sustainability
ArticleEffect of Low-Cost Policy Measures to Promote Public Transport
Use: A Case Study of Oyama City, Japan
Tomohide Azami 1, *, Kento Nakagawa 2
12*

Citation: Azami, T.; Nakagawa, K.;

and Ayako Taniguchi 2

Urban Development Department, Oyama City, Chuohcho 1-1-1, Oyama 323 8686, Japan
Department of Risk Engineering, University of Tsukuba, Ten-noh dai 1-1-1, Tsukuba 305 8573, Japan;
s2120544@s.tsukuba.ac.jp (K.N.); taniguchi@risk.tsukuba.ac.jp (A.T.)
Correspondence: other.me.tomo@gmail.com

Abstract: Breaking away from the dependence on cars, increasing the number of public transport
users, and securing operational revenues have been posing a problem for many cities worldwide. Asa low-cost policy measure to address this problem, Oyama City (with a population of approximately
167,000) in Japan, conducted a social experiment involving a significant fare reduction (selling passes
at Max 70% discount) and a public information campaign (simplified mobility management) for all
citizens. This study analysed this policy from two perspectives, namely the change in the attitudes
and behaviours of the people, and the maintenance of the financial stability of bus management.
The analysis confirmed that the number of pass holders increased by a factor of 2.6, number ofpass holders using the bus increased by a factor of 1.16, total number of annual bus users increased
by a factor of 1.1, and revenue from bus services was maintained. In addition, public information
campaigns increased awareness regarding the passes and the number of citizens who ware attachedemotionally to the bus and city. These results suggest that the combination of a significant fare
reduction and an appropriate public information campaign may increase bus ridership, without
reducing operational revenues.

Taniguchi, A. Effect of Low-Cost
Policy Measures to Promote Public

Keywords: public transport; bus; fare reduction; mobility management; communication campaign

Transport Use: A Case Study of
Oyama City, Japan. Sustainability
2021, 13, 6160. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su13116160
Academic Editor: Antonio Comi
Received: 29 April 2021
Accepted: 27 May 2021
Published: 30 May 2021

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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
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distributed under the terms andconditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Breaking away from the dependence on cars, increasing the number of public transport
users, and securing operational revenues have been posing a problem for many cities
worldwide. This is particularly the case in many of Japan’s smaller regional cities, where
the increase in the number of private cars, aging of the population, and a decline in thenumber of children have led to a decline in the number of people using public transport,
and a deterioration in the management of transport operators, thereby leading to a series of
reductions and withdrawals of rail and bus services [1]. The search for low-cost solutions
to this problem is an ongoing challenge for transport operators and public organisations.
Some cities and regions have implemented policy measures to structurally change thetransport environment and soft policy measures, such as information and communication,
have been introduced in an effort to solve this problem, with the aim of reducing the use ofprivate cars and increasing the use of public transport.
Examples of policy measures to change the transport environment include public
transport developments such as light rail transit (LRT) [2], road pricing [3], and fare reductions for public transport [4–8]. Several studies have shown the effects of fare reduction
and free public transport, not only in terms of increasing the number of public transport
users [4,5] and encouraging the shift from private cars to public transport [6], but also
in terms of increasing the amount of walking [7] and the frequency of visits to the city
centre [7].
Policy measures that address the psychological aspects of people’s behaviour include
information campaigns aimed at changing travel behaviours from the usage of cars to the

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116160

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use of sustainable modes of transport, through the provision of specific information aboutpublic transport, travel education, word-of-mouth recommendations, and other means ofcommunication: mobility management (MM) [8,9]. MM aims to change travel behaviours
from car use to sustainable transportation (public transportation and active transport suchas bicycles) by using communication measures such as providing specific information
about public transport, travel education, and word-of-mouth recommendations [8,9]. The
term MM will be used according to these definitions in this study, while MM is often
referred to as a “Travel Plan” in the UK [10] and “Voluntary Travel behaviour Change”
in Australia [11]. Based on research in social and environmental psychology, research on
MM has been accumulating since the mid-1990s, and such research has contributed tothe identification and development of effective methods to promote a modal shift [12]. In
addition, factors that influence mobility choices, such as travel time and family structure,
have also been studied [13–15]. MM practices have been reported not only in developed
countries but also in developing countries. In Metro Manila, Philippines, a ride-sharing
application for college students was developed to promote behaviour change [16,17].
In Japan, typical MM practices include personal conversations, workshops, educational
activities in schools, and travel feedback programs (TFPs). These are used to solve the social
problems caused by excessive car use [18]. In an MM program in Yamato City, Kanagawa
Prefecture, participants were provided with pedometers in addition to leaflets and town
guides to reduce car use and increase physical activity [19].
However, these policy measures to change the transport environment and psychological aspects (especially infrastructure construction) are not always politically feasible, as they
are often very costly and difficult to implement for financially challenged municipalities.
The following is an example of the cost of policy measures. In terms of policy measures
to change the transport environment, LRT construction was conducted in many cities
worldwide, including France and Germany, at a cost of 2–4 billion yen/km [20]. In France,
Versement Transport was introduced to finance construction [21] and was used to financepublic transport services, with discounts for different age groups [22]. For example, in the
United States, universities contracted with public transport companies to allow university
students to use public transport for free. This appeared to increase the number of public
transport users, reduce demand for university parking spaces, increase student attendanceat school, reduce student commuting costs, and reduce the per capita transport costsof public transport [23,24]. As an example of discounted public transport in Japan, theoperator of a tramway in Sakai City received a total of 5 billion yen in public support to
reduce fares for 10 years (33% reduction in fares and a 13% increase in passengers) [5].
There are several cities that have implemented MM throughout their metropolitan
areas, including London, UK, and Perth and Adelaide in Australia. Kyoto is a primeexample in Japan. TFPs are a typical method of MM. TFPs are measures that expect
spontaneous changes in transport behaviour through multiple individual interactions,
including communication questionnaires and feedback based on questionnaires to thetarget audience [8,11]. Therefore, it is extremely expensive to implement in an entire
metropolitan area. In Perth, Australia, approximately 640,000 people were targeted overa 10-year period at a cost of about 3 billion yen (about 10,000 yen/household, about
5000 yen/person) [25]. The Japanese city of Kyoto has a public budget of 33.5 million yen(about 1675 yen/person) for approximately 20,000 people [26].
Thus, a low-cost solution to the problem of promoting public transport use has not yet
been established and requires some financial resources. However, while many studies havefocused on the effects of public transport policies in increasing the number of passengers
and promoting modal shift, few have studied the costs of these policies. In particular,
one study [27] points out the high cost of these policies, but to the best of the authors’knowledge, there is no study that refers to the impact of public transport systems on
the management and balance of payments. In addition, in Japan, there is no specificfinancial system for public transport policies, and the possibility of implementing thesepolicies depends on the independent general funds of each municipality. Hence, cities

