China,’’ Natural Resources Defense Council, Switchboard Blog (Barbara Finamore’s
blog), 22 February 13.
31 ‘‘Law Amendment Urged To Combat Air Pollution,’’ China Internet Information Center, reprinted in Ministry of Environmental Protection, 25 February 13; Li Xin et al., ‘‘A Period of Soliciting Opinions on Draft Revisions to the ‘Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law’ Is Over’’[‘‘Daqi wuran fangzhi fa’’ xiudinggao zhengqiu yijian jieduan yi jieshu], China National Radio,
reprinted in Xinhua, 11 March 13. Forward momentum had appeared stalled after the MEP
submitted a draft to the State Council in January 2010. The March China National Radio report
indicated the revisions have not yet been sent to the NPC and noted that authorities had completed an internal comment period on the draft revisions of the law.
32 ‘‘Ten Regulatory Policies To Prevent and Control Air Pollution Signed During Executive
Meeting of State Council’’ [Guowuyuan changwu huiyi bushu daqi wuran fangzhi shi tiao
cuoshi], The Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, reprinted in Legal
Daily, 14 June 13; State Council, Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
[Daqi wuran fangzhi xingdong jihua], 10 September 13.
33 Liu Xiaoxing, ‘‘Li Ganjie Emphasizes Proceeding Quickly With Soil Environmental Protection Legislative Work at First Meeting of the Soil Environmental Protection Law and Regulation
Drafting Work Leading Small Group’’ [Li ganjie zai turang huanjing baohu fagui qicao gongzuo
lingdao xiaozu diyici huiyishang qiangdiao jiakuai tuijin turang huanjing baohu lifa gongzuo],
China Environment News, reprinted in Ministry of Environmental Protection, 16 November 12.
34 State Council General Office, Circular Regarding Work Arrangements for Near-Term Soil
Environmental Protection and Comprehensive Control and Management [Guowuyuan
bangongting guanyu yinfa jinqi turang huanjing baohu he zonghe zhili gongzuo anpai detongzhi], issued 23 January 13.
35 Xie Qingyu, ‘‘Before the End of This Year Pearl River Delta Will Introduce Comprehensive
Soil Pollution Control’’ [Zhusanjiao jinnian di qian shishi turang wuran zonghe zhili], Southern
Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 14 June 13; State Council General Office, Circular Regarding Work
Arrangements for Near-Term Soil Environmental Protection and Comprehensive Control andManagement [Guowuyuan bangongting guanyu yinfa jinqi turang huanjing baohu he zonghe
zhili gongzuo anpai de tongzhi], issued 23 January 13. The circular stipulated that not less than
80 percent of the soil quality of arable land survey sites found in a new national survey shouldmeet standards by 2015. It also stipulated that China should establish a national soil environmental protection system by 2020.
36 National Development and Reform Commission, ‘‘China 2012 Annual Report on Policies andActions To Address Climate Change’’ [Zhongguo yingdui qihou bianhua de zhengce yu xingdong2012 niandu baogao], November 2012.
37 Information Office of the State Council, ‘‘China’s Energy Policy 2012,’’ reprinted in Xinhua,
24 October 12.
38 Globe International and Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, ‘‘The GLOBE Climate Legislation Study: China,’’ 14 January 13. The report is an extractfrom the third edition of the study.

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39 National Development and Reform Commission, ‘‘Report on the Implementation of the 2012
Plan for National Economic and Social Development and on the 2013 Draft Plan for National
Economic and Social Development,’’ reprinted in Wall Street Journal, 5 March 13, 20.
40 ‘‘China Issues First Greenhouse Gas Bulletin,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in Beijing Review, 16 January 13; China Meteorological Administration, ‘‘China Meteorological Administration Issues
First Period ‘China Greenhouse Gas Bulletin’ ’’ [Zhongguo qixiangju fabu shouqi ‘‘zhongguo
wenshi qiti gongbao’’], Greenhouse Gas and Related Trace Components Research Professionals
Team, 14 January 13.
41 Office of the Spokesperson, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Joint U.S.-China Statement on Climate Change,’’ 13 April 13.
42 Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, ‘‘United States and China Agree To Work
Together on Phase Down of HFCs,’’ 8 June 13. HFCs are a greenhouse gas utilized in air conditioners and refrigerators among other items.
43 National People’s Congress Standing Committee, ‘‘Environmental Protection Law Revisions(Draft) Articles’’ [Huanjing baohufa xiuzheng an (caoan) tiaowen], 31 August 12.
44 National People’s Congress, ‘‘Legal Drafts for Public Comment’’ [Falu caoan zhengqiu
yijian], last visited on 17 June 13.
45 Xie Qingyu, ‘‘ ‘Environmental Protection Lawsuits’ Still by the Wayside in Environmental
Protection Law Revisions’’ [Huanbaofa zai xiugai ‘‘huanbao gongyi susong’’ rengran pangluo],
Southern Daily, 28 September 12; Yan Shuang, ‘‘Experts Say Proposed Environmental Protection Laws Fail To Protect,’’ Global Times, 27 September 12; China Democratic League, ‘‘Proposal
Regarding Improving the Environmental Protection Law Revisions (Draft)’’ [Guanyu wanshan‘‘huanjing baohufa xiuzheng an (caoan)’’ de ti’an], reprinted in People’s Daily (Strong Nation
Forum, E Governance Square BBS), 5 March 13.
46 Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘Regarding Letter Sent With Comments and Suggestions About Environmental Protection Law Revisions (Draft)’’ [Guanyu baosong dui ‘‘huanjing
baohufa xiuzheng an (caoan)’’ yijian he jianyi de han], 29 October 12; China Democratic League,‘‘Proposal Regarding Improving the Environmental Protection Law Revisions (Draft)’’ [Guanyu
wanshan ‘‘huanjing baohufa xiuzheng an (caoan)’’ de ti’an], reprinted in People’s Daily (Strong
Nation Forum, E Governance Square BBS), 5 March 13; Friends of Nature, ‘‘ ‘Environmental
Protection Law’ Revisions Still Lagging, Legislative Breakthroughs Difficult’’ [‘‘Huanjing
baohufa’’ xiuding reng zhihou lifa nan tupo], 21 September 12.
47 Friends of Nature, ‘‘Comments on the ‘Draft Revisions of the Environmental Protection
Law, Second Reading Draft’ ’’ [Guanyu ‘‘huanjing baohufa xiuzheng an (caoan) erci shenyi gao’’de yijian], 13 August 13; Li Jing, ‘‘Green Law Change Would Limit Lawsuits,’’ South China
Morning Post, 27 June 13.
48 Friends of Nature, ‘‘Comments on the ‘Draft Revisions of the Environmental Protection
Law, Second Reading Draft’ ’’ [Guanyu ‘‘huanjing baohufa xiuzheng an (caoan) erci shenyi gao’’de yijian], 13 August 13.
49 Ministry of Supervision, ‘‘Investigation and Management of Discipline and Legal Violation
Cases During 2012, Enforcement Supervision and Rectification of Misconduct Work’’ [2012 nianzhifa jiancha, jiufeng gongzuo zhong chaban weiji weifa anjian qingkuang], 9 January 13. Between January and November 2012, in the environmental protection sector, supervision authorities reportedly corrected 22,100 violations of laws and regulations and took Party and government disciplinary actions against 305 people. Zhou Shengxian, ‘‘Thoroughly Carry Out the 18th
Party Congress Spirit, Vigorously Promote Ecological Civilization Construction Make Great Effort To Open a New Phase in Environmental Protection Work—Minister Zhou Shengxian’s
Speech at the 2013 National Environmental Protection Work Meeting’’ [Shenru guanche dangde shibada jingshen dali tuijin shengtai wenming jianshe nuli kaichuang huanbao gongzuo xin
jumian—zhou shengxian buzhang zai 2013 nian quanguo huanjing baohu gongzuo huiyi shangde jianghua], Ministry of Environmental Protection, 24 January 13, sec. 2, item 4, para. 4. Minister Zhou noted that during inspections in 2012, environmental officials investigated and handled 8,779 instances of behavior that violated environmental laws and regulations nationwide;
the Ministry of Environmental Protection supervised the handling of 1,770 of those cases. He
also noted that during a ‘‘100-day’’ inspection campaign of 43,000 enterprises, authorities discovered 2,296 environmental risks.
50 See, e.g., Chen Liping, ‘‘Strengthen Environmental Legislation and Improve Supervision
and Management Mechanisms’’ [Qianghua huanjing fazhi wanshan jianguan jizhi], Legal Daily,
3 September 12; Luo Sha and An Bei, ‘‘Five Representatives From National People’s Congress
Organizations Answer Journalists’ Questions About NPC Work’’ [Quanguo renda jiguan wuwei
fuzeren jiu renda gongzuo da jizhe wen], Xinhua, reprinted in National People’s Congress Net,
10 March 13; Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘Ministry of Environmental Protection Bulletin Regarding National Environmental Impact Assessment Mechanism Enforcement Review’’[Huanjing baohubu tongbao quanguo huanjing yingxiang pingjia jigou zhuanxiang zhifa jiancha
qingkuang], 28 January 13; Chen Yuanyuan, ‘‘Need To Raise Speed and Quality for Open Information’’ [Xinxi gongkai xuyao tisu tizhi], China Environment Net, 3 April 13; Li Jing, ‘‘CCTV
Exposé Shows Frustration of Agencies at Keeping Firms in Check,’’ South China Morning Post,
28 September 12. The SCMP article reported sources as saying it would be hard to rein in thepolluting behavior of state-owned firms because of their economic and political power. Brian
Spegele and Wayne Ma, ‘‘China Clean-Air Bid Faces Resistance,’’ Wall Street Journal, 22 January 13. A director of an environmental policy research group affiliated with the MEP reportedly
noted that there is poor enforcement of standards relating to oil refineries. Niu Yongdou, ‘‘How
To Handle the Problem of Grassroots Enforcement? ’’ [Ruhe chuli jiceng zhifa nanti?], China Environmental News, 10 September 12.
51 Li Jing, ‘‘Ex-Minister Blames China’s Pollution Mess on Lack of Rule of Law,’’ South China
Morning Post, 21 January 13. Qu Geping, the former Minister of Environmental Protection criticized the overemphasis on economic growth when he told an international reporter that ‘‘. . .
governments have done far from enough to rein in the wild pursuit of economic growth. . . .’’255
He linked unchecked economic development to the ‘‘rule of men’’ and not the ‘‘rule of law.’’ Niu
Yongdou, ‘‘How To Handle the Problem of Grassroots Enforcement? ’’ [Ruhe chuli jiceng zhifa
nanti?], China Environmental News, 10 September 12.
52 Chen Liping, ‘‘Strengthen Environmental Legislation and Improve Supervision and Management Mechanisms’’ [Qianghua huanjing fazhi wanshan jianguan jizhi], Legal Daily, 3 September
12; Wu Wenchong and Jiang Xueqing, ‘‘Who Guards the Green Guards? ’’ China Daily, 21 February 13. According to the China Daily, the MEP downgraded, cancelled the qualifications of,or admonished 88 environmental impact assessment organizations for a variety of reasons including poor quality of personnel and assessment reports, and for inaccurate data or falsifying
data. Xi Jianrong, ‘‘34 Steel Projects in Four Areas of Hebei Did Not Undertake Any Environmental Procedures’’ [Hebei sidi 34 ge gangtie xiangmu wu renhe huanbao shouxu], Legal Daily,
reprinted in China Transparency, 9 November 12. According to Legal Daily, a longstanding
problem has been that projects are begun without first undertaking an environmental impact
assessment. William Kazer and Kersten Zhang, ‘‘China’s Environmental Protection Racket,’’Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 1 February 13.
53 Li Jing, ‘‘Ex-Minister Blames China’s Pollution Mess on Lack of Rule of Law,’’ South China
Morning Post, 21 January 13. Qu Geping, the former Minister of Environmental Protection, said
that the strategy of coordinating growth with conservation was not implemented ‘‘because there
was no supervision of government. It is because the power is still above the law.’’
54 Alex Wang et al., ‘‘Airpocalypse Now: China’s Tipping Point? ’’ ChinaFile, 6 February 13;‘‘Politics of Pollution: China’s Oil Giants Take a Choke-Hold on Power,’’ Reuters, reprinted in
CNBC, 3 February 13; Li Jing, ‘‘CCTV Exposé Shows Frustration of Agencies at Keeping Firms
in Check,’’ South China Morning Post, 28 September 12.
55 Chen Liping, ‘‘Strengthen Environmental Legislation and Improve Supervision and Management Mechanisms’’ [Qianghua huanjing fazhi wanshan jianguan jizhi], Legal Daily, 3 September
12; Li Jing, ‘‘CCTV Exposé Shows Frustration of Agencies at Keeping Firms in Check,’’ South
China Morning Post, 28 September 12; Alex Wang et al., ‘‘Airpocalypse Now: China’s Tipping
Point? ’’ ChinaFile, 6 February 13. Alex Wang noted that ‘‘China has faced the same problems
with cheating anytime hard targets are coupled with insufficient monitoring.’’
56 PRC Civil Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa], passed 9 April91, amended 28 October 07, 31 August 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 55.
57 Li Na, ‘‘Public Interest Litigation ‘Breaks the Ice,’ Takes the First Step To Enter the System’’ [Gongyi susong rufa maichu zhidu ‘‘pobing’’ diyibu], Legal Daily, 5 September 12. Previously, only the PRC Marine Environmental Protection Law had clarified the specific entities
that are allowed to bring such suits, i.e., oceanic administrative departments. ‘‘Ministry of Environmental Protection: Four Major Problems With the Environmental Protection Law Amendment Draft’’ [Huanbaobu: huanbaofa xiuzheng’an caoan cunzai si da wenti], Legal Daily, 1 November 12.
58 Xie Qingyu, ‘‘ ‘Environmental Protection Lawsuits’ Still by the Wayside in Environmental
Protection Law Revisions’’ [Huanbaofa zai xiugai ‘‘huanbao gongyi susong’’ rengran pangluo],
Southern Daily, 28 September 12. Between 2009 and June of 2012, the All-China Environment
Federation (ACEF), which is supported by the government, brought in part or in whole at leastsix of these public interest cases. The ACEF won two of them, and three came to a mediatedsettlement. Ng Tze-wei, ‘‘Lack of Environmental Public Interest Litigation in No One’s Best Interest,’’ South China Morning Post, 9 November 12. Environmental courts are estimated only
to have heard a total of around 17 public interest lawsuits.
59 Li Jing, ‘‘Green Law Change Would Limit Lawsuits,’’ South China Morning Post, 27 June
13; All-China Environment Federation, ‘‘Introduction,’’ 30 August 12. The introduction statesthat the ACEF is supported by the government.
60 Zhang Jing, ‘‘Nongovernmental Groups Explore Environmental Public Interest Litigation’’[Huanjing gongyi susong de minjian tansuo], China Environment Net, reprinted in All-China
Environment Federation, 27 December 12; ‘‘Chinese Fishermen File Lawsuit in US Court
Against Conoco Philips Over 2011 Oil Spills,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post,
2 July 12. Just as with other types of lawsuits, courts may be reluctant to accept cases (seeRole of Environmental Courts and Unreliable Legal Remedies in this section). For example, lawyers attempted to file cases in their own names to courts in three areas related to compensation
claims from farmers affected by the ConocoPhilips/China National Offshore Oil Corp. 2011 Bohai
oil spill, but none of them have been accepted.
61 Xie Qingyu, ‘‘ ‘Environmental Protection Lawsuits’ Still by the Wayside in Environmental
Protection Law Revisions’’ [Huanbaofa zai xiugai ‘‘huanbao gongyi susong’’ rengran pangluo],
Southern Daily, 28 September 12. It can also be difficult to determine compensation, win court
cases, and enforce court judgments. Ng Tze-wei, ‘‘Lack of Environmental Public Interest Litigation in No One’s Best Interest,’’ South China Morning Post, 9 November 12. The SCMP article
pointed out that compensation rules are not clear in these suits.
62 Wu Yunbo, ‘‘Where Are the Difficulties With Environmental Public Interest Lawsuits’’[Huanjing gongyi susong nan zai hechu], Dazhong Daily, reprinted in China Development Brief,
10 October 12; Liu Xiaoqing, ‘‘Is the Road Smooth-Going for Non-Governmental Public Interest
Litigation? ’’ [Minjian gongyi susong tashang tantu?], China Environment News, 6 November 12.
63 Hu Zhonghua, ‘‘The Limitations to China’s Environmental Public Interest Litigation System’’ [Woguo huanjing gongyi susong zhidu de xiandu], Journal of Wuhan University of Technology (Social Science Edition), Vol. 24, No. 6, reprinted in China Environment and Resources
Law Network, 26 November 12.
64 Zhou Yiming and Huang Yuanwu, ‘‘Guizhou Qingzhen Procuratorate Supports Individual
Citizen as Plaintiff in Filing Environmental Public Interest Suit’’ [Guizhou qingzhen
jianchayuan zhichi gongmin geren wei yuangao tiqi huanjing gongyi susong], Justice Net, 27
September 12; Yan Zhijiang and Wan Jing, ‘‘First Case of Individual Citizen Bringing Public
Interest Litigation, Claims Damages of Over One Million (Yuan)’’ [Gongmin geren tiqi huanjing
gongyi susong shouan suopei sunshi guo baiwan], Legal Daily, 27 September 12. The tribunal

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judge said the plaintiff’s standing was based on his being a volunteer for the environmental protection group, Guiyang Public Environmental Education Center, and the fact that he had signed
an agreement with the group to protect the watershed’s environment. The defendant had already been found guilty of environmental and other crimes, and sentenced to two years and six
months in prison and a fine.
65 Qie Jianrong, ‘‘Chromium Slag Pollution Case for 10 Million in Damages Already Formally
Accepted by Court’’ [Yin gezha wuran suopei qianwan an yi zhengshi li’an], Legal Daily, 20 October 11. The Court accepted the case in October 2011. Yang Huajun, ‘‘Difficulties With Environmental Public Interest Suits: Hard To Obtain Evidence, Assessment Costs High’’ [Huanjing
gongyi susong zhi kun: quzheng nan pinggu feiyong gao], China Weekly, 11 April 12; Cao Yin
and Guo Anfei, ‘‘Talks Begin in Landmark NGO Environment Case,’’ China Daily, 24 May 12.
For more information, see Friends of Nature, ‘‘Green Protests on the Rise in China,’’ 14 August
12. In May, the environmental tribunal under the Qujing Intermediate People’s Court presided
over pretrial negotiations and the court reportedly had two meetings about the case.
66 Lin Ping, ‘‘Mediation Fails in Yunnan Chromium Slag Public Interest Case, Defendant Unilaterally Backs Out’’ [Yunnan gezha gongyi susong an tiaojie shibai yin beigao danfangmian
fanhui], Justice Net, 19 April 13; ‘‘China’s 10 Major Influential Court Cases in 2012’’ [2012 nianzhongguo shida yingxiangxing susong], Southern Weekend, 10 January 13. According to theabove articles, the defendant had agreed to accept full legal and financial liability, including
stopping the infringement, reducing the risk, and restoring the environment. The defendant also
agreed to third party supervision of the agreement’s implementation.
67 Lin Ping, ‘‘Mediation Fails in Yunnan Chromium Slag Public Interest Case, Defendant Unilaterally Backs Out’’ [Yunnan gezha gongyi susong an tiaojie shibai yin beigao danfangmian
fanhui], Justice Net, 19 April 13.
68 Li Yang, ‘‘Shanxi Aniline Pollution Incident: Cross-Provincial Liability Case Withdrawn’’[Shanxi benan wuran shijian: kuasheng zhuize susongzhuang bei chehui], Bandao Municipal
News, reprinted in Sina, 15 January 13.
69 Rachel E. Stern, ‘‘Poor Rural Residents in China Seen As Easy Target for Environmental
Lawsuits,’’ Chinadialogue, 24 April 13. This article cites the findings of a research study showing that environmental cases in Guiyang in 2010 involved minor violations, often about damage
to natural resources. In two other locations, Wuxi and Chongqing, government authorities usedthe courts’ authority to enforce administrative decisions.
70 Ibid.
71 Chen Yuanyuan, ‘‘Need To Raise Speed and Quality for Open Information’’ [Xinxi gongkai
xuyao tisu tizhi], China Environment Net, 3 April 13; Hu Zhonghua, ‘‘The Limitations to China’s
Environmental Public Interest Litigation System’’ [Woguo huanjing gongyi susong zhidu dexiandu], Journal of the Wuhan University of Technology (Social Science Edition), Vol. 24, No.
6, reprinted in China Environment and Resources Law Network, 26 November 12.
72 Chen Yu, ‘‘Should Clearly Establish the Legal Status of Administrative Mediation,’’ [Yingmingque xingzheng tiaojie falu diwei], China Environment Net, 24 January 13.
73 ‘‘Chinese Anger Over Pollution Becomes Main Cause of Social Unrest,’’ Bloomberg, 6 March
13. For a discussion of mass incidents in general, including environmental incidents, see Chen
Rui et al., ‘‘2012 Mass Incident Research Report’’ [2012 nian chuntixing shijian yanjiu baogao],
Legal Net, 27 December 12. The information presented is a summary of a longer report andthe report’s methodology and other important information are not provided. Environmental incidents reportedly comprised a relatively small percentage of the incidents examined (8.9 percent).
74 Wang Shu, ‘‘Public Interest Litigation Not Included in Environmental Protection Law Because of Differing Opinions Among Departments’’ [Gongyi susong yin bumen yijian bu tongyi
weiru huanbaofa], Beijing News, 31 August 12.
75 ‘‘Reported PRC Civil Disturbances in 2012,’’ Open Source Center, 7 May 13, 12–13.
76 ‘‘Jiangmen Citizens March To Make the Government Cancel Nuclear Power Plant Plan’’[Jiangmen minzhong youxing poshi zhengfu quxiao he gongchang jihua], Voice of America, 13
July 13; ‘‘People Questioned Again in Investigation of Ningbo Demonstrations’’ [Zhuicha ningbo
PX shiwei zai you ren bei chuanhuan], Radio Free Asia, 12 November 12; Wang Zhenghua,‘‘Shanghai Battery Factory Cancelled,’’ China Daily, 16 May 13.
77 ‘‘Officials Give Environmentalist Liu Futang a Suspended Three-Year Sentence for
Exposés,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 14 December 12; Liu Jianqiang, ‘‘Environmentalist Liu Futang Found Guilty of ‘Illegal Business Activities,’ ’’ Chinadialogue, 5 December 12; Liu Hongqiao, ‘‘ ‘Crusader for Ecology’ Liu Futang’s 20-Year Environmental Protection Journey’’ [‘‘Shengtai doushi’’ liu futang de 20 nian huanbao lu], Liu Hongqiao blog (Caixin),
11 October 12; Hai Pengfei, ‘‘Accused Chinese Environmentalist Liu Futang ‘Tired and Unhappy,’ ’’ Southern People Weekly, reprinted in Chinadialogue, 31 October 12; ‘‘Environmentalist
Liu Futang Investigated for Suspicion of Operating an Illegal Business 26 Environmental
Groups Urge His Release’’ [Huanbao renshi liu futang shexian feifa jingying zui shoushen 26
jia huanbao zuzhi huyu shifang], Southern Weekend, 16 October 12.
78 All-China Environment Federation, ‘‘Introduction,’’ 30 August 12. The introduction statesthat the ACEF is supported by the government.
79 Huang Xinghua, ‘‘Reporter from China Central TV Beaten While Interviewing in Pingjiang
County, Hunan, Officials Apologize Face to Face’’ [Yangshi jizhe zai hunan pingjiang xian
caifang beida guanyuan dangmian daoqian], Xinhua, reprinted in Southern Net, 10 January 13;
All China Environment Federation, ‘‘Introduction,’’ 30 August 12.
80 Huang Xinghua, ‘‘Reporter from China Central TV Beaten While Interviewing in Pingjiang
County, Hunan, Officials Apologize Face to Face’’ [Yangshi jizhe zai hunan pingjiang xian
caifang beida guanyuan dangmian daoqian], Xinhua, reprinted in Southern Net, 10 January 13.
81 Ibid.
82 ‘‘Zhejiang Environmentalist Beaten After River Dare,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 February 13.
83 Ibid.

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84 Sui-Lee Wee and Adam Jourdan, ‘‘In China, Public Anger Over Secrecy on Environment,’’
Reuters, 10 March 13.
85 Xia Haijun, ‘‘Pollution Kills Nearly 2,000 Kilograms of an Anhui Farmer’s Fish, Demands
for an Explanation Declared To Be Extortion’’ [Anhui yi nongmin yangyu shou wuran jin siqian
jin yu siguang tao shuofa bei dingzui qiaozha], Hefei Evening News, reprinted in China Aquatic
Breeders Net, 13 June 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘After Anhui Zhang Bing’s Environmental Rights Defense Indictment Was Withdrawn, Ten Months Without Fair Result’’[Anhui zhang bing huanjing weiquan bei chehui gongsu hou, shige yue wu gongzheng jieguo],
10 May 13.
86 Ibid.
87 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Anhui Lujiang Victim of Environmental Pollution
Zhang Bing’s Complaint Illegally Evaded by Anhui Lujiang Procuratorate’’ [Anhui lujiang
huanjing wuran shouhai ren zhang bing jubao lujiang jianchayuan weifa bei tuiwei], 25 July
13; Xia Haijun, ‘‘Pollution Kills Nearly 2,000 Kilograms of an Anhui Farmer’s Fish, Demands
for an Explanation Declared To Be Extortion’’ [Anhui yi nongmin yangyu shou wuran jin siqian
jin yu siguang tao shuofa bei dingzui qiaozha], Hefei Evening News, reprinted in China Aquatic
Breeders Net, 13 June 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘After Anhui Zhang Bing’s Environmental Rights Defense Indictment Was Withdrawn, Ten Months Without Fair Result’’[Anhui zhang bing huanjing weiquan bei chehui gongsu hou, shige yue wu gongzheng jieguo],
10 May 13.
88 ‘‘People Questioned Again in Investigation of Ningbo PX Demonstration’’ [Zhuicha ningbo
PX shiwei zai youren bei chuanhuan], Radio Free Asia, 12 November 12.
89 Amy Li, ‘‘Unable To Walk the Walk, Chengdu Residents Talk the Talk,’’ South China Morning Post, 4 May 13. According to the SCMP article, authorities posted flyers warning people notto spread rumors about the Pengzhou project, offered printing shops rewards for information
about individuals printing flyers, and opened some schools on a Saturday to keep students outof trouble. In addition, state-owned enterprises told employees to stay off the streets. Louisa
Lim, ‘‘To Silence Discontent, Chinese Officials Alter Workweek,’’ National Public Radio, 4 May
13. According to the NPR article, authorities kept government employees busy with meetings
on a Saturday and threatened them with dismissal if they participated in a protest. The report
indicated that authorities also sent out letters to households asking everyone not to believe rumors or participate ‘‘in order to prevent people with other motives from seizing this opportunity
to create turmoil.’’
90 Louisa Lim, ‘‘To Silence Discontent, Chinese Officials Alter Workweek,’’ National PublicRadio, 4 May 13. According to the NPR article, authorities mobilized at least five types of security forces. Amy Li, ‘‘Unable To Walk the Walk, Chengdu Residents Talk the Talk,’’ South China
Morning Post, 4 May 13; ‘‘Yesterday Chengdu Police Practice Safeguarding Transportation andGuarding and Controlling Public Security in a Live Drill To ‘Support Earthquake Disaster Relief
and Create a Safe and Sound Chengdu’ ’’ [Chengdu jingfang yanlian jiaotong baozhang he zhi’an
fangkong ‘‘zhiyuan kangzhen jiuzai chuangjian ping’an chengdu’’ shizhan yanlian zuori juxing],
Chengdu Daily, 5 May 13.
91 Amy Li, ‘‘Unable To Walk the Walk, Chengdu Residents Talk the Talk,’’ South China Morning Post, 4 May 13. According to the SCMP article, some citizens criticized officials’ claims thatthey were holding a live exercise in support of earthquake rescue efforts. For information on
the notice, see ‘‘Yesterday Chengdu Police Practice Safeguarding Transportation and Guarding
and Controlling Public Order in a Live Drill To ‘Support Earthquake Disaster Relief and Createa Safe and Sound Chengdu’ ’’ [Chengdu jingfang yanlian jiaotong baozhang he zhi’an fangkong‘‘zhiyuan kangzhen jiuzai chuangjian pingan chengdu’’ shizhan yanlian zuori juxing], Chengdu
Daily, 5 May 13.
92 ‘‘Chengdu Exhausts Police Power To Block Urban Residents From Massing a ‘PX’ Protest
Demonstration’’ [Chengdu jinchu jingli zu shimin fan ‘‘PX’’ da youxing], Radio Free Asia, 6 May
13; ‘‘Chengdu Activists Held Ahead of Chemical Plant Protest,’’ Radio Free Asia, 3 May 13;
China Digital Times, ‘‘Sensitive Words: Protests, Arrests, and More,’’ 29 April 13.
93 Amy Li, ‘‘ ‘I am Scared’: Chinese Creator of White House Petition Seeks Help After Police
Visit,’’ South China Morning Post, 14 May 13.
94 Southern Mongolia Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Herders’ Protests Put Down, Internet Posts Removed,’’ 6 March 13; ‘‘Herders Blocked from Protest Marches to Beijing,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 7 March 13; ‘‘Herders Protest Loss of Land,’’ Radio Free Asia, 9 October 12; Southern Mongolia Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Mongolian Herders Protest China’s Illegal Occupationof Their Land and Defamation of Their Ancestors,’’ 8 October 12.
95 Southern Mongolia Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Herders’ Protests Put Down, Internet Posts Removed,’’ 6 March 13.
96 Zhang Chun, ‘‘Chinese NGOs Call on New Government To Be More Open About Pollution,’’Chinadialogue, 28 March 13.
97 Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘Requirements To Draw Up Construction Project Environmental Impact Reports Abridged Version’’ [Jianshe xiangmu huanjing yingxiang baogaoshu
jianben bianzhi yaoqiu], 15 August 12.
98 Ministry of Environmental Protection, Announcement Regarding Rescinding Document No.
50 (2008) [Huanjing baohubu guanyu feizhi huanhan (2008) 50 hao wenjian de gonggao], 9 October 12; State Environmental Protection Administration, Response Letter Regarding Relevant
Issues With Public Requests for Construction Project Environmental Assessment Documents[Guanyu gongzhong shenqing gongkai jianshe xiangmu huanping wenjian youguan wenti defuhan], 30 January 08.
99 Ministry of Environmental Protection, Circular Regarding Further Strengthening of Environmental Protection Open Government Information Work [Guanyu jin yibu jiaqiang huanjing
baohu xinxi gongkai gongzuo de tongzhi], issued 30 October 12; ‘‘Authorities Issue Circular To
Promote Environmental Information Disclosure,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 4 February 13.

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100 Ministry of Environmental Protection, Circular Regarding Further Strengthening of Environmental Protection Open Government Information Work [Guanyu jin yibu jiaqiang huanjing
baohu xinxi gongkai gongzuo de tongzhi], issued 30 October 12, Items 2.1.3, 2.2.2, 2.3; ‘‘Authorities Issue Circular To Promote Environmental Information Disclosure,’’ Congressional-Executive
Commission on China, 4 February 13.
101 ‘‘Authorities Issue Circular To Promote Environmental Information Disclosure,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 4 February 13.
102 Ministry of Environmental Protection, Circular Regarding Implementation of ‘‘Environmental Air Quality Standards (GB3095–2012)’’ [Guanyu shishi ‘‘huanjing kongqi zhiliang
biaozhun’’ (GB3095–2012) de tongzhi], 29 February 12. The notice above outlines when certain
cities will begin to include PM2.5 in environmental monitoring and air quality reports. According
to the sources below, in February 2012, authorities added fine air particulates (PM2.5), ozone,
and carbon monoxide to the revised air quality index (AQI). Ministry of Environmental Protection, Technical Regulation on Ambient Air Quality Index (Provisional) [Huanjing kongqi zhiliang
zhi shu (AQI) jishu guiding (shixing)], issued 29 February 12, effective 1 January 16; ‘‘Pollution
Measures for Public Feedback,’’ China Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 17 November 11; Te-Ping
Chen, ‘‘Following Beijing, Hong Kong Releases PM2.5 Pollution Data,’’ Wall Street Journal,
China Real Time Report (blog), 9 March 12. Beijing began to release PM2.5 data in late January,
and Guangdong and Hong Kong began releasing data in March. Cai Wenjun, ‘‘Release of All
PM2.5 Readings Starts Today,’’ Shanghai Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 27 June 12. Shanghai began releasing daily PM2.5 data to the public in June 2012.
103 Luna
Lin, ‘‘Kunming Oil Refinery Environmental Report ‘Invalid’ Say NGOs,’’
Chinadialogue, 5 July 13.
104 Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs, ‘‘Small Particles, Big Breakthrough: 2012
Urban Air Quality Information Transparency Index,’’ October 2012, 23.
105 State Council, ‘‘Energy Development ‘12th Five-Year’ Plan’’ [Nengyuan fazhan ‘‘shier wu’’guihua de tongzhi], 1 January 13, chap. 3, sec. 1.4. For English sources with partial information
on some of the plans, see Beth Walker, ‘‘China Gives Green-Light to New Era of Mega-Dams,’’
Chinadialogue, 1 February 13. For information on a number of potential hydroelectric dam construction projects planned for Tibetan areas, see ‘‘2013 Update: Dams on the Drichu (Yangtze),
Zachu (Mekong) and Gyalmo Ngulchu (Salween) Rivers on the Tibetan Plateau,’’ Tibetan Plateau Blog, 26 March 13.
106 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Plans To Harness Chinese River’s Power Threaten a Region,’’ New YorkTimes, 4 May 13.
107 Deng Quanlun, ‘‘Campaigners Re-Ignite Nu River Dam Debate,’’ Chinadialogue, 11 February 13; Beth Walker, ‘‘China Gives Green-Light to New Era of Mega-Dams,’’ Chinadialogue,
1 February 13; Brahma Chellaney, ‘‘China’s Hydro-Hegemony,’’ New York Times, 7 February 13;
Simon Denyer, ‘‘Chinese Dams in Tibet Raise Hackles in India,’’ Washington Post, 7 February
13.
108 Deng Quanlun, ‘‘Campaigners Re-Ignite Nu River Dam Debate,’’ Chinadialogue, 11 February 13.
109 Brahma Chellaney, ‘‘China’s Hydro-Hegemony,’’ New York Times, 7 February 13; Simon
Denyer, ‘‘Chinese Dams in Tibet Raise Hackles in India,’’ Washington Post, 7 February 13;
David Stanway, ‘‘As Wen Jiabao Departs, China’s Dam Plans To Accelerate,’’ Reuters, 18 November 12. According to the Reuters article, the environmental protection minister said ‘‘social
impact’’ issues will need to be resolved before construction continues.
110 John Jackson, ‘‘Earthquake Hazards and Large Dams in Western China,’’ Probe International, April 2012; Beth Walker, ‘‘China Gives Green-Light to New Era of Mega-Dams,’’
Chinadialogue, 1 February 13; International Rivers Network, ‘‘China Moves To Dam the Nu, Ignoring Seismic, Ecological, and Social Risks,’’ 25 January 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Plans To Harness
Chinese River’s Power Threaten a Region,’’ New York Times, 4 May 13.
111 Edward Wong, ‘‘Spill in China Underlines Environmental Concerns,’’ New York Times, 2March 13.
112 China Digital Times, ‘‘Sensitive Words: Poison, Environmental Protests,’’ 3 May 13; China
Digital Times, ‘‘Ministry of Truth: Shanghai Factory Pollution,’’ 29 April 13.
113 China Digital Times, ‘‘Sensitive Words: Protests, Arrests, and More,’’ 29 April 13.
114 ‘‘Residents in Southern China Shout ‘Protest! Protest!’ Against Plans for Refinery in
Kunming,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 16 May 13.
115 Chen Hongyan, ‘‘Yunnan Development and Reform Commission: Sinopec Kunming Project
EIA Report Involves Secrets Not for Disclosure’’ [Yunnan fagaiwei: zhongshiyou kunming
xiangmu huanping baogao shemi bu gongshi], China Broadcasting Net, 14 May 13.
116 State Council, Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Open Government Information [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo zhengfu xinxi gongkai tiaoli], issued 5 April 07, effective 1
May 08. For more information, see ‘‘China Commits to ‘Open Government Information’ Effective
May 1, 2008,’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update, May 2008, 2. The State
Environmental Protection Administration passed its version of the OGI regulations in April
2007. State Environmental Protection Administration, Measures on Open Environmental Information (Trial) [Huanjing xinxi gongkai banfa (shixing)], issued 11 April 07, effective 1 May 08.
For more information, see ‘‘SEPA Issues Measures on Open Environmental Information,’’ CECC
China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update, January 2008, 5.
117 Luna Lin, ‘‘Beijing Campaigners Praise ‘Unexpected’ Release of Water Quality Data,’’
Chinadialogue, 4 April 13.
118 Li Yang, ‘‘Shanxi Aniline Pollution Incident: Cross-Provincial Liability Case Withdrawn’’[Shanxi benan wuran shijian: kuasheng zhuize susongzhuang bei chehui], Bandao Municipal
News, reprinted in Sina, 15 January 13. The information was about the pollution permits it
issued to a milk company and about the number and location of the enterprise’s water pollution
effluent pipes.

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119 Institute of Public and Environmental Affairs and Natural Resources Defense Council,‘‘Open Environmental Information: From Bottleneck to Breakthrough’’ [Huanjing xinxi gongkai:
pingtou, tupo], 1 April 13.
120 ‘‘Chinese Appeal for Improved Environmental Transparency,’’ Global Times, 5 March 13.
121 ‘‘Premier Li Keqiang Presides Over and Gives a Speech at the First State Council Clean
Government Meeting’’ [Li keqiang zhuchi zhaokai guowuyuan diyici lianzheng gongzuo huiyi
bing jianghua], Xinhua, reprinted in the National Bureau of Corruption Prevention of China,
27 March 13.
122 Li Yanjie and Xu Hao, ‘‘Lawyer Applies for Information on China’s National Survey of Soil
Pollution’’ [Lushi shenqing gongkai quanguo turang wuran qingkuang kaocha xinxi], China
Business Review, reprinted in China Transparency, 3 February 13; Tania Branigan, ‘‘Chinese
Pollution Study ‘Blocked on Grounds of State Secrecy,’ ’’ Guardian, 26 February 13. The Ministryof Environmental Protection and other departments completed a national contamination survey
in 2010, reportedly with some resistance from local governments, but have not yet made theresults of the survey available to the public. ‘‘Ministry of Environmental Protection Indicates
Methodology of Soil Pollution Survey Factor in Not Disclosing Data on Prevention and Control
Measures’’ [Huanbaobu gaozhi turang wuran diaocha fangfa cheng yin fangzhi cuoshi shuju bu
gongkai], Sina Blog (Dong Zhengwei’s blog), 25 February 13; ‘‘Information Disclosure Request
to Ministry of Environmental Protection for National Survey Data of Soil Pollution Conditions
and Prevention and Control Methods’’ [Shenqing huanbaobu xinxi gongkai quanguo turang
wuran zhuangkuang diaocha shuju he fangzhi fangfa], Sina Blog (Dong Zhengwei’s blog), 2 February 13; ‘‘Administrative Reconsideration Requests Ministry of Environmental Protection To
Disclose Information on Soil Pollution Survey Data’’ [Xingzheng fuyi qingqiu huanbaobu gongkai
turang wuran diaocha shuju xinxi], Sina Blog (Dong Zhengwei’s blog), 27 February 13.
123 Brian Spegele, ‘‘China Environment Ministry Not Breathing Easy,’’ Wall Street Journal,
China Real Time Report (blog), 15 March 13.
124 ‘‘Minister Zhou Shengxian’s Speech at the National Environmental Protection System Open
Government Information Work Meeting’’ [Zhou shengxian buzhang zai quanguo huanbao xitongzhengfu xinxi gongkai gongzuo huiyi shang de jianghua], China Environment News, reprinted
in the Ministry of Environmental Protection, 29 August 12.
125 National Development and Reform Commission, Major Fixed Asset Investment Project Social Stability Risk Assessment Provisional Measures [Zhongda guding zichan touze xiangmu
shehui wending fengxian pinggu zanxing banfa], issued 16 August 12.
126 Keith Bradsher, ‘‘ ‘Social Risk’ Test Ordered by China for Big Projects,’’ New York Times,
12 November 12.
127 ‘‘Minister Zhou Shengxian’s Speech at the National Environmental Protection System Open
Government Information Work Meeting’’ [Zhou shengxian buzhang zai quanguo huanbao xitongzhengfu xinxi gongkai gongzuo huiyi shang de jianghua], China Environment News, reprinted
in the Ministry of Environmental Protection, 29 August 12.
128 Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘Thoroughly Carry Out the 18th Party Congress
Spirit, Vigorously Promote Ecological Civilization Construction, and Make Great Effort to Opena New Phase in Environmental Protection Work—Minister Zhou Shengxian’s Speech at the 2013
National Environmental Protection Work Meeting’’ [Shenru guanche dang de shiba da jingshen
dali tuijin shengtai wenming jianshe nuli kaichuang huanbao gongzuo xin jumian—zhou
shengxian buzhang zai 2013 nian quanguo huanjing baohu gongzuo huiyi shang de jianghua],
24 January 13, section 2, item 3.3.
129 Ministry of Environmental Protection, ‘‘National Environmental Protection ‘12th Five-Year’
Plan Key Work Intra-Ministry Work Distribution Plan’’ [Guojia huanjing baohu ‘‘shierwu’’
guihua zhongdian gongzuo bunei fengong fang’an], issued 29 November 12, item 10. It also mentioned implementing environmental education plans, promoting green lifestyles, and advocating
for green production.
130 ‘‘Villagers to Battle Waste Plant,’’ Radio Free Asia, 21 August 12. In Guangdong province,
authorities neglected to poll citizens’ opinions regarding plans to build a Human Waste Disposal
Plant incinerator near two villages and a reservoir. Residents reportedly wrote more than
10,000 complaint letters and in August 2012, more than 1,000 residents attended a town meeting to protest the plans. Feng Yongfeng, ‘‘Many Falsehoods in Environmental Assessment Reports, Experts Suggest Revision of the Environmental Impact Assessment Law As Soon As Possible’’ [Huanping baogao maoni duo zhuanjia jianyi jinzao xiugai huanjing yingxiang pingjiafa],
Guangming Daily, reprinted in China Transparency, 13 January 13; Sui-Lee Wee and Adam
Jourdan, ‘‘In China, Public Anger Over Secrecy on Environment,’’ Reuters, 10 March 13.

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Notes to Section III—Civil Society
1 Wang Ming, ‘‘Moving Toward Civil Society’’ [Zouxiang gongmin shehui], Jilin University
Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 4, reprinted in China On-line Official Gateway, 2009; Chao Guo
et al., ‘‘Civil Society, Chinese Style: The Rise of the Nonprofit Sector in Post-Mao China,’’ Nonprofit Quarterly, 25 October 12.
2 Fu Tao, Guo Ting, and Liu Haiying, ‘‘An Analysis of the Diverse Forms of Public Advocacy
in China,’’ China Development Brief, March 2013.
3 Shawn Shieh and Amanda Brown-Inz, ‘‘Mapping China’s Public Interest NGOs,’’ China Development Brief, January 2013, 13.
4 Chao Guo et al., ‘‘Civil Society, Chinese Style: The Rise of the Nonprofit Sector in Post-Mao
China,’’ Nonprofit Quarterly, 25 October 12. Guo et al. note that millions of unregistered localgroups ‘‘engage in singing, dancing, exercising, martial arts, and other similar leisure activities.’’
5 Wang Ming, ‘‘Moving Toward Civil Society’’ [Zouxiang gongmin shehui], Jilin University
Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 4, reprinted in China On-line Official Gateway, 2009.
6 Wang Su, ‘‘Rural Cooperatives Exceed 600,000: Scholars Point to Non-Standardized Development’’ [Nongmin hezuo she chao 60 wan jia xuezhe zhi duoshu fazhan bu guifan], Caixin, 16
January 13. Caixin reported in June 2013 that organic farming groups have begun to form. See
Wang Su, ‘‘New Model of Organic Farming Sprouts Up in Suburbs of Big Cities,’’ Caixin, 20
June 13.
7 The term ‘‘social organization’’ is a ‘‘broad category’’ in Chinese official parlance, according
to Chinese University of Hong Kong scholars Fengshi Wu and Kin-Man Chan, in that it isbroadly inclusive of organizations that function as quasi- or semi-state-run organizations. See
Fengshi Wu and Kin-Man Chan, ‘‘Graduated Control and Beyond: The Evolving GovernmentNGO Relations,’’ in China Perspectives, No. 3, 2012. China’s ‘‘mass organizations’’ (qunzhong
tuanti) such as the All-China Women’s Federation, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions,and the Communist Youth League, are also commonly referred to as ‘‘social organizations,’’ andsometimes describe themselves as non-governmental even though they function as quasi-governmental entities under government and Party leadership. See Yu Keping, ‘‘China’s Civil Society:
Concepts, Classifications, and Institutional Environment’’ [Zhongguo gongmin shehui: gainian,fenlei yu zhidu huanjing], Social Sciences in China, Issue No. 1, 2006.
8 According to statistics cited in the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Blue Book on Developments in Philanthropy, government-registered social organizations increased by 6.5-percent in2012 from 2011. In 2012, there were 268,000 registered social associations, a 5-percent increaseover 2011; 221,000 registered non-governmental, nonprofit organizations, an 8.3-percent increase over 2011; and 2,961 registered foundations, a 13.3-percent increase over 2011. See
Chang Hong, ‘‘China Has a Total of 490,000 Social Organizations, Internet-Based Public Interest
Turning Into Micro-Blogging Public Interest Movement’’ [Zhongguo gong you 49 wan shehui
zuzhi wangluo gongyi xiang wei gongyi shehui yundong zhuanhua], People’s Net, 31 May 13.
9 Chang Hong, ‘‘China Has A Total of 490,000 Social Organizations, Internet-Based Public Interest Turning Into Micro-Blogging Public Interest Movement’’ [Zhongguo gong you 49 wan
shehui zuzhi wangluo gongyi xiang wei gongyi shehui yundong zhuanhua], People’s Net, 31 May
13; The International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, ‘‘NGO Law Monitor: China,’’ last visited 2
July 13; Fengshi Wu and Kin-man Chan, ‘‘Graduated Control and Beyond: The Evolving Government-NGO Relations,’’ China Perspectives, No. 3, 2012, 10.
10 Wang Yiyin and Gong Liang, ‘‘After Social Organizations Have Been ‘Loosened,’ Then
What? ’’ [Shehui zuzhi ‘‘songbang’’ hou zenme ban], Guangming Daily, 5 September 2012; He
Dan, ‘‘New Rules for NGOs To Improve Operations,’’ China Daily, 17 April 13. According to the
China Daily article, the director of the MCA Bureau of Administration of NGOs stated, ‘‘at least
1 million NGOs either operate without legal identities or have to register as companies under
the current registration policy.’’
11 Fu Tao, Guo Ting, and Liu Haiying, ‘‘An Analysis of the Diverse Forms of Public Advocacy
in China,’’ China Development Brief, March 2013.
12 Wang Hairong, ‘‘Springtime for NGOs,’’ Beijing Review, 8 April 13. A scholar from a government think tank, Yu Keping, estimates approximately three million ‘‘unrecognized’’ groups. Another group of scholars estimates ten million based on a presentation given by Wang Zhenyao,
Dean of the China Philanthropy Institute at Beijing Normal University. See Chao Guo et al.,‘‘Civil Society, Chinese Style: The Rise of the Nonprofit Sector in Post-Mao China,’’ Nonprofit
Quarterly, 25 October 12.
13 Wan Jing, ‘‘Six Lawyers Demand an Examination of the Legality of Civil Servant PhysicalExamination Standards’’ [Liu lushi yaoqiu shencha gongwuyuan tijian biaozhun hefaxing wenti],
Legal Daily, 30 November 12; Liu Jin, ‘‘Sending OGI Requests to 31 Provincial Education Bureaus About Information on Education for Disabled Children’’ [Zhixin 31 sheng jiaoyuting yaoqiu
gongkai canji ertong jiaoyu xinxi], Southern Daily, 1 February 13.
14 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Takes Aim at Western Ideas,’’ New York Times, 19 August 13;‘‘Mingjing News Magazine: Exclusive Entire Text of Disseminated Chinese Communist Document No. 9’’ [Mingjing yuekan: dujia quanwen kanfa zhonggong 9 hao wenjian], Mingjing News,
19 August 13; ‘‘Ming Jing: Notification Regarding ‘Circular on Current State of Ideology’ Printed
and Distributed by General Office of CPC Central Committee,’’ 1 September 13 (translated inOpen Source Center, 23 August 13).
15 ‘‘Full Text of Hu Jintao’s Report at the 18th Party Congress’’ [Hu jintao zai zhongguo
gongchandang di shiba ci quanguo daibiao dahui shang de baogao], Xinhua, 17 November 12,
section 7. The Outline of the Twelfth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development, issued in 2011, also contains the phrase ‘‘lead in the healthy and orderly developmentof social organizations.’’ See PRC Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic andSocial Development [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shierge
wunian guihua gangyao], passed 14 March 11, issued 16 March 11, chapter 39.

