Journal of Digital Life 2023,3,5

ArticleThe Effect of Auditory Stimulation on College Sports
Team and University Identification of Media
Spectators: Focusing on the Presence or Absence ofLive Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentary
Masaya Muneda 1, Takahiro Kitamura 1, Shinichi Kawamae 2, Keisuke Matsuki 3
1

Department of Sports Humanities and Applied Social Science, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya , 1 Shiromizu,
Kanoya-city, Kagoshima 891-2393, Japan
2
Sport Administrator, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, 1 Shiromizu, Kanoya-city, Kagoshima 891-2393, Japan
3
Minaminihon Broadcasting Co., Ltd., 5-25 Kourai, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-8570, Japan

Abstract
This study aimed to determine how college sports team identifications and university identifications ofcollege sports media viewers differ depending on the presence or absence of live play -by-play announcements
and commentary. The participants in the experiment were 115 students from University A. A screening survey
was conducted to confirm that these were essential attributes, resulting in 58 and 57 participants in the groups
with commentary and without commentary, respectively. We conducted an Internet survey with these twogroups of experimental participants before and after watching videos of the games. The results showed that
only the group with commentary demonstrated improvements in the "public evaluation" of the college sports
team and university identification (College sports team: F (1, 113) = 5.28, p < .05; University: F (1, 113) =5.28, p < .05).
Keywords: media spectator, live play-by-play announcements and commentary, college sports, team
identification, university identification