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3 of 20that implement policies on a regional basis are generally more populous and have larger
budgets for their own general funds. In smaller regional cities, both transport companies
and public organisations are unable to implement policies on a wide scale, public transportremains inconvenient, and the region relies on private cars for mobility. The situationin Europe and the United States differs from that in Japan, as public organisations often
operate public transport. However, promoting transport use should be encouraged toensure financial stability of public organisations, considering the management and incomeof public transport.
This study analyses a low-cost solution implemented in Oyama City (population about
167,000), a small regional city in Japan with a similar problem to other smaller regions
outside of Japan. It had two aims: to people’s attitudes and behaviours but maintainthe financial stability of bus management. This study is novel in the fact that it refers to
the impact on the management and income of the public transport system. The low-cost
solution here means a solution with low financial expenditure such as low implementation
costs and no decreases in revenue for Oyama City, which is both a transport operator and apublic organization.
Oyama City conducted a social experiment in which bus fares were significantly
reduced (passes were sold at a discount of 50% and 70%) for one year starting in September
2019. Consequently, the experiment was completed without the use of additional publicfunds, the increase in revenue was confirmed, and the experiment was continued. In
addition, a low-cost method of promoting bus usage was developed using MM knowledge,
and a public information campaign for all citizens was launched in conjunction with the fare
reduction, targeting approximately 53,000 households (about 125,000 people), and costing
18 million yen in public funds (about 340 yen/household, about 150 yen/person). This wasless than a tenth of the per capita cost of MM. It is a novelty that the authors developed alow-cost method focusing on the cost of the policy and analysed its effectiveness.
This study aims to answer the following research questions, taking this initiative as anopportunity to organise and understand effective policies to promote public transport use.
1.
2.
3.
4.

How was the decision to design and implement a major fare reduction made?
What were the effects of a significant fare reduction?
What were the motivations, content, and implementation characteristics of the information campaign?
How did the low-cost approach to information provision and communication work?

Public transport fare reduction (discount) policies in Japan are largely welfare-based
and are mostly aimed at students without a driver’s license or at the elderly who are notconfident about driving a private car. Reduced fares for commuters are often not supported
as they are almost always paid for by their employer’s commuting allowance.
However, as the commuting environment is likely to change in the future with theincrease in the number of freelance workers and teleworkers who do not commute to theoffice, it would be useful for public transport policy in urban areas to examine whether
reducing fares (discounts) for commuters would lead to a modal shift in public transport.
In addition, the low-cost and feasible policy measures reported in this study would
encourage people in small cities who are dependent on private cars and who have notexpressed interest in public transport, to reconsider its importance. It is hoped that thiswould lead to a debate on improving and promoting the use of public transport in cities,
leading to more effective policy implementation and budgetary focus.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. About Oyama City
Oyama city is located about 60 km north of Tokyo and has a population of about
167,000 (as of April 2021), making it the second most populous city in Tochigi Prefecture in
Japan. From Oyama Station in the city centre, a rail service is provided by the Shinkansen
and Tohoku Main Line (to Tokyo) to the north and south, the Ryomo Line to the west, andthe Mito Line to the east. Among regional cities of the same size in Japan, the convenienceSustainability 2021, 13, 6160

4 of 20of railways is quite high. However, there are only three stations located in the city, andthe railways are not used for intra-city travel; they are mostly used for travel to Tokyo.
Therefore, public transport within the city is carried out by buses. Private bus companies
generally operate bus routes in Japanese cities, but there are no private bus companies in
Oyama. There are 14 city bus routes that radiate from the station. The city bus service
level is as follows: the most convenient route has 15 round trips per day, between 6:30
and 21:20; the least convenient route has six round trips per day between 6:32 and 19:05.
According to the latest person–trip survey conducted in 2018 relating to the major modesof transport, 8.0% used rail, 0.3% used buses, and 69.0% used private cars. The rate ofbus usage is very low, approximately one-tenth of the usage in other local cities in Japan.
The city’s Comprehensive Urban Transport Plan (formulated in FY2019) sets the goal of
tripling the number of bus users by 2040. Owing to the very low number of bus users,
the cost of operating the bus service is greater than the amount of revenue generated by
the service and Oyama city pays for the shortfall. (This expression is used because public
transport in Japan is usually financially independent.) In FY2018, before the low-cost
policy was implemented, the number of users was 713,403 per year, operational costs were257,136,882 yen, and operational revenue was 119,103,997 yen. The city pays 54% of theoperational cost, and 138,032,885 yen per year in public expenses. This is one of the lowest
percentages for buses operated by a local city in Japan; the average for cities in Tochigi
Prefecture, of which Oyama is a part, is 78% (as of FY2018) [28]. This study analyses
the Oyama city bus social experiment offering a significant fare reduction with a public
information campaign for all citizens.
2.2. Design and Implementation Process of the Fare Reduction Social ExperimentThis section describes the outline and study process of the social experiment offeringa significant fare reduction for city buses. The period of the social experiment was one year,
from October 2019 to September 2020 (the reasons will be explained in detail), and the fare
reduction was characterised by the following two points.
1.

2.

One and three-month passes provided price discounts of 50% off the old pass andnew half-year and one-year passes were established, with price discounts of 70% off
the old pass (see Table 1).
The new pass could be used on all lines rather than a specific line.
The pricing of this new pass was considered with the following three goals:

1.
2.
3.

Shift cash-paying bus users to pass users. (This was because of the queues that hadformed due to the exchange of currency, etc.)
Attract new bus users.
Keep the operational revenue as low as possible.

The following information was used as a reference in determining the price of anew pass.

•

Results from a questionnaire survey of residents along bus routes

The percentage of residents who used the bus almost every day was 1.4% (estimatedto be about 437 people when expanded to the entire city), the percentage of those who used
the bus 2–3 days a week was 1.7% (530 people), the percentage of those who used the bus
1 day a week was 2.8% (874 people), the percentage of those who used the bus 2–3 daysa month was 7.6% (2371 people), and the percentage of those who used the bus 1 day amonth was 6.1% (1903 people). The number of heavy users of the bus was small, and 80.4%of the residents along the bus routes did not use the bus.

•

Number of old pass holders

The number of pass holders before the social experiment was approximately 120. This
number was quite small compared to the estimated 437 residents who used the bus almost
every day.

•

Other transport

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Parking lots around the station could be rented for 5000 yen/month (10-min walkfrom the station) to 10,000 yen/month (3-min walk from the station), and bicycle parking
for 1000 yen/month. The price of the old pass was 8400 yen/month (see Table 1). The
price of the old pass was not competitive with the rental prices of parking lots and bicycle
parking lots around the station.
Table 1. Price of pass.

Valid Period

All People Except for
the Two Columns on
the Right

Commuting to School(Junior High School, HighSchool, University, etc.)

