THE MAUREEN MANSFIELDWOMEN’SEMPOWERMENTINITIATIVEJAPAN-KOREA-U.S.
YOUTH
EMPOWERMENTTABLE OF CONTENTS
Forward........................................................................................................................................ 1
Urgency to Protect Mental Health Among Professional Women in STEM.......................................... 3
Classrooms to Careers: Increasing Women’s University Opportunities to
Support Future Employment..........................................................................................................6
Quadrilateral Women’s Digital Infrastructure Development (QWID)................................................10
Revitalizing Diplomacy with North Korea...................................................................................... 13
Mitigating Gender-Based Violence During Natural Disaster Relief....................................................16

FORWARDThe views expressed in this publication are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the viewsof the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation or the program funder.

This program is administered by the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation with funding provided by the
U.S. Embassy in Tokyo through an open grant competition award.

The Maureen and Mike Mansfield Foundation’s mission is to foster mutual understanding and cooperation
among the peoples of Asia and the United States. We approach this impossibly broad mission incrementally,finding ways for the United States to work with like-minded partners on issues that matter to our future.
Although much of our work involves engaging senior policymakers, we also are committed to nurturing thenext generation of talented individuals who are weaving the fabric of community across the Pacific.
The world is confronting challenges of epic proportions, including wars of aggression, nuclear proliferation,
humanitarian crises, terrorism, climate change, and digital divides. In such a world, it is easy to doubt
the capacity of governments to fashion effective policies to promote peace, sustainability, and justice. All
governments, but particularly democratic ones, are struggling to reach consensus on how to tackle complex
problems. The tasks become easier when we help each other—learning lessons from each other’s successes
and failures. The Japan-ROK-U.S. triangle offers a particularly powerful platform for multilateral action. By
working together, and by finding ways to include marginalized voices, these three like-minded democracies can
not only tackle tough problems more successfully: they can also provide a powerful example of the resilience of
democratic institutions to other nations.
Participation is fundamental to democratic governance, and healthy and inclusive democracies require politicalparticipation from all sectors of the population. This goal is hard to achieve. Young adults in many societies
must overcome multiple obstacles—societal, cultural, and institutional—if they are to participate meaningfullyin the political processes that ultimately generate public policies. Women, particularly younger women, areoften under-represented. This stimies innovation and deprives governments of the best possible advice.

1Despite the hurdles sketched above, I find myself starting 2024 with a profound sense of optimism about
the future of our planet and our ability to fashion effective policy responses to the many difficulties facing
humanity. My optimism draws energy from the young leaders from Japan, the Republic of Korea (ROK), andthe United States assembled by the Mansfield Foundation with generous support from the U.S. Embassy inTokyo. In February 2023, the Mansfield Foundation launched the Trilateral Youth Empowerment program
under the banner of the “Maureen Mansfield Women’s Empowerment Initiative.” The program aimed to createand share youth-generated policy recommendations to address critical public policy challenges. We recruited 15
women university students, aged 18 to 24, and sorted them into five multinational teams. Each team worked
under the guidance of an experienced senior mentor: Dr. Emi Inagaki, Project Assistant Professor, Keio University
School of Medicine; Eileen Pennington, Associate Director, The Asia Foundation; Dr. Crystal Pryor, SeniorResearch Fellow, Center for Policy Research (CPR), University at Albany, SUNY; Dr. Kyungjin Song, Executive
Director of Innovative Economy Forum; and Dr. Cecilia Han Springer, Principal, Global Efficiency Intelligence.
The participants engaged in virtual workshops and meetings, as well as a week-long capstone visit to
Washington, DC, where they had the opportunity to meet with government officials, policy experts, andwomen thought leaders. The teams briefed relevant government agencies, NGOs, think tanks, and civil society
groups across town, culminating in a presentation of their policy briefs at a well-attended forum on Capitol
Hill.
As the readers will discover in the following pages, our program not only generated innovative approaches totough challenges but also amplified these important voices in the halls of power—a small but meaningful step
towards building more inclusive democratic systems.
In August 2023, the Japan-ROK-U.S. summit meeting at Camp David underscored the importance of trilateral
cooperation. The joint statement on the spirit of Camp David highlighted the commitment from the threeleaders to strengthening “people-to-people ties including among our young people and students.”1 It alsostressed that the three partners would work together so that, “women’s full and meaningful participation in all
sectors of society is assured.”2 Our young leaders’ initiative aligns perfectly with this vision.
Without further ado, we are proud to present five policy briefs on the following topics:
1. Urgency to Protect Mental Health Among Professional Women in STEM
2. Classrooms to Careers: Increasing Women’s University Opportunities to Support Future Employment
3. Quadrilateral Women’s Digital Infrastructure Development (QWID)
4. Revitalizing Diplomacy with North Korea
5. Mitigating Gender-Based Violence During Natural Disaster Relief
I hope that the reader will be as inspired by these young women and their passion and dedication to making
the world a better place for all as I have been.
Ari Hyunhee Lee, Director of Programs, Mansfield Foundation

URGENCY TO PROTECT MENTAL HEALTH AMONG
PROFESSIONAL WOMEN IN STEM
Authors:

Chaehee Kang / Korea University
Rena Mototani / Tokyo Medical and Dental University
Alyssa Taylor / University of Maryland, College Park

BACKGROUND
The lack of adequate protection for the mental health of many women in the fields of science, technology,
engineering, and math (STEM) is a gravely understudied problem. The huge gap between men and women
who make up the workforce is both a driver and a byproduct of this issue, with women making up only 27%3,
21.8%4, and 7%5 of STEM fields in the United States, the ROK, and Japan, respectively.
The initial inspiration for addressing this issue came from one team member who had been struggling mentallyas she was navigating balancing her medical school studies and personal life, and being overcome with anxiety
thinking about how much harder it would get as a professional doctor trying to balance also being a mother.
This was the spark that propelled us to uncover how seriously neglected the mental health crisis is among
women in STEM.
This tri-national platform is the ideal place to advocate for this neglected issue, not only to protect the basic
right of mental health among women in STEM but also to better the global STEM environment as a whole.

WHY THIS ISSUE IS IMPORTANT TO THE THREE COUNTRIESThere are three major reasons why this issue is important to Japan, the ROK, and the United States.
Firstly, from an ethical perspective, neither women nor men should be kept out of STEM for any reason. The
current paradigm and structure have created an environment that makes it hard for women in particular to
thrive in STEM, and so must be addressed to ensure equality in entering and thriving in these fields.
Secondly, having male-dominated work fields can lead to one-sided opinions and a lack of heterogeneity whencreating new ideas. Diversifying the workplace with more women can lead to more creative and innovativeideas that will better STEM as a whole.
Finally, cooperation is strongly desired because as three key global leaders in STEM, our addressing this issue
will garner worldwide attention. Japan, the ROK, and the United States have shared foundational values of
democracy and protecting the rights to well-being for all citizens. The trilateral cooperation of these threeleading countries in STEM is imperative to set global standards for the global community to follow, and to leadthrough example and show that women’s mental health should be adequately protected for these fields to truly
flourish.

