Supernovae as sources ofinterstellar dust
Takaya Nozawa(IPMU, University of Tokyo)
Collaborators;
T. Kozasa, A. Habe (Hokkaido Univ.),
M. Tanaka, K. Maeda, K. Nomoto (IPMU)
N. Tominaga (Konan Univ.), H. Umeda, I. Sakon (U.T.)
H. Hirashita (ASIAA), T. T. Takeuchi (Nagoya Univ.)
2011/1/20

Outline
1. Observations of dust at high redshift
2. Formation and evolution of dust grains in
Type II-P and pair-instability SNe
3. Formation and evolution of dust grains invarious types of SNe
4. Missing-dust problem in SNe
5. Implication on evolution history of dust

1. Observations of dust at high-z1-1. Discovery of large amounts of dust at z > 5・ The submm observations have confirmed the presenceof dust in excess of 10^8 Msun in 30% of z > 5 quasars➔ We see warm dust grains heated by absorbing
stellar lights in the host galaxies of the quasars
SDSS J1148+5251 at z=6.4－ age : 840-890 Myr－ IR luminosity : ~(1-3)x1013 Lsun
－ dust mass : (2-7)x108 Msun
－ SFR : ~3000 Msun/yr (Salpeter IMF)
－ dynamical mass :(5±2.5)x1010 Msun (Walter+04)－ BH mass : (1-5)x109 Msun (Willott+03)－ stellar mass : ~1012 Msun (Li+07)－ gas mass : ~3x1010 Msun
(CO, Walter+04, Bertoldi+03b)

Leipski+10, A&A, 518, L34－ metallicity : ~solar

1-2. What are sources of dust in z =6.4 quasar?
・ Supernovae (Type II SNe)

➔ ~0.1 Msun per SN is sufficient(Morgan & Edmunds 2003; Maiolino+06; Li+08)➔ > 1 Msun per SN (Dwek+07)
・ AGB stars + SNe(Valiante+09; Gall+10; Dwek & Cherchneff 2011)➔ 0.01-0.05 Msun per AGB (Zhukovska & Gail 2008)➔ 0.01-1 Msun per SN・ Grain growth in the ISM + AGB stars + SNe(Draine 2009; Michalowski+10; Pipino+11)➔ τgrowth ~ 10^7 (Z / Zsun) yr・ Quasar outflow (Elvis+02)

1-3. Sources of dust in 5 < z < 6.4
Michalowski+10,A&A, 522, 15

Grain growth in the ISM is required
for at least 3 out of 9 QSOs at z > 5

1-4. Extinction curves at high-z quasars
Maiolino+04, Nature, 431, 533
SDSS J1048+4637 at z=6.2
Broad absorption line (BAL) quasars

Dust model in MW (MRN)・ silicate & graphite
・ f(a)da = a^{-3.5}da
0.001 μm < a < 0.25 μm
・ dust-gas ratio : 1/140

different dust properties
from those at low redshifts

1-5. Other examples of high-z dust extinction
Gallerani+10, A&A, 523, 85

7 among 33 quasars at
3.9 < z < 6.4 requires
significant dust extinction, which deviatesfrom those in the SMC
GRB 050904 at z=6.3

additional evidence for different
dust properties at high-z
but see Liang & Li 2009, ApJ, 690, L56
Zafar+10, A&A, 514, 94
Zafer+11, arXiv/1101.1503

Stratta+07, ApJ, 661, L9

Extinction curves from high-z GRBs
Li+08, ApJ, 678, 1136
Perley+10, MNRAS, 406, 2473
Perley+11, AJ, 141, 36

2. Formation and evolution ofdust in Population III SNe

2-1. Dust Formation in Pop III SNe
at ~1 days
He-coreH-envelope

NS or BH
He–layer (C>O)
O–Ne-Mg layer
Dust formation
Si–S
atlayer~1-3 years
afterlayer
explosion
Fe–Ni2-1-1. Dust formation in primordial SNe
Nozawa+03, ApJ, 598, 785〇 Population III SNe model (Umeda & Nomoto 2002)
・ SNe II-P ： MZAMS = 13, 20, 25, 30 Msun (E51=1)
・ PISNe ： MZAMS = 170 Msun (E51=20), 200 Msun (E51=28)

