INTRODUCTION

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCHTEXT SERIESGENERAL EDITORS

Alison Finlay and Carl Phelpstead

VOLUMEXVIII
XIXVOLUMEGUTA LAG
THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSiii

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSINTRODUCTION

iii

GUTA LAG
THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Translated and edited by Christine Peel

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON
2009

iv

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS© Christine Peel 2009
ISBN: 978-0-903521-79-6
The printing of this book is made possible by a gift to the Universityof Cambridge in memory of Dorothea Coke, Skjaeret, 1951.

The cover motif is based on the image from a seal, found in Bro parish in
Gotland. The image is dated 1280 and the seal is considered to date fromcirca 1225–50, which makes it the oldest recorded of all the Scandinavian
provincial arms. The image is encircled in an inscription: GUTENSES:SIGNO: XPISTVS: SIGNATUR: IN: AGNO. The first half of this has beenvariously translated ‘I represent the Gotlanders’, ‘I am the symbol of
Gotland’ and ‘The Gotlanders are represented by this seal’. The second
half has been translated: ‘Christ is represented by the lamb’ and ‘Christ’s
symbol is the lamb’. Later versions, in particular for the town of Visby,show several variations, including a reversal of the image and a gloria on
the ram, both of which are considered to be more usual. See KL, s.v.
Landskapssegel; Siltberg 2005, 284–98.

Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter

INTRODUCTIONv

CONTENTSINTRODUCTION
I

Gotland’s medieval historical background

vii
vii

II Preservation of Guta lagxiv

III Nature and content

xxii

IV Origins

xxxiiiV Date, place and circumstances of composition

xxxvi

VI Editions and translations of Guta lag

xl

TRANSLATION

1

NOTES

64

MANUSCRIPT PAGES
B 64

191

AM 54 4to192

APPENDICESA Comparison of manuscript contents

193

B

Chronology of historical events

196

C

Monetary system

198

D

Penalties exacted

200

E Oaths and witnesses required
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABBREVIATIONS

216
220

vi

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSPREFACE
After the publication of Guta saga in the Viking Society Text Series, I was
encouraged by Professor Richard Perkins to continue my research work witha PhD thesis. This addressed the body of the manuscript of which Guta saga
formed an addendum, the fourteenth-century law codex called Guta lag ‘thelaw of the Gotlanders’. The study also involved comparison with a latermanuscript, a copy of a lost fifteenth-century original. It was always theultimate aim to have this thesis published by the Viking Society, and when it
was accepted in 2006, I started to consider how best to present it.
It was decided at an early stage to publish only the translation, and to omit
the Gutnish texts and the glossary. This decision was made with regret, but toinclude these would have made the publication beyond the scope of the Text
Series. Most of the remaining content of the thesis has been included, withnecessary re-formatting and improvement. The manner in which the two major
documents were to be presented was also not decided upon immediately, andthe final result is to some extent a compromise. The text of the fourteenthcentury B 64 Holm has been taken as the basis and minor deviations in AM
54 4to have been presented in footnotes, with major differences shown inseparate Additions. This is similar to the manner in which Schlyter presented
the material in his volume.
We were fortunate in obtaining a generous grant from the Dorothea Coke
Memorial Fund, which has enabled us, amongst other things, to reproduce
pages of the manuscripts to a high quality.
I owe a debt of gratitude to Dr Perkins for his original suggestion andsupervision of my studies, to Dr Carl Phelpstead for his helpful and perceptive editorial assistance on the content of the work and to Dr Alison Finlay
for her patient and thorough editing of my manuscript and her uncomplaining
acceptance of my last-minute thoughts.
My husband again showed exceptional patience during my studies and the
production of this volume. His proofreading, particularly of lists of amendments, has been invaluable, but the remaining errors are my own.
Finally, I would like to thank the staff in the libraries in London, Stockholm and Copenhagen who helped me to satisfy the requirements for chapter
and verse, which it has become so much a part of my nature to insist upon.
Christine Peel

INTRODUCTION

vii

INTRODUCTIONTHE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN first began to take shape in the Viking
Age when a number of independent provinces around and to thenorth of Lake Mälare acknowledged the same king and principal heathen
temple at Uppsala. There was no central administration, however, andeach province had its own assembly, law and legal system. To the south
and west of these provinces lay Västergötland and Östergötland and,still further south, provinces belonging to Denmark, each again with its
own laws. The island of Gotland also had its own law and administrative
system and was more or less independent. The two most important of theprovincial laws, and those that form the basis for the other preserved law
texts, were those for Östergötland and Uppland (the province in which
Uppsala lay).
Although all the preserved redactions of the provincial laws are postConversion, most exhibit traces of older traditions. The extent to which
they do so depends not only on the age of the manuscripts in question
but also on the extent to which they retain independence from the twomain provincial laws. Guta lag, the law of the Gotlanders (subsequently
referred to as GL), differs radically in a number of respects from any ofthe mainland provincial laws. The differences are not only in the content but also in the presumed administrative structure in force at thetime. These differences are discussed in detail in sections III and IV ofthis Introduction.
Mainland provincial laws were all superseded by a national law, Magnus Erikssons landslag (MELL), between 1347 and 1352, and at sometime before 1357 this was supplemented by a town law, Magnus Erikssons
stadslag (MEStL). The former was revised to some extent under King
Kristoffer of Bayern (1440–48). These two law codes remained in force
until 1734 when a unified Swedish law was established. In contrast to
the mainland provinces, Gotland, for reasons laid out below, effectively
retained its own provincial law until 1645, when it finally came underpermanent Swedish rule.
I Gotland’s medieval historical background
The following brief history of Gotland in the Middle Ages is presented
in order to clarify the context in which Guta lag was written. The first

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

known literary reference to Gotland’s belonging to the Swedish state isin the ninth-century description in Old English of Wulfstan’s voyage
through the Baltic (Orosius, 16, line 28), although Wessén (SL IV, 306)
and others contradict Wulfstan’s claim (see GS, xxxiii–xxxv). In
particular, Rydberg (STFM I, 40) argues that Gotland was independentof Sweden in the tenth century. Later runic inscriptions, notably the
Torsätra stone in Uppland (U 614) from the second half of the eleventh
century, indicate that there was conflict between Gotland and mainland
Sweden during that period, and tribute was collected from the islanders.
By the twelfth century Gotland was certainly subject to Sweden in somerespects. A document in Latin from the time of Pope Callixtus II, whichlists bishoprics in a number of countries, including those of Scandinavia, is held in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence. This
document is dated to c.1120 and forms part of the Ashburnham collection; it is catalogued as Codex (Laurenzianus) Ashburnham 1554.
The library acquired the collection in question in 1878 on the death ofLord Bertram, fourth Earl of Ashburnham. The text of the document,
commonly called Florensdokument in Swedish, was first publishedby Delisle (1886, 70–75). As well as enumerating the Swedish bishoprics,
it lists Guthlandia as one of the insulae of Sweden. Although the usual
sense of insula is ‘island’, the list includes other, non-insular districts.
Since, however, the document contains a number of obvious errors,
its reliability on the matter of Gotland’s relationship to Sweden mustalso be questionable (Delisle 1886, 75; Fabre and Duchesne 1910,
Introduction, 41–43; Tunberg 1913, 28; DS Appendix 1, 3, no. 4; GV,
449–51).
A lost document from the reign of Emperor Lothar III (1125–37)
apparently gave Gotlanders statutes of rights and freedom, but theoldest preserved such document is the Declaration of Artlenburg (Artlenburgprivilegiet or Artlenburgfördraget in Swedish), drawn up in
1161 (or possibly 1163) by Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. This document, in Latin, contains various reciprocal provisions
relating to trade, inheritance, personal protection, and fines for violations against the person, but none of these is mentioned in GL. The
oldest extant copy is dated 1225, the year in which Mariakyrkan in
Visby was consecrated. It was originally kept in that church but is now
preserved in the town archives of Lübeck. The document is edited in
Sveriges traktater med främmande magter (STFM) I , 78–79, no. 42(Yrwing 1940, 109–37; 1978, 109–16; SL IV, lxxxi; KL s. v. Handelsfred;GV, 455–59).

INTRODUCTION

ix

Although Gotland does not figure in the corpus of West Norse literature to any great extent, it is mentioned a number of times in connection
with St Olaf. Snorri in Chapter 77 of Óláfs saga helga links it with Öland
under the bishopric of Östergötland (ÍF XXVII, 109). Accounts ofvisits by St Olaf to Gotland are to some extent contradictory, but it
seems certain that he visited the island on at least two occasions
and possibly three (ÍF XXVII, Chapters 7 and 192; GS, xxxvi–xxxviii).
The purpose of Olaf’s first visit in 1007 or 1008, when he was twelve,
was to exact tribute, but later visits seem to have been incidental tohis voyage to and/or from Russia in 1029 and 1030. One of theselater visits may have resulted in the introduction of Christianity toGotland, or at least in the baptism of individual Gotlanders, but it isquestionable whether a general conversion of the whole of the population resulted. Gotland took St Olaf as its patron saint, but this may
have been influenced more by colourful legend than by an historicalevent. Church building in Gotland seems to have been initially the
result of private initiative (see Chapter 3, lines 22–23). It cannot havestarted later than about the middle of the twelfth century, since by thattime Gotland was evidently incorporated into the See of Linköping. The
Cistercian monastery of Beata Maria de Gutnalia was founded atRoma in 1164, a daughter house to that of Nydala in Småland, which
implies that Christianity was firmly established in Gotland by that date
and that there were already close links with Sweden (Pernler 1977, 57,
61–62, 65).
In 1195, at the instigation of Bishop Meinhard of Livonia, Gotlanders
apparently took part in a crusade in Livonia, which embraced what is
now southern Estonia and northern Latvia (Yrwing 1940, 59; 1978, 123;
Christiansen 1997, 81, 114). It appears that shortly after this, or at the
beginning of the thirteenth century, commitment to an annual levy(laiþingr) for the Baltic crusades was established in Gotland, although
Rydberg (STFM I, 71) dates this arrangement to c.1150 (Yrwing 1940,
58–59; 1978, 21–22). The Gotlanders agreed to supply seven manned
warships for these crusades, or, alternatively, pay forty marks in coin foreach ship not provided. One ship was to be funded by each sixth district(siettungr) and the seventh ship, it is assumed, by the inhabitants ofVisby. These included both Gotlanders and Germans. The latter had
been part of the resident population of merchants, probably from thetwelfth century, before the Hanseatic League was formed (see pp. xi–xii
below). The option of a payment in money rather than men was presumably offered in deference to the importance of trade between Gotland

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

and her Baltic neighbours (see Yrwing 1978, 21). Details of thesearrangements appear in Guta saga, the short legendary history of Gotlandthat forms an appendix to the manuscript B 64, although there is
no record of when they were put in place (see GS, 12–14 and notes).
There are further records of Gotlanders actually refusing to take part incrusades, such as those in 1199 to Livonia and in 1226 to the Balticisland of Ösel, presumably because they were unwilling to jeopardise
their trading relationships with these countries (Björkander 1898,
27–28; Yrwing 1963, 94; Pernler 1977, 62, 108; Yrwing 1978, 124;
1991, 164).
Although Gotland was attached to the See of Linköping in Östergötland, it was Archbishop Andreas Suneson of Lund, a Danish province
at that time, who appears to have taken most interest in the island. He
visited Gotland in 1207, a circumstance that has led to the supposition
that it was he who initiated the writing of the first manuscript of GL. A
letter from Pope Innocent III dated 1213 (DS I, 178, no. 152) concerns
the abbot of Gotland and rural deans of the northern and southern districts (Northlanda and Sutherlanda), linking them to the diocese ofLund. Pernler (1977, 153–54) argues that Lund is in this document mostprobably an error for Linköping, and as the Archbishop of Lund was
primate of Sweden at the time, superior to the Archbishop of Uppsala, amistaken reference to the archdiocese here, instead of the diocese, might
be understandable. Eight years later, in 1221, Archbishop Suneson,
together with Bishops Karl and Bengt of Linköping, wrote a letter (DS I,
690, no. 832) setting out the arrangements relating to visitations by thebishop to Gotland. The contents of this letter may be compared withinformation given by Guta saga on the same topic (see GS, 10–12 andnotes).
During the thirteenth century, there was considerable correspondence
from the papacy concerning the level and distribution of tithes payable
in Gotland. In 1217 Pope Honorius III confirmed tithe laws previously
arranged for Gotland between Archbishop Suneson and Bishop Karl of
Linköping (DS I, 190, no. 168). No document containing the original
agreement survives, but the laws apparently differed from those in otherSwedish provinces, where the bishop normally received a third of theremaining tithe, after a third had been paid to the parish priest. The
parish church and the poor then each received the same proportion as
the bishop (i.e. two ninths of the whole). It seems that allocation of a
portion of the tithe to the bishop was a later innovation, perhaps replacing ad hoc payments for individual services rendered (e.g. church

INTRODUCTION

xi

consecrations). GL’s is the only tithe law in Europe with no modification in favour of the bishop. That arrangements for Gotland occasioned
some dissatisfaction in Linköping is suggested by a letter from Pope
Gregory IX in 1230 confirming them (DS I, 257–58, no. 256), against
protests from Bishop Bengt. In 1253 Pope Innocent IV had to issue thesame edict to Bishop Lars (DS I, 366, no. 411). At the same time heissued statements of protection relating to the people and clergy of
Gotland (DS I, 365–66, no. 410). He also confirmed the right of thepriests to elect their own rural deans and the people to select their pastors (DS I, 366–67, nos 412 and 413). Whether Gotland succeeded inresisting later encroachments into the various elements of the tithe isdoubtful and in all probability some of the tithe collected for parish
churches was diverted to building the cathedral at Linköping. Since,
however, there are no parish accounts covering the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, this must remain a matter for conjecture (SL IV, 247–48
note 14; Pernler 1977, 133–44).
So far as the secular, as opposed to the ecclesiastical history of Gotland
is concerned, it is evident that trade, in particular into and out of Visby,
was of strategic importance in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. A dramatic rise in Baltic transit trade in the eleventh to thirteenth
centuries is possibly related to the decline in the importance of Birka,
activity by Gotlandic merchant farmers (farmannabönder) filling the resulting vacuum (Yrwing 1978, 104–05, 138–40). The goods
most traded were skins, but wax, iron and weapons were also significant.
That Gotlanders had been trading in the Baltic and beyond during
the Viking period is supported by finds of silver in almost every parish
on the island and by finds in the Baltic countries of artefacts of Gotlandic
design. The existence of a Gotlandic trading station in Novgorod
and documentary evidence of trade with England in the form of customs
declarations and literary references also show that trade flourishedover a wide area before Visby emerged as a Hanseatic town (HansUB I,
270, 283, 281, 322; Bugge 1899, 151–71; Bohman 1951, 35). In 1229
Pope Gregory IX wrote to the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian
abbot of Gotland and the rural dean of Visby to ask them to prevent trade
first with the Russians (DS I, 253–54, no. 250, 27th January 1229),
who were harassing Finnish converts, and then with unconverted Finns(DS I, 255–56, no. 253, 16th February 1229). The first request in
all probability referred to Gotlandic merchants; the latter did so explicitly and was an attempt to enforce a previous interdict by Honorius III in
1221 (DS I, 220–21, no. 206, 13th January 1221). This is again evidence

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that the Gotlanders valued their Baltic trade and were reluctant torelinquish it, even in the cause of defending Christianity (see Pernler
1977, 196–97).
The building of Mariakyrkan in Visby started in the early thirteenth
century and this ambitious project must reflect the success of the town
itself, largely as a result of its association with the Hanseatic League.
According to a letter dated 1225 from Bishop Bengt (DS I, 241, no.
231), which is the first written record of a German population in Visby,the church was to be consecrated as a parish church for both resident
Germans and visiting merchants involved in Hanseatic trade. Björkander(1898, 88–89 notes 2, 3, 4) considers that the church was built primarily
for the new German visitors, but that it was not their only church. Yrwing(1940, 223–38; 1978, 114–15) argues that the reference is to both apermanent and a transient German population and that Germans had
started to inhabit Visby from the twelfth century and had possibly had
an earlier church on the same site.
From about the middle of the thirteenth century, tension began to rise
between the merchant farmers of the countryside and the largely German
inhabitants of Visby. This was initiated by the actions of Lübeck andHamburg in 1252, when they declared themselves representatives of themerchants of the Holy Roman Empire and excluded the Gotlandic merchants. Although the latter were granted safe conduct through Saxony
in 1255, and their rights as expressed in the Declaration of Artlenburg(see p. viii) were reiterated, by 1280 the German inhabitants of Visby
had made their own arrangements with Lübeck and later Riga to the
exclusion of non–German merchants. Trade with England had also been
reduced considerably by 1255, with only one Gotlandic merchant mentioned in records of fur trading (HansUB I, 475; Yrwing 1978, 28, 138).
In 1282 the situation worsened and Frisians and Gotlanders were forbidden to trade in the North Sea. There was even an attempt to prevent the
English trading in the Baltic.
By 1288, conflict between Visby and the rest of Gotland was inevitable
and there was a bitter civil war. This resulted in a victory for the inhabitants of Visby, who then raised a wall around the town. Magnus Ladulås
took advantage of the situation to punish the townspeople and force
them to confess that they had broken their duty to the king in building
the wall without permission. For this they paid a fine of 2,000 marks ofsilver with further sums at regular intervals, and agreed to allow theother Gotlanders to send messengers to the king. The viability of foreign
trade by the merchant farmers of the countryside had, however, been

INTRODUCTION

xiii

destroyed. At the same time Magnus confirmed his sovereignty over
Gotland, as well as new tax laws, which he had introduced in 1285, i.e.
an annual levy tax to be paid whether the fleet was called out or not. The
inhabitants of Visby retained their independence from the rest of Gotland,
but at the expense of a humiliating surrender to the king of Sweden(Yrwing 1978, 27–33). One advantage that they did gain was their own
law in German, Visby stadslag (the town law of Visby, VStL), whichappears to have been set down in the early part of the fourteenth century.
As a result, ordinary Gotlanders were slowly reduced to a population ofdomestic freehold and leasehold farmers, a situation that considerably
worsened when King Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark invaded Gotland
in July 1361.
In 1360 Valdemar had retaken Skåne and Blekinge from Magnus
Eriksson and, early the following year, he had invaded Öland and captured the castle of Borgholm. On 27th July a well-equipped Danish force
defeated an army of farmers, inflicting heavy losses. The citizens of
Visby seem to have taken no part in the fighting and two days later
Valdemar confirmed their ancient rights and privileges (DD III:6, 65–
66, no. 69), simply replacing Sweden with Denmark in the agreements
drawn up (Yrwing 1978, 46–49). The situation in the remainder of Gotland
is less clear, and on 26th July 1364 Albrekt of Mecklenburg, who had
seized power from Magnus, appeared to be in a position to pledge Gotland
to Count Henry of Holstein for 4,000 marks of silver, or at least to be able
to promise to do so (STFM II, 337–43, no. 368). This promise was neverfulfilled, however, and in 1389 Albrekt lost power in Sweden to Queen
Margareta. In the period from 1395 to 1398, Albrekt had regained control of Visby, while the remainder of the island was in Danish hands
under Sven Sture. The latter cooperated with the Vitalian Brotherhood,a band of pirates in the pay of members of the Mecklenburg family. They
were at that time destabilising the Baltic, and in 1396 Albrekt’sson Duke Erik took command of the Vitalians in Gotland, and of SvenSture himself. When Erik died of the plague in the following year, SvenSture took over both the Vitalians and, effectively, Gotland (see Yrwing
1978, 51–52).
The damage to Baltic trade that this piracy caused, and advances madeby Margareta in creating a Scandinavian superpower, led in 1398 tointervention by the Teutonic Order. They seized power in Gotland andtook responsibility for both Visby and the rest of the island from Duke
Johan of Mecklenburg on behalf of Albrekt, confirming that open trade
was permitted in Visby and that taxes would not be imposed by thexiv

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Order, or by anyone to whom the island was pledged (STFM II, 585–87,
no. 424, 5th April 1398). In the following year, Albrekt pledged
the island to the Order in return for 30,000 gold nobles. Of these, 20,000
were to be waived in respect of the costs incurred by the Order inthe rescue operation. This arrangement was clearly intended to prevent
Queen Margareta from claiming Gotland from either party. In this it
failed and finally, in 1407, Margareta agreed to pay the newly appointed
Grand Master 9,000 nobles in respect of the castle of Visborg, which
the Order had started to build in Visby. In November the following year,
the Grand Master confirmed that he had received the sum named andwas content to hand both Gotland and the castle to Erik of Pommern,joint monarch of the Union with Margareta, on the sole condition that
Visby retain its ancient rights and privileges. All outstanding claimsby the Teutonic Order for the cost of rescuing, maintaining and defending Gotland (i.e. the 20,000 nobles mentioned above) had beenabandoned, as the task had become an economic liability, which they
were perhaps only too relieved to surrender (see Schück 1945, 199–205;
Yrwing 1978, 53–54).
The power struggle over Gotland continued through the fifteenth andthe first quarter of the sixteenth centuries, but in 1526 it finally ceased to
be a bone of contention in Scandinavia and became an unimportant
Danish province for 119 years. More than two hundred years of conflictand uncertainty, during which Visby lost its place in the Hanseatic
League as early as 1470, had completely obliterated Gotland’s importance in Scandinavian and Baltic trade (Schück 1945, 205–20).
II Preservation of Guta lag
The text of Guta lag, the law of the Gotlanders, is preserved in eight
manuscripts. Two of the medieval manuscripts, one vellum and one
paper, are in Gutnish and it is these that are presented in the translation
here. The others consist of a vellum manuscript in a mixture of Middle
High German and Middle Low German, two Danish paper manuscripts, apaper manuscript containing a number of later provisions in Danish andtwo eighteenth-century paper manuscripts in Gutnish. All eight manuscript traditions are taken into consideration when attempting to constructa stemma.
There are four further manuscripts that contain only the historicalappendix to the law, referred to as Guta saga. These are not consideredin the present study, but are described in the introduction to Guta saga.
The History of the Gotlanders (xii–xiv).

INTRODUCTIONxv

A. Holm B 64
This octavo vellum-bound manuscript, held in Kungliga Biblioteket(the Royal Library) in Stockholm, is the only medieval vellum manuscript of GL in the original Gutnish. The text of Guta lag covers forty-two
leaves, followed by eight leaves containing the text of Guta saga
(GS, x). Schlyter (CIG, i , iv) dates this manuscript, which he calls ‘A’, toabout the middle of the fourteenth century. Wessén (LG, xxvi) and others support this dating. The manuscript was discovered in Gotlandc.1680 and taken to Stockholm, where it was passed to the archive of
antiquities by Professor Andreas Spole (†1699) and subsequently used
by Johan Hadorph for his edition (1687). Hadorph states elsewhere thatthe manuscript (B 64) was ‘några åhr sedan igen funnin uthi en Kyrckia
der på Landet ibland orenligheet, såsom en förkastat Ting’ (several years
ago found in a church in the province, amongst the rubbish, like a thing
rejected). The chapter numbers in the table of contents, which is written
in two columns, have been inserted by a later hand and the table ofcontents itself differs slightly from the content. The nature of the differences (e.g. the inclusion of references to slaves, missing from the text)
suggests that the table reflects an earlier redaction of the text. The language of three chapters (62, 63 and 65) and of Guta saga is later thanthat of the other chapters. Chapter 64 (24f in this translation) has been
omitted from its proper place (according to the table of contents) andinserted between Chapters 63 and 65 (GU, vii–x; GLGS, vii–xii; SL IV,
lxv). The same scribe is responsible for the whole manuscript and it
seems likely, as Wessén suggests, that most of these inconsistencies
existed in his original. This manuscript is hereafter referred to as B 64
and its content, perhaps unfortunately, as the A-text, following Schlyter’s
designation.
B. AM 54 4toThis paper manuscript, bound in vellum, is in Den ArnamagnæanskeHåndskriftsamling at the University library in Copenhagen and is designated ‘B’ by Schlyter (CIG, xii). According to a statement on folio 55r,
David Bilefeld copied it in 1587 from a manuscript (no longer extant)dated 1470. AM 54 4to consists of fifty-seven numbered leaves. On
folios 55v to 57v is a table of contents. A further leaf at the front is
inscribed Anno Dei MDLXXXVII, and a separate leaf attached to themanuscript has a note by Árni Magnússon repeating the information on
folio 55r. David Hansson Bilefeld was born in Denmark and received a
German education. He came to Gotland in 1569 as tutor to the sons of

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

the Danish governor Jens Bilde and in 1571 was appointed headmasterin Visby. At the date of the production of AM 54 4to he was parish priest
in Barlingbo and rural dean (proastr) of the northern riding (þriþiungr)of Gotland. Bilefeld was appointed suffragan Bishop of Gotland in 1592
and died in 1596 (Pipping 1901a, 72; Lemke 1868, 22–23). The text ofBilefeld’s manuscript differs from the A-text in that sections relating to
the children of priests and to the sale of and theft by slaves missing from
B 64 appear in AM 54 4to. The provisions concerned seem to be older
than those in sections where the texts agree, and were thus likely to havebeen deliberately omitted from B 64 or its original (see GLGS, xviii; SL
IV, lxvi). This circumstance supports an assumption that AM 54 4to, andhence the manuscript of 1470, although of a later date than B 64, represents an earlier state of the law. The text of AM 54 4to is hereafter referred
to, again perhaps unfortunately, as the B-text.
C. Holm B 65
This is an octavo vellum manuscript, lacking covers, from 1401, held in
Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm, and containing a medieval Germantranslation of GL. It contains the text of the law and a German translationof Guta saga. Following the vellum leaves are attached thirteen paper
leaves, the first nine and last two of which contain two sets of Danish
statutes, written in a mid-sixteenth-century hand. One set is dated Christmas Eve (helig afton) 1492 and the other 1537. The first is complete, but
only the first two and a half chapters of the latter are included. According to information in the manuscript itself, the German translation was
prepared under instructions from Johann Techewicz, who was captain(houptman) of the Teutonic Order in Gotland. The translation itself was
executed by Sunye (known only by his given name), recorded in June
1402 as superintendent at St George’s Hospital, Visby (SD I, 143, no.
195) and later apparently as rural dean of the northern riding of Gotland(see Pernler 1977, 167). Schlyter (CIG, xiv) considers that the text is a
mixture of Middle High German and Middle Low German, such as wasprobably spoken by the German residents of Visby, but this has beenchallenged by Ekelund (1906, 9, 32, 34) and others. The translation
contains the chapters concerning the sale of and theft by slaves, but not
the other extra provisions in AM 54 4to, nor the three additional (latest)
chapters in B 64. The last thirteen chapters are in a different sequencewith respect to both B 64 and AM 54 4to. The translation in B 65 isdesignated tyGL by Wessén (SL IV, lxvi). The manuscript Holm B 65 ishereafter referred to as B 65 and its content as tyGL.

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xvii

D. AM 55 4toThis mid-sixteenth-century paper manuscript, containing a Danishtranslation of GL, is held in Den Arnamagnæanske Håndskriftsamling
at the University library, Copenhagen. It is bound in a paper cover,inscribed Den gamle Gullands Low. On the title page, as well as
the words Gullans Lovf, is the name of the owner: Claudius Christophori
F. Lyschander and ‘† 1623’. The first two leaves contain a table ofcontents, which does not wholly agree with the text itself and iswritten in a different hand. The text of the law is followed by somenotes on coinage in the same hand and an outline, in a later hand, ofan alphabetical index, which has not been completed. Wessén, who
designates the text in the manuscript daGL, thinks that the translation
might have been made in connection with a declaration by King Hans I
in 1492, confirming the validity of ‘then gamble Gudlandtz lough’(the old Gotlandic law), supplemented by certain other provisions
contained in manuscript Holm C 81 4to described below (see SL IV,
lxvii, lxxxvii). According to Schlyter (CIG, xvii), however, themanuscript was probably written out by the translator himself, which
would place it approximately fifty years later in date. Three chapterspresent in the medieval Gutnish manuscripts are missing from thistranslation; it contains, however, seven chapters that do not appear
in the other texts and three that differ in content from similar provisions
elsewhere in the text. The last thirteen chapters are in a different
sequence from the last fourteen of the three preceding manuscripts andthe chapter on taxes is omitted. The provision concerning the sale ofslaves is present, but not that concerning theft by slaves. AM 55 4totherefore evidently follows a tradition independent of the three manuscripts previously described, and is of value in respect of the provisions
not found elsewhere, since it in all probability throws light on a lost
Gotlandic original.
E. Holm C 81 4toThis paper manuscript from the late sixteenth century, bound but
lacking covers, is held in Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. It contains
in complete form the two sets of Danish statutes, which are to be found intruncated form in B 65. On one of two blank leaves at the beginning alater hand refers to the first set of statutes as that laid down by King Hans
I in 1492. The second set of statutes was, according to its rubric, drawn
up in 1537 by King Christian III Frederiksson.

xviii

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

F. GKS 3363 4toThis vellum-bound paper manuscript is held in Den Gamle Kongelige
Samling (GKS) of Det Kongelige Bibliotek (the Royal Library) in Copenhagen. A number of supplementary notes are inserted at the end of themanuscript. It has two title pages, one inscribed Lex Gothlandica 1470
scripta and the other Exaratum Anno MDLXXXVII. The catalogue details
state: ‘Lex Gothlandica, ad exemplar 1470 exerat, manu O. Sperlingii
jun. 1687’. This date is presumably the date assigned to the manuscript.
It is an imperfect, although largely careful copy made by Otto Sperling(†1715), a professor in Copenhagen, and was intended to consist of the
Gutnish text with a Latin translation on facing pages. Only the first two
and a half chapters and the chapter headings have been translated, however. Since it gives the years 1470 and 1587 on the title page, the Gutnish
would appear to be a copy of Bilefeld’s manuscript, AM 54 4to, as statedby Schlyter (CIG, xix), and thus does not represent an independent tradition. This manuscript is not listed in Gigas’s catalogue (1903–15) of
Scandinavian manuscripts in Det kongelige Bibliotek.
G. Kall 650 4toThis unbound paper manuscript is held in Kalls Samling of Det Kongelige
Bibliotek, Copenhagen. The collection was the property of Professor
Abraham Kall (†1821) and was inherited by Det kongelige Bibliotek in1821. The Gutnish of the manuscript (on the verso pages) is an exact copy,
apart from a number of misreadings, of GKS 3363 4to and hence ultimatelyof Bilefeld’s manuscript. Kall 650 4to was executed at almost the sametime as GKS 3363 4to (i.e. late seventeenth or early eighteenth century).
This manuscript is likewise not listed in Gigas’s catalogue (1903–15).
H. Holm B 68 4toThis paper manuscript, also bound in paper, and held in Kungliga
Biblioteket, Stockholm, is a Danish translation of GL from the beginning of the seventeenth century and is a copy of AM 55 4to. Schlyter(CIG, xix) considers the scribe to be Swedish on the grounds of his
handwriting and orthography. There are a number of spaces left in the
manuscript, presumably for later insertions that were never completed.
StemmaFrom an analysis of the preserved manuscripts of GL described above atentative stemma may be proposed:

xix

INTRODUCTION*GL
c.1220*A 1

uc.1260

*A2
v

*A 2

*GS
c.1250

x

*A 2

y

○

○

*A3
y1

○

x1

z

○

○

○

○

w

*A 4

B65
c.1401

○

○

○

○

B64
c.1350○○w1
c.1470

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

AM 54 4toc.1587

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

z1
c.1490AM 55 4toc.1550B68 4toc.1600
GKS 3363 4toc.1700Kall 650 4toc.1800
The argument in favour of a single, ‘original’, manuscript for Guta lag,probably written at the instigation of Archbishop Suneson of Lund, ispresented in section V. Correspondence between the archbishop andothers in the early thirteenth century suggests that no written law code
existed for Gotland before that time. This being the case, it seems reasonable to assume that the outcome was a single manuscript, which wasthen copied, added to and translated as circumstances changed and thexx

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

need arose. The consistency of the core statutes in all the extant manuscripts also supports this assumption.
Following Wessén’s suggestions (SL IV, lxiv–lxviii), it seems likelythat the surviving complete manuscripts that are not obviously copies(A–D above) represent four different traditions, here designated w, x, y
and z. Of these, w and x are assumed both to be derived from a common
source v. Two arguments for this are: (1) the presence of some errors
common to B 64 and AM 54 4to, such as that noted in the footnote to
Chapter 32, lines 12–13, and (2) the identical sequence of the fourteen
later chapters, which is not the case in the other two traditions. Pipping
points out (GLGS, xviii note 1) that Bilefeld could have had B 64 to
hand when he made his copy and been influenced by it. He certainly had
access to B 64 at some time, since he has made annotations in it, e.g. thenumber 27 in the margin on folio 22r, which is in his handwriting (seePipping 1904, 16–18). Pipping observes, however, that Bilefeld appears
to have had access to a third manuscript (which Pipping calls X) when
making his copy of the one dated 1470 (see GLGS, xvii–xviii). Pipping
reaches this conclusion in his edition of AM 54 4to, where he considers
various marginal notes that Bilefeld made in his manuscript and points
out their differences in orthography both from the main text (and hence
presumably from the manuscript of 1470) and from B 64 (see Pipping
1901a, 73–81). In addition, the number ‘27’ written by Bilefeld on folio
22r of B 64, alongside Chapter 20, does not refer to the equivalent chapter in AM 54 4to, which is 26, and so, argues Pipping, must refer to theequivalent chapter in X. Since Pipping’s X has not survived, there islittle that can be conjectured concerning its content or age, and it has
been excluded from the stemma.
If it is assumed that the first manuscript of GL dated from c.1220, there
must have been a later manuscript group, designated u, that contained
the provision, designated *A1 on the stemma, relating to inheritance bydaughters of non-Gotlandic (i.e. Swedish) men and which is present inall the extant manuscripts (e.g. at the end of Chapter 24 in B 64 and in
Chapter 36 in AM 54 4to). Manuscript group u can be dated to thesecond half of the thirteenth century at the earliest, since the inheritancelaw could not have been included prior to 1260, when Birger Jarl introduced it into Swedish law (Pipping 1926, 247–50).
The miscellaneous provisions (designated *A2 on the stemma) contained in Chapters 48–61 of B 64, which Wessén also considers to belater than the main corpus, must have been added after the writing of u,
and independently in each of the traditions v, y and z (as indicated) sinceINTRODUCTION

xxi

these fourteen chapters are in different sequences in three of the four
complete manuscripts, but in the same sequence in B 64 and AM 54 4to.
The late fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century Danish statutes, which
are present in B 65 and Holm C 81 4to, clearly represent a separate
tradition, outside that of the main text. They are not included in thestemma.
The w tradition represents an early version of the law, deriving from v,
which retained the specific provisions relating to slaves and the children of priests. At some point various additions to existing provisions
concerning hair pulling, toasts at weddings, and inheritance by women(designated *A3 on the stemma) were absorbed into the text. A copy ofthis version, dated 1470, was used by Bilefeld in writing AM 54 4to, theB-text, and this in turn was copied by several later scribes (e.g. as GKS
3363 4to and Kall 650 4to).
The x tradition derives similarly from v but omits the provisions concerning the children of priests and the sale of and theft by slaves,presumably when clerical celibacy was enforced, and slavery becameless common because of economic, rather than moral, circumstances. Lis
Jacobsen (GGD, 6) infers from this that x represents a later stage of thelaw than w, y or z. The first manuscript with these omissions, shown by abroken line from v, Pipping assumes was made c.1300, i.e. shortly before
B 64 was written. Since the table of contents in the latter refers to theprovision relating to the sale of slaves not contained in the text, it seems
that B 64 was written at a time of transition in the law. At some point,
represented by x1, the heterogeneous additions (*A3) made to the w tradition were included, but not absorbed into the body of the text as they
were in the w tradition, appearing instead in Chapters 62, 63 and 65.
Whether this happened before or after the omissions in question weremade is not possible to determine, since no change was made to the tableof contents to incorporate them. Guta saga (*GS), which was not part of
the w tradition, was also appended at or around this stage. The x tradition is represented only by B 64, the A-text.
The y tradition, represented by B 65 (tyGL), contains some of the older
provisions, namely those concerning the sale of and theft by slaves, but
not the additions (*A3) found in the w and x traditions. On this basis,
Jacobsen considers that the German translation represents the oldest
preserved content. At some point, however, say y1, the text of Guta saga
was translated and incorporated into B 65.
Finally, the z tradition, which is represented by AM 55 4to and its
copy B 68 4to (daGL), omits some of the provisions that might be

xxii

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

regarded as original, shown by a broken line from u. Some, but not all, ofthe provisions assumed to have been later additions are included (shownby the dotted line leading from *A3) as are others that have no equivalents elsewhere (designated *A4 and forming Chapters 13, 52, 54, 55 and
57–59 of the named manuscripts).
As a supplement to the stemma, Appendix A contains a table showing
the differences in content and sequence of chapters in the four principal
manuscripts (A–D above) and thus the four manuscript traditions.
III Nature and content
A. The nature of Guta lag
There are three scholarly opinions concerning the character of the original text of Guta lag, and thus the existing manuscripts. Richard Steffen(1943, 40) contends that the ‘original’ text of GL was produced by apriest, and that it was partly theoretical in nature, reflecting an ideal
rather than an achieved legal framework. In support of this view Bengt
Söderberg (1956, 13) points out that a wergild of twenty-four marks ofsilver must have been equivalent to a large farm complete with its contents and movables. Since only wealthy landowning families could haveconsidered paying such a fine, it might be assumed that for others theprice must have been their life or liberty, a process that started when the
killer fled to an area of asylum with his close family. Such an assumption, i.e. that the fines were unrealistic, changes the balance of the law aspresented in the manuscripts. Instead of fines taking precedence overother forms of punishment, the old system of retaliation would seem still
to hold good, in defiance of the new principle of reconciliation.
Karl Westman (1912b, 16–18) uses the terms rättsbok and lagbok in
the context of Swedish provincial laws. He defines the former as a recordof the law in force at a particular date, recorded from the words of law
speakers as an aide mémoire. A suitable English translation of rättsbok
might be ‘justice book’. Westman cites the older law of Västergötland(ÄVgL) and the law of Östergötland (ÖgL) as examples of this type. He
contrasts these with a number of other provincial laws, particularly thosefrom Svealand, that is, the laws of Uppland, Södermanland and Hälsingland (UL, SdmL and HL), which he designates lagböcker. Westman defines
these as systematic, normalised codes prepared by lawmakers from existing written records. These were presumably designed to incorporate
the complete legal process. Lagbok would be usefully translated as ‘statute book’.