3 Chakraverty, Devasmita. “Impostor Phenomenon in STEM: Occurrence, Attribution, and Identity.” Studies in Graduate and Postdoctoral Education 10, no. 1(2019): 2–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/sgpe-d-18-00014.

1 “The Spirit of Camp David: Joint Statement of Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the United States.” The White House, August 18, 2023. https://www.
whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/08/18/the-spirit-of-camp-david-joint-statement-of-japan-the-republic-of-korea-and-the-united-states/
2 “Fact Sheet: The Trilateral Leaders’ Summit at Camp David.” The White House, August 18, 2023. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statementsreleases/2023/08/18/fact-sheet-the-trilateral-leaders-summit-at-camp-david/.

2

4 Korea Foundation for Women in Science, Engineering and Technology. “2021 STEM Workforce in Korea: Women and Men in Science, Technology, Engineeringand Mathematics.” (2021). https://www.wiset.or.kr/prog/pblcte/eng/sub04_02_02/03/view.do;jsessionid=A7C9154661B5642B57977B82538B7B20?pblcteNo=828
5 Xu, Rui. “A New Growth Engine for Japan: Women in STEM Fields.” International Monetary Fund Selected Issue Paper (SIP/2023/030) (2023), 2. https://www.
imf.org/en/Publications/selected-issues-papers/Issues/2023/05/18/A-New-Growth-Engine-for-Japan-Women-in-STEM-Fields-Japan-533500

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FINDINGSThe Highly Demanding Nature of STEM and Women’s Underrepresentation
In STEM, prolonged working hours, heavy workloads, and a relentless drive for excellence are normalized.
These job demands significantly disrupt the work-life balance, increasing vulnerability to burnout.
Women’s underrepresentation and gender imbalance in the STEM fields further deteriorate women’s mental
health. In male-dominated STEM environments, women face the dual challenge of representing their genderand proving their competence by rising to higher workplace requirements amid the potential risk of devaluation
or stigmatization. Consequently, women often contend with chronic feelings of impostor syndrome. These aremarked by heightened anxiety and self-doubt, which contribute to the erosion of mental well-being. A study in
Korean medical schools supports these findings, indicating that female faculty members reported significantly
higher rates of burnout, particularly in emotional exhaustion at 43.2% compared to 29.6% among their malecounterparts.6
Socially Patterned Expectations and Dual Roles of Working Women
There is a deeply ingrained societal expectation that disproportionately places domestic responsibilities,
including childcare and elderly care, on women. Despite the increasing participation of women in theworkforce, traditional binary gender norms persist. Notably, research indicates that 58% of women in entrylevel positions and 58% of women in first-level manager positions take on most or all of their family’s household
duties and childcare.7 The dual roles of managing the home and workplace present physical challenges andcorrelate strongly with elevated stress levels and depressive symptoms.
Balancing work and life is particularly challenging for women in STEM due to the field’s demanding nature,often leading to tough choices between careers and family. Interviews conducted by our team with working
mothers highlighted the intensified mental burdens resulting from societal expectations for excellence in bothroles. It is imperative to address these professional obstacles caused by gender-related barriers to safeguard
women’s mental well-being in STEM.
Career Interruption and Women Who Can’t Come BackIn the United States, 43% of women in STEM depart from their full-time positions after having their first child,
whereas 23% of new fathers take leave from employment.8 Women encounter mental health challenges during
career interruptions and when attempting to re-enter the workforce after breaks. These career interruptions
can lead to reduced self-esteem, psychological pressure, and distress.

Short-Term Implementation: Recommendations that can be executed quickly and might show immediate
results.
a) Governments can provide financial aid to families with actively working females in STEM so that they
can delegate house chores to outside help.
b) Governments can provide subsidies to organizations that hire women returning from career breaks topromote their return to work.
Cost-Efficient Solutions: Suggestions that are budget-friendly and yet effective.
a) One mental health therapist, specializing in female-specific mental health issues, can be retained forcompanies that employ 20 or more female STEM employees.
b) Private companies can offer monthly mental health check-ups for STEM workers to prevent depressive
symptoms and provide proper preventative help.
Long-Term Goals: Recommendations that might require additional actors and a longer time to implement but
are essential for achieving the end goal.
a) We recommend that governments operate a mental health consultancy program to support womenexperiencing career breaks.
b) We recommend governments encourage third-party oversight of promotion selections in institutions, toensure career breaks due to child raising do not disproportionately influence promotions.

CONCLUSION
Japan, the ROK, and the United States produce many talented individuals in the STEM fields who take on
the grand challenges of our time related to sustainable energy, climate change, preventing war and conflict,and advancing technology for the betterment of humanity. Leaders from our three countries have alreadyaccomplished so much, but more work must be done. By encouraging inclusivity and supporting women in
STEM, we create opportunities for more incredible innovation and scientific success in the long run. A jointcommitment to producing the next generation of global leaders in STEM will ensure our countries can enjoy asafe, peaceful, and prosperous future.

The dynamic nature of STEM fields results in rapid skill obsolescence, posing significant challenges for women
aiming to return to their previous career level after a hiatus. Despite their suitable skills, resume gaps areoften viewed negatively, affecting tenure opportunities in academia and necessitating additional training for
healthcare professionals to regain licensure. Given this, a robust social support system is crucial to prevent
women in STEM from leaving the workforce and facilitate their successful reentry.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
We recommend the following actions to improve the mental health of women in STEM that can be broadly
implemented in Japan, the ROK, and the United States.

6 Seo, Ji-Hyun, Bae Hwa-Ok, Bong-Jo Kim, Sun Huh, Young Joon Ahn, Sung Soo Jung, Chan Woong Kim, et al. “Burnout of Faculty Members of Medical Schools in
Korea.” Journal of Korean Medical Science 37, no. 9 (March 2022). https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2022.37.e74.
7 Maslach, Christina, Wilmar B. Schaufeli, and Michael P. Leiter. “Job Burnout.” Annual Review of Psychology 52, no. 1 (February 1, 2001): 397–422. https://doi.
org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397.
8 Cech, Erin A., and Mary Blair-Loy. “The Changing Career Trajectories of New Parents in STEM.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the UnitedStates of America 116, no. 10 (February 19, 2019): 4182–87. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1810862116.