1. Introduction
Recent information and communication technology innovations have played a significant role in modern society by
popularizing personal computers and smartphones. This is also true in sports, particularly in the spectator sports
industry, which is undergoing substantial changes. For example, it is now possible to measure players' abilities andmovements in real time and visualize numerical values. Additionally, the media spectator market has expanded rapidly,
allowing spectators to watch games anywhere and offering various options for watching sports (Tokuyama & Deguchi,
2021). For sports organizations, it is essential to fill stadiums. For example, the National Football League (NFL) has
implemented a blackout rule since 1973, prohibiting live broadcasts on television stations within a 75-mile radius of
the stadium if, in principle, tickets are not sold 72 hours before the game starts (Watanabe, 2014). Thus, sports
organizations have engineered media spectating as an alternative to sports consumers' inability t o watch games instadiums physically (Murai, 2017). However, the NFL eliminated this system in 2015 because of increased revenue
from the media (Isidore, 2015), which reaffirms the growing market for media spectating.
One of the differences between media spectating and direct spectating is that most media spectators can watch thegames while listening to live play-by-play announcements and commentary. By contrast, direct spectating ischaracterized by reality, topophilia (love of the place), atmosphere, togetherness and interaction, and a sense ofpresence (Hashimoto, 2015; Sugimoto, 2017). However, there is a disadvantage in that the experience of watching agame in person is overwhelmingly limited for those who live in rural areas where there are no clubs or teams in their
Received: 25 February 2023, Revised: 7 March 2023, Accepted: 28 March 2023, Published: date: 24 April 2023
* Correspondence: m-muneda@nifs-k.ac.jp
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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
vicinity owing to the travel time to the stadium or arena and the financial costs of tickets and stadium food. In addition,
many spectators have shifted to media viewing in recent years because of COVID-19-related safety concerns(Tokuyama & Deguchi, 2021).
The advantages of media viewing include seeing players' facial expressions while they play and obtaining a wealth of
information on rules and player characteristics from announcers and commentators (Fukazawa, 2010b). However, theviewer only watches what the sender intentionally projects, not the viewpoint that the viewer independently chooses(Sugimoto, 2017). Therefore, viewing direct spectators and media viewers as possessing different concepts is crucial(Fukazawa, 2010a; Matsuoka, 2018). Nevertheless, as for the influence on viewers in watching through the media,
elements of managing through the media include technology, discourse/content, society (Duncan & Brummett, 1989),
and the fear of understanding the game influenced by the subjective viewpoint comments by the anchor orcommentator (Frederick et al., 2013; Hashimoto, 2002). As mentioned, TV sports consist of camera clips and sounds(background music, play-by-play announcements, and commentary) (Fukazawa, 2010a). However, the play-by-playannouncements and commentary associated with TV screens serve as a text that promotes understanding and deepens
sports knowledge (Okada, 2002). This is because people acquire knowledge and learn through announcers andcommentators’ speeches (Okada, 2002), suggesting that the influence of play-by-play announcements andcommentary should be examined with media viewers as the target audience.
The Japan Association for University Athletics and Sports (UNIVAS) was established in March 2019. This is because
the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), an existing organization in the U.S., has been able to develop
college sports as a business, and Japan has been studying the establishment of a "Japanese version of the NCAA"
since about 2016. In 2016, Japan took cues from the NCAA and established a Japanese version of it. UNIVAS has set
forth three activity guidelines: (1) playing, (2) watching, and (3) supporting (UNIVAS, 2022), based on its
organizational philosophy of promoting university sports and expanding the number of people participating. In the"watching" activity, UNIVAS has developed a free application, "UNIVAS Plus," which allows users to view videosof the past games of 28 sports, including baseball and volleyball, owned by UNIVAS, a s well as a live video of thegames, to increase the number of people who watch and support university sports. UNIVAS has also developed a new"Athletic Club Video Posting Service" platform for universities and athletic organizations that are UNIVAS member s
to introduce and publish videos of athletic competitions held in their respective regions and the activities of their
university athletic clubs. In addition, many universities use media to distribute information to their sports teams. In
this way, various university sports organizations are creating media viewing environments to encourage, nurture, andexpand fans of university sports, especially among alumni and university residents throughout Japan.
Identification (ID), which has been studied as an essential concept in the creation, cultivation, and expansion of fansin sports spectator behavior, is based on social identity theory in social psychology (Deguchi et al., 2017). Social
identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) states that individuals perceive themselves as concerned about the group ororganization to which they belong. Furthermore, because they enhance their reputation by incorporating the group's
reputation, they act on their own to enhance the group's reputation. Organizational ID, which rel ies on this, is definedas "a perceived oneness with an organization and the experience of the organization’s successes and failures as one’s
own" (Meal & Ashforth, 1992). This ID promotes healthy behaviors for the organization, such as cooperation andorganizational citizenship behavior concept (Takao, 2012). Most sports marketing research using ID focuses on direct
spectators in professional sports, with limited research on college sports. In the context of college sports, college
sports team ID and university ID are essential (Katz & Heere, 2016). For example, fans of a professional sports team
may purchase the team's merchandise or join the team's fan club, but there are still only a few cases in which they
make donations to the team's sponsors. However, college sport has a multidimensional ID structure due to athletic
department activities and university functions. The stronger the ID for a university, the more support, such as
donations, is provided (Meal & Ashforth, 1992). Examining the transformation of college sports team ID anduniversity ID through media viewing of college sports could contribute to the future expansion of college sports teamfans. Therefore, this study aimed to determine how the college sports team ID and university ID of media vie wers ofcollege sports differ depending on the presence or absence of play-by-play announcements and commentary.
2. Literature Review
2.1 A study of the effects of live play-by-play announcements and commentary on media viewing
Studies examining the effects of play-by-play announcements and commentary on media viewing have been scattered,primarily exploring the impact of the content of the commentary on the viewer, for example, the effects of aggressive
and violent commentary (Comiskey et al., 1977; Sullivan, 1991), the effects of emphasizing the relationship between
opposing players (Bryant et al., 1977), the effects of nationalism of the public on attitudes toward the opposing team