INTRODUCTION

xxiii

Westman does not classify GL, or certain other provincial laws, forexample those of Dalarna and Västmanland and the younger law ofVästergötland (DL, VmL, YVgL). Hafström (1970, 25, 27) holds that all
the law texts from Götaland were justice books and by implication includes GL in this category, but Wessén (LG, xix) places GL in the secondof Westman’s categories rather than the first, and refers to the concluding words of the law:
Þa en nequarar atbyrþir kunnu þar verþa sum ai hittas hier, þa skulu þar slitas
miþ domera tali ok þair þet sueria et þet sein ret guta lag ok siþan skrifas hier i.
If some occurrence should take place, which is not to be found here, then it
must be decided by the majority of judges, and they are to swear that these areproper laws of the Gotlanders, and then they are to be written down here.

On the basis of this provision he holds that GL appears to be a formally
accepted and applied text. He contrasts this with the older law ofVästergötland and the law of Östergötland, which he agrees with Westman to be private records of the law at a particular date, written by men
involved with legal matters as aides mémoires, i.e. justice books. On theother hand, Holmbäck (SL I, xv–xvi; MELLNT, xiv–xvi) considers that
GL as preserved represents a private record of the law that applied in theprovince at a specific time (i.e. a justice book rather than a statute book).
He includes the law of Dalarna in this category, but designates the law ofVästmanland and the younger law of Västergötland as statute books, theresult of ‘omfattande bearbetning av den tidigare rätten’ (comprehensive revision of the earlier law code). Holmbäck (MELLNT, xv note 4)
leaves open the question of how many changes took place when thejustice books were prepared from the recited law.
A glance at the table of contents of B 64 (taking into account the small
differences between that and the text) reveals how unstructured GL is.
Matters of civil law are interspersed with matters of criminal law, andprovisions covering related topics appear at various points in the content. From the fact that, in the main, the chapters in the text agree withthe table of contents at the start of the manuscript, and that the newprovisions at the end of B 64 are not included in that table, it seems
likely that the sequence of provisions is original. The arrangement of
the content in the manuscript gives the impression of a document thatrecords, somewhat randomly, what an individual or individuals remembered. Reading the body of the text gives a similar impression: there areomissions, repetitions and slight inconsistencies such as one would
expect if memory were the chief source of the information. Thesexxiv

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

observations militate against Steffen’s suggestion that the text was written as an unrealised ideal, and it certainly does not have the characteristics
of a theoretical work.
If one assumes that GL is to some degree practical rather than theoretical the opposing conclusions of Wessén and Holmbäck (i.e. that GL iseither a statute book or a justice book) are equally worthy of serious
consideration. Although GL as it is preserved has clearly undergone
certain revisions, it does not seem to be a systematised set of statutes as
Wessén contends. It is not organised into sections and chapters (Swedish balkar and flockar) in any logical manner and certainly could not be
said to cover the whole legal process (Amira 1882–95, I, 711). Somechapters are relatively lengthy and unstructured, covering a number ofdifferent provisions (e.g. those on wounding and inheritance) whilst
others (especially those towards the end of the text) are extremely short,frequently containing only one provision. The law relating to property
is split across several chapters, scattered throughout the text (see SL IV,
lxxiv–lxxv). GL could therefore be described as a more or less selective
record by an individual or individuals of the law in force in Gotland at aparticular moment, amended and copied at various times to give rise to
the preserved manuscripts; in other words it is more nearly a justicebook than a statute book.
B. Legal system as reflected by Guta lag
A discussion of the legal system contained in GL might usefully startwith what is not included, since that is what distinguishes it mostmarkedly from the mainland Swedish provincial laws. The most obvious
omission is a section relating to the pledge of royal involvement in local
law (Swedish edsöreslag, see p. xxxviii), and indeed there is no mentionof the king at all in either GL or the town law of Visby. No fines are statedas payable to the king, and although taxes are referred to in Guta saga
(GLGS, 64, 68), there is only an unspecific mention of them in GL (Chapter 53). There is no reference to Sweden, although it has been assumed
by modern scholars that the non-Gotlandic people referred to in GL wereresidents of Swedish origin. Reciprocal arrangements between Gotland
and Sweden are mentioned in Guta saga (GLGS, 64) and the forty-markwergild, which is payable for non-Gotlanders, appears to be an importfrom the mainland provincial laws. Wessén notes that this same level offine appeared in the Declaration of Artlenburg (see pp. viii, xii above)and considers that in this latter case it reflected the existing law in Gotland(see SL IV, lxxix–lxxxii).

INTRODUCTION

xxv

Another omission from GL is any element of commercial or maritime
law, despite the apparent importance of trade to Gotland; indeed Visbyis named only once, and that in passing. Yrwing (1978, 105) suggeststhat this omission is explained by the existence, at the time of writing ofGL, of special laws covering these matters, and cites the provision relating to the redemption by a foreigner of a captive Gotlander as anindication that this was the case (see Chapter 28, lines 54–58). Provisions relating to ships are included (Chapter 36) but these cover only
the responsibilities of their owners to take due care to protect them fromtheft.
Although there are a number of provisions relating to the church (tithes,observance of the Sabbath, the duties of priests, etc.) there is no specificchurch law section covering the dedication, care and ringing of bells,
forbidden degrees of kinship in marriage, trial by ordeal or bishop’s
visitations and courts such as appear in other Swedish provincial laws
and in the Danish law of Skåne (SkL). The fact that arrangements for thebishop’s visitation are described in detail in Guta saga, however, supports Wessén’s contention (LG, xviii) that the latter is ‘ett naturligt
komplement till lagen’ (a natural complement to the law) in that it includes relevant matter not present in GL itself.
A further example of Guta saga complementing GL may be noted.
There is no reference in GL to the commission (nämnd), which forms animportant element in mainland provincial laws. In Guta saga, however,an oath given by commissioners or nominees (nemnda aiþr) is describedin reference to the failure of the islanders to send troops to thelevy (laiþingr). Significantly it is stated in this context that the only
such oath permitted is this particular oath to the king (SL IV, lxxix;
GLGS, 69).
GL contains very few descriptions of the legal process itself, howassemblies were organised, their frequency and constitution. One institution that seems to have been absent from Gotland, however, is that oflawspeaker (lagman). This office was also lacking in the Danish legal
system, whose law texts are similarly less structured than those of mainland Sweden. Wessén (SL IV, lxxxvi) suggests that there might havebeen a college of judges (domerar) in Gotland determining the legislative programme. One may infer that there were three or more(þings)domerar in each sixth (see Chapter 19, lines 120–21) and that a
number of these were designated as siettungsdomerar. There also seemto have been a number of provincial judges (lanzdomerar), who hadsome legislative power. Such an arrangement is certainly implied by thexxvi

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

second half of Chapter 61, the conclusion of the oldest section of the law
text. On the other hand, Söderberg (1956, 12) thinks that there was a
speaker at the general assembly, i.e. the lanzdomeri, who was the highest
authority. He may have been the highest judicial voice, but one cannot
infer that he was the sole lawmaker. The only instance of the word
lanzdomeri in GL (Chapter 19, lines 7–8) suggests that there was at least
one of these officials for each sixth (siettungr), possibly chosen fromamongst the (þings)domerar or siettungsdomerar. A similar phrase laterin the same chapter uses domeri alone, however, and Steffen (1943, 39
note 2) maintains that lanzdomeri referred only to the judge who presided over land alt, i.e. the general assembly.
In another contribution Steffen (1945, 229) suggests that a particular
lanzdomeri might have been simultaneously a judge in lower levels of
the judiciary. If the first manuscript of GL were written as a private document, the writer might have had in mind a specific situation in which theprovincial judge was a local sixth judge when he wrote the provision.
Yrwing (1978, 80–81) states that all the judges attended the general
assembly and that until about the middle of the fifteenth century thethree rural deans also attended. It appears at least possible that the redactorof GL was misled by this arrangement into thinking that all the judges
attending the general assembly were designated lanzdomerar. It is also
possible that the cited use of this word is simply an error, but if so it is anerror common to all four manuscript traditions of GL. It is worth notingthat there is no specific reference in GL or other contemporary sources toþriþiungsdomerar.
GL was a law designed for a closed, self-governing, farming community with a need to maintain estates at a viable size, despite the necessityof providing younger sons with a living and daughters with a dowry.
Other classes were the lease-holding farmers who rented land, the landless, who were obliged to provide unpaid labour at harvest time, servantsand slaves. Elsa Sjöholm (1976, 170–73) in her discussion of the date oforigin of GL makes much of the importance of the Gotlandic aristocracy,
but other scholars (e.g. Wessén in SL IV, lxxxiii) argue that there was, in
effect, no aristocratic class in Gotland, and it is difficult to find evidenceof such a class. Even the priests were answerable to the assembly of thepeople, and the power of parishioners in general seems to have beenquite extensive.
As well as the native people, there was evidently a considerable foreign population (ogutniskt fulk) who were permitted to own land andwho had their own rules of inheritance and their own levels of wergild.

INTRODUCTION

xxvii

This population is considered by most scholars to have consisted of
Swedish people from other provinces, since the laws that relate to themcoincide with the provincial laws of mainland Sweden, rather than thoseof Germany (GGD, 45 note 1; SL IV, lxxx). A similar expression, vtlænsker
maþer, is used in this sense in the older law of Västergötland (ÄVgL Md
5 §§ 4, 5). On the other hand, Sjöholm (1976, 167) seems to argue that thegroup referred to was the population of Visby, or at least the (mainly
German) merchants who lived there while visiting Gotland. She admits,
however, that the lower level of wergild applicable to this group contradicts earlier agreements relating to compensation for travelling
merchants.
Although information is sparse, at least three levels of judicial assembly are recognised in GL. The highest level was the general assembly(gutnalþing). This was thought, by tradition, to have been held at Roma,in central Gotland, although this is not mentioned in the Gutnish manuscripts of GL, and has now been called into question. It is possible, forinstance, that the word Rume used in the German translation of Gutasaga (CIG, 164) referred simply to an open space, possibly near Visby(see Steffen 1945, 246, 250; Söderberg 1956, 12). Steffen (1943, 37,
45–46) suggests that there might not have been a fixed site for theassembly, but that it was held at the farm of the presiding provincial
judge. Yrwing (1978, 81 note 3), however, dismisses this as extremely
unlikely in the early Middle Ages, although circumstances might havechanged later (Wildte 1926, 212, 215–16, 219–21; 1931, 181; 1933–34, 171–72). The number of general assemblies held in the course of ayear is not specified in GL but would seem to be more than one, since the‘assembly next following the Feast of St Peter’ is specified in Guta saga
(GLGS, 69). According to later laws, the frequency of assemblies varied
between weekly and twice yearly province by province. The older lawof Västergötland, however, like GL gives no details (Sjöberg 1969, 60,
81–82). By the end of the fifteenth century Visby was represented byburgomasters and local magistrates, an innovation by Gotland’s Danish
rulers. A place referred to in the sources as Gutestue in Visby was theoccasional site of assemblies and of meetings between representativesof the town and the Danish crown (see Yrwing 1978, 80). Although King
Hans I specified in 1492 that only one assembly a year was to be held, in
1618 there were four a year, one at Gutestuen and three at Roma.
The next level is commonly thought to have been the riding (þriþiungr)
assembly. According to this theory, the island was divided into threeridings with an assembly for each, presided over by a judge (Tunberg

xxviii

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

1911, 48–49, 135–36). There is no contemporary support for this (see p.
xxvi), and Steffen (1943, 41) argues that the original ridings were purely
ecclesiastical, each headed by a rural dean, and that the administrative
function of ridings only came into being after 1645. Three of the fourreferences in GL to the riding assembly appear, however, in the context
of the redemption of lost or straying animals. The fourth reference is a
general one to the maximum fine that could be extracted at the assembly:(1) en þriþiungr til siex marka (Chapter 31, lines 11–12)
And the riding assembly up to six marks.
(2) þa skal hafa til tyggia þinga ok þriþia þriþiungs þings (Chapter 41, lines 3–4)
He is to take them to two assemblies and the third time to the riding assembly.
(3) þa hafi til tyggia þinga ok þriþia þriþiungs þings ok haiti upp um þry ar oktaki lausn eptir þi sum þriþiungr hafr fyr vana hapt (Chapter 42, lines 2–5)
He is to take them to two assemblies and the third time to the riding assemblyand declare them for three years and claim a fee such as has previously been
the custom for the riding.
(4) at tuaim þingum ok þriþia þriþiungs þingi um þry ar (Chapter 45a, lines 2–3)
(Must be declared) at two assemblies and the third time at a riding assembly
for three years.

It appears to be difficult to deny, therefore, that assemblies for the ridings
did have some judicial as well as an ecclesiastical function at the time
GL was written, since these provisions seem to have no ecclesiasticalsignificance (see Yrwing 1940, 108; 1978, 83 note 1). Pernler (1977,
186–89) reaches the same conclusion and observes at the same timethat GL remained in force effectively until 1645, despite King ChristianIV’s attempt to introduce the law of Skåne to Gotland. This persistence, he infers, would hardly be likely if GL were a theoretical work bya cleric, with no practical application (see pp. xxii–xxiv above).
Ecclesiastical matters that were not resolved at the appropriate riding
assembly were referred to the general assembly (see GLGS, 68). Although
there are no contemporary records naming the sites at which the riding
assemblies were held, Lindström (1895, II, 482–83) suggests thatthese were at Tingstäde church for the northern riding, at Roma for the
middle riding and at Suderting for the southern riding. Pernler (1977,
189) points out, however, that Suderting was actually in the middle
riding. Suderting does not survive as a place-name, but it was situated ina property called Ajmunds (or Ejmunds), in the parish of Mästerby, southwest of Roma, and was an assembly site for the Hejde sixth (see Steffen
1945, 250–53).

INTRODUCTION

xxix

Gotland was further divided into sixths (siettungar), which Lindström(1895, II, 480–83), Steffen (1943, 21, 22) and others consider to be
pre-Christian in origin. The boundaries of these districts do not, however, exactly coincide with those of the ridings from which it was assumed
they were created (see Steffen 1945, 236). Sixths seem to have had someadministrative significance in that a number of judges were allocated to each. These judges apparently had the authority to adjudicate
in cases in which the fine did not exceed three marks, but there is noreference in GL to an assembly for a sixth, which weakens Steffen’sargument that such assemblies were part of the judicial structure at thetime that GL was written. Yrwing’s suggestion (1940, 107) that by thistime the function of the sixth assembly had been taken over by thelower, district assembly seems in part to be supported by provisions
elsewhere in GL relating to three-mark fines. He goes further, however,in a later article (1978, 83) to put forward the theory that sixths only
became important as areas for taxation, and later the levy, under
Swedish rule and did not have any judicial significance before Danish
occupation. Pernler (1977, 188) supports Yrwing in this assessment,
pointing out that the first unambiguous mention of a sixth judge occurs
in 1511. He interprets the phrase ann lanzdomeri af sama siettungi
to mean that there were judges who represented each sixth at thegeneral assembly, rather than assuming that there were assemblies foreach sixth. The Danish sixth assemblies and their judges were abolishedwhen Gotland was recovered by Sweden in 1645 (see Yrwing 1978,
86 note 6).
The third level of assembly that is mentioned specifically in GL relates
to a further division of the sixths into local districts or hundreds. The
word hunderi appears in five contexts, in Chapters 19, 28, 31, 32 andAddition 8, but is not recorded in relation to Gotland outside GL. The
word þing alone is used elsewhere in Gotlandic documents (see Yrwing
1978, 86–87). Tunberg has argued that the word hunderi in GL may be
an import from mainland Sweden (Tunberg 1911, 138–39, 202–03; SL
IV, lxxxiv–lxxxv). In GL it appears that each such district had a numberof local officials, consistently called raþmenn (Chapters 19, 31, 32 andthe B-text addition to 38). Steffen (1943, 41) questions the origin of theuse of this word and suggests that it reflects a failed attempt to introduce
the nämnd, alongside a system of local judges. Since the latter are notmentioned in GL, this theory lacks sufficient support and it seems moreprobable that the term raþmenn was used deliberately to distinguishlocal officials from those appointed to the riding assemblies. At least

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three raþmenn were chosen for each hunderi and it seems likely that they
acted as local magistrates (see Addition 8 and Chapter 31). The terminology is, however, ambiguous and raþmenn might have just assisted asingle domeri, appointed for the hunderisþing (Amira 1882–95, I, 21;
SL IV, lxxxv–lxxxvi, 280–81 note 1). Although Hegel (1891, I , 302),
noting various three-mark fines payable by the parish, considers that thehundred was an administrative authority in Gotland, this interpretationis challenged by Yrwing (1940, 104). While other laws, for example thelaw of Uppland (UL Rb 1), mention rætter þinxstaþer ‘proper assembly
sites’ in relation to the hundreds, there is no indication of such fixed
assembly sites in GL.
It might be inferred from GL that the lowest administrative and judicial body was at parish level. This body appears to have been of
considerable practical importance, although Steffen (1943, 41) considers that it was, rather, the lowest level of ecclesiastical court, below theriding court and the consistory court. Certainly many of the cases referred to the parish were ecclesiastical in nature, or at least related tocrimes committed in or near the church, but some of the duties of theparishioners were of a secular character. Examples are: (1) witnessing
the freeing of a slave after his period of service (Chapter 16, lines
23–26), (2) witnessing the statement of a woman relating to a child born
as a result of an illicit liaison (Chapter 20, lines 114–16) and (3)valuing a debt for which surety has been given (Chapter 30, lines 4–5).
Yrwing (1940, 93, 95–98, 107) suggests that as the number of parishes
increased and their importance developed, the power exercisedby the sixth assemblies was passed to the parishes. These latter thenbecame the local assemblies (called simply þing, see p. xxix), the manifestation of the so-called hundred assemblies (SL IV, lxxxii–lxxxviii,
xc–xcviii).
Magnus Eriksson’s national law for Sweden (MELL) was drawn up in
the mid-fourteenth century to replace individual provincial laws prevailing in Sweden (outside the towns) with a single law. This replacement
did not occur simultaneously in all parts of Sweden: the law of
Hälsingland, for example, was still in force in 1436. In Gotland circumstances were such that GL remained in force until 1645 when Sweden
finally recovered Gotland from Denmark. As noted above, in 1595 King
Christian IV of Denmark ordered that all his subjects in Gotland should
follow the provincial law of Skåne, but how far this was enforced isunclear and the attempt to replace GL seems to have been a failure (seeWestman 1912b, 21).

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C. System of fines and non-monetary punishments
The system of fines in GL is a complex one and in some sections seems
to be confusing and contradictory: Appendix C sets out the monetarysystem used and Appendix D, table (ii) offers an analysis of fines imposed for different offences, showing the variations depending on theperpetrator and the victim. Wennström (1940, 74–95, 259–63) analyses
the fines on the basis of the amount extracted.
Theft and adultery seem, to some extent, to have been regarded
as more despicable crimes than killing, presumably because they
were crimes that broke down trust in the farming community. An
isolated killing resulting from a fight between two adult males, if
admitted to and compensated for, might be forgiven or at least accepted.
The danger came when compensation was not paid and a blood feud
could start. One noteworthy aspect of the law relating to what might
be called sexual harassment is that the woman appears to have been
assigned some responsibility for protecting herself against unwanted
advances, since fines for these diminished according to the intimacyof the advance. Such advances were clearly distinguished from straightforward indecent assaults, which were (as would only seem rightto modern eyes) punishable in relation to the degree of exposure
the woman suffered. This difference, so tersely described, gives us,
perhaps, an insight into the prevailing relationships between men
and women in thirteenth-century Gotlandic society. There are no
similar provisions in other Swedish provincial laws for comparison,but one cannot infer from this that attitudes to women were therefore
different.
The levels of compensation extracted for various criminal acts can beused as an indicator of the relative value of the goods involved.
Wennström (1931, 25–26) suggests that a cow was worth nine örtugarof silver (3/8 mark) in thirteenth-century Halland. The definition of ‘fulltheft’, punishable by death or payment of wergild, in most other provincial laws is half a mark of silver (twelve örtugar), or alternatively a cow(see ÖgL Vb 32 pr, §1). In GL the limit for ‘full theft’ is one mark, and if
this were equivalent to two cows or more, the full wergild of twenty-four
marks would probably have been equal in value to the estate andmovables of a considerable farm (see Note to Chapter 3, line 4). Only thevery rich would have been able to afford to pay it; the remainder of the
population might have had to forfeit their lives or liberty (see p. xxii).
There is, however, an indication that this extreme was not always thecase. In Chapter 14 we have the following:

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Hittir maþr sakar at giera lerþr eþa olerþr, þa byti engin frammar firi annan,
þan hans kustr vindr at.
If a man, whether ordained or not, commits a crime, no one shall be fined more
for another than his resources can cover.

This provision appears to refer specifically to cases in which someone
has inherited an obligation to pay a fine for another’s crime, in particular
the children of priests. Later in the same section there is an implicationthat the maximum that a person could be liable for was his or her personal share (hafuþlutr) of their inheritance. If these provisions applied
more generally (and the rather disorganised nature of the preserved texts
does not preclude such a possibility) then this throws a completely different light on the structure of compensation.
In comparison to some other Swedish provincial laws, there is little
detail in GL concerning non-monetary punishments meted out to wrongdoers. Such punishments—excommunication, prolonged slavery,
outlawry, loss of inheritance, branding, mutilation, hanging, and othercapital punishments—were, however, inflicted in certain cases, particularly for theft, adultery and misuse of property. The circumstances inwhich they were applied are tabulated in Appendix D, table (i).
Where slaves had offended, they could not be expected to pay compensation themselves, and hence an alternative had to be found if themaster were not to carry all the burden of restitution, as was usually thecase. To extend the slave’s period of bondage, or to execute the slave
were the most obvious options, although in the latter case his or her
owner would again be the loser. Where a killing (other than infanticide)
was involved, the slave himself was offered as part of the wergild. In
cases of infanticide and Sabbath-breaking (both considered to be ecclesiastical crimes), the period of slavery was extended, and for the rape ofa Gotlandic woman the slave’s life was forfeit, unless she preferred toreceive compensation.
So far as residents of Gotland other than slaves were concerned,
excommunication was imposed for damage to monastic property and as
an interim punishment for violence during church festivals, until compensation had been paid. If compensation for a killing (including
infanticide) was not paid within the specified time, the killer was outlawed, but this penalty is not mentioned in any other context. Selling
one’s farm illegally led to loss of one’s inheritance and reduction in
status to a non-Gotlander. If one misappropriated land worth three marks
in rent, the punishment was even more severe: execution for a man andloss of her pew in church for his wife. Working in another man’s woodland

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led to confiscation of one’s tools, material and draught animal, which
would have been a severe penalty.
Branding was the punishment for theft of an amount between two öreand one mark of silver. Theft of greater amounts (including land), or asecond theft of a smaller amount, resulted in a shameful death by hanging. The other crimes leading to physical punishment were adultery,
abduction and rape. The provisions were complicated, ranging fromloss of a hand or foot for discovered adultery with an illegitimate daughter of mixed Gotlandic and non-Gotlandic parentage, to execution for
the rape of a married woman. In most cases the woman could choose
wergild or other payment as an alternative. No information is given in
GL concerning the form of execution imposed, but as the neck is mentioned in at least one situation, it was probably death by either hanging
or beheading (see Notes to Chapter 21, lines 15–20).
The complex provisions relating to killings, and the killer’s circle ofsafety, seem to be unique to Gotland. They are described in detail in theCommentary to Chapter 13.
D. Oaths
In parallel with the punishments there was a system of oaths to be taken
or arranged by the parties in a dispute. This system is summarised in thetable in Appendix E, which shows that the person or group to whom theoath was given and the number of supporting witnesses or oath-takers
varied considerably with the crime or misdemeanour involved. Oaths
were in many cases sworn rather in the nature of character witnesses (seeNote to Chapter 2, line 15).
E. Laws of inheritance
The inheritance provisions in GL have been justifiably described as
extremely complex. Holmbäck (1919, 12–51, 219–41) has made adetailed analysis of them, particularly in relation to legitimacy and incomparison to other Swedish provincial laws. He sees, in the inconsistencies, evidence of an organic growth in the provisions and a gradualimprovement in the position of women in relation to inheritance. Gutalag thus offers a valuable insight into the social history of the period notavailable in the mainland provincial laws (Holmbäck 1919, 48–51).
IV Origins
A consideration of the origins of the content of a legal text differsfrom a consideration of the sources of material in a narrative or poetic

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work, whether historical or otherwise. Two questions that have to
be asked are (1) whether this law was influenced by any other law formulated earlier (which might assist with dating) and (2) whether thisparticular redaction was a record of the law as it was enforced in aparticular place and at a particular time or was an idealised representation of how the redactor felt that the law should be. This latter issue has
been touched on to some extent in the preceding section, but in the caseof GL, the questions of origin and nature and those of date and authorship are so closely bound together that it is difficult to separate thearguments.
Although an oral recited law (the older sense of the word lagsaga)
may be presupposed, according to Wessén (SL IV, lxxiii), the lack of theoffice of lawman or lawspeaker in Gotland might be a counter-argument
to the suggestion that GL was a lawman’s aide mémoire for hisoral discourse (see pp. xxii–xxiii above). It might still, however,
have been a private record prepared by a judge or some other person
involved in the legal process. Whatever their provenance, there musthave been some earlier form of the law than the written manuscripts thathave been preserved and, if Lis Jacobsen is correct in her assumptions
concerning the age of the language in the A-text (GGD, 13), there musthave been a pre-Christian law containing at least some of the material inthat manuscript. Despite the largely non-poetic language, there are many
alliterative phrases and some residual rhythmic passages. If there wereno single lawman reciting the law, then perhaps the duty rotated among
the elders, and GL originated as a result of a group of them agreeing
upon a text to be recited. This might explain some slight inconsistencies
and apparent repetitions, to be found within each of the manuscripts.
The opening words of GL, invoking Christianity and revoking
heathendom, provide us with a clue to the origin of the text. There areremarkable similarities between these words and those of the older lawof Gulaþing (GulL), the oldest manuscript of which dates from about the
middle of the thirteenth century. The latter states:Þat er upphaf laga varra at ver scolom luta austr oc biðia til hins helga Crist ars
oc friðar. Oc þess at vér halldem lande varo bygðu. Oc lánar drotne varom
heilum. Se hann vinr varr, en ver hans. En Guð se allra varra vinr. Þat er nu þvi
nest . . . (NGL 1, 3)This is the beginning of our laws: that we should bow to the east and pray tothe holy Christ for good harvest and peace; and that we retain our settled land.
And keep our liege lord in health. Let him be a friend to us and we to him. And
let God be a friend to all. The next thing is . . .

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It has been suggested that this similarity can be explained by assumingthat the Christian section of the Gotlandic law was composed during avisit to Gotland by St Olaf in 1030 or thereabouts and his conversion of
the Gotlanders to Christianity. Schlyter, however, who considers GL todate from the last quarter of the thirteenth or first quarter of the fourteenth centuries, suggests a later influence from Norway and this view is
supported by Pernler (see CIG, vi–vii; Beckman 1920, 12–13; Wessén
1945a, 160; Schück 1945, 182; SL IV, lxxiii–lxxiv; Pernler 1977, 16–19).
A later borrowing of certain selected passages seems to be a possible
explanation for the similarities, since the church laws in the older law ofGulaþing differ quite fundamentally from those (such as they are) in GL.
Had St Olaf been involved in the initial development of the law in
Gotland, the relevant provisions would surely have been more extensive. It is noticeable also that penalties for infringing church laws aremuch more severe in the older law of Gulaþing than they are in equivalent passages in GL. In particular, total forfeiture of property andbanishment are frequently imposed as punishments in the former, whereas
GL only implies banishment (but not outlawry) for a woman who cannot
pay the fine for infanticide, i.e. as a punishment of last resort. The sections relating to the exposure of children in a number of Norwegian law
texts begin in a similar manner to that in GL (Chapter 2, lines 2–3:
Þat er nu þvinest. At barn huert scal ala a lande varo er boret verðr (GulL 21;
NGL 1, 12).
The next thing is that every child born in our land should be nurtured.
Ala skal barn huært, er boret uærðr en ængu spilla. Sina sæng for skal huærkona uita, oc lata barn til kirkiu bera (EidsL I (B-text), 1; NGL 1, 375).
Every child born shall be nurtured and none killed. Every woman mustacknowledge her childbed and allow the child to be taken to church.
Ala skal barn huart, er boret er ok ængo spilla. Sinæ sængfor skal huar konavita, ok lata barn til kirkiu bera (EidsL II (C-text), 1; NGL 1, 394).
Every child born shall be nurtured and none killed. Every woman mustacknowledge her childbed and allow the child to be taken to church.