Photo Credit: Daniel Vasquez
Chaehee Kang, Rena Mototani, and Alyssa Taylor presenting their policy brief at the U.S. Capitol Building

45

CLASSROOMS TO CAREERS: INCREASING WOMEN’S UNIVERSITYOPPORTUNITIES TO SUPPORT FUTURE EMPLOYMENT
Authors:

Yui Okamura / University of Tsukuba
Samantha Segeda / Washington College
Acknowledgment: Yesol Lee / Sogang University

BACKGROUND

FINDINGSThe shortage of women in leadership positions
Unfortunately, there is a significant gender gap inJapan, the ROK, and the United States. According to
the 2023 Global Gender Gap Report, these countries
are ranked 133rd, 128th, and 33rd, respectively, in
gender representation of legislators, senior officials,
and managers.16
Demographic changes and declining workforce inJapan and the ROKJapan, the ROK, and the United States severely lack women in high-level positions, attributed to structuralgender barriers that impede the progress of educated and skilled women, contributing to unhealthy workplacecultures. Gender barriers persist as women outpace men in higher education enrollment and graduation rates,
yet remain underrepresented in the workforce, especially in senior leadership and C-suite roles. In the UnitedStates, for example, 58% of university students are female, yet only 41% hold management positions.9 Similarly,
45.5% of students enrolled at universities in Japan were female10 while women in management positions are
only 12.9%, and in the ROK, 42.7% of students at universities were female11, but only 14.6% of managers were
women.12 Limited childcare resources in all three countries are significant barriers to formal employment as
well, especially for working mothers grappling with personal, social, or financial challenges in maintaining
work-life balance.

WHY THIS ISSUE IS IMPORTANT TO THE THREE COUNTRIES
University students and emerging young professionals constitute the next generation of workers, vital for thestability of each country’s economy. This significance is underscored by recent events like Japan, the ROK,
and the United States Trilateral Summit at Camp David, where leaders emphasized women’s empowerment,
targeting “full and meaningful participation in all sectors of society.”13 With this in mind, Japan and the
ROK are also facing a demographic crisis, and prioritizing the employment of women is crucial to the future
workforce. For instance, in the ROK, the working-age population is expected to decrease by 3.2 million
by 2030.14 By strengthening higher education through women’s empowerment, we can impact students
before they enter their careers, providing them with skills and resources to bridge existing gender barriers.
Simultaneously, we can address demographic crises by leveraging the talents of skilled and educated women
who are not currently or fully represented in the workplace.
This policy recommendation aims to benefit university-aged and early-career women, with positive effects
extending to individuals of intersectional backgrounds. Aligned with the 2021 Biden-Harris Administration’s
National Strategy on Equity and Gender Equality, this policy recommendation prioritizes promoting“workforce development, mentorship, job training, and foundational leadership skills for women and girls”.15
The Japan-ROK-U.S. alliance, which already shares principles for women’s rights, aims to advance genderequality globally through innovative initiatives. By focusing on dismantling gender barriers, our initiatives
seek to improve workplace opportunities for women, cultivate healthier work environments, and contribute to
overall economic well-being.
9 Zippia. “25 Women In Leadership Statistics [2023]: Facts On The Gender Gap In Corporate And Political Leadership” Zippia.com. Jun. 8, 2023, https://www.
zippia.com/advice/women-in-leadership-statistics/

In addition to gender inequality, Japan and the
ROK are expected to confront challenges due todemographic changes towards an aging society. The
ROK’s potential labor force is projected to decreaseby 30% by 2050 compared to 2015,17 while Japan’slabor force could shrink by 20 million between 2017and 2050 if participation rates remain unchanged.18
Currently, in these two countries, many women workin part-time roles with short-term contracts, making
it difficult for them to advance socially, despite being
a valuable workforce in the context of an aging
population.19
Lack of childcare support for working parents
Issues concerning childcare accessibility and work-lifebalance hinder women’s career advancement. Onethird of the U.S. workforce has a child under 14 intheir household, yet nearly 20% of working parents
had to leave work or reduce their work hours solely
due to a lack of childcare.20 The ROK has a workplacechildcare policy that requires workplaces with morethan 500 employees or 300 female workers to provide
on-site childcare; however, some are neglecting
this responsibility while many working mothers
are considering quitting their jobs, according to the
Ministry of Health and Welfare. In Japan, the highnumber of children on the waiting list for daycare
centers has been a significant social issue for years.
Also, many women experience difficulty in taking
childcare leave, with strong pressure to return quickly
to their jobs, generally on a full-time basis.21

Yui Okamura and Samantha Segeda after presenting theirpolicy brief at the U.S. Capitol Building

10 “Women Make up Record 45.5% of University Students in Japan.” The Japan Times, August 27, 2020. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/08/26/
national/women-university-students-japan/.
11 Statista. “Number of University Students South Korea 2013-2022, by Gender,” April 25, 2023. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1379437/south-koreauniversity-students-by-gender/.

16 World Economic Forum. (2023). Global Gender Gap Report 2023. https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2023.pdf
17 OECD. (2018a). Working Better with Age: Korea. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264208261-en

12 OECD. “Employment: Share of Female Managers.” © OECD, n.d. https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=96330.

18 OECD. (2018b). Working Better with Age: Japan. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264201996-en

13 The White House. (2023, August 18). FACT SHEET: The Trilateral Leaders’ Summit at Camp David. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statementsreleases/2023/08/18/fact-sheet-the-trilateral-leaders-summit-at-camp-david/

19 Kalleberg, Arne L., Kevin Hewison, and Kwang-Yeong Shin. Precarious Asia: Global Capitalism and Work in Japan, South Korea, and Indonesia, 2021.

14 Jaehwan, Lee. “” KBS, February 7, 2022. https://n.news.naver.com/article/056/0011207701.

15 The White House. (2021). “National Strategy on Gender Equity and Equality”. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/National-Strategyon-Gender-Equity-and-Equality.pdf

6

20 Modestino, Alicia Sasser. “Childcare Is a Business Issue.” Harvard Business Review, November 24, 2021. https://hbr.org/2021/04/childcare-is-a-business-issue.
21 Weathers, Charles. “Child Care in Japan: The Changing Political Context”.
117(1):2016. https://dlisv03.media.osaka-cu.ac.jp/contents/osakacu/kiyo/DBb1170103.pdf[Osaka City University Journal of Economics],

7

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
Prioritize Addressing Gender Bias in Higher Education
Developing a comprehensive understanding of gender issues for university students prior to entering theircareers can proactively aid the identification and prevention of gender bias and discrimination.
a) Japan, the ROK, and the United States should prioritize reshaping higher education to dismantle gendernorms that act as structural barriers for women. This endeavor aims to cultivate a healthier work
environment for both women and men in early career stages, fostering equal opportunities for women toattain high-level positions in their future careers.
Implement Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Programs
Introducing SEL programs in higher education can help dismantle harmful gender stereotypes that frequently
influence individuals’ behavior, interpersonal dynamics, and environments, particularly in workplace contexts.
a) According to the National Center on Safe and Supportive Learning Environments, SEL teaching has
proven benefits such as enhancing empathy, managing emotions, maintaining positive relationships,
and fostering responsible decision-making. Implementing SEL in higher education can aid students inacquiring and applying transferable knowledge, skills, and attitudes, promoting positive workplace
etiquette and individual receptiveness. While SEL traditionally focuses on children and adolescents, not
all have access to such programs in primary and secondary education. Therefore, the three countries
should consider inclusive SEL initiatives in higher education, recognizing their positive influence inshaping future workforces.

community-building opportunities. Secondly, long-term mentorship, which includes three check-ins by amentor within the first year after graduation. This arrangement is designed to support and monitor the
progression of women in their early careers. Lastly, we recommend the adoption of career counseling foruniversity alumni to have a reliable network as a mechanism to support early career changes.
Prioritize Work-Life Support for Parents
In Japan, the ROK, and the United States, women are burdened and discriminated against in maintaining awork-life balance, but no parent should have to choose between their job and their child due to insufficient
resources.
a. Policymakers in Japan, the ROK, and the United States should encourage workplaces to increase thenumber and affordability of daycares to help foster work-life balance. Among our three countries, forexample, the ROK has the most detailed workplace daycare policy; however, the conditions to activate
this policy are strict. Having more than 300 employees is one of the main conditions, yet this applies toless than 5% of Korean companies. By adjusting the conditions, we can expand the number of employees
who can benefit from the policy.
b. Policymakers should implement appropriate awareness improvement programs on the parental leavesystem. Around 45% of workers cannot freely use parental leave due to the pressure in the ROK,
while Japanese workers feel “afraid” to use parental leave.22 Policymakers should mandate awarenessprograms, especially among high level positions, in companies to improve the workplace atmosphere.