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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki(Lee et al., 2015, the impact of different commentary content on attitudes and behavioral intentions (Daigo et al.,2015). An analysis of PV viewers' spectator and media use behavior (Sano et al., 2017) indicates that play -by-playannouncements and commentary on media viewing have specific effects. Furthermore, few studies analy zed
commentary content from various perspectives, including race and gender (Billings, 2004; Billings & Eastman, 2002;
Denham et al., 2002; Messner et al., 1993). Additionally, the influence of broadcasters providing media viewing on
the speech of sports commentators (Kuiper & Lewis, 2013) has been examined, and a specific body of literature has
examined the social effects of sports media. Lee et al. (2015), international mega sports examined changes innationalistic sentiments among the public depending on the content of commentary at events. They found that theimage of a team influences attitudes toward products made in that country. This indicates that commentary is essential
in national sentiment regarding media-viewed sports. However, studies have not yet examined the effects of play-byplay announcements and commentary on media audiences in college sport. Thus, promoting discussions on theeffectiveness of play-by-play announcements or commentary.
2.2 Set variables (College sports team and University ID)
In the context of social identity theory, ID is a sense of belonging, identification, and connectedness, a self -concept
derived from social identity theory, in which individuals define themselves as members of a social group or group(school, company, team, etc.) (Kan et al., 2018). ID in sports teams is considered a psychological state in which theindividual perceives not only the competitive success of the team but also frustration and resentment during poor
performance as an experience of the self (Deguchi et al., 2018). Most sports marketing research using team ID has
focused on direct spectators in professional sports and found it related to various behavioral intentions of sports
consumption (e.g., Magunsen et al., 2010; Matsuoka et al., 2003; Yosh ida et al., 2015) Furthermore, residents withhigher team ID have more positive perceptions of the local government's initiatives (e.g., welfare, education, sports,
cultural administration, etc.) (Fujimoto et al., 2012). In addition to the above-mentioned studies, studies incorporatingteam ID into the context of college sports have shown that students with high team ID report more involvement with
their teams and have more positive expectations for future performances of their teams compare d with those withmoderate and low team ID (Wann & Bransvombe, 1993). Team ID has also been found to positively influence students'sociopsychological health (Wann et al., 2008) and university ID (Kats & Heere, 2016).
University ID, which is used for universities, is, in the words of Meal and Ashforth (1992), "a sense of unity andbelonging to a university and is defined as an individual's definition of himself or herself from the perspective of hisor her university." It includes alumni donations to the university, participation in university events, prospective
students' participation in university events, and the participation of alumni in the university's activities. This isimportant from a marketing perspective (Bass et al., 2013) because it has been suggested to increase the frequency
with which alums encourage their peers to enroll in the university (Bass et al., 2013). Bass et al. (2013) present auniversity ID model with three antecedents of university ID: (1) athletic programs, (2) academic progr ams, and (3)individuals. In particular, athletic programs, which consist of perceived team success, perceived program prestige,
performance against rival schools, and program recognition, also have significance as a theoretical background for
promoting college sports, which can increase attachment and ID to the university team, suggesting that university ID
can be enhanced by being.
Four research questions (RQ) were established by reviewing previous studies:
RQ1: Do viewers' college sports team ID increase because they watch college sports in the media?
RQ2: Do college sports viewers' team ID change depending on the presence or absence of play -by-play announcements
and commentary?
RQ3: Do viewers' university ID increase because they watch college sports in the media?
RQ4: Does the presence or absence of play-by-play announcements and commentary affect university college sports
viewers’ IDs?
3. Methodology
3.1 Experimental participants and procedure
The experimental participants were 115 students from University A who did not watch the baseball team game on
Sunday, September 26, 2021, either at the venue or via live streaming on YouTube.
The experimental procedure consisted of a screening survey to identify essential attributes such as gender, grade, club
activity, and sports experience, followed by classification into two groups: a "with commentary group" that watchedvideos of recorded games with commentary and a "without commentary group" that wat ched games without

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3

The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
commentary. The screening revealed 58 and 57 participants in the groups with commentary and without commentary,
respectively (Table 1). We conducted an internet survey with the participants in these two groups before and after
viewing the matched videos. Note that the experiment was conducted with 2 to 10 participants in each group, eachviewing 14 different dates due to the influence of COVID-19.
3.2 Measure
The survey items included essential attributes (gender, grade, club activity, sports experience, etc.) and 23 items of
the 6-factor college sports team ID scale, excluding one item from the 24 items of the 6 -factor team ID scale of Kan
et al. (2018) that were deemed unsuitable for college sports. The definitions of each factor are as follows:
・Private evaluation: Self-evaluation of support for college sports team.
・Public evaluation: Perceptions of college sports teams' general evaluation and reputation.
・Interconnection of self: Psychological ties and attachments between self and college sports team・Sense of interdependence: Perceptions of self-dependence and life in college sports team.
・Behavioral Involvement: Perceived degree of psychological connection between the individual and college sports
team
・Cognitive awareness: Awareness of information related to college sports team
To measure university ID, Heere et al. (2011) developed 18 items of the 6-factor group ID Scale. The scales weretranslated by a researcher specializing in sports sociology and then reviewed by two a dditional researchers specializingin sport management. The definitions of each factor are as follows.
・Private evaluation: The positive (or negative) attitude that an individual has personally toward the university
・Public evaluation: The perceived positive (or negative) attitude of non-members toward the university
・Interconnection of self: The degree to which an individual feels that the university is a part of themself
・Sense of interdependence: The degree to which an individual feels that faith depends on the university’s faith.
・Behavioral involvement: The degree to which an individual engages in actions that directly imply the university's
identity.
・Cognitive awareness: The general awareness (or knowledge) that an individual has of the university
4. Results and Discussion
First, a χ² test was conducted on the essential attributes (Gender, Grade, and Club activities) to verify the independenceof the groups with and without explanations. No significant differences were found for each item (χ² Gender=.004, n.s.;χ²Grade=.391, n.s.; χ² Club activities=1.203, n.s.). Thus, there was no bias in the groups with and without commentary (Table
1).
Table 1. Participant Demographics
YES（n = 58）ｎ％NO（n = 57）ｎ％

