名古屋外国語大学論集

第7号

2020年7月

Research Note

A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-Informed
Approach to Content and Language Integrated
Learning
Jason R. WALTERS

ABSTRACTThis article provides a brief introduction to the relatively new field of positive
psychology and discusses its potential compatibility with a number of content
topics common to language courses. The relevance of Seligman’s (2010)
PERMA framework to content topics commonly found in EFL classrooms
illustrates that a positive psychology-informed approach need not disrupt existing curricula and can be achieved non-controversially. Lyubomirsky’s (2005)“happiness inventory,” abridged by Helgesen (2016), provides classes of alllevels a shared vocabulary to discuss behaviors shown to support well-being. The
article also presents the results of successful studies examining the association
between learner well-being and factors essential to academic success. Teachers
are invited to experiment with the concepts of positive psychology in theirclasses by considering familiar content topics from the perspective of happinessresearch.

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INTRODUCTION
Foreign language teachers in higher education agree that their most significant
challenges— inappropriate class sizes, ineffective resources, and insufficientclassroom time— often come as a result of institutional policies and logisticalrealities far removed from the individual educator’s sphere of influence (Chen &Goh, 2011; Fareh, 2010; Khong & Saito, 2014). Notwithstanding the difficulties
they identify, given their choice of what factors would most improve their teaching, EFL teachers most readily express a desire for additional training in methods
shown to increase motivation and engagement in oral production activities (Chen& Goh, 2011). As motivation and engagement make a critical difference inregard to in-class performance, learner autonomy, confidence, and ultimately,
language acquisition, teachers may benefit from a positive psychology-informed
approach to language courses. A variety of classroom interventions based on amodel of human flourishing developed by Seligman have proven successful inincreasing learners’ reported motivation, self-efficacy, and sense of belonging
among their peers, and have assisted teachers in developing feelings of greaterachievement and professional satisfaction without the need for extensive specialized training.

WHAT IS POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY?
An approach to systematically examining human happiness began to take shapein the late 1990s in response to what was deemed an inordinate focus in thepsychiatric field on pathology and the treatment of disorders rather than identifying indicators of good mental health in effectively functioning individuals(Sheldon & King, 2001). Created to some degree as a discipline in opposition to
the existing mental health care paradigm and coming into prominence contemporaneously with a number of pseudoscientific “new-age” movements, positive
psychology is often described in terms of what it is not. Positive psychology is
not neo-religious advocacy for the metaphysical power of a positive outlook, nor
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A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■is it a new and exciting trend in self-help (Peterson & Park, 2014). It is certainly
not “happy-ology” (Seligman, 2004), promoting ignorant optimism in an attempt
to disregard adversity and pain. In truth, positive psychology is an empirical,
data-driven exploration of mental health as opposed to mental illness.
In broad terms, positive psychology explores the emotional strengths andhabitual behaviors that permit individuals, organizations, and communities toflourish. This relatively new field seeks to constructively influence the humanexperience of well-being, life satisfaction, and achievement by identifying andpromoting beneficial conditions common to individuals reporting frequent
experiences of positive emotion (Linley et al., 2009). More concisely, positive
psychology is a research-based approach to understanding “what goes right inlife,” (Peterson, 2006, p. 4). Furthermore, as technological advances and modern
tools blur the lines between psychology and neuroscience, we are better equipped
than at any time in history to view positive emotion and human flourishing froman empirical, data-driven perspective (Helgesen, 2019).
Martin Seligman, often credited as the “father of positive psychology”(Suissa, 2008), grants that traditional psychology has enabled a better understanding of the nature of mental illness and has been instrumental in the reductionof human suffering (2010), though he argues that it is at least equally important
to ensure that otherwise healthy individuals feel fulfilled and empowered.
Most of you, when you go to bed at night, are not thinking of how to gofrom −8 to −3 in life. By and large, you are thinking about how to go from
+3 to + 6. This suggests that in addition to understanding suffering, weneed to understand how to go from +3 to + 6. (Seligman, 2010)
In service of this goal, Seligman and others have put forward a variety of theoretical models attempting to identify and categorize a number of fundamentals
linked with human happiness.