Create Practical Skills Program, “LIFTS”
Leadership, Inclusivity, Finance, Teamwork, and Soft Skills (LIFTS) are practical skill sets to equip and uplift
women in the gendered workplace.
a) Our countries should consider creating a trilateral program similar to the framework of the AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation’s (APEC) La Serena Roadmap for Women and Inclusive Growth. This
strategic plan underscores the pivotal role of cultivating practical skills to enhance women’s labor force
participation, empowerment, and training in preparation for their entry into professional careers and theworkforce.
b) Recommended skills and competencies for LIFTS are public speaking, political savviness, financial
literacy and independence, conflict resolution, networking, and diversity training. This program canequip university women with valuable skill sets and prepare them to navigate and overcome structuralgender barriers they may encounter. The countries may seek support and funding from universities (e.g.
The Japan Association of National Universities and Korean Council for University Education) as well as
U.S. state lawmakers to enhance women’s participation and improvement of university education andsuccessful social involvement of students.
Create Mentor Program, “Girl, Let’s Connect”
A women’s mentorship program that seeks to closely support university women in progressing into their early
careers by connecting them with experienced professionals for interpersonal guidance.
a) For students who are not privileged with background knowledge or exposure to various career
opportunities, and particularly for women aspiring to enter male-dominated fields, this programprovides trusted voices and transparent perspectives by women for women.
b) We recommend three primary functions: Firstly, short-term mentorship, to assist university womenin their early career journeys by providing expert insights into career paths or specific job functions,facilitating access to career-specific resources, and encouraging participation in networking or

8

22 Seunghyun, Kye. “.” Yonhap News Agency, October 9, 2023. https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20231009024000004.;
Chris, Lau. “Japan wants 85% of male workers to take paternity leave. But fathers are too afraid to take it.” CNN, March 26, 2023. https://edition.cnn.
com/2023/03/26/asia/japan-paternity-leave-policy-challenges-intl-hnk-dst/index.html.

9

QUADRILATERAL WOMEN’S DIGITAL INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT (QWID)
Authors:

Rina Hashigasako / Hitotsubashi University
Yesun Kim / Ewha Womans University
Akhila Mullapudi / University of Michigan

BACKGROUND
Digital access is vital to capitalizing on the rapidly developing technologies that streamline countless services
and resources in the world today. While digital infrastructure is essential to securing basic needs such as
education, employment, and social welfare, the Indo-Pacific region suffers from a serious lack of quality
infrastructure. This deficit particularly affects vulnerable marginalized groups such as women residing in rural
areas who face greater disadvantages in accessing the internet. However, Japan, the ROK, and the UnitedStates have failed to address such needs as they do not have a coordinated mechanism in place for trilateral
digital infrastructure investments in the Indo-Pacific.23
This policy brief focuses on economic investment in digital infrastructure and telecommunications as a tool
for women’s empowerment and diplomatic strategy. “Digital infrastructure” within the scope of this paper
addresses two elements: 1) physical components such as broadband coverage and access to affordable mobile
devices, and 2) basic literacy and digital literacy education that allows people to benefit from it. As key leadersin the Indo-Pacific, our three countries must spearhead digital infrastructure initiatives by first focusing on thecase of India, which can then spur other countries’ participation as a catalyst.
Among many countries in the Indo-Pacific, India provides a special case based on its need and potential
for influence and growth. India faces numerous challenges due to its lack of digital infrastructure andconnectivity. Only 46% of Indian citizens use the internet,24 and digital access is more limited in rural areas,
where 7% of villages still lack 4G coverage.25 Such limitations are compounded by the negative prospects ofgender inequality and the gender digital divide. India ranks 127th out of 146 countries in the Global Gender
Gap Index.26 On a brighter note, however, India presents opportunities for technological investments as avibrant economy and democracy. The Indian government holds a significant interest in forging a digital society
via online government service systems such as e-Aadhaar.27 Given its unique geopolitical, economic, anddiplomatic strengths, India’s need for infrastructure can be turned into an opportunity for development.

WHY THIS ISSUE IS IMPORTANT TO THE THREE COUNTRIES

second benefit comes from the potential to boost
trade, investment, and technological collaboration.
Secondly, the four countries can initiate a positive
cycle of accelerating digitalization and women’s
empowerment by tapping into their synergistic strength.
The four countries are home to some of the world’s
biggest telecom companies such as TATA, AT&T,
NTT, and SK. Due to their extensive experience inconstructing digital infrastructure in diverse settings,
they are best positioned to provide infrastructure tovarious target groups. Additionally, by establishinglinkages between their business organizations andpolicy institutes involved in digital infrastructure, thefour countries can ensure stability, diversification,and resilience of supply chains, along with de-risking
objectives. The four countries can thus benefit bylearning from each other and sharing relevant expertisewith mutual respect. Moreover, India would not only bea recipient of funds but also act as a leader in advancing
digitalization and women’s empowerment. The
tremendous investment gap in various infrastructures
across the Indo-Pacific region cannot be addressed by
Japan, the ROK, and the United States alone. India has
great confidence in exporting its digital technologies toother developing countries,29 so its unique expertise andcommitment can enhance digitalization and women’s
rights in the Indo-Pacific.

Akhila Mullapudi, Rina Hashigasako, and Yesun Kim after
presenting their policy brief at the U.S. Capitol Building

FINDINGSThe Indo-Pacific region, with India at the forefront, grapples with a significant shortage of digital infrastructure
and investment. The investment gap for telecommunication infrastructure is $167 billion for India and $538
billion for Asia as a whole.30 This disproportionately affects women and hinders economic growth. Men are
52% more likely to be online than women in developing countries.31 In India, women are 15% less likely to own
a mobile phone and 33% less likely to use the mobile internet than men.32

The significant relevance of trilateral cooperation with India on its digital infrastructure hinges on at least
two points. Firstly, the three countries can enhance diplomatic and economic ties with India, a country ofgeopolitical significance. With its burgeoning geostrategic and economic importance, India plays a key role in
the Indo-Pacific as indicated in the three countries’ respective Indo-Pacific strategies.28 Investment in digital
infrastructure for women can thus strengthen trilateral partnership with India in two ways. The first aspect
concerns soft power in raising public awareness of and support for the trilateral partnership within India. The

To address these challenges, Japan, the ROK, and the United States can collaborate with India to provide
high-quality digital infrastructure for rural Indian women. Establishing the Quadrilateral Women’s Digital
Infrastructure Development (QWID) will enhance diplomatic and economic cooperation with India, facilitating
connections between tech firms, the public sector, and civil society, all with the aim of empowering women.
What sets the QWID apart is its clear focus on digital infrastructure and digital literacy education tailored to
the needs of Indian women in rural areas. Existing frameworks such as the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework(IPEF), Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), and G20 Framework for Systems for Digital Public
Infrastructure32 will benefit from specific enforcement measures under the QWID framework.