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16 ‘‘Full Text of Hu Jintao’s Report at the 18th Party Congress’’ [Hu jintao zai zhongguo
gongchandang di shiba ci quanguo daibiao dahui shang de baogao], Xinhua, 17 November 12,
Section 7; Fengshi Wu and Kin-man Chan, ‘‘Graduated Control and Beyond: The Evolving Government-NGO Relations,’’ China Perspectives, No. 3, 2012, 15. Wu and Chan note that thephrase ‘‘Party leadership, government responsibility, society’s cooperation, and public participation’’ were used in Hu Jintao’s central policy speech on ‘‘social management innovation’’ in February 2011. See also CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 126.
17 Kang Xiaoqiang, ‘‘Core Direction for the System of Modern Social Organizations’’ [Xiandai
shehui zuzhi tizhi de hexin quxiang], Study Times, 15 April 13; ‘‘Full Text of Hu Jintao’s Reportat the 18th Party Congress’’ [Hu jintao zai zhongguo gongchandang di shiba ci quanguo daibiao
dahui shang de baogao], Xinhua, 17 November 12.
18 Fengshi Wu and Kin-man Chan, ‘‘Graduated Control and Beyond: The Evolving Government-NGO Relations,’’ China Perspectives, No. 3, 2012, 11–13.
19 Patricia Thornton, ‘‘The Advance of the Party: Transformation or Takeover of Urban Grassroots Society? ’’ China Quarterly, No. 213, March 2013, 15; Qiao Li, ‘‘Party Building for Comprehensive Coverage of Social Organizations’’ [Shehui zuzhi dangjian quan fugai], Liberation
Daily, reprinted in Renmin Net, 25 October 12.
20 Patricia Thornton, ‘‘The Advance of the Party: Transformation or Takeover of Urban Grassroots Society? ’’ China Quarterly, No. 213, March 2013, 3. See also China Development Brief description of the ‘‘Social Affairs Committee’’ as a creation of the Communist Party and functioning to build Party representation, capacity, and stability in ‘‘social organizations,’’ in ‘‘MeetYour Local Social Affairs Committee,’’ China Development Brief, Policy Brief No. 9, 23 October
12.
21 Liu Jialin, ‘‘Social Organization Appraisal Rating, Will Look at Record of Party-Building
Work’’ [Shehui zuzhi kaohe pingji yao kan dangjian gongzuo chengji], Southern Daily, 13 May
13.
22 Zheng Dao, ‘‘Chinese Public Interest Organization Wins ‘Stability Maintenance’ Legal Suit’’[Zhongguo gongyi jigou yingde ‘‘weiwen’’ guansi], Caixin, 25 March 13.
23 ‘‘Will China Loosen Up Social Management? Different NGOs Have Contrasting Views’’[Zhongguo shehui guanli hui fangsong? butong NGO kanfa buyi], Radio Free Asia, 13 November
12.
24 ‘‘China Hauls Away Petitioners in Congress Crackdown,’’ Associated Press, 6 November 12;‘‘Xu Zhiyong: On the New Citizens’ Movement,’’ reprinted in China Digital Times, 13 May 13.
25 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 17 August 13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Nationwide Arrests of Activists, Critics Multiply,’’ 30 August 13; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Government Notice Fuels Crackdown on Assembly as Subversion,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 19 August 13.
26 Li Xiaorong, ‘‘What’s Behind the New Chinese Crackdown,’’ New York Review of Books(blog), 29 July 13; Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Leading Citizen Movement Activist Xu Zhiyong Arrested,’’South China Morning Post, 17 July 13. Beijing Public Security officials reportedly kept Xu
under illegal home confinement beginning in April, criminally detained him on July 16, and formally arrested him on August 22. See Human Rights in China, ‘‘Xu Zhiyong, Advocate of Disclosure of Officials Assets, Criminally Detained,’’ 16 July 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders,‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 17 August 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘New Citizens’ Movement Advocate Xu Zhiyong Is Arrested’’[Gongmin yundong changdaozhe xu zhiyong bei daibu], 24 August 13; ‘‘Officials Detain Xu
Zhiyong Amidst a Crackdown on Individuals Calling for Greater Government Accountability,’’
Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 1 August 13.
27 ‘‘MCA Shuts Down Well-Known NGO ‘Transition Institute’ During a Surprise Raid’’[Zhuming NGO ‘‘chuanzhixing yanjiusuo’’ bei minzheng bumen tuxi chachao qudi], Radio France
Internationale, 18 July 13; ‘‘Is Beijing Increasing Suppression of Citizen Movement? The NGO
Transition Institute Is Shut Down’’ [Beijing jiajin daya gongmin yundong? minjian zuzhi
chuanzhixing yanjiusuo zao chafeng], Voice of America, 18 July 13.
28 ‘‘MCA Shuts Down Well-Known NGO ‘Transition Institute’ During a Surprise Raid’’[Zhuming NGO ‘‘chuanzhixing yanjiusuo’’ bei minzheng bumen tuxi chachao qudi], Radio France
Internationale, 18 July 13; ‘‘Beijing Social Think-Tank Shut Down Amid Crackdown,’’ RadioFree Asia, 19 July 13; ‘‘Is Beijing Increasing Suppression of Citizen Movement? The NGO Transition Institute Is Shut Down’’ [Beijing jiajin daya gongmin yundong? minjian zuzhi
chuanzhixing yanjiusuo zao chafeng], Voice of America, 18 July 13.
29 Zheng Dao, ‘‘Chinese Public Interest Organization Wins ‘Stability Maintenance’ Legal Suit’’[Zhongguo gongyi jigou yingde ‘‘weiwen’’ guansi], Caixin, 25 March 13. See also ‘‘Anti-Discrimination NGO Wins Lawsuit Against Hotel in ‘Stability Maintenance’ Case,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 3 May 13.
30 Ibid.
31 ‘‘Repeatedly Harassed Volunteer Organization Sues Authorities for Unreasonable Eviction’’[Lushou daya zhiyuan jigou kong dangju wuli biqian], Radio Free Asia, 4 December 12; FionaTam, ‘‘Workers’ Voice of Shenzhen Takes a Beating in Crackdown,’’ South China Morning Post,
6 January 13.
32 Verna Yu, ‘‘Shouwang Church Takes Legal Action Against Cops for Religious Persecution,’’South China Morning Post, 21 September 12.
33 State Council General Office, Circular Regarding the Division of Labor in Implementationof the ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan
bangongting guanyu shishi ‘‘guowuyuan jigou gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an’’ renwu
fengong de tongzhi], 28 March 13.
34 Fengshi Wu and Kin-Man Chan, ‘‘Graduated Control and Beyond: The Evolving Government-NGO Relations,’’ China Perspectives, No. 3, 2012, 10. According to Wu and Chan, eversince the Regulation on the Registration and Management of Social Organizations was amended

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in 1998, ‘‘[t]here have been high expectations of a new round of revisions . . . but none has appeared to date.’’35 Regulations on the Registration and Management of Social Associations [Shehui tuantidengji guanli tiaoli], issued and effective 25 October 98; Temporary Regulations on the Registration and Management of Non-Governmental, Nonprofit Organizations [Minban fei qiye danwei
dengji guanli zanxing tiaoli], issued and effective 25 October 98; Regulations on the Management of Foundations [Jijinhui guanli tiaoli], issued 8 March 04, effective 1 June 04.
36 Lan Fang, ‘‘New Regulations for Management of Social Organizations Will Be Released
Within the Year’’ [Shetuan guanli xingui jiang zai niannei chutai], Caixin, 29 March 13.
37 Chen Qiao, ‘‘MCA Official: Social Organizations’ Direct Registration Will Become Law at theEnd of the Year’’ [Minzhengbu guanyuan: shehui zuzhi zhijie dengji niandi youfa keyi], Jinghua
Times, 3 June 13. Chen quotes MCA official Wang Jianjun who noted ‘‘hub’’-like social organizations and other ‘‘intermediary’’ organizations might become responsible for registration of someorganizations.
38 Ibid.
39 Wang Yong, ‘‘Yunnan Promotes the Development of Social Organizations by Seeking Comments on 4 Documents’’ [Yunnan tuijin shehui zuzhi fazhan 4 wenjian zhengqiu yijian], China
Philanthropy Times, 23 July 13.
40 Ibid. Yunnan province is not alone in prohibiting officials from jointly holding responsible
positions in the non-state sector. See, e.g., Cheng Zhanpeng, ‘‘Anhui: Government Officials Cannot Jointly Hold Positions at Associations, Social Groups, Etc.’’ [Anhui: zhengfu gongwu renyuan
bude zai xiehui deng shehui tuanti jianzhi], China News Service, 18 May 13.
41 Chao Guo et al., ‘‘Civil Society, Chinese Style: The Rise of the Nonprofit Sector in Post-Mao
China,’’ Nonprofit Quarterly, 25 October 12.
42 ‘‘Third Plenary Meeting of the First Session of the 12th National People’s Congress: Full
Text Record’’ [Shierjie quanguo renda yici huiyi disan quanti huiyi wenzi shilu], Xinhua, 10
March 13.
43 Ibid.
44 Regulations on the Registration and Management of Social Associations [Shehui tuantidengji guanli tiaoli], issued and effective 25 October 98, art. 13(2).
45 ‘‘Third Plenary Meeting of the First Session of the 12th National People’s Congress: Full
Text Record’’ [Shierjie quanguo renda yici huiyi disan quanti huiyi wenzi shilu], Xinhua, 10
March 13.
46 Raymond Li, ‘‘Rights Groups Miss Out on Easing of Registration Rules for NGOs,’’ South
China Morning Post, 12 March 13.
47 Zheng Jinran and Xu Jingxi, ‘‘Govt Plans To Give All NGOs Equal Treatment,’’ China
Daily, 8 May 12.
48 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 22. China
has signed, and stated its intent to ratify the ICCPR.
49 ‘‘19 Provinces in China Already Implementing Direct Registration of Social Organizations’’[Woguo 19 ge shengfen yi kaizhan huo shixing shehui zuzhi zhijie dengji], Beijing Times, reprinted in Ministry of Civil Affairs NPO Management Bureau, 16 February 13.
50 Tang Yue and He Dan, ‘‘ ‘Spring’ in the Air for NGOs? ’’ China Daily, 17 April 13.
51 Li Qiang, ‘‘Social Organizations in the Province Increased by 15% Last Year’’ [Quanshengshehui zuzhi qunian zengzhang 15%], Southern Daily, 29 May 13.
52 Zhao Xinxing, ‘‘Survey Shows: Newly Registered Public Interest Organizations Face Taxes,
Increased Expenses, and Other Problems’’ [Diaocha xianshi: xin zhuce gongyi zuzhi mianlin
shuifei kaizhi da deng wenti], Southern Daily, 9 October 12. To gather the information,
Zhongshan University’s (Sun Yatsen University) Center on Philanthropy conducted the surveyof approximately 10 public interest organizations. See Li Yulin, ‘‘Tax Pressures on Grassroots
NGOs as High as the Mountains: Tax Exemption Application Eligibility Is Difficult’’ [Caogen
NGO shuifu yali shanda: mianshui zige shenqing nan], Southern Metropolitan Daily, reprinted
in China Development Brief, 28 January 13. According to Southern Metropolitan Daily, one of
the administrative hurdles for non-governmental, nonprofit organizations is obtaining taxexempt status.
53 Zhao Xinxing, ‘‘Survey Shows: Newly Registered Public Interest Organizations Face Taxes,
Increased Expenses, and Other Problems’’ [Diaocha xianshi: xin zhuce gongyi zuzhi mianlin
shuifei kaizhi da deng wenti], Southern Daily, 9 October 12; Li Yulin, ‘‘Tax Pressures on Grassroots NGOs as High as the Mountains: Tax Exemption Application Eligibility Is Difficult’’[Caogen NGO shuifu yali shanda: mianshui zige shenqing nan], Southern Metropolitan Daily,
reprinted in China Development Brief, 28 January 13.
54 Wang Huixian, ‘‘Some Cities in Zhejiang Experiment With Allowing Social Organizations
To Register Directly’’ [Zhejiang bufen chengshi shixing shehui zuzhi zhijie dengji], Public Interest Times, 6 November 12; Li Jia, ‘‘Social Organization Direct Registration Not Yet Accomplished’’ [Shehui zuzhi zhijie dengji jun wei bancheng], Beijing Youth Net, 2 April 13.
55 Lan Zhixin and Liu Jiaqi, ‘‘NGOs ‘Transfer to Full Registration’ in Progress’’ [NGO‘‘zhuanzheng’’ jinxing shi], First Financial Daily, 26 March 13.
56 Wei Mingyan, ‘‘Four Kinds of Social Organizations in Beijing Will Start Direct Registration
Next Month, Government-Organized Professional Associations Will Hasten Separation’’ [Beijing
silei shehui zuzhi xiayueqi zhijie dengji guanban hangye xiehui jiasu tuogou], Beijing News, 29
March 13.
57 Wang Ming, ‘‘Suggestions on the Establishment of a Comprehensive System for Government
Procurement of Public Services from Social Organizations’’ [Guanyu jianli jianquan zhengfu
xiang shehui zuzhi goumai gonggong fuwu tizhi de jianyi], Social Welfare and Charitable Matters Promotion, reprinted in Ministry of Civil Affairs, 26 March 13; Andreas Fulda, ‘‘Government Procurement of CSO Services in the PR China: Doing the Party’s Work? ’’ China Policy
Institute Policy Paper, No. 4, 2013, 2.

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58 ‘‘Li Keqiang’s Speech at the Teleconference To Mobilize the Transformation of the StateCouncil’s Organizational Functions’’ [Li keqiang: zai guowuyuan jigou zhineng zhuanbian
dongyuan dianshi dianhua huiyi shang de jianghua], Xinhua, 15 May 13.
59 Shawn Shieh and Amanda Brown-Inz, ‘‘Mapping China’s Public Interest NGOs,’’ China Development Brief, 14 January 13, 20.
60 See, e.g., Huang Farong, ‘‘Policy Suggestions To Further Improve Mechanisms by Which the
Shanghai Government Procures Public Services From Social Organizations’’ [Guanyu jinyibu
wanshan benshi zhengfu xiang shehui zuzhi goumai gonggong fuwu jizhi de jianyi], Shanghai
Municipal People’s Political Consultative Conference, 13 May 13; Fang Xiangwen and Xie
Yanmei, ‘‘An Enlightening Record of Guangdong’s Social Organization Reform’’ [Guangdong
shehui zuzhi gaige qishi lu], China Social Organizations, Vol. 1, 2013, reprinted in Ministry of
Civil Affairs China NPO Management Bureau, 30 March 13.
61 Wang Ming, ‘‘Suggestions on the Establishment of a Comprehensive System for Government
Procurement of Public Services From Social Organizations’’ [Guanyu jianli jianquan zhengfu
xiang shehui zuzhi goumai gonggong fuwu tizhi de jianyi], Social Welfare and Charitable Matters Promotion, reprinted in Ministry of Civil Affairs, 26 March 13; ‘‘People’s Daily Suggestion:
Standardize Government Procurement of Public Services’’ [Renmin ribao jianyan: guifan zhengfu
goumai gonggong fuwu], People’s Daily, 20 March 13.
62 ‘‘Li Keqiang’s Speech at the Teleconference To Mobilize the Transformation of the StateCouncil’s Organizational Functions’’ [Li keqiang: zai guowuyuan jigou zhineng zhuanbian
dongyuan dianshi dianhua huiyi shang de jianghua], Xinhua, 15 May 13.
63 ‘‘Chinese Government’s NGO Funding Peaks in 2012,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily,
13 February 13; Zhang Xuetao, ‘‘Next Year, The Government Will Continue To Contract NGO
Services’’ [Zhengfu mingnian jixu goumai shehui zuzhi fuwu], Philanthropy Times, 18 December
12.
64 Zhang Tianjiao et al., ‘‘Zhang Shuqin: Public Interest Needs Greater Understanding’’ [Zhang
shuqin: minjian gongyi xuyao gengduo lijie], Xinhua, 19 February 13.
65 Mai Fengzhuang and Li Feng, ‘‘Government Procurement of Services: This Close, That Far’’[Zhengfu goumai fuwu: zheme jin, name yuan], Foshan Daily, 17 September 12.
66 Fengshi Wu and Kin-Man Chan, ‘‘Graduated Control and Beyond: The Evolving Government-NGO Relations,’’ China Perspectives, No. 3, 2012, 17.
67 Zhao Yanhong, ‘‘CASS Law Blue Book: China’s Charity System Has Legal Gaps’’[Shekeyuan fazhi lanpishu: woguo cishan zhidu tixi cunzai henduo falu kongbai], People’s Daily,
reprinted in China Daily, 25 February 2013.
68 China Academy of Social Sciences Institute of Law, The Annual Report on China’s Rule of
Law No. 11 (2013), [Zhongguo fazhi fazhan baogao No. 11 (2013)], (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2013), 26.
69 Zheng Mingda, ‘‘Charity Legislation: Release the Strength of Philanthropy’’ [Cishan lifa:
shifang gengduo de cishan nengliang], Ban Yue Tan, 20 February 13, Vol. 3.
70 Zhang Zhipeng, ‘‘Let Legal Entity Status Help Advance the ‘Rapid Development’ of the Religious Charity Sector’’ [Rang falu shiti diwei zhu zhun zongjiao gongyi zishan shiye ‘‘tengfei’’],China Ethnicity News, 18 June 13.
71 ‘‘MCA: Promoting a Charity Law, Will Establish China Charity Alliance’’ [Minzhengbu:
tuidong cishan lifa ni chengli zhongguo cishan lianhehui], China News Service, reprinted in Beijing News, 13 March 13.
72 Zou Wei and Hu Hao, ‘‘Charity Law Already Entered Drafting Phase’’ [Cishan shiyefa yi
jinru qicao jieduan], Xinhua, 28 December 12.
73 Wang Wei et al., ‘‘Five Questions About Charity (Question 3): Who Watches Over Our Donations? ’’ [Cishan wuwen zhi sanwen: shui lai jiandu women de juankuan?], Xinhua, 31 July 13.
74 Edward Wong, ‘‘After Quake, Donors Shun Aid Groups Run by China,’’ New York Times,
22 April 13.
75 Amanda Brown-Inz, ‘‘View From the Media: The Mysterious Decimal Point,’’ China Development Brief, 17 April 13. The article features a story on alleged financial malfeasance at China
Children’s Charity.
76 Ma Xueling and Ding Dong, ‘‘CASS: Reconstruction of Red Cross’s Public Credibility Is
More Difficult Than Expected’’ [Shekeyuan baogao: honghui shehui gongxinli zhongjian zhi
jiannan yuanchao yuqi], China News Service, 31 May 13; ‘‘Survey: 60 Percent of Interviewees
Believe in Non-Governmental Charitable Organizations’’ [Diaocha: liucheng shoufangzhe xinren
minjian cishan jigou], China Youth International, 5 May 13.
77 Zheng Mingda, ‘‘Establishing a Charity Law: Releasing the Strength of Charity’’ [Cishan
lifa: shifang gengduo de cishan nengliang], Fortnightly Review, 20 February 13.
78 ‘‘Report Says That Donations to Red Cross Shrank by Almost 30 Percent This Year, Public
Really Wants Transparency’’ [Baogao cheng honghui juanzengliang jiangjin sancheng,gongzhong zuipan gongkai touming], Mirror, 31 May 13.
79 Karla Simon, ‘‘Trends in Chinese Transparency and Philanthropy,’’ Alliance, 6 February 13.
80 Colleen Lee and Ng Kang-chung, ‘‘Legco Approves HK$100m Sichuan Quake Donation,’’South China Morning Post, 4 May 13.
81 ‘‘The Ya’an Earthquake: Mainland, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau ‘Refuse To Donate’ ’’[Ya’an dizhen, liang’an sandi qi ‘‘kangjuan’’], Radio Free Asia, 2 May 13.
82 ‘‘Survey: 60 Percent of Interviewees Believe in Non-Governmental Charitable Organizations’’ [Diaocha: liucheng shoufangzhe xinren minjian cishan jigou], China National Radio, reprinted in China Youth International, 5 May 13.
83 Chang Meng, ‘‘A Red Cross To Bear,’’ Global Times, 26 April 13. Although the Global Times
notes that donations to the Red Cross eventually did outstrip those to private foundations, theWall Street Journal China Real Time Report reported that ‘‘In the first day after a magnitude
7.0 earthquake hit the county of Lushan in Sichuan, the Red Cross received roughly 140,000
yuan ($22,700) in donations, compared to 10 million taken in by martial arts star Jet Li’s One

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Foundation.’’ See William Kazer, ‘‘China’s Red Cross Tries To Rebuild After Self-Inflicted Disaster,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 30 April 13.
84 Yang Jingjie, ‘‘Global Fund Phases Out China Projects Due To Finance Shortfalls,’’ Global
Times, 1 February 12; China Global Fund Watch Newsletter, Issue No. 18, January 2012. According to The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria China portfolio information, The Global Fund has disbursed US$763,385,847 to China. See The Global Fund to Fight
AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, ‘‘Investing in: China,’’ last visited 26 June 13.
85 Zhang Tao, ‘‘A New Paradigm of AIDS Governance,’’ China Xiehe Medical University Publishing House, May 2012, 71–74; UNAIDS China Office, David Shallcross and Nana Taona Kuo,‘‘Summary of ‘The Expectations and Realities of NGO Registration: A Study of HIV/AIDSGroups in Sichuan and Yunnan,’ ’’ China Development Brief, 12 December 12.
86 Nicole A. Szlezák, The Making of Global Health Governance: China and the Global Fundto Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012), 124–127, 133–143.
87 Hui Hongtao, ‘‘We Are the Bridge!—A Successful Advocacy Case of Promoting Communication Between the HIV-Affected Community and the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in
Heilongjiang Province,’’ Asia Catalyst, 10 May 13.
88 Food and Drug Safety, Public Health, and the Environment in China, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 22 May 13, Testimony of Yanzhong Huang, Senior
Fellow for Global Health, Council on Foreign Relations and Associate Professor and Director of
the Center for Global Health Studies, Seton Hall University.
89 Lan Fang, ‘‘Gov’ts, NGOs Increasingly Cooperating To Solve Social Problems,’’ Caixin, 7 November 12; Du Yongtao et al., ‘‘Li Keqiang Meets With People Living With AIDS, Says He
Wants To Hear Opinions From Grassroots Organizations’’ [Li keqiang huijian aizibing huanzhe
cheng yao ting caogen zuzhi yijian], China News Service, reprinted in Sina, 28 November 12.
90 Li Yang, ‘‘Fighting a Dreaded Disease,’’ China Daily, 1 December 12; Du Yongtao et al., ‘‘Li
Keqiang Meets With People Living With AIDS, Says He Wants To Hear Opinions From Grassroots Organizations’’ [Li keqiang huijian aizibing huanzhe cheng yao ting caogen zuzhi yijian],
China News Service, reprinted in Sina, 28 November 12.
91 Du Yongtao et al., ‘‘Li Keqiang Meets with People Living with AIDS, Says He Wants To
Hear Opinions From Grassroots Organizations’’ [Li keqiang huijian aizibing huanzhe cheng yao
ting caogen zuzhi yijian], China News Service, reprinted in Sina, 28 November 12.
92 Office of the Inspector General, ‘‘Diagnostic Review of Global Fund Grants to the People’s
Republic of China,’’ The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 23 October 12,
19, para. 68.

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Notes to Section III—Institutions of Democratic Governance
1 John Dotson, ‘‘The China Rising Leaders Project, Part 2: Outcomes of the Chinese Communist Party’s 18th National Congress,’’ U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission,
21 December 12, 4.
2 Alice Miller, ‘‘The New Party Politburo Leadership,’’ China Leadership Monitor, Hoover Institute, Stanford University, No. 40 (Winter 2013), 14 January 13, 2–5. This article contains additional information about the collective characteristics of the new Party Central Committee. Besides Xi, other people selected for the top leadership positions in the powerful seven-member
Party Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee include Li Keqiang, Zhang
Dejiang, Yu Zhengsheng, Liu Yunshan, Wang Qishan, and Zhang Gaoli. For information onthese leaders’ possible views toward economic reform, see Barry Naughton, ‘‘Signaling Change:
New Leaders Begin the Search for Economic Reform,’’ China Leadership Monitor, Hoover Institute, Stanford University, No. 40 (Winter 2013), 14 January 13.
3 John Dotson, ‘‘The China Rising Leaders Project, Part 2: Outcomes of the Chinese Communist Party’s 18th National Congress,’’ U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission,
21 December 12, 5; Benjamin Kang Lim, ‘‘Exclusive: China’s Backroom Powerbrokers Block Reform Candidates—Sources,’’ Reuters, 20 November 12. For more information on the new cohortof leaders, see Alice Miller, ‘‘The New Party Politburo Leadership,’’ China Leadership Monitor,
Hoover Institute, Stanford University, No. 40 (Winter 2013), 14 January 13, 1.
4 John Dotson, ‘‘The China Rising Leaders Project, Part 2: Outcomes of the Chinese Communist Party’s 18th National Congress,’’ U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission,
21 December 12, 12.
5 Ibid., 5; Alice Miller, ‘‘The New Party Politburo Leadership’’ China Leadership Monitor, Hoover Institute, Stanford University, No. 40 (Winter 2013), 14 January 13, 11–12. For information
about the downfall of Bo Xilai and his wife, Gu Kailai, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 131.
6 John Dotson, ‘‘The China Rising Leaders Project, Part 2: Outcomes of the Chinese Communist Party’s 18th National Congress,’’ U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission,
21 December 12, 5. For information about the downfall of Bo Xilai and his wife, Gu Kailai, see
CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 131.
7 Alice Miller, ‘‘The New Party Politburo Leadership,’’ China Leadership Monitor, Hoover Institute, Stanford University, No. 40 (Winter 2013), 14 January 13, 1–2, 10.
8 ‘‘A New Strategic Roadmap for Sino-American Relations,’’ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2 April 13.
9 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China’s New President Nods to Public Concerns, But Defends Power at Top,’’
New York Times, 14 March 13; Russell Leigh Moses, ‘‘Xi Set To Slow Down on Reform? Signs
Point Other Way,’’ Wall Street Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 18 March 13; ‘‘A New
Strategic Roadmap for Sino-American Relations,’’ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,
2 April 13.
10 Joseph Fewsmith, ‘‘The 18th Party Congress: Testing the Limits of Institutionalization,’’China Leadership Monitor, Hoover Institute, Stanford University, No. 40 (Winter 2013), 14 January 13, 1–3; John Dotson, ‘‘The China Rising Leaders Project, Part 2: Outcomes of the Chinese
Communist Party’s 18th National Congress,’’ U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 21 December 12, 18–19.
11 ‘‘Full Text of Resolution on Amendment to CPC Constitution,’’ Xinhua, 14 November 12.
The new language quoted in the text is infused throughout the Articles of the Constitution. In
addition, revisions enshrined the system of ‘‘socialism with Chinese characteristics’’ as China’s
path and included the promotion of ‘‘ecological civilization’’ as a long-term task that is to be incorporated into all aspects and processes of advancing economic, political, cultural, and social
progress. For more information, see Section II—the Environment.
12 Chinese Communist Party Constitution, adopted 6 September 82, amended 1 November 87,
18 October 92, 18 September 97, 14 November 02, 21 October 07, 14 November 12.
13 For detailed information about the origins and meaning of this phrase, see Joseph
Fewsmith, ‘‘Promoting the Scientific Development Concept,’’ China Leadership Monitor, Hoover
Institute, Stanford University, No. 11 (Summer 2004), 30 July 04.
14 David Shambaugh, ‘‘Don’t Expect Reform From China’s New Leaders,’’ Washington Post, 15
November 12; Elizabeth Economy, ‘‘China’s New Leaders: No Reform Dream Team,’’ Council on
Foreign Relations, Asia Unbound (blog), 15 November 12; China’s New Leadership and Implications for the United States, Hearing of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 7 February 13, Written Testimony of Cheng Li, Director of Research and Senior Fellow,
John L. Thornton China Center, Brookings Institution; Chris Buckley, ‘‘China’s New President
Nods to Public Concerns, But Defends Power at Top,’’ New York Times, 14 March 13. The New
York Times article quotes views from people inside China. Bruce Gilley, Jamestown Foundation,‘‘China’s New Leaders To Strengthen the Party-State,’’ China Brief, Vol. 12, No. 23, 30 November 12. Prof. Gilley asserts that ‘‘liberalizing political reforms are off the table.’’ Scott Kennedy,‘‘China’s New Leadership: Econ Reform Yes, Political Reform No,’’ The China Track (blog), 15
November 12; Willy Lam, Jamestown Foundation, ‘‘National People’s Congress Marks Sharp
Turn Toward Conservatism,’’ China Brief, Vol. 13, No. 6, 15 March 13.
15 Stephen Roach, ‘‘China’s Dream Team,’’ Project Syndicate, 28 November 12; Ian Johnson,‘‘A Promise To Tackle China’s Problems, But Few Hints of a Shift in Path,’’ New York Times,
15 November 12. A Chinese human rights lawyer remarked that ‘‘[t]his is quite a mediocre lineup, and we’ll have to wait and see what they do.’’
16 Chris Buckley, ‘‘Vows of Change in China Belie Private Warning,’’ New York Times, 14 February 13.
17 Ibid.; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘In China, New Premier Says He Seeks a Just Society,’’ New YorkTimes, 17 March 13.

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18 Russell Leigh Moses, ‘‘Bold Break: What Is Xi Up To? ’’ Wall Street Journal, China RealTime Report (blog), 5 December 12.
19 Russell Leigh Moses, ‘‘Xi Set To Slow Down on Reform? Signs Point Other Way,’’ WallStreet Journal, China Real Time Report (blog), 18 March 13. For more information on the‘‘China Dream,’’ see ‘‘Xi Jinping: Speech at the First Meeting of the 12th National People’s Congress’’ [Xi jinping: zai di shier jie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui diyici huiyishang de jianghua],
Xinhua, 17 March 13; ‘‘Wang Yiwei: China’s Dream Should Also Be the World’s Dream’’ [Wangyiwei: zhongguo meng ye ying shi shijie meng], Global Times, reprinted in Xinhua, 6 March 13.
For one analysis of the ‘‘China Dream,’’ see ‘‘China—Xi Jinping’s ‘Chinese Dream’ Suggests
Counter to Perceived Appeal of US,’’ Open Source Center, 22 March 13.
20 Choi Chi-yuk, ‘‘Xi Jinping Vows To Uphold Constitution and Rule of Law,’’ South China
Morning Post, 25 February 13.
21 Chris Buckley, ‘‘Vows of Change in China Belie Private Warning,’’ New York Times, 14 February 13. This article reported that Xi Jinping’s statement appeared in a summary of a speechthat was circulated among Party members during Xi’s visit to Guangdong province but that was
not publicized.
22 ‘‘Xi Jinping Urges CPC To Accept Criticism,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in Global Times, 7 February
13. According to the Xinhua article, Xi Jinping said ‘‘[t]he CPC should be able to put up withsharp criticism, correct mistakes if it has committed them and avoid them if it has not.’’ Criticism from non-Party members, he reportedly said, could help the Party find, analyze, and resolve problems. Ira Belkin, ‘‘Maoist Attitude to Dissent Is Blocking China’s Road to the Ruleof Law,’’ South China Morning Post, 8 April 13.
23 Ira Belkin, ‘‘Maoist Attitude to Dissent Is Blocking China’s Road to the Rule of Law,’’ South
China Morning Post, 8 April 13.
24 Ibid. This article reports that the Party-state seems to ignore the constitution and laws insome cases involving perceived enemies. ‘‘Spirit of the Central Propaganda Work Meeting: Prohibits the Media From Opposing the Party, Opposing Maoism, and Opposing Marxism-Leninism’’ [Zhongyang xuanchuan gongzuo huiyi jingshen: jinzhi meiti fan dang fan mao fan malie],
Aboluo Net, 31 March 13.
25 Susan Lawrence and Michael Martin, ‘‘Understanding China’s Political System,’’ Congressional Research Service, 20 March 13, 2, 5–6.
26 ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan jigou
gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an], Xinhua, 10 March 13; ‘‘Communiqué of the Second Sessionof the 18th CPC Central Committee’’ [Zhongguo gongchandang di shiba jie zhongyang
weiyuanhui di erci quanti huiyi gongbao], Xinhua, 28 February 13 (Open Source Center, 13
March 13). For a graphic depiction of these changes, see ‘‘Infographic: China’s New Streamlined
Government,’’ South China Morning Post, 18 March 13; Zhao Chao and Cui Qingxin, ‘‘New
Round of State Council Institutional Reform To Commence, State Council Ministry Groups Reduced to 25’’ [Xin yilun guowuyuan jigou gaige jiang qidong guowuyuan zucheng bumen jianzhi
25 ge], Xinhua, 10 March 13.
27 ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan jigou
gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an], Xinhua, 10 March 13; ‘‘Communiqué of the Second Sessionof the 18th CPC Central Committee’’ [Zhongguo gongchandang di shiba jie zhongyang
weiyuanhui di erci quanti huiyi gongbao], Xinhua, 28 February 13 (Open Source Center, 13
March 13).
28 ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guowuyuan jigou
gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an], Xinhua, 10 March 13; State Council General Office, Circular Regarding Division of Labor in Implementing the ‘‘State Council Institutional Reform andFunctional Transformation Plan’’ [Guanyu shishi ‘‘guowuyuan jigou gaige he zhineng zhuanbianfang’an’’ renwu fengong de tongzhi], 28 March 13. Authorities appear to have already started
on the top five tasks on that list (the Xinhua article provides more details regarding the first
three of the tasks listed below). (1) Separate the commercial side of the administration of railways from the regulatory functions by establishing the China Railway Corporation and establishing the State Railway Administration under the Ministry of Transportation. (2) Establish
the General Administration of Food and Drug Management and Supervision and combine theresponsibilities of several different offices within this administration. (3) Combine some functions of the Population and Family Planning Commission and the Ministry of Health into a new
institution, the National Health and Family Planning Commission, and eliminate the two oldinstitutions. (4) Integrate the registration responsibilities for housing, forests, grasslands, andland. (5) Strictly control new items that require administrative examination and approval. From
now on, in general, agencies will not have the liberty to require new licenses. If there is a definite need for a new license for special needs, then it must strictly adhere to administrative license provisions. Strengthen the demonstration of the legality, necessity, and rationality of examination process.
29 State Council General Office, Circular Regarding Division of Labor in Implementing the‘‘State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation Plan’’ [Guanyu shishi‘‘guowuyuan jigou gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an’’ renwu fengong de tongzhi], 28 March
13.
30 Ma Kai, ‘‘Explanation of State Council Institutional Reform and Functional Transformation’’[Guanyu guowuyuan jigou gaige he zhineng zhuanbian fang’an de shuoming], Xinhua, 10 March
13 (Open Source Center, 10 March 13).
31 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 25; UN
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, General Comment No. 25: The Right To
Participate in Public Affairs, Voting Rights and the Right of Equal Access to Public Service,
CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7, 7 December 96. Under General Comment 25 to the ICCPR, the language requires that: ‘‘Where citizens participate in the conduct of public affairs through freely
chosen representatives, it is implicit in article 25 that those representatives do in fact exercise

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governmental power and that they are accountable through the electoral process for their exercise of that power’’ (Item 7); ‘‘The right to vote at elections and referenda must be establishedby law and may be subject only to reasonable restrictions . . . [p]arty membership should not
be a condition of eligibility to vote, nor a ground of disqualification’’ (Item 10); ‘‘Freedom of expression, assembly and association are essential conditions for the effective exercise of the rightto vote and must be fully protected . . . .’’ (Item 12); ‘‘The right of persons to stand for election
should not be limited unreasonably by requiring candidates to be members of parties or of specific parties . . .’’ (Item 17); and an ‘‘independent electoral authority should be established tosupervise the electoral process and to ensure that it is conducted fairly, impartially and in accordance with established laws which are compatible with the Covenant . . . .’’ (Item 20).
32 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76. China hassigned, but has not yet ratified, the ICCPR. In the 2009–2010 National Human Rights Action
Plan issued by the Chinese government in April 2009, officials stated that the ‘‘essentials’’ ofthe ICCPR were some of the ‘‘fundamental principles’’ on which the plan was framed, and thatthe government ‘‘will continue legislative, judicial and administrative reforms to make domestic
laws better link with this Covenant, and prepare the ground for approval of the ICCPR.’’ StateCouncil Information Office, ‘‘National Human Rights Action Plan of China (2009–2010),’’ reprinted in Xinhua, 13 April 09, Introduction, sec. V(1).
33 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly
resolution 217A(III) of 10 December 48, art. 21. ‘‘Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives . . . . The will of thepeople shall be the basis of the authority of government, this shall be expressed in periodic andgenuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secretvote or by equivalent free voting procedures.’’34 ‘‘Supreme People’s Court Work Report (Full Text)’’ [Zuigao renmin fayuan gongzuo baogao(quanwen)], Legal Daily, reprinted in China Law Info, 22 March 13. Wang Shengjun, then Chief
Justice, noted that in the last five years, the Supreme People’s Court has been under the ‘‘firm
leadership of the Party . . . .’’ Keith Zhai, ‘‘Security Tsar Meng Jianzhu Criticizes Interferencein Court Proceedings,’’ South China Morning Post, 9 January 13.
35 David Bandurski, ‘‘Control, On the Shores of China’s Dream,’’ China Media Project, 22 May
13; ‘‘Full Text: Work Report of NPC Standing Committee,’’ Xinhua, 20 March 13.
36 ‘‘Full Text: Work Report of NPC Standing Committee,’’ Xinhua, 20 March 13. In the NPC
Standing Committee report to the NPC, Wu Bangguo emphasized this relationship: the NPC‘‘consciously upheld the Party’s leadership over the NPC’s Work; . . . carried out major decisions
and arrangements of the Party Central Committee; turned the views of the Party into the willof the state through statutory procedures; and placed people recommended by the Party organization in leadership positions in bodies of state power through statutory procedures.’’37 ‘‘The Percentage of Leading Cadres Among the 2,987 Delegates Decreases, The Number ofFrontline Workers and Rural Residents Increases’’ [2987 ming daibiao zhong lingdao ganbu bili
jiang yixian gongren nongmin daibiao zeng], China Net, 27 February 13.
38 ‘‘County-Level and Above Party Committees in Our Nation Will Establish Human Resources
Leading Work Groups’’ [Woguo xianji yishang difang dangwei jiang jianli rencai gongzuo lingdao
xiaozu], Xinhua, reprinted in Chinese Communist Party Information Net, 26 September 12. The
opinion regarding strengthening ‘‘Party management over human resources’’ stipulates all Party
committees at the county level and above must establish a ‘‘human resources leading small
group,’’ and all related major documents and activity arrangements must be examined and approved through the small group. Major items are examined and approved by the Party committee at the same level.
39 Fang Li, ‘‘Party Organizations in Accounting Firms Reach 3,264’’ [Quanguo kuaijishi
shiwusuo dang zuzhi da 3264 ge], Guangming Daily, reprinted in United Front Work Department, 18 September 12.
40 Li Xuanliang and Zhang Dongbo, ‘‘Xi Jinping: Build a Victorious, First Rate, ModernizedPeople’s Armed Police That Obeys the Party’s Commands’’ [Xi jinping: jianshe tingdang zhihuineng da shengzhang zuofeng youliang de xiandaihua wuzhuang jingcha budui], Xinhua, 29 January 13.
41 ‘‘Well-Known Chinese Web Sites Establish Party Organizations One After Another’’[Zhongguo ge zhiming wangzhan fenfen chengli dang zuzhi], BBC, 11 January 13.
42 Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘China Keeps a Close Eye on University Student Groups,’’ Los Angeles
Times, 9 December 12.
43 Qiao Li, ‘‘The Party Seeks To Establish a Presence in All Social Organizations’’ [Shehui
zuzhi dangjian quan fugai], Liberation Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 25 October 12; Patricia
Thornton, ‘‘The Advance of the Party: Transformation or Takeover of Urban Grassroots Society? ’’ China Quarterly, Vol. 213 (March 2013), 9–11.
44 ‘‘Policy Brief No. 9 (October 2012): Meet Your Local Social Affairs Committee,’’ China Development Brief, 23 October 12. According to this article, the Committees also provided funding
for administrators and assistants for the Party groups. Qiao Li, ‘‘The Party Seeks To Establish
a Presence in All Social Organizations’’ [Shehui zuzhi dangjian quan fugai], Liberation Daily,
reprinted in People’s Daily, 25 October 12.
45 Patricia Thornton, ‘‘The Advance of the Party: Transformation or Takeover of Urban Grassroots Society? ’’ China Quarterly, Vol. 213 (March 2013), 9–11.
46 Ibid.
47 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Takes Aim at Western Ideas,’’ New York Times, 19 August 13; Chen
Xi, ‘‘Mingjing Monthly: Exclusive Entire Text of Disseminated Chinese Communist Document
No. 9’’ [Mingjing yuekan: dujia quanwen kanfa zhonggong 9 hao wenjian], Mingjing Monthly,
19 August 13; ‘‘Ming Jing: Notification Regarding ‘Circular on Current State of Ideology’ Printed
and Distributed by General Office of CPC Central Committee,’’ Open Source Center, 21 August
13.