Elementary SchoolStudents, 65 Years Old andOver, Disabled Person

50% off

1 month
3 months

4200 yen (11 days)
12,000 yen (10 days)

3600 yen (9 days)
10,000 yen (9 days)

2100 yen (11 days)
6000 yen (10 days)

70% off

6 months
12 months

15,000 yen (7 days)
28,000 yen (6 days)

13,000 yen (6 days)
25,000 yen (5 days)

7500 yen (7 days)
14,000 yen (6 days)

old pass

1 month
3 months

8400 yen (21 days)
23,940 yen (20 days)

7200 yen (18 days)
20,520 yen (18 days)

4200 yen (21 days)
11,970 yen (21 days)(Reference) Fares

1 way

200 yen

200 yen

100 yenTypes

new pass

The number of days in parentheses is the number of days per month that would be profitable if you used one route per day for one roundtrip (paid one way twice).

Initially, during the study phase, there was a concern about the decrease in operational
revenue, and there was an opinion that a 30% discount, which had a precedent in Japan,
should be used. In response to this, there was an opinion that with a 30% discount, theeffect of goal 1 would be limited and goal 2 would not be achieved because of the priority
given to goal 3; to attract new users, it was necessary to make the price feasible for the
residents to easily pay, such as a 50% or 70% discount.
The number of pass holders before the social experiment was approximately 120. The
percentage of residents who used the bus almost every day was as low as 1.4% (437 people).
In contrast, city authorities hypothesised that if residents who used the bus at least 2–3 daysa month (estimated number: 4212) purchased the new pass, the increase in revenue fromnew bus users would outweigh the decrease in revenue from the fare reduction. By adding
value to the new pass, such as making it available for use on all lines, it would be possible
to achieve this goal.
The results of the trial calculations are presented below. If only 120 people purchased
new passes, the revenue would be reduced by about 700,000 yen/month; if only 437 people
purchased new passes, the revenue would be reduced by about 21,000,000 yen/month, and if
4212 people purchased new passes, the revenue would increase by about 18,000,000 yen/month.
The above results were calculated simply by multiplying the number of people in eachgroup by the difference between the average fare paid and the lowest price of the new pass.
The average fare paid was calculated by multiplying the frequency of use and the averagefare paid per one-way trip, which is 167 yen. The 167 yen was calculated by dividing the
FY2018 revenue of 119,103,997 yen by the number of users (713,403). The average fare paid
is set at 8400 yen/month (price of old pass) for the group of 120 people, 7300 yen/monthfor the group of 437 people, 1980 yen/month for the group of 4212 people, and the price ofthe new pass is set at 2400 yen/month.
After the above discussion, city authorities decided to sell the new pass with the prices
listed in Table 1. This meant that although there was no certainty that the revenue would
not decrease, the decision to reduce the price was made because it was assumed that anincrease in the number of bus trips and new bus users was necessary to make the transport
environment in Oyama more sustainable, and the authorities were determined not to lose
revenue through the public information campaign (see below).
When city authorities proposed the fare reduction, the mayor and the Regional Public
Transport Council (the body that regulates bus fares) expressed concern about the increased
burden on public funding. In response to this, city authorities presented the data andSustainability 2021, 13, 6160

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explained that the revenue would not necessarily decrease and that even if it did, theamount would be small. This was because the number of bus users and old pass holders
who paid a large amount of money was small. The availability of data to explain thesituation accurately was a big advantage.
In addition, the following two points were proposed to persuade them:••

The fare reduction should be for a period of one year. A decision on whether to continue the fare reduction will be made depending on the level of operational revenue.
Sales of the new pass will be limited to My Number card holders. The mayor had
made it a political goal to increase the percentage of residents who obtained a My
Number card.

After lowering the conditions and making a proposal that met his political goals, themayor gave his approval for the fare reduction. The proposal was subsequently approvedby the Regional Public Transport Council, and the fare reduction started in October 2019.
In addition, an increase in revenue was achieved after the start of the social experiment.
For this reason, it was decided to extend the period by one year, until September 2021, andto continue the fare reduction.
2.3. Motivation, Contents, and Implementation of the Public Information Campaign

nability 2021, 13, 6160

The aim of the public information campaign was to provide all citizens with information about the bus, including the new pass, and to reach out to them psychologically toincrease their opportunities to use the bus.
To achieve this objective, three lifestyle information tabloid newsletters (LITNs) forthe buses were created (Nos. 1–3). Each of these was distributed to all households inOyama City. The LITNs were developed as a tool for the campaign to achieve the following features: to provide information in a news format; to enclose route maps andtimetables as appendices; and to reach out to readers psychologically through columns andfeature articles.
MM in this study was not an experiment, but a transport policy. In order to encourage
people to change their attitudes and behaviours, the quality of the MM communication
tools is very important. In order to guarantee this quality, a review committee was formed
to create the LITNs consisting of city authorities, special advisors, creative directors, anddesigners. The committee used the KJ method to define the core brand message and thus,“Living in Oyama, Bus in your life.” was created. Efforts were made to ensure that this core
brand message was communicated to the public through the LITNs. The committee spentapproximately 30 h discussing the plan, design, and articles for the conception of the LITNs.
A sample of the articles is shown in Figure 1, and the contents of the LITNs in Table 2. The
articles in the LITNs had the following characteristics, based on the knowledge of MM, toof 21
reach people psychologically, and to encourage them to change their7spontaneous
travelbehaviour. A part of it is shown in Figures 2–4.

Figure 1. Figure
Exampleof the LITNs;
These(a)areThesethe covers
LITNsofNo.
1 (left-most)to No. 3to(right-most)
1. Exampleof the(a)LITNs;
are theofcovers
LITNs
No. 1 (left-most)No. 3 (right-(The words inthe pictureserve
as awords
table inof thecontents.
the contents
listedin (2) to (8)Table 2listed
are written
most)
(The
pictureSpecifically,
serve as a tableof contents.
Specifically,
theof
contents
in (2) toin Japanese.);(8)LITNof Table(b) Reading
No.21.are written in Japanese.); (b) Reading LITN No. 1.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

7 of 20

Table 2. Contents of the LITNs.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160
No. 1

7 of 21

No. 2

No. 3

(1) CoverFull-size photo of a bus and thenew pass

Pictogram of a bus

Bus coloring book and vehicle
illustration book(2) Special feature

Oyama full-size picture:
Introduction to places to visit bybus in the city

A day with a bus: Information about aday on the bus and the places visitedby five representative people

Let’s think about the future of thebus: opinions and answers fromcitizens

Bus route map

Bus timetable

Demand Bus map

Information about the new passand how to ride the bus

How to ride the Demand Bus

How to use the bus location
system(3) Appendix(4) Service Introduction(5) People behind Bus

Introduction to the bus operators(6) The History of Bus

No more buses from Oyama!

Private buses, complete withdrawal.

Let’s think about the future ofbuses

Clothes and vehicles

How to make a bus survive

Is it true that cars are cheap?

(7) Serial Columns(8) The secrets of the bus(for children)

mileage of to
theNo.
bus 3is(rightamazing!
Bus1.bodymeasurements
A day inlifecovers
of a bus
FigureExampleof the LITNs; (a) These
arethetheofdriver!
LITNs No. The
1 (left-most)most) (The words in the picture serve as a table of contents. Specifically, the contents listed in (2) toIntention to purchase new pass, attachment to the community, opinions on buses, etc.
(8) of Table 2 are written in Japanese.); (b) Reading LITN No. 1.