23 Friedhoff, Karl, Ichiro Fujisaki Han Sung-Joo, James B. Steinberg. “Cooperating, Competing, Confronting: US-Japan-South Korea Trilateral Cooperation as
China Rises.” Chicago Council on Global Affairs, July 7, 2021. https://globalaffairs.org/research/report/cooperating-competing-confronting-us-japan-south-koreatrilateral-cooperation-china.

29 “How India Is Using Digital Technology to Project Power.” The Economist, June 16, 2023. https://www.economist.com/asia/2023/06/04/how-india-is-usingdigital-technology-to-project-power.

24 World Bank. “Individuals using the Internet (% of population)”. World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS

30 “Global Infrastructure Outlook - A G20 INITIATIVE,” n.d. https://outlook.gihub.org/countries/India and https://outlook.gihub.org/region/Asia

25 Kar, Ayushi. “45,180 Indian Villages Are Still Deprived of 4G Network.” BusinessLine, February 10, 2023. https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/infotech/45180-indian-villages-are-still-deprived-of-4g-network/article66489641.ece.

31 Iglesias, Carlos. “The Gender Gap in Internet Access: Using a Women-Centred Method.” World Wide Web Foundation (blog), October 29, 2020. https://
webfoundation.org/2020/03/the-gender-gap-in-internet-access-using-a-women-centred-method/.

26 Global Gender Gap Report 2023. June 2023. World Economic Forum, 2023.

32 Oxfam India(OIN). “India Inequality Report 2022: Digital Divide | Oxfam India,” n.d. https://www.oxfamindia.org/knowledgehub/workingpaper/indiainequality-report-2022-digital-divide.

27 Common Services Centre (n.d.) Digital India. CSC E-Governance Services India Limited. https://csc.gov.in/digitalIndia
28 For the United States, see https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/U.S.-Indo-Pacific-Strategy.pdf; For Japan, see https://www.mofa.go.jp/
policy/page25e_000278.html; For the ROK, see https://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/brd/m_5676/view.do?seq=322133

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33 G20 Policy Recommendations for Advancing Financial Inclusion and Productivity Gains through Digital Public Infrastructure: Global Partnership for Financial
Inclusion 2023, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1596/40421.

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POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONREVITALIZING DIPLOMACY WITH NORTH KOREA

Japan, the ROK, and the United States should establish a cooperation framework, called the Quadrilateral
Women’s Digital Infrastructure Development (QWID), with India. The framework consists of three levels ofcooperation: multilateral fund collection, public-private partnerships, and people-to-people exchanges

Authors:

Min Ah Nam / Catholic University of Korea
Haruka Satake / Elliott School of International Affairs
Angie Sohn / Colby College

BACKGROUND
In 2015, 30 women peacemakers from around the world including Japan, the ROK, and the United Statescrossed the inter-Korean border in a historic peace campaign. In Pyongyang, the delegates held dialogue with
North Korean women and expressed mutual concerns for peace before crossing the demilitarized zone.35 The
peace campaign illustrates the pivotal role of women, particularly in the midst of deteriorating relations with
North Korea and a stagnant policy discourse. The COVID-19 pandemic severed virtually all diplomatic andhumanitarian channels with North Korea, stifling information flows and dissipating trust. North Korea’s
warming relations with Russia, as evidenced by Kim Jong Un’s trip in September 2023,36 starkly exposed thefailure of the current status quo while underscoring the urgency for new approaches. As North Korea graduallyeases its border restrictions,37 policymakers must consider strategies to recenter diplomacy and de-escalate
tensions.

WHY THIS ISSUE IS IMPORTANT TO THE THREE COUNTRIESPolicymakers should take the following steps to materialize the QWID:• Convene a working group of delegates and experts from each country within a specific timeframe tocoordinate the three levels of cooperation.
• Collaboratively conduct a pre-program needs assessment that incorporates gender perspectives fordeveloping new or existing projects.34• Engage non-governmental organizations, telecom companies, and universities in establishing stable
digital infrastructure and promoting accessible digital literacy education in India.
To elaborate, the four governments should first convene and coordinate funding among their foreign ministries,
international cooperation agencies, and multilateral development banks. Japanese, ROK, and American
telecom companies can share their expertise with their Indian counterparts to make mobile networks morestable and accessible in rural areas of India. Finally, to ensure implementation at the grassroots level, their
universities, think tanks, nongovernmental organizations, and tech firms can collaborate to promote digitaland financial literacy programs, vocational training, and other scholarship and exchange programs for Indian
women interested in learning digital infrastructure or STEM.
The QWID aims not only to provide Indian women with tools for accessing digital resources but also to equipthem with skills to utilize them effectively in their daily lives, to ultimately achieve financial independence andcare for their health, well-being, and aspirations. On an international plane, the QWID will gradually open
its membership to other Indo-Pacific countries and thereby sustain its long-term political commitment towardtrilateral cooperation and women’s empowerment.

Over the past year, Japan, the ROK, and the United States have bolstered their military cooperation through joint
exercises and routine meetings on North Korea policy, culminating in the high-level Trilateral Summit at CampDavid in August 2023.38 In July 2023, top diplomats from Japan, the ROK, and the United States affirmed theirreadiness to negotiate with North Korea “without any preconditions [or] hostile intent.”39 However, the prevailingstatus quo has primarily emphasized military deterrence while diplomacy has been sidelined. Our three countries
must reassess their approach and proactively take measures to restore dialogue with North Korea.