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48 Ibid.
49 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Warns Officials Against ‘Dangerous’ Western Values,’’ New YorkTimes, 13 May 13.
50 David Bandurski, ‘‘Censors, Show Your Swords!’’ China Media Project, 4 September 13.
51 ‘‘China’s Struggle Sessions,’’ Wall Street Journal, 4 September 13.
52 Qian Gang, ‘‘The Uncertain Death of ‘Constitutionalism,’ ’’ China Media Project, 2 September 13; David Bandurski, ‘‘China’s Constitutional Debate,’’ China Media Project, 14 August13.
53 ‘‘Chinese Communist Party 16 Item Opinion To Strengthen Higher Education Young Teachers’ Political Thought Work’’ [Zhonggong 16 tiao yijian jiaqiang gaoxiao qingnian jiaoshi sixiang
zhengzhi gongzuo], Ministry of Education, reprinted in People’s Daily, 28 May 13.
54 National Development and Reform Commission, Major Fixed Asset Investment Project Social Stability Risk Assessment Provisional Measures [Guojia fazhan gaigewei zhongda guding
zichan touzi xiangmu shehui wending fengxian pinggu zanxing banfa], issued 16 August 12, art.
1.
55 National Development and Reform Commission, Major Fixed Asset Investment Project Social Stability Risk Assessment Provisional Measures [Guojia fazhan gaigewei zhongda guding
zichan touzi xiangmu shehui wending fengxian pinggu zanxing banfa], issued 16 August 12.
56 Ibid., art. 8.
57 Liu Chunxiang, ‘‘Nanjing Trash Generator Project Draws Civic Evaluation: ‘Social Risk
Grade’ To Determine Project’s Life or Death’’ [Nanjing laji fadian xiangmu yinru minjian pinggu‘‘shehui fengxian pingfen’’ ding shengsi], 21st Century Business Herald, 12 September 12.
58 Ibid.
59 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 18 September 13.
60 Ibid.; Xu Zhiyong, ‘‘China’s New Citizens’ Movement’’ [Zhongguo xin gongmin yundong],
Blogspot (Xu Zhiyong’s blog), 15 November 12.
61 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 27 August 13; ‘‘Leader of Citizens Movement That Held Dinner Party Debates Is Formally Arrested in Beijing,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 23 August 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing, August 15–21,
2013,’’ 22 August 13.
62 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Government Notice Fuels Crackdown on Assembly as Subversion,’’Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 19 August 13.
63 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Takes Aim at Western Ideas,’’ New York Times, 19 August 13; Chen
Xi, ‘‘Mingjing Monthly: Exclusive Entire Text of Disseminated Chinese Communist Document
No. 9’’ [Mingjing yuekan: dujia quanwen kanfa zhonggong 9 hao wenjian], Mingjing Monthly,
19 August 13; ‘‘Ming Jing: Notification Regarding ‘Circular on Current State of Ideology’ Printed
and Distributed by General Office of CPC Central Committee,’’ Open Source Center, 21 August13.
64 ‘‘Authorities Deny Medical Treatment to Zhu Yufu; Condition Serious,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 16 April 13; Chen Guangcheng and Gao Zhisheng: Human Rights
in China, Hearing of the Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health,Global Human Rights, and International Organizations, U.S. House of Representatives, 9 April
13, Testimony of Bob Fu, Founder and President, ChinaAid. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–02253 for more information on Zhu Yufu’s case.
65 ‘‘Authorities Deny Medical Treatment to Zhu Yufu; Condition Serious,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 16 April 13; Chen Guangcheng and Gao Zhisheng: Human Rights
in China, Hearing of the Foreign Affairs Committee, Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health,Global Human Rights, and International Organizations, U.S. House of Representatives, 9 April
13, Testimony of Bob Fu, Founder and President of ChinaAid.
66 Ibid.
67 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Lighter Sentences in Retrial of Beijing Fangshan
Raolefu Village Election Cases’’ [Beijing fangshanqu raolefucun xuanjuan an chongshen jianqing
panjue], 25 December 12. For more information on the cases, see David Bandurski, ‘‘Important
Story Lost in the Shuffle,’’ China Media Project, 23 August 10. See the Commission’s Political
Prisoner Database (PPD) for more information on these cases: records 2013–00104 on Song
Jianzhong, 2013–00106 on Luo Yonghong, 2010–00314 on Ma Zhizheng, 2010–00317 on Hao
Sen, 2010–00316 on Zhao Daqing, 2010–00315 on Zhao Zhenhai, and 2013–00105 on Ma
Huimei.
68 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Lighter Sentences in Retrial of Beijing Fangshan
Raolefu Village Election Cases’’ [Beijing fangshanqu raolefucun xuanjuan an chongshen jianqing
panjue], 25 December 12.
69 ‘‘Democracy Advocate Cao Haibo Sentenced to Eight Years for Subversion,’’ CongressionalExecutive Commission on China, 4 December 12. Authorities reportedly did not inform the family of the trial, and did not provide a sentencing notice to the family. Chinese Human Rights
Defenders, ‘‘Submission to UN on Cao Haibo–April 1, 2013,’’ 3 April 13; Chinese Human Rights
Defenders, ‘‘Creator of Society To Strengthen China Cao Haibo Secretly Sentenced to EightYears for ‘Subversion’ ’’ [Zhenhuahui chuangshiren cao haibo bei yi ‘‘dianfuzui’’ mimi panxing
8 nian], 1 November 12; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Zhang Qi Released After Four Years; Cao
Haibo Tried in Closed-Door Hearing,’’ 23 May 12; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Online Activist Sentenced to 8 Years for Subversion; Lawyer Raises Procedural Concerns,’’ 5 November 12; Andrew
Jacobs, ‘‘Chinese Cafe Owner Given 8-Year Sentence Over Online Messages,’’ New York Times,
1 November 12; Sui-Lee Wee, ‘‘China Dissident Gets Eight Years for Subversion Ahead of Congress,’’ Reuters, 1 November 12; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Cao Haibo Secretly Sentenced, Netizens Visit His Wife and Child, Zhang Nian Reveals Script in Letters Home Inconsistent’’ [Cao haibo bei mipan wangyou qianwang shenwang qi qi er, zhang nian pu jilai de269
jiashu ziti bu yizhi], reprinted in Boxun, 6 November 12. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner
Database record 2011–00737 for more information on Cao Haibo’s case.
70 Ibid.
71 ‘‘Letter by Qin Yongmin and Others Urgently Pressing Golmud Authorities To Release Liu
Benqi’’ [Qin yongmin deng jiji duncu geermu dangju shifang liu benqi de lianming xin], Boxun,
22 April 13. Authorities detained Liu after he posted a remark online saying the right to demonstrate is protected by the constitution and suggesting people demonstrate in Beijing during
the 18th Party Congress. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00028
for more information on Liu’s case.
72 Liu Lang, ‘‘Qinghai Dissident Liu Benqi Brutally Persecuted in Detention Center’’ [Qinghai
yiyi renshi liu benqi kanshousuo zao canku pohai], Canyu, reprinted in Boxun, 28 January 13;‘‘Letter by Qin Yongmin and Others Urgently Pressing Golmud Authorities To Release Liu
Benqi’’ [Qin yongmin deng jiji duncu geermu dangju shifang liu benqi de lianming xin], Boxun,
22 April 13.
73 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Liu Benqi Criminally Detained On Suspicion of ‘Inciting
Subversion,’ His Wife Liu Ying Sentenced to RTL, Five-Year-Old Son Goes Missing’’ [Liu benqi
bei yi shexian ‘‘shandian’’ xingju, qizi liu ying bei laojiao, wusui haizi shizong], 1 November 12.
See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00044 for more information on
Liu Ying’s case.
74 ‘‘Guizhou Dissident Liao Shuangyuan Beaten Up, Zhejiang Democratic Party Member Forbidden To Leave Home’’ [Guizhou yiyi renshi liao shuangyuan zao ouda zhejiang minzhudang
ren bei jin chumen], Radio Free Asia, 14 January 13.
75 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Elections Expert Yao Lifa Missing for Over 13 Days’’[Xuanju zhuanjia yao lifa shizong yu 13 tian], 17 March 13. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2011–00532 for more information about Yao Lifa’s case.
76 ‘‘Lawyers Get Involved in Case of 10-Year-Old Zhang Anni’s Kidnapping’’ [Lushi jieru shisuizhang anni bei bangjia an], Voice of America, 6 March 13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Activist
and Ten-Year-Old Daughter Illegally Detained Before Forcible Removal From Hefei,’’ 1 March
13. For information on instances in which authorities harassed the family members of rights
defenders, see Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘In the Name of ‘Stability’: 2012 Annual Report on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders in China,’’ March 2013.
77 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Family Says Rights Defender Zhang Lin Is Criminally Detained,’’19 July 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Attorneys Liu Xiaoyuan, Li Fangping Go to Detention Center To Visit Zhang Lin’’ [Liu xiaoyuan, li fangping lushi dao kanshousuo huijian bei
jiya de zhang lin], 22 July 13.
78 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing, August 22–28, 2013,’’ 28
August 13.
79 Rao Aimin, ‘‘Premier Li Keqiang Presides Over and Gives a Speech at the First State Council Clean Government Work Meeting’’ [Li keqiang zhuchi zhaokai guowuyuan diyici lianzheng
gongzuo huiyi bing jianghua], Xinhua, reprinted in the National Bureau of Corruption Prevention of China, 27 March 13; David Bandurski, ‘‘Li Keqiang Urges More Information Openness,’’
China Media Project, 27 March 13. Premier Li Keqiang reportedly also said that there should
be more transparency so that citizens could supervise the government.
80 ‘‘Govts Go More Transparent on Web,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 6 December 12.
81 China Academy of Social Sciences Institute of Law, Annual Report on China’s Rule of Law
No. 11 (2013) [Zhongguo fazhi fazhan baogao No. 11 (2013)], (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic
Press, 2013), 171–173.
82 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, ‘‘Reply Concerning an Application for Public Disclosure of Government Information’’ [Guanyu shenqing zhengfu xinxi gongkai
de fuhan], translated by Chinese Human Rights Defenders, 15 November 12; Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Cites ‘State Secrets’ in Rejecting Civil Society Participation in Universal Periodic Review,’’ 2 April 13.
83 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘ ‘Chinese Citizens vs. The Government’ Over Participation in Universal Periodic Review,’’ China Human Rights Briefing, August 29–September 5,
2013, 6 September 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Beijing Municipality Second Intermediate People’s Court Administrative Ruling’’ [Beijing shi di er zhongji renmin fayuan
xingzheng caidingshu], 23 August 12 (includes translation).
84 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing August 10–16, 2012,’’ reprinted in Amnesty International, 16 August 12.
85 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Hunan Rights Defender Peng Lanlan Released After aYear in Detention’’ [Hunan weiquan renshi peng lanlan bei jiya yi nian hou huoshi], 15 August
13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Case of Hunan Rights Defender Peng Lanlan Is Sent
to Procuratorate’’ [Hunan weiquan renshi peng lanlan yian bei yisong jianchayuan], 23 January
13.
86 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Case of Hunan Rights Defender Peng Lanlan Is Sent
to Procuratorate’’ [Hunan weiquan renshi peng lanlan yian bei yisong jianchayuan], 23 January
13. Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing August 10–16, 2012,’’ reprinted in Amnesty International, 16 August 12. While Peng Lanlan was in custody, officials
reportedly tortured her. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2011–00262
for more information about Peng Lanlan’s case.
87 National People’s Congress, Election Law of the National People’s Congress and the Various
Levels of Local People’s Congresses of the People’s Republic of China [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo quanguo renmin daibiao dahui he difang geji renmin daibiao dahui xuanjufa], passed
1 July 79, amended 10 December 82, 2 December 86, 28 February 95, 27 October 04, 14 March
10, art. 2.
88 Ibid.
89 Ibid., art. 29. Candidates also may be nominated by either a political party, local people’s
congress delegates, or a ‘‘mass organization.’’270
90 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Independent Candidate Watch Report (Part I)’’
[Zhongguo duli canxuan guancha baogao (shang)], 10 December 12.
91 Wei Huanhuan, ‘‘Beijing Election Observation’’ [Beijing xuanju guancha], New Citizen Law
Net, reprinted in China Elections and Governance, 29 November 11. For example, the New Citizen Law Net article noted that, in one voting district in Beijing municipality, only candidates
nominated by ‘‘small groups’’ would be allowed on the candidate list. See also Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘Independent Candidates Face ‘Filter’ of ‘Consultation Brewing’ ’’ [Dulicanxuanren zaoyu ‘‘xieshang yunniang’’ de ‘‘guoluwang’’], 27 October 11.
92 ‘‘President Hu Gains Votes, No Independent Candidates Are Elected’’ [Hu zong you de piao
duli canxuanren wu de xuan], Mingpao, reprinted in Sina, 9 November 11; Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing, November 2–7, 2011,’’ 15 November 11; What‘‘Democracy’’ Means in China After Thirty Years of Reform, Staff Roundtable of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 22 May 09, Testimony of Melanie Manion, Professor of
Public Affairs and Political Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison. See also ‘‘Officials Discourage and Prevent ‘Independent Candidates’ From Getting on Official Ballots in Local People’s
Congress Elections,’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update, No. 1, 24 January
12, 3.
93 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Independent Candidate Watch Report (Part I)’’
[Zhongguo duli canxuan guancha baogao (shang)], 10 December 12. See also Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Independent Candidate Watch Report (Part II)’’ [Zhongguo dulicanxuan guancha baogao (xia)], 10 December 12. This complete report in two parts contains very
detailed information regarding the characteristics of some independent candidates, describes thesteps authorities took to suppress their election efforts, and highlights a few specific cases ofelections that included independent candidates.
94 ‘‘Record of Draft Decision Regarding the Number of People Allowed and Election Questions
for the Representatives of the 12th National People’s Congress (Full Text)’’ [Guanyu shier jie
quanguo renda daibiao minge he xuanju wenti jueding caoan shilu (quanwen)], China Net, 8
March 12.
95 For a full description of the characteristics of the resulting National People’s Congress delegates, see ‘‘Undertaking the Great Trust of the People—Analysis of the Unique Composition ofRepresentatives of the 12th National People’s Congress’’ [Jianfuqi renmin de zhongtuo—shierjie quanguo renda daibiao goucheng tese fenxi], Xinhua, 27 February 12.
96 ‘‘Record of Draft Decision Regarding the Number of People Allowed and Election Questions
for the Representatives of the 12th National People’s Congress (Full Text)’’ [Guanyu shier jie
quanguo renda daibiao minge he xuanju wenti jueding caoan shilu (quanwen)], China Net, 8
March 12.
97 ‘‘Undertaking the Great Trust of the People—Analysis of the Unique Composition of Representatives of the 12th National People’s Congress’’ [Jianfuqi renmin de zhongtuo—shier jie
quanguo renda daibiao goucheng tese fenxi], Xinhua, 27 February 12.
98 ‘‘Record of Draft Decision Regarding the Number of People Allowed and Election Questions
for the Representatives of the 12th National People’s Congress (Full Text)’’ [Guanyu shier jie
quanguo renda daibiao minge he xuanju wenti jueding caoan shilu (quanwen)], China Net, 8
March 12; ‘‘Undertaking the Great Trust of the People—Analysis of the Unique Composition ofRepresentatives of the 12th National People’s Congress’’ [Jianfuqi renmin de zhongtuo—shierjie quanguo renda daibiao goucheng tese fenxi], Xinhua, 27 February 12.
99 ‘‘Deputies Give Lowest Marks in Six Years to Budget and Court,’’ South China Morning
Post, 18 March 13.
100 ‘‘Closing Ceremony of the First Meeting of the 12th National People’s Congress’’ [Di shierjie quanguo renmin daibiao dahui diyici huiyi bimuhui], Xinhua, 17 March 13. Voting resultsfor other reports are as follows: Draft Government Work Report, 101 negative votes and 44 abstentions; the Draft Report on the Implementation of the 2012 National Economic and Social
Development Plan and on the 2013 National Economic and Social Development Plan, 221 negative votes and 60 abstentions; Draft Report on the Implementation of the 2012 Central andLocal Budgets and on the 2013 Central and Local Budgets, 509 negative votes and 127 abstentions; Draft Work Report of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, 150 negative votes and 61 abstentions; Supreme People’s Procuratorate Draft Work Report, 485 negative votes and 121 abstentions.
101 ‘‘Administrative Litigation Law Revisions and Improving the Procuratorial System’’[Xingzheng susongfa xiugai yu jiancha zhidu de wanshan], Procuratorial Daily, 8 February 13;‘‘Supreme People’s Court Convenes Seminar About Administrative Litigation Law Revisions’’[Zuigao fayuan zhaokai xingzheng susongfa xiugai yantaohui], People’s Court Daily, reprinted
in China News Service, 14 October 11.
102 Zhou Fenmian, ‘‘Administrative Reconsideration Law Revision Included in Plans, Two Revised Drafts Submitted to Legislative Affairs Office [of the State Council]’’ [Xingzheng fuyi fa
xiuding lieru jihua liangban xiuding gao tijiao fazhiban], Legal Daily, 10 October 12.
103 State Council General Office, Opinion Regarding Implementing ‘‘Government Work Report’’
and the Spirit of the State Council First Plenum Key Working Departments Division of Labor[Guanyu luoshi ‘‘zhengfu gongzuo baogao’’ he guowuyuan diyi ci quantihui jingshen zhongdiangongzuo bumen fengong de yijian], issued 28 March 13.
104 Zhang Yong, ‘‘Unceasingly Accelerate the Pace of Constructing a Rule by Law Government—State Council 2012 Legislative Work Summary’’ [Buduan jiakuai fazhi zhengfu jianshe
bufa—guowuyuan er ling yi er nian fazhi gongzuo zongshu], People’s Daily, reprinted in the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council, last visited 7 January 13.
105 ‘‘Advance Administrative Examination and Approval System Reform, Promote Legal,Standardized, and Scientific ‘Red Letterhead Documents’ ’’ [Tuijin xingzheng shenpi zhidu gaigecu ‘‘hongtou wenjian’’ hefa guifan kexue], Xinhua, 3 November 12. According to Xinhua,
Shandong province issued a provision stipulating that all such documents would need to be uniformly registered, numbered, and announced. Documents that had not received a publication

271
number would not go ‘‘into effect.’’ Dang Shu, ‘‘Research on Problems Related to Normative Document Formulation Procedures’’ [Guifanxing wenjian zhiding chengxu de wenti yanjiu], China
Law Information and Research Net, last visited 10 January 13; Wen Jiabao, ‘‘Make Authority
Operate in the Light’’ [Rang quanli zai yangguang xia yunxing], Seeking Truth, 16 April 12,
para. 3. Wen Jiabao noted that, to improve governance, local officials should not use ‘‘red letterhead documents’’ (local official documents) to impose additional responsibilities or duties on citizens, enterprises, or other social groups not included in national laws.
106 Zhang Yong, ‘‘Unceasingly Accelerate the Pace of Constructing a Rule by Law Government—State Council 2012 Legislative Work Summary’’ [Buduan jiakuai fazhi zhengfu jianshe
bufa—guowuyuan er ling yi er nian fazhi gongzuo zongshu], People’s Daily, reprinted in the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council, last visited 7 January 13. For more information regarding the filing and review systems of the State Council and the National People’s Congress(and its standing committee), see Keith Hand, ‘‘Understanding China’s System for Addressing
Legislative Conflicts: Capacity Challenges and the Search for Legislative Harmony,’’ Social
Science Research Network, revised 3 July 13, 37 (also forthcoming in Columbia Journal of AsianLaw).
107 Keith Hand, ‘‘Understanding China’s System for Addressing Legislative Conflicts: Capacity
Challenges and the Search for Legislative Harmony,’’ Social Science Research Network, revised
3 July 13, 51 (also forthcoming in Columbia Journal of Asian Law).
108 Ibid.
109 ‘‘OSC Analysis: China: NPC Work Report Signals Policy Continuity,’’ Open Source Center,8 March 13. This report noted that the 2013 NPC Work Report for the first time listed corruption among the list of China’s problems.
110 Tom Lasseter, ‘‘Pew Report Finds Growing Worry Among Chinese About Corruption andIncome Gap,’’ McClatchy Newspapers, 16 October 12.
111 John Garnaut, ‘‘Row Between China’s Elite Spills Into Open,’’ Age, 30 March 13.
112 ‘‘Exclusive Release: Xi Jinping’s Speech at the First Collective Study Session of the 18th
Chinese Communist Party Central Committee Political Bureau’’ [Shouquan fabu: xi jinping zai
shiba jie zhonggong zhongyang zhengzhiju diyi jiti xuexi shi de jianghua], Xinhua, 18 November
12.
113 ‘‘Transcript Summary of Bo Xilai’s Trial for Bribery, Embezzlement, and Abuse of Power,’’
People’s Daily, 26 August 13; ‘‘Trial of Bo Xilai: Evidence, Charges and Defense,’’ China Daily,
28 August 13.
114 ‘‘Judgment in First Instance Trial of Bo Xilai for Bribery, Embezzlement, and Abuse ofPower (Full Text)’’ [Bo xilai shouhui, tanwu, lanyong zhiquan an yishen panjueshu (quanwen)],People’s Daily, reprinted in China News Service, 22 September 13.
115 Donald Clarke, ‘‘The Bo Xilai Trial and China’s ‘Rule of Law’: Same Old, Same Old,’’ Atlantic, 21 August 13.
116 For information on shuanggui, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 71.
117 ‘‘Li Keqiang: ‘From This Year on Achieve Transparency of Government Reception Expenses
at the County Level and Above’ ’’ [Li keqiang: jinnian qi shixian xianji yishang zhengfu jiedai
jingfei gongkai], Beijing News, reprinted in Procuratorial Daily, 27 March 13.
118 Zhang Hailin, ‘‘ ‘Especially Serious Crime of Bribery’ Standard Makes Appearance’’ [‘‘Tebie
zhongda huiluzui’’ biaozhun chutai], Oriental Outlook, 3 January 13. The standard in the Provisional Supreme People’s Procuratorate Criminal Litigation Provisions recategorized some crimes
as serious. These crimes carry a heavier sentence, and include cases that seriously influence society, involve the national interest, or involve particularly heinous bribery (500,000 yuan
[US$81,500] or more).
119 Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Interpretation of Several
Issues Concerning the Specific Application of Law in Handling Criminal Bribery Cases [Guanyu
banli xinghui xingshi anjian juti yingyong falu ruogan wenti de jieshi], issued 21 August 12,
effective 1 January 13.
120 Supreme People’s Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Interpretation of Several
Issues Concerning the Application of the Law in Handling Criminal Malfeasance Cases (1)[Guanyu banli duzhi xingshi anjian shiyong falu ruogan wenti de jieshi (1)], issued 12 September 12, effective 9 January 13; Chen Fei, ‘‘Supreme People’s Court Explains in Detail Judicial Interpretation on the Handling of Dereliction of Duty Criminal Cases’’ [Zuigaofa xiangjie
banli duzhi xingshi anjian sifa jieshi], Caixin, 9 January 13.
121 Brice Pedroletti, ‘‘After a Whiff of Online Glasnost, China Cracks Down on Whistleblower
Bloggers,’’ Le Monde, reprinted in Worldcrunch, 1 September 13; Committee To Protect Journalists, ‘‘Chinese Journalist Who Raised Corruption Charges Jailed,’’ 29 August 13.
122 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ updated 18 September 13; ‘‘Leader of Citizens Movement That Held Dinner Party Debates Is Formally Arrested in Beijing,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington
Post, 23 August 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing, August
15–21, 2013,’’ 22 August 13; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Government Notice Fuels Crackdown on Assembly as Subversion,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 19 August 13; Chinese Human Rights
Defenders, ‘‘Individuals Detained in Crackdown on Peaceful Assembly & Association,’’ 28 August
13. For information on one petition, see ‘‘The Xu Zhiyong Incident Civil Society’s Appeal’’ [Xuzhiyong shijian zhi gongmin shehui huyushu], reprinted in NeoEase (Xu Zhiyong’s blog), 20 August 13.
123 ‘‘Woman Held Over Letter to Wen,’’ Radio Free Asia, 2 January 13.
124 ‘‘Activists Held Over Transparency Protest,’’ Radio Free Asia, 2 April 13.
125 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocatesof Public Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13.
126 Raymond Li, ‘‘China’s New Central Committee Members Urged To Disclose Assets,’’ South
China Morning Post, 14 December 12.

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127 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Free Anti-Corruption Activists,’’ 3 April 13; Andrew Jacobs,‘‘Chinese Leader’s War on Graft Appears To Have Limits,’’ New York Times, 4 April 13.
128 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Chinese Leader’s War on Graft Appears To Have Limits,’’ New YorkTimes, 4 April 13.
129 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocatesof Public Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13.
130 Ibid.
131 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Chinese Authorities Must Release Activists, End Escalating Crackdown on Free Expression,’’ 19 April 13; ‘‘Beijing Rights Defender Li Wei Has Been
Missing for Four Days’’ [Beijing weiquan renshi li wei shizong disi ri], Boxun, 14 April 13.
132 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocatesof Public Disclosure of Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13.
133 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Two New Charges for Asset Transparency Advocate Liu Ping,’’
29 August 13; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Special Notice: Rights Activist Liu Ping Trialfor ‘Illegal Assembly’ Set for July 18th’’ [Tebie guanzhu: weiquan renshi liu ping ‘‘feifa jihui zui’’
yian jiang yu ben yue 18 ri kaiting], 5 July 13; Patrick Boehler, ‘‘Chinese Activist Detained ‘For
Inciting Subversion of State Power,’ ’’ South China Morning Post, 8 May 13; Chinese Human
Rights Defenders, ‘‘ ‘Chinese Human Rights Defenders’ Strongly Protests Detention of Citizens‘Demanding Disclosure of Officials’ Assets’ by Beijing and Jiangxi Authorities’’ [‘‘Weiquanwang’’yanzheng kangyi beijing he jiangxi dangju jubu ‘‘yaoqiu guanyuan gongbu caichan’’ de gongmin],8 May 13. Authorities reportedly denied Liu access to a lawyer.
134 Liu Yingtuan, ‘‘People’s Daily: Where the Difficulties Are With Disclosing Officials’ Assets’’[Renmin ribao: guanyuan caichan gongkai nan zai na], People’s Daily, reprinted in China News
Service, 23 November 12. According to this article, a Chinese Academy of Social Sciences survey
showed that over 80 percent of respondents thought officials should disclose their assets.
135 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Elite in China Face Austerity Under Xi’s Rule,’’ New York Times, 27
March 13.
136 Robert Keatley, ‘‘Xi’s Reforms Face Big Obstacle,’’ National Interest, 2 May 13.
137 ‘‘Three Locations in Guangdong Start Pilot Project Disclosing Officials’ Finances, Will Expand in Future’’ [Guangdong sandi guanyuan kaishi gongkai caichan shidian fanwei jiang
kuoda], People’s Daily, reprinted in China Transparency, 6 February 13. In Guangdong pilot
projects, officials in two locations have already posted their assets in public areas, and officials
in another location plan to post information on assets on an internal network, likely not visible
to the public. ‘‘People’s Daily: Where the Difficulties Are With Disclosing Officials’ Assets’’[Renmin ribao: guanyuan caichan gongkai nan zai na], People’s Daily, reprinted in China News
Service, 23 November 12; Dai Zhiyong, ‘‘If the People Can Learn To Compromise, Please Learn
To Govern Honestly’’ [Ruguo minzhong neng tuoxie, qing ni xuezhe zuo qingguan], Southern
Weekend, 24 September 09. In September 2009, the Party Central Discipline Inspection Commission reportedly announced that officials must disclose their personal records related to housing, investments, and the employment status of their spouses and children. He Huifeng,‘‘Guangdong Officials To Disclose Assets—But Not to the Public,’’ South China Morning Post,
15 October 09. Several provinces and cities have initiated similar asset-reporting requirements
for select categories of officials including a city in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, cities in Hunan and Guangdong provinces, and the municipality of Shanghai, although in manycases reported information remained within the Communist Party and unavailable to the public.
138 Zhu Na, ‘‘Reluctant Transparency,’’ Economic Observer, 26 July 11; Mei Kunlun, ‘‘Refusal
To Disclose ‘Three Publics’ Requires Accountability and Transparency’’ [Jujue gongkai ‘‘sangong’’
xuyao wenze doudi], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 30 September 12. Thirty-four of the 42 government institutions contacted by Chinese researchers in one study refused to provide information about average per capita office expenses during 2011 and have not provided informationon the ‘‘Three Publics.’’

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Notes to Section III—Commercial Rule of Law
1 Derek Scissors, Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China’s Global Investment Rises: The U.S. Should
Focus on Competition,’’ 8 January 13, 2. Other sources have estimated similar figures. For example, the Economist Intelligence Unit estimated that the average annual growth in China’s
outbound investment from 2005 to 2012 was 35 percent. Economist Intelligence Unit, ‘‘China
Going Global Investment Index,’’ 2013, 4.
2 Derek Scissors, Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China’s Global Investment Rises: The U.S. Should
Focus on Competition,’’ 8 January 13, 2.
3 See, e.g., Derek Scissors, Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China’s Global Investment Rises: The U.S.
Should Focus on Competition,’’ 8 January 13, 2; Economist Intelligence Unit, ‘‘China Going
Global Investment Index,’’ 2013, 4.
4 Economist Intelligence Unit, ‘‘China Going Global Investment Index,’’ 2013, 4.
5 Ibid.
6 See, e.g., World Bank, ‘‘GDP Growth (Annual %),’’ last visited 14 August 13.
7 See, e.g., Yi Gang, ‘‘How To Implement the ‘Going Out’ Strategy,’’ Caixin, 18 January 13;
Zhao Yanrong, ‘‘Outbound Investment Continues,’’ China Daily, 24 May 13; Nerys Avery, ‘‘Chinese Companies Seen Seeking Brands in Overseas Investment,’’ Bloomberg, 16 April 13.
8 People’s Bank of China, ‘‘Biographical Statement,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
9 State Administration of Foreign Exchange, ‘‘Management Team,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
10 Yi Gang, ‘‘How To Implement the ‘Going Out’ Strategy,’’ Caixin, 18 January 13.
11 Ibid.
12 National People’s Congress, PRC Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic
and Social Development [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shierge wunian guihua gangyao], passed 14 March 11, issued 16 March 11, para. 1.
13 Ibid., chap. 52, sec. 2.
14 Derek Scissors, Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China’s Global Investment Rises: The U.S. Should
Focus on Competition,’’ 8 January 13, 5. See also Li Qiuyuan, ‘‘State-Owned Enterprises Urged
To Expand Overseas,’’ CCTV, 2 December 12.
15 Derek Scissors, Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China’s Global Investment Rises: The U.S. Should
Focus on Competition,’’ 8 January 13, 5.
16 National People’s Congress, PRC Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic
and Social Development [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shierge wunian guihua gangyao], passed 14 March 11, issued 16 March 11, chap. 10, para. 1.
17 Ibid., chap. 10, sec. 1.
18 Ibid., chap. 52, sec. 2.
19 Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference, ‘‘Chen Yuan, Vice Chairman of the
Twelfth National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference’’[Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi di shier jie quanguo weiyuan hui fu zhuxi chenyuan], last visited 14 August 13.
20 Ibid.
21 Wang Yiwei, ‘‘Chen Yuan Becomes Head of China Enterprises Investment Association’’[Chen yuan churen zhongguo qiye touzi xiehui huizhang], Sina, 3 December 12.
22 China Enterprises Investment Association, ‘‘Charter of the China Enterprises Investment
Association’’ [Zhongguo qiye touzi xiehui zhangcheng], issued 21 January 06, effective 21 March
06, art. 4.
23 Li Qiuyuan, ‘‘State-Owned Enterprises Urged To Expand Overseas,’’ CCTV, 2 December 12.
24 Nerys Avery, ‘‘Chinese Companies Seen Seeking Brands in Overseas Investment,’’
Bloomberg, 16 April 13; Derek Scissors, Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China’s Global Investment Rises:
The U.S. Should Focus on Competition,’’ 8 January 13, 4; Doug Young, ‘‘China Mobile Eyes
Pakistan Expansion,’’ South China Morning Post, 26 June 13; Tarek Amara and Fatma
Mattoussi, ‘‘Etisalat, Turkcell, Others Eye Dubai’s Tunisie Telecom Stake,’’ Reuters, 26 June 13.
25 Heritage Foundation, ‘‘China Global Investment Tracker’’ Dataset, last visited 14 August
13, dataset 1.
26 Ibid.
27 Christopher Bodeen, ‘‘China and Iceland Sign Free Trade Agreement,’’ Associated Press, 15
April 13.
28 Ibid.; Peter Ford, ‘‘China Cozies Up to Iceland in Race for Arctic Resources,’’ Christian
Science Monitor, 15 April 13.
29 Export-Import Bank of China, ‘‘Brief Introduction,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
30 Economic Statecraft: Increasing American Jobs Through Greater U.S.-Africa Trade and Investment, Hearing of the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, 25 July 12, Testimony
of Fred P. Hochberg, Chairman and President, Export-Import Bank of the United States, 7.
31 Ibid.
32 Aliaksandr Kudrytski, ‘‘China Builds EU Beachhead With $5 Billion City in Belarus,’’
Bloomberg, 26 May 13. See also Li Xiaokun, ‘‘China Signs Cooperation Agreements With
Belarus,’’ China Daily, 17 July 13.
33 China Development Bank, last visited 14 August 13.
34 Aliaksandr Kudrytski, ‘‘China Builds EU Beachhead With $5 Billion City in Belarus,’’
Bloomberg, 26 May 13.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
37 People’s Bank of China, ‘‘Notice on Furthering Market-Based Interest Rate Reform,’’ 22 July13.
38 ‘‘A Small Step Forward,’’ Economist, 27 July 13; Zhou Feng, ‘‘Beginning of a New Era in
Lending,’’ China Daily, 26 July 13; Li Junheng, ‘‘China’s Interest Rate Liberalization, Banking
Reform and Implied Risks to Equity Investors,’’ Forbes, 21 July 13; Michael J. Casey, ‘‘China
Scraps Lending Rate Floor, but Don’t Call It Liberalization,’’ Wall Street Journal, 19 July 13.

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39 See, e.g., Zhou Feng, ‘‘Beginning of a New Era in Lending,’’ China Daily, 26 July 13; ‘‘Teamaker’s Woe Signals China Fund Deficit for Entrepreneurs,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13.
40 ‘‘A Small Step Forward,’’ Economist, 27 July 13; Zhou Feng, ‘‘Beginning of a New Era in
Lending,’’ China Daily, 26 July 13; Michael J. Casey, ‘‘China Scraps Lending Rate Floor, but
Don’t Call It Liberalization,’’ Wall Street Journal, 19 July 13.
41 ‘‘Teamaker’s Woe Signals China Fund Deficit for Entrepreneurs,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13.
42 Ibid. See also Financial Stability Board, ‘‘Global Shadow Banking Monitoring Report 2012,’’18 November 12; JPMorgan Chase Bank, Hong Kong, ‘‘Economic Research Note: Shadow Banking in China,’’ 3 May 13.
43 See, e.g., JPMorgan Chase Bank, Hong Kong, ‘‘Economic Research Note: Shadow Banking
in China,’’ 3 May 13.
44 See, e.g., ‘‘Teamaker’s Woe Signals China Fund Deficit for Entrepreneurs,’’ Bloomberg, 12
August 13.
45 ‘‘Teamaker’s Woe Signals China Fund Deficit for Entrepreneurs,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13.
46 PRC National Audit Office, ‘‘Audit of Government Debt To Launch Comprehensively’’[Zhengfuxing zhaiwu shenji jiang quanmian kaizhan], 28 July 13.
47 Phillip Inman, ‘‘China To Audit Local Authorities and State Enterprises Over Debt Fears,’’
Guardian, 29 July 13; Keith Bradsher and Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Plans Audit of Debt Government Has Incurred,’’ New York Times, 28 July 13; ‘‘China Bank Loans to Local Governments
up 6 Pct at End June,’’ Reuters, 31 July 13.
48 Phillip Inman, ‘‘China To Audit Local Authorities and State Enterprises Over Debt Fears,’’
Guardian, 29 July 13; Keith Bradsher and Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Plans Audit of Debt Government Has Incurred,’’ New York Times, 28 July 13.
49 ‘‘Teamaker’s Woe Signals China Fund Deficit for Entrepreneurs,’’ Bloomberg, 12 August 13.
50 Based on an August 12, 2013, Chinese yuan (CNY)-U.S. dollar (USD) exchange rate of 0.16,
from XE. XE, ‘‘Current and Historical Rate Tables,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
51 George Chen, ‘‘Key Chinese Cities and Provinces Set To Receive Stimulus—on the Quiet,’’South China Morning Post, 12 August 13; George Chen and Jane Cai, ‘‘Shanghai’s Disney Park
Major Beneficiary of HK$314b Agbank Loan,’’ South China Morning Post, 12 August 13.
52 Ibid.
53 Chen Tian, ‘‘Reining in Culture of Debt,’’ Global Times, 12 August 13.
54 U.S. Department of the Treasury, ‘‘Report to Congress on International Economic and Exchange Rate Policies,’’ 12 April 13, 18.
55 Ibid.
56 See, e.g., Eleni Himaras, ‘‘Summers Says Yuan Isn’t as Undervalued as It Was Five Years
Ago,’’ Bloomberg, 14 January 13; U.S. Department of the Treasury, ‘‘Report to Congress on
International Economic and Exchange Rate Policies,’’ 12 April 13, 16; Wynne Wang, ‘‘China
Yuan Hits New High on PBOC Guidance,’’ Wall Street Journal, 9 May 13.
57 Wynne Wang, ‘‘China Yuan Hits New High on PBOC Guidance,’’ Wall Street Journal, 9
May 13.
58 ‘‘Full Text: Report on the Work of the Government,’’ Xinhua, 18 March 13.
59 U.S. Department of the Treasury, ‘‘Report to Congress on International Economic and Exchange Rate Policies,’’ 12 April 13, 17.
60 ‘‘China’s Big Dilemma—Currency Reform,’’ Reuters, reprinted in CNBC, 27 April 13.
61 U.S. Department of the Treasury, ‘‘Report to Congress on International Economic and Exchange Rate Policies,’’ 12 April 13, 17.
62 People’s Bank of China, ‘‘About PBC,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
63 Li Yanping et al., ‘‘Exiting PBOC Adviser Urges More Power for Central Bank: Economy,’’Bloomberg, 21 March 13.
64 State Administration for Foreign Exchange, Circular Regarding Improving and Adjusting
Policies on the Management of Direct Investment and Foreign Exchange [Guojia waihui guanli
ju guanyu jin yi bu gaijin he tiaozheng zhijie touzi waihui guanli zhengce de tongzhi], issued
19 November 12, effective 17 December 12.
65 Ibid., para. 2. For additional discussion of the circular, see Cooley LLP, ‘‘SAFE Simplifies
Foreign Exchange Controls on Foreign Direct Investment,’’ 20 December 12.
66 State Administration for Foreign Exchange, Circular Regarding Improving and Adjusting
Policies on the Management of Direct Investment and Foreign Exchange [Guojia waihui guanli
ju guanyu jin yi bu gaijin he tiaozheng zhijie touzi waihui guanli zhengce de tongzhi], issued
19 November 12, effective 17 December 12, art. 1.
67 Ibid., art. 2.
68 Ibid., art. 8(2).
69 China joined the WTO on December 11, 2001. See, e.g., World Trade Organization, ‘‘China
and the WTO,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
70 World Trade Organization, ‘‘Disputes by Country/Territory,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
71 World Trade Organization, DS413, China—Certain Measures Affecting Electronic Payment
Services, last visited 14 August 13; World Trade Organization, DS414, China—Countervailingand Anti-Dumping Duties on Grain Oriented Flat-Rolled Electrical Steel From the UnitedStates, last visited 14 August 13; World Trade Organization, DS425, China—Definitive AntiDumping Duties on X–Ray Security Inspection Equipment From the European Union, last visited 14 August 13; World Trade Organization, DS427, China—Anti-Dumping and Countervailing
Duty Measures on Broiler Products From the United States, last visited 14 August 13.
72 World Trade Organization, DS414, China—Countervailing and Anti-Dumping Duties on
Grain Oriented Flat-Rolled Electrical Steel From the United States, Summary of the Disputeto Date, last visited 14 August 13; World Trade Organization, DS425, China—Definitive AntiDumping Duties on X–Ray Security Inspection Equipment From the European Union, last visited 14 August 13; World Trade Organization, DS427, China—Anti-Dumping and Countervailing
Duty Measures on Broiler Products From the United States, Summary of the Dispute to Date,
last visited 14 August 13.

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73 World Trade Organization, DS427, China—Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duty Measures on Broiler Products From the United States, Summary of the Dispute to Date, last visited
14 August 13. See also Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘United States Wins
Trade Enforcement Case for American Farmers, Proves Export-Blocking Chinese Duties Unjustified Under WTO Rules,’’ 2 August 13.
74 World Trade Organization, DS414, China—Countervailing and Anti-Dumping Duties on
Grain Oriented Flat-Rolled Electrical Steel From the United States, Summary of the Disputeto Date, last visited 14 August 13.
75 Ministry of Commerce, ‘‘MOFCOM Announcement No. 51 of 2013 on Executing WTO’s Ruling Against Grain Oriented Flat-Rolled Electrical Steel,’’ 31 July 13.
76 Ibid. For more information, see AK Steel, ‘‘AK Steel Comments Regarding the Governmentof China’s Failure To Implement WTO Rulings on Grain Oriented Electrical Steel,’’ Wall Street
Journal, 31 July 13.
77 World Trade Organization, DS440, China—Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties on
Certain Automobiles From the United States, last visited 14 August 13.
78 World Trade Organization, DS450, China—Certain Measures Affecting the Automobile andAutomobile-Parts Industries, last visited 14 August 13.
79 World Trade Organization, DS440, China—Anti-Dumping and Countervailing Duties on
Certain Automobiles From the United States, Summary of the Dispute to Date, last visited 14
August 13.
80 World Trade Organization, DS413, China—Certain Measures Affecting Electronic Payment
Services, Summary of the Dispute to Date, last visited 14 August 13.
81 Ibid.
82 World Trade Organization, Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, date ofsignature 15 April 94, entry into force 1 January 95, arts. 25.1, 25.2.
83 Office of the United States Trade Representative and U.S. Department of Commerce, ‘‘Subsidies Enforcement: Annual Report to the Congress,’’ February 2013, 14.
84 World Trade Organization, DS450, China—Certain Measures Affecting the Automobile andAutomobile-Parts Industries, last visited 14 August 13.
85 Office of the United States Trade Representative and U.S. Department of Commerce, ‘‘Subsidies Enforcement: Annual Report to the Congress,’’ February 2013, 15.
86 US–China Business Council, ‘‘USCBC 2012 China Business Environment Survey Results,’’
2012, 9.
87 Ibid., 8.
88 Ibid., 13.
89 Ibid.
90 World Trade Organization, ‘‘Understanding the WTO: Principles of the Trading System,’’last visited 4 September 13. See also World Trade Organization, ‘‘Glossary,’’ last visited 4 September 13, which defines ‘‘national treatment’’ as follows: ‘‘The principle of giving others thesame treatment as one’s own nationals. GATT Article 3 requires that imports be treated no lessfavorably than the same or similar domestically-produced goods once they have passed customs.
GATS Article 17 and TRIPS Article 3 also deal with national treatment for services and intellectual property protection.’’91 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘USTR Michael Froman Welcomes
Progress at U.S.-China Strategic and Economic Dialogue,’’ 12 July 13; ‘‘Treasury Official Touts
New Chinese Investment Commitments at S&ED,’’ China Trade Extra, 12 July 13; Teshu Singh,‘‘China and the US: Fifth Strategic and Economic Dialogue—Analysis,’’ Eurasia Review, 25 July13.
92 ‘‘Treasury Official Touts New Chinese Investment Commitments at S&ED,’’ China Trade
Extra, 12 July 13.
93 Ibid.
94 World Trade Organization, ‘‘Government Procurement: Opening Up for Competition,’’ lastvisited 14 August 13.
95 ‘‘China Indicates It Is Unlikely To Table New GPA Offer Before End of 2013,’’ China Trade
Extra, 30 May 13.
96 ‘‘Treasury Official Touts New Chinese Investment Commitments at S&ED,’’ China Trade
Extra, 12 July 13.
97 ‘‘US Law Ruins Fair Chance of Competition,’’ Global Times, 16 May 13.
98 PRC State Intellectual Property Office, ‘‘Promotion Plan for the Implementation of the National Intellectual Property Strategy in 2013,’’ 26 March 13, sec. IV.
99 Commission on the Theft of American Intellectual Property, ‘‘The IP Commission Report,’’May 2013, 59.
100 Ibid., 3.
101 Ibid. For a description of national policy guidelines for the acquisition of technology, see,e.g., National People’s Congress, PRC Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic
and Social Development [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shierge wunian guihua gangyao], passed 14 March 11, issued 16 March 11, chap. 27.
102 Commission on the Theft of American Intellectual Property, ‘‘The IP Commission Report,’’May 2013, 3.
103 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2013 Special 301 Report,’’ May 2013,31.
104 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2012 Special 301 Report,’’ April 2012,
26; Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2011 Special 301 Report,’’ April 2011, 19;
Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2010 Special 301 Report,’’ 30 April 10, 19;
Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2009 Special 301 Report,’’ 30 April 09, 13;
Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2008 Special 301 Report,’’ last visited 14 August 13, 19; Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2007 Special 301 Report,’’ last

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visited 14 August 13, 18; Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2006 Special 301
Report,’’ last visited 14 August 13, 16.
105 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘Background on Special 301,’’ last visited
14 August 13.
106 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2013 Special 301 Report,’’ May 2013,32.
107 Ibid., 33.
108 Ibid., 13.
109 Mandiant, ‘‘APT 1: Exposing One of China’s Cyber Espionage Units,’’ 18 February 13, 9.
110 Ibid., 3.
111 Ibid., 22.
112 Ibid.
113 National People’s Congress, PRC Outline of the 12th Five-Year Plan on National Economic
and Social Development [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guomin jingji he shehui fazhan di shierge wunian guihua gangyao], passed 14 March 11, issued 16 March 11, chap. 10.
114 Mandiant, ‘‘APT 1: Exposing One of China’s Cyber Espionage Units,’’ 18 February 13, 24.
115 American Chamber of Commerce in the People’s Republic of China, ‘‘China Business Climate Survey Report 2013,’’ 2013, 10.
116 Ibid.
117 World Trade Organization, Protocol on the Accession of the People’s Republic of China, WT/
L/432 (01–5996), 23 November 01, part I, art. 7(3).
118 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘Fact Sheet: 23rd U.S.-China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade,’’ 19 December 12.
119 Office of the United States Trade Representative, ‘‘2013 Special 301 Report,’’ May 2013,33.
120 PRC Copyright Law Implementing Regulations [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo zhuzuo quanfa shishi tiaoli], issued 2 August 02, amended 16 January 13, effective 1 March 13.
121 Information Network Broadcasting Rights Protection Regulations [Xinxi wangluo chuanbo
quan baohu tiaoli], issued 18 May 06, amended 16 January 13, effective 1 March 13.
122 Computer Software Protection Regulations [Jisuanji ruanjian baohu tiaoli], issued 20 December 01, amended 16 January 13, effective 1 March 13.
123 PRC Copyright Law Implementing Regulations [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo zhuzuo quanfa shishi tiaoli], issued 2 August 02, amended 16 January 13, effective 1 March 13, art. 36; Information Network Broadcasting Rights Protection Regulations [Xinxi wangluo chuanbo quanbaohu tiaoli], issued 18 May 06, amended 16 January 13, effective 1 March 13, arts. 18, 19;
Information Network Broadcasting Rights Protection Regulations [Xinxi wangluo chuanbo quanbaohu tiaoli], issued 18 May 06, effective 1 July 06, arts. 18, 19; Computer Software Protection
Regulations [Jisuanji ruanjian baohu tiaoli], issued 20 December 01, amended 16 January 13,
effective 1 March 13, art. 24; Computer Software Protection Regulations [Jisuanji ruanjian
baohu tiaoli], issued 20 December 01, effective 1 January 02, art. 24, para. 2; State Intellectual
Property Office, ‘‘China Increases Administrative Penalties Under the Copyright Law Implementing Regulations’’ [Woguo zhuzuo quan fa shishi tiaoli shangtiao xingzheng chufa e], 26 February 13.
124 Chen Liping, ‘‘State Intellectual Property Office Sets Out To Research Amendments to the
Patent Law’’ [Guojia zhishi chan quan ju zhuoshou yanjiu xiugai zhuanli fa], China Court, 6
February 13; State Intellectual Property Office, ‘‘State Intellectual Property Office Convenes
Conference on the Issue of Amendments to the Patent Law’’ [Guojia zhishi chan quan ju zhaokai
zhuanli fa xiugai zhuanti yantao hui], 25 May 13.
125 Zhang Wei, ‘‘Amendments to Trademark Law Expand Elements for Registration’’[Shangbiao fa xiuding kuoda zhuce yuansu], Legal Daily, 15 April 13.
126 Yuan Ruting and Qu Jing, ‘‘China Amends ‘Copyright Law’ Again, Strengthens Law Enforcement To Protect Intellectual Property Rights’’ [Zhongguo zai xiu ‘‘zhuzuoquan fa’’ qianghua
zhifa baohu zhishichan quan], Xinhua, 17 November 12.
127 National People’s Congress, ‘‘Trademark Law Amendment (Draft) Articles’’ [Shangbiao fa
xiuzheng an (cao an) tiaowen], 28 December 12, paras. 3, 9, 39.
128 Ibid., para. 37; PRC Trademark Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo shangbiao fa], passed
23 August 82, amended 22 February 93, 27 October 01, art. 56.
129 State Intellectual Property Office, ‘‘Patent Law Draft Amendment (Draft for Comment)
Comparison of Articles’’ [Zhuanli fa xiugai cao an (zhengqiu yijian gao) tiaowen duizhao], lastvisited 14 August 13, row 3.
130 Ibid., paras. 3, 5, 6.
131 State Intellectual Property Office, ‘‘Explanation Regarding the Patent Law Draft Amendment (Draft for Comment)’’ [Guanyu zhuanli fa xiugai cao an (zhengqiu yijian gao) de
shuoming], last visited 14 August 13, para. 3(2).
132 Ibid., para. 3(5).
133 Renmin University of China Law School, ‘‘Faculty Directory: Liu Chuntian,’’ last visited
14 August 13.
134 Emma Barraclough, ‘‘Concerns Raised Over Chinese Patent Law Amendment,’’ Managing
Intellectual Property, 19 April 13.
135 State Intellectual Property Office, State Intellectual Property Office Circular Concerning
the Solicitation of Opinions Regarding the ‘‘Draft Service Invention Regulations (for Comment)’’[Guojia zhishi chanquan ju guanyu zhengqiu dui ‘‘zhiwu faming tiaoli cao an (zhengqiu yijiangao)’’ yijian de tongzhi], 12 November 12.
136 See, e.g., State Intellectual Property Office, ‘‘Draft Service Invention Regulations (for Comment)’’ [Zhiwu faming tiaoli cao an (zhengqiu yijian gao)], 12 November 12, art. 1; Duan
Xiaoling, International Law Office, ‘‘Draft Regulations on Service Inventions Released,’’ 14 January 13.