The older law of Gulaþing, however, contains the proviso that severely
deformed children might be exempt, and detailed laws concerning baptism, completely absent from GL. On the other hand, the B-text of theolder Christian law of Eiðsivaþing (EidsL) is particularly close to thetext in GL (Beckman 1920, 11–12).
One of the greatest differences between Norwegian and Gotlandic
society was the hierarchy that seems to have existed in the former. Below

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the king and two levels of aristocracy were three levels of free, landowning farmers. There is no indication in GL of any inequality between
people apart from that between the free, slaves and non-Gotlanders.
Admittedly, tenant farmers had different obligations from landowningones, but there are no provisions that appear to have affected their status
in any other regard. The conclusion would seem to be that, while the law
makers might have borrowed phrases from other laws with which they
were familiar, including those of Norway, the content of the law and thepunishments applied were very much their own. This content was affectedby the society to which the law was applied, as well as the priorities ofthe lawmakers, as is discussed below.
V Date, place and circumstances of composition
There are four principal theories concerning the date of composition of
GL in written form. The first is that it was composed between 1220 and
1250 at the instigation of Andreas Suneson, the second that it was composed towards the end of the thirteenth century, the third that it wascomposed in the first half of the fourteenth century, perhaps as a responseto the production of Magnus Eriksson’s national law, and the fourth thatit originated in the twelfth century or even earlier. This last is subscribed
to by Hadorph (Gothlandz-Laghen, Introduction), Schildener (G-L, xxvi),
Nordström (1839–49, I, vii) and Säve (GU, x). (See also SL IV, lxxiii note 1.)
There is no concrete evidence to support such an early dating of a written law, although there is internal evidence to suggest that some of theindividual provisions date from a period not long after the adoption of
Christianity in the early eleventh century, and that others are preChristian in origin, as Jacobsen (GGD, 6–7) indicates.
Arguments for a dating in the second half of the thirteenth century, or
rather later, were first put forward by Schlyter (CIG, v–xi) and have been
supported by Maurer (1878, 168–170), Amira (1913, 98) and others.
They are based principally on the existence of the provision relating to
the inheritance rights of non-Gotlandic (i.e. Swedish) daughters in which
two sisters received the same inheritance as one brother (Chapter 24d,lines 2–3). This must indeed have been included in GL after Birger Jarl
introduced it into Swedish law, namely in 1260, at the time of the wedding of Valdemar Birgersson to Sofia, daughter of the murdered Danishking Erik Plogpenning (SRS I:1, 25, 86; SRS III:1, 5). The circumstances
are referred to in Erikskrönikan (26, ll. 458–61). Schlyter takes this dateas a terminus post quem for the first written version of GL, thus placing itin the last quarter of the thirteenth century. On the other hand, Wessén

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xxxviithinks that this particular provision, even though it appears in all four
traditions, might have been a later addition, *A1 on the stemma, firstincluded in the manuscript group represented by u on the stemma. Accordingly, the first, ‘original’, manuscript of GL (*GL on the stemma)
could have been considerably older (SL IV, lxix–lxx). Two further piecesof evidence in support of this theory are (1) the fact that the provision inquestion is to be found in the chapter concerning weddings, rather thanin the chapter concerning inheritance, in which there are other specificprovisions relating to females, and (2) that there appear to be slightdifferences (noted by Pipping; GLGS, xii–xiii) between the language ofthat particular provision and that in most of the rest of the A-text, suggesting that it originated from a different part of Gotland (see Läffler
1878, 288–89).
More recently an even later dating, namely the fourteenth century,
has been forcefully argued by Elsa Sjöholm (1976, 170–73). She likewise argues on the basis of the provision relating to the inheritancerights of non-Gotlandic (Swedish) females, but an inconsistency in her
argument is that she initially uses a different interpretation of theexpression ogutniskt fulk, namely that it refers to the (mostly German)
inhabitants of Visby (see pp. ix, xii–xiii, xxvi–xxvii above). In that
context she points to the lack of any reference to maritime law in GL inorder to place it in time after the separation of the town of Visby from therest of Gotland in 1288 (see pp. xii–xiii above), by which date she
considers that farmers were no longer seafaring merchants. The main
thrust of Sjöholm’s argument in the present context, however, is that thevery fact that Gotlandic laws of inheritance differ from those of Magnus
Eriksson’s national law indicates that GL was written in order to emphasise Gotland’s independence at the time of the development of a common
Swedish law. This, she contends, was because any change in inheritanceprovisions would have led to a collapse of the social order in Gotland,
which required that landholdings should not become excessively fragmented. She consequently dates GL, in what she calls ‘seine endgültige
Form’ (its final form) (1976, 171–72), to as late as the second or third
quarter of the fourteenth century, i.e. some one hundred years later than
Schlyter’s dating. Sjöholm’s expression, which is similar to that used by
Lis Jacobsen (‘sin endelige Redaktion’ (its final redaction); see GGD,
80 note 1) in reference to the date of GL, leads one to ask what Sjöholm
considers the earlier forms of GL were and when they came into being.
She appears to ignore the fact that there were in all probability written
redactions of GL, as opposed to an oral law, earlier than the manuscripts

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that have been preserved, and it is the date of the first of these (*GL on
the stemma) that is of principal interest in the present context. Furthermore, since the oldest surviving manuscript (B 64) has been dated toabout the middle of the fourteenth century, Sjöholm’s argument would
lead one to the conclusion that, in the manuscript B 64, GL was close to‘seine endgültige Form’. Inconsistencies and errors in B 64, however,and the fact that the text of AM 54 4to seems to represent an earlier formof GL, militate against such an assumption. On internal evidence, B 64
would appear to be a copy of an earlier manuscript, which was itself
more consistent and did not contain as many errors.
It seems that there are equally strong arguments for the earlier dating
proposed by Wessén (SL IV, lxxii) and several other scholars (Skov 1946,
114–16; Mitchell 1984, 151). They suggest that GL was composed in
the first half, if not the first quarter, of the thirteenth century. The mostrecent challenge to Sjöholm’s arguments comes from Dick Harrison of
Lund University (2002, 164–69, 602). He summarises her arguments
and those of Lindkvist (1989, 415–17) concerning the dating and natureof the provincial laws, and he concludes that the core of these laws musthave been in existence prior to the laws of Magnus Eriksson, and thatthey reflected local conditions independently of centralised influence.
The fact that there is no mention of the king’s person or rights, nor of
the royal commitment (konungens edsöre) to punish crimes that threatened the general peace and that were regarded as too grave to be subject
to fines alone, might indicate a date prior to 1280 (see Notes to Chapter
5, lines 7–9, Chapter 12, lines 9–10, Chapter 22, lines 2–3, Chapter 22,lines 26–28, Chapter 39, line 2). The law concerning edsöre was first set
in place during Birger Jarl’s regency (1250–66) and confirmed by Magnus
Ladulås in the Statute of Alsnö (1280), which also freed from taxes those
who undertook to bear arms for the king. The concept of crimes designated edsöresbrott only finally disappeared from Swedish law with amajor revision in sentencing enacted on 16th February 1864 (Westman
1912b, 106; Hemmer 1928, 269–86; Yrwing 1940, 68; KL s.v. Konungs
edsöre).
Part of the agreement relating to edsöre was that fines for breaking anyof the relevant laws would be payable to the king in addition to or
instead of to the victim and the relevant assembly. Sjöholm would no
doubt cite the purpose she perceives in GL of upholding Gotlandic independence as a reason for the omission.
Another circumstance that suggests a date prior to 1300 for the first
redaction of GL is the set of laws relating to slaves, particularly in theINTRODUCTION

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B-text. The laws of Västergötland and Östergötland contain provisions
relating to the sale of slaves, but the later laws of Svealand (e.g. the lawof Uppland) forbid the purchase and sale of slaves. Magnus Eriksson
abolished slavery in Västergötland in 1335 in the Statute of Skara (seeNevéus 1974, 158–59), and it therefore seems unlikely that GL would
have originated after c.1300. Sjöholm’s argument that the exclusionfrom the A-text of provisions concerning the sale of and theft by slavessupports the idea that GL in ‘seine endgültige Form’ post-dated theprohibition seems to be a circular one; it surely only indicates that themanuscript itself, or the one of which it was a copy, post-dates it.
Provisions relating to the children of priests (Chapter 5, lines 2–6,
Addition 1, lines 1–7) must be considered in the light of the Synod atSkänninge in 1248 (see GGD, 32 note 4; SL IV, lxix). The papal legate,
Cardinal William of Sabina, declared the marriage of priests forbidden,
and that those currently married, with some exceptions, had to separate,
thereby confirming the decision of the Lateran council of 1139. It isclear that this law did not come into force immediately, as is witnessedby provisions in the law of Östergötland relating to children of bishops.
Furthermore, Lars, Bishop of Linköping, had to remind Gotlandic priests
and people of the rules in a letter dated 18th June 1255 (DS I, 375, no.
426), and it was not until about 1280 that clerical celibacy finally became
the norm in Sweden. The detailed nature of the provisions in GL makes
it unlikely, however, that they were devised and written long after thesynod (Hegel 1891, I, 300 note 5).
The case has been made by the present author for a date between 1220
and 1275 for the composition of Guta saga (see GS, xlix–liii). Since thelanguage of the majority of the law text in B 64 appears to pre-date thelanguage of Guta saga in the same manuscript (Pipping, GLGS, vii–xii),
a date of c.1220 for the earliest manuscript of the law, as Wessén proposes, seems not unreasonable.
There is no direct statement of the place of composition of GL, but
sufficient indirect evidence to suggest that it was actually written in
Gotland. The principal indication is clearly the use of the Gutnish language. It is unlikely that this would have been employed had the text
been composed in mainland Sweden. The opening sentence of GL contains the expression i lagum orum ‘in our law’. This makes it highly
probable that the writer was himself a native of Gotland. There are,moreover, references to circumstances peculiar to Gotland, such as thethree churches of asylum for killers, in Farþaim (Fardhem), Þingsteþi
(Tingstäde) and Atlingabo, which might not have been familiar to a

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non-Gotlandic writer. Frequent references to non-Gotlanders (ogutnisktfulk) are evidence that the redactor was aware that different laws applied
to such people, but as he does not define who they were, he must haveassumed that his audience would know to whom he referred. This also
might be taken as an indirect indication that GL was written in Gotlandfor Gotlanders.
There is no external evidence of the authorship of GL as it is preserved,
but if it is assumed that it was written at the instance of Andreas Suneson,
it seems likely that a priest would be responsible. It cannot be ignored,
however, that lack of a coherent church law section argues to some extent
against a clerical redactor and the whole law has an element of earthy
practicality that seems less clerical than one might expect if Bishop
Suneson were responsible. It is possible, of course, that the writer inquestion was one of the last married priests in Gotland and that he deliberately wrote in this manner to emphasise his closeness to and feeling forthe community as a whole. Indeed, the most emotive passages are thosethat refer to the dilemma of a priest’s offspring having to take up acompensation case on behalf of his father and the painful choice between
Christian forgiveness and honour that this duty implied.
What is clear is that the redactor (or redactors) was a Gotlander. This ismanifested initially in the language, but also in the manner in which
non-Gotlanders are referred to throughout: not disparagingly, but as aseparate group. The closing sentences of the oldest section of the preserved text also suggest that it was intended to be a living document tobe updated as circumstances dictated, rather than a fixed record at aparticular time (but see pp. xxii–xxiv).
VI Editions and translations of Guta lag
A. Previous editions
The earliest printed edition of GL, covering only the A-text (including
Guta saga), is that of Johan Hadorph in 1687, not long after the discoveryof the manuscript B 64 in around 1680. The edition, Gothlandz-Laghen,
is described in detail by Schlyter (CIG, xx–xxii). It contains certain
errors and includes an introduction coloured by a romantic view of its
subject matter, but it is important in that it raised awareness of GL at atime when the manuscript was in danger of being lost and has an index
of statutes and levels of fine, together with a number of glossary entries.
The second edition is that of Karl Schildener in 1818, Guta-Lagh das
ist: Der Insel Gothland altes Rechtsbuch (G-L), the main purpose ofwhich was to present the text of tyGL. Schildener takes this from a copy

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of B 65 prepared by an unnamed German-raised and educated scribe(‘[einer] in Deutschland erzogenen und gebildeten Litterator’) and supplied to him by Lorenzo Hammarsköld (1785–1827), philosopher andcopyist at Kungliga Biblioteket in Stockholm, who had supervised thework (G-L, vi, 89; CIG, xxii). Schildener includes, in parallel, a copy ofHadorph’s reading of the A-text. The medieval German text is incomplete in that, although it contains the Danish statutes (see above, p. xvi),
it lacks most of Guta saga, which is found in full in B 65 (see CIG, xxiii).
Alongside these two texts Schildener gives a German translation. The
derivative nature of the content, and the fact that the A-text has beenpresented in a sequence altered to match that of tyGL, makes this editionof less value than others.
In 1852 C. J. Schlyter published the first critical edition of all the
major manuscripts of GL, Codex iuris Gotlandici (CIG), as the seventhvolume of his series Corpus iuris Sueo-Gotorum antiqui (CIS). His edition contains a more or less diplomatic account of the A-text, with the
B-text reading in footnotes. Schlyter also gives the full tyGL text from B
65, the daGL text from AM 55 4to and the Danish statutes from B 65
with alternative readings and the completion of the second statute fromHolm C 81 4to. Each of these has footnotes indicating where equivalentstatutes can be found in the others, and in the A-text. The edition contains a detailed description of all these manuscripts and theabove-mentioned editions, a glossary (into Swedish and Latin) and anindex of proper names of firstly the A-text and secondly tyGL. The textual apparatus is in Latin and there is a parallel translation into Swedishof the A-text. Schlyter’s edition is consequently the most thorough available and his readings and translations have been accepted by mostsubsequent editors and commentators, often in preference to later editions. This preference is probably motivated by the fact that Schlyter
edited all the Swedish provincial laws, thus facilitating comparison ofthem with GL by direct reference to his editions. Schlyter’s comprehensive glossary, Glossarium ad corpus iuris sueo-gotorum antiqui (CISG),
is particularly valuable, covering as it does all the Swedish provincial
laws; this enables comparison to be made between their equivalent provisions and vocabulary.
In 1859 Carl Säve published his academic thesis Gutniska urkunder:
Guta lag, Guta saga och Gotlands runinskrifter språkligt behandlade(GU). The text of B 64 is to a certain extent normalised without comment,
but emendations are clearly noted. Major additions in AM 54 4to are
given at the end of the text and differences between the two manuscripts

xlii

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

appear in footnotes. Säve’s introduction consists to a great extent of ananalysis of the language of the manuscripts and inscriptions he has taken
as his subject. He relies heavily on Schlyter’s edition (CIG) but offers
useful alternative readings in a number of instances, partly in footnotes
and partly in a short commentary. Säve also makes comparisons with thecontemporary Gotlandic dialect (Gutamål).
Some extracts of GL, less radically normalised than Säve’s text, appear
in Noreen’s Altschwedisches Lesebuch (AL, 36–37), first published in
1892–94.
In 1901 Hugo Pipping published Gotländska studier, which contains
a diplomatic account of the B-text of GL, followed by a short commentary and a detailed examination of some linguistic features of the text.
This is the only complete edition of the B-text, and is therefore a valuable contribution. In 1905–07 Pipping published a diplomatic accountof the A-text of GL and Guta saga, which includes apparatus showing
the B-text variants and additions, a detailed study of the language and acomplete glossary of the text. These two editions offer useful alternative
readings of the manuscripts to those of Schlyter, Säve and Noreen.
A facsimile edition, Lex Gotlandiae svecice et germanice (LG), of B 64
and B 65, edited by Elias Wessén was published in 1945 in the series
Corpus codicum Suecicorum medii aevi (CCS). There is no facsimile
edition of AM 54 4to.
The most recent edition of GL is that edited by Tore Gannholm in
1994. The text is presented in a form close to a diplomatic reading of B64, using some of the emendations suggested by Schlyter (CIG), butwith a number of peculiarities (e.g. þ is rendered as th throughout).
Gannholm also offers a parallel translation into Swedish, which clarifies
some points left ambiguous in the translation by Wessén (SL IV), which
he has used as a basis. The edition is useful in some respects, although
the arguments in Gannholm’s introduction do not always bear scholarly
scrutiny.
B. Translations
The first modern translation of GL (as distinct from the medieval translations into German and Danish) is that which appears in Hadorph’s 1687
edition (Gothlandz-Laghen, see above). While there are some inaccuracies and misunderstandings, the translation is serviceable.
Schildener’s parallel translation into German (G-L) is described andevaluated by Schlyter (CIG, xxiii–xxiv) and he implies that it, too, contains some inaccuracies. Schlyter’s own parallel translation into Swedish

INTRODUCTION

xliii

is vigorous and illuminating. It was the last translation into Swedish
before the appearance in 1943 of the volume by Åke Holmbäck andElias Wessén, the fourth in the series Svenska landskapslagar (SL IV).
This latter translation, which covers the A-text, the additional provisions found in the B-text and the Danish statutes found in the othermanuscripts, is clear and straightforward. It is supported by a full introduction and detailed notes and references, which have been useful forthe present work. The editors analyse in detail the content and significance of the texts, with reference to the other provincial laws, and theyalso evaluate previous editions and translations (see SL IV, lxxxviii–
lxxxix).
A further translation into Swedish of all the provincial, city and maritime laws, including some appendices not translated in Svenska
landskapslagar, was published as an omnibus edition by Åke Ohlmarks
in 1976: De svenska landskapslagarna. I komplett översättning, medanmärkningar och förklaringar. His translations are close to those of
Schlyter, and Ohlmarks claims that, despite his use of more contemporary language, they follow the sense and vocabulary of the originals
more closely than those of Holmbäck and Wessén. Ohlmarks’s introduction discusses stylistic features of the laws and he includes a numberof notes. Although his work is useful in many respects, his approach is
not as scholarly as might be hoped and some of his translations areinaccurate.
The remaining translation is that of Lis Jacobsen into Danish. Her
Guterlov og Gutasaga (GGD) appeared in 1910 and is largely based on
Pipping’s edition. In indicating Danish equivalents to Gutnish expressions, Jacobsen provides useful insights into the meaning of the latterand her translation is valuable for the interpretation of a number ofotherwise obscure words and expressions. Jacobsen draws particular attention to the alliteration, rhythm and other poetic features found in thetext, as well as including an index, and footnotes clarifying her interpretations.
C. The present translation
This is the first English translation of GL. It is a continuation of the workby the present author on Guta saga (GS 1999) and takes into accountthe two medieval manuscripts of the law in Gutnish. The presentation isbroadly based on Pipping’s edition of the A-text (GLGS), but uses his
edition of the B-text (Pipping 1901a) to record further variant readings
as indicated below.

xliv

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Where there are possible differences affecting the accuracy of the text
or the translation between Pipping’s reading and the manuscript of the
A-text, or the readings of other editors, this is indicated in a footnote
and, as appropriate, discussed in the Commentary.
Since the aim is to produce a single, readable translation, the following criteria have been applied:
1. A difference only in orthography (e.g. final j for i, single final consonant for a double or vice versa), form or word order between the A- andB-texts is not indicated if it makes no semantic distinction in the translation.
2. Words missing from the A-text that can be inferred from the readingof the B-text are inserted in angled brackets, if they correct an error. If analternative B-text reading is preferred to the A-text, this is presented initalics. In both cases a footnote shows the origin of the emendation and
the A-text reading.
3. Editorial additions to the A-text (e.g. letters or words accidentallyomitted by the scribe) not derived from the B-text are also inserted inangled brackets with a footnote showing the A-text reading. Editorial
corrections to the A-text reading not derived from the B-text are inserted
in italics with a footnote showing the A-text reading.
4. Editorial augmentations necessary for grammatical sense in the translation are inserted in square brackets.
5. Differences in reading of words or short phrases between the A-text
and the B-text that have a bearing on the sense or accuracy of the translated text are indicated by the use of footnotes. The preferred reading isshown in the text and the alternative A- or B-text reading in the footnote,
together with the readings of previous editors, if relevant.
6. Any words or passages missing completely from the B-text arerecorded in a footnote.
7. Longer passages missing from the A-text but present in the B-text
are recorded in a footnote and are presented as Additions, pp. 57–59,
60–63. Editorial emendations follow the conventions in 3.
8. Where there are extended differences between the A- and B-texts,
the A-text reading is recorded in the translation with a footnote, and the
B-text reading is presented as an Addition, pp. 59–60.
9. A number of provisions in the A-text are generally considered by all
editors to be later additions, because of their language and orthography.
These are indicated in a footnote.

INTRODUCTION

xlv

10. Differences in the reading of the B-text that are considered by
Schlyter and others to be scribal errors have not been noted.
11. Pipping’s edition of the B-text differentiates between additions in
the margin of AM 54 4to signalled by a dagger (†), and those by a caretmark (^). These marginal additions have only been indicated in a footnote if they differ from the reading of the A-text.
The chapter headings require special comment. They do not always
agree with the table of contents, which in the case of the B-text is a later
addition. Two tables of contents have been constructed (pp. 1–5), one
for the A-text and one for the B-text. The A-text headings have been
inserted in the translation, with details of the B-text chapter divisions
and headings in footnotes.
The translation retains as far as possible the tenses and moods of verbs
in the original. It also uses, if relevant, familiar legal concepts, where
they reflect those of the original. The aim has been to include as much
elucidation of the sense of the text as is possible in a translation. Where
applicable, this elucidation, preceded by ‘i.e.’, has been includedin parentheses. Punctuation and capitalisation follow modern English
practice.

xlvi

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSINTRODUCTIONGUTA LAG
THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

xlvii

xlviii

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSTHE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

1

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS<Table of contents from B64>
<1> Here begins firstly.
<2> Concerning children<3> Concerning tithes<4> Concerning sacrifice<5> Concerning priests<6> Concerning holy days
<7> Concerning monks’ property<8> Concerning personal rights<9> Concerning universal sanctity<10> Concerning springtime sanctity<11> Concerning assembly sanctity<12> Concerning homestead sanctity<13> Concerning manslaughter<14> Concerning inherited cases<15> Concerning men’s wergilds<16> Concerning wergilds in connection with the peace circle<17> Concerning unruly animals<18> Concerning battered women<19> Concerning wounds<20> Concerning inheritance<20a> Concerning men discovered in the act of illicit intercourse<21> Concerning adulterers<22> Concerning rape<23> Concerning assaults on women<24> Concerning weddings<24a> Concerning funeral feasts<24b> Concerning fine woollen cloth<24c> Concerning riding clothes<24d> Concerning Gotlandic women<24e> Concerning non-Gotlandic people<24f> Concerning travellers’ pathways<1> See Introduction, xlv. The table is unheaded and the chapters unnumbered in the table in A.

2

GUTA LAG<25> Concerning disputes over woodland<26> Concerning shared fences<27> Concerning wells<28> Concerning land purchase<29> Concerning debts<30> Concerning surety<31> Concerning assemblies<32> Concerning a money claim<32a> Concerning the purchase of slaves<33> Concerning the purchase of oxen<33a> Concerning the purchase of cows
<34> Concerning the purchase of horses<35> Concerning horse theft<36> Concerning the care of ships<37> Concerning house searches<38> Concerning the law of theft<39> Concerning insults<40> Concerning unbranded small livestock<41> Concerning pigs
<42> Concerning tame sheep<43> Concerning uncastrated unshorn rams
<44> Concerning uncastrated shorn rams
<45> Concerning billy- and nanny-goats<45a> Concerning cattle and horses<46> Concerning over-branding<47> Concerning fields<48> Concerning turnip fields<49> Concerning shipwrecks<50> Concerning fire<51> Concerning carried fire<52> Concerning road repair<53> Concerning taxes<54> Concerning the watch<55> Concerning houses and household servants<32a> A omits chapter in the text. See Addition 7.
<38> theft A: thieves

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

3<56> Concerning harvesters<56a> Concerning those who have no arable land
<57> Concerning squirrels<58> Concerning hares<59> Concerning tree fruits<60> Concerning failure to read mass
<61> Concerning gambling<62> <Concerning bald patches><63> <Concerning woodland><65> <Concerning women’s rights>
List of regulated laws
1 Concerning children
2 Concerning tithes
2 If you rent a field or meadow
3 Concerning sacrifice
4 Concerning priests and priests’ children
5 Concerning holy days
6 Concerning monks’ rights
7 Concerning personal rights
8 Concerning universal sanctity
9 Concerning springtime sanctity
10 Concerning assembly sanctity
11 Concerning homestead sanctity
12 Concerning manslaughter
13 Concerning the offering of compensation for a man
14 Concerning inherited cases
15 Concerning men’s wergilds
16 Concerning wergilds in connection with the peace circle
17 Concerning unruly animals
18 Concerning battered women
19 Concerning wounding<62>–<65> <Concerning bald patches . . . women’s rights> Table ofcontents in A omits these.
List . . . laws This heading comes from AM 54 4to.

4

GUTA LAG

20 Concerning bald patches
21 If you damage another’s clothes
22 Concerning open wounds
23 If a man blocks another’s path24 If slaves fight
25 Concerning all inheritance
26 If the male line is broken
27 Concerning women’s inheritance
28 Concerning illegitimate children
29 Concerning discovery in the act
30 Concerning adultery
31 If a woman is dishonoured on the road32 Concerning assaults on women33 Concerning the wagon-riders’ procession
34 Concerning funeral feasts
35 Concerning women’s rights
36 Concerning Gotlandic women
37 Concerning pathways
38 Concerning disputes over woodland
39 Concerning shared fences
40 Whoever cuts wood illegally
41 Concerning wells
42 Concerning land purchase
43 If a man is taken hostage
If some profit falls to one more than to the other44 Concerning Gotlandic men’s sons
45 Concerning debts
46 Concerning surety
47 Concerning assemblies
48 Concerning a money claim
49 Concerning the purchase of slaves
50 Concerning the purchase of oxen
51 Concerning the purchase of horses
52 If you ride another man’s horse
35 Concerning women’s rights This covers chapters 24b and 24c in A.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

53 Concerning the care of ships
54 Concerning house searches
55 Concerning the law of theft
56 Concerning insults
57 Concerning unbranded small livestock
58 Concerning pigs
59 Concerning tame sheep
60 Concerning uncastrated rams
61 Concerning shorn rams
62 Concerning billy- and nanny-goats
63 Concerning cattle and horses
64 Concerning over-branding
65 Concerning fields
66 Concerning turnip fields
67 Concerning shipwrecks
68 Concerning fire69 Concerning carried fire
70 Concerning roads
71 Concerning taxes
72 Concerning the watch
73 Concerning houses and servants
74 Concerning harvesters
75 Concerning those who have no arable land
76 Concerning squirrels
77 Concerning hares
78 Concerning tree fruits
79 Concerning failure to read mass
80 Concerning gambling
81 Concerning usury with townspeople
82 Concerning woods and all land taken in pledge

55 theft B: thieves

56

GUTA LAG<1> Here begins the law of the Gotlanders and it says
firstly this3

69This is the first beginning of our law: that we should reject heathen
ways and accept Christianity and all believe in one almighty God,and pray to him that he grant us good harvests and peace, victoryand health. And that we should uphold our Christianity and ourproper faith and the province in which we live and that we shouldeach day do, in our deeds and desires, those things that are to thehonour of God and which most benefit us, both in body and soul.
<2> Concerning children

3

6

9

12

15

18

Now the next thing is that each child born in our province shouldbe raised by us and not cast out. Every woman should know her
own bed in which she is to lie in labour. She should call on two
women to be witnesses with her, the midwife and a neighbour, towitness that the child was stillborn, and that she had no hand in its
death.
If a free woman is found guilty of having killed a child, then she
is fined three marks as soon as it comes before the parishioners,
unless she has previously confessed her crime, and the priest bears
full witness to it. Then she must complete her penance, and noone has a right to claim compensation. If she denies the case, andit comes before the assembly members, then if she is foundinnocent, she shall receive three marks from those who charged
her, and an oath of rehabilitation from six men. If she is foundguilty, she must pay three marks to the parish, if the parish candemand it. If the case comes before the assembly members, sheis to pay three marks to the assembly, and another three to the
1/1 <1> B: 1 This chapter has no number in the table of contents in B. Noneof the chapters is numbered in the text of A.
1/1–2 and it says firstly this B omits.
1/5 and pray B: and all pray
2/1 <2> B: 2 Note that this does not agree with the table of contents in B.
2/4 in which B: when
2/18 another three B: another three marks

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

7

rural dean, if she is found guilty. If the case comes before thegeneral assembly, and if she is then found guilty, she incurs a fineof twelve marks to the general assembly. If she has no money topay, then she must go into exile and every man is to be fined threemarks who shelters or houses her, or gives her food. If she will
not take an oath, she is nevertheless considered condemned in thecase.
If those who have accused her abandon the case, and refuse to
put down <money>, one should deem her to have no case toanswer and clear her of the charge. The accusers should, however,confirm her honour by oath and remove the slander, which theylaid on her. If she admits that she was the mother, and says thatthe child was stillborn, then they do not need to put down any
money, if they disbelieve her, and if she did not have any female
witnesses with her when she was in labour.
If such a case is brought against someone’s female slave, no
one is to lay any higher fine against her than six öre in coin. If she
is found guilty, then her master is fined six öre in coin on her
behalf, and six years are added after her time of slavery iscomplete.

21

24

27

30

33

36

<3> Concerning tithes
The next thing is that everyone shall have services and pay tithes,where he has taken part in building a church, or to [the church to]which his farm was allocated from the outset. The priest mustcarry out all Christian offices for him, whether he may demand
them early or late. Thus all men are in agreement that every man
should pay his tithe before the feast of the Annunciation (i.e. 25th
March), both the part to the priest and the part to the church. Each
2/26 If B omits.
2/27 <money> B; A omits.
2/32 any B: two
2/35 in coin B omits.
2/36 six öre in coin B omits.
3/1 <3> B: 3 Note that this does not agree with the table of contents in B.
3/3 has B omits.

3

6

8
9

12

15

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

39

GUTA LAG

man must pay his tithes by the stook. Thus no one shall be able tosay that the tithe has not been threshed when Annunciation comes.
And after Annunciation, the priest is to make a declaration forthree Sundays, and lock the church door on the fourth Sunday andwithhold services from the parishioners until such time as all thetithes are fully paid. And a three-mark fine is incurred by eachman who was not willing to pay his tithe previously. All should be
obliged to prosecute this and all should be party to it. The
parishioners should be entitled to a third, the church a third andthe priest a third. If a tenant goes from one parish to another withthe tithe unpaid, then he is liable to [pay] three marks to the priest,
the church and the parishioners, and still to bring back his tithe(i.e. to his former parish), though it is late.
If someone wants to build himself a church for greater convenience than he had previously, he must do it from the remaining
nine parts. And the church shall receive its tithe and the priest
his, until the new one is consecrated. But afterwards, he is to
pay the tithe where he most recently built the church. He may
not later return to the previous church, if he has made anothernew one. And he may not go from the previous church to thenew one later than the day on which the bishop consecrated it. If
disagreements arise between them (i.e. the person who moved
and the priest and people of the old parish) in the first or the second
year, then he shall himself declare with an oath, and with twoparishioners, whom his opponents wish to nominate, that he wasinvolved in the church-building and the consecration, and in all
things as other parishioners. When three years have passed ormore than three, then he shall have both parishioners’ witnessthat he was with them in the church-building, and the priest’s own
witness that he has ever since paid him the tithe as every otherparishioner.
3/15 previously B omits.
3/20 the church B omits.
3/26 the church B omits.
3/34 church-building B building

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

9

If a man rents a field or a meadow from another parish, andthere are no houses on it, he is to leave the corn-tithe in the place(i.e. parish) where the field was allocated, but take home hay orhops with him, and give tithes from them to the priest whom hevisits for services, and from whom he receives all Christian
offices. If there are houses there, he is to leave everything behind.
The priest who is at the church there is to have tithes from it, andthe church has its portion, as the priest his.

42

45

<4> Concerning sacrifice
Now the next thing is that sacrifice is strictly forbidden to allmen, together with all those old customs that belong to paganism.
No one may pray to either groves or howes or heathen gods, nor
to holy places or ancient sites. If someone is found guilty of this,and it is proved against him and confirmed with witnesses that hehas invoked something of this sort with his food or drink, contrary
to Christian practice, then he is to be fined three marks to theparishioners, if they win the case. All should be obliged to prosecute
this and all should take a share in it: priest and church andparishioners. If suspicion falls on someone, then he is to defend
himself with a six-man oath. If the parishioners do not win thecase and it comes before the assembly members, then he must
defend himself again with a six-man oath, or pay a fine of threemarks to the assembly. If it comes before the general assembly,
then <he> is to pay a fine of twelve marks to the authorities, if hedoes not win with the defence of a twelve-man oath.

3

6

9

12

15

<5> Concerning priests and priests’ wives, and their children
Now the next thing is that priests and the wives of priests andtheir ordained children (i.e. those that are later ordained) are equal
4/1 <4> B: 3
4/9 should be B: should also be
4/10 all should B omits.
4/16 <he> B; A omits.
5/1 <5> B: 4 priests’ wives, and their children B: priest’s children

3

10

6

9

GUTA LAG

in the matter of assault and manslaughter and in all respects tothe children of farmers, but the lay children are treated in thesame way as the family of their mother.
If a man, whether ordained or not, commits a crime no one
shall be fined more on behalf of another, than his (i.e. thewrongdoer’s) resources can cover.
<6> Concerning holy days

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

Now the next thing is that all those days that the bishops havedeclared holy, and which all men have accepted, should beconsidered sacred by men. No one must do other work on Sundays,or other holy days, but attend holy office, or hear God’s service,
but he has permission to ride round his farm after mass has beensung, or the holy office has finished. No one may have more on
his wagon on a Sunday than a lispound weight following a pair ofoxen, or half that following a horse. If he has more, one may
confiscate his load until he has paid six öre, and in addition he is
to pay six öre for Sabbath-breaking, unless an emergency arose
and the priest was asked. Then the latter may ascertain what isnecessary and give permission that he (i.e. the farmer) may travelin his parish, so that he is not blamed or accused about it. If hewants to travel further, then he must always seek permission fromthe priest who has control of the church parish (i.e. the one hewishes to pass through), if he wants to be unchallenged about it.
One has permission to ride to the marketplace with prepared food,cheese and butter and all dairy produce, fish, fowl and those beasts
that one is to sell on the market square, with baked bread but notwith flour or barley, and not with other wares, without risking
5/5 children are treated B: children, they are treated
5/6 mother See Addition 1, which also includes the following sentence.
6/1 <6> B: 5
6/2 those B omits.
6/3 men B omits.
6/7 have B: transport
6/14 blamed B omits blamed (but retains or).
6/18 ride B: travel or rideTHE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

11

both the load and six öre. Half the fine goes to the one who
apprehends him, and half to the priest and parishioners of theplace where he was when he was apprehended with the goods. If
a man is riding and carrying a burden (i.e. has a pack on thehorse), one may not blame him or impose a fine on him for it, if
he is sitting himself (i.e. he is riding the same horse). If the draught
horse is in a train, or he is leading it with a pack, that pack may
legally be seized, if it is more than half a lispound, and in additiona six-öre fine for Sabbath-breaking is incurred. If a free man or
woman is found doing work on a Sunday or other holy day, then
all the work is to be seized, which is found in their hands, andthey are in addition to be fined six öre for Sabbath-breaking. Halfof this is to go to the man who apprehended them, and half to thepriest and church and parishioners. If a male or female slave iscaught working on a holy day, their master is fined three öre forthem, and they are to have their time of slavery extended by three
years.

24

27

30

33

36

<7> Concerning monks’ property
The next thing is that if someone is found guilty of felling[trees] in a wood belonging to monks, or knocking down boundary
fences, or harming them, or their property, then he is to be excommunicated and pay a fine twice as much as that payable by one
farmer to another. And he is to pay the fine before the first assembly
next following. If he waits for the assembly, he is to pay a fine ofthree marks to the general assembly, and he is still to pay the fineto them as laid down in the law, although it is later.
If a man who is childless gives himself to the monastery, heretains authority over his property; he may neither sell nor transfer
it during his lifetime. When he dies, one third remains with themonastery, but two thirds revert to his kinsmen. If he has children,
6/31 woman B: free woman
7/1 <7> B: 6 property B: rights
7/8 still B omits.
7/9 to them B omits.

3

6

9

12

12

15

GUTA LAG

he has command over his personal share. If <any> layman wishes
to leave property to the monastery or to a church, then he may
give a tenth of his property in land, but no more, unless his kinsmen
permit it.
<8> Concerning personal rights

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24

The next thing is that an individual’s right to peace and security is
in force on all those days designated ‘holy days’, from the time ofsunset on the eve of the day until dawn on the third day. Fourteendays at Christmas are days of peace and security; seven weeks in
Lent, and the whole of Easter Week; three Rogation days; and thewhole of Whit Week. If you kill a man during these periods ofpeace and security, the fine is three marks. If you wound a man,the fine is twelve öre. If you strike <a man> with a staff, or anaxe hammer, the fine is six öre. If you manhandle someone,or push him, or take him by the hair, or punch him with yourfist, the fine is three öre, if it is done in anger. If a slave isinvolved, the fine does not exceed three öre, if he is made to
bleed. The fine is always to be paid where the deed was done,
and not where the perpetrator lives. The priest shall withhold holy
offices, and close the church door, to all those who have broken
the sanctity of God, for excommunication always follows Sabbathbreaking. The ban shall subsequently be lifted immediately hepays the fine stipulated, and the parishioners consider it advisable.
All are obliged to bring the action for the fines, and all should takea share in them. Parishioners are to have one third of the fines,
the church another, and the priest a third, provided that fines
are not payable to the general assembly. But fines to thegeneral assembly are not payable for Sabbath-breaking, unless a
man is killed inside a church, in which case there is a fine of forty
7/14 <any> B; A omits.
7/16 in land B omits.
8/1 <8> B: 7
8/9 <a man> B; A omits.
8/21 of the fines B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

13

marks. This fine is paid to the general assembly. The rural dean
has three marks of this for pronouncing excommunication.
All churches in the province are equally sacred, if a man is
killed inside them. Three churchyards, however, are consideredin law to be the most sanctified. In these a fugitive should haveprotection both on rectory land and in the churchyard. There is afine of forty marks if a fugitive is killed in this sanctuary. But of
all other fines, those that are smaller, and those that are not payable
to the general assembly, the parishioners are due one third, andthe church a second part, and the priest another. If you strike a
man in a church with a staff or an axe hammer, or wound him ina churchyard, the fine for this is six marks. If you punch a manwith your fist or push a man or take him by the hair in a church, or
strike him in a churchyard with a staff, or an axe hammer, thefine is three marks. If you punch a man with your fist in achurchyard, or take a man by the hair, the fine is twelve öre for
Sabbath-breaking. The one who has desecrated the church shallalways be liable for the reconsecration, and cleanse that which
he has made unclean by a payment of three marks.