Questionnaire

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.
2. Example
Example ofof thethe LITNs;
LITNs; (a)(a) Information
Information on
on thethe new
new pass;
pass; (b)(b) Bus
Bus route
route map;
map; (c)(c) Bus
Bus timetable.
timetable.
Figure•Information

Information on the new pass, bus route maps, and timetables for all routes: Theprovision of information is the basis of MM (See Figure 2).

•

Individual communication

Information about a day on the bus and the places visited by five representative people.
The aim was to give citizens the feeling that they were being addressed individually, thatthey too could move like the person in the figure (see Figure 3). In addition, by applying
the technique of the action plan method of MM [29], a column was prepared in whichcitizens could create their own “action plan for a day using the bus” and send it to thesecretariat (see Figure 3, rightmost column).

•

Interactive communication

In response to the questionnaires in LITNs No. 1 and 2, we received comments suchas “I would like to see an increase in the number of bus services”, “There are other ways toSustainability 2021, 13, 6160
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8 of 21

use theanda “My
image of theaboutbus haschangedafterandreading
this tabloid”
Figure 3. Example of the LITNs:
A bus”,
day withbus; Information
a dayon the bus;
the places
visited byand
fivethese
opinions and answers were published in LITN No. 3 (see Figure 4).
representative people.

FigureFigure
3. Exampleof theof
LITNs:A daywitha bus;
Information
dayopinions
on the bus;
the places
visited by five
4. Example
the LITNs;
Let’s
think
about
the futureaboutof theabus:
andandanswers
from citizens.
representative people.
Table 2. Contents of the LITNs.

(1) Cover(2) Special feature(3) Appendix(4) Service Introduction(5) People behind Bus(6) The History of Bus(7) Serial Columns(8) The secrets of the bus(for children)
QuestionnaireThis showed the attitude that “City authorities are receptive and responsive to theNo.
2 on the technique of the TFP
No.[8,11],3
opinions of
its1users and readers”. This wasNo.
based
a comFull-size
photo
of
a
bus
and
the
Bus
coloring
book andmunication program that involved repeatedfeedback,suchasasurveyofanindividual’s
Pictogram of a bus
new pass
vehicle illustration booktraffic behaviour
and the presentation of a medical report based on
the results.
Oyama
full-size
picture:
A
day
with
a
bus:
Information
about
Let’s
think
about the futureof
In this way, LITNs articles could provide a pseudo-individual communication
experiIntroduction to places to visit by
a day on the bus and the places
the bus: opinions andence for the majority of citizens by featuring representative people and opinions (which
bus in the city
visited by five representative peopleanswers from citizens
everyone has and wants to have answered) and could appeal to the emotional side.
Bus route map
Bus timetable
Demand Bus map
There were other articles about the bus that even citizens who were not interested inInformation about the new pass
How to use the bus location
the bus could enjoy reading. For
example,on theHow
to ride articles
the Demand
Busrole of buses in helping people
and how to ride the bus
systemdiscover new attractions and enriching their lives in Oyama. By distributing the LITNs
Introduction to the bus operators
in one direction to the citizens, the operational cost was reduced by omitting individual
Let’s think about the future ofcommunicationwitheach citizen.
The
distribution
was November 2019 for No. 1,
Nomore buses from
Oyama!
Privatebuses,
complete schedule
withdrawal.
buses
February 2020 for No. 2, and May 2020 for No. 3. Each had a print run of 60,000 copies. Of
Clothes and vehicles
How to make a bus survive
Is it true that cars are cheap?
these, 53,000 (all households belonging to the local community association) were distributed
The mileage of the bus isonthecitymeasurements
hall’s monthly PR magazinedelivery
Therefore, there was no cost forBusbody
A day in thelife of anetwork.
bus driver!
amazing!
the distribution.
Intention to purchase new pass, attachment to the community, opinions on buses, etc.
The characteristics of this low-cost method of public information campaigning (simplified MM) could be summarised as follows:•
Information

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

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The omission of time-consuming and costly one-to-one communication and the useof representative people and opinions as an alternative to provide quasi-individual
communication.
Distribution using existing networks at no additional cost.

Therefore, the cost of the campaign was 18,000,000 yen for the planning, production,and printing of LITNs. Since LITNs were distributed to about 125,000 people, the per capita
cost was 150 yen. This is less than a tenth of the per capita cost of about 5000 yen in Perth,
Australia [25], and 1675 yen in Kyoto, Japan [26].

Figure 4. Example of the LITNs; Let’s think about the future of the bus: opinions and answers from citizens.

2.4. Data Used in the Analysis
The following data on bus operation were provided by Oyama City, the operator of
the bus service.
Data in months•••

Number of passes sold, revenue, and age of purchasers (April 2018 to March 2021)
Number of bus users (April 2019–March 2021)
Operational revenue (April 2019–March 2021)
Data in years••

Number of bus users (FY2008–FY2020)
Operational cost and revenue (FY2008–FY2020)
Two types of questionnaires were distributed.

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The first was a survey of new pass holders. This was carried out in April 2020,
six months after the start of the new pass. The fare reduction was scheduled to end in
September 2020 so the survey was conducted at this time to obtain information for further
consideration. The survey covered 184 holders of the new pass (as of the 3rd of April 2020).
The questionnaire responses and indices are listed in Table 3. The survey was conductedby post, and 127 respondents (69% response rate) participated. The questionnaire results
were used to analyse changes in transport behaviours and awareness of new pass holders.
Table 3. Questionnaire responses and indices (the new pass holders).
Index

Questions Used in Survey Calculation

Scale(1) Frequency of bus use (for September 2019)(2) Frequency of bus use (for February 2020)(3) Frequency of bus use (for April 2020)(4) Possession of driving licence(5) Possession of own car(6) Free opinion column

How many times did you use the bus during September 2019?
How many times did you use the bus during February 2020?
How many times did you use the bus during April 2020?
Do you have a driving licence?
Do you have your own car?
-Times/month
Times/month
Times/month
No/yesNo/yes-

The second was a questionnaire survey for LITNs readers with a similar questionnaire
attached to each of the three tabloids distributed. Readers responded by post or via the web.
The questionnaire responses and indices are listed in Table 4. The number of responses
was 183 for No. 1, 101 for No. 2, and 121 for No. 3 (not a panel survey). The questionnaire
results were used to analyse changes in the attitudes of LITNs readers.
Table 4. Questionnaire responses and indices (readers of the LITNs).
Index

Questions Used in Survey Calculation

Scale(1) Awareness of the new pass (Only web survey)(2) Intention to purchase the new pass
(3) Favor to the bus(4) Attachment to the city (1)Did you know that the new pass is on sale?
Do you want to buy the new pass?
Do you like the bus?
Do you feel attached to Oyama?
Do you think there are things in Oyama thatyou would be sad to see disappear?
-