FINDINGS
Periods of negotiation have strongly correlated with a decrease in North Korean missile tests
According to a study by CSIS, over the past thirty years negotiation periods have strongly correlated with adecrease in North Korean missile tests. The 1990s marked a period of increased engagement in which North
Korea conducted no nuclear tests and only 11 missile launches.40 More recently, North Korea conducted zero
nuclear missile tests in 2018 amidst the backdrop of the bilateral summits.41 This sharply contrasts with theunprecedented surge in missile tests since the ROK’s President Yoon assumed office in 2022. As diplomacy
has stagnated, North Korea’s missile tests have increased dramatically. At the time of writing, the DPRK has
conducted 98 tests between 2022 and 2023—a sharp increase compared to just eight in 2021.42
35 Ahn, Christine. “Opening the Door to Peace on the Korean Peninsula: Women Cross DMZ.” The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, July 13, 2015. https://apjjf.
org/2015/13/28/Christine-Ahn/4342.html.
36 Park, Ju-Min. “North Korea’s Kim Heads Home after Week-Long Visit to Russia.” Reuters, September 17, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/north-koreaskim-discusses-stronger-ties-with-russian-defence-minister-kcna-2023-09-16/.
37 Guan, Ng Han. “North Korea Appears to Be Cracking Open Its Sealed Border with Dispatch of Sports Delegation | AP News.” AP News, August 18, 2023. https://
apnews.com/article/north-korea-taekwondo-covid19-borders-closed-16c630950219a2adf11d166aaab8e16a.
38 CFR Editors. “U.S.-Japan-South Korea Trilateral Summit.” Council on Foreign Relations, August 10, 2023. https://www.cfr.org/event/us-japan-south-koreatrilateral-summit.
39 Yamaguchi, Mari. “Japanese, US and South Korean Officials Condemn the North’s Weapons Plans but Urge Dialogue.” AP News, July 21, 2023. https://apnews.
com/article/japan-us-south-north-korea-missile-soldier-bb1bbfe4e158bce7b9d0026391bafc22.
40 “North Korean Missile Launches & Nuclear Tests: 1984-Present.” Missile Threat, June 1, 2023. https://missilethreat.csis.org/north-korea-missile-launches-1984present/.

34 “Women in infrastructure: Selected stocktaking of good practices for inclusion of women in infrastructure”, OECD Public Governance Policy Papers, No. 07.
https://doi.org/10.1787/9eab66a8-en.

12

41 Collins, Lisa. “25 Years of Negotiations and Provocations.” CSIS Beyond Parallel, 2017. https://beyondparallel.csis.org/25-years-of-negotiations-provocations/.
42 “The CNS North Korea Missile Test Database.” The Nuclear Threat Initiative, April 28, 2023. https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/cns-north-korea-missiletest-database/.

13

Civil society efforts demonstrate the power of grassroots diplomacy
The 2015 inter-Korean peace campaign led by women leaders was notably greenlit by both the United States
and North Korean governments, demonstrating the potential for peaceful civil society exchanges. In a similarvein, in the early 1990s Japanese legislator Sumiko Shimizu organized a conference in Tokyo that convened
both North Korean and ROK women to discuss their role in Asian peacebuilding.43 Non-sensitive scientificcollaboration has also facilitated exchange. In 2011, North Korean scientists were invited to the United States
to exchange ideas on agricultural development.44 Through a program that operated until 2019, Japanese
university students visited students at the Pyongyang University of Foreign Studies in which they discussed
current Japan-North Korean affairs.45 As demonstrated by past examples, the powerful capabilities of peopleto-people exchanges should not be overlooked.
Novel areas such as flood management offer opportunities for cooperation
In 1984, the ROK experienced flood damage as a result of heavy rainfall in Seoul and the surrounding
Gyeonggi-do area. In response, North Korea offered flood assistance, expressing its willingness to assist
the South. This marked the first inter-Korean exchange since the Korean War. This event contributed toan improvement in inter-Korean relations, ultimately leading to discussions on economic cooperation andfacilitating reunions of separated Korean families. In 2006, North Korea experienced significant flood damage
and subsequently requested construction relief equipment and medical supplies later that same year. In
response, the ROK agreed to provide ten tons of rice as well as supplies to North Korea and conducted on-site
visits to monitor the progress of restoration and cooperation.46 However, in 2009 when inter-Korean relations
deteriorated, North Korea unleashed water from one of its dams, causing a flash flood that inadvertently killed
six ROK citizens across the border.47 The deaths could have been prevented had there been communication,
signifying flood management as an area of mutual concern.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSLong-Term Recommendations: Coordinate and revitalize diplomacy efforts
Strong military coordination between Japan, the ROK, and the United States requires equally robust
coordination between their diplomatic ministries. For example, Japanese officials during the Six Party
Talks pursued their national agenda (e.g. the abductee issue) at the detriment of the greater goal of their
allies.48 Such missteps can be prevented by deepening coordination in order to maximize preparedness for
future opportunities. Furthermore, according to the GRIT theory, strong-nation concessions can promotereciprocation by weaker counterparts; pursuing a conciliatory approach can thus lead to greater confidencebuilding.49 Therefore, engagement policies advocate for strategic measures such as reframing denuclearization
as an end goal rather than a precondition for talks, calling for a formal end to the Korean War, and relaxing
sanctions50 that yield poor results (such as heavy sanctions on the North Korean textiles industry which
overwhelmingly employs women.)51 Despite existing constraints, dialogue must be prioritized by graduallyeasing tensions, starting with areas where relaxation is feasible.
43 Ahn, C. (2015).
44 Spezza, Gianluca. “North Korea and the Role of Science Diplomacy”. Focus Asia, January 2022. https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2022/01/North-Korea-andthe-Role-of-Science-Diplomacy-24.01.2022.pdf
45 “Japanese and North Korean Students Build Friendships on Pyongyang Exchange Program.” The Japan Times, August 22, 2019. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/
news/2019/08/23/national/japanese-north-korean-students-exchange/.
46 Kim, Jinwon, and Hoyoung Jeong. “A Study of Legal Issues for Effective ROK-DPRK Emergency Response Cooperation.”2018): 25–55. https://doi.org/10.21487/jrm.2018.5.3.1.25.

3, no. 1 (May 31,a) Identify areas for mutual collaboration such as disaster management and non-sensitive scientificresearch. Both North Korea and the ROK face heavy flooding in the summer, presenting a sharedpublic safety concern that impacts both sides of the border. Flood management may serve as a“low-hanging fruit” that can help open communication channels. Furthermore, Japan, the ROK,
and the United States, as countries with robust scientific communities, can coordinate to provide
know-how to North Korean specialists on non-sensitive topics such as agriculture and medicine tohelp alleviate the worsening humanitarian crisis in the country. Such scientific collaborations are
crucial as they will not only save lives but also open communication channels.
Short-Term Recommendations: Increase forums for
marginalized communities from Japan, the ROK,
and the United States to exchange ideas on North
Korea
Men have traditionally made the decisions in thecurrent policy landscape. Amplifying the voicesof women, young people, the socioeconomicallydisadvantaged, and other marginalized communities
can add more nuance to the stagnant policy
discourse. Policy think tanks, government entities,
and civil society organizations can play a role infacilitating such spaces. Furthermore, forums canhighlight viewing North Korean policy through asoft power lens, an angle often neglected in a policy
space where military and hard-power policy takeprecedence. Finally, establishing trilateral forums
can help promote the exchange of ideas between thethree nations, reconciling differing perspectives andfostering consensus on North Korea policy.