Menv ~ 12 Msun

Menv ~ 90 Msun

・ nucleation and grain growth theory (Kozasa & Hasegawa 1988)

・ no mixing of elements within the He-core
・ complete formation of CO and SiO, sticking probability=1

2-1-2. Size distribution of newly formed dust
Nozawa+03, ApJ, 598, 785

・ grain radii range from a few A up to 1 μm
・ average dust radius is smaller for PISNe than SNe II-P
amount of newly formed dust grains
SNe II-P： Mdust = 0.1-1 Msun, fdep = Mdust / Mmetal = 0.2-0.3
PISNe ： Mdust =20-40 Msun, fdep = Mdust / Mmetal = 0.3-0.4

2-2. Dust Evolution in SNRs
T = (1-2)x104 K
nH,0 = 0.1-1 cm-3

He coreFSRSCD

2-2-1. Temperature and density of gas in SNRs
Nozawa+07, ApJ, 666, 955
Model : M pr= 20 Msun (E51=1)
nH,0 = 1 cm-3

Downward-pointing arrows:
forward shock in upper panel
reverse shock in lower panel
The temperature of the gas
swept up by the shocks➔ 106-108 K↓
Dust grains residing in theshocked hot gas are erodedby sputtering2-2-2. Evolution of dust in SNRs
Nozawa+07, ApJ, 666, 955
Model : M pr= 20 Msun (E51=1)
nH,0 = 1 cm-3

Dust grains in the He core collidewith reverse shock at (3-13)x103 yr

The evolution of dust heavily
depends on the initial radiusand compositionaini = 0.01 μm (dotted lines)➔ completely destroyedaini = 0.1 μm (solid lines)➔ trapped in the shellaini = 1 μm (dashed lines)➔ injected into the ISM

2-2-3. Total mass and size of surviving dust
Nozawa+07, ApJ, 666, 955

total dust mass surviving thedestruction in Type II-P SNRs;
0.08-0.8 Msun (nH,0 = 0.1-1 cm-3)

size distribution of surviving
dust is domimated by large
grains (> 0.01 μm)

2-3. Flattened extinction curves at high-z
Hirashita, TN,+08, MNRAS, 384, 1725

Gallerani+10, A&A, 523, 85

z=5.8, BAL

z=5.1, BAL

Maiolino+04, A&A, 420, 889

3. Formation and evolution ofdust in various types of SNe

3-1-1. Dust formation in Type IIb SN
Nozawa+10, ApJ, 713, 356○ SN IIb model (SN1993J-like model)－ MH-env = 0.08 Msun
MZAMS = 18 Msun
Meje = 2.94 Msun
－ E51 = 1－ M(56Ni) = 0.07 Msun

3-1-2. Dependence of dust radii on SN type
Nozawa+10, ApJ, 713, 356

SN IIbSN II-P

0.01 μm－ condensation time of dust
300-700 d after explosion－ total mass of dust formed
・ 0.167 Msun in SN IIb
・ 0.1-1 Msun in SN II-P

－ the radius of dust formedin H-stripped SNe is small
・ SN IIb without massive
H-env ➔ adust < 0.01 μm
・ SN II-P with massive
H-env ➔ adust > 0.01 μm

3-1-3. Destruction of dust in Type IIb SNR
constant-density CSM

stellar-wind CSM
330 yrNozawa+10, ApJ, nH,1 = 30, 120, 200 /cc➔ dM/dt = 2.0, 8.0, 13x10-5 Msun/yr for vw=10 km/s
713, 356
Almost all newly formed grains are destroyed in shockedgas within the SNR for CSM gas density of nH > 0.1 /cc➔ small radius of newly formed dust➔ early arrival of the reverse shock at the He core