No/yesNo/yes (five-point scale)
No/yes (five-point scale)
No/yes (five-point scale)(5) Attachment to the city (2)(6) Free opinion column

No/yes (five-point scale)-

3. Results
3.1. Changes in the Number of Pass Holders and Age Structure
As of 31 March 2021, 807 new passes were sold. The number of new pass holders
continues to increase despite the COVID-19 disaster. Compared to the average number ofold pass holders, which was about 118, the number of new pass holders was 308 as of March
2021, an increase of about 2.6 times (see Figure 5). Of the 301 people who had purchased
the new pass as of November 2020 (this was the time point due to data limitations), 44 passholders (15%) were transferred from the old pass, while the remaining 257 (85%) were
new purchasers.
Following this, the characteristics of the sales of the new pass by period of validity wereas follows: As of March 2021, the largest number of new passes were sold for 12 months(124 holders), followed by six months (91 holders), one month (18 holders), and threemonths (15 holders). The 12-month pass was not the most popular from the beginning.
The highest number of 12-month passes was recorded in May 2020, seven months after thestart of the study. Prior to this, the number of 1-month and 6-month passes was high, andthe number of 12-month passes gradually increased. The reasons for this are discussed
below. At the beginning of the introduction of the new pass, it was considered that many
people bought a one-month pass as a trial because they were not sure of the extent of theirusage of the bus, and several bought a six-month bus pass if they wanted to buy a passwith a higher discount rate. This was also the opinion expressed at the sales offices.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

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The age structure of the 301 new pass holders (as of January 2021) was as follows: Theage structure of the new pass holders was compared to the age structure of the bus users
in the 2018 Parson trip survey (see Figure 6) to clarify their characteristics. The divisionof the age structure of the new pass holders was calculated to match the results of the
Parson Trip survey. The age structure of the new holders included a higher proportionof school-going people aged 15–24 and working people aged 25–65, compared to the age
structure of bus users in 2018. The generation that was able to obtain a driving license andwas not worried about driving a car, also purchased the new pass. Of the 127 respondents
11 of 21to the questionnaire, 78 (61%) held a driving license and 54 (43%) had a private car (seeFigure 7).

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12 of 21

Figure5.5.Number
Numberofofpass
passholders
holdersby
byvalidity
validityperiod.
period.
FigureFollowing this, the characteristics of the sales of the new pass by period of validity
were as follows: As of March 2021, the largest number of new passes were sold for 12months (124 holders), followed by six months (91 holders), one month (18 holders), andthree months (15 holders). The 12-month pass was not the most popular from the beginning. The highest number of 12-month passes was recorded in May 2020, seven months
after the start of the study. Prior to this, the number of 1-month and 6-month passes washigh, and the number of 12-month passes gradually increased. The reasons for this are
discussed below. At the beginning of the introduction of the new pass, it was consideredthat many people bought a one-month pass as a trial because they were not sure of theextent of their usage of the bus, and several bought a six-month bus pass if they wanted
to buy a pass with a higher discount rate. This was also the opinion expressed at the sales
offices.
The age structure of the 301 new pass holders (as of January 2021) was as follows:
The age structure of the new pass holders was compared to the age structure of the bus
users in the 2018 Parson trip survey (see Figure 6) to clarify their characteristics. The diviFigure 6. Age structure of the new pass holders (301 as of January 2021).
sion of the age structure of the new pass holders was calculated to match the results of the
Parson Trip survey. The age structure of the new holders included a higher proportion of
Figure 6. Age structure of the new pass holders (301 as of January 2021).
school-going people aged 15–24 and working people aged 25–65, compared to the age
structure of bus users in 2018. The generation that was able to obtain a driving license andwas not worried about driving a car, also purchased the new pass. Of the 127 respondents
to the questionnaire, 78 (61%) held a driving license and 54 (43%) had a private car (seeFigure 7).

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12 of 20

Figure 6. Age structure of the new pass holders (301 as of January 2021).

FigureFigure 7.
7. Possession
Possession ofof aa driving
driving licence and private cars by the new pass holders (a survey for the
new passpass holders
holders N
N == 127).
new

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

3.2.
3.2. Changes
Changes inin Users
Users andand Operational
Operational Revenue
Revenue (Monthly)(Monthly)
Figure8shows
thenumberofbus
users
Figure 8 shows the number of bus users per
per month
month fromfrom April
April 20192019 toto March
March 2021.
2021.
The
number
of
bus
users
in
2020
droppedsignificantly
dueto
COVID-19,
declining
The number of bus users in 2020 dropped significantly due to COVID-19, declining toto27,768in MayMay 2020
2020(45%(45%ofofthe
thesamesamemonth
month
from
previousyear)
27,768 passengers
passengers infromthethepreviousyear)
andandrerecovering to 52,495 passengers in October 2020 (84% of the same month from the previous
covering to 52,495 passengers in October 2020 (84% of the same month from the previousyear). However, due to the declaration of a state of emergency, the number of visitors
year). However, due to the declaration of a state of emergency, the number of visitors
dropped to 39,239 (65% of the same month from last year) in January 2021. In addition,
dropped to 39,239 (65% of the same month from last year) in January 2021. In addition, as
as the comparison with the same month from the previous year in February 2020 turned
the comparison with the same month from the previous year in February 2020 turned
13 of 21
negative (−1.7%), the number of users started to decrease around the end of that month,
negative (−1.7%), the number of users started to decrease around the end of that month,
due to the impact of COVID-19.
due to the impact of COVID-19.

Figure8. 8.
Changes
in in
bus
users
(Data
in in
months).
FigureChanges
bus
users
(Data
months).

Figure 9 shows the monthly operational revenue from April 2019 to March 2021. The
Figure 9 shows the monthly operational revenue from April 2019 to March 2021. The
operational revenue was also affected by COVID-19, especially in April and March 2019.
operational revenue was also affected by COVID-19, especially in April and March 2019.
From October to December 2019, after the new pass was issued, there was no significant
From October to December 2019, after the new pass was issued, there was no significant
change in operational revenue, but the share of operational revenue accounted for, by thechange in operational revenue, but the share of operational revenue accounted for, by thesales of the pass, was gradually increasing. Comparing this revenue with the previous
sales of the pass, was gradually increasing. Comparing this revenue with the previous
year (2018), the total revenue from October to December 2018 was 29,031,184 yen, andyear (2018), the total revenue from October to December 2018 was 29,031,184 yen, and thethe total revenue from October to December 2019 was 29,813,289 yen, with an increase
total revenue from October to December 2019 was 29,813,289 yen, with an increase ofof 782,105 yen. Additionally, revenue from the passes also increased by 831,820 yen
782,105 yen. Additionally, revenue from the passes also increased by 831,820 yen (34.7%)(34.7%) from 2,397,360 yen in October to December 2018 to 3,229,180 yen in October tofrom 2,397,360 yen in October to December 2018 to 3,229,180 yen in October to December
December 2019.
2019.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

sales of the pass, was gradually increasing. Comparing this revenue with the previous
year (2018), the total revenue from October to December 2018 was 29,031,184 yen, and thetotal revenue from October to December 2019 was 29,813,289 yen, with an increase of782,105 yen. Additionally, revenue from the passes also increased by 831,820 yen (34.7%)
13 of 20from 2,397,360 yen in October to December 2018 to 3,229,180 yen in October to December
2019.