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137 Zhang Wei, ‘‘Enforcement Guide To Come Out in the Field of Intellectual Property
Antimonopoly’’ [Zhishi chanquan lingyu fanlongduan jiang chu zhifa zhinan], Legal Daily, 16
August 12.
138 Ibid.
139 PRC Civil Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa], passed 9 April91, amended 28 October 07, 31 August 12, effective 1 January 13.
140 See, e.g., Gary A. Seib et al., Baker & McKenzie, ‘‘Client Alert: Recent Amendments to China’s Civil Procedure Law Bring Important Changes and Greater Remedies,’’ September 2012;
Paula Hodges et al., Herbert Smith Freehills LLP, ‘‘Amended Civil Procedure Law Is Good Newsfor Arbitrations in Mainland China,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 3 October 12; Hui Huang, Wan Hui
Da Intellectual Property Agency, ‘‘Amendments of China Civil Procedure Law Will Come Into
Effect on Jan 1st 2013,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 29 November 12; Terence Tung et al., Mayer
Brown JSM, ‘‘New Amendments to PRC Civil Procedure Law Aimed at Increasing Efficiency,
Transparency and Parties’ Autonomy,’’ 17 January 13.
141 PRC Central Government, ‘‘Decision of the National People’s Congress Standing Committee
Regarding Amending the ‘PRC Civil Procedure Law’ ’’ [Quanguo renmin daibiao dahui changwu
weiyuanhui guanyu xiu gai ‘‘zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa’’ de jueding], 31 August 12, paras. 32–33; PRC Civil Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susongfa], passed 9 April 91, amended 28 October 07, 31 August 12, effective 1 January 13, arts. 152,
154(3). See also Paula Hodges et al., Herbert Smith Freehills LLP, ‘‘Amended Civil Procedure
Law Is Good News for Arbitrations in Mainland China,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 3 October 12;
Hui Huang, Wan Hui Da Intellectual Property Agency, ‘‘Amendments of China Civil Procedure
Law Will Come Into Effect on Jan 1st 2013,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 29 November 12; Terence
Tung et al., Mayer Brown JSM, ‘‘New Amendments to PRC Civil Procedure Law Aimed at Increasing Efficiency, Transparency and Parties’ Autonomy,’’ 17 January 13, 3.
142 PRC Central Government, ‘‘Decision of the National People’s Congress Standing Committee
Regarding Amending the ‘PRC Civil Procedure Law’ ’’ [Quanguo renmin daibiao dahui changwu
weiyuanhui guanyu xiu gai ‘‘zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa’’ de jueding], 31 August 12, para. 34; PRC Civil Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa],passed 9 April 91, amended 28 October 07, 31 August 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 156. See
also Hui Huang, Wan Hui Da Intellectual Property Agency, ‘‘Amendments of China Civil Procedure Law Will Come Into Effect on Jan 1st 2013,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 29 November 12; Terence Tung et al., Mayer Brown JSM, ‘‘New Amendments to PRC Civil Procedure Law Aimed
at Increasing Efficiency, Transparency and Parties’ Autonomy,’’ 17 January 13, 3.
143 PRC Central Government, ‘‘Decision of the National People’s Congress Standing Committee
Regarding Amending the ‘PRC Civil Procedure Law’ ’’ [Quanguo renmin daibiao dahui changwu
weiyuanhui guanyu xiu gai ‘‘zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa’’ de jueding], 31 August 12, paras. 17, 22; PRC Civil Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susongfa], passed 9 April 91, amended 28 October 07, 31 August 12, effective 1 January 13, arts. 81,
101. See also Paula Hodges et al., Herbert Smith Freehills LLP, ‘‘Amended Civil Procedure Law
Is Good News for Arbitrations in Mainland China,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 3 October 12; Terence
Tung et al., Mayer Brown JSM, ‘‘New Amendments to PRC Civil Procedure Law Aimed at Increasing Efficiency, Transparency and Parties’ Autonomy,’’ 17 January 13.
144 PRC Central Government, ‘‘Decision of the National People’s Congress Standing Committee
Regarding Amending the ‘PRC Civil Procedure Law’ ’’ [Quanguo renmin daibiao dahui changwu
weiyuanhui guanyu xiu gai ‘‘zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa’’ de jueding], 31 August 12, para. 21; PRC Civil Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minshi susong fa],passed 9 April 91, amended 28 October 07, 31 August 12, effective 1 January 13, art. 100. See
also Gary A. Seib et al., Baker & McKenzie, ‘‘Client Alert: Recent Amendments to China’s Civil
Procedure Law Bring Important Changes and Greater Remedies,’’ September 2012, 2; Hui
Huang, Wan Hui Da Intellectual Property Agency, ‘‘Amendments of China Civil Procedure Law
Will Come Into Effect on Jan 1st 2013,’’ reprinted in Lexology, 29 November 12; Terence Tunget al., Mayer Brown JSM, ‘‘New Amendments to PRC Civil Procedure Law Aimed at Increasing
Efficiency, Transparency and Parties’ Autonomy,’’ 17 January 13, 2.
145 Ibid.
146 Ministry of Commerce, ‘‘Provisions on Additional Restrictive Conditions for the Concentration of Business Operators (Draft for Comment)’’ [Jingyingzhe jizhong fujia xianzhixing tiaojian
de guiding (zhengqiu yijian gao)], 27 March 13.
147 Ministry of Commerce, ‘‘Interim Provisions Regarding the Application of Standards for
Simple Cases of Concentration of Business Operators (Draft for Comment)’’ [Guanyu jingyingzhe
jizhong jianyi anjian shiyong biaozhun de zanxing guiding (zhengqiu yijian gao)], 3 April 13.
148 See, e.g., Ninette Dodoo et al., ‘‘MOFCOM Seeks To Streamline and Clarify the Chinese
Merger Control Process—Draft Regulations Published,’’ Clifford Chance, 24 April 13; Herbert
Smith Freehills LLP, ‘‘Recent Developments in Chinese Merger Control: MOFCOM Consults on
Draft Regulations and Imposes Remedies in Glencore/Xstrata and Marubeni/Gavilon Mergers,’’
7 May 13.
149 See, e.g., Michael Martina, ‘‘Insight—Flexing Antitrust Muscle, China Is a New Merger
Hurdle,’’ Reuters, 2 May 13; Herbert Smith Freehills LLP, ‘‘Recent Developments in Chinese
Merger Control: MOFCOM Consults on Draft Regulations and Imposes Remedies in Glencore/
Xstrata and Marubeni/Gavilon Mergers,’’ 7 May 13.
150 Ninette Dodoo et al., ‘‘MOFCOM Seeks To Streamline and Clarify the Chinese Merger Control Process—Draft Regulations Published,’’ Clifford Chance, 24 April 13, 3.
151 Ministry of Commerce, ‘‘Interim Provisions Regarding the Application of Standards for
Simple Cases of Concentration of Business Operators (Draft for Comment)’’ [Guanyu jingyingzhe
jizhong jianyi anjian shiyong biaozhun de zanxing guiding (zhengqiu yijian gao)], 3 April 13,
arts. 2–4.

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152 Herbert Smith Freehills LLP, ‘‘Recent Developments in Chinese Merger Control: MOFCOM
Consults on Draft Regulations and Imposes Remedies in Glencore/Xstrata and Marubeni/
Gavilon Mergers,’’ 7 May 13.
153 Nickie Yeung, ‘‘NDRC Cracks Down on Anti-Competitive Behaviour,’’ China Law & Practice, January/February 2013. See also ‘‘Chinese Authorities Fine LCD Cartel in First Case Concerning Conduct Outside China,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 12 February
13.
154 Based on a January 4, 2013, Chinese yuan (CNY)-U.S. dollar (USD) exchange rate of 0.16,
from XE. XE, ‘‘Current and Historical Rate Tables,’’ last visited 14 August 13.
155 National Development and Reform Commission, ‘‘Six Foreign Enterprises Carry Out LCD
Screen Price Fixing, Investigated According to the Law’’ [Liu jia jingwai qiye shishi yejing
mianban jiage longduan bei yifa chachu], 4 January 13. See also ‘‘Chinese Authorities Fine LCD
Cartel in First Case Concerning Conduct Outside China,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission
on China, 12 February 13.
156 National Development and Reform Commission, ‘‘Six Foreign Enterprises Carry Out LCD
Screen Price Fixing, Investigated According to the Law’’ [Liu jia jingwai qiye shishi yejing
mianban jiage longduan bei yifa chachu], 4 January 13.
157 PRC Pricing Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiage fa], passed 29 December 97, issued
29 December 97, effective 1 May 98.
158 Ibid., art. 14(1).
159 PRC Antimonopoly Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo fan longduan fa], passed 30 August
07, effective 1 August 08.
160 Ibid.
161 PRC Pricing Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiage fa], passed 29 December 97, issued
29 December 97, effective 1 May 98, art. 2.
162 PRC Administrative Punishment Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingzheng chufa fa],passed 17 March 96, issued 17 March 96, effective 1 October 96, art. 29.
163 Nickie Yeung, ‘‘NDRC Cracks Down on Anti-Competitive Behaviour,’’ China Law & Practice, January/February 2013.
164 Nathan Bush et al., O’Melveny & Myers LLP, ‘‘China’s NDRC Penalizes Global LCD Panel
Price Cartel,’’ 7 January 13.
165 Ibid.
166 Meng Jing, ‘‘Watchdog Bites With No Favor,’’ China Daily, 16 September 13.
167 Ibid.
168 Ministry of Public Security, ‘‘Public Security Organs Concentrate on Combatting Meat
Product Offenses, Protecting Safety at the Table’’ [Gongan jiguan jizhong daji rouzhipin fanzui
baowei canzhuo anquan], 2 May 13.
169 See, e.g., Jonathan Kaiman, ‘‘China Arrests 900 in Fake Meat Scandal,’’ Guardian, 3 May
13; Laurie Burkitt, ‘‘Rats! China Chews on New Food Safety Scandal,’’ Wall Street Journal,
China Real Time Report (blog), 3 May 13; ‘‘Over 900 Arrested in China for Meat-Related
Crimes,’’ Xinhua, 2 May 13.
170 Didi Kirsten Tatlow, ‘‘ ‘Cadmium Rice’ Is China’s Latest Food Scandal,’’ New York Times,
IHT Rendezvous (blog), 20 May 13; Shen Jingwen, ‘‘Over 40 Percent of Rice Sampled in
Guangzhou Contains Cadmium Levels That Are Too High, Poisonous Brands Still a Mystery’’[Guangzhou dami bei choujian chao 4 cheng ge chaobiao, youdu pinpai reng cheng mi], China
National Radio, 17 May 13.
171 Ibid.
172 ‘‘China Jails 6 for Selling Dirty Cooking Oil as New,’’ Associated Press, 8 April 13.
173 Ibid.
174 Food and Drug Safety, Public Health, and the Environment in China, Hearing of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 22 May 13, Testimony of Steven M. Solomon, Associate Director for Global Operations and Policy, Office of Global Regulatory Operations and Policy, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
175 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, ‘‘Corporations Charged for Allegedly Importing Hazardous and Counterfeit Toys From China for Sale in the US,’’ 6 February 13.
176 Ibid.
177 Charlotte Haunhorst, ‘‘Food From Nowhere: Producers Reject Calls for Stricter Labels,’’
Der Spiegel, 17 October 12.
178 See, e.g., CECC, 2008 Annual Report, 31 October 08, 157–58.
179 ‘‘Milk Smugglers Top Heroin Courier Arrests in Hong Kong,’’ Bloomberg, 26 April 13.
180 Ibid.
181 ‘‘Chinese Premier Vows To Boost Dairy Industry,’’ Xinhua, 31 May 13.
182 Ibid.

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Notes to Section III—Access to Justice
1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted and proclaimed by UN General Assembly
resolution 217A (III) of 10 December 48, art. 8.
2 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) of 16 December 66, entry into force 23 March 76, art. 2. China
has signed, and stated its intent to ratify the ICCPR.
3 Ng Tze-wei, ‘‘Pedigree of Top Judge Zhou Qiang Offers Hope for Legal Reform,’’ South China
Morning Post, 4 April 13.
4 Keith Zhai, ‘‘Security Tsar Meng Jianzhu Criticises Interference in Court Proceeding,’’ South
China Morning Post, 9 January 13. University of Hong Kong Law School Professor Fu Hualing
wrote of former Minister of Public Security and Politburo Standing Committee member Zhou
Yongkang that his ‘‘legacy will be his willingness and ability to turn the legal system against
law and create a culture of contempt of law within the political legal system.’’ See Fu Hualing,‘‘Autonomy, Courts and the Political-Legal Order in Contemporary China’’ in The Routledge
Handbook of Chinese Criminology, eds. Liqun Cao, Ivan Y. Sun, and Bill Hebenton (Abingdon,
Oxon: 2013—Forthcoming), Chap. 7, and University of Hong Kong Faculty of Law Research
Paper No. 2013/013, via Social Sciences Research Net, last visited 26 June 13.
5 Quan Yi, ‘‘Reform of Operational Mechanisms of Judicial Powers ‘The Direction Is Judicial
Independence and Integrity’ ’’ [Sifa quanli yunxing jizhi gaige ‘‘fangxiang zaiyu sifa duli qie
lianjie’’], Oriental Morning Post, 8 January 13.
6 Chen Baocheng, ‘‘Police To Stop Using Camps This Year, Politburo Members Says,’’ Caixin,
7 January 13.
7 Cui Qingxin and Liu Yizhan, ‘‘China Will Promote RTL, Residence Permit, and Other System Reforms’’ [Zhongguo jiang tuijin laojiao, huji deng zhidu gaige], Xinhua, 7 January 13.
8 PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15 March 99,
14 March 04, preamble, art. 126.
9 Xu Xin et al., Beijing Institute of Technology Center for Judicial Reform, ‘‘Annual Reporton China’s Judicial Reform (2012)’’ [Zhongguo sifa gaige niandu baogao (2012)], China University of Politics and Law Forum, Issue 2, 2013.
10 Ibid.
11 State Council Information Office, ‘‘Full Text: Judicial Reform in China,’’ reprinted in
Xinhua, 9 October 12.
12 Fu Hualing, ‘‘Autonomy, Courts and the Political-Legal Order in Contemporary China’’ in
The Routledge Handbook of Chinese Criminology, eds. Liqun Cao, Ivan Y. Sun, and Bill
Hebenton (Abingdon, Oxon: 2013—Forthcoming), Chap. 7, and University of Hong Kong Facultyof Law Research Paper No. 2013/013, via Social Sciences Research Network, last visited 26 June13.
13 ‘‘Two Sessions’ Authorized Release: Supreme People’s Court Work Report’’ [Lianghui
shouquan fabu: zuigao renmin fayuan gongzuo baogao], Xinhua, 21 March 13.
14 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Judicial Independence Debuts in Contentious SPC Work Report,’’ Dui
Hua Human Rights Journal, 19 March 13.
15 For the two most recent five-year plans, see ‘‘Outline of the Third Five-Year Plan for Reformof People’s Courts (2009–2013)’’ [Renmin fayuan di sange wunian gaige gangyao (2009–2013)],27 March 09; ‘‘Outline of the Second Five-Year Plan of People’s Courts (2004–2008)’’ [Renmin
fayuan di erge wunian gaige gangyao (2004–2008)], 26 May 05. The fourth five-year plan presumably will encompass the years 2014–2019. The judiciary’s five-year plans designate the focal
areas for which the court system as a whole should improve, strengthen, or reform. Past plans
have included such issues as court personnel, operational and procedural mechanisms, adjudication, and standardization, among others.
16 Cui Qingxin and Liu Yizhan, ‘‘China Will Promote RTL, Residence Permit, and Other System Reforms’’ [Zhongguo jiang tuijin laojiao, huji deng zhidu gaige], Xinhua, 7 January 13; Chen
Baocheng, ‘‘Report: New Voice of the Supreme People’s Court’’ [Baodao: zui gao fayuan de xin
shengyin], New Century Magazine, 14 July 13.
17 Fu Hualing, ‘‘Re-Education Through Labour in Historical Perspective,’’ China Quarterly,Vol. 184, December 2005, 811; John Givens, ‘‘Small Details Make for Big Injustices: Re-education Through Labour and Administrative Litigation,’’ Politics in Spires, Oxon China (blog), 11
June 13; CECC, ‘‘Special Topic Paper: Prospects for Reforming China’s Reeducation ThroughLabor System,’’ 9 May 13; CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 99.
18 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Rule of Law Is Key to Ending All Forms of Extralegal
Detention, Including Forced Labor,’’ reprinted in Amnesty International, 6 February 13.
19 Zhao Lei and Zheng Li, ‘‘Wang Hanbin Witnessed Significant Legislative Debates’’ [Wanghanbin qinli de zhongda lifa lunzheng], Southern Weekend, 18 April 13; Li Yonggang, ‘‘Pu
Zhiqiang: Why We Are Calling for the Complete End to Reeducation Through Labor’’ [Puzhiqiang: women wei shenme huyu chedi feichu laojiao], Chinese Business Gazette, 23 November 12. Commentator Zhang Ruoyu wrote in Chinese Business View that, ‘‘At the very least,the RTL system violates the Constitution, the Legislation Law, the Administrative Penalty Law,
and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which the Chinese government
has signed.’’ See Zhang Ruoyu, ‘‘Deposing RTL Lacks Only the Puncture of a Paper Window’’[Feichu laojiao zhidu jiu cha tongpo yiceng chuanghu zhi], Chinese Business View, 8 January
13, translated and reprinted in Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘RTL Abolition: ‘Only A Matter of Time? ’ ’’
9 January 13.
20 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘China Says It Will Overhaul Sprawling System of Re-Education ThroughLabor,’’ New York Times, 7 January 13.
21 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Dangerous Meditation: China’s Campaign Against Falungong,’’ January 2002.
22 Fu Hualing, ‘‘Re-Education Through Labour in Historical Perspective,’’ China Quarterly,Vol. 184, December 2005, 811, 823–27.

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23 Tania Branigan, ‘‘Outcry in China Over Mother Sent to Labour Camp After Daughter’sRape,’’ Guardian, 16 August 12; Yu Jincui, ‘‘Punishing Criticism Outdated in Today’s China,’’
Global Times, 12 October 12; ‘‘Chongqing Village Official’s ‘Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death’
T-Shirt Used as RTL Material Evidence’’ [Chongqing cunguan ‘‘bu ziyou wuning si’’ T xiu bei
zuo laojiao wuzheng], DaHe Net, reprinted in People’s Daily Online, 11 October 12.
24 ‘‘Lens: Exposé on Liaoning’s Masanjia Women’s RTL Center’’ [Jiemi liaoning masanjia nuzi
laojiaosuo], Lens Magazine, reprinted in China Digital Times, 7 April 13; Dui Hua Foundation,‘‘Magazine Exposé Reinvigorates Calls To End RTL,’’ 11 April 13.
25 The End of Reeducation Through Labor? Recent Developments and Prospects for Reform,
Staff Roundtable of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 9 May 13, Testimonyof Li Xiaorong, Independent Scholar; CECC, ‘‘Special Topic Paper: Prospects for Reforming China’s Reeducation Through Labor System,’’ 9 May 13.
26 ‘‘RTL Centers in Jiangsu, Beijing and Elsewhere To Become Compulsory Drug Treatment
Centers’’ [Jiangsu beijing dengduo di laojiaosuo zhuanxing wei qiangzhi jiedusuo], Shun Net, 18
June 13.
27 Zhou Qingshu et al., ‘‘Many Places Throughout the Country Have Stopped Approving RTL’’[Quanguo duodi tingzhi laojiao shenpi], Beijing News, 16 July 13; Liu Guannan, ‘‘Guangzhou
Intermediate Court Vice-President: Guangzhou Has Already Stopped Approving RTL’’[Guangzhou zhongyuan fuyuanzhang: guangzhou yi tingzhi shenpi laojiao], Southern Daily, reprinted in Guangdong News Net, 5 September 13.
28 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Rule of Law Is Key To Ending All Forms of Extralegal
Detention, Including Forced Labor,’’ reprinted in Amnesty International, 6 February 13.
29 Keith Zhai, ‘‘Calls To Abolish Labour Camps Are Unlikely To Be Heard By NPC,’’ South
China Morning Post, 27 February 13; Wang Hairong, ‘‘Re-Education Scrutinized,’’ Beijing Review, 4 April 13; ‘‘Yunnan’s Response to RTL Reform: The First To ‘Suspend’ Is Reading Too
Much Into It’’ [Yunnan huiying laojiao gaige: luxian ‘‘jiaoting’’ shu guodu jiedu], Beijing Morning
Post, reprinted in Xinhua, 8 February 13.
30 ‘‘Li Keqiang: China’s Reeducation Through Labor System Reform Program Expected Within
the Year’’ [Li keqiang: zhongguo laojiao zhidu gaige fang’an youwang niannei chutai], Xinhua,
17 March 13.
31 UN GAOR, Hum. Rts. Coun., 17th Sess., National Report Submitted in Accordance with
Paragraph 5 of the Annex to Human Rights Council Resolution 16/21, A/HRC/WG.6/17/CHN/1,
5 August 13, para. 48; ‘‘Calls for Transparency in China Labor Camp Reform,’’ Radio Free Asia,
20 June 13.
32 ‘‘Lawyers Concerned Reeducation Through Labor System Reform in Name Only’’ [Lushi you
laojiao zhidu gaige qiaozhi huantang bu huanyao], Beijing Times, reprinted in NetEase, 9 January 13.
33 See Carl F. Minzner, ‘‘Xinfang: An Alternative to Formal Chinese Legal Institutions,’’ Stanford Journal of International Law, Vol. 42, No. 103 (2006); Flora Sapio, ‘‘Legal Erosion and the
Policing of Petitions,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike
McConville and Eva Pils (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc., 2013), 348–69.
34 Amnesty International, ‘‘Standing Their Ground: Thousands Face Violent Eviction in
China,’’ 11 October 12, 31–32.
35 Liang Weiguo, ‘‘Zhu Jiamu: Wage Arrears Problems for Migrant Workers Demand Quick
Resolution’’ [Zhu jiamu: nongmingong zixin wenti yao jinkuai dedao jin yi bu jiejue], China Social Sciences Net, reprinted in Chinese Communist Party News Net, 13 March 13.
36 ‘‘Veterans Detained Over Protest,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 August 12.
37 ‘‘AIDS Orphans Still Not Paid,’’ Radio Free Asia, 3 January 13.
38 ‘‘Security Steps Up For Petitioners as China Parliament Meets,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in South China Morning Post, 11 March 13.
39 ‘‘Letters and Visits Bureau Heads’ Conference: Rectify Practice of Intercepting Ordinary Petitioning’’ [Xinfang juzhang huiyi: jiuheng lanka dujie zhengchang shangfang zuofa], People’s
Daily Online, reprinted in Southern Metropolitan Daily, 10 January 13; ‘‘The Rising Momentumof Petitioning Cases Has Begun To Turn, Petitioning Tending To Be More Rational’’ [Woguo
xinfang zongliang zhixu pansheng shitou huo e’zhi shangfang geng quxiang lixing], Central People’s Broadcasting Net, 29 April 06.
40 The Commission found official announcements on ‘‘petitioning stability maintenance work’’during the 18th Party Congress on government Web sites for at least 14 provinces and provincelevel regions, including Zhejiang, Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region,
Shanxi, Guangdong, Yunnan, Guizhou, Liaoning, Jiangxi, Shandong, Sichuan and Gansu. Representative examples of ‘‘zero petitioning’’ announcements are: Zhejiang province, People’s Government of Jiangshan, Zhejiang, ‘‘Notice on Earnestly Doing Petitioning Stability MaintenanceWork During the 18th Party Congress’’ [Guanyu renzhen zuohao dang de shibada qijian xinfang
weiwen gongzuo de tongzhi], 14 August 12; and Hebei province, Hebei Province Letters and Visits Bureau, ‘‘Tangshan City Letters and Visits Bureau Promotes ‘Three Family’ Content To Create and Deepen Positive Activities’’ [Tangshan shi xinfangju tuidong yi ‘‘sanjia’’ wei zhuyao
neirong de chuangxian zhengyou huodong shenru kaizhan], partial date, 2012, last visited 15
July 13.
41 See, e.g., Shandong Province, Qingyun County People’s Procuratorate, ‘‘Strengthen Five
Measures To Guarantee Social Stability During Major Events’’ [Qianghua wuxiang cuoshi
quebao zhongda jiehui qijian shehui wending], 1 June 12.
42 See, e.g., Hebei Province Bureau of Letters and Visits, ‘‘Tangshan City Bureau of Letters
and Visits Promotes ‘Three Family’ Content To Create and Deepen Positive Activities’’[Tangshan shi xinfangju tuidong yi ‘‘sanjia’’ wei zhuyao neirong de chuangxian zhengyou
huodong shenru kaizhan], partial date, 2012, last visited 15 July 13.
43 See, e.g., People’s Government of Jiangshan, Zhejiang, ‘‘Notice on Earnestly Doing Petitioning Stability Maintenance Work During the 18th Party Congress’’ [Guanyu renzhen zuohao
dang de shibada qijian xinfang weiwen gongzuo de tongzhi], 14 August 12.

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44 ‘‘Many Petitioners Are Seized Without a Trace and Disappear, Open Letter Calls To Do
Away With Black Jails’’ [Zhong fangmin bei zhuashi zongying gongkai xin huyu fei heilao],Radio Free Asia, 5 November 12. Oriental Daily, a Hong Kong-based media outlet, reported that
1.4 million volunteers were mobilized in Beijing to ‘‘maintain stability’’ for the 18th Party Congress. See ‘‘Mobilization of 1.4 Million Volunteers To Maintain Stability During the 18th Party
Congress’’ [Shibada weiwen dongyuan 140 wan zhiyuanzhe], Oriental Daily, 1 November 12.
45 ‘‘Petitioners Evicted Ahead of Congress,’’ Radio Free Asia, 1 August 12.
46 ‘‘Before the CCP 18th Party Congress, Authorities To Increase Stability Maintenance Efforts’’ [Zhonggong shibada qian dangju jiada weiwen lidu], Radio Free Asia, 5 October 12.
47 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Close To 500 Citizens Send Letter to Xi Jinping, Demanding Release of Shanghai Rights Defenders’’ [Jin 500 ming gongmin zhixin xi jinping,
yaoqiu shifang shanghai weiquan renshi], 17 February 13. Prior to the 18th Communist Party
Congress in fall 2012, ‘‘stability maintenance work’’ also resulted in RTL decisions for Qin Wei,
a former middle school art teacher and Falun Gong practitioner from Beijing municipality (twoyears and six months), and Pei Fugui, the founder of the Petitioners’ House in Beijing (one year
and three months). For more information on Qin Wei’s case, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00020. For more information on Pei Fugui’s case, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00084.
48 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Shanghai Petitioner Mao Hengfeng Released To Finish Reeducation Order at Home,’’ 8 February 13. For additional information on Mao Hengfeng’s case, see
the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–05122.
49 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Shanghai Rights Defenders Sent to RTL, Tong Guojing
and Cui Fufang, Raise Administrative Appeal’’ [Bei laojiao de shanghai weiquan renshi tong
guojing, cui fufang tiqi xingzheng susong], 8 January 13. For additional information on Cui
Fufang’s case, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00137.
50 ‘‘Tong Guojing Gets RTL Twice Within Two Years, Jiangxi and Hubei Petitioners Abusedin Psychiatric Hospital (Photo)’’ [Tong guojing liangnian nei liangdu bei laojiao gan e fangmin
jingshenbing yuan shou nuedai (tu)], Radio Free Asia, 31 October 12. For additional information
on Tong Guojing’s case, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00191.
51 ‘‘Shen Yongmei’s Trial Starts at Shanghai Qingpu Women’s RTL Center’’ [Shen yongmei zai
shanghai qingpu nuzi laojiaosuo kaiting], New Tang Dynasty TV, 30 January 13. For additional
information on Shen Yongmei’s case, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record
2013–00138.
52 Wang Liang, ‘‘Shanghai Shen Lianman RTL Case Goes To Trial, Close To 500 Citizens Go
To Court in Support’’ [Shanghai shen lianman laojiao an kaiting jin 500 gongmin fu fayuan
shengyuan], Epoch Times, 19 April 13. For additional information on Shen Lianman’s case, see
the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00228.
53 Ren Zhongyuan, ‘‘The Death of a Petitioner,’’ Caixin, 14 December 12.
54 ‘‘Beijing Police Encounter the 18th Party Congress with ‘Zero Petitioning’ ’’ [Beijing jingfangyi ‘‘ling shangfang’’ yingjie 18 da], Radio France Internationale, 25 October 12; ‘‘Security Steps
Up For Petitioners As China Parliament Meets,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in South
China Morning Post, 11 March 13; ‘‘Thousands at Complaints Bureau,’’ Radio Free Asia, 3 September 12.
55 ‘‘Security Steps Up For Petitioners As China Parliament Meets,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in South China Morning Post, 11 March 13; ‘‘Beijing Commences Stability Maintenancefor the Two Meetings, Petitioners Are Beaten and Detained’’ [Beijing qidong lianghui weiwen
fangmin beida huo beiju], Radio Free Asia, 20 February 13.
56 Li Qiumeng et al., ‘‘Jia Qinglin: CPPCC Raises Suggestion of Establishing System To End
Abnormal Petitioning’’ [Jia qinglin: zhenxie ti yijian feizhengchang shangfang zhongjiezhi]. Beijing Times, reprinted in China News, 4 March 13. Among the measures suggested to resolve
intractable petitioning cases were justice sector dispute-resolution in the courts or procuratorate,
hearings, and a specialized department within the letters and visits offices. See also ‘‘Shenzhen
Expands Measures Against ‘Abnormal Petitioning,’ ’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 11 May 10.
57 Yuan Zhoubin, ‘‘Discussing Abnormal Petitioning Dilemmas and Paths to Resolution’’ [Lunfei zhengchang shangfang wenti de kunjing yu jiejue lujing], People’s Tribune, 22 April 13. See
also Flora Sapio, ‘‘Legal Erosion and the Policing of Petitions,’’ in Comparative Perspectives on
Criminal Justice in China, eds. Mike McConville and Eva Pils (Northampton, MA: Edward
Elgar Publishing Inc., 2013), 345–69.
58 Xin Shengzhi, ‘‘CPPCC Recommends Establishing Comprehensive Mechanism To End Abnormal Petitioning’’ [Quanguo zhengxie tichu jianli jianquan fei zhengchang shangfang zhongjie
jizhi], Southern Metropolitan Daily, 4 March 13.
59 ‘‘Letters and Visits Bureau Heads’ Conference: Rectify Practice of Intercepting Ordinary Petitioning’’ [Xinfang juzhang huiyi: jiuzheng lanka dujie zhengchang shangfang zuofa], People’s
Daily Online, reprinted in Southern Metropolitan Daily, 10 January 13; Liang Changjie and Yao
Yi, ‘‘Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Petition Office: Advocates Normal Channels
and Real-Name Reporting’’ [Zhongyang jiwei xinfang shi: tichang zhengchang qudao shiming
jubao], People’s Daily, reprinted in PRC Ministry of Supervision, 8 May 13; ‘‘Central Commission for Discipline Inspection: Strictly Prohibit Interception of Ordinary Petitioners in Public
Places’’ [Zhongjiwei guanyuan: yanjindao gonggong changsuo lanjie zhengchang shangfang
qunzhong], China News Service, reprinted in Xinhua, 7 May 13; ‘‘Beijing News: Abolish Petitioning Rankings, Let Petitioning Go Towards Rule of Law’’ [Xinjingbao: quxiao xinfang paiming
rang xinfang zou fazhi], Beijing News, 9 May 13.
60 Zhou Di, ‘‘Beijing Youth News: Suspension of Petitioning Rankings Is A Positive Signal’’[Beiqingbao: tingfa xinfang paimingbiao shi yige jiji xinhao], Beijing Youth News, reprinted in
People’s Net Online, 9 May 13. A National People’s Congress deputy from Changsha city, Hunan
province recommended abolishing the ‘‘ranking’’ system because local officials have prioritizedlowering the number of petitions rather than trying to solve petitioner grievances. See Xin

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Shengzhi, ‘‘CPPCC Recommends Establishing Comprehensive Mechanism To End Abnormal Petitioning’’ [Quanguo zhengxie tichu jianli jianquan fei zhengchang shangfang zhongjie jizhi],Southern Metropolitan Daily, 4 March 13.
61 Yao Wenhui, ‘‘Eradicating Local Officials’ Infatuation With Petitioning Rankings,’’ Kunming
Evening News, 23 May 13, translated and reprinted in Dui Hua Foundation as ‘‘Hefei Petitioning Rankings Continue Despite Central Stoppage,’’ 11 June 13.
62 ‘‘[We] Strongly Call on Relevant Authorities To Carry Out Their Responsibilities, Punish
Illegal Actions Against Lawyers’ Professional Rights’’ [Qianglie huyu youguan dangju luxing
zhize chengzhi qinhai lushi zhiyequan de weifa xingwei], reprinted in China Human Rights
Lawyers Concern Group, 22 July 13; ‘‘Riot Police Raid Chinese Dissident’s Legal Team,’’ RadioFree Asia, 25 June 13; Karla Simon, ‘‘Good News and Bad From the Public Interest Law Frontin China,’’ Alliance, 23 May 13.
63 ‘‘Lawyer Wang Quanzhang Is Released Two Days Early From Detention’’ [Lushi wangquanzhang beiju liangri tiqian huoshi], Radio Free Asia, 8 April 13; ‘‘Wang Cheng of Hangzhou
Was Detained, Authorities Intensify Suppression of Citizen Action’’ [Hangzhou wang cheng bei
zhua dangju huo jiajin daya gongmin xingdong], Voice of America, 26 April 13; Human Rights
in China, ‘‘Criminally Detained: Zhao Changqing and Six Other Advocates of Public Disclosureof Officials’ Assets,’’ 19 April 13.
64 Zhuang Chen, ‘‘China Lawyers Held and Beaten Over ‘Black Jail’ in Sichuan,’’ BBC, 14 May
13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Lawyers Beaten During Attempt To Visit Black Jail,’’ 13 May 13.
65 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 146–47; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October
11, 188–89; Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘ ‘We Can Dig a Pit and Bury You Alive’ Annual
Report on the Situation of Human Rights Defenders in China, 2011,’’ 9 March 12; UN Officeof the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘‘China: UN Expert Body Concerned About Recent
Wave of Enforced Disappearances,’’ 8 April 11.
66 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘China Human Rights Briefing May 31–June 6, 2013,’’
6 June 13.
67 ‘‘Beijing Justice Bureau Doesn’t Give License To Practice to Rights Defense Lawyers and
Law Firms’’ [Beijing sifaju bufa gei weiquan lushi he lushisuo congye zhizhao], Radio Free Asia,
3 June 13.
68 ‘‘Outspoken Lawyer Si Weijiang Faces Complete Ban, Material in ‘Zhongnanhai Letter’
Touches Authorities’ Sensitivity’’ [Ganyan lushi si weijiang zao quanmian fengsha liao‘‘zhongnanhai laixin’’ chutong dangju], Radio Free Asia, 22 March 13; Chinese Human Rights
Defenders, ‘‘Attorney Pu Zhiqiang’s Blog Shut Down After Denouncing Zhou Yongkang’’ [Puzhiqiang lushi shiming jubao zhou yongkang weibo zhanghao bei shanchu], 12 February 13.
69 Zhou Xi, ‘‘Lawyer Pu Zhiqiang Is Refused Entry Into Hotel Because an ID Check Revealed
He is a Key Person’’ [Lushi pu zhiqiang yin shenfenzheng xianshi xi zhongdian renyuan zao
bingguan jujue jiedai], Radio France Internationale, 22 May 13.
70 Zhuang Chen, ‘‘China Lawyers Held and Beaten Over ‘Black Jail’ in Sichuan,’’ BBC, 14 May
13; Human Rights in China, ‘‘Lawyers Beaten During Attempt To Visit Black Jail,’’ 13 May 13.
71 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2005–00199 for more information
on Xu Zhiyong’s case.
72 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2005–00291 for more information
on Gao Zhisheng’s case.
73 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2005–00285 for more information
on Ni Yulan’s case.
74 Chris Buckley, ‘‘A Leading Chinese Human Rights Advocate Is Detained in Beijing,’’ New
York Times, 17 July 13. See also ‘‘Officials Detain Xu Zhiyong Amidst a Crackdown on Individuals Calling for Greater Government Accountability,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 1 August 13.
75 Edward Wong, ‘‘Family’s Visit Confirms Chinese Dissident Is Alive,’’ New York Times, 23
January 13.
76 Jerome A. Cohen, ‘‘Beijing Must Reveal Fate of Human Rights Lawyer Gao Zhisheng,’’
South China Morning Post, 19 March 09; PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
xingfa], enacted 1 July 79, effective 1 October 97, amended 14 March 97, 25 December 99, 31
August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25
February 11, art. 105(2). See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2005–00291
for more information on Gao Zhisheng’s case.
77 Keane Shum, ‘‘Hope Against Hope for Gao Zhisheng’s Freedom,’’ South China Morning Post,
8 February 13.
78 Edward Wong, ‘‘Family’s Visit Confirms Chinese Dissident Is Alive,’’ New York Times, 23
January 13.
79 In July 2012, the Beijing Municipal No. 1 Intermediate People’s Court reduced Ni’s prison
sentence by two months, to two years and six months. See Human Rights in China, ‘‘Court
Overturns ‘Fraud Conviction’ in Ni Yulan Appeal, Cuts Jail Sentence By Two Months,’’ 27 July
12.
80 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Human Rights Activist Ni Yulan Sentenced to Two
Years and Eight Months in Prison, Husband Gets Two Years,’’ 10 April 12. Ni and her husband
were detained in April 2011, indicted in December 2011, and sentenced in April 2012. See theCommission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2005–00285 for more information on Ni
Yulan’s case and 2011–00353 for Dong Jiqing’s case.
81 ‘‘Jailed Rights Lawyer’s Parole Request Refused,’’ Radio Free Asia, 4 July 13.
82 ‘‘ ‘I Felt They Could Shatter My Body,’ ’’ Radio Free Asia, 13 April 12.
83 ‘‘Jailed Rights Lawyer’s Parole Request Refused,’’ Radio Free Asia, 4 July 13.
84 Zhou Bin, ‘‘Last Year’s Legal Aid Cases Throughout the Nation Exceeded One Million for
the First Time Ever’’ [Qunian quanguo falu yuanzhu an shou po baiwan], Legal Daily, reprinted
in China Legal Aid, 20 February 13.
85 Ibid.

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86 Ibid.
87 UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Concluding Observations on theInitial Report of China, Adopted by the Committee at Its Eighth Session, 15 October 12.
88 Chen Jie, ‘‘Current Effectiveness of Legal Aid in China Is Worrisome, New Legal Provision
Lowers the Bar for Applying for Legal Aid’’ [Zhongguo falu yuanzhu shixiao kanyou xingui
jiangdi yuanzhu shenqing menkan], Caixin, 20 February 13; Xie Youping and Wu Yu, ‘‘Constructing the System of Criminal Legal Aid and Public Defenders’’ [Xingshi falu yuanzhu yu
gongshe bianhu zhidu de jiangou], Tsinghua Law Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2012), 31.
89 Zhang Yuan, ‘‘Next Year Criminal Legal Aid Cases Will Likely Increase to 550,000 Cases’’[Mingnian xingshi falu yuanzhu anjian huo zeng zhi 55 wan jian], Legal Daily, 19 December
12.
90 Ministry of Justice, Supreme People’s Court, Supreme People’s Procuratorate, and Ministryof Public Security, Regulations Regarding Criminal Procedure Law Legal Aid Work [Guanyu
xingshi susong falu yuanzhu gongzuo de guiding], issued 18 February 13, effective 1 March 13;
Zhou Bin, ‘‘Deputy Justice Minister Zhao Dacheng Responds to Reporter’s Questions About the‘Regulations Regarding Criminal Procedure Law Legal Aid Work’ ’’ [Sifabu fubuzhang zhao
dacheng jiu ‘‘guanyu xingshi susong falu yuanzhu gongzuo de guiding’’ da jizhe wen], Legal
Daily, 17 February 13.
91 Chen Jie, ‘‘Current Effectiveness of Legal Aid in China Is Worrisome, New Legal Provision
Lowers the Bar for Applying for Legal Aid’’ [Zhongguo falu yuanzhu shixiao kanyou xingui
jiangdi yuanzhu shenqing menkan], Caixin, 20 February 13.
92 Song Ninghua, ‘‘Expert Analysis: ‘Regulations Regarding Criminal Procedure Law Legal Aid
Work’ ’’ [Zhuanjia jiedu ‘‘guanyu xingshi susong falu yuanzhu gongzuo de guiding’’], Xinmin
Evening News, reprinted in Eastday, 28 February 13.
93 Ibid.
94 Geng He and Chen Guangcheng, ‘‘China’s Rule of Law: Go After the Lawyers,’’ Washington
Post, 9 April 13.
95 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2005–00126 for information on
Chen Guangcheng’s case.
96 Chris Buckley, ‘‘Chinese Officials Order Questioning of Exiled Activist’s Relatives,’’ New
York Times, 24 April 13.
97 Keith B. Richburg, ‘‘Chen Guangcheng’s Nephew Found Guilty of Assault in China; Sentenced to 39 Months,’’ Washington Post, 30 November 12. See also ‘‘Authorities Use Threats,
Abuse, and Harassment To Maintain Control Over Chen Kegui and Family,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 28 March 13; ‘‘Chen Kegui Serving Criminal Sentence, Legal Experts Refute Conviction,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 28 March 13; ‘‘Authorities Sentence Chen Kegui in Trial Marred by Procedural Violations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 7 December 12.
98 Verna Yu, ‘‘Chen Guangcheng’s Brother Beaten in Latest Apparent Revenge on Family,’’South China Morning Post, 10 May 13.
99 Amnesty International, ‘‘China: Legal Activist’s Sister-In-Law Detained As Harassment Intensifies,’’ 24 April 13.
100 Annie Wu, ‘‘Chen Guangcheng’s Mother Comes Under Pressure,’’ Epoch Times, 2 June 13.
101 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–02045 for information on
Hada’s case.
102 ‘‘Wife of Mongolian Activist Says She Was Detained,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in South
China Morning Post, 15 October 12.
103 ‘‘In Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, Wife of Mongolian Scholar Hada Discusses the 15th Year of
Her Husband’s Imprisonment’’ [Neimeng hushi mengzu xuezhe hada qizi tan zhangfu ruyu di
15 nian], Radio Free Asia, 6 July 10.
104 Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, ‘‘Wife and Son of Hada Disappear
Again,’’ 7 November 12. See also ‘‘Authorities Heighten Persecution of Detained Mongol Rights
Advocate’s Wife and Son,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 13 December 12.
105 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–03114 for information on
Liu Xiaobo’s case.
106 Isolda Morillo and Alexa Olesen, ‘‘AP Exclusive: China Nobel Wife Speaks on Detention,’’
Associated Press, 6 December 12; Reporters Without Borders, ‘‘Nobel Laureate’s Wife at a Window, The Only Freedom She Is Allowed,’’ 12 October 12. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner
Database record 2010–00629 for further information on Liu Xia’s case.
107 Tania Branigan, ‘‘Liu Xiaobo Brother-in-Law Jailed,’’ Guardian, 8 June 13; ‘‘China’s Jailed
Nobel’s Wife Writes Open Letter to Chinese Leader To Protest Brother’s Sentence,’’ AssociatedPress, reprinted in Washington Post, 14 June 13.
108 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–02142 for information on
Rebiya Kadeer’s case.
109 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Uighur Activist’s Family Threatened,’’ 15 May 05.
110 ‘‘Uyghur Leader’s Family Evicted,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 August 09.
111 Uyghur American Association, ‘‘Chinese Officials Increase Pressure on the Imprisoned Sons
of Rebiya Kadeer,’’ 29 May 12.
112 Ibid.
113 See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2006–00084 for information on
Rebiya Kadeer’s son, Ablikim Abdureyim.
114 Human Rights in China, ‘‘Activist and Ten-Year-Old Daughter Illegally Detained Before
Forcible Removal From Hefei,’’ 1 March 13; ‘‘Clashes as Activist’s Daughter Is Denied Schooling,’’ Radio Free Asia, 8 April 13.
115 Chinese Human Rights Defenders, ‘‘Liu Ying Ordered To Serve RTL Because of Her Concern Over Husband, To Date Friends and Family Have Not Yet Seen RTL Decision’’ [Liu yingyin guanzhu zhangfu bei laojiao, qinyou zhijin weijian laojiao juedingshu], 24 January 13. See

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the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00044 for additional information on
Liu Ying’s case.
116 ‘‘Zhu Yufu’s Abusive Treatment in Prison Intensifies, Family Members’ Visit Forcibly
Stopped By Prison Guards’’ [Zhu yufu yuzhong shoupo qingkuang jiaju jiaren tanjian bei yujing
qiangzhi zhongduan], Radio Free Asia, 12 March 13. See also ‘‘Authorities Deny Medical Treatment to Zhu Yufu; Condition Serious,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 16 April
13. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2004–02253 for additional information on Zhu Yufu’s case.

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Notes to Section IV—Xinjiang
1 ‘‘China Jails 20 in Restive Xinjiang Region,’’ Agence France-Presse, 27 March 13; Edward
Wong, ‘‘Killings Stir Fears of Ethnic Tensions in Chinese Region,’’ New York Times, 8 March
13; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘World Report 2013: China,’’ 1 February 13, 1, 3; ‘‘A Muslim Divide
in China,’’ Radio Free Asia, 30 November 12.
2 ‘‘Xinjiang Governor Sees ‘Long-Term, Complicated, Fierce’ Battle Against Separatism,’’
Xinhua, reprinted in Global Times, 11 November 12; Wu Haochen, ‘‘Nur Bekri: People of All
Ethnic Groups in Xinjiang Condemn Terrorist Attacks’’ [Nuer baikeli: xinjiang gezu minzhong
qianze kongxi], Ta Kung Pao, 10 November 12.
3 Cui Jia, ‘‘Xinjiang Improves Social Stability After Attacks,’’ China Daily, 27 January 13;
Ministry of Finance, ‘‘Report on Xinjiang 2012 Budget Implementation Situation and 2013 Draft
Budget’’ [Xinjiang 2012 nian yuxuan zhixing qingkuang he 2013 nian yusuan caoan de baogao],
reprinted in China Central Government Net, 19 February 13.
4 Cui Jia, ‘‘Recalling Pain From Day of Horror,’’ China Daily, 2 May 13; Stephen McDonell,‘‘21 People Killed in Unrest in China’s Xinjiang,’’ Australian Broadcasting Corporation, including
material from Agence France-Presse, 24 April 13.
5 Cui Jia, ‘‘City Unites To Say Farewell,’’ China Daily, 30 April 13; ‘‘Full Justice for the 25
Terrorists Planning To ‘Do Something Big’ in Kashgar This Summer’’ [Yumou jinxia zai kashi‘‘gan dashi’’ 25 ge kongbu fenzi quan gui an], Chengdu Evening News, reprinted in Guangming
Daily, 30 April 13.
6 Damian Grammaticas, ‘‘Doubts Over China Government Claims on Xinjiang Attack,’’ BBC,
26 April 13; Peter Ford, ‘‘Mystery Clouds Deadly Clash in Western China With ‘Suspected Terrorists,’ ’’ Christian Science Monitor, 24 April 13; Uyghur American Association, ‘‘Unlawful
House Search and Arbitrary Use of Lethal Force Results in Nearly Two Dozen Deaths in
Kashgar,’’ 24 April 13; World Uyghur Congress, ‘‘Call Issued for Independent Investigation on
Maralbeshi Incident by World Uyghur Congress and International Community Urged to Follow
Up on Recent Arrests,’’ 1 May 13.
7 Uyghur American Association, ‘‘Unlawful House Search and Arbitrary Use of Lethal Force
Results in Nearly Two Dozen Deaths in Kashgar,’’ 24 April 13.
8 See, e.g., ‘‘Inspection in Awat County Leads to Two Dead—Authorities Conceal Details of
Case’’ [Xinjiang awati xian qingcha zhi er ren siwang dangju yinman anqing], Uyghur Online,
23 May 13; Meng Hongqi, Qiongkule Township Government, ‘‘Qiongkule Township Focuses on
Carrying Out the ‘Two Sessions’ Security Inspection Operation’’ [Qiongkule xiang jizhong
kaizhan ‘‘lianghui’’ anbao da qingcha xingdong], 6 March 13; Xiang Xuan, ‘‘Halayugong Township Carries Out Major Stability Maintenance Inspection’’ [Halayugong xiang kaizhan weiwen
da qingcha], Xinjiang Peace Net, 13 June 13.
9 ‘‘5 Jailed, Sentenced to Death for Xinjiang Terrorist Attack,’’ Xinhua, 12 August 13; Tian
Shan, ‘‘First Instance Verdict Announced Today in Xinjiang Bachu Violent Terrorist Case: 5 Accused and 2 Receive Death Penalty’’ [Xinjiang bachu baokong an jin yi shen xuanpan: 5 mingbeigao 2 ren huo sixing], Tianshan Net, reprinted in Beijing Daily, 12 August 13; Chris Buckley,‘‘5 Uyghurs Sentenced in China for Attack,’’ New York Times, 12 August 13. The five men weresentenced on charges including intentional homicide and organizing and leading a terroristgroup.
10 ‘‘Last Fugitive of Xinjiang Attack Captured,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in CRIEnglish, 30 June 13.
11 Lin Meilian and Yang Jingjie, ‘‘Riot Toll Rises to 35 in Xinjiang,’’ Global Times, 28 June
13.
12 Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Public Security Bureau, ‘‘Reward Notice’’ [Xuanshangtonggao], reprinted in Tianshan Net, 16 August 13; ‘‘ ‘8–15’ Religious Personnel Murder Case
Cracked’’ [8–15 zongjiao renshi bei hai an gaopo], Turpan Net, 19 August 13; ‘‘Imam Stabbed
to Death After Supporting Crackdown Against Uyghurs,’’ Radio Free Asia, 16 August 13.
13 ‘‘Imam Stabbed to Death After Supporting Crackdown Against Uyghurs,’’ Radio Free Asia,
16 August 13; ‘‘Vice Chair of Turpan Islamic Association Hacked to Death’’ [Tulufan yisilan
xiehui fu zhuxi zao kan si], Radio Free Asia, 16 August 13.
14 ‘‘Xinjiang Violence More Serious Than Reported,’’ Radio Free Asia, 27 June 13; ‘‘Chinese Authorities Confirm Police Fired at Uyghur Protesters,’’ Radio Free Asia, 30 June 13; World
Uyghur Congress, ‘‘WUC Issues Report on the Recent Incidents in East Turkestan,’’ 5 July 13.
15 ‘‘Xinjiang Violence More Serious Than Reported,’’ Radio Free Asia, 27 June 13; ‘‘Two
Uyghurs Believed Killed in Hotan Violence,’’ Radio Free Asia, 28 June 13; Uyghur American
Association, ‘‘The Uyghur American Association Expresses Concern at Massive Build Up of Chinese Security Forces in East Turkestan,’’ 1 July 13; Uyghur American Association, ‘‘The Uyghur
American Association Calls on the Chinese Government To Substantiate Terror Claims With an
Open and Independent Investigation,’’ 28 June 13; Uyghur American Association, ‘‘Uyghur
American Association Urges Caution on Details of June 26, 2013 Turpan Incident,’’ 26 June 13;
World Uyghur Congress, ‘‘WUC Issues Report on the Recent Incidents in East Turkestan,’’ 5
July 13.
16 Uyghur American Association, ‘‘The Uyghur American Association Calls on the Chinese
Government To Substantiate Terror Claims With an Open and Independent Investigation,’’ 28
June 13; Gillian Wong, ‘‘Scholar Slams China Repression of Ethnic Minority,’’ Associated Press,
5 July 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘27 Die in Rioting in Ethnically Divided Western China,’’ New YorkTimes, 26 June 13. In addition, U.S. State Department spokesman Patrick Ventrell stated at
a press briefing on April 24, 2013, that ‘‘ . . . we urge the Chinese authorities to conduct a thorough and transparent investigation of this incident, and to provide all Chinese citizens, including Uighurs, the due process protections to which they are entitled not only under China’s constitutional laws but under their international human rights commitments as well.’’ See U.S. Department of State, Daily Press Briefing, 24 April 13.
17 ‘‘Unveiled Threats,’’ Economist, 6 July 13; Kelly Olsen, ‘‘Identity Crisis Behind China’s
Xinjiang Unrest: Experts,’’ Agence France-Presse, reprinted in Fox News, 3 July 13.