Male
Female
Tatal

40
18
58

69.0
31.0
100.0

39
18
57

68.4
31.6
100.0

.004
( n.s. )Freshman
Sophomore
JuniorSenior
Tatal

25
16
9
8
58

43.1
27.6
15.5
13.8
100.0

25
14
11
7
57

43.9
24.6
19.3
12.2
100.0

.391
( n.s. )χ2(p )Gender

GradeClub activities
Kendo
16
27.6
20
35.1
Soccer
13
22.4
11
19.3
Athletics
6
10.3
4
7.0
Judo
6
10.3
6
10.5
Cycling4
6.9
4
7.0
Gymnastics
3
5.2
2
3.5
1.203
Swimming
2
3.4
2
3.5
( n.s. )Volleyball
2
3.4
2
3.5
Canoeing
2
3.4
2
3.5
Tennis2
3.4
2
3.5
Basketball
1
1.7
1
1.8
Dance
1
1.7
1
1.8
Tatal
58
100.0
57
100.0
Note: n.s. = not significant; YES = Groups with commentary, NO = Groups without commentary.

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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
Next, confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the reliability and validity of the college sports team ID anduniversity ID scales. The results showed that the convergent validity of the college sports team ID (pre/post -viewing:
λ=.56-.97/.60–.99, AVE=.59–.84/.60–.85, CR=78–.96/.83–.96), model fit (pre/post-viewing: χ²/df=1.65/1.61 (norm≤5.00: Bollen, 1989), CFI=.947/.952 (criterion ≥ .90: Bentler, 1990), NNFI=.935/.942 (criterion ≥ .90: Hair et al.,2005), RMSEA=.076/.074 (criterion ≤ .08: Staiger and Lind, 1980)) were met in all cases (Table 2 , 3). The criterion
value for λ is .50 (Hair et al., 2014), and that for CR is .60 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988).

Table 2. Mean, Standard Deviation, Reliability, and Convergent Validity of College Sports Team ID
FactorItem

PRE
Private evaluation
5.18
I feel good about being a fan of the team.
5.88
In general, I am glad to be a fan of the team.
5.21
I am proud to think of myself as a fan of the team.
4.44
Public evaluation
4.81
The team is viewed positively by others.
4.77
Others respect the team.
4.82
People hold a favorable opinion about the team.
4.84
Interconnection of Self
2.58
Being associated with the team is an important part of my self-image.
2.79
When someone compliments the team, it feels like a personal compliment.
3.17
I have a sense of being part of the team.
1.90
I have a solid attachment to the team.
2.54
The success of the team feels like my success.
2.50
Sense of Interdependence
1.72
What happens to the team will influence what happens in my life.
1.57
What happens to the team will have an impact on my own life.
1.58
Changes affecting the team will have an impact on my own life.
1.70
What the team does affects me personally.
2.00
Behavioral Involvement
2.60
I am the one who helps the team do its thing.
3.46
I am the one who talks to others about the team.
2.05
I am the one who actively tries to know the results of the team's games.
2.29
Cognitive Awareness
1.40
I am aware of the history of the team.
1.32
I know a lot about the team.
1.43
I have knowledge of the successes and failures of the team.
1.36
I know the ins and outs of the team.
1.43
I am aware of the community activities that the team is engaged in.
1.46
Note: Model Fit（PRE / POST）:χ²/df=1.65/1.61, CFI=.947/.952, NNFI=.935/.942, RMSEA=.076/.074

Mean
POST
5.18
5.69
5.39
4.45
4.87
4.82
4.94
4.86
2.86
2.99
3.32
2.17
2.95
2.86
2.14
2.01
2.07
2.08
2.41
3.07
3.66
2.57
2.97
1.81
1.64
1.78
1.96
1.86
1.83

λ

SD
PRE
1.28
1.24
1.54
1.57
1.12
1.25
1.21
1.15
1.30
1.75
1.68
1.46
1.56
1.59
1.20
1.16
1.20
1.32
1.51
1.30
1.81
1.47
1.49
.99
.95
1.10
1.06
1.12
1.06