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The PERMA Model
As a shorthand for the holistic benefits of psychological well-being, e­ ncompassing
a state of fulfillment, purpose, self-efficacy, resilience, and contentment,
Seligman chooses the term “flourish,” and his PERMA model specifies fiveacronymic elements as essential to human flourishing.
Positive emotion. Perhaps the most readily identifiable component ofwell-being, what many may call happiness, is the habitual cultivation of experiences of positive emotion. In this context, emotions are distinct from moods
or affective personality traits in that they are experienced as a consequence ofsome meaningful event or stimulus (Fredrickson, 2001). Because of this, anindividual’s ability to identify phenomena or activities that result in positive
emotion can enable them to seek out and purposely induce these feelings as amatter of routine. This feature of emotion also allows for the development ofexperimental interventions designed to examine the effects of positive emotion
on physiology and overall psychology (Fredrickson, 2000).
Engagement. Seligman identifies engagement by drawing on the concept offlow proposed by Csikszentmihalyi to describe the “subjective state people reportwhen they are completely involved in something to the point of forgetting time,
fatigue and everything else but the activity itself” (Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1990,
p. 230). Colloquially referred to as being “in the zone,” engagement allows individuals to participate in activities they truly enjoy, uninterrupted by distractions
and anxieties, and the ability to achieve flow can be intentionally developed in asystematic way, positively impacting overall feelings of well-being (Kist, 2002).
Relationships. Studies conducted by Seligman and others indicate that
individuals who appear to flourish do so with a foundation of positive relationships with family members, friends, colleagues, and acquaintances, and that thisprofound need for human connection holds true cross-culturally (Khaw & Kern,
2014; Seligman, 2004). Maintenance of strong relationships appears not only tobenefit mental health, but physical health as well, as the existence of fulfilling272

A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■relationships is correlated with a positive experience of aging (Rowe & Kahn,
1997), greater success in managing addiction (Graham & Bitten, 2015), andhigher levels of post-surgery recovery (Cardoso-Moreno & Tomás-Aragones,
2017).
Meaning. To live meaningfully, according to Seligman, is to believe in thevalue of one’s own life (Seligman, 2012, cited in Kern et al., 2015). Though thismay in some individuals be associated with a belief in a higher power, meaning is
not necessarily defined by a spiritual belief system. Rather, meaning is a person’s
sense that there is a larger purpose to one’s work and effort and that their actions
are constructive as opposed to fruitless, or worse, destructive.
Achievement. Feelings of success in accomplishing personal goals arestrongly correlated with subjective well-being (Coffey et al., 2014, cited in Ayse,
2018, p. 130). Individuals who report feelings of high self-efficacy and the ability
to complete professional and academic tasks also report reduced anxiety in daily
life (Seligman, 2012). Achievement is closely tied to meaning, as individuals
reporting success in creating, managing, and attaining goals display greater
feelings of purpose and belonging (Doyle et al., 2016).
Suitability for the Classroom
Seligman (2009, 2012) describes surveying parents across cultural lines anddiscovering that these parents typically hold consistent hopes for their children’s
experience in school. They describe these hopes using words like discipline,
job skills, work ethic, and academic success. When asked, however, about theirhopes for their children’s experiences in life, parents are more likely to respondwith words such as confidence, contentment, happiness, fulfillment, love, and thelike. Seligman and other supporters of transforming our schools into centers for
positive education believe that not only is it possible for schools to successfully
teach achievement skills while giving due attention to the many dimensions ofhappiness and well-being, but that schools are uniquely and ideally positioned273

to do so.
Prior to and following Seligman’s work on PERMA, other models forhappiness have been suggested. Diener et al. present three indicators in their
exploration of subjective well-being: 1) frequent experiences of pleasant affect,2) infrequent experiences of negative affect, and 3) life satisfaction (Diener etal., 1999). This uncomplicated approach can be contrasted with more elaborate
systems of classification identifying anywhere from 99 to 196 dimensions ofwell-being (Linton et al., 2016; Seligman, 2018).
No attempt will made here to compare its substance or value with that of competing models, though it is worth noting that PERMA remains the most familiar
model both within the field and in popular discourse. PERMA is selected here
as a framework not as the final word on happiness, but because of the practicalconsiderations unique to a classroom environment. The elements needed forhuman flourishing described in PERMA are:1) ‌accessible—they can be easily understood by non-specialist teachers
as well as language learners, allowing ease of introduction in simple
classroom activities while avoiding esoteric concepts2) ‌non-controversial—the elements of PERMA overlap with descriptionsof happiness among diverse peoples and can be introduced without
ethnocentrism, politics, or religion (D’raven & Pasha-Zaidi, 2016; Khaw
& Kern, 2014)3) ‌relevant—PERMA concepts are directly associated with content topics
already in use among language learning programs, enabling positive
psychology-informed activities that support existing curricula (Helgesen,
2016)4) ‌vetted—extant literature describes classroom interventions drawing on
PERMA succeeding in a number of educational contexts, providing asignificant body of research upon which to base future practice
For teachers seeking new ways to promote learner satisfaction, autonomy,274