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18 ‘‘Forced Searches in Kashgar, Yengisar County Last Week Lead to Conflict’’ [Kashiyingshaji xian shangzhou qiangzhi qingcha yinfa chongtu], Radio Free Asia, 14 May 13; Uyghur
American Association, ‘‘Unlawful House Search and Arbitrary Use of Lethal Force Results [in]Nearly Two Dozen Deaths in Kashgar,’’ 24 April 13.
19 ‘‘Restive Xinjiang,’’ Wall Street Journal, 2 July 13; Chris Buckley, ‘‘27 Die in Rioting in Ethnically Divided Western China,’’ New York Times, 26 June 13.
20 ‘‘Xinjiang Clash Leaves Two Village Officials Dead,’’ Radio Free Asia, 24 May 13.
21 ‘‘Two Dead in Xinjiang Attack Following House Search,’’ Radio Free Asia, 5 July 13;‘‘Uyghur Shot in Attack,’’ Global Times, 11 July 13.
22 ‘‘Uyghur Man Shot Dead in Violence Sparked by His Beard,’’ Radio Free Asia, 5 August
13; ‘‘Xinjiang Man Pressed To Shave Off His Beard Is Killed by Police After Stabbing Two Police’’ [Bei qiangxing yaoqiu tixu xinjiang nanzi zhashang liang jing hou bei jingcha jibi], RadioFree Asia, 4 August 13.
23 ‘‘Unveiled Threats,’’ Economist, 6 July 13; Stephen Chen, ‘‘Top Officials in Emergency Visit
to Xinjiang After Outbreaks of Unrest,’’ South China Morning Post, 30 June 13.
24 For Commission analysis on the July 2009 demonstrations and riots in Urumqi, see‘‘Xinjiang Authorities Forcefully Suppress Demonstration, Restrict Free Flow of Information,’’
CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update, No. 4, 2009, 2.
25 Julie Makinen, ‘‘China Sends Armored Vehicles to Volatile Xinjiang Region,’’ Los Angeles
Times, 29 June 13; ‘‘Bloody Clashes Bring Army Onto Streets in Xinjiang,’’ South China Morning Post, 1 July 13; ‘‘China Tightens Security in Xinjiang Ahead of Anniversary,’’ Voice of America, 2 July 13; ‘‘Unveiled Threats,’’ Economist, 6 July 13; ‘‘Official Urges 24-Hour Patrol in
Xinjiang After Terror Attacks,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in CRIEnglish, 30 June 13.
26 Gillian Wong, ‘‘Scholar Slams China Repression of Ethnic Minority,’’ Associated Press, 5July 13; Uyghur American Association, ‘‘The Uyghur American Association Expresses Concern
at Massive Build Up of Chinese Security Forces in East Turkestan,’’ 1 July 13; ‘‘EU Says China
Needs To Release More Information About Xinjiang Violence, Address Causes,’’ AssociatedPress, reprinted in Washington Post, 1 July 13.
27 ‘‘Xinjiang Properly Handles Group Disturbance Incident, There Are No Casualties’’[Xinjiang tuoshan chuzhi yi qi qunti juji naoshi shijian wu qunzhong shangwang], Tianshan
Net, 28 June 13. There is at least one conflicting official media report regarding the June 28
incident or incidents in Hoten prefecture. The Global Times reported that ‘‘over 100 terrorists’’
armed with knives attacked a police station in Qaraqash (Moyu) county, Hoten prefecture. See
Qiu Yongzheng, ‘‘New Round of Riots Brings Fresh Violence to Xinjiang,’’ Global Times, 29 June13.
28 ‘‘At Least 15 Uyghurs Killed in Police Shootout in Xinjiang,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 August
13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘Over News of Clash, a Shroud of Silence in Xinjiang,’’ New York Times,
26 August 13. Radio Free Asia, citing local officials, reported that ‘‘up to 15 people may havebeen killed and 50 others injured’’ in the incident. According to the New York Times, ‘‘numerous
sources say that dozens were shot dead on the highway that connects Hanerik to Hotan,’’ and‘‘[e]xile groups [said] the death toll may exceed 100.’’
29 ‘‘In Another Bloody Conflict in Xinjiang, 3 Are Dead and More Than 20 Are Injured’’[Xinjiang zai you liuxue chongtu 3 si 20 duo shang], Radio Free Asia, 12 August 13; ‘‘Three
Uyghurs Shot Dead, 20 Injured in Eid Eve Clashes,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 August 13.
30 ‘‘Death Toll in Xinjiang Police Shootout Climbs As Exile Group Blasts Raid,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 27 August 13; ‘‘China Confirms Raid on Alleged Terror Cell in Restive Northwest, But Details Remain Sketchy,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Washington Post, 28 August 13.
31 ‘‘In the Violent Terrorist Incident in Xinjiang, Kashgar on August 20, a Member of the Special Police Sacrificed Himself ’’ [Xinjiang kashi 8 yue 20 ri fasheng baoli kongbu an yi ming
tejing xisheng], Kashgar Daily, reprinted in People’s Daily, 28 August 13.
32 ‘‘Up to 12 Uyghurs Shot Dead in Raid on Xinjiang ‘Munitions Center,’ ’’ Radio Free Asia,
17 September 13; ‘‘Xinjiang Terrorist Training Camp Destroyed, 12 Uyghurs Killed’’ [Xinjiang
daopo kongxi xunlian ying jiao 12 weizu ren], Radio Free Asia, 18 September 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘12 Are Killed in Raid by Security Forces in Western China,’’ New York Times, 18 September 13.
33 Zhang Yiwei, ‘‘Terrorists Sentenced By Xinjiang Courts,’’ Global Times, 28 March 13; Cui
Jia and Cao Yin, ‘‘20 Sent to Jail in Xinjiang for Terror Activities,’’ China Daily, 28 March 13.
34 Cui Jia and Cao Yin, ‘‘20 Sent to Jail in Xinjiang for Terror Activities,’’ China Daily, 28
March 13; Zhang Yiwei, ‘‘Terrorists Sentenced By Xinjiang Courts,’’ Global Times, 28 March 13;
Sui Yunyan, ‘‘Five Cases of the Use of the Internet, Mobile Phones, and Electronic Storage
Media To Commit Crimes Tried in Xinjiang’’ [5 qi liyong hulianwang, shouji ji dianzi cunchu
jiazhi jinxing fanzui anjian zai jiang shenpan], Tianshan Net, 26 March 13.
35 Chris Buckley, ‘‘China Sentences 20 in Restive Region,’’ New York Times, 27 March 13. The
New York Times quotes Human Rights Watch researcher Nicholas Bequelin, who states, ‘‘It’s
not clear what is being alleged against these people beyond being members of a clandestine organization.’’ He continues, ‘‘China has for a long time conflated religious activities taking placeoutside of state control with extremism. There’s [sic] been so many unsupported accusations by
the Chinese government about extremist Islamic activities and terrorist activities in Xinjiangthat it makes its [sic] difficult to have faith in these kinds of announcements.’’ Uyghur American
Association, ‘‘Uyghur American Association Condemns Sentences Handed Down to 20 Uyghurs,’’
27 March 13; ‘‘Uyghur Jailings Highlight Chinese Media Controls,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 March
13; ‘‘Again, 20 Uyghurs Are Sentenced on Charges of Using the Internet and Cell Phones to
Split the State’’ [You you 20 ming weiwuer ren beikong liyong hulianwang, shouji deng fenlie
guojia bei panxing], Uyghur Online, 27 March 13.
36 ‘‘Annual Work Report of Xinjiang’s Courts’’ [Xinjiang fayuan gongzuo niandu baogao],
Xinjiang Court Net, 21 January 13; ‘‘Commentary: Severely Crack Down on Criminal Activities
Using the Internet, Cell Phones, and Electronic Storage Media’’ [Pinglun: yanli daji yongwangluo shouji ji dianzi chubei jiazhi fanzui de huodong], Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in Tianshan

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Net, 27 March 13; Wang Yunxia, Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps Bureau of Justice,‘‘ ‘Secrets Act’ Study Session Organized and Launched by the 45th Corps’ Legal Outreach Office
Finishes Up’’ [Sishiwu tuan pufa ban zuzhi kaizhan de ‘‘baomifa’’ xuexi jieshu], 4 June 13. ‘‘Endangering state security’’ (ESS) is a category of criminal offenses that authorities in China haveused to punish peaceful activism, free expression of ethnic identity, and independent religious
activity. CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 244, 253–54. For the Chinese legal definition of ESS, see PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xing fa], enacted 1 July 79,
amended 14 March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01, 28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, arts.
102–113.
37 Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Transparency in Xinjiang: Reporting on State Security Trials,’’ Dui
Hua Foundation Reference Materials, 7 March 13.
38 Ibid.
39 ‘‘Annual Work Report of Xinjiang’s Courts’’ [Xinjiang fayuan gongzuo niandu baogao],
Xinjiang Court Net, 21 January 13; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Transparency in Xinjiang: Reportingon State Security Trials,’’ Dui Hua Foundation Reference Materials, 7 March 13; ‘‘Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region High People’s Court for First Time Publicly Issues Annual Work
Report’’ [Xinjiang weiwuer zizhiqu gaofa shouci duiwai fabu niandu baogao], Xinjiang Metropolis
Daily, 19 January 12. The Xinjiang Metropolis Daily article indicates 2012 was the first time
authorities publicly issued the work report on Xinjiang’s courts. In 2011, courts in the XUAR
tried and completed 414 cases, an increase of 38 cases over the previous year. In contrast, authorities completed 268 ESS cases in the region in 2008 and 437 cases in 2009. For more information on ESS cases in the XUAR, see, e.g., CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 150–
51.
40 ‘‘Tarim University Students’ Case Set for First Court Hearing on May 25th’’ [Talimu daxue
xuesheng an dingyu benyue 25 ri kaiting shenli], Uyghur Online, 15 May 13; ‘‘Detained Tarim
University Students Released On Bail’’ [Talimu daxue zao juliu xuesheng huo baoshi], Uyghur
Online, 29 May 13; ‘‘Detained Xinjiang Students To Be Secretly Tried, WUC Condemns Authorities for Detaining People’’ [Xinjiang beibu xuesheng jiang mimi kaiting, shiwei hui qianze
dangju zhuaren], Radio Free Asia, 21 May 13.
41 ‘‘Tarim University Students Released, Uyghur Students Continue to be Harassed by PSB’’[Talimu daxue huoshi weiwuer xuesheng chixu zao guobao saorao], Uyghur Online, 19 June 13;‘‘Detained Tarim University Students Released On Bail’’ [Talimu daxue zao juliu xuesheng huo
baoshi], Uyghur Online, 29 May 13.
42 ‘‘Expelled Tarim University Student Is Again Illegally Detained’’ [Talimu daxue bei kaichu
xuesheng zai zao feifa juliu], Uyghur Online, 24 June 13. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2013–00232 (Ablimit), record 2013–00233 (Dilshat), record 2013–00234(Alimjan), record 2013–00235 (Ekber), and record 2013–00236 (Abdureshit) for more informationon these cases.
43 Ibid.; ‘‘Tarim University Students Released, Uyghur Students Continue to be Harassed by
PSB’’ [Talimu daxue huoshi weiwuer xuesheng chixu zao guobao saorao], Uyghur Online, 19June 13. Article 56 of the PRC Criminal Procedure Law mandates restrictions on the movementof individuals released on bail. PRC Criminal Procedure Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo
xingshi susong fa], enacted 1 July 79, amended 17 March 96, 14 March 12, effective 1 January
13, art. 56.
44 ‘‘Expelled Tarim University Student Is Again Illegally Detained’’ [Talimu daxue bei kaichu
xuesheng zai zao feifa juliu], Uyghur Online, 24 June 13.
45 Ibid.; ‘‘Tarim University Students Continue to be Detained Without Formal Procedures, and
Are Suffering Humiliation and Beatings’’ [Talimu daxue xuesheng jixu bei wu shouxu guanya
bing zao ru da], Uyghur Online, 27 May 13; ‘‘Three Uyghur University Students Suspected ofOverseas Links Released On Bail Pending Trial’’ [Sanming weizu daxuesheng yi shewai baoshi
houshen], Radio Free Asia, 6 June 13.
46 Wang Xia, ‘‘Forty Billion To Be Invested This Year in Highway Construction in Xinjiang,
the Construction of Highways and Major Thoroughfares To Be Accelerated’’ [Xinjiang gonglu
jianshe jinnian jihua touzi 400 yi gonglu da tongdao jiasu xingcheng], Yaxin Net, reprinted in
Xinhua, 21 February 13.
47 He Yan, ‘‘Passengers at Xinjiang’s Kashgar Airport Exceed One Million Mark for the FirstTime’’ [Xinjiang kashi jichang luke tuntu liang shouci tupo 100 wan renci daguan], Yaxin Net,
reprinted in Sina, 29 November 12.
48 Christina Larson, ‘‘On China’s Electricity Grid, East Needs West—for Coal,’’ Bloomberg
Businessweek, 21 March 13.
49 Mao Weihua and Yang Wang, ‘‘Construction Corps Leads War On Poverty,’’ China Daily,
9 November 12; ‘‘In 2013, the XPCC Will Invest 4.746 Billion To Promote 157 Agricultural Construction Projects’’ [Xinjiang bingtuan 2013 nian tou 47.46 yi tuijin 157 ge shenong xiangmu
jianshe], Tianshan Net, 1 April 13.
50 ‘‘Shandong Province Starts An ‘Educational Aid To Xinjiang’ Project, Strengthens Bilingual
Teaching’’ [Shandong sheng qidong ‘‘jiaoyu yuanjiang’’ gongcheng, jiaqiang shuangyu jiaoxue],
Xinhua, reprinted in Dazhong Net, 15 March 13; ‘‘Counterpart Assistance Provinces and Cities
Invest 24 Billion Yuan in Xinjiang To Implement More Than 2,300 Projects’’ [Yuanjiang
shengshi touru xinjiang 240 yi yuan shishi 2300 duoge xiangmu], Chinese News Net, reprinted
in Xinmin Net, 15 November 12.
51 ‘‘Counterpart Assistance Provinces and Cities Invest 24 Billion Yuan In Xinjiang To Implement More Than 2,300 Projects’’ [Yuanjiang shengshi touru xinjiang 240 yi yuan shishi 2300
duoge xiangmu], Chinese News Net, reprinted in Xinmin Net, 15 November 12; Su Jianchao,‘‘Xinjiang ‘Spring Wind Action’ Provides 100,000 Employment Positions for Rural Workers’’[Xinjiang ‘‘chunfeng xingdong’’ wei nongmin gong tigong 10 wan jiuye gangwei], Tianshan Net,
reprinted in Xinhua, 26 February 13.

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52 Ma Yining, ‘‘An Investment of Over 250 Billion Yuan in Xinjiang in 2012 Has Become a
Foregone Conclusion’’ [2012 nian xinjiang zhaoshang yinzi chao 2500 yi yuan yi cheng dingju],
Tianshan Net, reprinted in China Economic Net, 14 December 12; ‘‘Foreign Capital Flows Into
Xinjiang,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in CRIEnglish, 21 December 12; Dong Shaohua and Wang Yongfei,‘‘In the First Three Quarters, 136.7 Billion Was Invested, Xinjiang People’s Livelihood Construction Achieves Breakthrough Progress’’ [Qian san ji touru zijin 1367 yi, xinjiang minshengjianshe qude tupoxing jinzhan], Tianshan Net, reprinted in Xinjiang Daily, 4 November 12;
Zhang Xiaocheng, ‘‘XPCC Invests More Than 20 Billion Yuan To Speed Up Poverty Alleviationin Poor Areas of Southern Xinjiang’’ [Xinjiang bingtuan touru 200 duo yi yuan jiakuai nanjiang
tekun diqu tuopin], China Information Broadcast Network, reprinted in People’s Daily, 3 April
13; Zhu Jingchao, ‘‘Representative Says Kashgar, Xinjiang Will Become Economic Hub for Central, Western, and Southern Asia’’ [Daibiao cheng xinjiang kashi jiang cheng zhong xi nanya
jingji quan zhongxin], China News Service, reprinted in Eastday, 7 March 13.
53 See, e.g., ‘‘Accelerate the Course of Xinjiang’s Leapfrog Development and Long-Term Stability’’ [Jiakuai tuijin xinjiang kuayue shi fazhan he changzhi jiuan jincheng], Xinjiang Daily,
16 May 13; Wang Dan, ‘‘Xinjiang Project To Resettle Herders Promotes Continuous Improvement in the Living Standards of Rural Herders’’ [Xinjiang dingju xingmu gongcheng cujinnongmumin shenghuo tiaojian chixu gaishan], Tianshan Net, reprinted in China Religion andEthnicity Net, 10 May 13; Feng Jin et al., ‘‘Government Work Report of the Deliberations of
the Xinjiang Delegation Attending the NPC Meeting’’ [Chuxi quanguo renda yici huiyi xinjiang
daibiao tuan shenyi zhengfu gongzuo baogao], Xinhua, reprinted in Xinjiang Daily, 6 March 13.
The Xinjiang Work Forum was convened in Beijing in May 2010 by top central government andParty leaders. The inaugural forum set government and Party objectives for the XUAR’s economic and political development, intensifying a trend of top-down initiatives. Work Forum initiatives included the expansion of ‘‘counterpart support’’ programs, herder resettlement programs, and housing construction and demolition projects in areas inhabited by Uyghurs andother ethnic minorities. For more on the Work Forum, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 149; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 196–97.
54 See, e.g., PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15
March 99, 14 March 04, arts. 4, 36. China’s Constitution entitles minorities, like all citizens ofChina, to the freedom of religious belief and freedom from discrimination.
55 PRC Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minzu quyu zizhifa],
issued 31 May 84, effective 1 October 84, amended 28 February 01, art. 9. The Regional Ethnic
Autonomy Law (REAL) outlines ethnic minorities’ rights in the PRC, including: self-government
within designated autonomous areas; proportional representation in the government; freedom todevelop their own languages, religions, and cultures; and power to adjust central directives tolocal conditions. REAL also guarantees minorities greater control over local economic development than allowed in non-autonomous areas; the right to manage and protect local natural resources; and the right to organize local public security forces to safeguard public order.
56 ‘‘The Effects of Kashgar’s Special Zone, Residents of Demolished Housing Cry Foul’’ [Kashitequ xiaoying, fangwu beichai jumin shangfang hanyuan], Uyghur Online, 29 October 12; Kilic
Bugra Kanat, ‘‘The Kashgar Incident and China’s Uyghur Question,’’ World Bulletin, 8 May 13;‘‘Uyghur Businessman Attacked After Demolition Complaint,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19 April 13.
57 Li Yiren, ‘‘Xinjiang Spirit: Leading All of Xinjiang in Making a Big Leap’’ [Xinjiang
jingshen: yinling quanjiang da kuayue], Tianshan Net, reprinted in Tencent, 12 November 12;
Dai Lan and Hu Renba, ‘‘Strive To Promote Leapfrog Development and Long-Term Stability—
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Party Secretary Zhang Chunxian’’ [Fenli tuijin kuayueshi
fazhan he changzhi jiuan—xinjiang weiwuer zizhiqu dangwei shuji zhang chunxian], People’s
Daily, 11 September 12; Xie Sijia, ‘‘Efforts To Promote Higher Standards in Aiding XinjiangWork’’ [Yi geng gao biaozhun quanli tuijin yuanjiang gongzuo], Southern Daily, reprinted in
Nandu Net, 22 March 13; ‘‘Audit of Xinjiang Counterpart Assistance Projects Strives for Full
Coverage of Three Southern Xinjiang Regions as the Focus for 2013’’ [Xinjiang yuanjiang
xiangmu shenji lizheng 2013 nian quan fugai nanjiang san dizhou wei zhongdian], Xinjiang
Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 29 March 13.
58 Li Yiren, ‘‘Xinjiang Spirit: Leading All of Xinjiang in Making a Big Leap’’ [Xinjiang
jingshen: yinling quanjiang da kuayue], Tianshan Net, 12 November 12; Dai Lan and Hu Renba,‘‘Strive To Promote Leapfrog Development and Long-Term Stability—Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Party Secretary Zhang Chunxian’’ [Fenli tuijin kuayueshi fazhan he changzhi
jiuan—xinjiang weiwuer zizhiqu dangwei shuji zhang chunxian], People’s Daily, 11 September
12; ‘‘Audit of Xinjiang Counterpart Assistance Projects Strives for Full Coverage of Three Southern Xinjiang Regions as the Focus for 2013’’ [Xinjiang yuanjiang xiangmu shenji lizheng 2013
nian quan fugai nanjiang san dizhou wei zhongdian], Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 29
March 13.
59 ‘‘A New Round of Aid to Xinjiang, 2,378 Aid Projects Have Been Implemented in Total’’ [Xinyilun yuanzhu xinjiang leiji shishi yuanzhu xiangmu 2378 ge], Gucheng Net, 21 February 13.
60 ‘‘Circling the Wagons,’’ Economist, 25 May 13; ‘‘Han Migrant Influx Threatens Uyghur
Farms,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 March 13; ‘‘The Killing of a Uyghur Boy Triggers Uyghur-Han Conflict’’ [Yi weizu nantong bei sha yinfa wei han chongtu], Radio Free Asia, 10 April 13.
61 Gao Lirong et al., ‘‘Southern Xinjiang Passenger Train Begins Operating, the First Groupof Rural Workers Enters Xinjiang for the Southern ‘Gold Rush’ ’’ [Nanjiang linke kaixing shoupi
jin xinjiang nongmin gong nanxia ‘‘taojin’’], Xinjiang Metropolis Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 26
February 13; Xue Genzhu, ‘‘Qianjiang: A Thousand Rural Residents Travel Far to Xinjiang to‘Pan for Gold’ ’’ [Qianjiang: qianming nongmin gong yuan fu xinjiang ‘‘taojin’’], Xinhua, 8 April
13; He Zhanjun and Zhang Yongheng, ‘‘Xinjiang Railway Line Opens To Deal With Surge ofWorkers Coming Into Xinjiang’’ [Xinjiang tielu kaixing linke yingdui jinjiang wugong keliu],
Xinhua, 20 February 13; Pang Shuwei, ‘‘Qinghai: 60,000 Rural Residents Go to Xinjiang To Pick
Cotton’’ [Qinghai: 6 wan nongmin fu xinjiang cai mian], Xinhua, 12 October 12. For more information on the demographics of southern areas of the XUAR, see ‘‘Full Text: Development and289
Progress in Xinjiang,’’ Xinhua, 21 September 09; Stanley Toops, ‘‘Demographics and Development in Xinjiang After 1949,’’ East-West Center, 1 May 04.
62 ‘‘Han Migrant Influx Threatens Uyghur Farms,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 March 13.
63 ‘‘Uyghur Family Home Bulldozed,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 October 12.
64 ‘‘Han Migrant Influx Threatens Uyghur Farms,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 March 13.
65 The PRC government established the XPCC in 1954 as a means of settling demobilized soldiers and Han migrants to perform border defense functions and to support economic development. The government’s White Paper on the History and Development of Xinjiang says that theranks of the XPCC are now ‘‘a mosaic of people from 37 ethnic groups, including the Han,
Uygur, Kazak, Hui, and Mongolian.’’ It describes the XPCC as ‘‘a special social organization,
which handles its own administrative and judicial affairs’’ but ‘‘in accordance with the laws andregulations of the state and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.’’ State Council Information
Office, ‘‘History and Development of Xinjiang,’’ May 2003, Part 9.
66 ‘‘Circling the Wagons,’’ Economist, 25 May 13.
67 ‘‘Xinjiang Peaceful Resident, Prosperous Citizen Projects Have Doubled Completion Rate’’[Xinjiang anju fumin gongcheng kaigong jungong shuang chao’e], Tianshan Net, reprinted in
Xinhua, 17 December 12; ‘‘Xinjiang XPCC Annual Rural Peaceful Resident Housing Work Rate
Exceeds 90 Percent’’ [Xinjiang bingtuan niandu nongcun anju zhufang kaigong lu chaojiucheng], Chinese News Net, reprinted in Fujian China Gold Online Net, 23 October 12;‘‘Xinjiang Peaceful Resident, Prosperous Citizen Projects Increase by 320,000 Households’’[Xinjiang anju fumin gongcheng xin zeng 32 wan hu], Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 13
December 12.
68 ‘‘Shanghai Aids in the Construction of Kashgar’s ‘Peaceful Resident, Prosperous Citizen’
Projects, With Special Funds Reaching 820 Million’’ [Shanghai yuanjian kashi ‘‘anju fumin’’gongcheng zhuanxiang zijin da 8.2 yi], China Net, 10 May 13; Hong Liu, ‘‘Shanghai City Aidsin the Construction of Peaceful Resident, Prosperous Citizen Projects, Benefitting 110,000
Households of Rural Herders’’ [Shanghai shi yuanjian anju fumin gongcheng huiji 11 wan hu
nongmumin], Kashgar Government Information Net, 11 April 13; ‘‘Xinjiang Peaceful Resident,
Prosperous Citizen Projects Increase by 320,000 Households’’ [Xinjiang anju fumin gongcheng
xin zeng 32 wan hu], Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in Xinhua, 13 December 12.
69 ‘‘Herdsman on New Road to a Happy Life,’’ China Daily, reprinted in CRIEnglish, 20 November 12; ‘‘Xinjiang Herdsmen Move House,’’ China Daily, 17 October 12; Claire O’Neill, ‘‘What
Big Highways Mean For China’s Small Villages,’’ National Public Radio, 18 October 12.
70 See generally Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘No One Has the Liberty To Refuse’: Tibetan Herders
Forcibly Relocated in Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and the Tibet Autonomous Region,’’ June 2007;
Human Rights in China, ‘‘China: Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions,’’
2007, 14; China’s Ethnic Regional Autonomy Law: Does It Protect Minority Rights? Staff Roundtable of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 11 April 05, Testimony of Christopher P. Atwood, Associate Professor, Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University. For Commission analysis, see ‘‘State Council Opinion Bolsters Grazing Ban, Herder Resettlement,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 October 11.
71 Kang Yan, ‘‘In Three Years, Xinjiang Has Completed the Resettlement of 136,800 Herders’’[Xinjiang 3 nian lai wancheng youmumin dingju 13.68 wan hu], Yaxin Net, reprinted in China
Xinjiang, 6 May 13; Wang Dan, ‘‘Xinjiang Project To Resettle Herders Promotes Continuous Improvement in the Living Standards of Rural Herders’’ [Xinjiang dingju xingmu gongcheng cujinnongmumin shenghuo tiaojian chixu gaishan], Tianshan Net, reprinted in China Religion andEthnicity Net, 10 May 13.
72 ‘‘[Xinjiang Forum] Kashgar Old City’s Old Appearance Gets a New Look’’ [[Xinjiang tai]kashi laocheng de jiumao yu xinyan], China Radio International, 11 December 12.
73 A 2008 book by architect and historian George Michell described Kashgar before the Old
City demolition as ‘‘the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia.’’ Michael Wines, ‘‘To Protect an Ancient City, China Moves To Raze It,’’New York Times, 27 May 09.
74 ‘‘The Effects of Kashgar’s Special Zone, Residents of Demolished Housing Cry Foul’’ [Kashitequ xiaoying, fangwu bei chai jumin shangfang hanyuan], Uyghur Online, 29 October 11. For
the population figure of 220,000, see ‘‘Ancient Xinjiang City’s Residences Safer After Gov’t Rebuilding Program,’’ Global Times, reprinted in Xinhua, 26 May 10.
75 For general background on the project, see ‘‘Demolition of Kashgar’s Old City Draws Concerns Over Cultural Heritage Protection, Population Resettlement,’’ CECC China Human Rights
and Rule of Law Update, No. 3, 2009, 2. For more information on concerns regarding the resettlement of Old City residents and the project’s impact on Uyghur cultural heritage, see Uyghur
Human Rights Project, ‘‘Living On the Margins: The Chinese State’s Demolition of Uyghur Communities,’’ 2 April 12.
76 See, e.g., Michael Wines, ‘‘To Protect an Ancient City, China Moves To Raze It,’’ New YorkTimes, 27 May 09; ‘‘China Remodels Silk Road City but Scars Run Deep,’’ Agence France-Presse,
7 August 11 (Open Source Center, 7 August 11); Uyghur Human Rights Project, ‘‘Living On the
Margins: The Chinese State’s Demolition of Uyghur Communities,’’ 2 April 12, 16–17, 55, 71–
77; Joshua Hammer, ‘‘Demolishing Kashgar’s History,’’ Smithsonian Magazine, March 2010.
77 Michael Wines, ‘‘To Protect an Ancient City, China Moves To Raze It,’’ New York Times,
27 May 09; Hu Xiaorong, ‘‘Kashgar, Xinjiang Spends Three Billion Yuan To Transform the Old
City District, Plans To Backfill 35.9 Kilometers of Tunnels’’ [Xinjiang kashi 30 yi yuan gaizao
laochengqu jiang huitian 35.9 gongli didao], Yaxin Net, 23 March 09.
78 Beijing Cultural Heritage Protection Center, ‘‘Please Help To Protect Kashgar Old Town,’’
16 April 09; International Council on Monuments and Sites, ‘‘ICOMOS World Report 2008–2010
on Monuments and Sites in Danger,’’ 2010, 48–51. Details of the Old City demolition projectsuggest that authorities have bypassed ways to protect Old City residents’ safety while preserving existing buildings. Standards set by professionals in the field of cultural heritage preservation indicate compatibility between historic preservation and measures to guard against nat-290ural disaster. Articles 10 and 14 of the Charter for the Conservation of Historic Towns and
Urban Areas, adopted by the non-governmental International Council on Monuments and Sites(ICOMOS) and available on its Web site, recognize the importance of introducing ‘‘contemporary
elements’’ and preventative measures against natural disasters while ensuring they are ‘‘adapted to the specific character of the properties concerned.’’ Charter for the Conservation of HistoricTowns and Urban Areas, adopted by ICOMOS General Assembly, October 1987, arts. 10, 14.
79 See, e.g., PRC Constitution, issued 4 December 82, amended 12 April 88, 29 March 93, 15
March 99, 14 March 04, art. 4; PRC Regional Ethnic Autonomy Law [Zhonghua renmin
gongheguo minzu quyu zizhifa], issued 31 May 84, effective 1 October 84, amended 28 February
01, art. 9; PRC Labor Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo laodong fa], issued 5 July 94, effective
1 January 95, amended 10 October 01, art. 12; PRC Employment Promotion Law [Zhonghua
renmin gongheguo jiuye cujinfa], issued 30 August 07, effective 1 January 08, art. 28. See also
legal analysis in ‘‘Governments in Xinjiang Continue To Sponsor, Sanction Job Recruitment
That Discriminates Against Ethnic Minorities,’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law
Update, No. 2, 2009; ‘‘Xinjiang Kashgar Prefecture Career Units (Agency Worker and Service
Positions) Position Table of 2013 Recruitment of Workers’’ [Xinjiang kashi diqu shiye danwei(jiguan gongqin gangwei) 2013 zhaopin gongzuo renyuan gangwei biao], Civil Service Examination Information Network, 28 March 13; ‘‘Xinjiang Changji People’s Hospital 2012 Public Recruitment for Workers’’ [Xinjiang changjizhou renmin yiyuan 2012 nian shiye danwei gongkai
zhaopin gongzuo renyuan], China Talent Net, last visited 2 July 13; ‘‘[Xinjiang] Xinjiang,
Kashgar Prefecture, Shache County Education System 2013 Recruitment’’ [[Xinjiang] Xinjiang
kashi diqu shache xian jiaoyu xitong 2013 zhaopin], Chongqing Normal University, reprinted
in Graduate Job Net, 19 May 13. For more information regarding job discrimination against ethnic minorities in Xinjiang, see ‘‘Job Discrimination Against Ethnic Minorities Continues in
Xinjiang,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 31 March 11.
80 See, e.g., Luntai Industrial Park, ‘‘Bazhou Dongchen Group Ltd. Co. Recruiting Notice’’[Bazhou dongchen jituan youxian gongsi zhaopin jianzhang], 9 June 13; Hainan University,‘‘Xinjiang Water Resources and Hydropower Research Institute 2013 Personnel Recruitment’’[Xinjiang shuili shuidian kexue yanjiuyuan 2013 nian rencai zhaopin], 7 June 13; Zhang Xinyu,‘‘Xinjiang Convenes Summer Recruitment Meeting for Vocational School Graduates’’ [Xinjiang
juban xiaji dazhongzhuan biyesheng zhaopin hui], Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in Tianshan Net,
19 May 13; Hutubi Human Resources and Social Security Bureau, ‘‘Hutubi County 2013 ‘Private
Enterprise Recruitment Week’ Recruitment Information’’ [Hutubi xian 2013 nian ‘‘minying qiyezhaopin zhou’’ zhaopin xinxi], reprinted in Hutubi County Government, 6 June 13. See also‘‘Uyghur Women Face Double Discrimination When Applying for Civil Service Positions’’[Weiwuer nuxing bao kao gongwuyuan mianlin shuangzhong qishi], Uyghur Online, 17 May 13.
81 David Scott, ‘‘Lack of Better Jobs for China’s Ethnic Minorities a Worsening Problem,’’ Melbourne Newsroom, 22 November 12; Sunanda Creagh, ‘‘Inequality Fuels Tension Between China’s Minority Uyghurs and Hans,’’ Conversation, 26 November 12.
82 ‘‘Xinjiang People’s Congress Representatives Discuss How To Make the Road Smoother for
Those Going Inland To Do Business and Work’’ [Xinjiang renda daibiao taolun ruhe rang fu
neidi jingshang wugong zhi lu geng tongchang], Tianshan Net, 29 January 13.
83 ‘‘In 2011, Xinjiang Achieved the Transfer and Employment of 2.58 Million Rural Surplus
Laborers’’ [2011 nian xinjiang shixian nongcun fuyu laodongli zhuanyi jiuye 258 wan renci],
Xinjiang Daily, reprinted in Central People’s Government, 22 March 12.
84 CECC, 2008 Annual Report, 31 October 08, 179; CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October
09, 264–66; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October 10, 211–12.
85 ‘‘Farmers Pressed Into Road Work,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19 December 12; ‘‘Uyghurs Pressed
Into Field Work,’’ Radio Free Asia, 8 February 13.
86 For background information on how authorities in the XUAR have targeted religious andpolitical publications in censorship campaigns, see ‘‘Xinjiang Authorities Target Religious andPolitical Publications in Censorship Campaigns,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 31 March 11.
87 ‘‘Transportation Department Increases Supervision of ‘Sweeping Away Pornography’ inRoad Transportation Links’’ [Jiaotong yunshuting jiada daolu yunshu huanjie ‘‘saohuang dafei’’
jianguan lidu], XUAR Transportation Department, 7 March 13. For information on a similar
campaign, see ‘‘Tekes County Public Security Bureau Launches Activity Focused on Destroying
Illegal Religious Publications’’ [Tekesi xian gonganju kaizhan jizhong xiaohui feifa zongjiao
chubanwu huodong], Tekes County Television Station, reprinted in Tekes County Government,
2 November 12.
88 ‘‘Sentencing Document: Phoenix News Is Innocent, Uyghur Who Helped Them Is Guilty’’[Panjueshu: fenghuang xinwen wuzui, bang qi weiwuer ren youzui], Uyghur Online, 15 February 13; ‘‘Exclusive: A Uyghur Who Served as Translator for Chinese Media Was Sentenced
to 11 Years, the Media Did Not Dare To Report This For Several Years’’ [Dujia baodao: yi
weiwuer ren wei zhongguo meiti dang fanyi beipan 11 nian, meiti changda jinian bu gan
baodao], Uyghur Online, 13 February 13; Mai Yanting, ‘‘Uyghur Who Translated for Phoenix
Satellite TV Sentenced to 11 Years, Media Silence Is Criticized’’ [Weizu ren ti fenghuang weishi
fanyi bei panxing 11 nian, meiti jinsheng zao piping], Radio France Internationale, 16 February
13. See the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database, record 2013–00089, for more informationon the case.
89 Mai Yanting, ‘‘Uyghur Who Translated for Phoenix Satellite TV Sentenced to 11 Years,
Media Silence Is Criticized’’ [Weizu ren ti fenghuang weishi fanyi bei panxing 11 nian, meiti
jinsheng zao piping], Radio France Internationale, 16 February 13; ‘‘Uyghur Youth Who Acted
as a Translator for Phoenix Satellite TV Sentenced to 11 Years’’ [Wei fenghuang weishi zuo
fanyi, weiwuer qingnian beipan shiyi nian], Radio Free Asia, 13 February 13.
90 Article 13(7) of the PRC Passport Law and Article 8(5) of the PRC Exit and Entry Control
Law give officials the discretion to prevent Chinese citizens from traveling abroad when they
believe that a citizen’s leaving China might harm ‘‘state security’’ or harm or cause ‘‘major loss’’291
to national interests. The meaning and scope of harm or loss to state security or national interests are undefined, however, which has led to official abuse and arbitrary enforcement. PRC
Passport Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo huzhao fa], issued 29 April 06, effective 1 January
07; PRC Exit and Entry Control Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo chujing rujing guanli fa],issued 30 June 12, effective 1 July 13.
91 ‘‘Uyghur Scholar, Daughter Held,’’ Radio Free Asia, 1 February 13.
92 ‘‘Scholar Put on 24-Hour Watch,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 February 13; Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit:
China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 25 February 13.
93 ‘‘Minzu University Student Atikem Continues To Be Harassed by Xinjiang State Security’’[Zhongyang minzu daxue xuesheng atikemu chixu bei xinjiang guobao saorao], Uyghur Online,
7 February 13. For Commission analysis on the cases of Ilham Tohti and Atikem Rozi, see ‘‘Authorities Block Uyghur Scholar From Leaving China, Refuse To Grant Passport to Uyghur Student,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 7 March 13. See also Uyghur Human
Rights Project, ‘‘Briefing: Refusals of Passports to Uyghurs and Confiscations of Passports Heldby Uyghurs Indicator of Second-Class Status in China,’’ 7 February 13.
94 Andrew Jacobs, ‘‘No Exit: China Uses Passports as Political Cudgel,’’ New York Times, 22
February 13; Atikem Rozi, ‘‘Correspondence: [My] Passport Is Not Processed, Xinjiang Police Say
I’m Politically Unqualified’’ [Laixin: huzhao bu gei ban, xinjiang jingfang shuo wo zhengzhi buhege], Uyghur Online, 16 December 12.
95 ‘‘Xinjiang Uyghur Student Detained by Police at the Beijing Airport [Has Been Gone] forMore Than a Week’’ [Xinjiang weizu xuesheng zai beijing jichang bei jing daizou yu yi zhou],Radio Free Asia, 23 July 13.
96 Atikem Rozi (Web name Uyghuray), ‘‘Mutellip, Where Are You? ’’ [Mutalipu, ni zai nali?],
Uyghur Online, 22 July 13; ‘‘A Uyghur Student Studying Abroad Is Detained Prior to Boarding
Time at Beijing Airport, World Uyghur Congress Condemns Authorities for Persecuting Those
Who Return to the Country’’ [Yi weizu liuxuesheng beijing dengji qian yi bei kou shiweihui
qianze dangju yan cha guiguozhe], Radio Free Asia, 23 July 13; Atikem Rozi (Web nameUyghuray), ‘‘Urgent Appeal: Release Mutellip, Resolutely Oppose Forced Disappearances’’ [Jinji
huyu: shifang mutalipu, jianjue fandui qiangpo shizong], Uyghur Online, 7 August 13.
97 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Malaysia: Stop Forced Returns to China,’’ 3 February 13;
Hemananthani Sivanandam and Dorothy Cheng, ‘‘Six Uighurs Deported for Violating Immigration Laws,’’ Sun Daily, 18 February 13.
98 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Malaysia: Stop Forced Returns to China,’’ 3 February 13.
99 Ibid.; World Uyghur Congress, ‘‘WUC Condemns Illegal Deportation of Uyghurs From Malaysia,’’ 4 February 13.
100 ‘‘Deported Uyghurs Jailed,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 December 12. The mother of one of thesentenced men reportedly told RFA that authorities did not allow her to attend the trial of herson, but she believed authorities accused him of separatism based on his translation assistanceto other Uyghurs in Malaysia. It is unclear whether or not the 11 Uyghurs were charged withor sentenced on charges of terrorism in China.
101 For information on various legal restrictions on Islamic practices in the XUAR, see CECC,
2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 151–52.
102 ‘‘Exclusive News: Xinjiang Religious Control of ‘Special Groups’—Documentation of Registration’’ [Dujia baoliao: xinjiang zongjiao guanzhi ‘‘teshu renqun’’—dengji zai an], Uyghur Online, 1 May 13. For more information on restrictions on Uyghurs’ religious practices, see Uyghur
Human Rights Project, ‘‘Sacred Right Defiled: China’s Iron-Fisted Repression of Uyghur Religious Freedom,’’ 30 April 13.
103 Uyghur Human Rights Project, ‘‘Sacred Right Defiled: China’s Iron-Fisted Repression of
Uyghur Religious Freedom,’’ 30 April 13, 2.
104 Ibid., 17, 30, 36–43, 66, 83.
105 ‘‘Eid Eve Clashes Stoked by Gunshots Fired at Uyghur Girl,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12 August
13; Uyghur American Association, ‘‘UAA Condemns Shootings by Police During Religious Celebration,’’ 14 August 13.
106 ‘‘Confrontation With Police Occurs in Aksu, At Least 3 People Are Shot and Killed by Police’’ [Akesu fasheng jingmin duizhi, zhishao 3 ren bei jingcha kaiqiang dasi], Radio Free Asia,
9 August 13; ‘‘In Another Bloody Conflict in Xinjiang, 3 Are Dead and More Than 20 Are Injured’’ [Xinjiang zai you liuxue chongtu 3 si 20 duo shang], Radio Free Asia, 12 August 13.
107 ‘‘In Another Bloody Conflict in Xinjiang, 3 Are Dead and More Than 20 Are Injured’’[Xinjiang zai you liuxue chongtu 3 si 20 duo shang], Radio Free Asia, 12 August 13; ‘‘Three
Uyghurs Shot Dead, 20 Injured in Eid Eve Clashes,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 August 13; ‘‘Hundredsof Uyghurs Held After Violence Over Prayer Restrictions,’’ Radio Free Asia, 15 August 13.
108 ‘‘In Another Bloody Conflict in Xinjiang, 3 Are Dead and More Than 20 Are Injured’’[Xinjiang zai you liuxue chongtu 3 si 20 duo shang], Radio Free Asia, 12 August 13; ‘‘Confrontation With Police Occurs in Aksu, At Least 3 People Are Shot and Killed by Police’’ [Akesu
fasheng jingmin duizhi, zhishao 3 ren bei jingcha kaiqiang dasi], Radio Free Asia, 9 August 13.
109 ‘‘In Another Bloody Conflict in Xinjiang, 3 Are Dead and More Than 20 Are Injured’’[Xinjiang zai you liuxue chongtu 3 si 20 duo shang], Radio Free Asia, 12 August 13; ‘‘Three
Uyghurs Shot Dead, 20 Injured in Eid Eve Clashes,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 August 13.
110 Anne Henochowicz, China Digital Times, ‘‘Ministry of Truth: Violence in Xinjiang on Eid,’’
11 August 13.
111 ‘‘Xinjiang Raids Point to Religious Controls,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 March 13; Hai Lan, ‘‘In
Xinjiang, Another Instance of Searches Leads to a Clash Between Uyghurs and Police, With
Two Dead’’ [Xinjiang you yin qingcha zhi weiren yu jing chongtu 2 si], 22 May 13. For specificexamples of security checks, police raids, and house searches, see Fu Yongkai, ‘‘Wolituogelake
Township Thoroughly Carries Out ‘Three Inspections’ Unified Action’’ [Wolituogelake xiang
shenru kaizhan ‘‘sancha’’ tongyi xingdong], Xinjiang Peace Net, 6 May 13; ‘‘Kashgar’s Strict Inspections, 7 Uyghurs Detained’’ [Kashi yancha 7 weiren bei jing daizou], Radio Free Asia, 7 May
13; ‘‘Inspection in Awat County Leads to Two Dead—Authorities Conceal Details of Case’’292[Xinjiang awati xian qingcha zhi er ren siwang dangju yinman anqing], Uyghur Online, 23 May
13; Meng Hongqi, ‘‘Qiongkule Township Focuses on Carrying Out ‘Two Sessions’ Security Inspection Operation’’ [Qiongkule xiang jizhong kaizhan ‘‘lianghui’’ anbao da qingcha xingdong],
Qiongkule Township Government, reprinted in Qiemo County Government, 6 March 13; Xiang
Xuan, ‘‘Halayugong Township Carries Out Major Stability Maintenance Inspections’’[Halayugong xiang kaizhan weiwen da qingcha], Xinjiang Peace Net, 13 June 13; Damian
Grammaticas, ‘‘Doubts Over China Government Claims on Xinjiang Attack,’’ BBC, 26 April 13;
Edward Wong, ‘‘21 Dead in Clash With ‘Gangsters’ in Western China,’’ New York Times, 24
April 13; Uyghur American Association, ‘‘Unlawful House Search and Arbitrary Use of Lethal
Force Results [in] Nearly Two Dozen Deaths in Kashgar,’’ 24 April 13; Peter Ford, ‘‘Mystery
Clouds Deadly Clash in Western China With ‘Suspected Terrorists,’ ’’ Christian Science Monitor,
24 April 13.
112 ‘‘Exclusive News: Xinjiang Religious Control of ‘Special Groups’—Documentation of Registration’’ [Dujia baoliao: xinjiang zongjiao guanzhi ‘‘teshu renqun’’—dengji zai an], Uyghur Online, 1 May 13; ‘‘China Registering the Religious in Xinjiang,’’ Radio Free Asia, 2 May 13.
113 ‘‘Exclusive News: Xinjiang Religious Control of ‘Special Groups’—Documentation of Registration’’ [Dujia baoliao: xinjiang zongjiao guanzhi ‘‘teshu renqun’’—dengji zai an], Uyghur Online, 1 May 13.
114 ‘‘China Registering the Religious in Xinjiang,’’ Radio Free Asia, 2 May 13.
115 ‘‘Xinjiang Will Enter the Religious Belief Status of Ethnic Minority Families Into Stability
Maintenance Roster’’ [Xinjiang jiang shaoshu minzu jiating zongjiao xinyang qingkuang lieru
weiwen mingce], Radio Free Asia, 2 May 13.
116 ‘‘Fourth Round of Training Launched for Our Region’s Patriotic Religious Figures’’ [Woquaiguo zongjiao renshi disi lun peixun qidong], Xinjiang Daily, 28 March 13; ‘‘Fourth Round of
XPCC Religious Figures’ Political and Legal System Education Training Begins Second Termof Classes’’ [Bingtuan disi lun bingtuan zongjiao renshi zhengzhi fazhi jiaoyu peixun dier qi kaiban], XPCC United Front Work Department, 9 April 13; ‘‘Qiba’erxiang 2013 Annual Patriotic
Religious Figure Training Class’’ [Qiba’erxiang 2013 niandu aiguo zongjiao renshi peixun ban],
Kaba County Government, 24 April 13; ‘‘Sa Township, Kaba County, Holds Patriotic Figure
Training Class’’ [Kabahe xian sa xiang juban aiguo renshi peixun ban], Altay Women’s Federation, 25 April 13.
117 Li Xing, ‘‘Fourth Round of Training Launched for Our Region’s Patriotic Religious Figures’’[Woqu aiguo zongjiao renshi disi lun peixun qidong], Xinjiang Daily, 28 March 13.
118 For statements illustrating the ‘‘frequent and widespread’’ nature of the campaigns, see Li
Donghui, ‘‘Intensively Study and Implement the Spirit of the 18th Party Congress, Strive To
Create New Conditions Care for the Next Generation Work Committee’’ [Shenru xuexi guanche
dang de shibada jingshen, nuli kaichuang guangongwei gongzuo xin jumian], Xinjiang Care for
the Next Generation Work Committee, 19 February 13; Circular Regarding the Launch of the2013 Regional Vocational Student Summer Social Practicum [Guanyu kaizhan 2013 nian zizhiqudazhongzhuan xuesheng shuqi shehui shijian de tongzhi], China Communist Youth League
Xinjiang Committee, 27 June 13; China Communist Youth League Xinjiang Committee, ‘‘Resolutely Resist Illegal Religion, Firmly Establish an Ideological Foundation for Young People’’[Jianjue dizhi feifa zongjiao, dianding he laogu qingshaonian de sixiang jichu], 18 January 13.
For representative anecdotal examples of campaigns, see Xinjiang Association for Science andTechnology, ‘‘Tekes County Launches School Activities To Resist Extremist Religious Thought
and Preaching’’ [Tekesi xian kaizhan dizhi zongjiao jiduan sixiang xuanjiang jin xuexiao
huodong], 27 March 13; Xinjiang Care for the Next Generation Work Committee, ‘‘Yanqi County
Launches County–Wide Religious Propaganda Educational Activities in County, City, and Township Schools To Stop Illegal Religious Activities’’ [Yanqi xian zai quan xian cheng xiang xuexiao
kaizhan zhizhi feifa zongjiao xuanchuan jiaoyu huodong], 5 April 13; Aksu Prefecture Education
Bureau, ‘‘Prefectural Education System Takes Numerous Measures and Carries Out Solid Propaganda Educational Work To Curb Illegal Religious Activities’’ [Diqu jiaoyu xitong duocuo bingju zhashi kaizhan zhizhi feifa zongjiao huodong xuanchuan jiaoyu gongzuo], 12 September 12;
Kong Xiaofeng, Bole City Retired Cadre Bureau, ‘‘In 2012, Propaganda Lectures Carried Out
by the Bole City Care for the Next Generation Work Committee To Curb Illegal Religious Activities Achieved Remarkable Results’’ [Bole shi guangongwei 2012 nian kaizhan zhizhi feifa
zongjiao huodong xuanjiang chengxiao xianzhu], reprinted in Bole City Party Construction, 25
December 12.
119 Zhu Kaili, ‘‘Kashgar Prefecture Female Büwi Successfully Complete Patriotic Thankfulness
Education’’ [Kashi diqu nu buwei yuanman wancheng aiguo gan’en jiaoyu], Tianshan Net, 24
December 12; Ma Dengchao, ‘‘Xinjiang, Kargilik County, Yitimukong Township Convenes Township-Wide Büwi Training’’ [Xinjiang yecheng xian yitimukong xiang zuzhi quan xiang buwei
jinxing peixun], China Ethnicity and Religion Net, 28 February 13.
120 For information on earlier steps to increase regulation of büwi and place them under state
control, see ‘‘Xinjiang Authorities Tighten Controls Over Muslim Women,’’ CECC China Human
Rights and Rule of Law Update, No. 5, 4 June 10, 2; ‘‘Xinjiang Authorities Train, Seek To Regulate Muslim Women Religious Figures,’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update,
No. 4, 2009, 2.
121 Zhu Kaili, ‘‘Kashgar Prefecture Female Büwi Successfully Complete Patriotic Thankfulness
Education’’ [Kashi diqu nu buwei yuanman wancheng aiguo gan’en jiaoyu], Tianshan Net, 24
December 12.
122 ‘‘Uyghur Youth Detained for Selling Touch Reading Pen for the Quran Has Been Released’’[Chushou ‘‘gulanjing’’ diandubi er zao ju weiwuer qingnian huoshi], Uyghur Online, 15 May 13;‘‘Young Uyghur Detained for Selling Quran Touch Reading Pens’’ [Weiwuer zu qingnian yin
shou ‘‘gulanjing’’ diandubi bei juliu], Uyghur Online, 23 April 13; ‘‘Official Says 21 Dead and2 Injured in Kashgar Terrorist Attack’’ [Guanfang cheng kashi kongbu xiji 21 si 2 shang], RadioFree Asia, 24 April 13.
123 Ibid.