POST
1.24
1.31
1.36
1.47
1.17
1.21
1.24
1.26
1.34
1.69
1.66
1.44
1.50
1.66
1.33
1.41
1.41
1.38
1.53
1.37
1.79
1.44
1.58
1.13
1.13
1.21
1.29
1.32
1.24

PRE

POST

.87
.87
.81

.99
.88
.81

.85
.91
.93

.87
.95
.95

.60
.71
.71
.90
.87

.70
.74
.76
.81
.87

.97
.97
.90
.74

.94
.96
.97
.79

.56
.79
.84

.60
.89
.85

.96
.93
.96
.91
.80

.94
.98
.79
.83
.91

PRE
.71

AVE
POST
.80

PRE
.88

POST
.92

.80

.85

.92

.94

.59

.60

.87

.88

.81

.84

.94

.96

.55

.63

.78

.83

.84

.80

.96

.95

CR

Table 3. Examination of the Discriminant Validity of the College Sports Team ID
1
1.TIDPVE
2.TIDPBE
3.TIDIS
4.TIDSI
5.TIDBI
6.TIDCA

PRE
.71a
.49
.10
.00
.10
.01

2
POST
.80a'
.45
.13
.01
.18
.00

3

4

5

6

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

.80b
.06
.00
.03
.00

.85b'
.06
.00
.04
.01

.59c
.42
.52
.34

.60c'
.50
.40
.30

.81d
.35
.50

.84d'
.32
.55

.55e
.32

.63e'
.26

.84f

.80f'

Note: The numbers a - f' on the diagonal indicate the AVE of each factor;
TID = College Sports Team ID, PVE = Private Evaluation, PBE = Public Evaluation, IS = Sense of Interdependence,
SI = Interconnection of Self, BI = Behavioral Involvement, CA = Cognitive Awareness.

In addition, the convergent validity of the University ID (pre/post-viewing: λ=.52-.98/.65–.98, AVE=.47–.88/.47–.93,
CR=72–.96/.73–.98), model fit (pre/post-viewing: χ²/df=1.46/1.67, CFI=.967/.961, NNFI=.958 /.950,
RMSEA=.064/.077), and in the criterion values for the square of inter-factor correlations and AVE comparisons, thecriterion value of .50 for AVE was not reached for "interconnection of Self (.47)" before and after viewing. However,for all other criterion values, the standard met all the other criteria (Table 4, 5).

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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
Table 4. Mean, Standard Deviation, Reliability, and Convergent Validity of University ID
FactorItem

Private Evaluation
I feel good about being a member of my university.
I am glad to be a member of my university.
I am proud to think of myself as a member of my university.
Public Evaluation
Overall, my university is viewed positively by others.
In general, others respect my university.
Overall, people hold a favorable opinion about my university.
Interconnection of Self
When someone criticizes my university, it feels like a personal insult.
In general, being associated with my university is an important part of my self-image.
When someone compliments my university, it feels like a personal compliment.
Sense of Interdependence
What happens to my university will influence what happens in my life.
Changes affecting my university will have an impact on my own life.
What happens to my university will have an impact on my own life.
Behavioral Involvement
I participate in activities supporting my university.
I am actively involved in activities that relate to my university.
I participate in activities with other fans/members of my university.
Cognitive AwarenessI am aware of the tradition and history of my university.
I know the ins and outs of my university.
I have knowledge of the successes and failures of my university.
Note: Model Fit（PRE / POST）：χ²/df=1.46/1.67, CFI=.967/.961, NNFI=.958/.950, RMSEA=.064/.077

PRE
5.96
5.92
6.07
5.88
4.97
5.29
4.57
5.04
4.97
4.44
5.51
4.96
5.81
5.82
5.77
5.85
3.72
3.84
3.83
3.48
3.26
3.59
3.23
2.96

Mean
POST
5.97
5.98
6.07
5.87
5.10
5.29
4.86
5.14
4.91
4.44
5.31
4.98
5.72
5.75
5.66
5.74
3.73
3.83
3.83
3.53
2.96
3.09
3.03
2.76

λ

SD
PRE
1.19
1.35
1.20
1.30
1.24
1.33
1.61
1.29
1.22
1.62
1.25
1.51
1.23
1.26
1.31
1.28
1.52
1.63
1.68
1.70
1.48
1.61
1.61
1.68