A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■motivation, PERMA provides an accessible, agreeable, and extensively
researched theoretical model for discussing happiness in the classroom andmodifying activities suited to the shifting needs of diverse groups of learners.
Waters (2011) contends that PERMA “establishes a framework that embraces
the promotion of one’s own wellbeing and achievement whilst simultaneously
fostering a concern for others and the capacity to participate in civic responsibilities” (p. 86). It may be argued that as the scope of positive education efforts
expand from individuals classroom to schools, and from there to entire communities, a measurably more productive, engaged, and sustainable society is anincreasingly realizable goal.
Content and Language Integrated Learning
Communicative language teaching (CLT) promotes authentic interactions as
essential to the language learner’s task of attending to meaning alongside form
(Spada, 2007). Although ideally these interactions would be extensive, spontaneous, and learner-initiated (Thornbury, 1996), the reality in foreign language
classrooms is that most interactions are prompted by activities associated withprearranged content topics. Though a number of immersion instruction programs
report success attending to content exclusively, most content-based approaches
increasingly take place within a dual-focused learning environment incorporating a language focus within content courses and topics.
Though there have been a number of attempts to define the parameters ofcontent and language integrated learning (CLIL), these approaches continue toexist on a spectrum. Whereas some may heavily favor traditional CLT but makeuse of textbooks featuring cultural or lifestyle topics, others may more closely
resemble English-medium instruction (EMI) apart from secondary activities
meant to highlight relevant target language. Some institutions distribute thebalance between content and language in cross-curricular programs wherein
CLT classes are content-coordinated with themes and subjects visited in separate
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literature, science, or social studies courses (Mehisto et al., 2008).
Though efforts to definitively codify CLIL continue, some commonalities
persist across the spectrum. Fundamental elements of CLIL appear to include:
1) the goal of enhancing learners’ knowledge of the content topic, 2) a fixedlanguage syllabus and means of assessment, and 3) the development of topics
beyond the role of “conversation starters.” The Core English Programme at
Nagoya University of Foreign Studies (NUFS), described by Bradley (2019) as a“mix of content based language teaching and CLT” could certainly be considereda CLIL approach (p. 4). He goes on to discuss the role of content in CE:
Though many, if not all, language courses have a subject of discussion thatprovides a context for language use, this is not the same as a focus on content... content offers the possibility of authentic and meaningful language use
through the development of knowledge and awareness of different subject
matter. (Bradley, 2019, p. 4–5)
Structuring curricula and lessons that facilitate retention of content knowledge while at the same time targeting language structures and communication
strategies has been shown in numerous studies to promote learner autonomy andmotivation (Dalton-Puffer, 2011; Wolff, 2003). Banegas (2012) observes thatrecursive practice allows these successes to feed back into classroom activities,
resulting in heightened feelings of achievement, motivation, and autonomy forteachers as well.
As class and preparation time is limited, the CLIL teacher’s task of balancing
content development with language learning is significant. While the suggestion
to incorporate positive psychology into an already complex system may appear
overly ambitious, PERMA and related frameworks provide a systematic meansby which teachers can integrate happiness into classroom routines by presenting
concepts in simple terms, establishing a shared vocabulary that learners canuse to generate their own ideas and describe their own experiences discovering“what goes right” in life.
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A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■PERMA and Language Learning Content Topics
Content topics for CLIL instruction are customarily selected according to
the contents of commercial textbooks and are often considered jointly withother courses sharing coordinated programs. It is widely understood that thethoughtful selection of these topics is fundamental to the development of learnerinterest and engagement and can have a significant impact on specific facets ofdevelopment—e.g., writing fluency, interactional competence, test performance,
and the like (Abdorahimzadeh, 2014; Cohen, 2013; Kang, 2005).
Several studies have categorized and evaluated the content topics presented
in international language learning programs; a comparison of findings by Arikan(2008), Siegel (2014), and Wolf (2013) indicates that with few exceptions,content topics remain largely consistent regardless of context.
Cheng (2015) notes that discussion topics generated independently by learners often mirror these prevalent themes; among these self-selected topics areschool life, entertainment, travel, cultural events, nature and climate, hobbies,
and the like.
Table 1
Content topics consistently represented in in EFL textbooks
Arikan (2008)

Siegel (2014)