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124 The 2001 Amendments to the 1994 XUAR Regulation on the Management of Religious Affairs mandate prior government approval for the sale and distribution of religious material. The
Amendments are unpublished but documented by Human Rights Watch and Human Rights in
China in their report ‘‘Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang,’’ 1 April
05. For the 1994 Regulation, see ‘‘Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Regulation on the Management of Religious Affairs’’ [Xinjiang weiwuer zizhiqu zongjiao shiwu guanli tiaoli], passed 16
July 94, effective 1 October 94.
125 For representative examples, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record
2009–00328 (Kurbanjan Semet), record 2009–00314 (Merdan Seyitakhun), and record 2008–
00014 (Alimjan Yimit).
126 ‘‘Jailed Uyghur Pastor Denied Visit,’’ Radio Free Asia, 23 January 13.
127 See CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 152.
128 Zhang Guijun, Bole City Ethnic and Religious Affairs Bureau, ‘‘Bole City Adopts a Numberof Measures To Prohibit Minors From Entering Places of Worship’’ [Bole shi caiqu duo xiang
cuoshi zhizhi weichengnian ren jinru zongjiao huodong changsuo], reprinted in Bole City Government, 25 July 13; Liu Zhenxiang, Dörbiljin (Emin) County Government, ‘‘Emin County
Adopts a Number of Measures To Safeguard the Ramadan Period’’ [Emin xian caiqu duo xiang
cuoshi quebao zhaiyue qijian], 5 July 13; CPC Hoboksar Mongol Autonomous County Committee
and Organization Department, ‘‘Hoboksar County Tiebukanwusan Township’s Three Measures
To Strictly Prohibit Minors From Entering Places of Worship’’ [Hebukesaier xian tiebukenwusan
xiang san xiang cuoshi yanli zhizhi weichengnian ren jinru zongjiao huodong changsuo], 29 July13.
129 ‘‘Uyghur Muslims Face New Religious Clampdown,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 July 13; Bill
Smith, ‘‘China’s Controls Curb Uighurs’ Ramadaan,’’ South African Press Association, reprinted
in IOL News, 12 July 13; Liu Haijun, Korgas (Huocheng) County Committee Office, ‘‘HuochengCounty Committee Office Cadres Take the Lead in Not Believing in Religion and Not Fasting’’[Huocheng xian weibian ban ganbu daitou bu xinjiao bu fengzhai], reprinted in Korgas Government, 12 July 13; Wen Fucheng, ‘‘Health Road Community Organizes Activity for All Party
Members To Sign Pledge To Deal With Illegal Religious Activities According to the Law andCurb Extremist Thinking’’ [Jiankang lu shequ zuzhi quanti dangyuan ganbu qianding yifa zhili
feifa zongjiao huodong, ezhi zongjiao jiduan sixiang chengnuo shu], Akqi (Aheqi) County Government, 16 July 13.
130 ‘‘A Uyghur With a Strong Religious Consciousness Was Expelled From His Public Post’’[Yi zongjiao yishi nonghou de weiwuer ren bei kaichu gongzhi], Uyghur Online, 3 August 13;‘‘Uyghur Fired for Fasting’’ [Yi weiwuer ren yin fengzhai er bei tingzhi gongzuo], Uyghur Online, 29 July 13.
131 ‘‘Uyghur Muslims Face New Religious Clampdown,’’ Radio Free Asia, 11 July 13; Uyghur
American Association, ‘‘UAA Condemns Shootings by Police During Religious Celebration,’’ 14
August 13; ‘‘Eid Eve Clashes Stoked by Gunshots Fired at Uyghur Girl,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12
August 13; ‘‘One Dead and Two Injured in a Uyghur–Han Conflict in Xinjiang, Authorities on
Alert for Eid Holiday’’ [Xinjiang wei han chongtu yi si liang shang rouzijie dangju tishengjiebei], Radio Free Asia, 5 August 13.
132 Graham Adams, ‘‘The Xinjiang Perspective: Part III,’’ Diplomat, 8 November 12.
133 For Commission analysis, see ‘‘Xinjiang Authorities Accelerate Promotion of Mandarin–Focused Bilingual Education,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 10 May 11.
134 Ibid.
135 ‘‘Uyghur Youths Forced Into Exile in Order To Protect Their Ethnic Identity’’ [Weiwuer
nianqing ren wei baohu minzu shenfen er bei po liuwang haiwai], Radio Free Asia, translated
and reprinted in Uyghur Online, 1 June 13; ‘‘Uyghurs Support Language Protest,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 27 October 10.
136 Zhang Xuehong, ‘‘Xinjiang Has Nearly 1.41 Million Students in Bilingual Education Classes, Teaching Personnel Are the Bottleneck’’ [Xinjiang shuangyu ban xuesheng yi you jin 141
wan ren, shizi shi pingjing], Yaxin Net, reprinted in People’s Daily, 24 December 12. At the endof 2012, there were reportedly 1.68 million students in the XUAR enrolled either in ‘‘bilingual
education’’ or as minkaohan students (minkaohan students are enrolled in longstanding programs, which are separate from ‘‘bilingual education,’’ that place ethnic minority students directly into Mandarin Chinese schooling). This figure reportedly represents a 19.2 percent increase over 2011, and comprised 66.6 percent of the ethnic minority student population enrolled
at the preschool to the secondary school level. See Cheng Yong, ‘‘Xinjiang: A Belief That ‘Bilingual Education’ Will Change One’s Fate, Parents Are Willing To Select Bilingual Kindergartens’’[Xinjiang: xiangxin ‘‘shuangyu’’ gai mingyun, fumu yuan xuan shuangyu youeryuan], China
News Service, reprinted in Sohu, 6 March 13.
137 Zhang Xuehong, ‘‘Xinjiang Has Nearly 1.41 Million Students in Bilingual Education Classes, Teaching Personnel Are the Bottleneck’’ [Xinjiang shuangyu ban xuesheng yi you jin 141
wan ren, shizi shi pingjing], Yaxin Net, reprinted in People’s Daily, 24 December 12.
138 See Cheng Yong, ‘‘Xinjiang: A Belief that ‘Bilingual Education’ Will Change One’s Fate,
Parents Are Willing To Select Bilingual Kindergartens’’ [Xinjiang: xiangxin ‘‘shuangyu’’ gai
mingyun, fumu yuan xuan shuangyu youeryuan], China News Service, reprinted in Sohu, 6March 13.
139 Ren Xixian, ‘‘Xinjiang’s Yili Ethnic Minority Family Planning Households Happily Receive‘Fewer Births, Faster Wealth’ Monetary Rewards’’ [Xinjiang yili shaoshu minzu jisheng hu xi
ling ‘‘shaosheng kuaifu’’ jiangli jin], Xinhua, reprinted in People’s Daily, 20 September 12; Liu
Chunyang, ‘‘Sixty-Five Minority Households in Tuokayi Township Happily Receive 400,000
Yuan in Fewer Births, Faster Wealth Rewards’’ [Tuokayi xiang 65 hu shaoshu minzu xilingshaosheng kuaifu jiangli jin 40 wan yuan], China News Service, 15 March 13. Under Article
15 of the XUAR’s Regulation on Population and Family Planning, rural ethnic minority families
are permitted to give birth to a maximum of three children, and urban ethnic minority couples
are permitted to give birth to two children. When one member of the couple is an urban resi-

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dent, urban birth limits apply. For information on reward programs in earlier years, see CECC,
2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 153.
140 Ren Xixian, ‘‘Xinjiang’s Yili Ethnic Minority Family Planning Households Happily Receive‘Fewer Births, Faster Wealth’ Monetary Rewards’’ [Xinjiang yili shaoshu minzu jisheng hu xi
ling ‘‘shaosheng kuaifu’’ jiangli jin], Xinhua, reprinted in People’s Daily, 20 September 12; Liu
Chunyang, ‘‘Sixty-Five Minority Households in Tuokayi Township Happily Receive 400,000
Yuan in Fewer Births, Faster Wealth Rewards’’ [Tuokayi xiang 65 hu shaoshu minzu xilingshaosheng kuaifu jiangli jin 40 wan yuan], China News Service, 15 March 13.
141 For more information on these types of reward mechanisms, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 153.
142 ‘‘Training Course for Northern Xinjiang Rural Resident Reproductive Health Religious Figures and Managers’’ [Beijiang nongmumin shengzhi jiankang zongjiao renshi he guanli renyuan
peixun ban], XUAR Population and Family Planning Commission, reprinted in Tianshan Net,
14 December 12; ‘‘Deputy Mayor Ma Zhongyong Visits Mosque That Is the Site of a Muslim
Reproductive Health Preaching Education Project’’ [Ma zhongyong fu shizhang weiwen musilin
shengzhi jiankang xuanchuan jiaoyu xiangmu dian qingzhensi], Wuzhong City Population andFamily Planning Bureau, 31 August 12. The project is also referred to as the ‘‘Herder Reproductive Health Project’’ (nongmumin shengzhi jiankang xiangmu). See ‘‘Key Work of the Prefectural
Family Planning Commission for 2013’’ [2013 nian diqu jihua shengyu xiehui gongzuo yaodian],
Altai Prefecture Population and Family Planning Commission, 22 March 13; ‘‘Autonomous Region Convenes Northern Xinjiang Herder Reproductive Health Project Religious Figures andManagers’ Training Course’’ [Zizhiqu juban beijiang pian nongmumin shengzhi jiankang
xiangmu zongjiao renshi he guanli renyuan peixun ban], XUAR Population and Family Planning
Commission, reprinted in XUAR Leading Group on the Rule of Law, 17 December 12.
143 Jiang Yan, ‘‘Muslim Reproductive Health Project Extends Benefits to Nearly 300,000 Muslim Masses in Yining County’’ [Musilin shengzhi jiankang xiangmu huiji yining xian jin 30 wan
musilin qunzhong], Tianshan Net, 29 September 11; XUAR Population and Family Planning
Commission, ‘‘Association Information—August 22’’ [Xiehui xinxi], 22 August 11.
144 ‘‘Autonomous Region Convenes Northern Xinjiang Herder Reproductive Health Project Religious Figures and Managers’ Training Course’’ [Zizhiqu juban beijiang pian nongmumin
shengzhi jiankang xiangmu zongjiao renshi he guanli renyuan peixun ban], XUAR Population
and Family Planning Commission, reprinted in XUAR Leading Group on the Rule of Law, 17
December 12; ‘‘Key Work of the Chinese Family Planning Association for 2013’’ [Zhongguo jihua
shengyu xiehui 2013 nian gongzuo yaodian], Guangyuan City Family Planning Association, 14
December 12; ‘‘Deputy Mayor Ma Zhongyong Visits Mosque That Is the Site of a Muslim Reproductive Health Preaching Education Project’’ [Ma zhongyong fu shizhang weiwen musilin
shengzhi jiankang xuanchuan jiaoyu xiangmu dian qingzhensi], Wuzhong City Population andFamily Planning Bureau, 31 August 12.

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Notes to Section V—Tibet
1 Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, ‘‘Press Statement,’’ 25 January 10. According to theJanuary 25 press statement, the Dalai Lama’s envoys would arrive in China ‘‘tomorrow’’ (i.e.,
January 26, 2010).
2 ‘‘Press Conference on Central Govt’s Contacts With Dalai Lama (Text),’’ China Daily, 11 February 10. After the ninth round of dialogue, Zhu Weiqun referred to the gap between the eighthand ninth rounds as ‘‘the longest interval after we resumed contact and talks in 2002.’’3 For more information on the Tibetan autonomous areas of China, see CECC, ‘‘Special Topic
Paper: Tibet 2008–2009,’’ 22 October 09, 22–24. In China there are 1 provincial-level area ofTibetan autonomy, 10 prefectural-level areas of Tibetan autonomy, and 2 county-level areas ofTibetan autonomy. The area of the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) (approximately 1.2 million
square kilometers), the 10 Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures (TAPs) (approximately 1.02 million
square kilometers), and the 2 Tibetan autonomous counties (TACs) (approximately 0.019 million
square kilometers) totals approximately 2.24 million square kilometers. The 10 TAPs make up
approximately 46 percent of the TAR/TAP/TAC total area. Steven Marshall and Susette Cooke,
Tibet Outside the TAR: Control, Exploitation and Assimilation: Development With Chinese
Characteristics (Washington, DC: Self-published CD–ROM, 1997), Table 7, citing multiple Chinese sources. Table 7 provides the following information. Tibet Autonomous Region (1.2 million
square kilometers, or 463,320 square miles). Qinghai province: Haibei (Tsojang) TAP (52,000
square kilometers, or 20,077 square miles), Hainan (Tsolho) TAP (41,634 square kilometers, or
16,075 square miles), Haixi (Tsonub) Mongol and Tibetan AP (325,787 square kilometers, or
125,786 square miles), Huangnan (Malho) TAP (17,901 square kilometers, or 6,912 square
miles), Guoluo (Golog) TAP (78,444 square kilometers, or 30,287 square miles), and Yushu(Yushul) TAP (197,791 square kilometers, or 76,367 square miles). Gansu province: Gannan(Kanlho) TAP (45,000 square kilometers, or 17,374 square miles) and Tianzhu (Pari) TAC (7,150
square kilometers, or 2,761 square miles). Sichuan province: Ganzi (Kardze) TAP (153,870
square kilometers, or 59,409 square miles), Aba (Ngaba) Tibetan and Qiang AP (86,639 square
kilometers, or 33,451 square miles), and Muli (Mili) TAC (11,413 square kilometers, or 4,407
square miles). Yunnan province: Diqing (Dechen) TAP (23,870 square kilometers, or 9,216
square miles). The table provides areas in square kilometers; conversion to square miles uses
the formula provided on the Web site of the U.S. Geological Survey: 1 square kilometer = 0.3861
square mile. For population data, see Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of
China, Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics, National Bureau of
Statistics, and Department of Economic Development, State Ethnic Affairs Commission (Beijing:
Ethnic Publishing House, September 2003), Tables 10–1, 10–4. According to China’s 2000 census
data, the Tibetan population of the TAR (approximately 2.43 million persons), the 10 TAPs (approximately 2.47 million persons), and the 2 TACs (approximately 0.11 million persons) totaled
approximately 5.01 million Tibetans. The Tibetan population of the 10 TAPs made up approximately 49 percent of the TAR/TAP/TAC total Tibetan population as of 2000. See also Tabulationon the 2010 Population Census of the People’s Republic of China, National Bureau of Statistics,
Department of Population and Employment Statistics, Population Census Office Under the StateCouncil, 23 April 13, Table 2–1. The table titled ‘‘Population by Age, Sex, and Nationality’’ listed
the national Tibetan population as 6,282,187. As of August 2013, the Commission had not observed detailed data based on the 2010 census for ethnic population in provincial-, prefectural-,and county-level administrative areas.
4 Office of the Spokesperson, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Statement by Special Coordinator for
Tibetan Issues Maria Otero,’’ 5 December 12. As of the statement date, Maria Otero also served
as Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights.
5 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘New Challenges to Tibet Policy From Inside China,’’ 27
June 13. ICT provided a translation of the Asia Weekly article and provided citation information: Shuo Jiming, ‘‘Beijing Expert: Resume Negotiations To Resolve the Tibet Issue,’’ Asia
Weekly, Vol. 27, No. 22 (June 2013).
6 Ibid.
7 The table included in this report—Tibetan Self-Immolation Believed To Focus on Political or
Religious Issues (September 2012–July 2013)—shows self-immolation numbers 52 to 89, a totalof 38 self-immolations, during October and November 2012.
8 ‘‘CPC Congress Concludes, New Central Committee Elected,’’ Xinhua, 14 November 12. According to the report, the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee’s 18th Congress openedon November 8, 2012, and concluded on November 14.
9 For reports providing specific detail on self-immolators’ protests during the period beginningon September 29, 2012 (in chronological order), see, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Second Tibetan Dies in Less Than a Week as Self-Immolations Continue in Tibet,’’ 5 October 12(Yungdrung ‘‘shouted slogans calling for freedom in Tibet and for the return of the Dalai Lamaand the Karmapa’’); ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Nagchu,’’ Voice of America, 4 October 12(Gudrub ‘‘shouted slogans calling for freedom for Tibet and return of the Tibetan spiritual leader’’); ‘‘Third Tibet Self-Immolation in One Week,’’ Voice of America, 6 October 12 (Sanggye
Gyatso ‘‘shouted for the swift return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet and called for religious andlanguage rights’’); ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn With Another Self-Immolation,’’ Phayul,
13 October 12 (Tamdrin Dorje ‘‘raised slogans for the return of His Holiness the Dalai Lamaand freedom in Tibet’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘ ‘These Chinese Are
Not Letting Us Live in Peace. It’s Better To Die, Better To Die,’ ’’ 29 October 12 (Lhamo Kyab‘‘shouted slogans calling for ‘independence for Tibet,’ ‘release of the 11th Panchen Lama,’ andthe ‘return of His Holiness the Dalai Lama’ ’’); ‘‘Retired Farmer Dies After Burning Himself inLabrang,’’ Voice of America, 22 October 12 (Dondrub ‘‘burned himself at a Stupa on the mainroad near the monastery’’); ‘‘Man Burns Near Police Station,’’ Radio Free Asia, 23 October 12(Dorje Rinchen ‘‘set himself on fire and died Tuesday in front of a police station’’); International
Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Two Self-Immolations in Nagchu,’’ 31 October 12 (Tsepo and Tenzin ‘‘set

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fire to themselves in a double self-immolation near a government building’’); Free Tibet, ‘‘Fourth
Tibetan This Week Sets Himself on Fire,’’ 26 October 12 (Lhamo Tseten ‘‘[set] himself on fireclose to a military camp and a local court building’’); ‘‘Mass Protest After Fatal Burning,’’ RadioFree Asia, 4 November 12 (Dorje Lhundrub ‘‘shouted slogans against Chinese rule and called
for the return of . . . the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Five Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 November 12 (Dorje, Samdrub, and Dorje Kyab ‘‘set themselves ablaze in front of a police stationin Ngaba town, calling for a free Tibet and the return of . . . the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Five Tibetans
Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 November 12 (Tamdrin Tso ‘‘died shouting slogans calling
for the return of the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘6 Tibetans Self-Immolate in Two Days,’’ Voice of America,
8 November 12 (Kalsang Jinpa ‘‘was reported to have raised a white banner with slogans thatcalled for Dalai Lama’s return and rights of all Tibetan people’’); ‘‘Tibetan Burnings Rise to 70,’’
Radio Free Asia, 10 November 12 (Gonpo Tsering called for ‘‘freedom for Tibetans, the returnof the Dalai Lama to Tibet and freedom of languages’’); ‘‘Two Tibetan Self-Immolaters Left Letters Behind,’’ Voice of America, 20 November 12 (Nyingkar Tashi left a letter that ‘‘urged unification of all Tibetans and urged Tibetans to learn and speak Tibetan, and called for freedom
for Tibet’’); ‘‘More Tibetan Burning Protests,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12 November 12 (Nyingchag Bum
self-immolated ‘‘in front of a Chinese government office building’’); ‘‘Two More Burn in Rebgong,’’
Radio Free Asia, 15 November 12 (Tenzin Drolma self-immolated ‘‘in the courtyard of a community temple’’); ‘‘Self-Immolations Continue in Rebkong, Two Die in Protest,’’ Voice of America,
15 November 12 (Tenzin Drolma ‘‘shouted slogans calling for return of the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘TwoTibetan Self-Immolaters Left Letters Behind,’’ Voice of America, 20 November 12 (Chagmo Kyi’s
letters ‘‘expressed her wish for equality of all nationalities and called on the new Chinese leader
Xi Jinping to meet with the Dalai Lama’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Young Tibetan
Father Self-Immolates in Tsekhog; Officials Warn Tibetans Not To Gather at Cremations,’’ 19
November 12 (Sangdrag Tsering ‘‘frequently spoke about the Dalai Lama not being allowed to
be in Tibet, that Tibetans have no rights, and that the Panchen Lama is still in prison’’); ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolations Continue, 25-Year-Old Dies in Protest,’’ Voice of America, 19 November
12 (Wangchen Norbu ‘‘shouted slogans calling for the return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet, releaseof the Panchen Lama and freedom for Tibet’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Man Dies of Burning Protest at a Gold Mining Site,’’ 21 November 12 (Tsering
Dondrub ‘‘set himself on fire . . . at a mining site. . . . wanted to highlight the hardship andsuffering of the local Tibetans harmed by mining activities’’); International Campaign for Tibet,‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days as Total in Tibet Reaches 81,’’ 24 November 12 (Tamdrin
Kyab reportedly had said previously there was ‘‘no reason to live without the Dalai Lama’s return to Tibet’’); ‘‘Tibetan Burns, Hails Dalai Lama,’’ Radio Free Asia, 24 November 12 (Tamdrin
Dorje ‘‘could be seen putting his hands together in prayer, shouting long life to the Dalai
Lama’’); ‘‘17-Year-Old Self-Immolator’s Last Note Calls for the Dalai Lama’s Return and Tibet’s
Independence,’’ Phayul, 28 November 12 (Sanggye Drolma left ‘‘a will, written in the form of
a poem’’ expressing ‘‘her belief in the swift return of . . . the Dalai Lama and Tibet’s independence’’); ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days, Total Reaches 84,’’ Voice of America, 26 November
12 (Sanggye Drolma self-immolated ‘‘in front of the [local] Chinese government office’’); ‘‘Breaking: 18-Year-Old Sets Self on Fire, Third Self-Immolation in Two Days,’’ Phayul, 26 November
12 (Konchog Tsering self-immolated near the same mining site where Tsering Dondrub self-immolated on November 20); ‘‘Father of Three Dies After Self-Immolation,’’ Voice of America, 26
November 12 (Gonpo Tsering ‘‘shouted slogans calling for freedom for Tibet, human rights in
Tibet and return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet’’); ‘‘ ‘May the Sun of Happiness Shine on Tibet,’a Self-Immolator’s Last Words,’’ Phayul, 29 November 12 (Kalsang Kyab’s letter to Tibetans inIndia: ‘‘I am setting myself on fire for the sake of Tibet.’’); ‘‘Tibetan Teenager Burns Himself
to Death,’’ Voice of America, 28 November 12 (Sanggye Tashi ‘‘shouted slogans calling for returnof the Dalai Lama and release of the Panchen Lama and all Tibetan political prisoners’’); ‘‘TwoTibetans Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November 12 (Bande Kharcalled for ‘‘the return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet, the release of all Tibetan political prisoners,
freedom of religion and language and protection of Tibet’s fragile environment’’); ‘‘Two Tibetans
Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November 12 (Tsering Namgyal ‘‘[set]himself on fire near the local government office’’); ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolates in Golok,’’ Voice ofAmerica, 3 December 12 (Lobsang Gedun ‘‘raised slogans with his hands clasped in prayers
while engulfed in flames’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Tibetans Self-Immolate in
Two Days During Important Buddhist Anniversary: Images of Troops in Lhasa as Tibetans
Pray,’’ 10 December 12 (Pema Dorje shouted that the Dalai Lama should be allowed to returnto Tibet, and called for the unity of the Tibetan people); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and
Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Religious Festival Marked by Two Self-Immolation Death,’’ 9 December 12(Konchog Phelgye folded his hands in prayer position and ‘‘shouted slogans for the long life of. . . the Dalai Lama and return . . . to Tibet’’); ‘‘Tibetan Girl Self-Immolates,’’ Radio Free Asia,
10 December 12 (Wangchen Kyi, or Rinchen Kyi, called ‘‘for the long life of . . . the Dalai
Lama’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Authorities Bar Customary Religious Rituals To Enforce Quick Cremation of Tibetan Who Self-Immolated in Amchok,’’ 15 January 13 (video ofTsering Tashi ‘‘depicts him lying on the street in flames, lifting his hands into a prayer positionand saying the name of the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Breaking: Monk in Ngaba Becomes 100th to SelfImmolate Under China’s Rule,’’ Phayul, 13 February 13 (Lobsang Namgyal, while burning,‘‘shouted slogans for the long life of . . . the Dalai Lama as he ran towards the local police
building’’); Free Tibet, ‘‘Cross-Legged in Flames: Another Protest in Tibet,’’ 17 February 13(Namlha Tsering self-immolated in the main road ‘‘opposite the . . . county cinema hall’’); ‘‘A
Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Palung, Amdo Tsoshar (Qinghai),’’ Voice of America, 24 February 13 (Phagmo Dondrub ‘‘set fire to himself near or within the grounds of [Jakhyung Monastery]’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate at Monasteries During
Prayer Ceremonies in Amdo,’’ 25 February 13 (Tsezung Kyab self-immolated ‘‘in front of themain temple of Shitsang Gonsar monastery’’); ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolates in Ngaba County,’’ RadioFree Asia, 26 February 13 (Sangdrag self-immolated ‘‘in a public area of the Ngaba county cen-

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ter’’); ‘‘Tibetan Monk Dies in Self-Immolation on Sensitive Date for Amdo Ngaba,’’ Voice ofAmerica, 16 March 13 (‘‘poured gasoline over himself near his residence . . . and after igniting
himself . . . walked towards the western gate of the monastery’’); ‘‘Tibetan Mother of Four Diesin Self-Immolation Protest,’’ Voice of America, 24 March 13 (‘‘set herself on fire . . . near
Zamthang Jonang Monastery’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Burning
Protests Continue Against Chinese Repression in Tibet,’’ 30 March 13 (Konchog Tenzin ‘‘set himself on fire . . . near his monastery’’); ‘‘Thousands Gather After Young Tibetan Mother Self-Immolates,’’ Radio Free Asia, 16 April 13 (Chugtso ‘‘self-immolated near . . . Jonang monastery’’);Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Two Tibetan Monks Die of Self-Immolation
Protest,’’ 25 April 13 (Lobsang Dawa and Konchog Oezer ‘‘died yesterday after setting themselves on fire on the eve of the 24th birthday of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima, Tibet’s XIth Panchen
Lama’’); ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Protest Against China,’’ Voice of America, 29 May 13(Tenzin Sherab ‘‘criticized Chinese policies on Tibetans and expressed concern about Tibetan religion and culture’’ prior to his self-immolation); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Teenage Monk Dies of Burning Protest; Fate of Body Unknown,’’ 22 July 13 (monks saw
Kunchog Sonam ‘‘on fire with both his hands clasped in a praying gesture’’); ‘‘Five Tibetans Detained in Connection With Self-Immolation,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 July 13 (Konchog Sonam was‘‘crying out for Tibetan freedom’’ as he burned).
10 For Commission analysis of Chinese government regulatory intrusion upon Tibetan Buddhist affairs, see, e.g., ‘‘Special Report: Tibetan Monastic Self-Immolations Appear To Correlate
With Increasing Repression of Freedom of Religion,’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of
Law Update, No. 1, 24 January 12; ‘‘Tibetan Buddhist Affairs Regulations Taking Effect in Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 10 March 11;‘‘New Legal Measures Assert Unprecedented Control Over Tibetan Buddhist Reincarnation,’’Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 22 August 07. For measures issued by China’s
central government, see, e.g., State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures for Evaluating the Credentials of and Appointing Monastic Teachers in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan
fojiao simiao jing shi zige pingding he pinren banfa], passed 25 November 12, effective 3 December 12; State Administration for Religious Affairs, Management Measures for Tibetan Buddhist
Monasteries [Zangchuan fojiao simiao guanli banfa], passed 29 September 10, effective 1 November 10; State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures on the Management of the Reincarnation of Living Buddhas in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan fojiao huofo zhuanshi guanli banfa],
passed 13 July 07, issued 18 July 07, effective 1 September 07.
11 During the 2013 reporting year, the Commission did not observe indications that dialogue
between the Chinese government and the Dalai Lama’s representatives might soon resume.
12 For summary information on Tibetan self-immolation, periodic updates are available on theCommission’s Web site (www.cecc.gov). As of July 20, 2013, the following numbers of Tibetan
self-immolations reported or believed to focus on political and religious issues took place in thefollowing 10 prefectural-level areas of Tibetan autonomy (arranged in descending order by number of self-immolations): Aba (Ngaba) Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan province, 51 self-immolations; Gannan (Kanlho) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP), Gansu province, 26 self-immolations; Huangnan (Malho) TAP, Qinghai province, 16 self-immolations; Ganzi(Kardze) TAP, Sichuan, 5 self-immolations; Yushu (Yulshul) TAP, Qinghai, 5 self-immolations;
Naqu (Nagchu) prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), 4 self-immolations; Lhasa municipality, TAR, 3 self-immolations; Guoluo (Golog) TAP, Qinghai, 2 self-immolations; Changdu(Chamdo) prefecture, TAR, 1 self-immolation; Haixi (Tsonub) Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous
Prefecture, Qinghai, 1 self-immolation. In addition, 2 Tibetans self-immolated in Haidong prefecture, Qinghai, which is not an area of Tibetan autonomy. (The preceding information does notinclude Yushu TAP self-immolation property protests by females Dekyi Choezom and Pasang
Lhamo on June 27 and September 13, 2012, respectively, and an unidentified woman in March
2013; and the April 6, 2012, deaths of a Tibetan Buddhist abbot, Athub, and a nun, Atse, ina Ganzi TAP house fire initially reported as accidental and later as self-immolation. The Commission continues to monitor reports on their deaths.)
13 ‘‘Commentary: Let Not the Burning Desire of ‘Tibet Independence’ Consume the Good andKind People’’ [Pinglun: wu rang zangdu de yuhuo fenshao liangshan de renmin], China News
Service, 10 December 12 (translated in Open Source Center, 11 December 12). The editorial refers to ‘‘the Dalai and the new leader of the government-in-exile’’ and states that self-immolation
is a ‘‘political conspiracy’’ to split China.
14 The following three sources provide examples of official positions that continue to exacerbate tensions with Tibetans in the context of significant current issues. Chen Feiyu, ‘‘ ‘Five Continued Focuses,’ Realize Greater Development (Under Guidance of Scientific Development Concept)—Interview With Tibet CPC Secretary Chen Quanguo’’ [‘‘Wu ge jixu zhuoli’’ shixian gengda fazhan (zai kexue fazhan guan zhiyin xia)—fang xizang zizhiqu dangwei shuji chen quanguo],
People’s Daily, 4 September 12 (translated in Open Source Center, 21 September 12). According
to the article, TAR Party Secretary Chen Quanguo listed accomplishments including: [regarding
religion] ‘‘improved and upgraded the work to ensure that all monasteries and temples have amanagement organization, a party organization, a leading group, a contingent, duties and functions, and a mechanism’’; [regarding security] ‘‘established 698 police stations for providing service to the people, with a coverage area of 300–500 meters for each station. In this way, we canensure that police officers will arrive at the scene in three to five minutes when an unexpected
incident occurs’’; [regarding compulsory settlement and resettlement] ‘‘carried out in a down-toearth way the comfortable housing project for farmers and herdsmen. We will ensure that all
farmers and herdsmen can live in safe and comfortable houses by the end of 2013.’’ Wu Bin,‘‘Qiang Wei Conducts Fact-Finding on Safeguarding Stability in Hualong County, Emphasizes
Need To Consolidate Achievements in Ad Hoc Struggle Against Self-Immolation, Create a Good
Social Environment for Promoting Construction and Development’’ [Qiang wei zai hualong xian
diaoyan weihu wending gongzuo shi qiangdiao gonggu fan zifen zhuanxiang douzheng
chengguo—wei zhua jianshe cu fazhan yingzao lianghao de shehui huanjing], Qinghai Daily, 2298
March 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 7 March 13). According to the article, QinghaiParty Secretary Qiang Wei issued guidance regarding: [the political environment] ‘‘thoroughly
conduct the education on patriotism, legal system, and gratitude, and develop a dense social atmosphere of ardently loving the party and the state, the nationality, and the homeland’’; and[handling the self-immolation crisis] ‘‘give prominence to ‘strictness,’ dealing harsh blows at thepeople who support, incite, and abet self-immolation.’’ ‘‘Aba Prefecture Governor: The Chief
Cause of Self-Immolations Is the 14th Dalai Lama’’ [Aba zhou zhouzhang: zifen zong genyuan
zai shisi shi dalai lama], Xinhua, 8 March 13, reprinted in People’s Daily. According to the article, Wu Zegang, Governor of the Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, stated explicitly that the 14th Dalai Lama (shisi dalai lama) is the root (genyuan) of problems in Tibet.
15 Office of the Spokesperson, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Statement by Special Coordinator
for Tibetan Issues Maria Otero,’’ 5 December 12. As of the statement date, Maria Otero also
served as Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights.
16 ‘‘Foreign Ministry Spokesman: China Expresses Strong Dissatisfaction, Resolute Opposition
Over Statement Issued by the United States on Tibet-Related Issues’’ [Waijiaobu fayanren: dui
meifang jiu she zang wenti fabiao de shengming biaoshi qianglie buman, jianjue fandui],
Xinhua, 7 December 12 (translated in Open Source Center, 7 December 12).
17 Ibid.
18 ‘‘Gansu Police Crack Homicide Case of Self-Immolation Organized and Masterminded by
Members of the ‘Tibetan Youth Congress’ of the Dalai Clique’’ [Gansu jingfang zhenpo dalai
jituan ‘‘zangqing hui’’ chengyuan zuzhi cehua zifen sharen’an], Xinhua, 15 January 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 15 January 13; available in Chinese on China News Service). The
article describes October 6, 2012, self-immolator Sanggye Gyatso as having committed ‘‘repeatedacts of theft,’’ having been ‘‘without a job for a long time,’’ and having had ‘‘improper relations
with several women.’’ Li Huizi et al., ‘‘Families Suffer Amid Tibetan Flames of Deceit,’’ China
Daily, 5 February 13. The article refers to the November 29, 2012, self-immolator Tsering
Namgyal (or Tsering Tashi) as ‘‘Tsekho’’ and notes that he ‘‘did not get along well with his wife,’’attempted to borrow money from his father to start a business but was instead denied the loanand ‘‘scolded’’ by his father, who ‘‘was worried his alcoholic son would squander the money on
excessive gambling and drinking.’’ Li Huizi and Jiang Weichao, ‘‘(China Focus) Lies and Facts
Behind the Flames: An Investigation of Self-Immolation Incidents in the Tibetan Area of Southern Gansu’’ [(Zhongguo jujiao) huoyan beihou de huangyan yu zhenxiang: gannan zang qu zifen
diaocha], Xinhua, 31 January 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 12 February 13). The reportrefers to the August 7, 2012, self-immolator Drolkar Tso as ‘‘Zhang Kecao’’ and notes that her‘‘left leg was handicapped,’’ she was ‘‘at odds with her husband and her husband’s family,’’ and‘‘often blamed and bullied by her mother-in-law.’’ ‘‘70 Arrested in Qinghai Over Self-Immolations,’’ Xinhua, 8 February 13. The article refers to November 8, 2012, self-immolator Kalsang
Jinpa, a former Rongbo Monastery monk, and notes that he ‘‘resumed secular life after fallingin love with a woman, but later discovered she was a prostitute and parted with her.’’ ‘‘Prefecture, County Public Security Authorities Successfully Solve Case of Intentional Homicide, Burning Body,’’ Aba Daily, 19 March 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 21 March 13). The article
refers to March 13 (or March 12) self-immolator Konchog Wangmo as ‘‘Guangqiu Ema’’ andnotes that her husband, ‘‘criminal suspect’’ Drolma Kyab, ‘‘got into an intense fight with his
wife’’; ‘‘strangled the neck of [his wife] with his hands’’; ‘‘brought the body of [his wife] to thewest wall of [a nearby building]’’; and ‘‘used gasoline to burn the body.’’
19 Li Huizi et al., ‘‘Families Suffer Amid Tibetan Flames of Deceit,’’ China Daily, 5 February
13. The article refers to December 2, 2012, self-immolator Sungdu Kyab as ‘‘Sangdegye’’ and observes, ‘‘Copycat self-immolations spread in the border area of Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu
provinces last year, . . . .’’ The article described Sungdu Kyab as ‘‘introverted,’’ someone who
watched ‘‘Voice of America Tibetan-language programs,’’ and ‘‘believed in the Dalai Lamaclique.’’20 Ibid. The China Daily report contains four subheadings: ‘‘Families suffer amid Tibetan
flames of deceit,’’ ‘‘Copycat suicides,’’ ‘‘Loss of life,’’ and ‘‘Terrorism.’’ The first three subheadings
contain specific details about specific self-immolations that the article represents as substantiating the points it seeks to make. The subsection on ‘‘Terrorism’’ contains no specific information regarding terrorism for any of the self-immolations, nor any information on terrorism except
to provide an apparent representation of language in the 1994 UN Declaration on Measures to
Eliminate International Terrorism on what constitutes terrorism: ‘‘criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the public, a group of persons or particular communities
for political purposes are not justifiable under any circumstances, no matter the considerationsof a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may
be invoked to justify them.’’ Li Huizi and Jiang Weichao, ‘‘(China Focus) Lies and Facts Behind
the Flames: An Investigation of Self-Immolation Incidents in the Tibetan Area of SouthernGansu’’ [(Zhongguo jujiao) huoyan beihou de huangyan yu zhenxiang: gannan zang qu zifen
diaocha], Xinhua, 31 January 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 12 February 13). The report
does not provide any information about any of the self-immolators supporting the depiction ofthem as ‘‘terrorists,’’ but it provides a representation of language in the 1994 UN Declaration
on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism that is briefer than that in the preceding citation: ‘‘criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public,a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable.’’ Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Alienates, Angers Tibetan Students With Political Education,’’ 29 November 12. According to the TCHRD report, in addition
to remarks on language policy, the official booklet characterized Tibetan self-immolators as ‘‘terrorists’’ and the Dalai Lama as ‘‘a political itinerant.’’
21 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 157–160.
22 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Second Tibetan Dies in Less Than a Week as
Self-Immolations Continue in Tibet,’’ 5 October 12 (provides the name ‘‘Yangdang’’); ‘‘One More

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Immolation in Tibet, Number Escalates to 52,’’ Tibet Express, 29 September 12 (provides thename ‘‘Yongdrung’’); ‘‘Plea To Stop Burnings Ignored,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 September 12.
23 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Nagchu,’’ Voice of America, 4 October 12; ‘‘IndiaEducated Tibetan Dies in Self-Immolation Protest,’’ Tibet Express, 4 October 12; International
Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Second Tibetan Dies in Less Than a Week as Self-Immolations Continue
in Tibet,’’ 5 October 12.
24 See, e.g., ‘‘Third Tibet Self-Immolation in One Week,’’ Voice of America, 6 October 12 (provides the name ‘‘Sangay Gyatso’’); ‘‘Third Burning Protest in a Week,’’ Radio Free Asia, 6 October 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn, Second Self-Immolation in Three Days,’’ Phayul,
6 October 12.
25 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Grandfather of Tibetan Reincarnate Lama Dies
After Self-Immolation Today,’’ 13 October 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn With AnotherSelf-Immolation,’’ Phayul, 13 October 12; ‘‘Tibetan Man Dies After Self-Immolation in Protest
Against China,’’ Tibet Post International, 13 October 12.
26 See, e.g., ‘‘Burning Tibetan Charges at Police,’’ Radio Free Asia, 20 October 12; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘ ‘These Chinese Are Not Letting Us Live in Peace. It’s
Better To Die, Better To Die,’ ’’ 29 October 12.
27 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Self-Immolation at Tibet’s Labrang Monastery,’’ 22 October 12; ‘‘Retired Farmer Dies After Burning Himself in Labrang,’’ Voice of America, 22 October 12; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Elderly Tibetan Nomad
Burns Himself Alive in Protest,’’ 23 October 12.
28 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Villager Self-Immolates in NW China,’’ Xinhua, 23 October 12 (reprinted
in China Daily); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Farmer Self-Immolates inLabrang,’’ 23 October 12; ‘‘Man Burns Near Police Station,’’ Radio Free Asia, 23 October 12.
29 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Two Self-Immolations in Nagchu,’’ 31 October
12; ‘‘Cousins in Burning Protest,’’ Radio Free Asia, 27 October 12.
30 See, e.g., Free Tibet, ‘‘Fourth Tibetan This Week Sets Himself on Fire,’’ 26 October 12;‘‘Fourth Burning in a Week,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 October 12.
31 See, e.g., ‘‘Thousands Attend Tibetan Self-Immolator’s Funeral,’’ Phayul, 1 November 12(provides the name ‘‘Thubwang Kyab’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Second Tibetan SelfImmolates Today in Sangchu,’’ 26 October 12 (provides the name ‘‘Tsewang Kyab’’); ‘‘2nd SelfImmolation From Sangchu Country Today,’’ Voice of America, 26 October 12 (provides the name‘‘Tsepak Kyab’’).
32 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Artist Sets Himself on Fire in Tibet,’’ Voice of America, 4 November 12;‘‘Mass Protest After Fatal Burning,’’ Radio Free Asia, 4 November 12; International Campaign
for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Farmer Self-Immolates in Rebkong,’’ 4 November 12.
33 See, e.g., Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Three Teenage Monks Burn
Themselves Alive in Ngaba,’’ 8 November 12; ‘‘Five Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia,
7 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Three Teenagers in Triple Self-Immolation Protest in Tibet,’’ Phayul,
7 November 12.
34 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolations Escalate in Number
on Eve of China’s Party Congress; Tibetans Gather En Masse in Rebkong,’’ 8 November 12;‘‘Five Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Burns on Eveof Crucial China Meet,’’ Phayul, 7 November 12.
35 See, e.g., ‘‘Five Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 November 12 (does not provide
a name for the self-immolator); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Diesof Untreated Burns in Police Custody in Nagchu,’’ 28 November 12; ‘‘Kunchok Kyab Passes
Away, Self-Immolation Death Toll Reaches 76,’’ Phayul, 3 December 12.
36 See, e.g., ‘‘6 Tibetans Self-Immolate in Two Days,’’ Voice of America, 8 November 12; ‘‘Troop
Buildup After New Burning,’’ Radio Free Asia, 8 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Another Self-Immolation Today, Six Tibetans Burn in Two Days,’’ Phayul, 8 November 12.
37 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Villager Dies in Self-Immolation in NW China,’’ Xinhua, 10 November
12, reprinted in China Internet Information Center, 11 November 12; ‘‘Tibetan Burnings Riseto 70,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 November 12; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Death of Popular,
Educated Young Tibetan After Self-Immolation Confirmed by Chinese Media,’’ 13 November 12.
38 See, e.g., ‘‘Two Tibetan Self-Immolaters Left Letters Behind,’’ Voice of America, 20 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Nyingkar Tashi’’); ‘‘More Tibetan Burning Protests,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 12 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Nyingkar Tashi’’); International Campaign for Tibet,‘‘Thousands of Tibetans Mobilize in Reaction to Self-Immolations Despite Security Build Up,’’
14 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Nyangkar Tashi’’).
39 See, e.g., ‘‘More Tibetan Burning Protests,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12 November 12; ‘‘Two Tibetans Die After Self-Immolation in Rebkong,’’ Voice of America, 12 November 12; International
Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Thousands of Tibetans Mobilize in Reaction to Self-Immolations Despite
Security Build Up,’’ 14 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Nyangchag Bum’’).
40 See, e.g., ‘‘Self-Immolations Continue in Rebkong, Two Die in Protest,’’ Voice of America,
15 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Dangzin Dolma’’); ‘‘Two More Burn in Rebgong,’’ RadioFree Asia, 15 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibetan Woman Self-Immolates, Two Fiery Deaths in
a Day,’’ Phayul, 15 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Tangzin Dolma’’).
41 See, e.g., ‘‘Self-Immolations Continue in Rebkong, Two Die in Protest,’’ Voice of America,
15 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Kabum Gyal’’); ‘‘Breaking: Young Tibetan Burns Self to
Death,’’ Phayul, 15 November 12; ‘‘Two More Burn in Rebgong,’’ Radio Free Asia, 15 November
12.
42 See, e.g., ‘‘Two Tibetan Self-Immolaters Left Letters Behind,’’ Voice of America, 20 November 12 (describes letter left behind); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan
Woman Dies of Burning Protest in Rebkong,’’ 17 November 12; International Campaign for
Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolation in Rebkong,’’ 17 November 12.
43 See, e.g., ‘‘Another Tibetan Self-Immolates in Rebkong,’’ Voice of America, 17 November 12;
International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Young Tibetan Father Self-Immolates in Tsekhog; Officials