POST
1.23
1.33
1.19
1.29
1.17
1.25
1.39
1.24
1.28
1.70
1.40
1.47
1.31
1.32
1.39
1.31
1.62
1.76
1.67
1.76
1.43
1.51
1.56
1.61

PRE

POST

.84
.92
.94

.95
.94
.97

.77
.73
.98

.78
.84
.95

.52
.80
.71

.65
.69
.71

.91
.94
.97

.98
.95
.97

.88
.92
.80

.87
.95
.88

.86
.91
.80

.89
.92
.81

PRE
.81

AVE
POST
.91

PRE
.93

CR
POST
.97

.70

.74

.87

.90

.47

.47

.72

.73

.88

.93

.96

.98

.76

.82

.90

.93

.73

.76

.89

.90

Table 5. Examination of the Discriminant Validity of the University ID
1
1.UIDPVE
2.UIDPBE
3.UIDIS
4.UIDSI
5.UIDBI
6.UIDCA

PRE
.81a
.29
.30
.39
.07
.08

2
POST
.91a'
.36
.24
.30
.03
.00

3

4

5

6

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

.70b
.21
.18
.14
.13

.74b'
.20
.13
.05
.06

.47d
.42
.27
.10

.47d'
.35
.31
.10

.88c
.14
.15

.93c'
.05
.00

.76e
.33

.82e'
.36

.73f

.76f'

Note: The numbers a - f' on the diagonal indicate the AVE of each factor;
UID = University ID, PVE = Private Evaluation, PBE = Public Evaluation, IS = Interconnection of Self, SI = Sense of Interdependence,
BI = Behavioral Involvement, CA = Cognitive Awareness.

Although the reliability and validity of the University ID scale could not be wholly confirmed (Table 4), the overall
results were within the acceptable range, suggesting that this scale model fit the data (e.g., Yoshida et al., 2015).
Then, a two-factor analysis of variance was conducted to compare the pre-and post-video viewing means of the groups
with and without commentary on the college sports team ID. The results showed "psychological connectedness" (F(1, 113) = 7.63, p < .01), "sense of dependency" (F (1, 113) = 18.44, p < .001), "b ehavioral involvement" (F ( 1, 113)
= 14.62, p < .001), and "cognitive awareness" (F (1, 113) = 20.69, p < .001), with statistically significant main effects
for pre- and post-viewing changes in college sports team ID, as well as an increase (Figure 1). Th e results suggest thatthe team ID of college sports viewers increases when they experience a game through media instead of watching it
directly, which is expensive. This may be because most participants belonged to club activities, and by watchinggames of other club activities, they identified themselves with their team. Viewer attributes are essential, and it isnecessary to consider how to present them in a way that is appropriate for the target audience. In addition, college
sports teams should expand the range of services provided to viewers through media, increase viewers' identification
with college sports team and the number of direct spectators, and expand the number of fans.
As shown in Figure 1, there was a statistically significant main effect of the presence of commentary on "public
evaluation" (F (1, 113) = 5.28, p < .05). This suggests that college sports viewers' perceptions of a team's general
reputation are likely to be enhanced by the addition of play-by-play announcements and commentary on media. As
mentioned, media viewers acquire knowledge and learn through announcers and commentators’ speeches (Okada,2002). Information (exceptionally positive, non-technical discussions) about the college sports team delivered toviewers by play-by-play announcements and commentary is believed to enhance and improve the team’s image(Fukazawa, 2010). Furthermore, it was suggested that the content of the actual situation and commenta ry might control

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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
viewers' general evaluations of the team and their perceptions of its reputation. This can be interpreted as the priming
effect, a phenomenon in which information presented in advance influences the attitude and behavior of subsequent
information processing without the awareness of the people involved (Oikawa & Oikawa, 2010). Thus, university andcollege sports team may find it more effective than simply conducting PR activities to indirectly communicate theirthoughts about the community through live play-by-play announcements and commentary. The effectiveness of using
athletes as endorsers has been confirmed when companies conduct brand extensions (Bizen et al., 2019). Referring to
the study, a university can also use college sports team and college athlete in their public relations activities to change
the residents' perception of the university, which has a high threshold for residents, and to show their presence as anopen university to the region. In “sports viewing,” play-by-play announcements and commentary are essential toolsthat unconsciously influence viewers' attitudes and behaviors.