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<9> Concerning the universal sanctity
Now there are, moreover, two other periods of peace and security,
which principally exist in order that one should observe an
individual’s right to protection. In these cases there is noexcommunication and no fine to the bishop, unless the deed wasdone on a holy day. This is the universal sanctity. It runs fromfourteen nights after Easter and five nights after Midsummer andlasts for ten nights and ten days in each case; it both starts and8/26 marks B adds or in a churchyard, in which case there is a fine of twelve
marks
8/32 killed B; A: captured
8/33 not B omits.
8/34 due B: always due
8/35 another. B: another part.
8/39 or an axe hammer B: or with an axe hammer
8/41 churchyard B adds or push a man
9/1 <9> B: 8

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GUTA LAG

ends at sunrise. If you kill a man during these periods of peaceand security, the fine to the general assembly is as great a wergild
as he whom you killed is worth. No peace circle will protect you
before you have paid the fine. If you wound a man or strike him
during these periods of peace and security, the fine is three marks.
During these periods of peace and security no one may destroy
another’s house or boundary fence, without being liable for a fineof three marks.
<10> Concerning the springtime sanctity

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Now there is then, in addition, the springtime sanctity. It runs
from a fortnight before the general sowing time, and lasts until afortnight thereafter. During that period of peace and security no
one may seize from another either horse or ox in payment of debt,
since a farmer needs these every day on his fields, without being
liable for a fine of three marks. If a debt is [outstanding] between
men and it is legally claimed, the one is to claim from the otherhis house, cattle or possessions, and not his working beasts, which
he needs at the time.
<11> Concerning the assembly sanctity

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Next there is in addition men’s assembly sanctity. The assemblymen must prosecute the action for [breaking] the assembly
sanctity. If you take a man by the hair, or punch him with yourfist, at the assembly, the fine is three marks for breaking theassembly sanctity and in addition a legal fine (i.e. for the assault).
If you strike a man with a staff, or an axe hammer, or cause
injury, the fine is three marks. If you kill a man, or maim him, the9/10 is as great B: is always as great
10/1 <10> B: 9
10/6 these B: both these
10/8 it is B omits.
11/1 <11> B: 10
11/2 in addition B omits.
11/7–8 cause injury B: cause a man injury

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

15

fine is six marks, unless the man was killed in revenge. A criminal
may not rely on the assembly sanctity, unless a universal sanctity
is in force.

9<12> Concerning the homestead sanctity
Next there is in addition the sanctity of the homestead for all
men. If you kill a man at home on his farm, or maim him, the fineis twelve marks to the general assembly, and another twelve tohim, and wergild in addition. If you strike a man with a staff or anaxe hammer, or cause him injury, the fine is three marks to him,
and three more to the community, and in addition the legal fine. If
a householder is struck at home on his farm, or more people, only
the one who is valued most highly is to take the fine for an attackin the home, but no others. All should, however, receive legalfines.

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9<13> Concerning manslaughter
The next thing is that, if the misfortune should occur throughthe devil’s agency that a man should happen to kill another,his father, son and brother shall flee with him. If none of these
exist, then his nearest kinsmen should flee with him for forty
days to a church that all men have taken as a sanctuary, that is
Fardhem and Tingstäde and Atlingabo. There they shall have safety
and sanctuary, both on rectory land and in the churchyard.
And when that time has expired, he must ride to the place where
he wants to draw up his peace circle, and draw it around three
farms, and so far into the wood from the three homesteads that itlies equidistant from other (i.e. from these and the other)homesteads, which lie on the other side of the wood, if he has(i.e. should he in any case have) permission from those who own
12/1 <12> B: 11
12/2 in addition B omits.
12/9–10 fine for an attack in the home B: case for homestead sanctuary
13/1 <13> B: 12
13/8 and sanctuary B omits.

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GUTA LAG

the property. The circle may not be drawn around a place ofassembly or a marketplace, nor around more than one church, theone in which he took refuge. Then he has sanctuary within his
circle, and someone else may negotiate compensation [on hisbehalf]. And he is always to draw it during the period of peace andsecurity that is next after Easter, but until that time the peace
circle, which he drew up when he first put himself in danger,
shall protect him. That is called the testified safety circle. No one
may dispute any peace circle, which remains for a year, when ayear has expired. But a man has freedom to remain in his circle orgo abroad on a pilgrimage to a shrine, to atone for his sins. He shallhave eight days respite to take to his ship, and then travel in peaceon his pilgrimage. And when he comes back, he also has eightdays to travel back to his circle in peace. If a man commits acrime (i.e. a killing) in his home parish, he must flee from there,
and draw his circle somewhere else, where neither mother nor
daughter nor sister (i.e. of the victim) live. Meanwhile he musttake himself to another church, since they must not both visit thesame church. Half the tithe is to go to the church he visits forservices and half remains with the church to which his farm wasallocated. If a man commits a crime at the homestead that hehimself lives in, then he is to flee immediately from there and drawa peace circle elsewhere, if he wants peace and security, since
they may not both live in the same farm. If a non-Gotlandic man
kills another non-Gotlandic man, then he is to draw a circle in thesame way as a Gotlander, if he lives on his own farm in Gotland.
He (i.e. the killer) is to offer compensation for the man, if hecan afford it, when the year is past, and always leave a year
13/15 the property B omits.
13/24 But a man B omits. has freedom B: has then freedom
13/25 to a shrine Literally to the saints
13/29 home parish B: own home parish
13/34 his B omits.
13/36 immediately B omits.
13/39 man B omits.
13/41 B has a new chapter here: 13 Concerning the offering of compensation
for a man

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

17

between, and offer three times in three years. And the other is a
man without dishonour if he accepts it the first time it was offered.
If he does not wish to accept it the first time nor at the second,
then he is to take it the third time, when three years have passed.
If he will not accept it then, then they (i.e. both parties) must be
taken to the assembly, before all the people. He (i.e. the plaintiff)
may still accept there, if he wishes. If he does not wish to, then
all the people take counsel over the money (i.e. distribution of themoney), but he (i.e. the defendant) is then free from guilt. If theplaintiff says that the period had not expired, but the defendant
who is offering the wergild says that it had, then the one who saysthat it had expired has the right to substantiate this, with theevidence (i.e. corroboration) of three men who were with him at
the farm and offered compensation three times in three years.
And he is to confirm it with a twelve-man oath that there wasalways a year’s grace allowed between each. If a man does notwish to offer wergild and all the time limits have expired, theauthorities shall deem him to be an outlaw, and liable to discharge
the wergild on a specified day after a period of a month, andliable for six marks of silver to the plaintiff and another six to theauthorities. The same fine applies to him who does not keep within
his peace circle. There is no appeal against this [extra penalty]:
all of the fine will be extracted.

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<14> Concerning inherited cases
But concerning claims for compensation (i.e. wergild) inheritedfrom father or brother or kinsmen, all shall negotiate compensation
until such time as they are able to offer wergild. But the plaintiff
can accept immediately, if he wishes, and not be dishonoured. If
13/43 the other B omits.
13/44 time B omits.
13/45 time B omits.
13/51 guilt B: shame
13/55 with him B: at home with him
13/59 offer B; A: pay

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24

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GUTA LAG

he does not wish to accept so quickly, then they must offer it threetimes before the same time the following year, and then take it to
the assembly before all the people. He may, if he wishes, takethe offer there, or else the whole assembly decides the sum ofmoney, but they (i.e. the kinsmen) then become blameless.
If two or more conspire together and kill one man, then theymust all have the same peace circle until one of them admits to
the killing.
All those who will inherit a portion (i.e. with him) and wish to
do so [may] take revenge on behalf of a minor. Then it is [lawfully]
avenged if any one of them takes revenge for him, whether maleor female. That revenge is valid, just as <if> he himself took
revenge. They shall also take the wergild, if the inheritor is young,when it has come to the time that the defendant who is involved in
the case can make an offer, and free himself from it.
If a Gotlander kills a non-Gotlander and can afford to offer
wergild, then he neither has to flee nor draw a peace circle. If a
non-Gotlander kills a Gotlander, then he is not protected by apeace circle, unless he can afford to offer wergild.
If a minor causes the death of another, the fine is twelve marksof silver.
If a pregnant woman is killed and her child also dies and men
can confirm with an oath that the child was alive in her womb,
then her husband is to swear to it, if he is alive. If he is <not>alive, then the one most closely related to her shall bear witness
with three landowning Gotlanders from the same parish, and in
addition so many as to make up twelve men, all of equal birth toher. Then the fine for the unborn child is twelve marks of silver,
but for the woman a full wergild.
14/6 wish to B omits.
14/8 may B: may still
14/11 man B omits.
14/14 B inserts A kinsman may take revenge, if he wishes, on behalf of a minor.
14/17 <if> B; A omits.
14/20 offer B: offer of money
14/29 <not> B; A omits.
14/32 all B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

19<15> Concerning men’s wergild
Further, there are now men’s wergilds. A Gotlandic man is to becompensated with a wergild of three marks in gold, if he is killed.
All other men are to be compensated with ten marks of silver,
except that a slave’s wergild is to be four and a half marks incoin. If a Gotlandic man marries a non-Gotlandic wife, her fullwergild compensation is to be paid for her, but the children aretreated in the same way as their father’s family in the matter ofcompensation. If a non-Gotlandic man marries a Gotlandic
woman, each keeps their own level of wergild compensation andthe children are treated in the same way as their father’s family
in the matter of compensation.

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<16> Concerning wergild within the peace circle
The wergild for a Gotlandic man within the peace circle is twelve
marks of silver; that of a non-Gotlandic man is five marks ofsilver, and that of a slave is six öre in coin.
All are equal in the matter of fines, until maiming occurs. If
maiming occurs, then the hand or foot of a <non-Gotlandic> manis to be paid for with ten marks in coin, and similarly all otherdisfigurements, which are paid for with wergild.
If someone’s slave kills a Gotlandic man, then the master is totake the killer bound to the farm (i.e. the plaintiff’s farm) within
forty days, and in addition nine marks of silver. If the killer cannot
be produced, then he (i.e. the master) is to pay twelve marks ofsilver and no more. If a slave kills a non-Gotlandic man, then his
master is to pay two marks of silver for him and lead the slave
15/5 is to be B: is to be paid at
15/6 full B omits.
15/7 her B; A: him
15/8 their B omits.
15/12 in the matter of compensation B omits.
16/3 is B omits.
16/6 <non-Gotlandic> B; A: Gotlandic
16/14 for him B omits.

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GUTA LAG

bound to the farm (i.e. the plaintiff’s farm) within forty days. If
the killer cannot be produced, then he is to pay a fine of fivemarks of silver. And swear (i.e. in all cases swear) him a sixman oath that he neither advised nor caused the deed. If the mastercannot swear this oath, then he is to pay the full wergild, both fora Gotlandic and a non-Gotlandic man. If a slave kills a slave, themaster cannot be compelled to give the killer in compensation, if
he offers four and a half marks in coin.
But a slave who has worked through his time of slavery is toembrace his freedom at the church door with the witness of theparishioners and then the slave is himself responsible for his
actions.
<17> Concerning unruly animals

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A five-year-old uncastrated ox also carries a liability for compensation of twelve marks (i.e. of silver) from the farmer owninghim, if it causes the death of a man. A horse must be tied up,
when one comes to visit a farmer, between the fourth pair offence supports from the entrance pillars, and four paces from theman’s door. Then he (i.e. the owner) is responsible for nothing
except for the near fore (i.e. if it kicks out), and its teeth, if it
bites. If you travel to a farm or to a storehouse, tie the horse to thegable end or the back wall, then you will not be responsible formore than stated above. A boar is the third (i.e. animal carrying aliability), if it is over three years old and uncastrated. A dog is the
fourth. One is always responsible for everything, if it causes
damage, whoever owns it. Everyone is answerable for these fourdumb animals (i.e. if they cause a death) on their own farm to thesum of twelve marks of silver.
If a dumb animal is the cause of the death of a man of lesser
value than a Gotlander, then two thirds of his wergild is writtenoff, but one third is paid by the owner of the beast. It is called‘wergild subject to claim’ if a dumb animal causes the death of aman or maims him in the limb. One shall demand the wergild
17/11 boar B: branded boar

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

21(i.e. from the animal’s owner) and not take revenge (i.e. upon theowner); [one shall] lay a legal claim to it like other debts (i.e.
against the owner). If a dumb animal causes a man a wound or
maims him, then two thirds of the compensation is written off,
but a third is paid by the owner of the beast, apart from a dog bite;then each tooth-mark, up to four, is paid with two öre.

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<18> If a man strikes a woman
If a man strikes a woman so that her unborn child is miscarried,
and it was alive in her womb, then the fine is half a wergild. If
she accuses someone, but he denies it, then she is to prove itagainst him with two witnesses, those before whom she declaredherself on the third day after she was struck, or those who were
present, who are also landowning men, together with the evidence(i.e. corroboration) of two women that the child was stillborn
after she had been struck. And she must herself bear witness,with a six-person oath, that it had been alive.
A woman must take care of her child at every feast, put it in its
cradle and have it by her, or have it in her lap, or lay it on the bed
and lie down herself. In that way every woman shall provide carefor her child for three winters. If any man causes the death by
misadventure of the child during this period of care, he is to pay
the full wergild. If a woman lays the child on the floor or in achair unsupervised, or lays it on the bed, again unsupervised, thenno compensation is to be paid for the child come what may. If awoman goes with a child into a bed in which drunken men are
already lying and the child is smothered in the throng or by the
bedclothes, then no compensation is to be paid for that child, eventhough the woman herself lay down.
17/26–27 apart from . . . öre B omits. See Addition 2.
18/5 she B; A: he
18/7 who are also B omits.
18/14 for three B: three
18/16–17 in a chair B: a chair
18/17 lays it B omits. again unsupervised, B omits.

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22

GUTA LAG<19> Concerning wounds
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If a man wounds another, with one wound or several, a thumbnail’s breadth deep, then he is to pay half a mark for eachthumb-nail’s breadth, both in depth and in length, up to eight marks,
and half less if it is not a thumb-nail’s breadth deep, but still needs
medical treatment. The man who received the wound shall get
the witness of two magistrates in the same hundred and one district
judge from the same sixth and himself swear with six men, with
their evidence (i.e. the judges’ corroboration) but not their oath, if
the fine is more than three marks. If the fine is three marks orless, then it is a three-man oath. If he has more than one wound,then he may swear as he wishes, against one man or several, but
the compensation is the same. All wounds that have penetrated
the abdominal or breast cavity are compensated with a mark ofsilver. If one man wounds another with a knife, he is to pay twomarks of silver. If a man throws a stone or some other object at
another, who is wounded as a result, he is to pay three marks. If a
man is wounded with a blow, which does not cause blood to be
spilt, so that the blow is visible (i.e. leaves a visible mark), thecompensation is half a mark for each blow up to four but with thesame witness as for a wound (i.e. an open wound). If a man iswounded through his nose or lip, the compensation is two marks
in coin and in addition for the facial defect, if it has healed over.
If it is open so that it cannot heal, then the highest compensation
is paid in full. But for an ear, the compensation is halved. If one
can see a scar or facial defect from the opposite side of the roadand a hat or hood does not hide it between beard and brow,
the compensation is half a mark of silver. If it can be seen fromright across the assembly, then the fine is a mark of silver
and wound compensation in addition. A split scalp is paid for with
one mark in coin. If the skull is visible, then the fine is twomarks in coin. If the skull is indented or cracked, then it is a mark19/1 wounds B: wounding
19/12 wishes B: rather wishes
19/22 lip, the B: (ver, þa); A has a scribal error (verþa).

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

23

of silver. If the membrane is visible, the fine is two marks ofsilver.
For each bone, which rings in the bowl, there is a fine of a markin coin up to four bones. Each larger bone splinter, which can
carry an ell-long thread over a five ell-high beam, is subject to afine of two marks in coin for each of up to four bones. Eachfinger, which is cut off, is subject to compensation of four marks
in coin. A thumb is <fined at> two marks of silver. If a finger is
so stiffened that it has no holding power, then the fine is the sameas if it were lost. If a man is damaged in one hand, but can still
hold a sword or a sickle but cannot lift the weapon, then the fineis two marks <of silver. If a man is incapacitated so that he cannot
walk or run, then the fine is two marks> of silver. If he is damaged
in the sinew of the heel or neck, then the fine is also two marks<of silver. Each toe is fined at two marks> in coin, if it is lost. If
a hand or a foot is lost or an eye is out, there is a fine of six marksof silver for each of them. If a man assaults another and cuts off
both of his hands, or both of his feet, or pokes out both of his eyes,
and the man nevertheless survives afterwards, the payment is
twelve marks of silver for each. If a man has his nose cut off sothat he cannot keep back his mucus or snot, the fine is also twelve
marks of silver. If a man’s tongue is pulled out of his head andcut off, so that he cannot talk with it, then that also incurs a fineof twelve marks of silver. If a man is damaged in his genitals, sothat he cannot father a child, then the fine is six marks of silver
for each testicle. If both are damaged, then the fine is twelve
marks of silver. If the <whole> penis is cut off, so that the man
cannot satisfy a call of nature other than sitting like a woman,then the fine is eighteen marks of silver.
19/36 up to B: for each up to
19/40 <fined at> B; A omits.
19/44–45 <of silver . . . two marks> B; A omits.
19/46 also B omits.
19/47 <of silver . . . two marks> B; A omits.
19/51 nevertheless B omits.
19/59 <whole> B; A omits.

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63

66

69

72

75

78

81

84

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GUTA LAG

Each rib is to be fined at two marks, up to four ribs. Cutting off
or splitting a smaller bone in the hand or foot is fined at a mark incoin. If a larger bone is broken in either foot or hand, the fine is amark of silver, if it heals without defect. If disability ensues, thefine is two marks of silver. If a man has a visible mark from a
blow on the hand, and says that he has lost the use of it, then he isto prove this with the same witnesses as for a wound. If there isno visible mark from the blow, then the defendant has the right tosubstantiate his denial. It is the least deformity in the hand, if one
cannot tolerate heat or cold as previously. That is fined at a markin coin and it is to be verified by self-witness.
If the hearing is struck out of a man’s head with a blow leaving
a visible mark <so> that he can neither hear a dog on its leash nora cockerel on its perch, nor a man when he calls at the door, thefine for that is twelve marks of silver and he is to prove this himself
with a six-man oath and with the same witnesses as for a wound.
If a man’s hearing is damaged in one ear so that he does not hearwith it, if he covers the other, then the fine is six marks of silver.
If a man’s ear is cut off, the fine is one mark of silver. But if theear is damaged, then the fine is two marks in coin. If you strike aman’s teeth from his head, then you are to pay a fine for each
tooth according to its worth: the two upper front teeth are fined at
two marks in coin each, the two next to them at one mark in coineach, and then each at a mark in coin including molars and all.
But the lower teeth are all valued at a half less from first to last.
If you take a man by the hair with one hand, you are fined twoöre. If you use both hands, you are fined half a mark. If you shakea man, you are fined two öre. If you push a man, you are finedtwo öre. If you throw ale in a man’s eyes, you are fined eightörtugar for the insult. If you kick a man, you are fined two öre. If
19/62–66 Each rib . . . two marks of silver. B rewords. See Addition 3.
19/74 <so> B; A omits.
19/80 one mark of silver B: two marks of silver
19/80–86 But if the ear . . . first to last. B rewords. See Addition 4.
19/81 damaged A: damaged damaged
19/91 If you kick . . . two öre. B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

25

you punch someone with your fist, you are fined two öre. If you
admit to one blow, then he has the right to substantiate an accusationof four blows. If you do not confess, then you have the right tosubstantiate your denial as the defendant. If you strike a manwith a staff, the fine is half a mark for each blow up to twomarks. A man is not fined more from his property for a blow that
does not cause blood to be spilt, unless disability ensues. That is
the law of the Gotlanders.
A man’s beard is subject to the same fines as other hair pulling.
For a bald patch on which one can put a finger, the fine is eightörtugar. If you can put two fingers in it, the fine is half a mark. If
there is place for the thumb as a third, the fine is one mark incoin. If the bald patch is so large that the flat of the hand can be
put on it, then the fine is two marks in coin. If all the hair is pulled
off, the fine is one mark of silver, but one does not pay more evenif each hair is pulled out. If a piece of scalp and hair is cut froma man’s head the fine is one mark of silver.
If you tear apart a man’s clothing, the fine for outer garments isone öre. The kirtle is two öre, undergarments eight örtugar, andall the man’s clothes are to be repaired and as good as they were
before. Undergarments are a man’s vest and shirt, trousers andhat. All cost the same, whichever is torn. If the skin is involved
and a wound is caused, you are fined both for the wound and theclothing.
A man is to be answerable for open wounds for a year and aday. If a man is wounded with a blow which does not cause blood
to be spilt, and he lies in the same bed and does not get up in theinterim, but still has full use of his senses, then he is to take thewitness of four landowning men and three district judges fromthe same sixth and as many more as to make up twelve. If he
19/100 B has a new chapter here: 20 Concerning bald patches
19/100 A man’s beard . . . hair pulling. B omits these sentences at this point.
19/105–08 If all the hair . . . silver. See Addition 5 for differences in B.
19/109 B has a new chapter here: 21 If you tear apart someone’s clothing
19/116 B has a new chapter here: 22 Concerning open wounds and closed
wounds

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102

105

108

111

114

117

120

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126

129

132

135

138

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GUTA LAG

does not have full use of his senses, then his heir has theright of substantiation of the case, with the same evidence (i.e.
corroboration). But if he gets up in the interim, the defendant has
the right of substantiation of his denial.
If a man blocks another’s way, grasps a horseman’s bridle, or
takes a pedestrian by the shoulders and turns him from his path,then he is fined eight örtugar for the insult. But if he does violence
to him and forces him to go further with him (i.e. in the opposite
direction), then he is to pay him three marks for the violence andanother three to the community.
If someone’s slave fights with a free man, then if he (i.e. theslave) always receives two blows to one (i.e. against the other),then it is considered even between them. If the slave gets more
blows than two against one, then each blow up to four is fined attwo öre. If the free man gets more blows than one against two,then each to him up to four is fined at half a mark. If the slave
gets a jerking or a shaking or a pushing, then the fines to him arealways half those to the free man. If it comes to wounds, then thefines are the same as to a free man, up to three marks and no
more. No one pays fines for insults to a slave and similarly aslave does not pay fines for insult to anyone.
<20> Concerning all inheritances

3

If there are minors, who are young, after their father’s death, andalso sons who are grown men, then the eldest must not part fromthe youngest, even if need may arise, before he (i.e. the youngest)
19/126 B has a new chapter here: 23 If someone blocks another’s way
19/126 horseman’s B: man’s
19/131 another three B: three marks
19/132 B has a new chapter here: 24 If slaves fight
19/132 if he B: if
19/136 blows B omits.
19/137 to him B: blow
19/142 The paragraph at 20/40–45 appears here in A, evidently misplaced, but
in the correct place in B, although in the margin.
20/1 <20> B: 25

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

27

is of age. They are to have enjoyment of everything undivided
until he is fifteen years of age. Then he is to take his scrip and his
scales and each have responsibility for himself, if they no longer
wish to be together. If need arises, so that they have to part withland to buy food before they are all of age, an equal amount shallbe taken in pledge from each, the eldest as well as the youngest,and <not> sell it outright. Should someone take the young minor
as a ward, however, whether a male or a female, and feed him
until he is of age, then he (i.e. the minor) keeps his portion, even
if the others are forced to part with their land to buy food. If afather marries his son off and the son dies and leaves behinddaughters, they shall remain in their grandfather’s care and await
their portion. If the head of the family dies and there are no
surviving sons, the daughters and sons’ daughters divide theinheritance according to their numbers. If the man has other sons,the son’s daughters (i.e. the daughters of the deceased son) inherit
their father’s portion between them. In the same way inheritanceis passed from the father’s mother if she lives longer than her
son. If an heiress has inherited land, then the one inherits fromthe other however many generations there might be, whether maleor female, while her descendants exist. When the line has run out
and has included two male descendants but not a third, then theinheritance reverts to the farm from which it first came. If it has
included a third and all three follow each other, then it remains
with the farm to which it has come, even if the line has died out.
If an heiress has inherited her portion and leaves no sons, then thenext of kin inherits. If both are equally close, a man and a woman,then the man inherits and not the woman.
If there are no sons on the farm, then the daughter inherits hermaternal inheritance and her father’s maternal inheritance after
her father. If her paternal aunts survive, married or single, then
20/5 They are B: They are all
20/11 <not> B; A omits.
20/12 however A has a superfluous not here.
20/28 it remains B: remains
20/33 B has a new chapter here: 26 If the male line is broken

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they take her father’s maternal inheritance (i.e. a share in thisinheritance). If some are unmarried, they take an eighth of themonetary value of the paternal inheritance (i.e. of their niece)
after debts have been paid.
If there are no sons on the farm, then the kinsmen each inherit
their per capita share to the fourth generation. If it (i.e. the relationship) is more remote, then they take an eighth part after debts arepaid. A woman, however, is to take as much from the farm as she
has put in, if it is written down in the first year. If it is not written
down, then the farm has the right of substantiation of its case.
If there is no male heir and a widow remains at the farm, thenshe is to have, as provisions at the farm for a year, a bushel of rye
and another bushel of barley each month, if she does not die ormarry away. But as to the property that she brought to the farm,
she is to take out of the farm that which she brought to it. If awoman marries into several farms and has children in several,then all children inherit their maternal inheritance equally, bothland and movables. And brothers receive for their full sisters,
whether they are married or unmarried. If a woman is marriedout of the farm with a dowry and has no male heir, then it (i.e. thedowry) reverts to the farm from which she married. If there areno male heirs to the farm then the next of kin inherits, whether
male or female, but in the case of a woman no further than the
fourth generation. If they are both of equal degree, however, theman inherits. It is also the law that a woman inherits consolationand provision from her husband. If she stays for a longer time on
the farm with her sons <and> her sons die, leaving no male heir
after them, before eight years have elapsed, she is to take a mark20/40–45 This paragraph should be here, as indicated by the reading of B,
where it appears in the margin. In A it appears at 19/142.
20/41 their A: which B omits. share B adds with the daughters
20/43 paid B adds and the women’s portions are discharged she B; A: he
20/45 then B omits.
20/53 full B omits.
20/60 It is also . . . B has the words Hogsl oc id (‘Consolation and provision’)in the margin at this point, as a side heading.
20/62 <and> B; A omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

29

in coin for each year while her sons lived. But if she marries
again while her sons are still alive, she is to receive consolationand provision and no more. A widow who is childless is to haveboard and lodging, if she wishes, in the same farm into which she
married. If she does not want this, she is to have half a mark incoin for each year <up to> sixteen years and receive it year by
year.
But in the case of female inheritance, a daughter or daughter’schildren inherit. If there are none of these, then the sister or sister’schildren inherit. If there are none of these, then the father’s sisteror father’s sister’s children inherit. If there are none of these,then the next blood relatives down to the fourth generation inherit,
but no further. If there are none of these, the female inheritanceremains in the farm estate with the kinsmen. If there are no maleheirs and it has passed to the female line, whether it is through abrother or a sister, and they are both equal in blood relationship,then they both inherit. Should both father and son be burned alivein the same house, both drown in the same ship, or both fall in thesame battle, then sisters are considered equal to daughters. If
more than one son survives a man and the family grows from allof them, but one (i.e. if it happens that one) dies without sons,then all (i.e. the others) are equally near in inheritance down to
the fourth generation. Anyone who sells his ancestral home anddisposes of everything within the farmstead will be separated
from inheriting with the kinsmen and brothers and will be assigned
the wergild of a non-Gotlander. But his sons will remain within
the line of inheritance and the legal entitlements of their kinsmen,
if they obtain land again worth three marks in rent.
No illegitimate son can obtain the right to inheritance unless it
is the case that both his father and mother are trueborn Gotlanders,
20/69 <up to> B; A omits.
20/71 B has a new chapter here: 27 Concerning women’s inheritance
20/72–73 If there are . . . inherit. B omits.
20/81 both drown B: or both drown
20/92 B has a new chapter here: 28 Concerning illegitimate children
20/92–93 it is the case that B omits.

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and he confirms it with what is written in a genealogical table, tothe effect that three successive female ancestors are trueborn
Gotlanders. Then the son of the third in line can inherit with thekinsmen. If a Gotlandic man begets an illegitimate child with a
Gotlandic woman and he has no (i.e. no legitimate) male heir andhe is survived by illegitimate children, sons and daughters, thenthey divide their paternal movables according to their number withthe legitimate daughters, if there are any. If there are none, thenthey divide their father’s movables amongst each other according
to their number. But if a Gotlandic man begets illegitimate sonswith a non-Gotlandic woman, then he must support them until
they are of age. If they do not wish to remain with their father any
longer, then he is to give three marks in coin to each of them andbattle weapons and bedclothes, bedcover and under-blanket andpillow and fifteen ells of broadcloth for walking-clothes. If he has
illegitimate daughters, then he must support them until they areeighteen years of age; he has the right to give them in marriage if
someone requests it. But if they remain unmarried and no longer
wish to remain with their father when eighteen years have passed,then he must give a mark of silver to each, and bed- and walkingclothes and a cow according to his means. The entitlements ofillegitimate children must always be administered with thecorroboration of the parishioners.
If a Gotlandic man begets an illegitimate daughter with a nonGotlandic woman and if someone is charged with violation ofthat illegitimate daughter, then he (i.e. the violator) is to give her
four marks as consolation, whether he <is> Gotlandic or nonGotlandic. If a man is found in flagrante delicto with this daughter,then he must redeem his hand or foot with three marks of silver.
If a Gotlandic woman gets an illegitimate daughter with a nonGotlandic man, then she has the same rights as have just beenlaid out.
20/102 they B omits.
20/116 corroboration B: witness or corroboration
20/120 marks B: marks in coin <is> B; A omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

31<20a> <Concerning men discovered in the act of illicit
intercourse>
If a man is discovered in flagrante delicto with an unmarried
Gotlandic woman, then he may be placed in the stocks and be
captive for three nights and send word to his kinsmen. They (i.e.
the kinsmen) are to redeem his hand or his foot with six marks ofsilver or he (i.e. the wronged party) [can] have it cut off if he (i.e.
the miscreant) cannot afford to redeem it. If he is not discoveredin flagrante delicto with her, but if a child is presented to him andthe woman says that the child is his, but he denies it, then he is totake two resident men from the same parish as the woman wasin when the child was conceived and swear, with a six-man oath,that they never heard word or rumour of the matter before thechild was born. Then the right to substantiate his denial is in his
favour, if he enlists two resident men. If he fails and does not get
the right to substantiate his denial, then the woman has the rightto substantiate her accusation with six men, all of equal birthwith her, that he is father to the child. And he is then to adopt thechild and take responsibility for the mother, if he is willing. If hedoes not wish to or cannot, then he is to give her full consolation,
if she is a Gotlander. If a Gotlandic man is discovered in flagrantedelicto with a non-Gotlandic woman, then she is to have threemarks from him but only if he is discovered in flagrante delicto
where her bed and home are. If a non-Gotlandic man is discoveredin flagrante delicto with a Gotlandic woman, then he is to pay thesame fine as a trueborn Gotlander. If he is not discovered in theact, but nevertheless begets a child with her, he is to give her
eight marks in consolation and bring up the child himself. If
the woman says the child is his but he denies it, then he is todefend himself with the same evidence (i.e. corroboration) as a
Gotlander. But the child is to be raised by those who have the20a/1 B has a new chapter here: 29 Concerning the discovery of illicit intercourse. A has no heading, despite listing the chapter in the table of contents.
20a/6 are B: are then
20a/17 all B omits.

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right to collect the consolation, father or brother, if she is unmarried.
If a <non-Gotlandic> man begets a child with a non-Gotlandic
woman, then he also is to give her consolation of three marks andraise his child. If he is discovered in flagrante delicto with her,then he is also to give her three marks, even if there is no child.
<21> If a man commits adultery

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If a man commits adultery, he is to pay three marks to the assemblyand six marks to the complainant. If a man, <whether a priest or>a layman, commits double adultery then he is to pay twelve marks
to the authorities and another twelve to the complainant. If amarried man commits adultery with an unmarried woman, he is
to pay her consolation. If a lawfully married woman commits
adultery with an unmarried man, he is not to pay her consolation.
If a man, priest or layman, is discovered in flagrante delicto withanother man’s wife then he is liable for forty marks or his life andthe complainant decides, however, which he would prefer, themoney or his (i.e. the defendant’s) life. If a man seduces anotherman’s daughter or one of his wards into betrothal without theauthority of her father or kinsmen, then he must pay forty marks
to the complainant; of this the authorities take twelve marks. If a
man takes (i.e. takes in marriage) a woman or maid by force orviolence, without the authority of her father or kinsmen, then those
who prosecute her case shall decide between his neck or wergild,
if the woman is Gotlandic; the authorities take twelve marks of
the wergild. If the woman is not Gotlandic, then those who
prosecute her case shall decide between his neck and ten marksof silver; the authorities take twelve marks (i.e. in coin) of thewergild.
20a/32 she B: he [i.e. the brother]
20a/33 <non-Gotlandic> B; A: Gotlandic
20a/35 with her B omits.
21/1 <21> B: 30 If a man commits B: Concerning
21/3 <whether a priest or> B; A omits.
21/5 twelve B: twelve marks
21/10–12 and the complainant . . . life B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

33<22> <Concerning rape>
If a woman is dishonoured in a wood or elsewhere and forced
into sexual intercourse, she must pursue the man with a shout, if
she does not want to endure the shame, and follow him to where
he goes. If someone hears her cry, he must provide her with fulland complete evidence, as if he had been present and was an
eyewitness. If no one hears her cry, she must declare her casebefore witnesses immediately on the first day, in the place where
she comes to habitation and say the name of the man. She canalso benefit from their evidence, if their witness is valid. If shedelays and does not make an accusation, then it is best to remainsilent about it. The defendant has the right to substantiate his denial.
If a man is found guilty of such an offence and there is evidence
for the woman, then he is fined twelve marks of silver for a
Gotlandic woman but for a non-Gotlandic woman five marks ofsilver and for a slave six öre in coin. If the case involves a lawfully
married woman, Gotlandic or non-Gotlandic, then he forfeits hislife or redeems himself with as much wergild as the woman isworth. If the woman does not know the man, but declares hercase before witnesses on the first day after she has come tohabitation, and then claims to have known the man when a longer
time has passed, he can then defend himself with a twelve-man
oath. If she is pregnant and it happened at the time that she declared
her rape before witnesses, she has the right to substantiate her
accusation with a twelve-man oath and the witnesses before whom
she declared her case. If a man’s slave commits such a crime witha Gotlandic woman, it does not suffice that the master pays thewergild penalty, unless she would rather the wergild than his life.
22/1 A had no title for this chapter originally, simply an enlarged initial letter.
Concerning the shaming of women has been inserted in the margin. B: 31 If awoman is dishonoured on the road
22/15 non-Gotlandic woman B: non-Gotlandic
22/16 slave B: slave woman
22/20 she B; A: he
22/23 oath B: oath if she is not pregnant at the time B: at the same time
22/28 rather B: rather accept

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GUTA LAG<23> Concerning asaults on women
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And concerning assaults on women, the law is as follows. If you
strike the headdress or wimple from a woman’s head, in a waythat is not accidental, and her head is half-bared, then you are to
pay a mark in coin; if it is completely bared, you are to pay twomarks. She has the right to substantiate her accusation with thewitnesses who saw it, to say whether her head was completely
bared or half. An unfree woman, however, receives payment forblows, and no more. If you pull the buckle or clasp from a woman,
you are to pay eight örtugar. If you pull both away, you are to pay
half a mark. If it (i.e. the garment) falls to the ground, then thefine is a mark. If you pull the laces from a woman, the fine is halfa mark for each to the maximum fine. And you must giveeverything back to her. <She> is to confirm herself when all has
been returned. If you push a woman so that her garments fly outof place, compared to how they were previously, the fine is eightörtugar. If they fly halfway up the shin, the fine is half a mark.
If they fly up so that one can see the kneecap, the fine is a markin coin. If they fly up so high that one can see both loins andprivate parts, the fine is two marks. If you seize a woman by thewrist, you are to pay half a mark, if she wants to lay a complaint.
If you seize her by the elbow, you are to pay eight örtugar. If you
seize her by the shoulders, you are to pay five örtugar. If you
seize her by the breast, you are to pay an öre. If you grasp her by
the ankle, you are to pay half a mark. If you grasp her between
the knee and calf, you are to pay eight örtugar. If you grasp her
above the knee, you are to pay five örtugar. If you grasp her still
higher up, that is an indecent grasp and it is called a madman’s
grasp; no cash compensation is payable for it; most will endure it
when it has gone that far. If this happens to a non-Gotlandic
23/1 <23> B: 32 A has rubric, exceptionally, in margin.
23/6 marks B: marks in coin
23/11 then B omits.
23/14 <She> B; A omits.
23/18 so B: so high23/21 she B; A: he

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

35

woman, you are to pay her half the amount for all assaults
compared to a Gotlandic woman, if she is a free and freeborn
woman.