Wolf (2013)

food / healthfood / cooking / fitness

food / healthnature / animals / ecology nature / animals

animals / environment

business / work life

career / business / money

Employment

leisure activities

hobbies / free time

media / entertainment

media / entertainment

crime / lawssocial issues / crime / wars

education

academic life / school

languages

language /communication

customs / traditions

culture / holidays / beliefs

family / housing

relationships / marriage / family love / relationships
travel / vacation

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communication / techpunishment
language

These content topics comprise a variety of common, everyday themes andlend themselves not only to high-frequency vocabulary and relatable experiences, but also to discussion of happiness. Potential connections between these
themes and the PERMA framework can be seen in Figure 1.
In considering potential activities for a unit on environmental issues, forexample, there is an opportunity to generate discussion around the individual’s
responsibility to his or her community; learners are thereby encouraged to attend
to feelings of meaning. Encouraging appreciation of relationships may take theform of a student presentations in which learners are asked to interview elderly
relatives about their lives, or to discuss family trees by conducting genealogicalresearch. A number of recent resources, including Helgesen’s (2019) English
Teaching and the Science of Happiness, can provide teachers with a number ofsuggestions for adapting specific activities to PERMA.
With language learners, and younger learners in particular, it may be morevaluable to discuss the ideas embedded with PERMA in terms of behaviors rather
than abstract concepts; it may be simpler to present “what happy people do” thanto discuss what it is to possess a sense of meaning or engagement. Lyubomirsky(2005) created an inventory of these behaviors that can be directly tied to the

Figure 1. PERMA and prevalent content topics in language learning textbooks.
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A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■five dimensions of PERMA (Walters, 2016) and that was later paraphrased byHelgesen (2016) to increase its accessibility to language learners. In my own
classes, I have drawn heavily on Helgesen’s abridgement not only because it isreadily understandable, but because it avoids controversial topics (i.e., spirituality) present in other versions.
According to Helgesen (2016), Lyubomirsky identifies “eight types of cognitive and personal behavior that lead to a more satisfying life.”
1) Remember good things in your life.
2) Do kind things.
3) Say ‘thank you’ to people who help you.
4) Take time for friends and family.
5) Forgive people who hurt you.
6) Take care of your health and body.
7) Notice good things when they happen.
8) Learn to work with your problems and stress. (p. 2).
Whereas Helgesen (2019) observes that discussions of each of these behaviors lend themselves to specific target language, I examined them, as well as
the elements of PERMA, from the perspective of CLIL, associating them with
Table 2Student-generated associations between “what happy people do” and Core
English content topics
Behavior (Lyubomirsky, 2005)

Course Textbook Unit Topics

Remember good things

University Life, Living Overseas, AdvertisingDo kind things

Japanese Culture, The Environment

Say ‘thank you’

Japanese CultureTime for friends / family

Marriage & Relationships, University Life

Forgive those who hurt you

Marriage & Relationships, Living Overseas

Take care of health and body

Food and Health, The Environment

Notice good things

University Life, Advertising

Deal with problems and stress

Natural Disasters, University Life279

the unit topics my own learners would explore in the previously described Core
English Programme. As my students explored their textbook on the first dayof classes, I displayed Lyubomirsky’s inventory and asked that they work inpairs to try to imagine associations between the course’s content topics and the
behaviors that create happiness. Some of the associations they described can beseen on the previous page in Table 2.
It was rewarding to observe that although not all students saw these connections in the same way, they were able to articulate their reasoning to one anotherin L2 conversation centered entirely on well-being, and were able to begin theschool year associating each unit with happiness. Without direction, some pairseven noted Lyubomirsky’s habits on the corresponding unit title pages so thatthey could be reminded later in the semester.
Bringing positive psychology into language learning need not disrupt ateacher’s preparation routine, nor should it feel superfluously affixed to otherwise complete lesson plans; rather, reports of interventions in schools worldwide
describe how positive psychology is “woven into the school curriculum,” “integrated,” or used to “enhance” existing activities (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014,p. 1292). By setting the tone early in the semester, allowing learners freedom
to apply concepts as they see fit, modifying activities to promote experiencesof positive emotion, and embodying behaviors shown to increase happiness,teachers can promote positive emotions, build trust between learners, and include
a specific, stated focus on happiness. In doing so, Seligman (2009) argues that
we can teach “both the skills of wellbeing and the skills of achievement” withoutcompromising either (Department of Education and Training, 2002; cited in
Waters, 2011).
Impact: Positive Psychology and Academic Outcomes
Although the field of positive psychology is gaining attention as a data-driven,research-based view of well-being, and although to its practitioners, the potential
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A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■applications of its findings to education may appear obvious, before teachers are
expected to adopt these approaches, they must first be persuaded by evidence
that increased well-being in learners is a predictor of positive learning outcomes.
Extant research supports the hypothesis that learner well-being is strongly correlated with improved classroom performance and reduced anxiety; additionally,
a number of positive psychology interventions carried out in schools worldwide
point to strong associations between happiness, academic success, learner selfefficacy, autonomy, and motivation.
Perhaps the most well-known intervention was conducted by Seligman et. al(2009) at Geelong Boarding School in Australia. One hundred faculty members
at this private boarding school received ten days of instruction on principles of
positive psychology and encouraged to integrate these concepts with existing
curricula; following this brief intervention, data analysis found that Geelong
students displayed significantly less anxiety and higher levels of engagement
over a period of two years. This specific type of intervention is reported to havebeen replicated at least nineteen times (Seligman et al. 2009).
Several notable studies have examined gratitude interventions in publicschools. Lyubomirsky’s (2005) inventory of behaviors highlights gratitude as
an indicator of well-being; gratitude is linked to PERMA as well by way ofrelationships, and had been shown to enhance feelings of connectedness (Froh,Bono, & Emmons, 2010). A two-pronged positive psychology intervention
focusing on gratitude expression through journaling and the explicit teaching ofstress management techniques (another behavior highlighted by Lyubomirsky)
was conducted by Flinchbaugh et al. in 2012; after practicing behaviors associated with well-being, these learners were observed to exhibit higher levels of
engagement with classroom activities and reported feelings of confidence andincreased focus.
Falout (2013) describes success in using principles of positive psychology toencourage learners to investigate their learning trajectory. With particular atten281