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Warn Tibetans Not To Gather at Cremations,’’ 19 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To
Burn, Man Sets Self on Fire,’’ Phayul, 18 November 12.
44 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolations Continue, 25-Year-Old Dies in Protest,’’ Voice of America, 19 November 12; ‘‘Third Burning in Three Days,’’ Radio Free Asia, 19 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn, 15th Self-Immolation in November,’’ Phayul, 20 November 12.
45 See, e.g., Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Man Dies of Burning
Protest at a Gold Mining Site,’’ 21 November 12; ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Amchok,Amdo,’’ Voice of America, 20 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Another Tibetan Burns Self to Death,Toll Reaches 78,’’ Phayul, 20 November 12.
46 See, e.g., ‘‘A 18-Year-Old Tibetan Self-Immolates in Rebkong, Amdo,’’ Voice of America, 22
November 12; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days as Total
in Tibet Reaches 81,’’ 24 November 12; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Burnings Continue as China Enforces Ban on Self-Immolation,’’ 27 November 12 (provides
the name ‘‘Lubum Tsering’’ and age as 19).
47 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days as Total
in Tibet Reaches 81,’’ 24 November 12 (self-immolated at night); ‘‘Another Tibetan Self-Immolates on Same Day,’’ Voice of America, 22 November 12; ‘‘Self-Immolation Toll Hits 80,’’ RadioFree Asia, 23 November 12.
48 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days as Total
in Tibet Reaches 81,’’ 24 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Another Tibetan Self-Immolates, Seven
Deaths in Seven Days,’’ Phayul, 24 November 12; ‘‘Tibetan Burns, Hails Dalai Lama,’’ RadioFree Asia, 24 November 12.
49 See, e.g., ‘‘17-Year-Old Self-Immolator’s Last Note Calls for the Dalai Lama’s Return andTibet’s Independence,’’ Phayul, 28 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Sangay Dolma’’); ‘‘Three
Self-Immolations in Two Days, Total Reaches 84,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12; ‘‘Breaking:Tibetan Nun Passes Away in Fiery Protest, Toll Jumps to 83,’’ Phayul, 26 November 12.
50 See, e.g., ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days, Total Reaches 84,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibetan Student Sets Self on Fire, Calls for Dalai Lama’s Return,’’
Phayul, 26 November 12; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Self-Immolations by Tibetans,’’ lastvisited 1 May 13.
51 See, e.g., ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days, Total Reaches 84,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12; ‘‘Breaking: 18-Year-Old Sets Self on Fire, Third Self-Immolation in Two Days,’’
Phayul, 26 November 12; ‘‘Four Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 November 12.
52 See, e.g., ‘‘Father of Three Dies After Self-Immolation,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12;‘‘Breaking: Father of Three Burns Self to Death, Third Self-Immolation in a Day Takes Toll to85,’’ Phayul, 26 November 12; ‘‘Four Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 November 12.
53 See, e.g., ‘‘ ‘May the Sun of Happiness Shine on Tibet,’ a Self-Immolator’s Last Words,’’
Phayul, 29 November 12 (letter reportedly sent to India); ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn,
Tibetan Man Set Self on Fire,’’ Phayul, 27 November 12; ‘‘Tibetan Student Protesters Held,’’
Radio Free Asia, 27 November 12.
54 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Teenager Burns Himself to Death,’’ Voice of America, 28 November 12(provides the name ‘‘Sangay Tashi’’); ‘‘Breaking: Teenaged Tibetan Sets Self on Fire, Sixth SelfImmolation in Last Three Days,’’ Phayul, 28 November 12; ‘‘Tibetan Student Protests Spread,’’Radio Free Asia, 28 November 12.
55 See, e.g., ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November
12 (provides the name ‘‘Bendey Khar’’); ‘‘Breaking: Young Tibetan Burns Self to Death, Mass
Prayer Service for Self-Immolators in Eastern Tibet,’’ Phayul, 29 November 12; ‘‘Two More SelfImmolations,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 November 12.
56 See, e.g., ‘‘Breaking: Tibetan Man Burns Self to Death, Toll Climbs to 89,’’ Phayul, 29 November 12; ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November 12;‘‘Two More Self-Immolations,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 November 12 (provides the name ‘‘Tsering
Tashi’’).
57 See, e.g., ‘‘Kunchok Kyab Passes Away, Self-Immolation Death Toll Reaches 76,’’ Phayul,
3 December 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Self-Immolation Toll Reaches 90, Fears Over Major Protests
in Barkham,’’ Phayul, 30 November 12; ‘‘Self-Immolations Hit 90 Mark,’’ Radio Free Asia, 30
November 12.
58 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolator May Lose Both Legs, Battles for Life,’’ Phayul, 27 December 12; ‘‘17-Year-Old Tibetan Self-Immolates in Bora,’’ Voice of America, 2 December 12 (provides the name ‘‘Songdhi Kyab’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan
Man Hospitalised After Latest Protest Self-Immolation,’’ 3 December 12.
59 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolates in Golok,’’ Voice of America, 3 December 12; ‘‘Self-Immolator Leaves Message of ‘Unity and Solidarity’ Among Tibetans,’’ Phayul, 5 December 12; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Self-Immolations by Tibetans,’’ last visited 1 May 13 (provides
name ‘‘Lobsang Geleg’’).
60 See, e.g., ‘‘Breaking: Burning Tibetan Calls for Independence, Two Self-Immolations in aDay,’’ Phayul, 8 December 12; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Tibetans Self-Immolate
in Two Days During Important Buddhist Anniversary: Images of Troops in Lhasa as Tibetans
Pray,’’ 10 December 12; ‘‘Two Young Tibetans Burn,’’ Radio Free Asia, 8 December 12.
61 See, e.g., ‘‘Two Young Tibetans Burn,’’ Radio Free Asia, 8 December 12; Tibetan Centre for
Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Religious Festival Marked by Two Self-Immolation
Death,’’ 9 December 12 (Konchog Phelgye); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Tibetans
Self-Immolate in Two Days During Important Buddhist Anniversary: Images of Troops in Lhasa
as Tibetans Pray,’’ 10 December 12.
62 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Girl Self-Immolates,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 December 12 (Rinchen Kyi);‘‘A 17-Year-Old Tibetan Girl Dies After Self-Immolation in Amdo Tsekock,’’ Voice of America,
9 December 12; ‘‘Breaking: Tibetan Schoolgirl Burns Self to Death, Says, ‘Don’t Want Chinese
Authorities To Take Away My Dead Body,’ ’’ Phayul, 9 December 12 (‘‘Bhenchen Kyi’’).

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63 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Authorities Bar Customary Religious Rituals
To Enforce Quick Cremation of Tibetan Who Self-Immolated in Amchok,’’ 15 January 13; ‘‘Chinese Security Official Force Hasty Cremation of Tibetan Self-Immolator,’’ Voice of America, 13January 13; ‘‘Breaking: Tibetan Youth Sets Self on Fire, Toll Rises to 96 in Tibet,’’ Phayul, 12January 13.
64 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Chinese State Media Blame ‘Dalai Clique’ andAnnounce Detentions in Aggressive Security Drive Against Tibetan Self-Immolations,’’ 18 January 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Chinese Police Confiscate Body ofSecond Tibetan Self-Immolator,’’ 21 January 13; ‘‘Father of Two Self Immolates in Ngaba,’’ Voiceof America, 18 January 13.
65 See, e.g., Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Intensifies Ban on Religious Gatherings After Third Self-Immolation,’’ 25 January 13; ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates inBora,’’ Voice of America, 22 January 13; ‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn, 98th Self-Immolation in Tibet,’’ Phayul, 22 January 13.
66 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Sets Fire to Himself in Kathmandu; in Tibet,
100th Self-Immolation,’’ 13 February 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy,‘‘Kirti Monastery Monk Dies of Self-Immolation Protest in Ngaba,’’ 14 February 13; ‘‘Breaking:Monk in Ngaba Becomes 100th To Self-Immolate Under China’s Rule,’’ Phayul, 13 February 13.
67 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Further Self-Immolation in Tibet Despite
Harsh Legal Measures To Deter Protests; Tibetan Who Set Fire to Himself in Nepal Dies,’’ 14
February 13; ‘‘Burnings Rage On Despite Controls,’’ Radio Free Asia, 14 February 13.
68 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Farmer From Nomadic Area Sets Fire
to Himself in Labrang,’’ 17 February 13; Free Tibet, ‘‘Cross-Legged in Flames: Another Protest
in Tibet,’’ 17 February 12; ‘‘New Burning Protest in Tibet,’’ Phayul, 18 February 13.
69 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Two Tibetan Teenagers Set Themselves on Firein Ngaba,’’ 20 February 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Two Teenage
Tibetans Die of Self-Immolation Protest,’’ 20 February 13.
70 See, e.g., ‘‘ ‘Without Independence Tibet Will Be Annihilated,’ a Self-Immolator’s Last
Words,’’ Phayul, 9 May 13; ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolator Phagmo Dhondup Dies,’’ Phayul, 18 April
13; ‘‘A Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Palung, Amdo Tsoshar (Qinghai),’’ Voice of America, 24
February 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate at Monasteries
During Prayer Ceremonies in Amdo,’’ 25 February 13.
71 See, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate at Monasteries
During Prayer Ceremonies in Amdo,’’ 25 February 13; ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Luchu,
in Gansu Province,’’ Voice of America, 25 February 13; ‘‘Breaking: Two Fiery Protests in as
Many Days, Tibetan Self-Immolator Passes Away,’’ Phayul, 25 February 13.
72 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolates in Ngaba County,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 February 13; ‘‘Tibetan Monk Sets Himself on Fire, 107th Self-Immolation,’’ Voice of America, 26 February 13;
International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Self-Immolations by Tibetans,’’ last visited 1 May 13.
73 See, e.g., Yeshe Choesang, ‘‘Two Self-Immolation Protests in Tibet, Pushed the Toll to 109,’’
Tibet Post International, 17 March 13 (‘‘burned herself . . . around 11.00 pm in the night’’;‘‘staged the self-immolation protest at [a] Chinese official building’’); International Campaign for
Tibet, ‘‘Two Self-Immolations in Tibet: Kirti Monk on Crackdown Anniversary and Woman in
Dzoge,’’ 18 March 13 (age 31; ‘‘set fire to herself at her home and ran into the street’’); ‘‘Chinese
Police Deny Self-Immolation of Tibetan Woman,’’ Voice of America, 19 March 13 (police say ‘‘she
was murdered by her husband who later set the body on fire’’); ‘‘Police Dismiss Reports of Tibetan Woman’s Self-Immolation,’’ Global Times, 19 March 13 (age 28; ‘‘strangled to death by
her husband, who later burned her body’’); ‘‘Prefecture, County Public Security Authorities Successfully Solve Case of Intentional Homicide, Burning Body,’’ Aba Daily, 19 March 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 21 March 13) (‘‘criminal suspect . . . got into an intense fight withhis wife’’; ‘‘strangled the neck of [his wife] with his hands’’; ‘‘brought the body of [his wife] tothe west wall of [a nearby building]’’; ‘‘used gasoline to burn the body’’).
74 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Monk Dies In Self-Immolation on Sensitive Date for Amdo Ngaba,’’ Voiceof America, 16 March 13; ‘‘Breaking: Kirti Monk Marks March 16 With Self-Immolation, Toll
Rises to 108,’’ Phayul, 16 March 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Monk
Dies of Self-Immolation on Protest Anniversary,’’ 18 March 13; International Campaign for
Tibet, ‘‘Two Self-Immolations in Tibet: Kirti Monk on Crackdown Anniversary and Woman in
Dzoge,’’ 18 March 13.
75 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Mother of Four Dies in Self-Immolation Protest,’’ Voice of America, 24
March 13; ‘‘Breaking: 110th Tibetan Self-Immolation,’’ Phayul, 24 March 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Self-Immolations of a Tibetan Forest Guard and Mother of Four in Eastern
Tibet,’’ 26 March 13.
76 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Labrang Area Village,’’ Voice of America, 25
March 13; ‘‘Breaking: Second Self-Immolation in 24 Hours, Toll Rises to 111 (Updated),’’ Phayul,
25 March 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Self-Immolations of a Tibetan Forest Guard
and Mother of Four in Eastern Tibet,’’ 26 March 13.
77 See, e.g., ‘‘Breaking: A Monk Sets Self Ablaze in Tibet,’’ Phayul, 29 March 13; ‘‘A Buddhist
Monk Dies in Latest Self-Immolation Protest in Tibet,’’ Tibet Post International, 29 March 13;
Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Burning Protests Continue Against Chinese
Repression in Tibet,’’ 30 March 13.
78 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Mother Self-Immolates in Zamthang,’’ Voice of America, 16 April 13;‘‘Thousands Gather After Young Tibetan Mother Self-Immolates,’’ Radio Free Asia, 16 April 13;
Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Mother Dies of Self-Immolation, Denied Proper Cremation by Chinese Authorities,’’ 17 April 13.
79 See, e.g., ‘‘Two Tibetan Monks Set Themselves on Fire,’’ Voice of America, 24 April 13;‘‘Three Tibetans Die in Burning Protests,’’ Radio Free Asia, 24 April 13; Tibetan Centre for
Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Two Tibetan Monks Die of Self-Immolation Protest,’’ 25 April
13.

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80 See, e.g., ‘‘New Tibetan Self-Immolation After One-Month Hiatus,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 May
13; ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in Protest Against China,’’ Voice of America, 29 May 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Nomad Self-Immolates and Dies in Yushu,’’ 29 May 13.
81 See, e.g., ‘‘Latest Tibetan Nun Self-Immolator’s Identity Confirmed,’’ Tibet Express, 14 June
13; ‘‘New Information on June 11 Self-Immolation in Kham Tawo,’’ Voice of America, 14 June
13; ‘‘Clampdown Imposed as Nun Secretly Cremated After Burning Protest,’’ Radio Free Asia,
17 June 13.
82 See, e.g., ‘‘Monk, 17, Sets Himself on Fire in Sichuan,’’ Global Times, 30 July 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Teenage Tibetan Monk Dies After Self-Immolation in Dzoege,’’ 22
July 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Teenage Monk Dies of Burning Protest; Fate of Body Unknown,’’ 22 July 13.
83 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 157–60.
84 For information on the shifting profile of Tibetan self-immolations, see CECC, ‘‘Special Report: Tibetan Self-Immolation—Rising Frequency, Wider Spread, Greater Diversity,’’ 22 August
12.
85 The Commission has posted on its Web site (www.cecc.gov) a series of summaries of information on Tibetan self-immolations. The summaries include a breakdown by gender, location,and occupation type.
86 See the table in this section titled ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolation Believed To Focus On Politicalor Religious Issues (September 2012–July 2013).’’ The 38 self-immolations numbered 52–89 took
place in October–November 2012.
87 ‘‘Those Who Incite Self-Immolations Must Be Severely Punished Under the Law’’ [Shandong
zifen zhe bijiang shoudao falu yancheng], Gansu Daily, 3 December 12 (translated in Dui Hua
Human Rights Journal, 5 December 12); Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘China Outlines Criminal Punishments for Tibetan Self-Immolations,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 5 December 12; ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ CongressionalExecutive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
88 ‘‘Those Who Incite Self-Immolations Must Be Severely Punished Under the Law’’ [Shandong
zifen zhe bijiang shoudao falu yancheng], Gansu Daily, 3 December 12 (translated in Dui Hua
Human Rights Journal, 5 December 12); Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘China Outlines Criminal Punishments for Tibetan Self-Immolations,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 5 December 12; ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ CongressionalExecutive Commission on China, 18 January 13. According to the Dui Hua translation, the specific language in the Opinion warns that, ‘‘Anyone who summons a group to mourn or collectfunds for a self-immolator shall be prevented from doing so in accordance with the law.’’ Basedon Commission monitoring, since self-immolators generally are deceased, the collected donations
are for self-immolators’ survivors. For an example of such a case, see the Commission’s Political
Prisoner Database record 2013–00076 on Gyadehor. For more information on the case, see Cao
Kai and Wang Daqian, ‘‘Sentence Announced at First Trial of Gyadehor of Huangnan in Qinghai
Over Inciting Secession’’ [Qinghai huangnan jiadehe shandong fenlie guojia an—shen xuanpan],
Qinghai Daily, 8 February 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 11 February 13).
89 ‘‘Zhu Weiqun Talks About Dalai and Other Issues With EU Officials, Scholars, and Reporters’’ [Zhu weiqun yu oumeng guanyuan, xuezhe, jizhe tan dalai deng wenti], China Tibet Online,
29 December 11 (translated in Open Source Center, 12 January 12). According to the report,then United Front Work Department Executive Deputy Head Zhu Weiqun told a gathering in
Brussels that included European Union officials, ‘‘The self-immolation incidents occurred at fourmonasteries; Tibet and other Tibetan-inhabited areas have a total of 3,542 temples and monasteries, with 140,000 clergy; therefore the Dalai clique’s claim that the entire Tibetan-inhabitedareas ‘were on fire’ was entirely groundless . . . .’’90 National Bureau of Statistics, Department of Population and Employment Statistics, Population Census Office Under the State Council, Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of thePeople’s Republic of China, 23 April 13, Table 2–1, ‘‘Population by Age, Sex, and Nationality.’’
The table listed the total Tibetan population as 6,282,187.
91 ‘‘Gansu’s Gannan Official: 18 Self-Immolation Cases Cracked’’ [Gansu gannan guanyuan:
pohuo 18 qi zifen anjian], China News Service, 23 January 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 26 January 13) (‘‘Of . . . 21 cases, 18 have been cracked, five cases . . . transferred to thecourt . . ., 16 people . . . arrested.’’); ‘‘70 Arrested in Qinghai Over Self-Immolations,’’ Xinhua,
8 February 13, reprinted in China Daily (‘‘Seventy suspects . . . arrested in Huangnan . . . inconnection with . . . self-immolations . . . since November).
92 ‘‘Tibetan Villager Self-Immolates in NW China,’’ Xinhua, reprinted in China Daily, 23 October 12; ‘‘China Sentences Another 6 Tibetans Over Self-Immolation,’’ Xinhua, 31 January 13.
For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2013–00068 on
Pema Dondrub, 2013–00069 on Kalsang Gyatso, 2013–00070 on Pema Tso, 2013–00071 on
Lhamo Dondrub, 2013–00072 on Digkar Gyal, and 2013–00073 on Yangmo Kyi. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ CongressionalExecutive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
93 ‘‘China Sentences Another 6 Tibetans Over Self-Immolation,’’ Xinhua, 31 January 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Six Tibetans in Gansu Sentenced After Protecting Body of SelfImmolator in Aggressive Drive To Criminalize Self-Immolations,’’ 4 February 13. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2013–00068 on Pema
Dondrub, 2013–00069 on Kalsang Gyatso, 2013–00070 on Pema Tso, 2013–00071 on Lhamo
Dondrub, 2013–00072 on Digkar Gyal, and 2013–00073 on Yangmo Kyi. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive
Commission on China, 18 January 13.
94 The case is unusual because the person convicted of intentional homicide, Phagpa, allegedly
discussed the subject of self-immolation twice (June and July 2012) with a person who, on November 19, 2012, decided not to self-immolate. ‘‘First Instance Verdict in Qinghai Combined
Case of Intentional Homicide and Incitement to Separatism’’ [Qinghai yiqi guyi sharen,303
shandong fenlie guojia an yishen xuanpan], Xinhua, 8 February 13; Wang Huazhong, ‘‘Man Gets
13 Years Over Inciting Self-Immolation,’’ China Daily, 8 February 13; Cao Kai and Wang
Daqian, ‘‘Xinhua Insight: Tibetan Self-Immolation Instigator Contrite,’’ Xinhua, 8 February 13;‘‘China Focus: Police Reveal Fraud Behind Self-Immolations in NW China,’’ Xinhua, 7 February
13; ‘‘China Begins Self-Immolation Trial, Makes More Arrests,’’ Phayul, 29 January 13; ‘‘China
Arrests Tibetan in New Tactic Against Self-Immolation,’’ Reuters, 24 January 13, reprinted inVoice of America. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record
2013–00064 on Phagpa. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons
Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
95 ‘‘Nine Tibetans Go on Trial Over Burning Protests,’’ Radio Free Asia, 28 February 13.
96 ‘‘China Sentences Three Tibetans for Inciting Self-Immolations,’’ Tibet Express, 1 March 13;‘‘Three Tibetans Sentenced to Long Jail Terms Over Self-Immolation,’’ Tibet Post International,
2 March 13; ‘‘China Sentences Three Tibetans Up to 15 Years for Self-Immolation ‘Crimes,’ ’’Phayul, 2 March 13. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Databaserecords 2013–00098 on Lhamo Dorje, 2013–00099 on Kalsang Sonam, and 2013–00100 on
Tsezung Kyab. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to SelfImmolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
97 Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Three Tibetans Sentenced to Prison for‘Inciting Separatism,’ ’’ 20 March 13.
98 ‘‘Haidong Prefecture Intermediate People’s Court Issues Sentences in First-Instance Trial
for Inciting Splittism’’ [Haidong diqu zhongji renmin fayuan yishen xuanpan yiqi shandong
fenlie guojia an], People’s Daily, 18 March 13; Dui Hua Foundation, ‘‘Tibetans Imprisoned for
Text, Images as Immolations Continue,’’ Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 21 March 13; Tibetan
Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Three Tibetans Sentenced to Prison for ‘Inciting Separatism,’ ’’ 20 March 13. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Databaserecords 2013–00119 on Jigme Thabkhe, 2013–00121 on Kalsang Dondrub, and 2013–00122 on
Lobsang. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
99 Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Five monks From Bora Monastery‘Missing’ After Detention,’’ 18 December 12; ‘‘Monks’ Whereabouts Unknown,’’ Radio Free Asia,
18 December 12. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Databaserecords 2013–00012 on Gedun Gyatso, 2013–00013 on Lobsang Phagpa, 2013–00015 on
Jamyang Zoepa, 2013–00016 on Jamyang Lodroe, and 2013–00017 on Jamyang Gyatso. See also‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
100 ‘‘More Tibetans Detained,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12 December 12; ‘‘China Arrests Relatives,
Friends of Tibetan Self-Immolators,’’ Phayul, 14 December 12. For more information, see theCommission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2013–00030 on Tsondru, 2013–00031 on
Chagthab, 2013–00032 on Shawo, 2013–00033 on Choedron, and 2013–00034 on Rigshe. See
also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
101 ‘‘Chinese Authorities Arrest Eight Tibetans for Sharing Information of Self-Immolation
Protest,’’ Phayul, 14 January 13. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner
Database records 2013–00056 on Nyima, 2013–00057 on Lhamo Dondrub, 2013–00058 on Dorje
Dondrub, 2013–00059 on Kalsang Kyab, 2013–00060 on Kalsang Sonam, 2013–00061 on
Kalsang Namdren, and 2013–00062 on Sonam Kyi. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal
Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 18 January 13.
102 ‘‘Huangnan Prefecture Intermediate People’s Court Pronounced Sentences in Series of Inciting Secession Cases’’ [Huangnan zhou zhongji renmin fayuan xuanpan xilie shandong fenlie
guojia an], Qinghai Daily, 12 April 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy,‘‘China Confirms Sentencing Four Tibetans for ‘Inciting Separatism,’ ’’ 15 April 13. For more information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2013–00139 on Choepa
Gyal, 2013–00141 on Namkha Jam, 2013–00142 on Chagthar, and 2013–00143 on Gonpo. See
also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
103 ‘‘Gansu Police Crack Homicide Case of Self-Immolation Organized and Masterminded by
Members of the ‘Tibetan Youth Congress’ of the Dalai Clique’’ [Gansu jingfang zhenpo dalai
jituan ‘‘zangqing hui’’ chengyuan zuzhi cehua zifen sharen’an], Xinhua, 15 January 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 15 January 13; reprinted in Chinese on China News Service); ‘‘1st
LD Writethru—China Exclusive: Police Apprehend 7 Suspected of Inciting Self-Immolation,’’Xinhua, 15 January 13, reprinted in China Internet Information Center; ‘‘Seven Held After Man
Set Himself Ablaze,’’ Xinhua, 16 January 13, reprinted in China Daily. For more information,
see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2012–00301 on Kalsang Gyatso, 2012–00303 on Tashi Gyatso, and 2013–00075 on Gonpo Gyal. See also ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on
China, 18 January 13.
104 Ibid.
105 In addition to the six named Tibetans who officials retained in detention, the reports mentioned that three of Konchog Sonam’s relatives were detained briefly then released, and two unidentified persons had been detained. ‘‘Monk, 17, Sets Himself on Fire in Sichuan,’’ Global
Times, 30 July 13 (reports two unnamed monks detained and under police investigation); ‘‘Five
Tibetans Detained in Connection With Self-Immolation,’’ Radio Free Asia, 26 July 13 (names
five persons detained after the self-immolation; three were monks); ‘‘Three Tibetan Monks Sentenced to Two and Half Years’ Prison in Chamdo, One Arrested in Zoege,’’ Phayul, 2 August
13 (names one additional monk detained); ‘‘8 Tibetans Disappeared in Connection With Latest
Tibetan Self-Immolation,’’ Tibet Express, 29 July 13 (names eight detained persons but does notstate that three of them were detained prior to the self-immolation). For more information on

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the detention of three monks that reportedly may have ‘‘triggered’’ monk Konchog Sonam’s selfimmolation, see ‘‘Arbitrary Detention of Tibetans Triggered Latest Tibetan Self-Immolation,’’Tibet Express, 23 July 13.
106 As of September 1, 2013, the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database (PPD) contained
the following 112 records of detention or imprisonment linked to self-immolation or the issueof self-immolation since August 2012 (arranged in descending chronological order: records 2013–
00142 on Chagthar, 2013–00139 on Choepa Gyal, 2013–00143 on Gonpo, 2013–00141 on
Namkha Jam, 2013–00268 on Palden Yignyen, 2013–00264 on Sherab, 2013–00267 on Yonten
Gyatso, 2013–00266 on Sanggye Palden, 2013–00265 on Palden Gyatso, 2013–00263 on Tenzin
Gyatso, 2013–00129 on Drolma Kyab, 2013–00126 on Tritsan, 2013–00180 on Yijia, 2013–00181
on Ruoba, 2013–00077 on Yarphel, 2013–00163 on Samten, 2013–00164 on Tashi Gyatso, 2013–
00165 on Tenphel Gyalpo, 2013–00166 on Tensang, 2013–00162 on Tsering Tagchen, 2013–
00178 on Jigme, 2013–00119 on Jigme Thabkhe, 2013–00121 on Kalsang Dondrub, 2013–00171
on Kalsang Dorje, 2013–00099 on Kalsang Sonam, 2013–00098 on Lhamo Dorje, 2013–00122 on
Lobsang, 2013–00100 on Tsezung Kyab, 2013–00230 on Urgyen Dorje, 2013–00058 on Dorje
Dondrub, 2013–00059 on Kalsang Kyab, 2013–00061 on Kalsang Namdren, 2013–00060 on
Kalsang Sonam, 2013–00057 on Lhamo Dondrub, 2013–00056 on Nyima, 2013–00062 on Sonam
Kyi, 2013–00055 on Kalsang Samdrub, 2013–00031 on Chagthab, 2013–00033 on Choedron,
2013–00034 on Rigshe, 2013–00032 on Shawo, 2013–00030 on Tsondru, 2013–00023 on Tashi
Sonam, 2012–00344 on Choekyab, 2013–00012 on Gedun Gyatso, 2013–00017 on Jamyang
Gyatso, 2013–00016 on Jamyang Lodroe, 2013–00015 on Jamyang Zoepa, 2013–00013 on
Lobsang Phagpa, 2008–00580 on Washul Dortrug, 2013–00101 on Donnu, 2013–00170 on Gobe,
2013–00076 on Gyadehor, 2013–00064 on Phagpa, 2013–00291 on Shawo Tashi, 2013–00292 on
Sobum, 2013–00004 on Choekyong Kyab, 2013–00006 on Dola Tsering, 2013–00003 on Jampa
Tsering, 2013–00008 on Kunsang Bum, 2013–00001 on Lhaten, 2013–00005 on Sanggye Bum,
2013–00007 on Tsering Tashi, 2013–00002 on Wanggyal Tsering, 2013–00145 on Gedun
Tsultrim, 2013–00144 on Tsondru, 2012–00346 on Konchog Sonam, 2013–00285 on Tsondru
Choeden, 2013–00075 on Gonpo Gyal, 2013–00097 on Ngawang Tobden, 2012–00303 on Tashi
Gyatso, 2012–00343 on Phurbu, 2012–00341 on Thubten Nyandrag, 2012–00342 on Tsewang,
2013–00072 on Digkar Gyal, 2013–00069 on Kalsang Gyatso, 2013–00071 on Lhamo Dondrub,
2013–00068 on Pema Dondrub, 2013–00070 on Pema Tso, 2013–00073 on Yangmo Kyi, 2013–
00211 on Pema Tsewang, 2012–00300 on Jigme Gyatso, 2012–00301 on Kalsang Gyatso, 2012–00302 on Konchog Gyatso, 2012–00333 on Losal, 2012–00332 on Tobden, 2012–00331 on
Tsondru, 2013–00288 on Dorje, 2013–00290 on Sonam, 2013–00289 on Tashi Choewang, 2013–
00081 on Lobsang Sanggye, 2012–00275 on Lobsang Jinpa, 2012–00277 on Ngawang Monlam,
2012–00279 on Sonam Sherab, 2012–00278 on Sonam Yignyen, 2012–00276 on Tsultrim
Kalsang, 2012–00330 on Lobsang Choephel, 2012–00349 on Lobsang Tsering, 2012–00282 on
Jamyang Khyenko, 2012–00281 on Lobsang Sanggye, 2012–00280 on Lobsang Palden, 2012–00284 on Lobsang Rabten, 2012–00266 on Lobsang Konchog, 2012–00246 on Asong, 2012–00245
on Thubwang Tenzin, 2012–00261 on Bonkho Kyi, 2012–00262 on Chechog, 2012–00242 on
Lobsang Sengge, 2012–00244 on Namse, 2012–00243 on Yarphel, 2012–00231 on Choephel, and2012–00232 on Sherab.
107 The Political Prisoner Database cases include a range of circumstances involving official
suspicion or prosecution related to activities including: engaging in discussions that officials regard as sympathetic toward or supportive of the act of self-immolation; association with persons
who committed self-immolation or contemplated self-immolation; gathering at a self-immolation
site; attempting to maintain control over a self-immolator’s body so that Tibetan Buddhist monastics can conduct customary religious rites; participating in a memorial gathering or offering
condolences to a self-immolator’s survivors; seeking to intercede with authorities on behalf ofsomeone officials regard as associated with a self-immolator or self-immolation; refusing to support an official account describing a self-immolator or self-immolation; gathering information on
self-immolations; possessing information on self-immolations; providing information on self-immolations to individuals or groups, especially those outside of China; and composing or circulating articles, essays, poetry, lyrics, etc., that officials regard as supportive or sympathetic toward self-immolators or self-immolation.
108 See, e.g., Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: ‘Benefit the Masses’ Campaign Surveilling Tibetans,’’ 19 June 13. The report cites a February 28, 2013, Tibetan-language report in China Tibet
News that quotes Hao Peng instructing People’s Armed Police to ‘‘thoroughly ensure no shadows, no gaps, no cracks, not giving hostile forces even the slightest opportunity’’ [to endanger
social stability]. ‘‘Hao Peng Attends Meeting Calling on the TAR People’s Armed Police To Carry
Out Their Social Stability Maintenance Duties During the Two National Meetings’’ [Drag-chasnyen-rtog bod-ljongs dpung-sde rgyal-yongs skyi tshogs-‘du gnyis ring gi brtan-lhing srungskyong las-‘gan-sgrub rgyu’i skul-slong tshogs-chen ‘tshogs-pa], China Tibet News, 28 February
13.
109 For official statements on handling issues and individuals linked to self-immolation in two
Tibetan autonomous prefectures where numerous self-immolations took place, and on rewards
offered to citizens who provided information to authorities, see, e.g., Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Tibetan Immolations, Security Measures Escalate,’’ 29 November 12 (on Huangnan (Malho) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP), Qinghai province); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Chinese Authorities Offer Large Rewards for Information on ‘Black Hand’ Behind Tibetan Self-Immolations,’’ 24 October 12 (on Gannan (Kanlho) TAP, Gansu province).
110 See, e.g., Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Monastery Under Siege as
Monks Face Expulsion While Another Detained for Writing Book on Immolations,’’ 19 March
13 (Monk Tritsun went ‘‘missing’’ after the distribution of his book on self-immolations); ‘‘Tibetan Writer Gartse Jigme Arrested,’’ Tibet Express, 10 January 13 (‘‘in the second volume ofhis book [The King’s Valor] he has written on the self immolations, . . .’’).
111 ‘‘Those Who Incite Self-Immolations Must Be Severely Punished Under the Law’’[Shandong zifen zhe bijiang shoudao falu yancheng], Gannan Daily, 3 December 12, reprinted

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in Gansu Daily (translated in Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, 5 December 12). E.g., the following statement in the Gannan Daily article is vague, broad, and threatens ‘‘severe punishment’’: ‘‘In particular, those black hands behind the scenes who plan, direct, and incite others
to commit self-immolation, [have committed] serious, illegal crimes that are extremely inhumanand they have violated human society’s most basic standards of conscience and morality. They
must be subject to the law’s severe punishment and moral condemnation.’’ See also Dui HuaFoundation, ‘‘China Outlines Criminal Punishments for Tibetan Self-Immolations,’’ Dui Hua
Human Rights Journal, 5 December 12; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘Tibetan Immolations, Security
Measures Escalate,’’ 29 November 12; ‘‘Official Opinion Urges Criminal Prosecution of Persons
Linked to Self-Immolations,’’ Congressional-Executive Commission on China, 18 January 13.
112 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Alarming New Surveillance, Security in Tibet—Restrictions
Tightened on Tibetans Despite Lack of Threat,’’ 20 March 13. ‘‘676 new police-posts establishedthroughout Tibet in 2012 as part of the stability maintenance drive . . . facilitate coordinationof information and operations between the security services and the semi-official grid units.’’‘‘[By] July 2012, [the] 676 permanent, street-side ‘convenience police-posts’ (Ch.: bian minjing
wu zhan) had been set up in towns across the region. These are equipped with computers andvideo technology for computerized checks of people passing through on a ‘case-by-case’ basis. Police officers who staff the posts are required to be on duty around-the-clock.’’
113 Ibid. ‘‘Stability maintenance teams and the new street-side police-posts are maintaining
records of all vehicles entering the city or area. In some areas, official media reports said, thenew police-posts are required to keep records of ‘those going outside the locality’ and to registereach of them individually, . . .’’114 Gillian Wong, ‘‘Denied Passport, Tibet Poet Can’t Receive US Award,’’ Associated Press,
8 March 13 (officials prevented Tibetan writer Tsering Oezer (Woeser) from traveling to theUnited States to receive an award); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘ICT’s Bhuchung Tsering
Highlights Chinese Misguided Policies on Tibet at Capitol Hill Event,’’ 1 February 13. ICT’s
then-Vice President of Special Programs and subsequent Interim President Bhuchung Tsering
said in a prepared statement: ‘‘Tibetans are virtually being denied new passports currently. Tibetan applicants for passports are subjected to a new procedure that is not implemented for Chinese. Worse still, the authorities in the Tibet Autonomous Region have in fact been confiscating
the passports of the few fortunate Tibetans who have them, thus denying them their right totravel abroad.’’115 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Alarming New Surveillance, Security in Tibet—Restrictions
Tightened on Tibetans Despite Lack of Threat,’’ 20 March 13. According to the HRW report:‘‘The new grid system grows out of the nationwide ‘social stability maintenance’ (Ch.: weiwen)
policy drive, and establishes a new sub-local layer to the administrative system in urban andrural areas across China. According to one Chinese scholar, the grid system is designed to ensure that ‘‘information is proactively gathered about people, events, and things so as to build
up a database of urban components and events . . . through which relevant departments andwork units can proactively uncover problems in a timely manner.’’
116 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: ‘Benefit the Masses’ Campaign Surveilling Tibetans,’’ 19
June 13. According to the report, teams of officials were ‘‘categorizing Tibetans according totheir religious and political thinking, and establishing institutions to monitor their behavior andopinions.’’
117 See, e.g., Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Launches Crackdown
on Personal Cellphones in Lhasa,’’ 11 March 13. According to the TCHRD report, ‘‘Chinese authorities in the Tibetan capital, Lhasa, have now begun implementing a campaign to search personal cellphones owned by Tibetans, particularly those in monastic institutions.’’ See also International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Young Tibetan Father Self-Immolates in Tsekhog; Officials Warn
Tibetans Not To Gather at Cremations,’’ 19 November 12 (referring to an autonomous Tibetan
area in Qinghai province: ‘‘a military build-up and communications cut-off has been put inplace’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Impose Near-Total Information Blockade After Series of Burning Protests,’’ 5 November 12 (‘‘near-total information blockade has been imposed in Kanlho . . . where seven Tibetans burned themselves in protest in
the past month’’).
118 Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Tibetan Immolations, Security Measures Escalate,’’ 29 November 12; Human Rights Watch, ‘‘China: Alarming New Surveillance, Security in Tibet—Restrictions Tightened on Tibetans Despite Lack of Threat,’’ 20 March 13. According to the HRW
report: ‘‘In 2012 Tibetan authorities set up a ‘TAR Social Stability Maintenance Command’ in
Lhasa, and established ‘Stability Maintenance Work Groups’ at every level of the administration, responsible for exercising control over online and phone communications.’’
119 See, e.g., ‘‘Chinese Authorities Destroy Television Viewing Equipments in Malho,’’ Voice ofAmerica, 10 January 13; ‘‘China Authorities Seize Satellite Dishes in Labrang, Eastern Tibet,’’
Voice of America, 25 March 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Crackdown
on Satellite Dishes, Broadcast Equipment Deepens in Tibet,’’ 29 January 13. According to the
TCHRD report, ‘‘Chinese authorities have now heightened the campaign to eradicate all avenuesof receiving Tibet-related radio and TV news available on foreign channels by issuing a public
notice, which announced monetary fines and actions for those who fail to surrender banned satellite dishes and other broadcast equipment by 27 January 2013.’’120 For reports on self-immolations during the Commission’s 2013 year that included a selfimmolator’s reference to the Dalai Lama during the act of self-immolation (in chronologicalorder), see, e.g., International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Second Tibetan Dies in Less Than a Week
as Self-Immolations Continue in Tibet,’’ 5 October 12 (Yungdrung ‘‘shouted slogans calling for. . . the return of the Dalai Lama and the Karmapa’’); ‘‘Tibetan Man Self-Immolates in
Nagchu,’’ Voice of America, 4 October 12 (Gudrub ‘‘shouted slogans calling for . . . return of
the Tibetan spiritual leader’’); ‘‘Third Tibet Self-Immolation In One Week,’’ Voice of America,
6 October 12 (Sanggye Gyatso ‘‘shouted for the swift return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet’’);‘‘Breaking: Tibet Continues To Burn With Another Self-Immolation,’’ Phayul, 13 October 12

306(Tamdrin Dorje ‘‘raised slogans for the return of His Holiness the Dalai Lama’’); Tibetan Centre
for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘ ‘These Chinese Are Not Letting Us Live in Peace. It’s Better
To Die, Better To Die,’ ’’ 29 October 12 (Lhamo Kyab ‘‘shouted slogans calling for . . . the ‘returnof His Holiness the Dalai Lama’ ’’); ‘‘Mass Protest After Fatal Burning,’’ Radio Free Asia, 4 November 12 (Dorje Lhundrub ‘‘called for the return of . . . the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Five Tibetans SelfImmolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 November 12 (Dorje, Samdrub, and Dorje Kyab ‘‘set themselvesablaze in front of a police station in Ngaba town, calling for a free Tibet and the return of . . .
the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Five Tibetans Self-Immolate,’’ Radio Free Asia, 7 November 12 (Tamdrin Tso‘‘died shouting slogans calling for the return of the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘6 Tibetans Self-Immolate in
Two Days,’’ Voice of America, 8 November 12 (Kalsang Jinpa ‘‘was reported to have raised awhite banner with slogans that called for Dalai Lama’s return’’); ‘‘Tibetan Burnings Rise to 70,’’
Radio Free Asia, 10 November 12 (Gonpo Tsering called for ‘‘the return of the Dalai Lama to
Tibet’’); ‘‘Self-Immolations Continue in Rebkong, Two Die in Protest,’’ Voice of America, 15 November 12 (Tenzin Drolma ‘‘shouted slogans calling for return of the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Two Tibetan Self-Immolaters Left Letters Behind,’’ Voice of America, 20 November 12 (Chagmo Kyi’s
letter ‘‘called on the new Chinese leader Xi Jinping to meet with the Dalai Lama’’); International
Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Young Tibetan Father Self-Immolates in Tsekhog; Officials Warn Tibetans
Not To Gather at Cremations,’’ 19 November 12 (Sangdrag Tsering ‘‘frequently spoke about theDalai Lama not being allowed to be in Tibet, . . . and that the Panchen Lama is still in prison’’); ‘‘Tibetan Self-Immolations Continue, 25–Year-Old Dies in Protest,’’ Voice of America, 19
November 12 (Wangchen Norbu ‘‘shouted slogans calling for the return of the Dalai Lama to
Tibet, [and] release of the Panchen Lama’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Self-Immolations in Two Days as Total in Tibet Reaches 81,’’ 24 November 12 (Tamdrin Kyab reportedly had said previously there was ‘‘no reason to live without the Dalai Lama’s return to Tibet’’);‘‘Tibetan Burns, Hails Dalai Lama,’’ Radio Free Asia, 24 November 12 (Tamdrin Dorje ‘‘could
be seen putting his hands together in prayer, shouting long life to the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘17-YearOld Self-Immolator’s Last Note Calls for the Dalai Lama’s Return and Tibet’s Independence,’’
Phayul, 28 November 12 (Sanggye Drolma left ‘‘a will, written in the form of a poem’’ expressing‘‘her belief in the swift return of . . . the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Father of Three Dies After Self-Immolation,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12 (Gonpo Tsering ‘‘shouted slogans calling for . . . return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet’’); ‘‘Tibetan Teenager Burns Himself to Death,’’ Voice of America, 28 November 12 (Sanggye Tashi ‘‘shouted slogans calling for return of the Dalai Lama andrelease of the Panchen Lama’’); ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November 12 (Bande Khar called for ‘‘the return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Three Tibetans Self-Immolate in Two Days During Important
Buddhist Anniversary: Images of Troops in Lhasa as Tibetans Pray,’’ 10 December 12 (Pema
Dorje shouted that the Dalai Lama should be allowed to return to Tibet); Tibetan Centre for
Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Tibetan Religious Festival Marked by Two Self-Immolation
Death,’’ 9 December 12 (Konchog Phelgye folded his hands in prayer position and ‘‘shouted slogans for the long life of . . . the Dalai Lama and return . . . to Tibet’’); ‘‘Tibetan Girl Self-Immolates,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 December 12 (Wangchen Kyi, or Rinchen Kyi, called ‘‘for the longlife of . . . the Dalai Lama’’); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Authorities Bar Customary Religious Rituals To Enforce Quick Cremation of Tibetan Who Self-Immolated in Amchok,’’ 15 January 13 (video of Tsering Tashi ‘‘depicts him lying on the street in flames, lifting his hands intoa prayer position and saying the name of the Dalai Lama’’); ‘‘Breaking: Monk in Ngaba Becomes
100th To Self-Immolate Under China’s Rule,’’ Phayul, 13 February 13 (Lobsang Namgyal, whileburning, ‘‘shouted slogans for the long life of . . . the Dalai Lama as he ran towards the local
police building’’).
121 For information on two unprecedented developments during the Commission’s 2012 reporting year, the opening of a new Tibetan Buddhism Theological Institute intended to establish
an updated ‘‘normal order’’ for the religion, and on teams of Chinese Communist Party cadresdispatched to every monastery and nunnery in the Tibet Autonomous Region to take over monastic management, see, e.g., CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 161–62; Chang Chuan,‘‘Tibet Buddhist Theological Institute Is Completed and Open—Pagbalha Geleg Namgyai, Qin
Yizhi Attend Ceremony, Zhu Weiqun, Hao Peng Speak, Luosang Jiangcun Unveils Signboard,
Qizhala Presides Over Ceremony, 11th Panchen Erdini Qoigyi Gyibo Sends Congratulatory Message’’ [Xizang foxue yuan luocheng kai yuan pabala gelie langjie qin yizhi chuxi dianli zhu
weiqun hao peng jianghua luosang jiangcun jiepai—qizhala zhuchi shiyi shi banchan e’erdeni—
queji jiebu zhi hexin], Tibet Daily, 21 October 11, reprinted in China Tibet Information Center(translated in Open Source Center, 26 October 11) (on the opening of the new Tibetan Buddhism
Theological Institute intended to establish an updated ‘‘normal order’’ for the religion); Zou Le,‘‘Committees To Ensure Stability in Tibet’s Monasteries,’’ Global Times, 15 February 12 (‘‘A[Monastery Management Committee] has been established in every monastery in the Tibet Autonomous Region’’); Li Chengye, ‘‘Regionwide Video-Teleconference on Stability Maintenance andComprehensive Public Order Management by Public Security, Procuratorial, and Judicial Departments Emphasizes Need To Create New Situation in Regional Harmony and Stability and
To Usher in Triumphant Opening of 18th CPC National Congress With Outstanding Achievements; Chen Quanguo, Hao Peng Deliver Speeches; Baima Chilin, Wu Yingjie, Gongbao Zhaxi,
Qizhala, Deng Xiaogang Attend Meeting; Luosang Jiangcun Presides Over Meeting; Luobu
Dunzhu Attends Meeting at Chamdo Branch Conference Hall’’ [Quan qu zhengfa wei wen zongzhi gongzuo dianshi dianhua huiyi qiangdiao—nuli kaichuang quan qu hexie wending de xin
jumian—yi youyi chengji yingjie dang de 18 dasheng shengli zhaokai—chen quanguo hao pengjianghua baima chilin wu yingjie gongbao zhaxi qizhala deng xiaogang chuxi luosang jiangcun
zhuchi luobu dunzhu chuxi changdu fenhuichang huiyi], Tibet Daily, 5 January 12, reprinted
in China Tibet Information Center (translated in Open Source Center, 16 January 12) (Chen
Quanguo instructed government officials and Party cadres to ‘‘strengthen and innovate management of temples and monasteries by making it a key feature to routinely station cadres in temples and monasteries’’); Li Chengye, ‘‘Chen Quanguo Gives Important Instructions on Further