Private Evaluation

Public Evaluation

Interconnection of Self

5.40

5.25

3.00

5.30

5.10

2.90

5.20

4.95

5.10

4.80

5.00

4.65

4.90

4.50

2.80
2.70

PRE

POST

Yes

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.49, n.s.
F SPC （1, 113）＝.00, n.s.
F CMT （1, 113）＝1.91, n.s.

2.60
2.50
2.40
PRE

POST

Yes

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝3.23, n.s.
F SPC （1, 113）＝.56, n.s.
F CMT （1, 113）＝5.28, p < .05

PRE
Yes

Cognitive Awareness

2.20

3.20

1.90

2.10

3.05

1.80

2.90

1.70

2.75

1.60

2.60

1.50

1.80

2.45

1.40

1.70

2.30

2.00
1.90

PRE

POST

Yes

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.12, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝18.44, p < .001
F CMT（1, 113）＝.01, n.s.

1.30
PRE

No

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.05, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝7.63, p < .01
F CMT（1, 113）＝1.58, n.s.

Behavioral Involvement

Sense of Interdependence

POST

POST

Yes

PRE
Yes

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.52, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝14.62, p < .001
F CMT（1, 113）＝2.27, n.s.

POST
No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.01, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝20.69, p < .001
F CMT（1, 113）＝.57, n.s.

Note: n.s. = not significant, SPC = Spectating, CMT = CommentaryFig.1. Two-Factor Analysis of Variance for College Sports Team ID

Next, a two-factor analysis of variance was conducted to compare the pre-and post-video viewing means of the groups
with and without commentary on the University ID. The results revealed a statistically significant main effect for"cognition and awareness" (F (1, 113) = 6.06, p < .05), with a statistically significant decrease in the amount of changepre- and post-video viewing change in the University ID (Figure 2). Viewing college sports in the media allows
viewers to learn something new about the parent university of a college sports team. This may be because viewers
realize that there is information about the university they were unaware of after watching games. They also differ
depending on the content of the game. The game involved a comeback loss in the last inning. According to Cialdini
et al. (1976), BIRGing is the relationship between a highly rated individual, group, and the self. CORFing refers tomeasures that seek to protect self-esteem and avoid low evaluations from others by emphasizing a lack of connection
with individuals and groups that are rated low. In this study, media viewing of college sports may have influenced
university ID from CORFing because the team at the viewer's university lost a closed game.

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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
As shown in Figure 2, there was a statistically significant interaction between media viewing and the presence ofcommentary in "public evaluation" (F (1, 113) = 5.28, p < .05). This indicates that the group with commentary had anincreased perception of the public reputation and the reputation of the university compared with the group without
commentary. By contrast, the group without commentary decreased their perception of the university's public
reputation compared with before media viewing. In this study, the experiment was conducted us ing videos of an event
organized by University A's Sports Development Project, which featured one-sided commentary and commentarybiased toward the home team. In Lee and Yeo's (2011) study, color commentary (biased toward the home team) was
found to be more effective in enhancing perceptions of sports teams. The results showed that participants who received
more favorable commentary on their team showed a more significant change in their team evaluations. In light ofthese results, it is believed that University A’s students affiliated with University A, who were the viewers of thesurvey, may have had an opportunity to strengthen their ties to their university through live commentary, in addition
to media viewing of games of other club activities affiliated with their university. This can be used as a marketingstrategy for university sports. For example, to increase university ID targeting the local community, university
officials, and alumni, it may be possible to give spectators a sense of "empathy" by in corporating the dialect used indaily life by students in play-by-play announcements and commentary with explanation and care for the meaning andusage of the dialects for those who are not familiar with or related to the area. Furthermore, if students’ lives (i.e.,classes, part-time jobs, etc.) and the personalities and preferences of university athletes are communicated throughplay-by-play announcements and commentary while taking care to protect personal information, residents, university
officials, and alums may feel a sense of familiarity with athletes.
Furthermore, to utilize college sports as university management, an environment for viewing college sports should becreated for high school students who are potential students of the university. Addi ng one-sided play-by-playannouncements and commentary to this environment could increase university ID, change attitudes and behavior
toward the university, and enhance future motivation to enroll.

Public Evaluation

Private Evaluation
6.20
6.10

Interconnection of Self

5.20

5.20

5.10

5.10

5.00

5.00

4.90

4.90

6.00
5.90
5.80

4.80

5.70
PRE
Yes

4.80
PRE

POST

POST

Yes

No

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝5.28, p < .05
F SPC（1, 113）＝3.01, n.s.
F CMT（1, 113）＝.01, n.s.