3-1-4. Dust in Cassiopeia A AKARI corrected 90 μm image
Nozawa+10, ApJ, 713, 356

・ Md,warm ~ 0.008 Msun
・ Md,cool ~ 0.072 Msun
with Tdust ~ 40 K・ mass-loss rate
dM/dt = 8x10-5 Msun/yr

AKARI observation
Md,cool = 0.03-0.06 Msun
Tdust = 33-41 K(Sibthorpe+10)

Herschel observation
Md,cool = 0.075 Msun
Tdust ~ 35 K(Barlow+10)

3-2-1. Dust formation in Type Ia SN : W7 model○ Type Ia SN modelNozawa+11, to be submitted

W7 model (C-deflagration) (Nomoto+84; Thielemann+86)－ Meje = 1.38 Msun

－ E51 = 1.3－ M(56Ni) = 0.6 Msun

3-2-2. Dust formation and evolution in SNe Ia
average radius

Nozawa+11, to be submitted
dust destruction in SNRs

0.01 μm

・ condensation time :100-300 days
・ average radius of dust :aave <~ 0.01 μm
・ total dust mass :Mdust = 0.1-0.2 Msun

newly formed grains arecompletely destroyed for
ISM density of nH > 0.1 cm-3
➔ SNe Ia are unlikely to bemajor sources of dust

4. Missing-dust problem in SNe4-1. SNe are important sources of dust?
・ Theoretical studies－ before destruction : ~0.1-1 Msun in Type II-P SNe(Nozawa+03; Todini & Ferrara 2001; Cherchneff & Dwek 2010)－ after destruction by reverse shock
0.08-0.8 Msun (Nozawa+07)
0.01-0.1 Msun (Bianchi & Schneider 2007)

・ Observational works－ IR observations of dust-forming SNe : < 10-3 Msun(e.g., Meikle+07; Sakon+09; Kotak+09)－ submm observations of SNRs : ~1 Msun(Dunne+03; Morgan+03; Dunne+09)－ FIR observation of Cas A : 0.02-0.075 Msun
(Rho+08; Sibthorpe+09; Barlow+10)

4-2. Dust mass estimated from observations
Tanaka, TN, +11, submitted

4-3. Dust in middle-aged core-collapse SNe
Tanaka, TN, +11, submitted
・ The IR emissions fromSN 1978K are detected➔ silicate dust
Tdust = 230 K
Mdust = 1.3x10-3 Msun
・ If Tdust > 200 K,Mdust < 0.1 Msun for 6
non-detected SNe・ If Tdust < 80-100 K,
as much as 0.1 Msun ofdust can be allowed4-4. Promising targets for SPICA
Tanaka, TN, +11, submitted

SPICA will give the answer to the question whether
SNe can produce dust in the early universe
・ Imaging observations of nearby galaxies
・ Coverage from MIR and FIR is essential
・ ~10 targets at <~ 5 Mpc

5. Conclusion remarks

5-1. Implication on evolution history of dust (1)〇 metal-poor (high-z or starbust) galaxies
・ massive stars (SNe) are dominate
・ mass loss of massive stars would be less efficient➔ Type II-P SNe might be major sources of dust
・ average radius of dust is relatively large (> 0.01 μm)
・ grain growth makes grain size larger➔ dust extinction curve might be grayz=0.69z=4z=0.54
z=1.16Stratta+05, A&A, 441, 83

Li+08, ApJ, 678, 1136

5-2. Implication on evolution history of dust (2)〇 metal-rich (low-z or Milky Way) galaxies
・ low-mass stars are dominate
・ mass loss of massive stars would be more efficient➔ SNe (IIb, Ib/c, Ia) might be minor sources of dust
・ dust from AGB stars may also be large (0.01-0.1 μm)➔ How are small dust grains produced?
grain shattering－ warm ionized medium (WIM)
relative velocity of dust inturbulence : 1-20 km/s

Dust size distribution at t=5 Myr (nH=1 /cc)

－ grain shattering is efficientin WIM at t=5 Myr if metallicity
is solar and more
－ the production of small grains
by shattering steepens theextinction curve

Hirashita, TN, +10, MNRAS, 404, 1437