CONCLUSION
Navigating diplomacy with North Korea remains
a complex challenge, influenced by a number offactors such as geopolitical dynamics and national
interests, election cycles and shifting policies acrossadministrations, contrasting interpretations of“peace,” the calculus of negotiating with a nuclear
state, and more. However, the current status quo
policy approach has heavily relied on military
posturing at the cost of diplomacy, posing serious
concerns for the future of relations with North
Korea. It is therefore paramount that allies work torevitalize dialogue. Finally, we call for the upliftingof voices from marginalized communities who havea consequential stake in enriching and elevating thepolicy discourse on North Korea

Angie Sohn, Min Ah Nam, and Haruka Satake at the U.S. Departmentof State after presenting their policy brief to officials from theJapan, DPRK, and Women’s Global Issues desks

47 Sang-Hun, Choe. “South Korea Demands Apology from North Over Dam Incident.” The New York Times, September 9, 2009. https://nytimes.
com/2009/09/09/world/asia/09korea.html.
48 Aum, Frank, Jacob Stokes, Patricia M. Kim, Atman M. Trivedi, Rachel Vandenbrink, Jennifer Staats, and Joseph Y. Yun. “A Peace Regime for the Korean
Peninsula.” United States Institute of Peace Peaceworks, no. 157 (February 2020). https://www.usip.org/publications/2020/02/peace-regime-korean-peninsula.
49 Lindskold, Svenn. “Trust Development, the GRIT Proposal, and the Effects of Conciliatory Acts on Conflict and Cooperation.” Psychological Bulletin 85, no. 4(July 1, 1978): 772–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.4.772.
50 Aum, Frank & Jasper, Daniel. The Case for Maximizing Engagement with North Korea - 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea.” 38 North, April 16,
2021. https://www.38north.org/2021/04/the-case-for-maximizing-engagement-with-north-korea/.
51 Féron, Henri. The Human Costs and Gendered Impact of Sanctions on North Korea. Korea Peace Now, 2019. https://koreapeacenow.org/wp-content/
uploads/2019/10/human-costs-and-gendered-impact-of-sanctions-on-north-korea.pdf.

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15

MITIGATING GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE DURING
NATURAL DISASTER RELIEF
Authors:

Jungwon Rena Hugh / Yonsei University
Amane Takahashi / Kansai University
Ava Tiller / Pomona College

WHY THIS ISSUE IS IMPORTANT TO THE THREE COUNTRIESJapan, the ROK, and the United States have been forerunners in mitigating gender-based violence in homes,
workplaces, and societies. However, protections may crumble during times of crisis. Currently, each of thethree countries lack adequate guidelines on GBV. Trilateral cooperation can be instrumental in developing theprevention of GBV and instigating the elimination of all forms of violence, one of the pressing tasks required tobuild diverse, sustainable, and inclusive societies in which all people including women and other marginalizedgroups are guaranteed institutionalized protections. Below, we detail policy recommendations that can serve
as catalysts for the shared goal of societal equality among Japan, the ROK, and the United States.
[Table 1: Relevant Agencies and Status Quo on GBV in Japan, the ROK, and the United States]

BACKGROUND
Gender-based violence during crises is startlingly prevalent even in developed countries
According to UNICEF, “approximately 1 in 5 refugees or displaced women in complex humanitarian settings
have experienced sexual violence.”52 It is imperative to recognize that this issue is not exclusive to distantdeveloping nations. Gender-based violence (GBV) rates tripled in the United States during Hurricane Katrina
in August 2005. Additionally, 82 cases of GBV were confirmed after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011
and occurred even in the temporary shelters intended to keep people safe.53
Disaster situations have always been vulnerable to increases in GBV, which can range from physical to sexual
violence. This is because disasters are threat multipliers that eliminate social networks and destroy normal
pathways of reporting.54 The failure of law enforcement, exposure to high-risk environments, and exacerbationof existing gender inequalities and unequal social norms during natural disasters all contribute to the crisis.55
In order to ensure the protection of people of all genders in Japan, the ROK, and the United States, ourgovernments and organizations must improve their national crisis plans to specifically address GBV during
natural disasters. Making robust improvements to national crisis plans will ensure the reduction of GBV not
only during natural disasters but also during any type of national crisis.

FINDINGS
The three countries currently lack adequate guidelines on GBV but show promising emerging strengths that can becomparatively studied and widely applied

Amane Takahashi, Ava Tiller, and Jungwon Rena Hugh after presenting theirpolicy brief to officials from the Federal Emergency Management Agency

52 “The Material Risks of Gender-Based Violence in Emergency Settings,” UNICEF https://www.unicef.org/media/67346/file/The-material-risks-of-genderbased-violence-in-emergency-settings-2020.pdf

United States - The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), which is supported through the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), has a 2022-2026 strategic plan that outlines the main goals andguidelines of the organization. These goals set up FEMA to address the complexities of natural disasters and“support the diversity of communities [it] serve[s].”56 Although gender is included in the list of identities that
FEMA’s national crisis plan must provide with equitable assistance, there is no direct mention of GBV in theaftermath of natural disasters under the strategic plan. The FEMA crisis plan currently has no mention of theincreased risk of GBV after natural disasters, nor does it address pathways for ensuring the safety of womenand girls living in temporary shelters.
Although there are some gaps in FEMA’s framework on gender-based violence after natural disasters, theUnited States is generally on the right track. The White House released the “U.S. National Plan to End Gender-

53 Yoshihama, Mieko, Tomoko Yunomae, Azumi Tsuge, Keiko Ikeda, and Reiko Masai. “Violence against Women and Children Following the 2011 Great East Japan
Disaster: Making the Invisible Visible through Research.” Violence Against Women 25, no. 7 (October 16, 2018): 862–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218802642
54 Rezaeian, Mohsen. “The Association between Natural Disasters and Violence: A Systematic Review of the Literature and a Call for More EpidemiologicalStudies.” PubMed Central (PMC), December 1, 2013. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3908534/
55 Thurston, Alyssa Mari, Heidi Stöckl, and N. Ranganathan. “Natural Hazards, Disasters and Violence against Women and Girls: A Global Mixed-Methods
Systematic Review.” BMJ Global Health 6, no. 4 (April 1, 2021): e004377. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004377

16

56 Federal Emergency Management Agency of the United States. (2022). 2022–2026 FEMA Strategic Plan. https://www.fema.gov/about/strategic-plan