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.95, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝.07, n.s.
F CMT（1, 113）＝1.26, n.s.

Sense of Interdependence

PRE

POST

Yes

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.43, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝.43, n.s.
F CMT（1, 113）＝.93, n.s.

Cognitive AwarenessBehavioral Involvement

6.00

4.00

3.50

5.90

3.90

3.40

5.80

3.80

5.70

3.70

5.60

3.60

3.30
3.20

5.50

3.10
3.00
2.90

3.50
PRE

POST

PRE

POST

PRE

POST

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.89, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝1.85, n.s.
F CMT（1, 113）＝2.37, n.s.

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝.56, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝.02, n.s.
F CMT（1, 113）＝1.10, n.s.

F SPC × CMT（1, 113）＝1.90, n.s.
F SPC（1, 113）＝6.06, p < .05
F CMT（1, 113）＝.20, n.s.

Note: n.s. = not significant, SPC = Spectating, CMT = Commentary

Fig.2. Two-Factor Analysis of Variance for University ID
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The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
5. Conclusions
This study aimed to determine how college sports team ID and university ID of college sports media viewers differ
depending on the presence of play-by-play announcements and commentary. The results indicate the following:
RQ1. Viewers' "interconnection of self," "sense of interdependence," "behavioral involvement," and"perception/awareness" factors of college sports team ID increased by watching college sports media.
RQ2: Media viewers' "public evaluation" factor of college sports team ID increased in the group with play-by-playannouncements commentary and decreased in the group without it.
RQ3: Viewers' "cognitive awareness" factor of university ID decreased with media coverage of college sports.
RQ4: The presence or absence of play-by-play announcements and commentary affects the "public evaluation" factor
of university ID among college sports viewers.
Despite the above-mentioned contributions, there are some limitations to the study, which we would like to discuss
along with future perspectives. As mentioned, University A conducted a sports training project and held an event
where participants provided commentary. Since the experiment was conducted using the videos distributed at thattime, professional announcers and amateur students provided commentary. Second, participants differed in theirviewing environments (number of people, time, etc.). The experiment was conducted not once but on multiple
occasions. The atmosphere and environment in which a sporting event is watched ar e essential, and the effect of therestricted interaction between viewers during COVID-19 is undeniable. Third, the participants in this study were
university students who needed to directly watch the A baseball team's game on Sunday, September 26, 2021 or watch
live streaming on YouTube. A total of 115 University A students were recruited by asking faculty advisors for eachactivity at University A to recruit participants for the experiment. It may be possible that the students were notwatching the game proactively. In addition, since the participants belonged to the same university, they may have hadprior information about the baseball team members. In the future, public viewing and other events should be held totarget residents and the public to verify data from active or no prior information viewers. Other prospects include
conducting experiments tailored to contexts other than minor and college sports, using other concepts, conducting
analyses, examining concepts unique to media viewers rather than a scale, and controlling the content of play-by-playannouncements and commentary. In addition, we can further elucidate the effects of play -by-play announcements andcommentary by controlling for the content of the play-by-play announcements and commentary.
Finally, the establishment of UNIVAS, ICT innovations, and COVID-19 have increased media audiences of college
sports. Therefore, this study examines the effects of the presence or absence of commentary from college sports teamand university ID on media audiences for college sports, increase in direct spectators and positive word -of-mouth
behavior (e.g., Chang et al., 2018; Park & Dittmore, 2014), and the potential to develop an attachment to the region
where the university is located (Kan et al., 2018). We hope that this will lead to the expansion of the university sportsbusiness.
Author Contributions
M.M. contributed significantly to the study conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data analysis, validation,interpretation, and manuscript drafting. T. K. contributed to the methodology, interpretation, writing, review, andediting of the manuscript. S.K. and K.M. contributed to the interpretation. All the authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by contributions from Sports Link ＆ Share, Inc.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the
Ethics Committee of the National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya (protocol code 3-58 and date of approval
October 15, 2021).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.

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9

The Effect of Live Play-by-Play Announcements and Commentaryon Identification in College Sports Media Spectators
Masaya Muneda, Takahiro Kitamura, Shinichi Kawamae, Keisuke Matsuki
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. Masafumi Fujii (National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya) for providing
his practice fields and Mr. Nobuyuki Sato (National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya) for his help with editing
the movie for practical use. In addition, we thank the advisors of the club activities for their help in collecting the data.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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