tion on positive emotion and engagement, learners conceptualized their past andpossible future selves in reflective activities, and displayed increased awarenessof their own character strengths.
Tying PERMA to the concept of character strengths, another intervention
exposed incoming UK university students to Seligman’s principles of positive
psychology as part of a school orientation program; researchers later examinedthese students’ beliefs and behaviors and identified significant correlations
between expressions of positive emotion and engagement with study tasks,
leading to an increase of self-regulation and autonomous learning behavior(Macaskill & Denovan, 2013).
These studies as well as others (Gregersen et al., 2016, Guz & Tetiurka, 2016,
MacIntyre et al., 2009) describe encouraging results, providing an empiricalfoundation for language teachers inclined to approach positive psychology withskepticism. However, extant research does not yet describe the potential ways
positive psychology can be utilized to support CLIL instruction; a meaningful
opportunity awaits teachers and researchers willing to explore the similarities
between classroom content topics and the dimensions of human well-being.

CONCLUSION
In ensuring our language classrooms are safe, encouraging spaces for ourstudents to build community and share in the learning experience with one
another, we already approach our work with an eye to PERMA. We seek to create
moments of positive emotion with careful praise or novel activities. The setupof activities is considered carefully to ensure groups will fully engage, working
together to complete a task while forgetting the clock. If we are doing our job
well, dynamic relationships emerge between our students as they develop friendships, discover new social roles, and develop into role models for one another.
In language classrooms in particular, we hope that learners will come to believein themselves in a larger way than they once did, discovering a greater sense of282

A Rationale for a Positive Psychology-informed Approach to Content and Language Integrated Learning ■meaning as they begin to understand their place in the international community.
By teaching metacognitive skills, we assist our increasingly independent learners
in taking responsibility for their own learning process, allowing them to defineachievement in their own ways.
Few language classes, if any, are entirely language-focused. For many of us, afoundation of content topics is used to support communicative language teaching
techniques, and these topics are selected precisely because of their universality;
they are meaningful to diverse groups of learners and well-suited for discussions
and activities that cultivate positive emotion.
This article discusses positive psychology broadly, and does not provide
detailed procedures for possible activities. In much the same way, approaching
your curriculum from the perspective of positive psychology is not necessarily
a set of procedures, but rather a shared vocabulary and awareness, createdthrough intentional and explicit focus on developing greater life satisfaction.
As you attempt to elevate your course content with a focus on happiness, a final
thought—research indicates that teacher well-being impacts learners’ academic
and emotional outcomes (Zee & Koomen, 2016). By maintaining a healthybalance between your work and pursuing that which enables you to flourish,
you can feel confident that you are setting your students up for success as well.
Bio Data
Jason R. Walters is a full-time lecturer at Nagoya University of Foreign Studies,and has lived in central Japan since 2009. His primary research interests include
self-access learning, native speaker-ism in Asian EFL education, and practicalapplications of positive psychology in the classroom. <jwalters@nufs.ac.jp>

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