Figure 9.
9. Changes
Changes inin operational
operational revenue
revenue (Data(Data inin months).
months).
FigureSustainability 2021, 13, 6160

The situation under the influence of COVID-19 from February 2020 onwards is shownThesituation under the influence of COVID-19 from February 2020 onwards is
below. As mentioned above, the operational revenue decreased significantly due14toofthe
21
shown below. As mentioned above, the operational revenue decreased significantly due
impact of COVID-19. However, the revenue from the sale of the new passes had not fallen
to the impact of COVID-19. However, the revenue from the sale of the new passes had not
as much as the revenue from the total operational revenue, although it had fluctuated. The
fallen as much as the revenue from the total operational revenue, although it had fluctushare of revenue from the sale of the new pass in the operational revenue had increased
ated.
The shareofrevenuethe saleupof tothe21.4%.
new passin results
the operational
revenue
hadincreasedsinceofthestart offrom
COVID-19,
These
suggestthat
the new
since the start
COVID-19,
up to 21.4%.
Theseresultssuggest thatthe new
pass
conpass
contributed
to an inincreasein andrevenueandmightraise of
therevenue
level ofunderrevenuethetributed
to an increase
revenuemight
raise
the level
theunderinfluence
influenceof COVID-19.
of COVID-19.

3.3. Changes
Changes inin Users
Users andand Operational Revenue (Annual)
FigureFigure 10 shows changes in the annual number of bus users, and Figure 11 showschanges in the annual operational cost, operational revenue, and balance ratio.

Figure 10. Changes in bus users (Data in years).

In FY2019, although the bus service was affected by COVID-19 in February andMarch 2020, it achieved an increase from 119,103,997 yen in revenue and 713,403 bus users
in FY2018, before the introduction of the new pass, to 119,366,680 yen in revenue and728,807 bus users in FY2019, after the introduction of the new pass, with an increase of
262,683 yen in revenue and 15,404 users.
If there had been no impact from COVID-19 and the same number of users as in theprevious year, it was estimated that the number of users in March 2020 would have beenaround 18,000 (63,099 users (March 2019) minus 45,362 users (March 2020) equals 17,737).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

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14 of
20
increased since the start of COVID-19, up to 21.4%. These results suggest that thenewpass contributed to an increase in revenue and might raise the level of revenue under the
influence of COVID-19.

Furthermore, it is estimated that the revenue would have increased by 3,000,000 yen (i.e.,
3.3.aforementioned
Changes in Users18,000
and Operational
Revenuethemultipliedby the(Annual)
average fare paid per one way of 167 yen).
Figure10 shows
changesyenin (revenue
the annualof busminus
users,785
andFigure11 shows
However,
1001
ten thousand
innumber
March 2019)ten
thousandyenchanges in theannualoperational
operational
revenue,
and amountbalance ratio.
(revenue
March
2020)
equals 216cost,
ten thousand
yen.
This small
is likely due tothe impact of revenue from passes.
Although no changes were made to the bus service between FY2018 and FY2019 thatwould have increased operational costs, the costs increased, nonetheless, by approximately
8,000,000 yen, due to vehicle repairs and other costs, resulting in a slight decrease in therevenue/income ratio (see Figure 11).
In FY2020 (preliminary figures), when the full impact of COVID-19 was felt, there
was a significant decrease in revenue of 85,275,021 yen (71.4% of the previous year) and
519,027 bus users (71.2% of the previous year). The percentage decrease was approximately
the same.
For reference, the author reviewed similarly sized cities to the Tochigi Prefecture
to investigate the number of people who used the city bus in FY2020, compared to theprevious year. The numbers were 65.6% in Ashikaga (population about 143,000), 66.2% in
Tochigi (population about 154,000), and 64.4% in Sano (population about 115,000). Oyama
10. Changes
in bususers (Datayears).
City bus Figure
usage declined
about
5 percentlessinthan
in the surrounding cities.

FigureFigure11.
11.Changes
Changesin
inoperational
operationalcost,
cost,revenue
revenueand
andbalancebalanceratio
ratio(Data(Dataininyears).
years).

3.4. Changes
in thealthough
Number oftheTimes
Bus WasUsed
by NewbyPass
Holders in February andIn FY2019,bustheservicewasaffected
COVID-19
Basedonitthequestionnaire
responses
from the new
passholders (n= 127),
thebusaverageMarch
2020,
achieved
an increase
from 119,103,997
yen
in revenue
and713,403users
numberof times
was used per
monthdepictedat three time(see thein FY2018,
beforethethebusintroductionof thenew ispass,
to 119,366,680
yen points
in revenue
andleft-mostof Figure
12).
Owingafter
to thet-testfor the number
times
thewithnewan
passholders
728,807 bus
users in
FY2019,theintroductionof the ofnewpass,increase
of
used
the
bus
between
the
three
time
points,thet-value(two-tailed)=1.98
indicatinga262,683 yen in revenue and 15,404 users.
significant
difference.
This
indicatedthat
thenumber
of
times
the
new
pass
holdersused
If there had been no impact from COVID-19 and the same number of users as in thethebus washigherafter
the purchase
than
beforeofthepurchase(increasedby 1.16
times),
previousyear,
it wasestimatedthat thenumberusers
in March
2020 would
have
been
and
that
the
number
of
times
might
have
decreased
due
to
the
effectof
COVID-19.
It
around 18,000 (63,099 users (March 2019) minus 45,362 users (March 2020) equals 17,737).
should
be
noted
that
the
April
2020/February
2019
ratio
of
the
actualnumberofusersofFurthermore, it is estimated that the revenue would have increased by 3,000,000 yen (i.e.,citybuses as a whole18,000
was 53%,
while thesame
ratio for
new
pass
based
onyen).
thethe aforementioned
multipliedby theaveragefare
paid
perholders
one wayof 167questionnaire
surveywas
80%.
Thereasonfor
thisdifference
couldbe
explainedbytheHowever, 1001 ten thousand yen (revenue in March 2019) minus 785 ten thousand yen
fact
that thepassholdersin 216Aprilmight yen.
be thoseto useisthebusduedaily,(revenuein newMarch
2020)
equalsten2020
thousandThiswhosmallhadamountlikely
to
even
under
the
influenceof
COVID-19.
However,
about
70%
of
the
158
new
pass
holders
the impact of revenue from passes.
as of April 2020 (108 people) purchased a new pass before February 2020 (before the impact
of COVID-19). Therefore, the possession of the new pass might discourage people fromrefraining from using buses under the influence of COVID-19.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

even under the influence of COVID-19. However, about 70% of the 158 new pass holders
as of April 2020 (108 people) purchased a new pass before February 2020 (before the impact of COVID-19). Therefore, the possession of the new pass might discourage people
from refraining from using buses under the influence of COVID-19.
15 of 20
Figure 13 shows the distribution of the number of days spent on the bus per month
before the purchase of the new pass (September 2019) for 127 survey respondents.