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Improving the Work of Cadre Presence in Monasteries: Let Monks and Nuns Who Love TheirCountry and Their Religion Experience the Solicitude and Loving Care of Party and Government and Consciously Make Greater Contributions to the Building of Harmonious Tibet andPeaceful Tibet,’’ Tibet Daily, 2 February 12, reprinted in China Tibet Online (translated in Open
Source Center, 10 February 12) (Chen said, ‘‘The numerous comrades of the task forces for cadre
presence in monasteries and the monastery management committees should build on theirachievements and keep up their good work; . . .’’). For background on self-immolations andmeasures repressing Tibetans’ freedom of religion, see CECC, ‘‘Special Report: Tibetan Monastic
Self-Immolations Appear To Correlate With Increasing Repression of Freedom of Religion,’’ 24
January 12.
122 See, e.g., State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures for Evaluating the Credentials of and Appointing Monastic Teachers in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan fojiao simiao jing
shi zige pingding he pinren banfa], passed 25 November 12, effective 3 December 12.
123 For recent CECC reporting and analysis on established repressive policies toward the Tibetan Buddhist religion and institution, see, e.g., CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12,
161–63; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 208–12; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October 10, 220–22; CECC, ‘‘Special Report: Tibetan Monastic Self-Immolations Appear To Correlate With Increasing Repression of Freedom of Religion,’’ 24 January 12; ‘‘Tibetan Buddhist
Affairs Regulations Taking Effect in Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures,’’ Congressional-Executive
Commission on China, 10 March 11.
124 See, e.g., State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures for Evaluating the Credentials of and Appointing Monastic Teachers in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan fojiao simiao jing
shi zige pingding he pinren banfa], passed 25 November 12, effective 3 December 12, art. 11(3)(‘‘educate and guide monks and nuns on . . . upholding the monastery’s normal order’’); Chen
Feiyu, ‘‘ ‘Five Continued Focuses,’ Realize Greater Development (Under Guidance of Scientific
Development Concept)—Interview With Tibet CPC Secretary Chen Quanguo’’ [‘‘Wu ge jixu
zhuoli’’ shixian geng da fazhan (zai kexue fazhan guan zhiyin xia)—fang xizang zizhiqu dangwei
shuji chen quanguo], People’s Daily, 4 September 12 (translated in Open Source Center, 21 September 12) (‘‘[W]ith safeguarding the normal order of Tibetan Buddhism as the basic goal, we
have administered religious affairs in accordance with laws and regulations.’’).
125 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘New Challenges to Tibet Policy From Inside China,’’
27 June 13. According to the report, unofficial sources described meetings that reportedly took
place in June at three locations, at least of one of which was a monastery, in Hainan (Tsolho)
Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and in Xining city, the Qinghai province capital, as advising:‘‘In terms of religion, the 14th Dalai Lama can be revered, respected and followed. However,in terms of politics, he cannot be followed; religion and politics need to be separated.’’126 Ibid. ICT provided a translation of the Asia Weekly article and provided citation information: Shuo Jiming, ‘‘Beijing Expert: Resume Negotiations To Resolve the Tibet Issue,’’ Asia
Weekly, Vol. 27, No. 22 (June 2013).
127 ‘‘Chinese Official Says No Softening in Communist Party Struggle Against Dalai Lama
Supporters,’’ Associated Press, 9 July 13, reprinted in Star Tribune; ‘‘New Crackdown by China
on Dalai Lama Photos,’’ Radio Free Asia, 22 July 13; International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Discussions on Anti-Dalai Lama Policy Shut Down in Qinghai; Kalachakra in Tsolho Cancelled,’’ 24
July 13 (includes a translation of an official notice titled, ‘‘Notice Regarding Not Listening to
Rumors’’); ‘‘China Denies Lifting Ban on Dalai Lama Worship,’’ BBC, 28 June 13. See also ‘‘Top
Political Advisor Stresses Stability in Tibetan Region,’’ Xinhua, 9 July 13.
128 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Discussions on Anti-Dalai Lama Policy Shut Down in
Qinghai; Kalachakra in Tsolho Cancelled,’’ 24 July 13.
129 ‘‘List of Members of Standing Committee of Political Bureau of 18th CPC Central Committee,’’ Xinhua, 15 November 12.
130 Zhong Yongyong, ‘‘Chinese Communist Party 18th Central Committee,’’ Chinese Communist Party 18th Central Committee, reprinted in Sina (blog), 18 April 13. In addition to theposts of member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the Chinese Communist
Party and Head of the Central Committee Coordinating Group for Tibet Affairs, Yu Zhengsheng
is a Deputy Head of the Central Committee Coordinating Group for Taiwan Affairs. ‘‘Yu
Zhengsheng—Chairman of National Committee of Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference,’’ Xinhua, 11 March 13. Yu also holds the post of Chairman of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Committee.
131 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Discussions on Anti-Dalai Lama Policy Shut Down in
Qinghai; Kalachakra in Tsolho Cancelled,’’ 24 July 13; ‘‘Top Political Advisor Stresses Stability
in Tibetan Region,’’ Xinhua, 9 July 13. According to the Xinhua article, Yu Zhengsheng visited
Gannan (Kanlho) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu province, on or shortly before July 9,
2013; apparently on the same trip, Yu stated, ‘‘Only when the Dalai Lama publicly announcesthat Tibet is an inalienable part of China since ancient time, gives up the stance of ‘Tibet independence’ and stops his secessionist activities, can his relations with the CPC Central Committee possibly be improved.’’132 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Discussions on Anti-Dalai Lama Policy Shut Down in
Qinghai; Kalachakra in Tsolho Cancelled,’’ 24 July 13.
133 The following reports include images: International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Shooting in Tawu
on Dalai Lama’s Birthday: Update,’’ 26 July 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘More Injured by Gunshots Than Earlier Reported in Tawu,’’ 17 July 13.
134 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Shooting in Tawu on Dalai Lama’s Birthday: Update,’’26 July 13 (‘‘opened fire . . . injuring at least ten people’’; ‘‘wounds apparently caused by shooting or using some form of riot control devices’’; ‘‘[a]t least 16 Tibetans were tortured and beaten’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘More Injured by Gunshots Than Earlier Reported in Tawu,’’ 17 July 13 (‘‘14 have sustained gunshot wounds’’).
135 Teachers over the age of 50 are exempt from periodic reassessment and reappointment if
authorities deem them to satisfy requirements under Article 4 on, among other things, patriot-

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ism toward China, upholding Party leadership and the socialist system, obeying monastic management groups, and accepting supervision by Buddhist associations and government departments. State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures for Evaluating the Credentials ofand Appointing Monastic Teachers in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan fojiao simiao jing shi zige
pingding he pinren banfa], passed 25 November 12, effective 3 December 12, arts. 4, 5(3), 10.
136 State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures for Evaluating the Credentials of andAppointing Monastic Teachers in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan fojiao simiao jing shi zige
pingding he pinren banfa], passed 25 November 12, effective 3 December 12, art. 10.
137 Older legal measures acknowledge the role of the Party in Buddhist associations. See, e.g.,
Tibet Autonomous Region People’s Government, Tibet Autonomous Region Temporary Measureson the Management of Religious Affairs [Xizang zizhiqu zongjiao shiwu guanli zanxing banfa],
passed 9 December 91, effective 20 December 91, art. 15. The measures state, ‘‘The Buddhist
Association is a . . . bridge for the Party and government to unite and educate personages fromreligious circles and the believing masses. Its effectiveness shall be vigorously brought into playunder the administrative leadership of the government’s religious affairs department.’’
138 State Administration for Religious Affairs, Measures for Evaluating the Credentials of andAppointing Monastic Teachers in Tibetan Buddhism [Zangchuan fojiao simiao jing shi zige
pingding he pinren banfa], passed 25 November 12, effective 3 December 12, art. 5(3).
139 Ibid., art. 4(2) (‘‘love the nation and love religion’’).
140 Ibid., art. 4(2) (‘‘Uphold the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party and the socialist
system, . . .’’).
141 Ibid., art. 4(3) (‘‘accept the guidance and supervision of the religious affairs departments
and Buddhist Associations under the People’s Government in the monastery’s locale’’).
142 Ibid., art. 10.
143 Ibid., art. 14.
144 ‘‘List of Autonomous Region’s Harmonious Model Monasteries and Patriotic Law-Abiding
Advanced Monks and Nuns,’’ Tibet Daily, 3 May 12, reprinted in China Tibet News; Liu
Xiangrui and Daqiong, ‘‘Tibetan Monasteries Cited for Contributions to Harmony,’’ China Daily,
20 April 12.
145 Li Hualing, ‘‘Tibetan Monks and Nuns Say That Patriotism Is the Precondition for the Development of Tibetan Buddhism’’ [Xizang sengni: aiguo shi zangchuan fojiao fazhan de xianjue
tiaojian], Xinhua, 28 December 12 (translated in Open Source Center, 5 January 13).
146 Ibid.
147 See, e.g., Wu Bin, ‘‘Qiang Wei Conducts Fact-Finding on Safeguarding Stability in Hualong
County, Emphasizes Need To Consolidate Achievements in Ad Hoc Struggle Against Self-Immolation—Create a Good Social Environment for Promoting Construction and Development’’ [Qiang
wei zai hualong xian diaoyan weihu wending gongzuo shi qiangdiao gonggu fan zifen
zhuanxiang douzheng chengguo—wei zhua jianshe cu fazhan yingzao lianghao de shehui
huanjing], Qinghai Daily, 2 March 13 (translated in Open Source Center, 7 March 13). According to the report, while on an inspection visit to Hualong county, Haidong prefecture, Qinghai
province, Party Secretary Qiang Wei expressed ‘‘hope’’ to Jakhyung Monastery monks that theywould ‘‘strengthen monastery management and legal system education for the monks, actively
cooperate with the Party and the government in all work, and safeguard social harmony andstability.’’
148 As of September 1, 2013, the Commission had not observed any followup report on whenor whether the senior monastic officials were able to return to their Lhasa monastic institutions.
Media and advocacy groups sometimes use the term ‘‘political education’’ or ‘‘patriotic education’’to describe compulsory classes that Chinese state-run media and officials refer to using the more
recent term, ‘‘legal education.’’ See ‘‘Fears of New Crackdown on Monks,’’ Radio Free Asia, 30
January 13 (reports total of 14; names 14); ‘‘Senior Monks of Sera, Drepung, Ganden Disappeared,’’ Phayul, 30 January 13 (reports total of 16; names 14). For more information, see
the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database records 2013–00147 on Jampal Lhagsam, 2013–
00148 on Ngawang, 2013–00149 on Ngawang Donden, 2013–00150 on Ngawang Palsang, 2013–
00151 on Ngawang Samten, 2013–00152 on Migmar, 2013–00153 on Samten, 2013–00154 on
Ngawang Lodroe, 2013–00155 on Tashi Gyaltsen, 2013–00156 on Kalden, 2013–00157 on
Lobsang Ngodrub, 2013–00158 on Tseten Dorje, 2013–00159 on Lhundrub Yarphel, and 2013–
00160 on Ngawang Lophel.
149 For reports providing specific detail on self-immolators’ reference to Tibetan language orculture (in chronological order), see, e.g., ‘‘Third Tibet Self-Immolation in One Week,’’ Voice ofAmerica, 6 October 12 (Sanggye Gyatso ‘‘shouted for the swift return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet
and called for religious and language rights’’); ‘‘Tibetan Burnings Rise to 70,’’ Radio Free Asia,
10 November 12 (Gonpo Tsering called for ‘‘freedom for Tibetans, the return of the Dalai Lama
to Tibet and freedom of languages’’); ‘‘Two Tibetan Self-Immolaters Left Letters Behind,’’ Voiceof America, 20 November 12 (Nyingkar Tashi left a letter that ‘‘urged unification of all Tibetans
and urged Tibetans to learn and speak Tibetan, and called for freedom for Tibet’’); ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November 12 (Bande Khar calledfor ‘‘the return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet, the release of all Tibetan political prisoners, freedomof religion and language and protection of Tibet’s fragile environment’’); ‘‘ ‘Without Independence
Tibet Will Be Annihilated,’ a Self-Immolator’s Last Words,’’ Phayul, 9 May 13 (Phagmo Dondrub
allegedly told friends shortly before he self-immolated that ‘‘authorities have restricted studying
Tibetan language . . . and all teachers have been expelled . . . I am really sad now’’).
150 China Directory 2011, ed. Radiopress (Kawasaki: RP Printing Co., 2010), 17, 27. Zhu
Weiqun, who retired from the Communist Party Central Committee at the October 2012 18th
National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, held positions as Executive Deputy Headof the Party’s United Front Work Department and Director of the Party’s General Office of theCentral Coordinating Group for Tibet Affairs. ‘‘Official: Dalai Lama ‘Stubborn in Talks, Not True
to His Word,’ ’’ Xinhua, 26 March 09, reprinted in People’s Daily. According to the article, ‘‘Zhu

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has been dealing with Tibet-related issues since 1998 and has been personally involved in all
the contacts and talks with the Dalai Lama side since 2003.’’
151 Zhu Weiqun, ‘‘Some Thoughts on Existing Problems in the Field of Nationalities’’ [Duidangqian minzu lingyu wenti de jidian sikao], Study Times, 13 February 12 (translated in Open
Source Center, 20 February 12). Zhu stated: ‘‘If assimilation is the natural amalgamation of allnationalities to move toward prosperity, that would be progressive. . . . In China’s history, somenationalities have been constantly amalgamated and some new nationalities have constantly
emerged; this is a universal and regular phenomenon.’’152 Ibid., (‘‘promoting desegregated education for students of different nationalities’’). Zhu
states in the article: ‘‘Now some of our educational and administrative measures have, by accident or design, weakened the education on the sense of nationhood and identification with the
Chinese Nation.’’
153 Ibid. Zhu stated: ‘‘Whether from the perspective of benefiting the development and progressof minority nationalities, or from the perspective of benefiting the Chinese Nation’s unanimity,
it is imperative to popularize the state’s common spoken and written languages without fail.’’
154 Office of the Spokesperson, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Statement by Special Coordinator
for Tibetan Issues Maria Otero,’’ 5 December 12. As of the statement date, Maria Otero also
served as Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, and Human Rights.
155 For information on previous large-scale Tibetan student protests in Qinghai in March 2012
and October 2010 against policy changes that students reportedly believed would reduce the status and use of Tibetan language, see CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 164; CECC,
2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 214–16.
156 The following reports refer to a November 26, 2012, tertiary student protest in Gonghe(Chabcha) county, the capital of Hainan (Tsolho) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai province. ‘‘More Than 1000 Chabcha Students Protest Chinese Authorities,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12. According to VOA, ‘‘[m]ore than 1000 Chabcha Tibetan Medical School students’’chanted ‘‘slogans for equality of nationalities, freedom of language, respect for truth and establishment of new governance.’’ ‘‘Tibetan Student Protesters Held,’’ Radio Free Asia, 27 November
12. According to RFA, citing local residents, the students protested ‘‘over the release of an official Chinese booklet which ridiculed the Tibetan language as irrelevant and condemned the series of self-immolation protests against Beijing’s rule as acts of ‘stupidity.’ ’’
157 The following report refers to a November 28, 2012, tertiary student protest in Gonghe
county, Hainan TAP. ‘‘Tibetan Student Protests Spread,’’ Radio Free Asia, 28 November 12. According to the report, citing a source, ‘‘Students from the Tsolho Technical School in Chabcha(in Chinese, Gonghe) . . . stormed out of their campus and shouted for ‘freedom’ and ‘Tibetan
language rights’ in front of the prefecture government center.’’
158 ‘‘More Than 1000 Chabcha Students Protest Chinese Authorities,’’ Voice of America, 26 November 12. Referring to the November 26 protest, VOA stated, ‘‘The protest appears to be a direct response to a 10-point leaflet distributed to students by the local authorities. The leaflet
was perceived to be derogatory towards the individuals who have carried out self-immolation
protests and against use of Tibetan language.’’ Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Alienates, Angers Tibetan Students With Political Education,’’ 29 November 12. According to TCHRD, the booklet, on page 48, apparently set aside the notion that ‘‘bilingual education caused the decline of minority language,’’ and stated that promoting and implementing
bilingual education policy in ethnic minority areas is of ‘‘long-term significance for the Chinese
Communist Party and the Chinese nation.’’
159 For information on China’s ‘‘bilingual education’’ policy for ethnic minority groups such as
Tibetans and Uyghurs, see, e.g., CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 152–53, 164; CECC,
2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 48, 201–2, 214–15; CECC, 2010 Annual Report, 10 October
10, 208–9; CECC, 2009 Annual Report, 10 October 09, 244, 258–61. See also International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Thousands of Tibetan Pilgrims Face Troops at Religious Ceremonies in Eastern
Tibet,’’ 8 March 13; Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Calls for Bilingual Policy, Crackdown on Immolations,’’ 15 March 13.
160 Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘China Alienates, Angers Tibetan Students With Political Education,’’ 29 November 12. TCHRD attributes the remark to Chapter
Four on bilingual education.
161 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Young Tibetans Sentenced to Five-Year Prison Terms
After Chabcha Student Protests,’’ 12 December 12; ‘‘Mass Tibetan Student Protest,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 9 November 12. According to the ICT report, middle and high school students in Tongren(Rebgong), Huangnan (Malho) TAP, reportedly called for, among other things, ‘‘equality of nationalities and freedom of languages.’’
162 Reports referred to the school by different names; it was not clear whether students from
more than one institution participated in the protest. ‘‘Gonghe County People’s Court Pronounces Sentences for ‘11.26’ Illegal Assembly Case’’ [Gonghe xian renmin fayuan xuanpan ‘‘11–
26’’ feifa youxing shiwei an], Xining Evening News, 17 April 13, reprinted in Qinghai News
Agency (Hainan Vocational and Technical School); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Chabcha Student Protesters Sentenced Up to Four Years,’’ 17 April 13 (Hainan[Tsolho] Vocational School); International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Student Detentions
After Protests in Chabcha, Rebkong,’’ 19 December 12 (Hainan [Tsolho] Professional Training
School); ‘‘More Than 1000 Chabcha Students Protest Chinese Authorities,’’ Voice of America, 26
November 12 (Gonghe [Chabcha] Medical School); ‘‘More Tibetans Detained,’’ Radio Free Asia,
12 December 12 (Hainan [Tsolho] Medical Institute).
163 For more information on the eight students and their sentences, see the following in theCommission’s Political Prisoner Database: Records 2013–00001 on Lhaten (3 years and 6
months); 2013–00002 on Wanggyal Tsering (3 years and 3 months); 2013–00003 on Jampa
Tsering (3 years and 6 months); 2013–00004 on Choekyong Kyab (3 years and 3 months); 2013–
00005 on Sanggye Bum (4 years); 2013–00006 on Dola Tsering (3 years); 2013–00007 on Tsering
Tashi (3 years); and 2013–00008 on Kunsang Bum (3 years and 6 months).

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164 PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], issued 1 July 79, amended 14
March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 296 (‘‘anassembly, a procession or a demonstration is held with no application made in accordance withthe provisions of law . . . .’’).
165 Tibetan Centre for Human Rights and Democracy, ‘‘Chabcha Student Protesters Sentenced
Up to Four Years,’’ 17 April 13 (students reportedly also resented the booklet’s ‘‘propaganda attacks against self-immolation protests’’); ‘‘Gonghe County People’s Court Holds Trial for ‘11.26’
Illegal Assembly’’ [Gung-ho rdzong mi-dmang khrims-gang gos ‘‘11–26’’ krims-’gal-gyi khromskor-byed pa’i gyod-don ‘dri-gcod byas-pa], China Tibet Network, 17 April 13; ‘‘Gonghe County
People’s Court Pronounces Sentences for ‘11.26’ Illegal Assembly Case’’ [Gonghe xian renmin
fayuan xuanpan ‘‘11–26’’ feifa youxing shiwei an], Xining Evening News, 17 April 13, reprinted
in Qinghai News Agency.
166 ‘‘More Tibetans Detained,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12 December 12.
167 International Campaign for Tibet, ‘‘Tibetan Student Detentions After Protests in Chabcha,
Rebkong,’’ 19 December 12 (‘‘the pamphlet includes an incoherent diatribe on the Tibetan selfimmolation protests, which are equated to ‘terrorist acts’ ’’); Tibetan Centre for Human Rights
and Democracy, ‘‘China Alienates, Angers Tibetan Students With Political Education,’’ 29 November 12 (the booklet stated that self-immolations ‘‘are [the] same as other violent and terrorist acts’’).
168 ‘‘Tibetan Student Leader Jailed, Nuns Released,’’ Radio Free Asia, 12 June 13. For more
information, see the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database record 2013–00207 on Wangchug
Dorje.
169 ‘‘Push To Preserve the Tibetan Language in China,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 February 13. According to the RFA report, Tibetans in Guoluo (Golog) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai
province, gathered on February 21 in front of a portrait of the Dalai Lama and read poems on
the importance of protecting the Tibetan language. See United Nations, ‘‘International Mother
Language Day: 21 February,’’ last visited 9 May 13. According to the UN Web site, the United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established International
Mother Language Day in November 1999 in order ‘‘to promote the preservation and protectionof all languages used by peoples of the world.’’ International Mother Language Day has been
observed on February 21 since 2000.
170 ‘‘Push To Preserve the Tibetan Language in China,’’ Radio Free Asia, 25 February 13. According to the report, the posters appeared in Luqu (Luchu) county, Gannan (Kanlho) Tibetan
Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu province.
171 ‘‘Tibetan Language Classes Closed,’’ Radio Free Asia, 10 January 13. According to the report, authorities in a township in Songpan (Zungchu) county, Aba (Ngaba) Tibetan and Qiang
Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan province, banned the classes, which were underway during thewinter school break.
172 ‘‘No Local Residents, Monks, Nuns Self-Immolate in Tibet: Official,’’ Xinhua, 3 March 13(Pema Choling, Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Tibet Autonomous Region People’s
Congress, said, ‘‘Developing economy, improving people’s well-being, and building a sound education is key to overall development of Tibet.’’); Chen Quanguo, ‘‘Firmly and Unswervingly Take
the Road of Development With Chinese and Tibetan Characteristics, and Struggle in Unity To
Achieve Development by Leaps and Bounds and Long-Term Stability and Security’’ [Jianding
buyi zou you zhongguo tese xizang tedian fazhan luzi—wei shixian kuayueshi fazhan hechangzhijiuan er tuanjie dou], Tibet Daily, 18 November 11, reprinted in China Tibet Information Center (translated in Open Source Center, 4 December 11) (TAR Party Secretary Chen
Quanguo described development as ‘‘the foundation on which to resolve all of Tibet’s problems.’’).
173 See, e.g., ‘‘Tibetans Detained for Protesting Destruction of Their Homes,’’ Radio Free Asia,
11 April 13. For more information on earthquake-related property protests in Kyegudo (‘‘Jiegu’’),see CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 218–19. For information on self-immolations carried out as property protests in Kyegudo (‘‘Jiegu’’), see, e.g., ‘‘Tibetan Evictee Self-Immolates,’’
Radio Free Asia, 4 April 13 (on the non-fatal, late-March 2013 self-immolation of an unidentified
female); ‘‘A Tibetan Woman’s Self Immolation Known,’’ Tibet Express, 4 January 13 (on the September 13, 2012, non-fatal property protest by Pasang Lhamo); ‘‘Land Seizure Protests in
Keygudo Prompts Self-Immolation,’’ Phayul, 4 July 12 (on the June 27, 2012, non-fatal property
protest of female Dekyi Choezom).
174 See, e.g., ‘‘Threat To Destroy Chinese Abattoir,’’ Radio Free Asia, 1 February 13 (Tibetans
in Mangkang (Markham) county, Changdu (Chamdo) prefecture, TAR, ‘‘threatened to destroy a
Chinese-operated slaughterhouse polluting local sources of drinking water after authorities ignored their petitions to shut it down’’); ‘‘Mine Ruins River, Destroys Farms,’’ Radio Free Asia,
18 January 13 (‘‘Chinese mining operations’’ in Linzhou (Lhundrub) county, Lhasa municipality,
TAR, were ‘‘destroying farmers’ fields and forcing herders to move away from traditional grazing
areas’’).
175 ‘‘Two Tibetans Self-Immolate, Total Reaches 89,’’ Voice of America, 29 November 12 (Bande
Khar called for ‘‘the return of the Dalai Lama to Tibet, the release of all Tibetan political prisoners, freedom of religion and language and protection of Tibet’s fragile environment’’).
176 ‘‘Political Bureau Done Mapping Out New General Strategy for Governing Tibet’’[Zhengzhiju mouding zhizang xin fanglue], China News Service, 10 January 10 (translated inOpen Source Center, 10 January 10); ‘‘The CPC Central Committee and the State Council Holdthe Fifth Tibet Work Forum; Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao Deliver Important Speeches,’’ Xinhua,
22 January 10 (translated in Open Source Center, 24 January 10). See also CECC, 2010 Annual
Report, 10 October 10, 215–19; ‘‘Communist Party Leadership Outlines 2010–2020 ‘Tibet Work’
Priorities at ‘Fifth Forum,’ ’’ CECC China Human Rights and Rule of Law Update, No. 3, 16
March 10, 2.
177 ‘‘Political Bureau Done Mapping Out New General Strategy for Governing Tibet’’[Zhengzhiju mouding zhizang xin fanglue], China News Service, 10 January 10 (translated in

311Open Source Center, 10 January 10) (‘‘adherence to a development path with Chinese characteristics [tese] and Tibetan traits [tedian]’’).
178 See, e.g., Liu Sha, ‘‘Investment in Western China Tripled in 2012,’’ Global Times, 21 December 12 (‘‘western development strategy, a policy adopted in 2000 by the State Council’’); Li
Dezhu, ‘‘Large-Scale Development of Western China and China’s Nationality Problem,’’ Seeking
Truth, 1 June 00 (Open Source Center, 15 June 00) (Li Dezhu [Li Dek Su] addresses the socialand ethnic implications of the program that Jiang Zemin launched in 1999); ‘‘Premier Wen Says
China Will Continue Developing Western Region,’’ Xinhua, 16 October 09 (Premier Wen Jiabao
stated China ‘‘would unswervingly stick to the West Development Strategy adopted in 2000’’);‘‘Chinese Leaders Call for More Efforts To Develop West,’’ Xinhua, 6 July 10; ‘‘China’s Western
Region Development Plan a Dual Strategy,’’ Xinhua, 8 July 10 (Deputy Director Du Ying of the
National Development and Reform Commission said the initiative would continue ‘‘in the western region during the next ten years’’).
179 Liu Sha, ‘‘Investment in Western China Tripled in 2012,’’ Global Times, 21 December 12.
180 Zhu Zhe, ‘‘Lhasa-Xigaze Railway To Open by the End of 2014,’’ China Daily, 8 November
12. According to the China Daily report, Jampa Phuntsog, Chairman of the Standing Committeeof the TAR People’s Congress, provided the date that operation would start. Budget for the railway reportedly is 13.3 billion yuan.
181 ‘‘Tibet Starts Building 5th Civil Airport,’’ Xinhua, 30 April 09. According to the report,‘‘Construction on the 11-billion-yuan [US$1.61 billion] Qinghai-Tibet railway’s extension line
started in 2008 and was expected to be completed in 2010.’’ The article provided the estimatedcost as 11 billion yuan.
182 ‘‘Full Speed Ahead for Tibet Railway Extension,’’ Xinhua, 17 January 12. According to thereport, ‘‘The extension of a landmark railway from Tibet’s capital, Lhasa, to its second-largest
city, Xigaze, is in full swing and will be completed by 2015, officials said Tuesday.’’
183 Fu Shuangqi et al., ‘‘China Unveils Plan To Streamline Gov’t,’’ Xinhua, 10 March 13;
Cheng Yunjie and Chen Siwu, ‘‘Xinhua Insight: Parliament Endorses Cabinet Reshuffle,
Unleashing China’s Reform Vitality,’’ Xinhua, 14 March 13.
184 Cui Jia and Wang Huazhong, ‘‘Doubts Surface Over Reorganizing Railways,’’ China Daily,
13 March 13. According to the report, Jampa Phuntsog (Xiangba Pingcuo) said ‘‘there would be
uncertainty if the Ministry of Railways ceased to exist because under the current system it’seasier for the ministry to approve construction plans in the region.’’ Chairman of the TAR People’s Government Lobsang Gyaltsen (Luosang Jianzan) reportedly said, ‘‘The cost of building
railways in high plateau areas is extremely high and it is not something a company would liketo do if it doesn’t make money.’’ China Directory 2012, ed. Radiopress (Tokyo: JPM Corporation,Ltd., 2011), 432–33. Under the name ‘‘Qiangba Puncog,’’ China Directory provides the positionsof Executive Deputy Secretary of the TAR Party Committee and Chairman of the Standing Committee of the TAR People’s Congress; under the name ‘‘Lobsang Gyaincain,’’ it provides the position of member of the Standing Committee of the TAR Party Committee.
185 For information on the compulsory nature and extent of the program, see Human Rights
Watch, ‘‘ ‘They Say We Should Be Grateful’—Mass Rehousing and Relocation Programs in Tibetan Areas of China,’’ 27 June 13. Also see Human Rights Watch, ‘‘ ‘No One Has the Liberty
To Refuse’—Tibetan Herders Forcibly Relocated in Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and the Tibet Autonomous Region,’’ 11 June 07; CECC, ‘‘Special Topic Paper: Tibet 2008–2009,’’ 22 October 09,
53–54.
186 ‘‘Tibet To Accelerate Housing Project in Rural Area,’’ China Tibet Online, 11 January 13,
reprinted in China Tibet News.
187 Chen Feiyu, ‘‘ ‘Five Continued Focuses,’ Realize Greater Development (Under Guidance of
Scientific Development Concept)—Interview With Tibet CPC Secretary Chen Quanguo’’ [‘‘Wu ge
ji xu zhuoli’’ shixian geng da fazhan (zai kexue fazhan guan zhiyin xia)—fang xizang zizhiqudangwei shuji chen quanguo], People’s Daily, 4 September 12 (translated in Open Source Center,
21 September 12) (‘‘We will ensure that all farmers and herdsmen can live in safe and comfortable houses by the end of 2013.’’).
188 State Council Opinion on Promoting and Speeding Up Sound Development in Grazing
Areas [Guowuyuan fabu guanyu cujin muqu you hao you kuai fazhan de ruogan yijian], PRC
People’s Central Government, 9 August 11.
189 For information on the March 29, 2013, landslide at a gold mine that killed at least 83
workers in Mozhugongka (Maldro Gongkar) county, Lhasa municipality, TAR, see, e.g., ‘‘Memorial Service Held for Tibet Landslide Victims,’’ Xinhua, 4 April 13; International Campaign for
Tibet, ‘‘Disaster in Gyama Draws Attention to Impact of Mining in Tibet,’’ 5 April 13; ‘‘More
Than 80 Trapped in Tibet Gold Mine Landslide,’’ Radio Free Asia, 29 March 13. For a 2011
commentary and images of mining in the area where the landslide occurred, see ‘‘Using Google
Earth To Monitor Mining in Tibet 3: Example of Gyama,’’ Tibetan Plateau (blog), 9 January 11.
190 ‘‘Mine Ruins River, Destroys Farms,’’ Radio Free Asia, 18 January 13 (‘‘mining operations
are damaging the environment in a county outside Tibet’s regional capital Lhasa, destroying
farmers’ fields and forcing herders to move away from traditional grazing areas’’); ‘‘Chinese
Mine Killing Livestock, Destroying Farm in Tibet,’’ Phayul, 21 January 13 (‘‘mining project in[Linzhou (Lhundrub) county, Lhasa municipality] has forced the eviction of hundreds of Tibetans . . . and caused severe damage to the environment, leading to livestock deaths and decline
in farm yield’’); ‘‘Threat To Destroy Chinese Abattoir,’’ Radio Free Asia, 1 February 13 (residents
in Mangkang [Markham] county, Changdu [Chamdo] prefecture, TAR, ‘‘threatened to destroy a
Chinese-operated slaughterhouse polluting local sources of drinking water after authorities ignored their petitions to shut it down’’). For an overview of mining operations and pollution, seeRichard Finney, ‘‘Chinese Mines Pollute Tibet’s Rivers, Streams,’’ Radio Free Asia, 6 May 13.
191 ‘‘Thousands of Tibetans Protest Against Mine,’’ Radio Free Asia, 28 May 13.
192 ‘‘Tibet To Step Up Exploitation of Mineral Resources, Vowing To Be ‘Rational,’ ’’ Xinhua,
12 March 10. According to the report, an official described the TAR mining industry as ‘‘fledg-

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ling’’ and ‘‘contributing about 3 percent to the local economy.’’ ‘‘By 2020, the mineral industry
would contribute to 30 to 50 percent of Tibet’s GDP,’’ he said.
193 Richard Finney, ‘‘Concerns Arise Over China’s Dam Building Drive in Tibet,’’ Radio Free
Asia, 17 April 13; Simon Denyer, ‘‘Chinese Dams in Tibet Raise Hackles in India,’’ Washington
Post, 7 February 13; ‘‘China Announces a Slew of Dams on Brahmaputra and Salween,’’ Phayul,
31 January 13.
194 For details on hydropower projects that are currently operational, under construction, or
proposed, including maps, name information in English, Chinese, and Tibetan, and details on
capacity and height, see ‘‘2013 Update: Dams on the Drichu (Yangtze), Zachu (Mekong) andGyalmo Ngulchu (Salween) Rivers on the Tibetan Plateau,’’ Tibetan Plateau (blog), 26 March
13.
195 In addition to the 328 Tibetans detained on or after March 10, 2008, whom courts sentenced to imprisonment, are 8 Tibetans believed charged with a crime (and who may face trial);
7 Tibetans believed charged and tried (and who may have been sentenced); 1 Tibetan who wascharged, tried, and released; and 1 Tibetan who was charged, tried, and then died.
196 In addition to the 622 Tibetan political prisoners believed or presumed to be currently detained or imprisoned and who were detained on or after March 10, 2008, the Commission’s Political Prisoner Database recorded, as of September 1, 2013, 909 Tibetan political prisoners detained or imprisoned on or after March 10, 2008, who are believed or presumed to have beenreleased, or who reportedly escaped or died.
197 Tibetan Buddhists believe that a trulku is a teacher who is a part of a lineage of teachersthat are reincarnations.
198 Of the 176 fixed terms of imprisonment, 171 were judicial sentences ranging from 1 year
and 6 months to 20 years, and 5 were periods of reeducation through labor of 2 years.
199 PRC Criminal Law [Zhonghua renmin gongheguo xingfa], issued 1 July 79, amended 14
March 97, effective 1 October 97, amended 25 December 99, 31 August 01, 29 December 01,
28 December 02, 28 February 05, 29 June 06, 28 February 09, 25 February 11, art. 50. A sentence of death with a two-year reprieve may be commuted to life imprisonment upon expirationof the two-year suspension if a prisoner ‘‘commits no intentional crime’’ during the suspension.
If a prisoner ‘‘has truly performed major meritorious service,’’ then the sentence may be commuted to a fixed-term sentence of not less than 15 years and not more than 20 years. If theprisoner ‘‘has committed an intentional crime’’ during the period of suspension, the death penalty ‘‘shall be executed upon verification and approval of the Supreme People’s Court.’’313
Notes to Section VI—Developments in Hong Kong and Macau
1 Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic ofChina, passed 4 April 90, effective 1 July 97, art. 2 (‘‘high degree of autonomy’’), art. 27 (freedoms of speech and assembly), art. 32 (freedom of religion), art. 39 (applicability of ICCPR).
2 Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic ofChina, passed 4 April 90, effective 1 July 97,art. 45 (selection of Chief Executive by universal
suffrage), art. 68 (selection of Legislative Council by universal suffrage).
3 UN Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations on the Third Periodic Report ofHong Kong, China, Adopted by the Committee at its 107th session (11–28 March 2013), CCPR/
C/CHN–HKG/CO/3, 29 April 13, para. 6.
4 Ibid.
5 Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic ofChina, passed 4 April 90, effective 1 July 97, art. 45.
6 Decision of the National People’s Congress Standing Committee on Issues Relating to the
Methods for Selecting the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and
for Forming the Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in the Year2012 and on Issues Relating to Universal Suffrage [Quanguo ren da changweihui guanyu
xianggang tebie xingzheng qu 2012 nian xingzheng zhangguan he lifahui chansheng banfa ji
youguan puxuan wenti de jueding], passed 29 December 07.
7 UN Human Rights Committee, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under
Article 40 of the Covenant, Third Periodic Report of States Parties, Hong Kong, China, CCPR/
C/CHN–HKG/3, 19 July 11. The document is a report by the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region government to the UN Human Rights Council.
8 Legislative Counsel of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republicof China, ‘‘LegCo Today,’’ last visited 2 October 13; Bill K. P. Chou, ‘‘Elections in Hong Kong:
International Perspectives and Implications for China,’’ in China and East Asia: After the WallStreet Crisis, eds. Peng Er Lam et al. (Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.,
2013), 82 (Chief Executive election), 88–89 (Legislative Council’s corporate electors, electors withmultiple votes), 89 (electorate size for functional constituencies).
9 ‘‘Occupy Central Movement Gaining Support Among Young,’’ South China Morning Post, 2
July 13; Joshua But and Emily Tsang, ‘‘Occupy Central Poised To Top July 1 Donation Chart,’’South China Morning Post, 3 July 13.
10 Joshua But and Gary Cheung, ‘‘Occupy Central Pioneer Outlines Its Four-Stage Plan To
Achieve Democracy,’’ South China Morning Post, 28 March 13.
11 Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Information Services Department, ‘‘Curriculum
Guide of Moral and National Education Subject Formally Shelved (Press Release),’’ 8 October
12.
12 Keith Bradsher, ‘‘Hong Kong Retreats on ‘National Education’ Plan,’’ New York Times, 8September 13.
13 Stuart Lau and Joshua But, ‘‘CY Leung Won’t Be Drawn on PLA Help for Occupy Central,’’South China Morning Post, 12 July 13; Chester Yung and Te-Ping Chen, ‘‘Thousands in Hong
Kong Mark Handover With Rally for Democracy,’’ Wall Street Journal, 1 July 13; Tony Cheung,‘‘Leung Chun-Ying Says Beijing’s Consent To Start Reform Talks Not Needed,’’ South China
Morning Post, 4 May 13.
14 Phila Siu et al., ‘‘Call To Put Off Suffrage Debate Is Panned as ‘Stalling Tactic,’ ’’ South
China Morning Post, 24 June 13.
15 CECC, 2012 Annual Report, 10 October 12, 169.
16 Zhang Xiaoming, ‘‘Director Zhang Xiaoming Replies to Civic Party Leader Alan Leong’s Letter’’ [Zhang xiaoming zhuren huifu gongmindang dangkui liang jiajie de xin], Liaison Office of
the Central People’s Government in the Hong Kong S.A.R., 30 August 13; Tanna Chong, ‘‘Civil
Nomination Proposal Violates Basic Law, Says Zhang Xiaoming,’’ South China Morning Post,
13 September 13.
17 Te-Ping Chen, ‘‘Communist Party Douses Hong Kong Hopes for Full Democracy,’’ WallStreet Journal, 13 September 13.
18 Liaison Office of the Central People’s Government in the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region, ‘‘Qiao Xiaoyang’s Remarks at a Hong Kong Conference With Select Legislative Council
Members’’ [Qiao xiaoyang zai xianggang lifahui bufen yiyuan zuotanhui shang de jianghua], 27
March 13.
19 Ibid.
20 Keith Bradsher, ‘‘Hong Kong Court Denies Residency to Domestics,’’ New York Times, 25
March 13.
21 Ibid.
22 ‘‘US Got NSA Leaker Edward Snowden’s Middle Name Wrong, Says Hong Kong,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Guardian, 26 June 13.
23 Jane Perlez and Keith Bradsher, ‘‘China Said To Have Made Call To Let Leaker Depart,’’New York Times, 23 June 13.
24 Ibid.
25 Hong Kong Journalists Association, ‘‘Dark Clouds on the Horizon—Hong Kong’s Freedomof Expression Faces New Threats, 2013 Annual Report,’’ July 2013, 8–9.
26 Ng Kang-chung, ‘‘Next Media Dangles HK$1M Carrot To Hunt Down Attackers,’’ South
China Morning Post, 1 July 13.
27 Hong Kong Journalists Association, ‘‘Dark Clouds on the Horizon—Hong Kong’s Freedomof Expression Faces New Threats, 2013 Annual Report,’’ July 2013, 8–9; Johnny Tam, ‘‘Leung
Chun-Ying ‘Failing’ on Press Freedom, Says Journalist Group,’’ South China Morning Post, 8
July 13.
28 Hong Kong Journalists Association, ‘‘Survey on Press Freedom Under the Tsang Administration (2005–12),’’ 24 June 12.

314
29 Freedom House, ‘‘Freedom of the Press 2013, Hong Kong,’’ 2013.
30 Hong Kong Journalists Association, ‘‘Dark Clouds on the Horizon—Hong Kong’s Freedomof Expression Faces New Threats, 2013 Annual Report,’’ July 2013, 15.
31 Ibid.
32 Nicholas Frisch, ‘‘Hong Kong’s Blind Spot,’’ Wall Street Journal, 25 November 11; ‘‘Memory
Hole,’’ Economist, 12 April 13; Te-Ping Chen, ‘‘Hong Kong’s Skyscraper-Sized ‘Memory Hole,’ ’’Wall Street Journal, 25 January 13.
33 Te-Ping Chen, ‘‘Hong Kong’s Skyscraper-Sized ‘Memory Hole,’ ’’ 25 January 13.
34 The Law Reform Commission of Hong Kong, ‘‘Archives Law,’’ last visited 11 September 13.
35 Office of the Ombudsman, ‘‘Press Release—Ombudsman Probes Access to Information andRecords Management in Hong Kong,’’ 20 January 13.
36 Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau, ‘‘New Arrangement for the Inspection of Personal Information on the Companies Register Under the New Companies Ordinance,’’ Legislative Council Panel on Financial Affairs, CB(1)788/12–13(01), 28 March 13; Nick Frisch, ‘‘Hong
Kong’s Tainted Transparency,’’ Wall Street Journal, 19 February 13; ‘‘Hong Kong Company Director Privacy Plan Raises Transparency Concerns,’’ Associated Press, reprinted in Guardian,
10 January 13; ‘‘Of Privacy and Opacity,’’ Economist, 2 March 13.
37 Nick Frisch, ‘‘Hong Kong’s Tainted Transparency,’’ Wall Street Journal, 19 February 13. See
also ‘‘Hong Kong Company Director Privacy Plan Raises Transparency Concerns,’’ AssociatedPress, reprinted in Guardian, 10 January 13; ‘‘Of Privacy and Opacity,’’ Economist, 2 March 13.
38 Basic Law of the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China,
passed 31 March 93, effective 20 December 99, art. 40 (‘‘The provisions of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights . . . as applied to Macao shall remain in force and shall be implemented through thelaws of the Macao Special Administrative Region’’).
39 UN Human Rights Committee, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Concluding Observations on the Initial Report of Macao, China, Adopted by the Committee at its
107th session (11–28 March 2013), CCPR/C/CHN–MAC/CO/1, 29 April 13, para. 7.
40 Fox Yi Hu, ‘‘Macau Told Not To Tag Along With Hong Kong on Universal Suffrage,’’ South
China Morning Post, 14 August 12.
41 ‘‘Yu Zhengsheng: Ensuring the Strength of Loving the Nation and Loving Hong Kong in theLong-Term Government of Hong Kong and Macau [Yu zhengsheng: aiguo aigang liliang zai
gangao changqi zhizheng], Wen Wei Po, 7 March 13.
42 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘‘Human Rights Committee Considers Report of Macao Special Administrative Region of China,’’ 19 March 13.
43 International Federation of Journalists, ‘‘Media at Risk: Press Freedom in China 2012–13,’’January 2013, 49–50; Neil Gough, ‘‘A Loss for Words in ‘Boring’ Macau,’’ South China Morning
Post, 8 August 12.
44 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, ‘‘Country Reports on Human Rights Practices—2012, China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau),’’ 24
May 12, 146.
45 Sum Choi, ‘‘AL Plenary Session: Lawmakers and PJ Head Debate on Journalists Values,’’Macau Daily Times, 17 April 13; Sum Choi, ‘‘Jason Chao Turns the Tables on the Gov’t,’’ Macau
Daily Times, 26 February 13.
46 ‘‘Macau’s Gambling Industry,’’ Economist, 10 December 11; ‘‘The House Is Still Winning,’’
Week in China, 10 May 13.
47 ‘‘The House Is Still Winning,’’ Week in China, 10 May 13; Matt Isaacs, ‘‘Special Report: The
Macau Connection,’’ Reuters, 11 March 11. For more information on Macau’s junket system, see
Farah Master, ‘‘Factbox: How Macau’s Casino Junket System Works,’’ Reuters, 21 October 11.
48 Farah Master, ‘‘Gamblers Not So Anonymous: Beijing Keeps Closer Eye on Macau,’’ Reuters, 29 April 13. According to this article, casino and junket operators ‘‘helped bring in over
two-thirds of Macau’s $38 billion in revenues last year.’’ See also ‘‘The House Is Still Winning,’’
Week in China, 10 May 13; CECC, 2011 Annual Report, 10 October 11, 224.
49 ‘‘The House Is Still Winning,’’ Week in China, 10 May 13.
50 Farah Master, ‘‘Gamblers Not So Anonymous: Beijing Keeps a Closer Eye on Macau,’’ Reuters, 29 April 13; Farah Master, ‘‘China Takes Anti-Corruption Drive to Macau’s Casino Halls,’’
Reuters, 4 December 12.
51 Farah Master, ‘‘Gamblers Not So Anonymous: Beijing Keeps a Closer Eye on Macau,’’ Reuters, 29 April 13.
52 Macau and Hong Kong, Hearing of the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 27 July 13, Testimony of Daniel L. Glaser, Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing,
U.S. Department of the Treasury, 3–4.
53 Ibid.
54 ‘‘Cross-Border Cash Flow Controls Mooted: Report,’’ Macau Business, 5 July 13.

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