33<24> Concerning weddings
Concerning the wagon-riders’ procession, no more than two shalltravel in each wagon; but the ride of the relatives is abolished.
The nuptial mass is to be sung where the bridegroom is andthe wedding breakfast is to be held. The bridegroom shall send
three men to his bride and the chief bridal attendant shall wait
where the nuptial mass is to be sung and the wedding breakfast
held. And the wedding feast shall be held with drinking for twodays with all the people (i.e. guests) and gifts are to be givenby everyone who wants to according to their inclination.
But contributions by the guests to the wedding feast have beenabolished. On the third day they (i.e. the bridal couple) havethe right to invite the wedding hosts and the masters of the feast
and their closest kinsmen to stay. As many toasts as thehouseholder wants shall be drunk prior to the toast to the Virgin
Mary. But after the toast to the Virgin Mary, then everyone has
permission to leave and further ale is not brought in. Everyone
who breaks this rule must pay twelve marks to the authorities.
And whoever comes uninvited to a wedding or feast is to pay
three öre.

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<24a> <Concerning funeral feasts>
All funeral feasts are abolished. But those who wish to may give
clothes and footwear to the parishioners in memory of thedeceased.
23/32–33 if she is . . . woman B omits.
24/1 <24> B: 33
24/1 weddings B: the wagon-riders’ procession
24/20 öre B: öre in coin
24/20 See Addition 6 and 63/14–17.
24a/1 <24a> B has a new chapter here: 34 Concerning funeral feasts A has noheading, despite listing the chapter in the table of contents.

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GUTA LAG<24b> <Concerning fine woollen cloth>3

All fine woollen cloth and wall coverings of black cloth that exist
are to be used, but no more are to be added to them once they areworn out, neither second-hand nor new.
<24c> <Concerning riding clothes>3

Saddlecloths and riding cushions are not to be divided into smaller
than quarters.
<24d> <Concerning Gotlandic women>

36This is also stipulated concerning Gotlandic women: that eachbrother shall take responsibility for his sister’s wedding. If hedoes not wish to do that, he must give her an eighth portion of his
property to support herself under the supervision of <his> closest
kinsmen and parishioners, so that she does not use her possession
ill advisedly.
<24e> <Concerning non-Gotlandic people>

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But concerning non-Gotlanders, then the stipulation is that twosisters should inherit the same as one brother. If the inheritancefalls between siblings or the children of siblings, they divide it
like their paternal inheritance or their maternal inheritance. If it
goes to more distant relatives, then those who are closest in bloodinherit.
24b/1 <24b> B has a new chapter here: 35 Concerning women’s rights andincludes the majority of the first nine sentences from 65/2–15. A has no heading,despite listing a separate chapter in the table of contents.
24c/1 <24c> A has no heading, despite listing a separate chapter in the table ofcontents. B has the initial letter of Reidkledi (‘Saddlecloths’) enlarged and in red,
indicating a new section.
24d/1 <24d> B has a new chapter here: 36 Concerning Gotlandic women A
has no heading, despite listing the chapter in the table of contents.
24d/4 her B omits.
24d/5 <his> B; A omits.
24e/1 <24e> A has no heading, despite listing a separate chapter in the table ofcontents. B has the first four words in red, indicating a new section.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

37<24f, 64> Concerning travellers’ pathways
And this is the law concerning travellers’ pathways: if a man
owns land which nowhere borders a right of way, he shall havethe right himself to cross open ground (i.e. another’s open ground)
where the latter has a right of way. If he owns land bordering aright of way, that is open ground, he has no right of crossing overanother’s open ground. But if he has enclosed land, he has rights
over another’s open ground. If men wish to create grazing
enclosures from grazing land by a road, they must leave a pathfifteen paces in width (i.e. between the fences). In that way they
may protect their enclosure, but not otherwise. If a man creates
an enclosure across another’s right of way, then he must create agap for him and he is to have passage as before. If he fences
across a path that is another man’s lawful right of way, the one who
owns the fence is to create the gap, but the one who owns the rightof way is responsible for the gap (i.e. the security of the gap).

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<25> Concerning disputes over woodland
If two men dispute about a wood, then one shall bring two typesof evidence: the evidence of neighbours and evidence as to work.
That one collected firewood in springtime, or cut fencing woodand laid it on stumps, or cut off branches and gathered them
together and let them dry there until autumn, is sufficient evidenceof work. He who has the stronger neighbours’ evidence that work
was done in the area has the right to substantiate his case. One ofthose who owns most shall present his oath first. If he does notwish to swear an oath, then his witness will not benefit either
party. But concerning cultivated land one must also have two
types of evidence: the evidence of kin (i.e. distant kin) and evidence
24f/1 <24f, 64> B: 37 The chapter Concerning travellers’ pathways, which in
A appears after Chapter 63, should appear here, as in B and the table of contents
in A. See also CIG, 61 note 56.
24f/1 travellers’ B omits.
25/1 <25> B: 38
25/6 there B omits.

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as to work for three years. Those who own the neighbouring land
shall provide the evidence as to work. If one owning neighbouring
property disputes this, those shall bear witness, who own theproperty next nearest. Kin witness is not borne by anyone nearer
related than the fourth generation.
If cultivated land and woodland and marshland meet, then thecultivated land (i.e. the settlement containing the cultivated land)takes two thirds and the woodland and marshland (i.e. that
containing the woodland and marshland) a third (i.e. of theunclaimed land). Woodland and marshland then take half each ofinfertile land where they meet between stump and tufts of sedge.
And neither may witness concerning the other, not woodland withmarshland and not marshland with woodland.
No man may give another leave to fell in shared woodland, or
cut down fen sedge on shared marshland without being liable fora fine of three marks to the injured party and another three to thecommunity. No man may presume to work in another man’s
woodland or marshland without that which he travels with being
legally taken from him, building material and draught animal.
But if he says that the other has seized it illegally, he is to prove itwith an eyewitness. When someone gets an injury (i.e. suffers aloss) in a wood or on other property, and wishes to suspect (i.e.
accuse) someone of something, then no one can decline another(i.e. the accuser) the right to conduct a search and inspection
without [incurring] a fine.
Anyone who damages boundary land inside or outside theenclosure is liable to a fine of three marks to the injured party andanother three to the community. No man shall also presume toenclose shared property without being liable to [pay] three marks
to the injured party and another three to the community. Everyone
is responsible for the enclosure that he has fenced in; the one who
25/18–20 The words and woodland and marshland and then the cultivatedland takes two thirds appear in the margin in A, possibly a 16th-century correction. See CIG, 62 note 15.
25/19 cultivated B omits.
25/24 witness B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

39

owns the land bounding a road [is responsible] for the fence along
the road. But the one that does not own land bounding a road is
responsible for fences between fields or meadows. Everyone isto redress the damage caused by the fence for which he is
responsible. If several keep a fence in a bad state, then all pay
damages who do not have a lawfully acceptable fence. No one
gets damages for his injury unless he himself keeps a lawfully
acceptable fence. No one may demonstrate damage on another’s
bad fence unless he himself has a good one.

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<26> Concerning shared fences
If someone asks another for a shared fence, then he must tell theother with a neighbour or parishioner as witness. And theparishioners shall decide each share within a week. You thentake your share yourself with the neighbours as witness, if theother party does not wish to be present, and erect a fence in theplace you are given your share. And the other party then has a
year’s grace (i.e. to erect his fence) from the day of division. If
farm animals (i.e. belonging to him) later get in, take them indoors
and do not release them before the other pays for the damage anddeposits half a mark towards the fence. He is to have the fence
made good within a fortnight and then redeem his pledge. If hedoes not do this within a fortnight, then he loses his half mark andyou take another half mark as pledge until the work is done. He
must continue to pay for the damage as long as the fence is notmade good. For ‘good fences make good neighbours’.
Whoever takes a creature indoors is to answer for the creature
until he has informed the one who owns it with the witness ofneighbours. If he (i.e. the owner) then does not wish to redeem
the creature, then he must himself bear the damage if the creature
is worse, or indeed dead. When all have been lawfully informed,
25/48 keep B: own or keep
25/50 keeps B: keeps or owns
26/1 <26> B: 39
26/7 then B omits.

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the one who has the bad fencing is answerable for the damage. If
someone has an unruly animal and it breaks in through a lawfully
acceptable fence, one must inform him with neighbours as witness
and bid him tether his beast. If it subsequently does damage, thenone must take the creature into the house, and he who owns thecreature is to pay for the damage. If an ox breaks a fully tied
fence, even if it is not lawfully acceptable, then you are to pay forthe damage. If it jumps over it, you do not pay unless the fence islawfully acceptable. An ox is lawfully tethered if it has a horn
hobble around its hind foot and its horn. No fence is lawfully
acceptable unless it is bound with two bands and is two and a half
ells in height to the upper band, but this nevertheless applies tothose creatures that jump over, and not to swine or those creaturesthat crawl underneath. Each must take care of geese and pigs
themselves, provided that the fence (i.e. the neighbour’s fence) is
lawfully acceptable.
If a man cuts down wood illegally in enclosed woodland andtravels there (i.e. to collect it), then he is liable to [pay] threemarks to the <injured> party and another three <to> the community.
But if he carries it home from the wood, then he is liable to a fineof eight örtugar and complete restitution. If the wagon axle orother driving equipment breaks on the road, then a man may without
penalty cut wood on another’s land if he does not himself own
land so near that he can see yoke <and> wagon, or draught horseand cart [from it].
If you tear up another man’s fence so that you break the uppertie, then you are to pay half a mark. But if you tear up a further
fence section the fine is eight örtugar (i.e. in addition). If you tearup a third, the fine is four örtugar (i.e. in addition). If you tear awide enough gap to drive through, then you are liable to a fine oftwo marks and no more. And you are to make good his fence
26/33 nevertheless B omits.
26/38 B has a new chapter here: 40 Whoever cuts wood illegally
26/40 <injured> B; A omits. <to> B; A omits.
26/45 <and> B; A omits.
26/51 then B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

41

again, as good and long as it was before, and be responsible forany damage during the time it was down.
If you take a man’s firewood or fencing wood or timber in
his woodland, the fine is six öre. If the other (i.e. the owner)
has driven it to the road, then the fine is three marks, if one does
not leave one’s own behind. And you are to give the other all his
own back, as good and as much, if you are found guilty of thecrime. He is to confirm himself by oath when all has beenreturned.

54

57

60

<27> Concerning wells
A well is the responsibility of the one on whose farm it is, unlessa wheel or trapdoor covers it; then the one who goes away leaving
it open is responsible. If you dig a well in your meadow or [onanother part of] your land, you are to make the path and track as
good away from it as to it, or you are responsible for a man’s
beast if it suffers injury.

36<28> Concerning land purchase
No one may sell land unless pressing need arises. Then he is toinform those kin most closely related and the parishioners andthe family members, and they are to test the need. But whoever
gives money for land without this test, has forfeited his money
and is to pay a fine of twelve marks to the authorities and anothertwelve to the close-related kin, who are invalidating the agreement.
But property is never legally purchased without the discretion of
the assemblymen, and the kinsman’s portion shall be offered fora year. One shall pledge with the same witnesses as for purchase.
If men divide property, they are to declare the division to theassembly, with both present. If someone disbelieves them, they
are to investigate in the same year. When the close-related kin
cannot purchase the property from the one who is forced to sell,then kinsmen from another branch of the family are to buy it, or
27/1 <27> B: 41
28/1 <28> B: 42

3

6

9

12

15

42

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

39

42

45

48

GUTA LAG

family members (i.e. those more distant), with the same test as
laid out above. But land may never be bought out of the family. Ifmen, Gotlandic or non-Gotlandic, who are not in the same family,
have land (i.e. in common) and are forced to sell, they are to sellto those who should inherit, if they are able. If they are not able,
then the land must be bought by the men of the hundred in which
the property lies. Whoever infringes against this, is to pay a fineof twelve marks to the authorities. When a man more distant than
the nearest buys it, one must submit a kinsman’s portion to thehundred assembly in which the land lies and, before one submits
the portion, lawfully inform the one who is to take up the kinsman’s
portion, and who is outside the assembly area, in the presence of
his own parishioners. If someone sells his land, then the kinsman’s
portion is to be taken up both by men and women who would
inherit, but not those who share the use of the land with him. But
kinsmen (i.e. close kin), or men from another branch of the family
are to buy the land. If they do not wish to, then the female members
are nearer than men outside the family. If, however, a man sells
his land and buys other land of the same value to his benefit, then
the kinsman’s portion is not extracted. Land is never free (i.e.
otherwise) of a kinsman’s portion unless everyone makes a sale,or it is forfeited as wergild, or land bringing a mark in rent as adowry is promised at the betrothal meeting, or it is forfeited as afine for theft. If there are a number of brothers or brothers’ children,or other close-related kin, and they have divided their inheritanceand several sell their land, then none of them is to take a kinsman’s
portion from the other, apart from the one most closely-related
who retains his land.
If someone is taken hostage and he ransoms himself with his
land or property, then his nearest kinsman is to redeem it, if hewishes, and pay the money for it once the other comes home. If a
farmer’s son is captive, or a minor, no one may ransom him for
more than three marks in silver, unless authority exists from hisfather or kinsmen; and he is to receive (i.e. from them) a third for
28/44 B has a new chapter here: 43 If someone is taken hostage

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

43

himself in addition to the sum he put down, in the same currency.
But he does not have the right to more than three marks of silver
if there is a dispute about it. But he who has inherited land and is
not a minor is to take up his own case as best he may. What hedoes himself, stands. It is the law between countries that a foreigner
never ransoms a Gotlander dearer than three marks of silver,
unless he has the authority of his father or kinsmen, and he is totake a third in addition, in the same currency he has put down. If
a brother travels abroad with undivided property and falls captive,then his brother is to ransom him (i.e. with money) from theundivided property. If he travels with divided goods then he is toransom himself. A brother must ransom another from captivity
as long as the property has not been divided between them.
If some profit falls to one (i.e. one brother) more than to theother, or some find is made on his portion, then all should have ashare, while it (i.e. their property) is undivided. If brothers possess
undivided property and one of them kills a man, then each is
answerable for his actions: the one who killed pays the fine.
No son of a Gotlandic father may have his portion from hisfather, although he ask for it, unless his father is willing or hemarries with his father’s consent. If he wants to make division,then he is to take his personal share in money after the drawing
up of accounts, but his father is to keep his farm undivided and heis to give his son the land rent from it, as well as his personal
share in money; and the son is himself to have the authority to go
where he wishes. If they have several farms, then the son is to go
to one of them at the drawing up of accounts, if he wishes, solong as the father does not prove to be unreasonable. If a nonGotlandic man has married or unmarried sons, they are never to
get a division of property from their father, unless the father proves
to be unreasonable.
28/64 some B omits.
28/68 B has a new chapter here: 44 Concerning the sons of Gotlanders
28/68 portion B: property portion
28/70 consent B: counsel and consent
28/72 is to keep B: is then to keep

51

54

57

60

63

66

69

72

75

78

44

GUTA LAG<29> Concerning debts
3

Whoever gets into debt ill advisedly forfeits his portion and no
more. And no one is to pay out a debt after his death more than his
own means can bear.
<30> Concerning surety

3

If you take surety from a man for a true debt, then you are to
summon him to the church or the assembly, and he is to redeem itat the legal time, otherwise the parishioners or the men of theassembly will make a valuation.
<31> Concerning assemblies

3

6

9

12

This is also agreed: that all assemblies shall commence before
midday. Magistrates shall judge at the hundred assemblies.
Whichever of them does not arrive by midday is to pay threeöre to the assembly. If none of them has arrived by midday,
they are liable to [pay] three marks to the first one to bring acase forward and another three <to> the community. But
judgements may not be judged longer and oaths not taken later
than sunset. Whoever infringes this is to pay a fine according to
the level of the assembly. The sixth assembly may not impose
a fine of more than three marks, and the riding assembly up to
six marks and the general assembly up to twelve marks. If
the cases concern ownership, then anyone is lawfully dismissed
who does not come at the same time that the assembly is held.

29/1 <29> B: 45
30/1 <30> B: 46
30/2 you take B: a man takes
30/4–5 or the men of the assembly B omits.
31/1 <31> B: 47
31/4 three A: three iii
31/7 <to> B; A omits.
31/8 longer B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

45<32> Concerning a money claim
If a claim for money arises between men, then neither gets ahigher oath from the other than from six men if disagreementarises between them. But it may be from up to eighteen men in
respect of land disputes, if there is disagreement relating to as
much as a mark in gold (i.e. land to that value), and similarlyeven if more is involved. If they disagree (i.e. about the value
involved), then the hundred’s magistrates shall decide without anoath, if the disagreement concerns a mark in gold, and he (i.e. theplaintiff) is now to take the initial summons with a month’s grace
from then. If he (i.e. the defendant) wishes to postpone this, hemust postpone it within the first fortnight’s <period and move itby another fortnight’s period> forward to the third (i.e. six weeks
from the outset). When disputes concern less than a mark in gold
(i.e. land to that value), then a six-man summons shall be takenout initially for a fortnight. If he (i.e. the defendant) wishes topostpone this, then he is to postpone it before a week is up, andmove it by another week forward to the third (i.e. three weeks
from the outset). But summonses may not be moved by more
without the agreement of both parties.

3

6

9

12

15

18

<32a>
<33> If you buy an ox
If you buy an ox, then try it for three days. Two faults may befound with it (i.e. to warrant its return). One is if it does not pull,
the other if it breaks out.

32/1 <32> B: 48
32/10 now B omits.
32/12–13 <period . . . period> This text must be understood, by comparison
with 32/18. It is missing from both A and B. Cf. SL IV, 282 note 5.
32a/1 <32a> B: 49 See Addition 7. A omits chapter, despite listing it in the tableof contents.
33/1 <33> B: 50 If you buy an ox B: Concerning the purchase of oxen3

46

GUTA LAG<33a> <Concerning the purchase of cows>
3

If you buy a cow, then test her for three milkings. Two faults may
be found with her. One is if she kicks so that she cannot be milked,
the other if she is lacking in milk.
<34> If you buy a horse

3

6

If you buy a horse, then try it for three days and lead it back withthe fault if you find one. Three faults may be found with a horse.
One is if it is moonblind, the second is if it bites, the third if itkicks out with its forefeet. If you have it for longer, then the vendor
is not to take it back, even if faults are found, unless he himself
wishes.
<35> Concerning horses

3

6

9

12

If you take a man’s horse at pasture or elsewhere, without leaveof him who owns it, and ride it or drive it, then you are to
pay three marks to the complainant and another three tothe community, if you are found guilty of being on the horse’s
back, and [must] always return <everything> undamaged. If
you take a man’s horse tied to a fence and do not leave one behind,
you are also to pay three marks to the complainant and anotherthree to the community, unless you have made a mistake andleft another one behind. If you have made a mistake, then you
are to pay eight örtugar and bring it back unharmed before thethird day.

33a/1 A has no heading, despite listing a separate chapter in the table ofcontents. B has the first three words in red, indicating a new section.
33a/2 then B omits.
34/1 <34> B: 51 If you buy a horse B: Concerning the purchase of horses
35/1 <35> B: 52 Concerning horses B: If you ride another man’s horse A has
hesti (‘horse’) in the singular.
35/3 ride it B: ride35/6 <everything> B; A omits.
35/11 back B: back home

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

47<36> Concerning the care of ships
And concerning the care of ships, the law is as follows: merchantships, those that have thirteen ribs in them and three crossbeams,
are to be cared for out on the beach. But a cargo vessel shall befastened through a bollard or rib or through a plank to a house inwhich people are sleeping. There must be a padlock and a key,which the housewife or farmer carries. The chain is to be no
more than three links in length and the fourth shall be an ironcrosspiece. Each link shall weigh two marks or stretch over threeribs. And one is not responsible for the action of the sea. If
someone finds an unattended small vessel out on the shore, thenthe one who has found it is to take possession of it, if the other(i.e. the owner) is not so near that he hears his shout, if he has
shouted three times. A boat is not to be without supervision,otherwise whoever wishes may take it. If someone takes a man’sboat, which is at the landing-place, and takes it out, then he is to
pay a fine as if he had ridden another man’s horse.

3

6

9

12

15

<37> Concerning house searches
If men come to a man’s farm and ask to search the house, thenno one can forbid the search. If he wishes to have his neighbours
present, then they (i.e. the searchers) must wait for them, if they
do not wish to do him an injustice. Each is to nominate a man to
go inside. They are to go in loosely girded and coatless to performthe search. If someone denies another a search, then his door is
not protected, and he receives no recompense (i.e. if someone
forces their way in), even if no stolen goods are found inside. If
something is found inside of that which they have a suspicion
about, they are to enquire about its acquisition. If he confesses atonce and explains his acquisition, the warrant for ownership mustbe traced (i.e. to the assignor) and his acquisition tested. If hegets full corroboration from the person to whom he first referred
36/1 <36> B: 53
37/1 <37> B: 54
37/3 no one B: no one else

3

6

9

12

48
15

18

21

24

27

GUTA LAG(i.e. as assignor), then he is innocent in the case. If he acquired
the goods from another and did not know that they were acquired<illicitly> then, if the one to whom he has traced the goods (i.e.
the assignor) takes responsibility, he himself is then free of
suspicion. If the other denies it, then he has to take evidence fromthose who were there (i.e. at the purchase or receipt). This evidence
will condemn him (i.e. the assignor) if he cannot lawfully defend
himself. If someone carries stolen goods to a man’s farm andhouse, which has a lock, and means in that way to betray him,
then he is to forfeit everything that he carried in. And then he is to
pay wergild to him, as much as he to whom he took the goods isworth, and in addition three marks to the assembly. But if he did
this to a Gotlandic man, then he is to pay a fine of twelve marks
to the authorities.
<38> Concerning the law of theft

3

6

9

And concerning the law of theft the legislation is this: whoever
steals two öre or less than two öre, is to pay a six-öre fine forpetty larceny. If he steals between two öre and a mark of silver,
he will be taken before the assembly and marked and becommitted to pay wergild (i.e. that of the victim). If he steals
again after he has been marked, even if it be less, then he shall be
hanged. If he steals as much as a mark of silver or more, then heshall also hang.
<39> Concerning insults

3

There are four insults relating to a man: thief, murderer, violentrobber and murdering arsonist. And of a woman there are five:thief, murderer, adultery, witchcraft and murdering arsonist. When
37/17 <illicitly> B; A omits.
37/22 B has the first word of the sentence in red, indicating a new section.
37/26 But if B; A reading ambiguous here.
38/1 <38> B: 55 Both A and B have thieves for theft.
38/8–9 B omits the final sentence. See Addition 8.
39/1 <39> B: 56

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

49

someone is subjected to such insults, then he is to travel to thefarm of the one who has spoken the insult and lawfully summon
him to the church and request that he take back the words, whichwere spoken in the heat of the moment, in a quarrel, or in
drunkenness. If he denies it, he is to swear with three men before
parishioners that he never said those words. If he cannot
substantiate the oath, then he is to pay a fine of three öre andrestore the man’s honour with a three-man oath in church. If a
man abuses another with such insults before the whole parish orat the assembly or at a summons and does not get their veracity
proved, then he is to pay a fine to the other of three marks andrestore his honour with a six-man oath at the assembly. This (i.e.
this type of case) shall be prosecuted at the lawful time in respectof women as well as men.

6

9

12

15

18

<40> Concerning small <unbranded> livestock
If an unbranded small farm animal comes to someone, then he is
to take it to church and to one assembly. If it is not recognised,
then he is to let it be valued and take an assembly fee in respectof it and the parishioners shall divide what is over.

3<41> Concerning swine
If swine larger than piglets come to someone, branded or
unbranded, he is to take them to two assemblies and the thirdtime to the riding assembly, and receive an örtug for each assembly.
If they are not recognised, then the parishioners shall value them<and he (i.e. the finder) is to take an assembly fee from thatsum,> and the <parishioners> divide what is over.

39/13 such B omits.
40/1 <40> B: 57 <unbranded> B; A omits.
41/1 <41> B: 58
41/4 each B omits.
41/6–7 <and he . . . that sum> B; A omits.
41/7 <parishioners> B; A omits.

3

6

50

GUTA LAG<42> Concerning tame sheep
3

6

If tame sheep come to someone, he is to take them to two
assemblies and the third time to the riding assembly and declarethem for three years and claim a fee such as has previously been
the custom for the riding. But any offspring shall go to the one
who has fed them.
<43> Concerning uncastrated unshorn rams

3

If an unshorn uncastrated ram comes to someone, he is to take anörtug in redemption fine (i.e. from the owner). If it is not identified,then he is to take a fee as for other sheep.
<44> Concerning uncastrated shorn rams

3

6

9

If a shorn uncastrated ram gets loose after the feast of St
Simon and St Jude (i.e. 28th October), up to the time that it
is usual to release them, then it has rendered itself forfeit
by wandering. But one shall nevertheless offer it back to
the one who released it with his parishioners as witness. If
he does not wish to redeem it, then the one who captured it
can have it, and put his brand on it, with his own parishioners as
witness.
<45> Concerning nanny- and billy-goats

3<One> must declare billy-goats and nanny-goats for two years,
then they shall be redeemed: a nanny for six pence for each
assembly and a billy for an örtug.
42/1 <42> B: 59
43/1 <43> B: 60 unshorn B omits.
43/3 fine B: fee
43/4 fee B; A: fine44/1 <44> B: 61 uncastrated B omits.
44/2 shorn B omits.
45/1 <45> B: 62
45/2 <One> B; A omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

51<45a> <Concerning cattle and horses>
Cattle and horses must be declared at two assemblies andthe third time at a riding assembly for three years. If not identified
at the first assembly, they must be valued and then declared,
and the finder is to have two örtugar for each assembly. Those
cattle or horses that can be worked may be, with the knowledgeof the parishioners. But one is not to travel to Visby withthem, but ride with them to the assembly, or lead them, andremove their saddle and tie them up, with all the animals thatare to be declared, so far away that one can see the assemblysite poles.

3

6

9

<46> Concerning over-branding
Whoever puts a brand <on> another’s creature without havingbought it or received it as dowry and is found guilty, he is to be
fined three marks.

3<47> Concerning fields
If several men own a field between them and some wish to let itlie fallow and some to sow it, the ones who own more of it havethe say and are to declare, before the feast of the Annunciation,
which they would prefer to do, allow it to lie fallow or sow it. If
the tenants exchange farms, the one who moves away receives
six pence for each bushel-land, of those fields that he may not
sow, from the one who comes in. And at haymaking time they
are to make room, each for the other, space for as many hayloads as the farmland is worth in marks.
45a/1 B has a new chapter here: 63 Concerning cattle and draught horses A has
no heading, despite listing the chapter in the table of contents.
45a/7–8 with them B omits.
45a/10–11 so far away . . . poles B: so far from the assembly-site poles that one
may see46/1 <46> B: 64 over-branding B; A: brands
46/2 <on> B; A omits.
47/1 <47> B: 65

3

6

9

52

GUTA LAG<48> Concerning turnip fields
3

6Every farmer who has arable land is to leave a bushel-land forturnips every year. But those who have no arable land, but have ahouse, must have half a bushel-land for turnips, and the one who
owns the land is to put it to the yoke. Everyone who does notadhere to this is liable to a fine <of> three öre to the parish. And
every parish, which does not enforce this, is liable to a fine ofthree marks when it comes before the assembly.
<49> Concerning shipwrecks

3

6

If a man finds jetsam on land, then he is to retain every eighth
penny of the find. If he finds flotsam at sea and it needs boat andoars (i.e. to salvage it), or he finds it on the seabed and it needs
boat hook and grapnel, then he retains a third of his find. If hefinds it out of sight of land, then he retains a half of what he has
found.
<50> Concerning fire3

6

If the misfortune occurs that injury results from a fire, which islaid in the hearth or in the kitchen, and [which] flies to anotherfarm and does damage, the fine is three marks, if the damage is
up to three marks. If several farms are damaged, then they mustall be satisfied with those three marks.
<51> Concerning carried fire3

When injury results from carried fire, then the one who carried
the fire is to pay half his own wergild. When this results from theactions of a minor, then the one who sent him is to pay.
48/1 <48> B: 66
48/5 land B: field
48/6 <of> B; A omits.
49/1 <49> B: 67
50/1 <50> B: 68
50/3 in the kitchen B: the kitchen
51/1 <51> B: 69

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

53<52> Concerning road repair
It is also agreed that roads shall be made good every year in allparishes. Every parish which does not make good its roads is to
pay a fine of three marks to the assembly.

3<53> Concerning tax
It is also agreed, if one must collect taxes for the requirements ofthe province, then they should be collected according to the value
in marks, both of property and money and not of manufactured
valuables.

3<54> Concerning the watch
Everyone who is twenty years old [or over] shall sit watch and heshall provide himself with a weapon, and answer for all expenses,
and pay the watch-money in Easter Week.

3<55> Concerning houses and household servants
Anyone who raises a house without the permission of the parish
is liable <to> a fine of three marks to the parish and is to pull it
down the same year. Anyone who takes in household members,
without the permission of the parish, is liable to a fine of three öre.

3<56> Concerning harvesters
Each harvester who is in the pay of the farmer, and who goesaway from the farm on a working day without the permission of
his employer, is to pay back an örtug for each day of his hire andcomplete the day’s work (i.e. for the missing day).

52/1 <52> B: 70 road repair B: roads
53/1 <53> B: 71
54/1 <54> B: 72
55/1 <55> B: 73
55/3 <to> B; A omits.
56/1 <56> B: 74

3

54

GUTA LAG<56a> <Concerning those who have no arable land>
36Each person who has no arable land in the parish has no excuse
for not harvesting seed for the farmer. And they are to receive six
pence for each bushel-land of corn and five pence for rye andoats, and they are to feed themselves. And the farmer instructs
them with the right of law. Each one who refuses (i.e. to work) is
liable to a fine of three öre.
<57> Concerning squirrels

3

Anyone who catches a squirrel before the feast of St Simon and
St Jude and after the feast of the Annunciation is to pay a fine ofthree marks. And no one is to catch a squirrel within an enclosure
without the owner’s leave.
<58> Concerning hares3

No one is to catch hares with a gin after the feast of the
Annunciation or before the feast of St Simon and St Jude without
risking a fine of three marks.
<59> Concerning tree-fruit

3

6This is also agreed: that all tree-fruit shall be protected until
the feast of the birthday of the Blessed Virgin Mary (i.e. 8thSeptember). Whoever infringes this is to pay three öre to theparishioners. Of this the one <who> brings the action takes half.
If a minor infringes this, the fine is less by a half.

56a/1 <56a> B has a new chapter here: 75 Concerning those who haveno arable land A has no heading, despite listing the chapter in the table of contents.
56a/4 five A: five five
57/1 <57> B: 76
58/1 <58> B: 77
59/1 <59> B: 78
59/5 <who> B; A omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

55<60> Concerning failure to say mass
It is also an ancient law that for every failure to say mass on a
Sunday or other holy day, the priest is liable to a fine of threemarks to the rural dean, and another three marks to the parish. If
the failure to say mass be on a Friday or on a feast day on whichnine lessons should be read or held, then the priest is liable to[pay] twelve öre to the dean and another twelve to the parish.

3

6<61> Concerning gambling
Gambling is prohibited. Whoever gambles is liable to a fine ofthree öre to the parish. If the parish does not wish to prosecute,then the parish is liable to a fine of three marks to the assembly.
It is also agreed that this is the law, which is written here. All
men should abide by this. If some occurrence should take place,which is not to be found here, then it must be decided by the
majority of judges, and <they> are to swear that these are properlaws of the Gotlanders, and then they are to be written down
here.

3

6

9

<62> Here is what was most recently adopted concerningbald patches
If the bald patch is more than the flat of the hand will cover, thenthe liability is a mark of silver. If every hair is gone, then theliability is two marks of silver.
60/1 <60> B: 79
60/5 be B: should be on a A: and B: other
61/1 <61> B: 80
61/4 B inserts more here. See Addition 9.
61/5–10 The final sentences in this chapter constitute the end of B. They follow
Chapter 83 in B. The words Teth ier oc sempt sik: At (‘It is also agreed that’) are in
red, with an enlarged initial T, indicating a new section.
61/7 here, then B: herein
61/8 <they> Supplied by GU, 30. Both A and B omit.
62/1 This chapter occurs only in A. It appears to be a later addition. The content
appears in Chapter 20 of B. See Addition 5.

3

56

GUTA LAG<63> Concerning woodland
Whoever cuts wood in another man’s woodland, within an
3 enclosure or without, and travels there, is liable to [pay] threemarks in coin and is to make full restitution. Whoever pulls down
another’s fence to pass through it, is liable to [pay] three marks in
6 coin. Whoever passes illegally over another’s property, is liable
to [pay] three öre. If someone tears an opening in another’s fence,
he is liable to [pay] the same.
Concerning all land held in pledge: it is to be redeemed or taken
9
in payment (i.e. of the debt) in the same expiry period, or bepledged again then. Whoever misappropriates land valued at three
1 2 marks rent, without coercion, has forfeited his neck and his wife
her place in church and she must stand at the back, in the belfry.
To in-laws and wagon-riders no more than three toasts are to be
1 5 drunk, and no vessel larger than a half bowl at the most is to be
used. And whoever abuses this, is liable to a double fine and twelve
marks to the authorities.
<65> Concerning women’s rights
3

6

Concerning the rights of women it is also agreed that they shouldtake cattle up to five pairs, draught horses and sheep as many asthey brought to the farm (i.e. at their wedding). All gilding isabolished except on buckles. Gilded copper shall be melted down
where it is found. Golden headdresses and satin ribbons, other
63/1 <63> B: 82 This chapter appears to be a later addition in A.
63/5 to pass B: in order to pass
63/9 Concerning all land held in pledge B has these words in red, indicating a
new section.
63/14 In B the closing words (61/5–10) follow here, together with details of
Bilefeld’s copy.
63/14–17 To in-laws . . . authorities. B does not have these two sentences at thispoint. See Addition 6. This provision belongs in the chapter Concerning weddings;
cf. the note to 24/21.
63/17 A has the chapter <24f, 64> Concerning travellers’ pathways here.
65/1 <65> B: 35 See the note to 24b/1. Concerning the two last paragraphs, seefollowing footnotes. This chapter appears to be a later addition in A.
65/4 All B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

57

than plaited laces, are all abolished. Old gilded vessels and belts
are permissible, such as there are, but not to add to them (i.e. one
is not to add to them by purchasing more). The dowry shall be
two marks in gold, and no more: no more may be given and no
more requested. Wall coverings of blue cloth are abolished andwedding canopies, and nothing may be given between farms
except in white linen. Fine woollen cloth is also abolished. No
one may buy fine woollen cloth, neither new nor old, and no one
may at the time of the marriage exchange it between farms.
Silver bands and underskirt decorations are also abolished.
Buying on credit from town-dwellers is also forbidden. No one
is to buy more than he can afford to pay for. Whoever infringes
any of this is liable to a fine of twelve marks to the authorities.