FigureFigure 12.
12. Frequency
Frequency ofof busbus usage:
usage: New
New passpass holders
holders (n(n == 127) using the bus per month
month (three(three time
time points).
points).

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

Figure 13 shows the distribution of the number of days spent on the bus per month
before the purchase of the new pass (September 2019) for 127 survey respondents.
The threshold of the graph is as follows.
16 of 21Six days (more than 12 times per month and less than 21 times per month):thepayment of the 12-month new pass was cheaper than the cash payment each time.

Figure 13.
13. TheThedistribution
distributionofofthe
thenumber
days
spent
month
beforethe purchasethe pass
new(Seppass
Figurenumber
of of
days
spent
on on
the thebusbusper permonth
beforethe purchaseof theofnew(September2019).
tember2019).

Twentyone days(morethanis42
per month): the payment for using the old passThe
thresholdof thegraph
as times
follows.
was cheaper
than
the
cash
paymenteachtime.
Six days (more than 12 times per month and less than 21 times per month): the paypurchasingnew
the pass
new waspass,cheaper
77% of than
the survey
respondents
usedtime.
the bus for lessmentBeforeof the 12-month
the cashpayment eachthanTwenty
21 days one
anddayswere(more
previously
not
heavy
of the busfor
tousingbuy thethan 42times
perenoughmonth):users
the payment
theoldoldpass.
pass
Next,
the
frequency
of
bus
usage
by
the
new
pass
holders
was
considered,
using
the
was cheaper than the cash payment each time.
segments
classifiedin
Figure13(seeFigure12).
People
who
used
the
bus
more
than
6
days
Before purchasing the new pass, 77% of the survey respondents used the bus for lessa monthandandthose
whoused the bus
morethan 21
days
month
did
not
changethethan
21 dayswerepreviously
not forheavy
enoughusers
of athebus tobuy
theold pass.
number
of
times
they
used
the
bus
by
purchasing
the
new
pass.
Conversely,
those
who
Next, the frequency of bus usage by the new pass holders was considered, using thenever used the bus before and those who used the bus less than 6 days a month before,
segments classified in Figure 13 (see Figure 12). People who used the bus more than 6 days
increased the number of times they used the bus (increased 2.68 times). These resultsa month and those who used the bus for more than 21 days a month did not change theshowed that those who previously (September 2019) used the bus for more than 6 days anumber of times they used the bus by purchasing the new pass. Conversely, those whomonth did not increase their bus usage after purchasing the new pass. In contrast, thosenever used the bus before and those who used the bus less than 6 days a month before,
who previously used the bus for less than 6 days a month or not at all would use the bus
increased the number of times they used the bus (increased 2.68 times). These results
for about 6 days (about 6 round trips: about 12 times) after purchasing the new pass.
showed that those who previously (September 2019) used the bus for more than 6 days a
In other words, the existence of the new pass suggested that citizens who had nevermonth did not increase their bus usage after purchasing the new pass. In contrast, thoseused the bus could be converted into bus users.
who previously used the bus for less than 6 days a month or not at all would use the bus
fordays
round trips:Tabloid
aboutNewsletters
12 times) after
purchasing
the new pass.
3.5.about
Impact6 ofthe (about
Lifestyle6 Information(LITNs)on the Citizens
In other words, the existence of the new pass suggested that citizens who had neverThe awareness of the new passes increased by 26.9% (from 19.3% to 46.2%), fromused the bus could be converted into bus users.
LITN No. 1 to No. 3 (see Figure 14, far right).

3.5. Impact of the Lifestyle Information Tabloid Newsletters (LITNs) on the Citizens
The awareness of the new passes increased by 26.9% (from 19.3% to 46.2%), from
LITN No. 1 to No. 3 (see Figure 14, far right).

In other words, the existence of the new pass suggested that citizens who had neverused the bus could be converted into bus users.
3.5. Impact of the Lifestyle Information Tabloid Newsletters (LITNs) on the Citizens
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16 of 20
The awareness of the new passes increased by 26.9% (from 19.3% to 46.2%),
from
LITN No. 1 to No. 3 (see Figure 14, far right).

FigureFigure14.
14.Results
Resultsofofquestionnairequestionnaireresponses
responsesfrom
fromreaders
readersofofLITNs.
LITNs.

ItItwasawareness ofof thethenew
newpass
passhadhadincreased
increasedbecause
becausewasassumed
assumed thatthat thethe awareness
ofof
thetheararticles
about
the
new
pass
in
each
LITN.
ticles about the new pass in each LITN.
Regarding the intention to purchase the new pass (see Figure 14, second from theright), there was no difference between No. 1 and No. 2, but the proportion of those who
answered “Between Yes and Neither” increased by 8.2 points in No. 3.
The proportion of respondents who answered “Yes” and “Between Yes and Neither”
favouring the usage of the bus (See Figure 14, central) increased by 7.4 points from No. 1 toNo. 3.
The proportion of respondents who answered “Yes” and “Between Yes and Neither”
for preferring attachment to the city (1) (See Figure 14, second from left) increased by
4.5 points from No. 1 to No. 3.
The proportion of respondents who answered “Yes” for preferring attachment to thecity (2) (see Figure 14, far left) increased by 16.6% from No. 1 to No. 3.
The proportion of respondents who answered “very much” and “somewhat”, also
increased by 11.9 points.
The reason for the large increase was discussed in a special feature in No. 3, which
presented the concept of profitability of the bus, the public burden, and the increase in thenumber of buses.
This article might have given readers an opportunity to think about the continuationof the bus, which was reflected in the results of the questionnaire “There is something sadwhen it disappears”.
In addition, as a side effect of the distribution of LITNs, the number of complaint calls
to the city office decreased from “one every three days (monthly average: 8)” before the
distribution, to “less than one per month (monthly average: 0.75: 8 months from November2019)” after the distribution.
The following is a selection of the responses from the free comment sections of thetwo questionnaires (see Table 5). Many respondents shared the comment, “I can take thebus more easily and have more opportunities to go out.“ In addition, many respondents
shared that “I no longer have to worry about it”, “I can take the bus without hesitation”, “I
now take the bus”, and “I can easily take the bus”. Those who purchased the new pass felt
more freedom of movement than before, and their lifestyles had changed in some way.

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Table 5. Sampling of opinions.
From

Sampling of Opinions
I was impressed by the tasteful design and readability of the tabloid. Reading the tabloid changed myimage of Oyama city. I was impressed by its tasteful design and readability.