17

Based Violence” in May 2023. It specifically states FEMA will work to put “policies in place to support genderbased violence survivors during response to and recovery from emergencies or disasters.”57 The plan also
addresses the importance of survivor-centered GBV response and programming.
Currently, however, there exists a gap between the plan to end GBV and the actual implementation processby FEMA. The websites for responsible agencies have yet to contain mentions of gender-based violence
considerations and interviews show that busy officials need more support in terms of expertise and programs
to fully implement these objectives. To protect women and other gender minorities during natural disasters,
the White House’s objectives must be turned into a reality through FEMA implementation and on-the-groundprotections.
Japan: Experience unique to a Disaster-prone Country
The Basic Act on Disaster Management, Japan’s general statute on disaster countermeasures, does not
specify GBV. The Order for Enforcement of the Basic Act on Disaster Management, established under theprovisions of the Basic Act on Disaster Management, does not explicitly state the need for support for women,
while the elderly, disabled persons, infants, and other groups are stipulated as “persons requiring special
care.”58 Although some calls-to-action have been made, these non-binding guidelines are mostly aimed atalerting women, encouraging them to seek advice if they are subjected to GBV, and providing information on
counseling and support services.59
Similar to the United States, Japan declared a fight to end gender-based violence in 2020 with the JapaneseCabinet issuing a notice calling for national and local governments to support disaster victims from theperspectives of women. Utilizing Japan’s wealth of experience with large-scale disasters, bureaus and regions
were able to start new projects that addressed GBV during disaster relief. The Japanese government hascompiled a comprehensive list of best practices for natural disaster response in various regions to optimize
federal response. Since then, the federal and local governments have been required to take measures including
the prevention of sexual and domestic violence at evacuation shelters. There has been a movement in someNGOs that are working to set up shelters for marginalized women and girls. Women’s Net Kobe, which
has been supporting victims and survivors of domestic violence and GBV, launched a project that supports
independence for women that provides residences specialized for women, mothers, and children in difficult
situations.
In the Women’s Perspective for Strengthening Disaster Response Capabilities, 7 pillars were set as basic
policies, which ranged from promoting gender equality during normal times to considering women’s needs
when addressing persons special care. Additionally, Japan created actual checklists that can be directly used intimes of crisis.60 U.S. FEMA officials emphasized that high-level policy must always be pursued in parallel toactions taken on the ground at a local level, hence these Japanese case studies are invaluable.

There is emerging interest in the topic of implementing a gender-sensitive perspective on natural disasters.
The National Female Regional Representative Committee has held forums urging for a natural disaster relief
plan inclusive of GBV, and there has been an increase in the number of ROK scholarly works on the cause.
Researchers from the Korean Women’s Development Institute have also cited Japan’s progressive approach,signifying that a cooperative approach of sharing the strengths of each country is something that is being
considered. Additionally, the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family has set up 24-hour hotlines available
in 12 different languages for the reporting of GBV in disaster situations.61 Strong provisions for reducing GBV
during natural disasters will also help mitigate violence during national crises.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Enhancing disaster relief plans based on trilateral strengths
Immediate: Establish trilateral cooperation through forums and intergovernmental conferences, creating acollaborative repository of knowledge shared among scholars and professionals.
• This offers the immediate advantage of tripling cumulative experience in managing natural disasters,
preventing the need to wait for the next calamity.
• Cooperation harnesses the distinct resources of each participating country, ensuring the implementationof well-established and proven measures.
Short-term: Provide training on GBV and initiate an update of manuals with a standardized curriculumaligned with pre-existing UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee guidelines.
• Updating materials will allow countries to enact straightforward modifications on standards forprotection such as private nursing spaces, increased lighting in hallways, gender-separate spaces, andfamily spaces.
• Pre-existing guidelines for “Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action”
were established in 2016, albeit with few practical applications thus far.62
Long-term: Pass legislation to require GBV considerations in existing disaster relief frameworks, allow
harsher punitive measures for perpetrators, and create high standards for GBV prevention.
• Legally-binding measures build awareness and ensure uniform enforcement, especially for vulnerable
populations and minorities.

The ROK: Rising Interest, Demand for Cooperation, and Basic Measures for GBVDisaster relief is overseen by both the federal and local governments in the ROK with the public administration
branch also holding responsibility. The Basic Act on Disaster and Safety Management (last amended in 2018)
currently lacks any mention of gender-based violence or precautions. In addition, although the Ministryof Gender Equality and Family states its existence is in full accordance with the United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1325 (which outlines measures for violence against women), the implementation of suchinternational guidelines into the ROK system has been limited.

57 White House of the United States. (2023). U.S. National Plan to End Gender-Based Violence: Strategies for Action, 66. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2023/05/National-Plan-to-End-GBV.pdf- Order for Enforcement of the Basic Act on Disaster Management, Prime Minister’s Office Order No. 52 of September 21,
58 Cabinet of Japan.
1962. Translation available at https://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/en/laws/view/4173/en
59 Gender Equality Bureau of Japan. “Women’s Perspective for Strengthening Disaster Response Capabilities,” Guidelines for Disaster Prevention andReconstruction from the Perspective of Gender Equality. https://www.gender.go.jp/english_contents/mge/drr/index.html
60 Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office of Japan. “Women’s Perspective for Strengthening Disaster Response Capabilities,” n.d. https://www.gender.go.jp/
english_contents/mge/drr/pdf/naikakuhu_BosaiGuideline.pdf.

18

61 Ministry of Gender Equality and Family of the Republic of Korea.
http://www.mogef.go.kr/nw/enw/nw_enw_s001d.do;jsessionid=QqaMq3fpkFmCYYOL4RM-XxRY.mogef10?mid=mda700&bbtSn=703932
62 “IASC Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action,” August 28, 2015. https://interagencystandingcommittee.org/
working-group/iasc-guidelines-integrating-gender-based-violence-interventions-humanitarian-action-2015.

19

PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS

Photo Credit: Daniel Vasquez
Trilateral Youth Empowerment Group after presenting their policy briefs at the U.S. Capitol Building
Back Row Left to Right: Yisag Kim, Dr. Kyungjin Song, Amane Takahashi, Samantha Segeda, Ava Tiller, Rena Mototani, Haruka Satake
Front Row Left to Right: Peyton Goodman, Alyssa Taylor, Yul Okamura, Angie Sohn, Akhila Mullapudi, Yesun Kim, Rina Hashigasako,
Chaehee Kang, Jungwon Rena Hugh, Min Ah Nam, Frank Jannuzi, and Ari Lee

Rina Hashigasako, Hitotsubashi University
Jungwon Rena Hugh, Yonsei University
Chaehee Kang, Korea University
Yesun Kim, Ewha Womans University
Yesol Lee, Sogang University
Rena Mototani, Tokyo Medical and Dental University
Akhila Mullapudi, University of Michigan
Min Ah Nam, Catholic University of Korea
Yui Okamura, University of Tsukuba
Haruka Satake, George Washington University
Samantha Segeda, Washington College
Angie Sohn, Colby College
Amane Takahashi, Kansai University
Alyssa Taylor, University of Maryland, College ParkAva Tiller, Pomona College
Dr. Emi Inagaki, Project Assistant Professor, Keio University School of Medicine
Eileen Pennington, Associate Director, The Asia Foundation
Dr. Crystal Pryor, Senior Research Fellow, Center for Policy Research (CPR), University at Albany, SUNY
Dr. Kyungjin Song, Executive Director of Innovative Economy Forum
Dr. Cecilia Han Springer, Principal, Global Efficiency Intelligence
Ari Hyunhee Lee, Director of Programs, Mansfield Foundation
Juliane Doscher, Program Manager, Mansfield Foundation
Peyton Goodman, Program Manager, Mansfield Foundation
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to Mansfield Foundation, Program Assistant Intern, Yisag Kim, for his contributions
to this project.
201156 15th Street, NW Suite 1105
Washington, D.C. 20005
202-347-1994
www.mansfieldfdn.org