9

12

15

18

ADDITIONS
1. (B: Note to 5/6. Cf. Pipping 1901, 9–11; CIG, 104: Additamenta 1, 2.)
And then, furthermore, all the subsequent generations, both female
and male, are always treated as Gotlandic families, unless hemarries beneath him and so debases his birth (i.e. by marrying aslave); and his rights are also the same as farmers or the childrenof farmers. If the lay son of a priest commits a crime or commits
manslaughter, he must defend the claim for compensation himself
while he lives, whether he is at home or abroad.
If a man commits a crime, whether ordained or not, no one
shall be fined more than his (i.e. the wrongdoer’s) resources cancover. If he (i.e. the wrongdoer) dies and an ordained man inherits
the claim for compensation (i.e. wergild) after him, he is to offer
65/7 vessels and B omits.
65/12 and B omits.
65/13 also B: entirely
65/14 neither new nor old B omits.
65/15 may at . . . the marriage B omits.
65/15 B adds but keep it at the [original] farm See also Addition 6.
65/16 B omits this sentence.
65/17–19 B rewords these three sentences. See Addition 9.
Addition 1/5 son of a priest B: priest who
Addition 1/8–10 If . . . cover This sentence also appears in A Ch. 5/7–9.

3

6

9

58
12

15

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

39

42

45

GUTA LAG

compensation immediately, since no priest may negotiatecompensation in a case, and the other may accept this at once
without shame, if he wishes, since it is not right for him to kill an
ordained man, or to bear him ill-will. If he does not wish to accept
compensation, he (i.e. the priest) must take the claim to the general
assembly, where the other may accept it if he wishes; otherwise
all the people decide on the compensation, but he (i.e. the priest)
shall then be free of guilt. If he (i.e. the plaintiff) should takerevenge when it (i.e. compensation) has been offered, he is to pay
the full wergild, and forty marks to the general assembly.
If two brothers inherit a claim for compensation, the one ordained
and the other not, and the ordained brother wants to pay
compensation and the other does not, then the ordained brother is
to leave his personal share with a surety man, whom the general
assembly shall nominate, and then be protected, and the other,
who did not wish to pay compensation, shall defend the claim. If
wergild is offered, then each is to pay his personal share.
If an ordained man, who may not take revenge, inherits a claimfor (i.e. to receive) compensation, he must accept compensation
immediately, when it is offered. If he does not want to accept
compensation, but prefers to take revenge, then the other (i.e. thedefendant) must take it before all the people at the general
assembly. There he (i.e. the priest) can still accept it if he wishes,otherwise they (i.e. the assembly members) shall be responsible
for the payment, and the man (i.e. the accused) shall be guiltless.
If he does not want to offer the ordained man compensation, thenthe latter is to go before all the people at the general assembly
and there plead his case, saying, ‘I am a priest, and ordained tothe service of God; I may not take part in blows or battle; I willtake compensation if it is offered, but I will not be put to shame.’
Then the people of the general assembly shall study it (i.e. thecase), and compel the man to offer him compensation, just as he(i.e. the priest) would be forced to pay compensation to others,
since a priest can neither demand compensation, nor answer a
Addition 1/45 neither B: at what time, which makes little sense.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

59

demand for compensation, without Christianity falling into
disrepute.
2. (B: Note to 17/26–27. Cf. Pipping 1901, 23; CIG, 107:
Additamentum 3.)
In respect of cattle and draught horses and swine, a man shall not
be liable for more than the animal is worth, if it causes injury tosomeone. If it is an unruly animal and someone (i.e. the owner)
has been informed of this in front of the church door and before
the parishioners, and it then does (i.e. damage) throughcarelessness, then the fine is twice as much as the case is worth.
If the damage is less than the creature is worth, then the fine ishalf as much. Dogs are the fourth creatures (i.e. carrying aliability): one is always answerable for it for everything, if it does
damage, up to half a wergild, whoever owns it. For a dog’s bite,
one is to pay a fine for each tooth-mark up to four, two öre each.
If it causes a wound or maiming, then the fine is half the maximum
fine. One must demand the fine and not take revenge; lay a legal
claim to it like other debts.

3

6

9

12

3. (B: Note to 19/62–66. Cf. Pipping 1901, 27; CIG, 39 note 50.)
Cutting off or splitting a smaller bone in the hand or foot is finedat two marks in coin. Each rib is to be fined at two marks in coin,
if it is broken. If disability ensues, the fine is two marks of silver.
As many blows as are visible are each fined at half a mark in
coin.

3

4. (B: Note to 19/80–86. Cf. Pipping 1901, 28; CIG, 41 note 63.)
But if an ear is damaged, then the fine is a mark of silver. A
shinbone or a forearm is fined at two marks of silver if it is broken.
If you strike the teeth out of a man’s head then you are fined for
Addition 2/1 The first letter of Naut (‘cattle’) is in red, possibly indicating a new
section, although earlier in the manuscript the initial letters of some paragraphs
are indiscriminately in red.

3

60

GUTA LAG

the two upper and lower front teeth at a mark of silver. And theneach is fined at two marks in coin, including molars and all.
5. (B: Note to 19/105–08. Cf. Pipping 1901, 28; CIG, 43 note 79.)
20 Concerning bald patches
3

If the bald patch is more than the flat of the hand can cover, thefine is one mark of silver. If every hair is gone the fine is twomarks of silver. If a man’s scalp is cut, the fine is one mark ofsilver. A man’s beard incurs fines as for other hair pulling.
6. (B: Notes to 24/20, 63/14–17 and 65/15. Cf. Pipping 1901, 40;
CIG, 60 note 41.)3

To in-laws and wagon-riders no more than three toasts are to be
drunk, and none of them larger than half a bowl goes into at themost. And whoever abuses this, is to pay a double fine and twelve
marks to the authorities.
7. (B: Note to 32a/1. Cf. Pipping 1901, 51–52; CIG, 108:
Additamentum 4.)
49 Concerning the purchase of slaves

3

6

9

If you buy someone’s slave on your farm, then test him for six
days and on the seventh pay his purchase price or lead him back if
he does not satisfy you. If the one who sold him will not take him
back, but wants to hold you to the agreement that you should havehim and <not> lead him back, whether he satisfy you less or more,
and if you have a counter-claim that you were permitted to leadhim back within a period of grace, if he did not satisfy you, thenyou, who lead him back and follow the law, have the right toAddition 5 The majority of these statutes occur in 62/3–5.
Addition 6 This statute occurs in A at the end of Chapter 63.
Addition 6/1 The first letter of Magum (‘To in-laws’) is in red, indicating a new
section.
Addition 7/1 A lists this chapter in the table of contents after Concerning amoney claim but omits it in the text.
Addition 7/6 <not> Supplied by CIG, 108. B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

61

substantiate your accusation. If you have the man longer, andwant to lead him back later, after the period of grace has expired,and you say that you have made this agreement, then he who
made the legal sale has the right to substantiate his case: you
must pay him, and keep what you bought. But the vendor must
subsequently answer for three faults: epilepsy, and bed-wetting,for which he is responsible for a waxing and waning, and if his(i.e. the slave’s) leg hurts, for which he is responsible for a year;
and then for an ownership claim for all time. If he (i.e. the slave)is claimed while in your possession, you are to call to the vendor
and lead him (i.e. the slave) to him; he is then to defend your rightto the man, or give you back as much as you previously paid forhim. If there is a dispute between you, he (i.e. the vendor) sayingthat he made the sale under conditions, you saying that you boughtwith a firm purchase, then he who buys with a firm purchase, andfollows the law, has the right to substantiate his case.

12

15

18

21

24

8. (B: Note to 38/8–9. Cf. Pipping 1901, 55–57; CIG, 109:
Additamentum 5.)
If a man’s slave steals an öre or less, then each owner is to pay afine for him of three öre, if the owner of the stolen goods discovers
the goods himself. If the stolen goods are worth more than an öre,then he is in each case to get his property back, and in addition afine three times as much as the value of the goods. If several
slaves steal one öre, then each master is to pay a threefold finefor his slave, if he does not discover the goods himself. If not all
the stolen goods remain, then the one who has lost the goods must
testify how much there was, but still only when house or lockwas broken into. If it was not taken from somewhere locked, andneither bar nor bolt is broken, then he (i.e. the injured party) is totake the slave and torture him, and not pay any compensation. He(i.e. the accuser) is to bring him back to his master whole in bone
and breathing and not pay any money for him, even if he gets noadmission from him. If there is no material evidence, but simply
Addition 8/1 The first three words in red, indicating a new section

3

6

9

12

15

62

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

39

42

45

GUTA LAG

suspicion, then a deposit must be put down before the slave istortured. He is to bring him back uninjured and pay a fine of six
öre for the wristbands <if he does not confess. If he confesses,
and there is no material evidence, then he (i.e. the accuser) is still
to pay a fine for the wristbands of> six öre. In need someone
forced says things [that] he has not done. If someone goes withevidence to a farm, and charges the man’s (i.e. farmer’s) slavewith theft, then the master shall permit a house search and shallhimself bind the slave, and not stand in the way; then he is notliable to the triple fine. If the man does not wish to bind his slave
himself, or permit a house search, and the stolen goods arenevertheless found in the house, then he is to pay a triple fine tothe owner of the stolen goods <that> he has now discovered. If
the goods are so valuable that he cannot afford to pay a triple fine,then the one who owns the stolen goods shall take the slave. He(i.e. the owner) cannot forfeit through theft more than his (i.e. theslave’s) whole worth. If someone else, and not the one who owns
the goods, discovers the stolen goods, and takes the thief and binds
him, he is to have a reward, an eighth of the value, both of thethief and the fine. If the slave is on the run, and has beenproclaimed at the church, or at the assembly, then he is a fugitive.
And no one is to pay a triple fine for anyone who steals food forthemselves, but each shall have their own back, if it remains. If it
has been eaten, then no one is to make amends for the fugitive. If
a slave is recaptured, [someone must] redeem him again for twoöre, if he is on land (i.e. Gotland), and for three öre if he has got
to a boat, and for half a mark if he has come out of the sight ofland. The one who owns the ship is to redeem the slave, unless it
was lawfully secured. If he has seized anything, then the slave’s
owner is to return the things he has taken. If the ship was lawfully
secured, or locked up, then the one owning the slave redeems theship, and similarly all the things that he seized, but not more than
Addition 8/18–20 wristbands <if he . . . wristbands of> Something is missing here. Cf. CIG, 110 note 24. The text in brackets is suggested by Wessén, SL
IV, 284 note 10.
Addition 8/28 <that> Supplied by GU, 38. B omits.

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

63

to the sum of three marks. If he flees in a ship, which was notprotected, or drowns in the sea, so that the owner of the slave
loses him, then the one who owns the ship is to pay for the slave.
If a man is bound in the absence of material evidence, thenthree magistrates are to investigate, and hear his statement,
whether he is guilty or innocent. These three magistrates shouldcome from the same hundred, or the same sixth (i.e. as he does).
They shall witness what they hear, <whether> he is guilty or
innocent. And the same thing applies if there is material evidence.

48

51

54

9. (B: Notes to 61/4 and 65/17–19. Cf. Pipping 1901, 64; CIG,
112: Additamentum 6.)
81 Concerning purchase on credit from town-dwellers
Purchase on credit from town-dwellers is also forbidden. No one
is to buy more than he can afford to pay for. All property taken inpledge should have a period of grace of three years for debts
more than a mark of silver (i.e. to be paid). One is not to give thevalue in money, if the other does not wish, but in land, and he isstill to have a period of grace of three years.

Addition 8/55 <whether> Supplied by CIG, 112 note 29. B omits.
Addition 9/2 The start of this chapter occurs in A, 65/17–19.

3

6

64

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSNOTESThe chapter numbers in this commentary are those used for the textof B 64 in the present translation. They correspond largely to thoseused by Wessén in SL IV and earlier editors. Chapter breaks occurring only in the B-text are recorded in footnotes in the translation.
The Gutnish chapter titles in the A-text are given, in angled brackets
if the chapters are only distinguished in the table of contents. Notethat ‘Gutnish’ (abbreviated to Gtn) is used throughout of the medieval language of Gotland whereas ‘Gotlandic dialect’ is used of themodern dialect(s), as recorded by the brothers Säve, Herbert Gustavson
and others.
Table of contents
The table of contents in B 64 originally lacked numbering, althoughnumbers have been inserted by a later hand, beginning with ‘Concerning children’ (Af barnum) as Chapter 1. Schlyter (CIG, ii and 3
note 2) considers these numbers to be from the fifteenth century, but
it seems more likely, as Pipping (GLGS, 1 note 1) suggests, that they
are in Bilefeld’s hand, as are other notes and numbers in the same
manuscript. Jacobsen (GGD, 21 note 1) suggests that the table ofcontents is older than the edition of GL represented by the A-text.
She reasons that (1) more chapters are listed and they are more logically arranged; (2) the chapter concerning the purchase of slaves islisted; (3) the chapter concerning paths is in its original place and(4) the three later chapters and Guta saga are not listed.
The numbers have, to a greater extent, been erased from B 64 anda numbering system starting with the opening chapter has been adopted
by most editors, though they all differ in minor respects. The chapter numbers adopted for this translation are shown in angled brackets
in both the table of contents and the text.
The body of the text of B 64 lacks contemporary chapter numbers,
but a sixteenth-century hand, probably Bilefeld’s, has inserted themin the margin. The headings in the table of contents not represented
by separate chapters in the text are indicated by suffixed letters in
the numbering system. These headings are shown in the translationin angled brackets. The chapter ‘Concerning travellers’ pathways’(Af farvegum manz), which appears out of sequence in the text withrespect to the table of contents, has been put in its proper place inthis translation. Chapters in B 64 regarded as later additions and notlisted in the table of contents have been given chapter numbers

NOTES

65

continuing the sequence established and titles shown in angled brackets
in the table of contents.
The table of contents in AM 54 4to appears at the end of themanuscript and is numbered. These numbers match those in the bodyof the text, apart from the first three chapters. Even where the content corresponds between the A- and B-texts, chapter divisions are
not always the same. These differences and the chapter numbers (andadditional chapter headings) in the B-text are recorded in footnotes.
Page 1, last line. In B 64 chapter <24f> has been omitted either by
the scribe or the writer of his original and appears following thelater chapter ‘Concerning woodland’ (Um skoga). In AM 54 4to,this chapter appears in its proper place and this placing has been
followed in the present translation.
Page 3/11 and footnote. The heading of the table of contents in AM
54 4to is in Danish and probably does not represent a headingfrom Bilefeld’s original.
Page 3/13, 14. This incorrect duplicate numbering is present in AM
54 4to.
Chapter 1: Hier byrias lag guta ok segia so at fyrstum
1/3. The expression ‘first beginning’ (fyrst upphaf) appears to betautological.
1/3–4. An account of the acceptance of Christianity and the influence of St Olaf is to be found in Peel (GS xxxvi–xlvi, 8–10).
1/5. The phrase ‘good harvests and peace’ (ar ok friþr) was a standard expression, which originated in the worship of Nj†rðr and Freyr.
It combined concepts of material and spiritual well-being and similarphrases are found in GulL 1 (NGL 1, 1) and in SdmL Mb 36 (cf.
Wessén 1924, 178–81).
1/7. The word land has a number of different senses, but here ‘province’ seems to be a reasonable translation. It is clearly Gotland as
an administrative area that is referred to and it offers proof that thewriter was a resident, writing for islanders. ModSwe land in thesense ‘country, realm’ is rendered by riki.
Chapter 2: Af barnum
2/2–3. A child was considered to be a possession of his father, who
thus had the right to dispose of it, and exposure of children (especially females) seems to have been common practice from the earliest

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

times. Lis Jacobsen suggests, however, that child exposure wasregarded as shameful in Scandinavian countries even before theadvent of Christianity (see GGD, 23–24 note 4). Banning the practice was one of the first changes in the law after the introduction of
Christianity, but GL is the only Swedish-related provincial law tomention it explicitly. Jacobsen (GGD, 23 note 1) does not thinkthat one can infer from the inclusion of this provision that parts of
GL originated as early as the conversion. She considers that thesecustoms took a considerable time to suppress and that an explicit
prohibition could have been equally relevant in the thirteenth century. In DL Kkb 6 there is an implicit assumption that deformed
children might be disposed of and this is also reflected in some
Norwegian laws (cf. BorgL I 3 (NGL 1, 339)). Swedish provincial
laws that incorporate provisions specifically forbidding infanticide are ÖgL Kkb 26 and DL Kkb 12.
2/4. Beckman (1920, 13) suggests that ‘bed’ (seng) should be changed
to ‘coming to bed, confinement’ (sengfar), and cites EidsL I §§1, 3(NGL 1, 375): Sina sæng for skal huær kona uita ‘Each woman
shall know [the time of] her coming to bed’ and Um sengfor kono‘Concerning the coming to bed of women’. He interprets this as
referring to the date of confinement and a need to make preparations, and suggests that the passage in GL was an inaccurateborrowing from Norwegian law. This certainly makes more sensethan Schlyter’s interpretation (CIG, 8 note b) that a woman should‘know her own bed’, with the implication that she should givebirth there and not elsewhere, in secret. Beckman refers to tyGL tosupport his proposal, but admits that it appears that the amendment there was made by the translator, while the original Gutnish
text he was following had seng only. Jacobsen and Wessén havefollowed Schlyter in their notes. Both interpretations have attractions, but Schlyter’s seems to match the context of the following
provisions more closely.
2/5. The exact function of a griþkuna ‘midwife’ is not unambiguous;
she was possibly a slave or a house servant, responsible for spinning hemp and washing (cf. Note to 2/34). In Norwegian laws agriðkona is a free woman without her own home, who has right ofresidence in another’s home (presumably in return for work done)
and sometimes designates a witness, in company with a griðmaðr,a man of similar status (cf. GulL 255 (NGL 1, 83–84); BjarkR 132(NGL 1, 327–28)). In respect of the context in GL, one can compare

NOTES

67

BorgL I 3 (NGL 1, 340): Griðkonor oc grankonor skulu vera uið
sengfor huerrar kono til barn er foðt ‘Free women and female
neighbours shall be present at the confinement of every woman
until the child is born’. In the Danish and German translations ofGL, words corresponding to midwife (iordemoder and hebemuterrespectively) are used (see SL IV, 245 note 3). Axel Kock (1918,
361–63) suggests that the person referred to should be a freeborn
woman living on the premises, as opposed to a neighbour (grankuna)
living nearby, but outside the family. The translators of GL would
probably not have known the word (which occurs nowhere else in
East Norse). Kock conjectures that griþkuna acquired the sense‘midwife’ by association with a Gtn verb graiþa ‘provide help
during childbirth’. In FrostL II 10 (NGL 1, 134) the term grið isused, amongst other things, of the peace and security enjoyed during certain times of the year. Jacobsen (GGD, 24 note 2) states thatgrið is found in OldDan, but not griðkone.
The grankuna was a female neighbour. In BorgL I 3 and III 1(NGL 1, 340, 363–64) there are provisions similar to those in GL
relating to childbirth and the necessity for witnesses that a childwas safely suckling before they left. Neighbours as witnesses ofeach other’s veracity were frequently important in the legal process.
The two female witnesses together were both expert witnesses
and witnesses as to fact. They had to be present at the birth and be
knowledgeable in the matter of childbirth so that their evidence
was reliable if anything went wrong with the delivery. Females were
often specifically excluded from bearing witness, so this instance,
which is the only one recorded in Swedish-related provincial laws,
indicates a possible relationship between GL and the laws of Norway.
2/8. The expression at þi san et (B-text ath thy san at) used here wasa common Scandinavian expression meaning ‘found [unquestionably] guilty of’. On the change of sense of sannr from ‘truth’ to‘guilt’ in this context, see Jacobsen (GGD, 24 note 4 and references). ModSwe retains the meaning ‘truth’ in sanning.
2/9. A fine of three marks in coin seems to have been usual forchurch law transgressions. Elsewhere in GL the word penningr isused to classify a mark as ‘in coin’ rather than by weight, usually ofsilver. If no qualification is given, as here, a mark in coin is usually intended, an exception being at 17/3. A mark of silver seems tohave been equivalent to four marks in coin. This assumption is basedon the fines for loss of and damage to an ear respectively (19/80–81).

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

The former is valued at one mark of silver and the latter at twomarks in coin. The inference is that the latter was worth half of theformer, since in most cases partial damage carries a compensation of
one half of total loss (cf. GGD, 25 note 1; Wennström 1940, 239,
259–60, 287; SL IV, 245 note 4, 254 note 2 to Chapter 12). On theother hand a coining from Gotland in 1211 gave a norm of 4½
marks in coin to one mark of silver and King Hans of Denmark in his
statute of 1492 suggests that there were 2 2/3 marks in coin to a markof silver (cf. Hauberg 1891, 9–10; CIG, 227). A mark in coin waspresumably originally a silver coin with a weight of one mark, but
a gradual debasement of the coinage occurred during and after theViking period. The oldest evidence of difference between a marksilfr and a mark penningar is in ÄVgL Md 1 §3 where the phrase
hete þrer ok æru tuar ‘called three but is two’ gives a relationship of
1:1½. The monetary system of GL is summarised in Appendix C.
2/10 The verb skripta used here carries the senses both of confessing
and of submitting to punishment meted out by the church. It isrelated to English ‘shrive’, but that verb also refers to a priest’sfunction as confessor and in giving of penance and absolution.
2/13. Jacobsen (GGD, 26 note 4) assumes that the assembly members(þingsmenn) referred to here are those of the local assembly, that
is, all the mature men in the hunderi. This was the next level ofjurisdiction above the parish, but the reference at 2/17 would suggestthat the riding assembly was intended in both instances, and thatthe case passed directly there from the parish. See Note to 2/17.
2/13–14. The word skir, here meaning ‘found innocent’, is found as
an element in Swedish skärtorsdag ‘Maundy Thursday’. On thisday, according to early Catholic rite, sinners who had undergone acourse of penance during Lent were granted remission of their sins.
2/15. An oath of rehabilitation (symdaraiþr) was sworn by a groupof people who had insulted another’s honour by accusing them ofa crime. The concept occurs again in Chapter 39/12. An analysisof the various types of oath sworn, and witnesses required, appears
as Appendix E.
Jacobsen (GGD, 26 note 7) points out that the six men (or women)swearing the oath were not witnesses as to fact, but character witnesses as to the trustworthiness of the one of their number who was
the principal in the case (see Notes to 3/36–38, 16/23–26, 19/6–8).
In this instance the principal was the one who had accused a womanof infanticide and who was now retracting and apologising.

NOTES69

2/16. A sokn ‘parish’ was an area within which inhabitants had theright and duty to attend church services and receive ministrations
from the priest. Parishioners were on their part obliged to pay tithes
and other dues to the church and priest. Not all of Gotland’s ninetyseven parishes had their own priest, and how many churches werebuilt on private initiative is unknown. Chapter 3/22–24 mentions
church building for the convenience of the lay people, and one
can assume that there was at least some private input. Although
the term soknaþing or the equivalent is not used in provincial laws,
the concept is at least as old as those laws. It appears, however,that Gotland was the only province in which parishioners had judicial
duties. Here the parish was able to pass judgements in a number ofcases, including infanticide (Chapter 2), personal attack (Chapters
6, 8), fruit picking (Chapter 59), gambling (Chapter 61), unlawful
house building or employment (Chapter 55). Road maintenance(Chapter 52) and oaths in respect of cases of dishonour (Chapter39) were also parish matters. See Introduction, pp. xi, xxv, xxx.
Wessén (SL IV, 246 note 9) points out that the three-mark fine isa repetition of that recorded in 2/9, and suggests that it was divided
between priest, church and parishioners.
2/16–17. The precise implication of the phrase en sokn vindr sykt ‘if
the parish can demand it’ does not appear to have been consideredby other editors. Since the main clause is a repetition, it probablyrefers back to the situation in which ‘no one has a right to compensation’, that is when the woman had confessed. In that case theparish (and presumably everyone else) lost their right to demand afine. Three marks was also the maximum payable to the sixth
assembly (31/10–11). See Introduction, p. xxx.
2/17. These assembly members must be the same as those referred to
at 2/13, unless there is some text missing from all surviving manuscripts. Wessén (SL IV, 246 note 10) assumes that the riding assemblyis referred to here, since the rural dean or archdeacon (Latinpræpositus), of whom there was one for each riding, is also mentioned. The riding assembly received three marks and the deananother three, presumably in addition to the three that went to theparish. Similar additional fines, if a case were referred to a higher
authority, are laid down in Chapters 4 and 7.
2/18–19. The fine for infanticide went to the rural dean rather than
to the bishop, as did the excommunication fine for killing in achurch (8/26–27) and that paid by a priest for failure in his duties

70

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS(60/3–4, 7). Bishops are only mentioned in GL in relation to churchconsecration and the designation of church feasts, althoughexcommunication for killing on a feast day is referred to indirectly
as a case for the bishop (biskup sak) (9/5). This suggests that ruraldeans performed at least some of the bishop’s duties in Gotland forpractical reasons.
2/20 The phrase allir lyþir used here is one of several used for (members of) the general assembly (Gutnal þing). Another phrase, landar
allir, is used in the following clause, allir menn occurs in thefollowing chapter (3/6) and elsewhere, whereas in Chapter 31/12
the phrase used is land alt. Twelve marks was the maximum, andusual, fine to the general assembly (see Chapter 31). Normally it
seems to have been the severity of a case that determined whether
it was heard first by the parish, the local (hunderi), the riding(þriþiung) or the general assemblies, but in this instance there seems
to have been an escalating appeals procedure.
2/21. Allocation of fines to the countrymen (landar allir) of thewrongdoer as compensation for the inconvenience caused by bringing
a case is mentioned on a number of occasions in GL and also in
mainland provincial laws and in the national law (cf. ÖgL Db 1, 2;ÄVgL Md 5; MELL Tjb 4). In these latter fines were allocated tothe crown, whereas in semi-independent Gotland the money waspresumably used by the community.
The most frequent meaning of fæ ‘money’ in Scandinavian laws
was ‘property in general’ and this seems to be the case in the lawsof Iceland and Norway, the early Danish laws, ÄVgL and GL (seeRuthström 2002, 73–75). Jacobsen (GGD, 27 note 3) observes thatthe word, although used of money and other property, was neverused specifically of livestock in GL, although it seems to havebeen on occasion in Danish and Norwegian laws. Ruthström (185–87), however, argues that the accepted etymology of fæ as derivingfrom a word for sheep is incorrect and that it derives from one
meaning ‘money’ or ‘property’. There are a number of instances in
GL where fe is used unambiguously to refer to ‘property in general’, such as in the laws of inheritance (e.g. 28/58–59), and anumber where it must be assumed that liquid assets are intended(as in this instance and elsewhere where fines and ransom are specified in terms of marks or other currency). There is also one instancein which there is an explicit distinction between fe as a designation for liquid assets and aign as a designation of ‘real estate’ inNOTES

71

relation to disputes about property (32/2–6). See Ruthström (2002,
65–70, 85–90 and 240).
2/22–23. Although a woman who could not pay the fine imposed
was forced into exile, and could not be fed or harboured, it does
not seem that she was to be treated as an outlaw. There is, forinstance, no mention of her being at risk of being killed (cf.
Hasselberg 1953, 253).
2/23–25. As Wessén (SL IV, 246 note 13) points out, it is clear
neither how an accused woman could defend herself against a chargeof infanticide, nor how the charge was to be proved. In some cases,
an oath would possibly not have been sufficient.
2/26–30. The accusers had presumably to put down a deposit, equivalent to the compensation due to a woman wrongly accused, before
they could pursue their case, unless the woman concerned had nowitnesses. If they did not wish to do this, they had to declare her
innocent. Much stress is put on this: it is repeated three times indifferent wording.
2/34. An ambatn (OWN ambátt) was a female slave who did indoor
work on a farm, varying from driving the mill to washing andspinning hemp (cf. Note to 2/5). Despite their low status, there isevidence that they were given time off after childbirth (ÄVgLGb 6 §3).
2/35 and footnote. All but two instances of oyrir in GL refer to coin,either explicitly as here, or by implication. It was, however, a measurement of weight going back to the early Iron Age, the OWN equivalent
being eyrir, plural aurar, related to Latin aureus. The standard
weight given for an öre was 26.8 grams, very close to the Romanounce (Latin uncia) of 27.29 grams and also closely equivalent toan imperial ounce of 28.35 grams (see Jansson 1936, 12). The
equivalence of eight öre to one mark (whether in coin or weight) was
universal in Scandinavia (cf. Notes to 53/3–5, Addition 9/5–6).
2/37. The word mali used here means ‘a fixed period of time’. As
Jacobsen (GGD, 28 note 6) remarks, the fact that slavery was not
for life indicates that the system was in the process of dissolving
at the time GL was written down (cf. SL IV, 260–61 note 11). The
arrangement seems to have been unique to Gotland, as opposed to
the rest of Scandinavia (cf. Nevéus 1974, 65–67). The relationshipbetween levels of fine paid by the slave master and the number ofextra years added to the slave’s term suggest that slavery, in atleast some cases, was a means for a defaulter to pay off a debt.

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS
Chapter 3: Af tiunt

The date when tithes were first introduced to mainland Sweden is
unknown, but it seems probable that the tithe in Gotland was organised
independently, possibly at an early stage, since the rules there weredifferent. Exhortations to pay tithes issued in the bulls of 1171–72
indicate that tithe payment was not at that date fully established in
Sweden, but tithes were certainly being paid in Gotland by 1217
(Introduction, pp. x–xi). Jacobsen (GGD, 29 note 1) refers to this chapter
as ‘af forholdsvis sen Oprindelse’ (of relatively late origin), and suggeststhat it could significantly postdate the introduction of tithes themselves.
3/2. The word tiþir meaning ‘religious services’ echoes the Latinhoræ canonicæ ‘canonical hours’. The monastic services were Matins,
Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers and Compline; the nonmonastic services differed slightly in detail, and were said privatelyby the parish priest; the laity only attended mass. A priest’s obligation to say holy office is mentioned in several provincial laws,e.g. ÖgL Kkb 5, which records his duty to sing ottu sanger ‘matinsand lauds’, mass, aptunsanger ‘vespers’ and all tiþir.
3/4. The word bol meant originally simply ‘a property on which
someone lived’. It later came to mean a farm of a certain size, valued attwenty-four marks of silver and taxed at twenty-four örtugar (cf. GGD,
29 note 3; Notes to 20/91 and 28/35–39; Introduction, p. xxxi).
3/5–6. The two main sacraments represented by the phrase arla eþasiþla ‘early or late’ were Holy Communion and Extreme Unction.
3/9. In Götaland, Skåne and Gotland (barley) sheaves were assembled into conical stooks (röker or raukr), one of a number of methodsof stacking the harvest, perhaps after preliminary drying on racks(cf. DL Bb 22 §1). The number of sheaves in each stook varied;figures of thirty-two and forty are recorded, but in the beginningof the last century a rauk, in certain parts of Gotland at least,
consisted of thirty sheaves. Every tenth stook was to be paid intithe, counted while it was still standing, but threshed before it
was delivered. This was done during winter and the time limit set
by the Feast of the Annunciation (25th March) was thus a reasonable one since by then all the grain should have been processed(cf. SL IV, 246–47 note 4). The loft above the west porch in Gardechurch is fitted for use as a tithe barn and the large towers characteristic of many churches in Gotland and Öland were also used forthis purpose. For example, in Etelhem church, a hoist mechanism

NOTES73

in an opening in the west face of the tower, enabled grain to beraised to the first floor. In Alskog and Lye churches there are partitions, clearly medieval in origin, on the first floor of the tower,
designed for grain storage. The fixing and payment of farm rents
by Lady Day is clearly a remnant of this practice. Jacobsen (GGD,
29 note 6) suggests that the method of reckoning the tithe recorded
here, which continued in Denmark until tenancy reforms, was very
unfavourable to the farmer, but does not explain why she thinksthat this is the case.
3/11–14. A lesser punishment, called interdictum locale, involving
exclusion from church sacraments, except baptism and extreme
unction, seems to have been more frequently applied than fullexcommunication. From the context, this punishment was clearly
temporary and was discharged after appropriate payments were made(cf. Note to 8/17–19).
3/16–18. Wessén (SL IV, 247 note 6) observes here that it is fines(rather than tithes) that are referred to in the threefold division.
3/18. A tenant (laigulenningr) was someone who rented land. The
sense is the same as landboi ‘someone living on or using another’sland on payment of a lease’. Wessén (SL IV 247 note 7) considers
that the word is derived from the combination leigu-land ‘land
put out to lease’ (cf. also Wessén 1932, 83–88). It is perhaps significant that the concept of legal moving days (fardagar), when atenancy expired, does not occur in GL.
3/19–20 and footnote. According to Jacobsen (GGD, 30 note 2) and
Wessén (SL IV, 247 note 8) one mark of the fine went to each of
the priest, church and parishioners.
3/22–39. From the content of this paragraph it seems that the building of private chapels, equivalent to Old Norwegian hœgindiskirkjur,
was not wholly extinguished in Gotland, although it is not mentioned in Swedish provincial laws. The principle was that churches
should be independent and self-supporting. Where new churches
were built, ‘for greater convenience’, they seem to have been funded
initially by a group of farmers and adopted in the sense that tithes
were paid to them; they still had to be consecrated by the bishop.
Only those who contributed to the building of a church could
transfer their tithe duty to this new church and parish. As Wessén
notes, there does not seem to have been an obligation on builders
to apply first to the bishop (or the king) for permission, as was thecase on the Swedish mainland (cf. UL Kkb 1 §1; YVgL Kkb 2; ÖgL

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Kkb 1–2). This is less surprising in view of the fact that the bishop
was not readily available for such consultation and also that hewas not party to the division of tithes. It could also be that by thetime the law was written, parish boundaries were finalised (cf. SL I,
ÖgL, 21 note 1, 34 note 4; SL IV, 247 note 13 and references).
3/30. The disagreements referred to would have been between theparishioner and the priest in his original parish who was claiming
tithe payments.
3/36–38. The witness borne by parishioners in the case was witness
as to fact and that borne by the priest was almost in the category ofexpert witness. Witness as to the truthfulness of a plaintiff ordefendant, but not as to fact was more frequent and there was also
official witness to an act, for reference in the future (cf. Notes to
2/15, 16/23–26, 19/6–8).
3/42–43. As well as the barley (corn) tithe, there was a tithe of hay
and hops. No mention is made of a tithe of livestock. It is worth notingthat rye is not specifically mentioned in this context. Hops were used
for flavouring ale and were the subject of tithes in other provincial
laws (cf. UL Kkb 7 §5).
Chapter 4: Af blotan
4/2. The reference to sacrifice (blot) is unspecific, but seems to be anallusion to animal sacrifice followed by a pagan feast (4/7). Thereis no mention of human sacrifice in GL, although it is described in
Guta saga (see GS, xxxii–xxxiii, 4/18–19 and notes).
4/2–5. Wessén (SL IV, 248–49 note 2) remarks on the rhythm andalliteration in the opening clauses of this chapter. Cf. also a similar passage in Guta saga (GLGS, 63 lines 20–23).
4/4. Legends and customs involving a haugr ‘howe, cairn’ occur
frequently in Old Norse literature. The practices referred to here
can be compared to those in the first chapter of the U redaction of
Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, which may refer to the public worshipof heathen gods (cf. Heiðreks saga, 66–67).
The context in which vi is used, as one of five objects of theverb haita ‘call upon’, suggests that it might mean something more
concrete and specific than simply a ‘holy place’, but no assumptions can be made from any archaeological finds (cf. Olsen 1965,
77–78, 84, 278–82). A summary of the theories surrounding therelationship between vi and the town name Visby is to be found in
Peel (GS xlii–xliii, 43–45).