Readers of lifestyle
information tabloid
newsletters

I was impressed by the tasteful design and readability of the tabloid. It is very helpful.
I used to think that buses were for grandparents, but after reading the tabloid, my image has changed. I
would like to ride the bus.
The tabloid is full of fresh information and is easy to read, so I decided to visit the places mentioned in
the article.
Commuting and going out in the city has become much easier.I am glad that I can take any bus line.
When I meet a bus, I can take it without hesitation even for a short distance.

New pass holders

I am a high school student. Thanks to the new pass, I can take the bus easily even when I don’t havemoney. I can take the bus not only to school but also to many other places.
I’m talking with some members of the senior citizen’s association about buying the new pass and goingon a mini hike.

4. Discussion
Is it possible to reduce bus fares without reducing operational revenues? In a citydependent on private cars, will lowering bus fares encourage bus usage? This is an
important issue concerning public transport policies. This study analysed the Oyama
city bus social experiment offering a significant fare reduction with a public information
campaign for all citizens. The results obtained were as follows:
The price of the bus pass was reduced by Max 70%, which resulted in a 2.6-foldincrease in the number of bus pass holders, a 1.1-fold increase in the total number of annual
bus users, and maintenance of bus operational revenues (1.002-fold).
In FY2020, when the full impact of COVID-19 was experienced, both revenue and bus
users declined, but at roughly the same percentage. If the fare reduction caused a reduction
in revenue, the percentage of decrease in revenue would have been higher. In addition, thepercentage decrease in the number of bus users was approximately 5% lower than that in
the surrounding cities.
These results suggest that it might be possible to achieve a significant fare reduction
in bus fares without reducing operational revenues (and without needing additional publicfunding), although this was only a six-month and short-term evaluation. It is also worth
noting that the number of new pass holders continues to increase, even today, despite the
COVID-19 disaster.
In addition, the significant fare reduction in buses has attracted a different group ofbus users, namely workers (62.2% of all new pass holders) and private car owners (43%of all new pass holders). The number of times the new pass holders used the bus has
increased by 1.16. In particular, the number of bus trips made by new pass holders, whopreviously used the bus less frequently, increased by a factor of 2.68.
From a psychological point of view, there has been an increase in the awareness of the
new pass, an increase in the number of citizens who favoured the bus and were attachedto the city, and a decrease in the number of complaints about the bus to the city hall by afactor of 10. The psychological impact of LITNs is evident. These results suggest that the
low-cost method of public information campaigning might have worked as an individual
and interactive communication measure with citizens.
Existing studies have shown that TFPs in residential areas of Japan reduced car use by
7.3% to 19.1% and increased public transport use by 30.0% to 68.9% on average [18].
The low-cost public information campaign targeted all citizens, and the city-wide
effect was a 10% increase (FY2019) in the total number of bus users per year and a 5%
reduction (FY2020) in the rate of decrease in the number of bus users.

Sustainability 2021, 13, 6160

18 of 20As the public information campaign was carried out at the same time as the fare
reduction, the above effect was not the result of the campaign alone. Taking this into
account, it was clear that the effect of the low-cost public information campaign method wasinferior to that of TFPs. Therefore, it could be argued that if a high effect of promoting public
transport usage was desired, time-consuming and costly TFPs should be implemented.
Some proposals for further research are given below. As discussed in previous studies [30], the concept of “breaking the habit” of car use is important when trying to permanently change the modal split and attract more people to public transport. Unfortunately,
this study did not investigate the habitual use of cars, as it only surveyed whether people own their own cars. A survey of people in European countries reported that among
those who use private cars, about 56% are ready to change their travel behaviour (travel
habits) using other modes of transportation [30]. Since 54.4% of the new pass holders had
their own cars, it can be assumed that the low-cost policy has contributed to breaking
the habit of car use to some extent. However, there are about 14.2 ten thousand cars inOyama City. Therefore, further research is needed to determine whether the low-cost policy
measures implemented can affect the habit of car use, and if so, to what extent, and what
improvements can be made.
In addition, efforts are underway across the policy measures to change the transport
environment and psychological aspects mentioned in this study. In recent years, throughthe development of applications and the use of information and communication technologies, there have been initiatives (such as Mobility as a Service) that can be called innovations
in public transport, such as flexible fare setting and information provision. Such innovativeideas in the field of public transport have been collected using participatory techniquesand have analysed how public transportation users hierarchize innovations for public
transport [31]. Some of the innovation initiatives in public transport can be implemented
at very low cost and may be used for the evolution of new passes to further increase thenumber of public transport users. If we are to evolve new passes (e.g., to change the priceor to offer a combined bus and other transport services, etc.) we need to find user groups,
market share and determine the optimal price and other service levels. For this purpose,
further research is needed, and conjoint analysis may be an option. We would like tocontinue our efforts to make the transport environment in Oyama City more appropriate
by carrying out further surveys and studies mentioned above.
Finally, the following points would provide public transport practitioners with an
insight into the factors that have enabled the achievement of a significant fare reduction on
buses, without reducing operational revenues.

•
•

•
•

Make public transport fares comparable with other modes of transport.
This area must have a low level of public transport usage. A low level is assumed tobe less than 1%, as in Oyama City. In areas with high levels of public transport usage,
there might be a lack of new users and a lack of capacity for public transport.
Appropriate public information campaigns would have to be adopted to promote usage.
Evaluate measures ex ante and ex post, using data on the number of users, income,questionnaires, etc.

The factors that made the public information campaign low-cost method work as anindividual and interactive communication measure with citizens are:•••

The use of the “lifestyle information tabloid newsletter (LITN)” media for a public
information campaign (MM) targeting all citizens. In a public information campaign
targeting many people, this media added individuality and interactivity to the information and might be a viable communication measure.
The basic technology of MM (information provision method, action plan method, TFP,etc.) should be used in the design of the tabloid.
Emphasis on the importance of branding and design in the production of LITNs andinvolvement of creative directors and designers in the project.

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This study is concluded with the anticipation that it will assist practitioners involvedin public transport.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.A. and A.T.; methodology, T.A. and A.T.; validation,
T.A.; formal analysis, T.A.; investigation, T.A., K.N., and A.T.; resources, T.A.; data curation, T.A.;
writing—original draft preparation, T.A. and K.N.; writing—review and editing, T.A. and K.N.;
visualization, T.A.; supervision, T.A. and A.T.; project administration, T.A. All authors have read andagreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Informed Consent Statement: This study is an evaluation of the policies implemented by themunicipality and is not an experiment on human subjects. Note that the questionnaire for this study
was answered by those who agreed to use the data for policy consideration and research which
aggregated in a way that prevents the identification of individuals.
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this study was available with permission from Oyama
City authorities (Oyama City, https://www.city.oyama.tochigi.jp/site/o-bus/200518.html; accessedon 21 April 2021).
Acknowledgments: In creating the lifestyle information tabloid newsletters, authors received assistance from the creative director Katagiri, A. and designer Saito, A. Bus data was provided by Uehara,
Y. and Uchida, N. of Oyama City authorities.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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