NOTES

75

Prohibition of sacrifice, witchcraft and other heathen practices islaid down in UL Kkb 1, in GulL 29 (NGL 1, 18) and in GulKrR 3(NGL 2, 307–08). It is forbidden in EidsL I §24 (NGL 1, 383) tohave a stafr ‘pillar’ in one’s house and another version of that law
occurs in GulL supp. (NGL 2, 495–96), referring to a skaldstong, apole raised as a totem. Kock (1912, 205–06 note) records that
Lithuanian and Latvian have similar words to stafr meaning ‘pillar’ or ‘image’. Sacrifice to a raised stone is described in Kristnisaga,
Chapter 2. Whilst there are several instances of a stafr being forbidden by post-Christian laws, with the assumption that these were
objects of worship, whether or not they were actually engravedwith heathen images, the stafgarþr seems to have been a uniquely
Gotlandic phenomenon. A full study of stafgarþr has been madeby Olsson (1976; 1992) and a short résumé of his conclusions
appears in GS, 28–29 note to 4/18.
4/8. The Gtn expression here, sakr at, means more precisely ‘liable
to a fine of’. Jacobsen (GGD, 32 note 3) observes that sak is generally used in provincial laws to mean ‘fine’, rather than ‘legalcase’ (cf. its use in ModSwe) for which the word used is mal. Cf.
also 9/5, ‘fine to the bishop’.
4/13–14. Cases such as this, in which a defendant’s provision ofoaths was alone sufficient defence against a charge, still occurred
when it was more usual to have an independent edgärdsman, someone
who swore an oath as to the truthfulness of one of the parties (cf.
SdmL Mb 5 §1; UL Mb 25 §1; VmL Mb 21 §1; Note to 13/54).
Chapter 5: Af prestum ok prestkunum, ok þaira barnum
5/1 and footnote. The reference to the wives and children of priests,
and its implications for the dating of GL, are touched upon in the
Introduction, p. xxxix. The omission of the majority of the relevant provisions from the A-text (although they are referred to in
the chapter title and in the opening paragraph) suggests a date forthe original of this manuscript later than for the original of the Btext. It could indicate (GGD, 32–33 note 4) that such children
were not regarded as legitimate by the time that the former was
written. Wessén (SL IV, 249 note 1) observes that tyGL and daGL
follow the A-text.
5/4. Wessén (SL IV, 207, 249 note 2) initially translates at allum
lutum ‘in all respects’ as ‘i alla delar’ (in all parts), but then explains
this as referring to ‘andra våldsgärningar’ (other violent acts). It

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

seems unnecessary to narrow the scope of the equality with farmers’ families by limiting the sense in this way. A similar provisionoccurs in ÄVgL Md 5 §5.
5/7–9. The provision preventing fines being paid on behalf of another beyond what could be afforded, which occurs in both the
A-text and the B-text, seems to be out of context. Its content may
be compared to that of the provision in the edsöreslag (cf. Introduction, p. xxxviii; Note to 12/9–10): that no one was to be finedfor the crime of another (cf. ÖgL Eb 9; Note to 29/3–4). Wessén(SL IV, 249 note 9) links this with the provision at Addition 1/27–28,
that when compensation was offered, everyone was to pay his or
her personal share. The B-text omits the phrase firi annan ‘on behalfof another’, which supports Wessén’s suggestion.
5/9. The word kustr ‘resources’ is used in GL for both movable andimmovable (24d/6) property. Whilst it was a term that, in the timeof the provincial laws, was in the process of being replaced in
Danish and mainland Swedish by eghn and cognates, the reverse
seems to have occurred in Gotland. Ruthström (2002, 97–98, 173–74)
explains this by pointing to the relative timings of links to the Seeof Linköping (and the Archbishop of Lund) and to Uppsala andthe Swedish crown. Svealand retained koster longer than Götalandand Denmark. Having imported eghn/aign from the latter two areas
during the conversion, Gotland then appears to have imported kosteror kustr during the process of political integration. Alternatively,
the two words might simply have been borrowed independently as
functional terms.
Chapter 6: Af helgum dagum
6/3. Wessén (SL IV, 250 note 1) draws attention to the fact that theagreement of the population was to some extent sought in setting
feast days.
6/5. The clause ‘attend holy office, or hear God’s service’ (tiþir at
hafa eþa guz þianistu at lyþa) is another instance of parallelism,
which occurs quite frequently in GL (cf. SL IV, 250 note 2).
6/8. Schlyter (CIG, 287) and Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok) interpret punzþungi ‘weight of a pound’ here as a lispund, but Jacobsen (GGD,
36 note 3) suggests that no such assumption can be made. The
lispund was a Baltic unit of weight, the Livonian pound. (Livoniaextended roughly over modern Latvia and Estonia.) Although its
actual weight varied from time to time and region to region, aNOTES

77

lispund was usually between 6 and 9.5 kg, as opposed to a skålpundof 0.4154 kg (cf. Jansson 1936, 17–18, 23–24). This is a relatively
moderate weight to be drawn by two oxen, even on a Sunday, andSchlyter queries whether twenty of these units are intended. A
skeppund, used for cargoes, was equal to 24 (later 20) lispund andthere were twelve of these to a (ship) load (see Jansson 1936, 23,36). The pund was also a unit of capacity rather than weight, equivalent to 8 spann of 72 litres (12 spann in northern Sweden where
the latter was smaller) and thus 16 laupr (cf. Jansson 1936, 17–18,
26–28; Note to 20/47–48). There were again twelve of these pundto a load, and it is possible that the weight of goods of that capacity was intended, although this seems less likely. DS II, 54–55, no.
970 (9/8/1288) refers to a gotenense pondus, which might indicate that a special pund was prevalent in Gotland. The lispund isrecorded as a Scottish unit of weight, which was adopted in Orkney and Shetland for grain, malt and butter, varying from 12 to 30
pounds (5.44 to 13.60 kg) (cf. SND s. v. lispund).
6/8–9. The word oykr was apparently originally an adjective meaning ‘capable of being hitched to’, later developing into the noun
for a pair (yoke) of oxen (see Bugge 1877–78, 274–75). Cf. Notes
to 26/45 and 48/5.
6/10–11. It seems that the miscreant had to pay six öre to redeem
his confiscated load and a further six for his crime, although as
Wessén (SL IV, 250 notes 3 and 4) points out there is a certain
ambiguity. See 6/27–30 and 6/30–33 for similar penalties.
6/11. Provisions relating to Sabbath-breaking (helgisbrut) varied considerably between the Scandinavian provincial laws. In Norwegianlaw, twenty-one feast days were subject to a six-öre fine if broken.
In YVgL Kkb 52 the feast days especially mentioned number about
twenty-four in all, in addition to all Sundays. The fine for breaking
these was eight örtugar unless one presented a defence with a twelveman oath. Exceptions were that one could transport hay and grain
after the middle of the afternoon. ÖgL Kkb 22 has slightly different provisions, and more circumstantial descriptions of the times
when holy periods started and ended. The penalty for striking
anyone during these times was three marks (to the bishop) or again
a defence with a twelve-man oath. ÖgL Kkb 23 records specificdays that were subject to exceptional fines of forty marks, for instanceif one struck or killed someone on the way to particular feasts. UL
Kkb 16 (VmL Kkb 24) gives various exceptions. In addition fishing

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was allowed on feast days that did not fall on Sundays (in thefishing season), and spring and autumn work could be done after
mass on such days when appropriate (UL Kkb 14 §9). SdmL Kkb 17
allowed work up to sundown on the afternoon of the eve of certain
feast days during sowing and harvest seasons (otherwise the fine
was three öre), but working on a feast day itself incurred a fine ofthree marks. All these fines fell to the bishop. GL seems to represent a more liberal (and possibly older) situation in which laymen
had a right to suggest which days were to be included, and wereallowed more latitude in what could be done. Cf. GulL 10, 15–18(NGL 1, 7–8, 9–11), where there are similar dispensations.
6/18 and footnote. Jacobsen (GGD, 36 note 4) and Schlyter (CIG,
270) translate kaupung as ‘by’ (town) rather than ‘handelsplads’(marketplace), but this interpretation is rejected by Wessén (SL IV,
251 note 6 to Chapter 6), following Björkander (1898, 36 note 1).
The word kaupungr for ‘marketplace’ is older than in the sense‘town’ (UL Mb 8 pr). The only town in Gotland was Visby, butthere were certainly more marketplaces, some possibly having atemporary existence. Under Magnus Ladulås, trade became concentrated in the town, although remote areas were permitted greater
freedom. Conflict between the inhabitants of Visby and the farmers of rural Gotland, which culminated in 1288 with the buildingof Visby town wall, was possibly occasioned by this freedom (cf.
Introduction, pp. xii–xiii). In GL kaupung more closely relates to amarked, a local market for produce and barter. Cf. Note to 13/16.
The B-text has a parallelism here: ‘travel or ride’.
6/18–20. The goods that one was permitted to take to market on a
Sunday were those that were perishable, or which had been prepared in some way.
6/18. The torg was the area where the market was actually held, the‘market square’.
6/21. Barley (korn) was the most common bread grain and was also
used for malting. Gotland must sometimes have been short of grainbecause in 1276 Magnus Ladulås (PRF I, 1) gave Gotlanders theright to import grain from Sweden except in years when there wasa general export ban.
Chapter 7: Af munka aigum
7/2. The provision here is one of a number relating to cutting timber(cf. 25/26–37; 26/38–46; 26/55–61; 63/2–4).

NOTES79

7/4–5. Concerning the clause ‘he is to be excommunicated’ (liggr
hanum viþr bann), Jacobsen (GGD, 38 note 1) points out that liggiaviþr originally referred only to fines and meant ’to be subject to (afine)’. Here the sense has been extended to excommunication as apunishment in respect of stealing or damaging monastery property.
7/5. Excommunication (bann) was not a punishment laid down in
the earliest provincial laws, although it was later applied alongside other punishments. Fines to the bishop were the more common
punishment for breaking church law. Elsewhere in GL the wordbann is used only where the interdictum locale appears to beintended (cf. Note to 8/17–19).
7/5. The Gtn halfu mairi meant literally ‘half more’, but the actual
sense was ‘twice as much’, the ‘half’ referring to the relation of theinitial amount to the final amount (cf. Addition 2/6).
7/9. Delay in paying the fine did not result in an additional penalty.
See 3/21 in relation to tithes.
7/11. The strong noun aign is the one most commonly used in the
A-text, although not in the B-text, for ‘property in the form of
land’. The weak feminine aiga is used occasionally, whereas land
and iorþ do not occur with this meaning. Ruthström (2002, 77, 96,
97–98) provides evidence that aign was in the process of being
replaced by kustr in the sense of possessions in general, as
opposed to land (cf. Note to 5/9).
7/13–17. Wessén (SL IV, 251 note 7 to Chapter 7) examines thesignificance of the inheritance arrangements following the deathof a man who has entered a monastery in adult years. If he divided
his property with his sons, taking one per capita portion for himself, it is possible that on his death the whole of that could havebeen inherited by the monastery. This would seem to imply that a
man with one son could give a half, and one with two sons one
third of his property to the religious house. Wessén considers theformer, at least, unlikely and that in that case the limit of one third
still applied. Jacobsen, however, translates þa valdi hafuþlut sinumas ‘da raade de over deres Lod’ (then they had control over theirpersonal share), referring to the children. This gives no hint as tothe division of the personal share of their father.
7/14. Wessén (SL IV, 250 note 21) defines hafuþlutr as ‘så stor delav ett arv, som uppkom, om det delades i lika delar efter huvuden(per capita)’ (as large a part of an inheritance as would be obtained
if it were divided equally per capita). The same word is used in

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Chapters 4 (B-text only), 20 and 28, all in relation to inheritance(cf. Iuul 1941, 103, 106; Note to 20/40–41).
7/16 and footnote. Jacobsen (GGD, 38) incorrectly gives ‘en Tredjedel’ (a third) for tiunda lut ‘tenth part’, obviously influenced by
the previous paragraph. Wessén notes that Pope Gregory IX in a
letter dated 23/1/1230 (DS I, 258, no. 257) confirmed a previouslyprescribed limit on donations to a religious house of one tenth ofone’s liquid assets. UL Kkb 14 and SdmL Kkb 11 have similar
limits, but ÖgL Kkb 24, ÄVgL Äb 9, YVgL Äb 13 and SkL 38 (CISk
I 37) differ (cf. SL IV, 252 note 8 to Chapter 7 and references).
Note that the A-text here, and here only, clarifies the property referred
to by specifying iorþaign ‘property in land’ (see Ruthström 2002,
97). The B-text does not specify ‘land’.
Chapter 8: Af mannhelg
8/2. The concept of mannhelg ‘personal rights’ is closely linked
with that of friþr ‘peace and security’. The origins of the laws on‘peace’ or ‘truce’ are not absolutely clear. It is possible that they
developed from the periods during cult festivals when no one took
up arms (cf. Tacitus 1914, 51) and were later connected with markets and trade. They might, on the other hand, have originated in
the twelfth century under the influence of Pope Hadrian IV (Nicholas
Breakspear). The word mannhelg occurs almost exclusively in law
texts. It referred to the ‘human rights’ (a translation suggested inconversation by Helle Degnbol at Copenhagen University) of free
men and women (but not slaves) under law. That is, the protection
a citizen had for the personal rights of life, liberty and honour,particularly during periods when there was an enhanced respect
for these rights (cf. Grønbech 1955, 2: 104–08). Mainland provincial laws have similar provisions (cf. UL Kkb 17 pr, 22 §1; SdmLKkb 18 pr). Temporary loss of these rights, short of full outlawry,
could result from certain infringements (cf. FrostL IV 7 (NGL 1,
159–60); MLLL IV 11 (NGL 2, 56–58)).
8/3–4. As Jacobsen (GGD, 38 note 7) points out, holy days lasted for
two nights and a day. Reckoning such days from sunset on the eveof the feast seems to have its origin in Jewish practice, when the
Sabbath started at sunset on Friday. It was customary, in any event,
to count days from one evening to the next.
8/5–6. The ‘seven weeks in Lent’ include Holy Week, the week
immediately preceding Easter. The Gtn paskavika must therefore

NOTES81

be Easter week, the week following Easter Sunday. The word‘påskvecka’ in ModSwe means Holy Week, and this is the translation that Wessén (SL IV, 210) uses. Pipping (GLGS) does not translate
the whole word. Schlyter (CIG, 287), on the other hand, translates
it as hebdomas paschalis v. festum paschae proxime antecedens(the week after (literally the seventh day of) Easter, or immediately
before the Easter feast) but simply as ‘veckan näst efter påsk’ inhis (later) concordant glossary (CISG, s. v. Paska vika). He wasclearly not initially sure of the meaning. Söderwall (OSMS II, 200s. v. paskar) cites Old Norse páskavika, which is translated as ‘Easter
Week’ in Cleasby Vigfusson. There remains an ambiguity, however, since in Chapter 9/7–8 aldra manna friþr is said to last fromfourteen nights after Easter for ten days. Is this from fourteen nights
after the end of the Easter peace, or is it from fourteen nights after
Easter Sunday, i.e. seven nights after the end of the Easter peace?
The latter seems to be more likely, but it is not certain.
8/6. Rogation days (gangdagar) were the days on which penitential
processions were held carrying crosses, icons and censors aroundthe community, and prayers were said. The three principal Rogation
days were the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday following thefifth Sunday after Easter, that is the days leading up to Ascension
Day. These were called síðari gangdagar in OWN, as opposed togangdagher litli or fyrri, the feast of St Mark on 25th April (cf.
GulL 18 (NGL 1, 10)).
8/7. Although Schlyter (CIG, 264) thinks that helgudagavika ‘Whitsun
week’ in the text is an error for pingizdaga vika, Wimmer (1887b,
63–64 note 3) points out that it was a specific Gotlandic dialect
word for Whitsun, which also appears, albeit in a corrupt form,in the runic calendars (Lithberg and Wessén 1939, 15 note 20).
Thomsen (1870, 135) draws parallels with Finnish-Lappish heluntai
f. ‘Pentecost’, Swedish-Lappish helutagh, noting that hela f. was a
pre-Christian Finnish festival.
8/8. The three-mark fine, and subsequent ones in this chapter, wereclearly additional to the normal wergild or other compensation
payable.
8/12. The proviso that the action was done in anger (i raiþi) rather
than accidentally seems to have applied only to cases in which no
weapon was involved.
8/12–14. The limit here on the compensation for injuring a slave
contrasts with the provision in GulL 215 (NGL 1, 73) where a slave

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is to have board and lodging while wounded, be given leech treatment, and his master is to have compensation for loss of labour.
See also 19/137–141, where in certain cases a slave is paid halfcompensation and in other cases his compensation is limited.
8/14–15. The provision stated here is a general one and the reason
for it becomes clear when one reads that the parishioners, churchand priest of the injured party all shared the fines paid (cf. Note to
8/21–23).
8/17–19. The bann ‘excommunication’ referred to here is most probably an interdictum locale, as defined at 3/11–14. The provisions
also seem to allow certain latitude and to permit the excommunication to be revoked as soon as the fine outstanding was paid tothe satisfaction of the parishioners. This appears to be anotherexample of the relative independence of the parish priest in Gotland,since a fine was paid to him for the ban, rather than to the bishop(cf. SL IV, 252 notes 8 and 9 to Chapter 8). It is not clear if‘excommunication always follows Sabbath-breaking’ (e fylgir bannhelgisbruti) refers only to violence during periods of church feasts
recorded in this chapter, or if it also covers other forms of Sabbathbreaking listed in Chapter 6.
8/21–23. Division of fines in this threefold way was unique to Gotland.
Wessén (SL IV, 252 note 10) refers to further examples in Chapters
3 and 4.
8/25–26. There are five occasions on which a fine of forty marks incoin is referred to in GL, apart from as wergild for a non-Gotlander. In
three cases (1–3 below) the fine was payable to the general assembly(presumably in addition to the applicable wergild) and in theremaining two to the complainants: (1) for killing in a church asrecorded here; (2) for killing a fugitive in sanctuary (8/31–32); (3) for
killing a priest who had already offered compensation (Addition
1/19–21); (4) for discovered adultery with a married woman (21/9–10); (5) for forcing an unmarried girl into marriage without her
parent or guardian’s consent (21/12–15). There are two opposing
theories relating to the origin of the forty-mark fine: Wennström(1931, 86–88; 1940, 294–300) and Schwerin (1941, 484) suggest that
it was a later introduction, which came into being as a result of
devaluation and the increased severity of fines, whereas Hjärne (1929,
102 note 4; 1947, 17, 18–21) and Hafström (1949, 190) contend
that it was an old Swedish fine connected with the levy (ledung,
Gtn laiþingr). In defence of the latter theory it can be mentioned

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83

that this level of fine occurs in Article 1 of the old Russian law
Pravda Russkaia (MRL, 26), which, it has been suggested, wassubject to early Swedish influence. In any event, the forty-marksystem eventually replaced the three-mark system in Swedish law(cf. ÖgL Db 1; UL Mb 9 §2; VStL I 9 pr, §1). Hasselberg (1953,
217–18) also considers the forty-mark system to be foreign to theGotlandic system of justice (cf. Björling 1893, 113; Note to 11/6).
Wessén (SL IV, 253 note 11) agrees that in the case of GL this level offine was almost certainly imported from the Swedish mainland,
where it was the standard wergild. In a similar situation in thefollowing chapter (9/9–11) the extra fine to be paid to the assembly
was the wergild value of the man killed. The question then arises
whether these provisions have been inserted (or revised) at a later datethan the first written edition of GL. The fact that one reference (3)occurs in a passage found only in the B-text (with its presumed
earlier origin) would seem to argue against this supposition, inthat particular case at least, although the B-text as it is preserved
may itself have been subject to later influences. What links all
instances of the forty-mark fine is the fact that an alternative punishment was explicitly, in case (4), or might originally have been,
death, bearing in mind the severity of the crime and the element of
betrayal involved (cf. Note to 21/9–12). A gradual move from capital
punishment and revenge killing could have been accompanied by
the importation of levels of fine from the mainland.
8/26–27. For the most serious crime in a church, killing, the ruraldean rather than the priest received the excommunication fine.
8/28–30. Wessén (SL IV, 253 notes 12 and 14) considers the first
sentence of this paragraph to belong to the preceding paragraph,
but this does not seem to be a necessary amendment. The opening
sentence seems simply to be an introduction to what immediately
follows (an excursus relating to the killing of sanctuary seekers insanctuary churches). The three churchyards are those of the parish
churches of Fardhem (Farþaim), Tingstäde (Þingsteþi) and Atlingbo(Atlingabo), referred to in Chapter 13.
8/31. The OldSwe kirkiugarþer denoted both the area immediately
surrounding the church and the fence that enclosed it. The area
was used both for burials and as a place for preaching, marriages,
meetings and trials.
The rectory land or glebe (prestgarþr) was the holding fromwhich a priest fed himself (and his family). In some Swedish

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provincial laws the extent of it is defined in detail. In GL it was
included within the compass of the sanctuary provided at the threesanctuary churches, in addition to the churchyard. The dimensionsof several rectory grounds in Gotland have been preserved in parish records; some had an imposing entrance arch. Although garþr
was originally a word for an enclosing fence, then the area enclosed (as here and at 13/8), it came to include all the buildings
within a farm’s fence. Both residential and working buildings lay
within the enclosure. These might have included buildings for several
families, but in Gotland and mainland provinces, farms were isolated and not situated in villages.
8/32 and footnote. The A-text reading given by Pipping is fangin‘captured’, but as the word has been almost obliterated other readings are possible. Schlyter (CIG, 21 note 43) gives vengin. The
B-text reads vegin ‘killed’, which Jacobsen (GGD, 40 note 2) points
out must be the original reading, both from the context and fromthe fact that the German and Danish translations both have expressions meaning ‘killed’.
8/32–35. The distribution of fines seems to be a repetition of theearlier provision at 8/21–23, as an introduction to additional punishments for assaults in churches and churchyards (cf. SL IV, 252note 10).
Chapter 9: Af aldra manna friþi
9/8–9. Jacobsen (GGD, 41 note 1) notes that periods of universal
sanctity run from morning to morning in contrast to the sanctity inforce on holy days described in the previous chapter. That they
had no association with the church is clear from the fact that penalties laid down in the previous chapter did not apply. Wessén (SLIV, 253 notes 1 and 2 to Chapter 9) suggests that these two periodsof sanctity might have coincided with general assemblies, although
the wording at 11/10–11 indicates that there was also a separate
assembly sanctity. The timing of the first period, a fortnight after
Easter, would have placed it at or shortly after the time of the newmoon, when small local assemblies might have been held. The
timing of the second period of peace, five days after midsummer,
places it immediately after the final day for sailing on the levy(laiþingr), 29th June (see GS, 59 note to 14/8). Several interpretations might be placed on this timing: (1) that it would have provided
ten days of protection for the families of those taking part in the

NOTES85

levy from opportunists who had not been called up; (2) that if thelevy did not get called out at the end of June, or no favourable
wind came, the provision would offer protection from armed men
who had become frustrated with waiting and might have been looking for trouble; (3) that any killing or assault done while the levy
was out would inconvenience and endanger the province proportionally more than at other times. It seems unlikely, despite Wessén’ssuggestion, that the general assembly would have been timed tocoincide with the departure of the levy fleet. In KrLL Rb 8 it statesthat one of the assembly times must be between Walpurgis Night(30th April) and Midsummer Day.
9/10–11. The word vereldi ‘wergild’ does not occur elsewhere in
Scandinavian legal sources, but it is related to wärold, in HL, with thesame sense. There are equivalents in other West Germanic languages
and the first element of the word is related to OWN verr ‘man’.
The second element is related to OWN giald, OldSwe giäld ‘payment’. Wessén (SL IV, 250 note 20) suggests that both vereldi andwärold were loan words from a West Germanic language. The usual
word in Swedish provincial laws is manböter and cognates, althougharvabot is frequent in ÄVgL, whereas OWN has vígsbœtr. It was ameans by which a wronged family could obtain satisfaction fromwrongdoers without resorting to a blood feud. Swedish provincial laws
demonstrate how the latter was gradually replaced by a systemof compensation. Levels of wergild are defined in Chapters 14 and 15.
9/14–16. The additional provision relating to the destruction of property seems particularly to suggest that protection of the vulnerable
was intended. This would apply both to times when people wereabsent at a local assembly and when their able-bodied men wereaway on the levy.
Chapter 10: Af varfriþi
10/2. The spring peace (varfriþr) might have had Christian origins.
The ‘general sowing time’ in Gotland was St Urban’s day on 25th
May (Lithberg and Wessén 1939, 62), so the springtime sanctity
lasted from 11th May until 8th June. It coincided with the period
during which men might be making ready for the levy, but before
the first departure date (see GS, 59 note to 14/8). Similar arguments apply to those suggested in Note to 9/8–9 concerning its
purpose. Other provincial laws have periods of sanctity in spring:ÖgL Bb 22, UL Rb 14, VmL Rb 24, SdmL Rb 11, HL Rb 14.

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10/5. The Gtn verb virþa appears to have two meanings. One is ‘seizein payment of a debt, claim [something] from [someone]’ and thisis the meaning here, at 10/8, 63/9–10 and Addition 9/5–6. The
other meaning is ‘make a valuation’, as at 30/5, 32/8, 40/4 andin similar contexts. Cf. Notes to 30/4–5, 63/9–11 and Addition
9/5–6.
10/6. The word bondi, meaning both ‘husband’ and ‘farmer’, is the
only one in GL used of a group of free farmers, apart from landboi(cf. Note to 47/6). Bondar owned their land and made up the majority of the population of Gotland outside Visby during the thirteenth
century.
10/7–8. The word gield is commonly used in provincial laws meaning a legal debt or contractual obligation between two parties. The
party who was owed the goods could lay a legal claim (he could
lagryþia), but the debtor also had protection (cf. Amira 1882–95,
I, 32–39).
10/9–10. A distinction is drawn here between stock kept for food(soyþir) and those for draught (ortasoyþir). The latter were notincluded in the property valuation for the purposes of settling adebt, since their confiscation would affect the ability of a farmer torun his business. Both oxen and horses were used for draught in
Gotland.
Chapter 11: Af þingfriþi
11/2. The assembly peace (þingfriþr) was directly related to(heathen) cult and market and was ancient in origin. Assembly
sanctity as described here applied at the place of the assembly andfor its duration. Increased compensation for personal injury during
an assembly is otherwise mentioned in Grágás I §56 (LEI 1, 99)
and the severity of breaking the sanctity is stressed in ÄVgL Urb §1(cf. Almquist 1942, 61–62). A three-mark fine, in addition to theusual compensation, applied to insults offered at the assembly (Chapter 39).
11/6. The legal fines (laga bytr) for an offence were distinct from theadditional fine for breaking the peace. According to Hemmer (1928,
67 and note 1, 74 and note 7, 247–49), GL shows a transitional
stage in which movement from a system of wholly private compensation to one including community fines was starting to take place.
There were still no fines to the crown. Fines were in marks of gold,of silver (1/8 mark of gold) or in coin (1/4 mark of silver). The original

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pattern of fines clearly had a three-mark basis and the occasional
forty-mark fine lay outside the usual system (cf. Note to 8/25–26).
Hasselberg (1953, 217 note 47) dismisses assumptions made by
Wilda (1960, 445–46) and Amira (1882–95, I, 372–73) that community fines were imposed in all cases where the fine was threemarks or more, even if it was not stated explicitly. Delin (1926,
258–59) takes a similar view. German medieval laws seem to haveincluded fines to the community either separately imposed, or as
part of the total fine (see Hasselberg 1953, 218–26).
11/9. The exclusion of revenge killing (hemd) from this provisiondemonstrates that the substitution of compensation for blood
revenge was not complete by this time (cf. Note to Chapter 13; KLs. v. Hämnd).
11/9–11. The final provision implies that certain assemblies were
held during the periods of universal sanctity referred to in Chapter
9. These would possibly have been held after Easter, rather thanafter midsummer (cf. Notes to 9/8–9, 10/2).
Chapter 12: Af haimfriþi
12/2. The concept of home peace (haim(a)friþr) seems to have originated in pre-Christian times and to have been connected with ahomeowner’s ‘high-seat’. An attack on a man in his own home wasdeemed to be a níðingr-crime in Norway, punishable by outlawry
and loss of all property (cf. GulL 178 (NGL 1, 66)). Such crimes
were considered to be particularly shameful and could not be atoned
for by compensation to the victim. An attack in the home wasapparently regarded much less seriously in Gotland and mainland
Sweden.
12/3–5. The householder received additional compensation for an
attack in his home, while the remaining members of the household
had to be content with their normal compensation (12/7–11) (see
GGD, 42 note 6). The total fine payable for an attack on a Gotlandic
man in his own home was ninety-six marks in coin (three marks ofgold), plus twelve marks (to him) plus twelve marks (to the general assembly). This gives a total of 120 marks in coin, which wasthree times the usual Swedish wergild of forty marks. This triple
fine was usual in Swedish provincial laws in such cases (cf. UL Mb
12 §1; SdmL Mb 27 pr; VmL Mb 11 §1). The equivalent for a nonGotlandic free man was forty marks plus twelve marks plus twelve
marks, giving a total of sixty-four marks in coin. Hemmer (1945,

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

235) suggests that community fines payable for injury to the householder were a later addition to the laga bytr (cf. Note to 11/6)
payable to all injured parties. As Wessén (SL IV, 254 note 2 toChapter 12) observes, similar additional fines were payable in casesof double adultery (Chapter 21) and selling land without going
through the required procedures (Chapter 28). See also Björling(1893, 112–13) and Hemmer (1928, 74 and note 6).
12/7. In GL, Schlyter translates mogi ‘community’ as ‘hela (gotländska)
folket’ (all the people (of Gotland)), and it seems always to be
used in a similar context to the general assembly, otherwise called
land (alt) ‘the (whole) province’ or þing firi alla lyþi ‘assembly of
all the people’. Hasselberg (1953, 217 note 48) agrees with Holmbäck (SL IV, xciii note 1), however, that it referred only to membersof the assembly relevant to the context. The translation ‘community’ has been chosen to distinguish this usage. Neither alþing nor
Gutnal þing is used in GL.
12/9–10. The word haimsokn covers only harm caused in a person’shouse or its immediate neighbourhood (in GL and ÄVgL Md 9 thehouse only), the crime thus being a specific form of attack on a
person’s haimfriþr. In the laws of Västergötland, anyone attacked
in his or her own home could, without fear of penalty, kill theattacker in self-defence. The extent to which the original intent of
the perpetrator had to be criminal in this instance is uncertain. In
ÖgL Eb 1 §1–4, 6 there has to be criminal intent for the crime tocome under the edsöreslagstiftning (laws relating to the oath takenby the king to punish certain crimes that threatened the generalorder); if there were no intent, the milder provincial law applied(cf. Introduction, p. xxxviii). Self-defence killing or wounding
applied more widely in ÖgL than in ÄVgL. Haimsokn was originally considered to have been a group crime, but in some provincial
laws it was extended to include an attack by one person.
Chapter 13: Af mandrapi
In the Early Middle Ages drap ‘killing’ was seen not just as a crime
against the person killed, but also as dishonour against the family ofthat person, one that could only be countered by blood revenge.
Immediate right of revenge continued until there was a formal
reconciliation, which formed the basis for attempts to replace personal revenge with a legal process. The concept of drap originatedin circumstances of battle, but later expanded to include all situations

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resulting in the admitted death of another and incorporated special
rules relating to involuntary killing and conspiracy. In GulL 156(NGL 1, 61) and the oldest section of this chapter of GL, only two
possible choices exist for the family of a victim: revenge or compensation. Norwegian provincial laws put a much heavier stress than
Swedish laws on revenge, which could be taken for a considerable
number of crimes (cf. GulL 152, 171 (NGL 1, 60–61, 65); FrostL
prologue 8 (NGL 1, 123)). In GL there is clearly an attempt to steer
the wronged party away from taking revenge and towards a judicial
solution. In this way it differs markedly from SkL 85–121 (CISk I
84–118) (see SL IV, 66–69). A number of scholars, principally Wilda(1960, 495) and Amira (1922, 27, 30), suggest that anyone committing a murder or other crime punishable by death automatically madehimself an outlaw and thus liable to be killed himself. This view has
been disputed by, for instance, Hemmer (1928, 39–45) who sees aclear distinction in later laws between crimes resulting in outlawry,
which could be rescinded, and indefensible crimes (OldSwe orbotæ
mal) for which compensation could not be paid (cf. Wennström 1936,274). The concept of charging a dead man with a crime that rendered the killing justified and thus not subject to compensation(obyttr) does not occur in GL (but see Note to 18/16–22) and was nolonger in force by the time of MELL and MEStL (see Wallén 1958,
246–49). To avoid being accused of hidden murder (morþ), which
was often punishable by death, the killer had to declare the act at
the assembly (cf. UL Mb 19 §3). In GL, however, the term morþingi
is used only in the provision relating to insults, and in ÄVgL theword does not occur at all. See Wessén (SL IV, 254–56 and references)
for a summary; also Hasselberg (1953, 270–74) and Note to 15/3.
13/4. A number of Swedish provincial laws, although not GL, gave
the right to the relatives of a murdered man to charge a number ofpeople in connection with the killing (cf. ÄVgL Md 1 §1, 3 §2 andnotes). It is possible that this arrangement was a means of dividing
responsibility in the same way as the responsibility of paying fines
was shared between family members (cf. YVgL Db 8, where it isrelationship with the killer, rather than presence at the crime, thatis the deciding factor). In GL this law might be reflected in the fact
that, when a man who had committed a killing drew up his security circle (banda), he was to take his nearest available male relatives
with him. From this one could infer that they might be considered
to be at risk of accusation as well.

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13/7. Of the three listed churches, Farþaim ok Þingsteþi ok Atlingabo,Farþaim (now Fardhem) lies in the southern riding, Þingsteþi (nowTingstede) in the northern and Atlingabo in the middle riding.
They were centrally situated in each third and therefore convenient places of asylum. The churches at Atlingabo and Farþaim are
mentioned in Guta saga (GLGS, 66 lines 18–19) as respectively
the second and third parish churches to be built in Gotland. Þingsteþi
is not referred to in this context, either as a place or a parish.
Wessén (SL IV, 256 note 2) thinks that the forty days for which akiller had to take refuge constituted the period of time during whichblood revenge could be taken and that the case was subsequently
subject to legal process. Chapter 16/9–11 has a similar provision
concerning killing by a slave. The concept of a holy place as a
refuge for criminals was at least as old as Graeco-Roman culture
and is mentioned in the Pentateuch (cf. Exodus 21 v. 13; Num. 35
vv. 6–8, 11–15; Deut. 4 vv. 41–43, 19 vv.2–4; Olsen 1965, 64–
65). Mosaic asylum laws applied only to manslaughter (killing‘unawares’ of someone not previously an enemy, as clearly intended
in this context) and not to premeditated killing. Medieval asylum
rights were linked to church law, but their origin might have predated the introduction of Christianity. The resemblance between
provisions in GL and the later VStL might be as a result of a common concept, rather than a direct influence, but GL was certainly
the most advanced of the laws of Götaland (cf. VStL I 36 §2;
Wennström 1946, 188; Hasselberg 1953, 277). While a wrongdoer
was in a prescribed holy place, he was under the protection of thechurch until it was decided whether he was to be handed over forlay justice or be dealt with by the church authorities.
13/7–8. Jacobsen (GGD, 43 note 5) considers ‘safety and sanctuary’(helg ok heli) to be an example of the parallelism common in the
A-text, the phrase as a whole meaning ‘a place of sanctuary’. Since
the B-text, which it has been argued represents an earlier stage,omits the second half of the phrase, this seems a reasonableassumption. On the other hand, the B-text has parallel expressions
not found in the A-text at 6/18, 25/48 and 50 and at 28/70 (cf.
also Notes to 19/33, 21/16–17, 25/48 and 50, 60/6). The wordhelg originally meant ‘that which brought luck’, but the normal
sense of the related Gtn adjective hailigr is ‘sacred, protected’. It
is possible, considering the concept þinghelgi in OWN, that helgi
originally had religious connotations. De Vries (1957, I, §240–42)

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91

notes that heil means ‘whole’ and that heilagr and helgi are related
concepts.
13/9–22. The singular provisions in GL relating to peace circles
may find echoes on the Swedish mainland. There is evidence
from a tenth-century runic inscription that certain places in Östergötland had rights of asylum (cf. Holmbäck 1919, 10–11; Delin
1926, 258–64; Nordén 1931, 346–49; von Friesen 1933, 152–53).
The procedures for drawing up a peace circle and the area that it
could cover are not entirely clear in GL, but the boundary presumably lay equidistant between each of the farms included and thosebordering them, in the uncultivated land between.
13/13. The sense of the expression annanveg skogs in the A-text ismade clearer in the B-text’s annan wegh til schogs ‘on the otherside of the wood’.
13/13–15. The clause ‘if he has permission from those who own theproperty’ (en hann loyfi far af þaim sum aign aigu) refers to thepreceding clause: ‘and draw it around three farms’ (ok dragi umhaimþorp þry). That is, a killer had to obtain permission from farmowners to include their land in his circle at all, rather than just in
respect of its precise limits.
13/16. Jacobsen again translates kaupung as ‘by’ (town), but it seems
likely that ‘marketplace’ was intended (cf. Note to 6/18). The
intention behind the prohibition against including an assembly
site, marketplace or more than one church in a peace circle was to
avoid the possibility of the killer and the family of the victim
meeting. Cf. the provision in SkL 97 (CISk I 96).
13/19–20. The ‘period of peace and security that is next after Easter’(friþr sum nestr ier eptir paskar) is either that referred to in Chapter 8/6 or, more probably, 9/6–7.
13/22. The’ testified safety circle’ (vatubanda) was a provisional
legally witnessed or testified safety circle, later replaced by a morepermanent one drawn up during the general period of peace following Easter. Of the provincial laws, this word occurs only in GL.
Schlyter (CISG, 695) thinks that vatu- must be the genitive of
vatn f. ‘water’, since this form appears in other combinations, but
he does not suggest what its meaning might be here. Wessén (SLIV, 256–57 note 9) agrees with Kock (1918, 364–68) in finding
this derivation unlikely. Kock suggests a relationship with Norwegian våtta ‘take notice of; suffice’, giving vatubanda as ‘a circleof safety that one took notice of’, or which ‘sufficed for the time

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being’. Wessén thinks that a more likely root is a Gtn vatta or vataf. with a meaning related to OldSwe vat, vatt f. ‘the twelve mencollectively swearing an oath; the oath itself’ or vatter, vætti m.
‘one of the twelve witness; the witness statement itself’. Cf. vattum
minum and vattum sinum in ÄVgL Md 1 §2, 3 pr; Gb 7 and YVgLKkb 3; Tjb 1. The vatubanda was therefore a ‘witnessed safety
circle’ since the provisional circle would presumably have been
confirmed by witnesses, pending the declaration at an assembly of
an official peace circle, although this is not specifically stated.
Amira (1913, 238) draws parallels between GL’s vatubanda and
Icelandic fj†rbaugsgarðr ‘lesser outlawry’, and there are certain
similarities between the provisions. In the case of the latter, a miscreant had three years in which to arrange a passage abroad from
Iceland, during which time he was confined to an area that offereda limited protection, provided he abided by certain rules (cf. Grágás
I §§51–53 (LEI 1, 92–95)). In GL, however, a killer was not truly
outlawed while he was in the peace circle, but was given three
years in which to offer compensation and close the case. Only if herefused, or left the peace circle, was he outlawed.
13/23–24. The word atmeli ‘period of a year’ does not occur elsewhere in the provincial laws. Schlyter (CISG, 51) thinks that it ispossibly a contraction of ater mali, meaning ‘the return of thetime’, referring to the time elapsing between the same season one
year and the next. The concept is similar to that in iemlangi (cf.
Note to 14/6–7).
13/25. In 1171 Pope Alexander III issued a bull to the Swedish churchprescribing penance of a pilgrimage to Rome for patricide, amongst
other crimes, but the pilgrimage suggested here seems to have beenof a more general nature. From about the end of the seventh century, a pilgrimage was often prescribed as penance by a shriving
priest for a grave crime, particularly a killing.
13/28–33. A killer must not attend the same church as the family of
his victim, for obvious reasons. Wessén (SL IV, 257 note 11) queries
whether the mother, daughter and sister mentioned are those of thekiller or the victim, but it seems more likely that they are thelatter, since the killer is elsewhere enjoined to take his family withhim.
13/38–40. The non-Gotlandic man referred to is most likely Swedish, rather than German (cf. GGD, 45 note 1; Introduction, pp. xxiv,
xxvi–xxvii). Wessén (SL IV, 257 note 13) considers that this

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provision belongs more logically with those in the following chapter
at 14/21–24.
13/41 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (13) here.
13/41–42. Of the clause ‘if he can afford it’ (en hann orkar) Wessén(SL IV, 257 note 16) rightly points out that there is no indicationof what action was taken if a killer could not afford to pay compensation. It is probable that the killer was permanently subject toblood revenge in this case, but judging by the situation regarding
a slave woman committing infanticide, exile seems to be anotherlikely option (2/21–23). The circumstance where he did not wish
to pay is covered at the end of the chapter (13/58–65). The B-text
variant bella for orka was current as the verb bälla in, e.g., thedialect of Jämtland, at least in the early part of the last century (cf.
ÍO s. v. bella3).
13/42–43. In the expression ‘always leave a year between’, Pipping(1904, 3) argues that ai here means ‘always, each time’, rather than‘not’.
13/44. The statement that a person accepting the first offer of compensation is ‘without dishonour’ (oskemdr) is evidence that there
had previously been a certain stigma attached to immediate acceptance and that blood money was still a doubtful form ofcompensation. In VStL I 36 §2 a similar phrase, ane laster undeane scande ‘without blame and without shame’ is used and theinitial procedures involved are the same, although the subsequentones are much simplified (cf. Hasselberg 1953, 274, 276–78). In
other provincial laws, the killer has to swear an oath of parity(Swedish likställighet). Although in principle the provision ofcompensation took away the right of revenge, it seems that it was
still possible for a wronged party to take revenge: in the laws of
Götaland as an alternative to compensation, and in the laws of
Svealand provided he paid the king’s and province’s part of thecompensation himself.
13/49–51. The phrase ‘then all the people take counsel over themoney’ (þa raþin allir lyþir firi fe) is not unambiguous. Jacobsen(GGD, 45 note 5) translates: ‘da skal Tingfolket træffe Bestemmelseom Bodens Fordeling’ (then the assembly members shall reach an
agreement on the division of the fine). Schlyter (CIG, 28) and
Wessén (SL IV 213) both translate: ‘råde allt folket över böten’(all the people shall take counsel concerning the fine), without
further comment. In Addition 1/17–19, relating to priests, there is

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a similar phrase, which Schlyter expands as ‘D. ä. folket tage boten’(That is, the people take the fine). It seems likely that the sameprovisions applied in the present case and that the fine rejected by theclaimant was nonetheless collected and distributed by agreement.
13/51 and footnote. Once payment was made the defendant was ‘freefrom guilt’ (mandr osakr), or, in the B-text, ‘shame’ (mad’r oschemd’r).
Delin (1926, 261–62 note 1) interprets the law in such a way thata killer always had the right to pay the community for his crimewith wergild. He considers this to result in the strange concept thatthe community valued each of its members only at their wergild
price, and that any killing could be compensated for simply by astandard payment. He thinks that this was unlikely to have been
acceptable to the relatives of a victim and that the right to revenge
must still have been retained. On the other hand, wergild musthave been a significant deterrent to the farmers of Gotland, amongst
whom there were probably none sufficiently rich and powerful forthe sum to be inconsequential. Wessén (SL IV, 257 note 19) comments that the three-year movement restriction placed on a killer
was in itself a form of punishment. He also thinks that Delin has
missed the point that in all probability the provisions concerning
circles of safety applied only to accidental killings or manslaughter, and not to premeditated murder.
13/54. The ‘right of substantiation’ (vitorþ) was the right in particular to bring forward witnesses to prove one’s case, whether as plaintiff
or defendant. It was regarded thus rather than as a ‘duty’, and only
one of the parties had this right (see GGD, 45 note 8). If a case wasmore or less clear, the plaintiff had the right of proof, whereas inother cases it was the defendant. The defendant was found guilty ifeither the plaintiff brought sufficient witness or the defendant failed
to do so. By the time most of the Scandinavian provincial laws
came into being, this one-sidedness had disappeared. The system,
known later as the edgärdsed, had led to criminals escaping justice by gathering like-minded witnesses. A papal letter of 1218
from Honorius III to the Archbishop of Lund (DS I, 196, no. 176,
28/5/1218) refers to this situation as a ‘pestilence that militatesagainst all justice’ (cf. SL I, xxv–xxxii). In ÖgL there is early evidence of oaths being taken by both opposing sides. Gradually,
proof through means of a nämnd ‘body of nominees’ replaced the
edgärdsed, but it was several centuries before this was universal
and there were a number of intermediate stages (cf. Note to 4/13–14).

NOTES95

In GL, although the old system was clearly still current, vitorþ had
also come to mean ‘right’ in a more general way, for example theright to return an unsatisfactory slave (Addition 7/9–10).
13/58–65. This is the only place in GL where being outlawed (friþlaus)
is mentioned as a punishment, although banishment is prescribedfor an infanticide who cannot pay her fine. A killer who failed tooffer compensation within three years was given a month to pay
the full wergild for the victim and, in addition, a further half wergild(twelve marks of silver), divided between the claimant and thecommunity. The same additional penalty applied to anyone breaking
the terms of his or her restriction of movement. There was no appeal against these fines and if they were not paid the outlawed
person was more or less ostracised from society; revenge taken
against him could not in turn be avenged by his relatives. It was,in fact, a means of putting a stop to family feuds and the purpose
was to encourage the wrongdoer to offer compensation. GL does,
however, still seem to recognise the right to self-judgement incertain ‘inherited’ cases (14/14–20).
13/60. Hasselberg (1953, 252–53 note 26) questions the generally
accepted translation of utretta here as ‘claim, demand’, or ‘exempt’.
The verb is not known from medieval Swedish law texts, or in thesense given by Schlyter elsewhere in Old Swedish. The Middle
Low German verb utrichten, which occurs in the equivalent passage in tyGL, does not have either of these senses, but rather means‘pay, discharge’ (cf. 20/43 footnote). The B-text reading wt reyda
suggests a connection to OldSwe reþa, which has the same meaning. Hasselberg suggests that this offers a more acceptable
grammatical construction in which the verb dyma governs all threeelements of the judgement, rather than the first and third only. It
also follows the general rule in GL that wergild could not be
demanded, but had to be offered. This suggestion has been followed in the present translation.
13/62. Although the mark was a weight of silver (or gold), the meansof paying was more frequently in other goods: homespun, cattle orother property up to the required value. It is difficult to be certainof the value of these in precious metal at any particular time. In
ÖgL (Db 16 §2; 21) ninety-six ells of ordinary homespun are equivalent to a mark of silver, whereas in Grágás (I §78 (LEI 1, 126))
six ells of marketable homespun, new and unused, are equivalent
to an ounce or öre (1/8 mark). This implies either that Icelandic

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homespun was twice as good, or the mark half the value of theSwedish equivalent. The öre equivalent of homespun with russet
stripes, clearly of better quality, was only five ells. Elsewhere (Grágás
II §246 (LEI 2, 207)) two skins of old tomcats were worth one öre,six shorn wether skins were worth an öre, and so on. The conceptof marketable means of payment is also laid down here. For a cow
to satisfy the requirements it had, amongst other things, to be between
three and ten years of age, capable of bearing a calf, in milk, horned
and free from defects. Jacobsen (GGD, 25 note 1) thinks that theseand similar conditions, although not stated in GL, would have been
current throughout Scandinavia.
Chapter 14: Af lutnum sakum
As Jacobsen (GGD, 46 note 4) remarks, this chapter refers specifically to cases in which wergild was due to be paid and where thekiller died before the claim had been fulfilled. In this case the relatives (presumably those who fled to sanctuary with him) inherited
the obligation to pay compensation, which was probably alreadybeing negotiated on his behalf (13/17–19). Responsibility both to
pay and demand compensation was inherited (cf. YVgL Add 11 §4,
17–18). As is frequently the case in GL, information is limited andthe full process involved is not clear. In fact only the first and thirdparagraphs refer to this situation. The remaining paragraphs belong
either with the previous chapter or refer to particular instances ofkilling (see SL IV, 258 note 1).
14/2–5. The process for negotiating a settlement is not stated, but
the implication seems to be that relatives of the killer should not beforced to pay more in compensation than they could afford. Furthermore, they were to be given time to accumulate the money required.
Again, the relatives of the victim could accept what was offeredwithout shame. The fact that this is stressed on several occasions
implies that it was not the customary attitude at the time.
14/6–7. Three offers were to be made within a year and a day (until
the day was the same length (iemlangi) as the one on which thefirst offer was made). Jacobsen (GGD, 46 note 7) observes that
there is a similar expression (dagh oc iamling) in JL1 I §9. This
provision differs from that in Chapter 13/41–43 where the killer
was given three years to make his three offers of compensation.
14/11–13. This paragraph presents a difficulty, noted by Jacobsen
and Wessén, in connection with the sense of the word bani. In

NOTES

97

previous scholarship this has led to translations meaning (1) ‘until
someone admits to the killing’ (Delin 1926, 267; Hadorph
Gothlandz-Laghen, 11); (2) ‘until one [of them] takes in the killer’(Schlyter CIG, 29–30; Jacobsen GGD, 47) and (3) ‘. . . one accepts
the charge of murder’ (Schlyter CIG, 379; CISG s. v. bani).
The present translation follows Delin and Hadorph but the alternative, ‘admits to being the killer’, would retain the usual sense ofbani as ‘killer’. Elsewhere in GL there are several instances inwhich the literal translation of bani as ‘killer’ would result inclumsy English and an alternative has been used. It is worth noting in connection with this provision that no mention is made ofextra compensation for killing (or wounding, Note to 19/11–13)
by a group of people. This principle, common from Germanic law,distinguishes GL from Swedish provincial laws and from VStL.
The difference is so marked that Westman (1902/1905, 50–51)
thinks that GL must represent a different legal system in which thefamily as a whole was not held responsible for an act by one of its
members (cf. Delin 1926, 291–94; Gædeken 1934, 105–07;
Hasselberg 1953, 198–99; SL I, UL, 120–21 note 43; SL II, DL,
42–43 note 32; SL III, SdmL, 194 note 155; SL V, ÄVgL, 44 note
47, YVgL, 266 note 22).
14/14 and footnote. The first sentence of this paragraph in the Btext does not appear in the A-text, tyGL or daGL.
14/14–17. Schlyter (CIG, 30 note f) interprets this passage as ‘om desom, jämte öfvermage, taga sådant arf, hvarom här är fråga, vilja
hämnas å hans vägnar . . .’ (if those who (together with the minor)
take such an inheritance as is in question here want to take revenge
on his behalf . . .). Wessén (SL IV, 258 note 9), following Delin(1926, 264), offers the interpretation ‘om någon av dem som, jämte
omyndig närmaste arvinge, ha att taga del i arvet, vill hämnas
på hans vägnar . . .’ (if one of those who (together with theminor nearest heir) have the right to take part in the inheritancewish to take revenge on his behalf . . .). There seems to be little
material difference between the two interpretations, although Wessén
remarks upon it. This passage, together with Addition 1, stresses
the right to revenge more than is done elsewhere in GL (cf. Note to
Chapter 13).
14/14–20. Jacobsen (GGD, 47 note 5) cites these sentences as an
example of the more expansive style of later provisions in contrast
to the earlier, terser style.

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14/15. According to most Swedish laws, the age of majority wasfifteen years (cf. YVgL Add 7 §29; ÖgL Eb 15 §1, Vb 15 §3; UL Kkb
19 §2, Mb 2 pr, Jb 4 §5; SdmL Mb 18 pr; BjR 14 §20; GL 20 pr;
MELL Jb 8, Eb 32, Db (II) 13, Sb (I) 17 pr; MEStL Db (II) 10, Sb (I)19; KrLL Jb 8 §1). On the other hand, in SdmL Kkb 11 pr, it seems
that children over the age of twelve, but who had not received
their inheritance, were treated differently in some respects fromthose who were younger. Minors (and in certain circumstances
women) had considerable protection from the full force of the law
in many cases: they could not be outlawed or hanged and were
subject to lower fines in cases of theft (cf. KL s. v. Myndighedsalder;Úmagi). See also Note to 20/6–7.
14/18–20. The relatives of a minor who was claiming compensation
had to pursue his portion of the wergild, as well as their own, once
the killer was able to pay the claim (i.e. after a year had passed)(see GGD, 47 note 6).
14/22–24. This must refer to a non-Gotlander having property in
Gotland of sufficient value to pay the wergild (cf. Wessén SL IV,
259 note 12).
14/25. Killing by a minor was valued at a half of the standard wergild,the same as for death caused by a dumb animal (Chapter 17). Contrast this with damage by fire (Chapter 51) where payment wasmade by the responsible adult, presumably at the full price.
14/27. ‘Alive in the womb’ (quikt i quiþi) was a standard expression,indicating that a woman was pregnant with a live foetus.
14/33–34. A pregnant woman was valued at 1½ standard wergilds. It
is implicit that a Gotlandic woman is referred to here.
Chapter 15: Af vereldi manna
15/2–6. As in several other provincial laws (ÄVgL Äb 22, JL1
III §12) one mark of gold is equivalent to eight marks of silver
in GL. This is not stated explicitly, but may be inferred from parallels between 15/2–6, 16/2–4 and 22/13–19, where it is clearthat twelve marks of silver are equivalent to 1½ marks of gold (halfthe wergild of a Gotlander). Here marks of gold, of silver and incoin are mentioned in the same context and this is the first instance in the text of the qualification markr penninga, clearly inserted
to avoid confusion in relation to the slave’s wergild, since even4½ marks of silver would be less than the wergild of a non-Gotlander.

NOTES99

15/3. The Gtn phrase at dauþum drepin (perhaps equivalent to ‘done
to death’) implies that the verb drepa might not mean ‘kill’ inevery instance. The noun döþsdrap, ‘killing’, occurs in UL Mb 2
§1, SdmL Mb 2 §1, VmL Mb 2 §1, Tjb 15, HL Kgb 10, Mb 10, BjR
14 §16 (CIS VI, 123 note 6) and MELL Rb 21 §2. Hellquist (1980)
notes that the original sense of the verb in other Germanic languages was ‘hit, strike, come up against’. He suggests that theuniquely Scandinavian meaning ‘kill’ developed from the original sense either directly, or via a form with a now lost prefix.
Schlyter (CISG s. v. Dræpa) gives ‘strike’ as the first meaning andcites this instance in GL and those in SdmL and VmL. The Danishtranslation (daGL) reads slagin tiil dödz here.
15/4. The lower level of wergild for non-Gotlanders should be considered alongside the principle stated in ÄVgL Tjb 12 §2: Þylik
lagh ok ræt, sum utlænskir mæn göra os, þylikæn vilium vir þæmgöræ ‘The same law and right, which foreign men render to us, thesame would we wish to render to them’. Gotlanders could not therefore expect their own higher levels of wergild in Sweden.
15/6–12. There seems to be an ambiguity over the wergild to be
paid for a non-Gotlandic woman married to a Gotlandic man. The
expression at vereldi sinu ‘her wergild’ most probably refers to theten silver marks she would have been worth if unmarried, but theaddition of fullu, which occurs only in the A-text, could mean thatthree marks of gold is intended, under the assumption that marriage had given the woman the status of a Gotlander. The principlethat the male partner in a marriage could raise the status of his
wife, but not vice versa, is common. On the other hand, the factthat a Gotlandic woman married a non-Gotlander did not prejudice her own status, although her children were treated as
non-Gotlandic. The equal rating of men and women so far as compensation is concerned corresponds to concepts of gender equality
elsewhere in Scandinavia, although these did not extend as far as
laws of inheritance (cf. SL IV, 259 notes 3 and 4).
Chapter 16: Af banduvereldi
16/2–4. The wergild payable for a man killed within his peace circle(banduvereldi) was, for both Gotlander and non-Gotlander, halfthat normally payable. For a slave, only six öre in coin was payable. This was one-sixth of the normal wergild payable (4½ marks
in coin, i.e. 36 öre). In respect of the element banda in banduvereldi

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Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok, 9) refers to OWN véb†nd n. pl. ‘ropes
surrounding the assembly or court’. The concept in GL is again ofa prescribed area. Details of how the assembly area was set up andthe fines for trespass within it are listed in GulL 91 (NGL 1, 44–45). The fines were: three marks to the king, twelve öre to a jarl,six to a baron, three to a hauldr (landowner of a class slightly
higher than that of a freeman), 1½ to a freeman, one to the son of a
freedman and to a freedman (cf. FrostL I 2 (NGL 1, 127–28); MLLL
III, 2 (NGL 2, 34–35)).
16/5–8. Jacobsen (GGD, 49 note 4) remarks that this clause is obscure.
The wergild payment was frequently used as a unit of fine; half thestandard wergild was a common level. Jacobsen finds Schlyter’sinterpretation (that compensation was to be ten marks in coin for
all occasions on which full wergild would normally have beenpaid) unsatisfactory, as the last phrase would then be misleading.
Wessén agrees with this objection and notes that the rubric Af
banduvereldi only refers to the first paragraph of the chapter. He
thinks that the next paragraph refers to maiming (lastr or lestr) in
general and that the purpose was to state that in all cases wherecompensation was based on a proportion of the wergild for a
Gotlander, the same proportion applied for a non-Gotlander (hecites one quarter for a hand as an example). He points out that it is
not clear what action was taken in cases where the fine in relation
to a Gotlander was two marks or less of silver, i.e. one twelfth orless of the wergild. If maiming did not occur, all (allir) were treatedequally. The paragraph should form the end of Chapter 19 (cf. 19/
47–61; SL IV, 260 note 4; Hasselberg 1953, 218 and references).
16/6 and footnote. The B-text reading seems to be the correct one here.
16/9–13, 13–17. If the slave in question had been killed or had fled
then half the wergild was to be paid, both for a Gotlander and a
non-Gotlander. This provision places a value on the slave himselfof three marks of silver (twelve marks in coin), since nine or twomarks of silver respectively were to be paid if he could be handed
over. This valuation must be compared with the wergild for a slaveof 4½ marks in coin, only three-eighths of that amount.
16/17–18. The oath was obviously to be taken in both the statedcases.
16/23–26. This paragraph is not directly relevant to the chapter rubric. It makes clear that a slave usually had a limited period ofslavery, after which he was publicly granted his freedom. The witness

NOTES

101

borne by the parishioners in this case was for use in the future (i.e.
that the slave had been freed on such a date) rather than in connection with a past event or a person’s truthfulness. The witnesses
were acting in a more or less official capacity (cf. Notes to 2/15, 3/
36–38, 19/6–8).
Chapter 17: Af osoyþum
The prefix o- in osoyþr, literally ‘a bad creature’, is not the usual
negation, but pejorative, as in Swedish otyg ‘witchcraft, nuisance’(cf. Note to 39/8). For related provisions, albeit less detailed, see
SkL 102, 105 (CISk I 100, 103).
17/2. The word fastr in the sense ‘entire, not castrated’ is still usedin Gotland (see GO s. v. fast). Jacobsen (GGD, 50 note 7) notes
that, at the time she wrote, the word was used with this meaning in
Jutland. The normal OldSwe word for ‘castrated’ is snopr, from averb meaning originally ‘insult’.
17/5–6. The Gtn word staurgulf originally seems to have denotedthe central space between the rows of supporting columns of ahall, as opposed to the aisles between these columns and the wallsof a building. The word could also be used to denote the space
between two of the columns, making room for a place to sit or abed, the best being the ‘high seat’ (OWN stafgólf) (cf. KL s. v.
Skåle). In GL the meaning is either the space between a pair of
uprights in a fence, or else the pair of uprights themselves (cf.
CIG, 33, 66; GGD, 50 note 9, 85 note 4; SL IV, 261 note 3 toChapter 17). The former sense is still current in Gotland, with various dialect forms (see GO s. v. stör). Wennström (1936, 357–61)
argues that in the context of GL the sense of staurgulf must be ‘thespace between a pair of uprights’. A horse, certainly, would not betied up to a pair of uprights, but rather to a horizontal rail between
them. In provisions relating to damage to fences staurgulf denotes
a section of fencing between uprights (26/49).
17/6–7. Wessén (SL IV, 261 note 3 to Chapter 17) suggests that ok
fiugur stig ‘and four paces’ could be an error for eþa fiugur stig
‘or four paces’, making the inference that the average distance
between the uprights in a fence was about a stride (one metre) and
if no such fence existed, four strides would give the same safetymargin. This would certainly be a reasonable practical assumption
and would merely be another example of parallelisms common in

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GL. The distance between supports in a lawful fence in FrostL XIII
21 (NGL 1, 246) is three ells, about 1.5 metres.
17/7–9. Horses were and are handled mainly from their left (or near) side.
The owner was thus only responsible for his horse’s reactions to thenormal actions of tacking up and mounting when performed by others.
17/9. The word kleti for ‘food store’ occurs only here in Scandinavian
sources. Säve (GU, xxx–xxxi) considers it most likely to have been
introduced to Gutnish by Swedes resident in Estonia. He assumes
that they borrowed the word, not from the Finnish-speaking Estonians, but from Lithuanian or Latvian speakers and cites the formsklêti in Lithuanian and klêts in Latvian, meaning ‘grain store’. The
word might, however, be an error for klefi, for which there is an
OWN equivalent with a similar sense.
17/17–19. Although half the wergild was paid for a Gotlander killed
by an animal (17/2–4 and 17/14–16), as if the creature were aminor, only one third was paid for a non-Gotlander (i.e. 3 1/3 rather
than five marks of silver). This discrepancy seems unusual in thatthe proportion of wergild payable for injury to a non-Gotlander
was commonly the same as for a Gotlander (cf. Note to 16/5–8). In
respect of wounds and maiming by animals, the proportion seems
to have been the same for both classes of person, however, at one
third of the ordinary rate (cf. 17/25).
17/19–21. Compensation demanded for death or injury that was tobe pursued as a normal debt and could not justify revenge wascalled krafarvereldi. Wessén (SL IV, 261 note 10) points out thatthe word is used both for killing and for maiming, implying that a
proportion of the wergild was paid for injury (cf. Note to 16/5–8).
17/23. The word gieldeti ‘debt’ appears only in GL and seems torefer to the responsibility for a debt (see Lidén 1911, 273–77).
Chapter 18: Ber maþr kuna
The title strictly refers only to the first part of the chapter, and then
only to pregnant women who lose their children as a result. The
content of the second half is, however, related in that it deals withthe proper care of small children.
18/3. Half the standard wergild seems to have been the usual amountpayable for an unborn child (cf. 2/21, 14/32). The amount would
possibly have varied depending on whether the father was a Gotlander
or not, although this is not stated. What is also not specifically

NOTES

103

stated is the level of wergild for a minor (under fifteen), although
it seems that the full fine was paid from the time that they wereborn (18/16). Minors committing crimes, however, sometimes paid
half the normal fine (cf. 14/25, 59/6).
18/5. The phrase ‘two witnesses’ is the first use in the text of vitni
without qualification referring to a personal witness as opposed toan abstract concept. Witnesses might, but did not need to be, eyewitnesses. In this case they were named as those who were to becalled by a woman immediately after she had been the victim of
an attack, in order to declare that she was telling the truth.
18/5–6. The verb skirskuta (OWN skírskota ‘appeal’, literally skuta‘wipe away’ plus skir ‘clean’) is used reflexively in GL in thecontext of either a plaintiff or defendant calling witnesses, as opposed
to an earlier usage in the context of a defendant attempting toprove innocence (cf. GGD, 52 note 7; SL IV, 262 note 4 to Chapter 18 and references, 272 note 2 to Chapter 22). The verb wascommon in Scandinavian laws (cf. ÖgL Eb 26; SL I, ÖgL, 51 note
39; SdmL Kgb 6 pr; SL III, SdmL, 58 note 28). It is also used in
GulL 37, 40, 266 (NGL 1, 22–24, 24, 86–88) with the preposition
undir to indicate the formal calling of witnesses.
18/8. This is the second occasion in GL on which two female witnesses are mentioned. As the evidence they were to give was inrespect of a miscarriage, it seems likely that they were the same
witnesses that the woman would have called to witness a birth (cf.
Note to 2/5).
18/10. It is also significant that the expression þiauþa aiþr ‘person
oath’ rather than manna aiþr is used of the six witnesses confirming the woman’s statement that the child was alive before the attack.
This seems to imply that some at least of those witnesses could befemale. These six oath-takers were clearly neither the same as thetwo witnesses referred to at 18/5, nor the two female witnesses. A
similar distinction is drawn in the case of a woman falling pregnant to a rapist (see 22/23–26).
18/14–15. Jacobsen (GGD, 53 note 4) takes vaþi ‘by misadventure’
as meaning a deliberate act, but with unforeseen consequences,rather than an unintentional, accidental one, and the full compensation payable justifies this assumption. Swedish provincial laws
clearly differentiate between vådaverk and viljaverk: the latter wereacts of deliberate malice and the former more or less unintentional,
although culpable. There is no mention of the former in GL, although

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reduced fines for killing by a minor (14/25) or a dumb animal (17/2–4; 17/14–16; 17/17–19) might be considered to reflect a viewof these acts as accidental. Amira (1882–95, I, 711) regards thelack of provisions for accidental acts as evidence that GL, as preserved, is incomplete (cf. Introduction, pp. xxii–xxv).
18/15–16. ‘He is to pay the full wergild’ (þa bytir hann vereldi fullu).
It appears from this that the half wergild was only applicable incertain cases and that if the child itself were subject to (albeit
unintentional) violence it would be apportioned full compensation, provided that the mother had taken all necessary precautions.
18/16–22. The concept of a dead person as obyttr ‘not subject tocompensation’ usually applied in cases in which they could besaid to have committed a crime warranting their death (cf. Note to
Chapter 13). In this instance, however, it is the mother who forfeits
her right to a claim through her own negligence.
Chapter 19: Af sarum
Apart from the section on inheritance, this is the most complex section of GL. There are a certain number of inconsistencies, which are
noted below, but otherwise GL is notable for the variety of levels ofcompensation and the absence of an explicit concept of OldSwe fullsar or fullsæri (a major wound requiring treatment and subject tofull, i.e. maximum, compensation). This concept appears in several
Swedish provincial laws as well as in VStL and in Norwegian laws
(cf. ÄVgL Sb 1; GulL 195 (NGL 1, 69–70)). There is, however, an
implicit equivalent in GL, see following Note. Appendix D (ii) tabulates the various fines exacted for different acts of wounding.
19/2–6. The measurement of a mundr (a thumb’s width or notionalinch (2.54 cm)) for the depth of a ‘full wound’ is used in VStL I 13
§1. It is not absolutely clear how the calculation of compensation
was made, but evidently two dimensions (depth and length) of
each wound were taken into account and compensation paid inrespect of the total, up to a maximum of eight marks in coin for
sixteen mundr (or more) of wound at least a nail’s breadth in depth.
If the depth was less than a nail’s breadth, but treatment was stillneeded, the maximum fine was four marks (cf. GGD, 54 note 2; SL
IV, 262 note 2; Hasselberg 1953, 285–86). An analysis of finesthat would have been payable based on the sum, as opposed to the
product, of the two dimensions makes it seem more likely that theformer would have been used. According to this formula only theNOTES

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very largest and deepest wounds would lie outside the eight-markrange and these would probably have resulted in permanent disability or been fatal, in which case other compensation provisions
would apply. Eight marks in coin (two marks of silver) were equivalent to one twelfth of the wergild for a Gotlander. This was also
the fine for any knife wound and for injuries resulting in fourbone fragments of a certain size having to be removed (see Notes
to 19/15–16, 19/36–38).
19/5. The expression ‘half less’ (halfu minna) means simply a half(see also 19/25, 23/31, 59/6, Addition 2/8).
19/6–8. The choice of witnesses on this occasion, two raþmenn ‘magistrates’ and a lanzdomeri ‘district judge’, suggests that they were
official witnesses to a legal process (cf. Notes to 2/15, 3/36–38,
16/23–26).
19/7. The hundreds (hunderi, equivalent to hundaren in Svealandor härad in Götaland) were entities for legal, defence and militaryactivities, but Guta saga, where the levy is described, does not use
the word and GL uses it only in respect of the hunderis þing as alegal entity. The term raþmaþr for a local judge at a hunderisþing is unique to Gotland (cf. GGD, 91 note 7; 31/3; Addition 8/
51–54). The structure of the legislature and judiciary is further
described in the Introduction, pp. xxvii–xxx.
19/9. As Wessén (SL IV, 262 notes 3 and 4) indicates, officials were
only asked to bear witness to the nature and extent of thewound itself. The perpetrator was charged by the injured party andhis peers.
19/11–13. The number of assailants did not affect the compensation
payable, which depended on the wounds themselves (cf. Note to
14/11–13).
19/15–16. The maximum fine was always payable for knife-wounds.
Several Swedish provincial laws prescribe increased fines for knife
injuries (cf. SL IV, 262 note 7). Presumably the extent of the wound
was in this case irrelevant, as in the case of a wound involving
internal organs (hulseri).
19/16–17. The fine for throwing a stone at someone and wounding
them was three marks in coin, equivalent to the fine for a woundof about six mundr.
19/18. ‘A blow which does not cause blood to be spilt’ (lukahagg).
Schlyter (CIG, 278 s. v. lukahagg) suggests that the first element
is the same as OWN lúka ‘flat of the hand’. In that case the106

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

meaning would be a slap, but this hardly seems to apply to thisprovision. The provision is missing from tyGL and daGL (cf. SL IV,
262 note 9).
19/23. The word litvan ‘facial defect’ is known only from GL. Although
Rydqvist (1850–83, V, 243–44, VI, 272), following Hadorph(Gothlandz-Laghen, 16), has suggested likvan ‘bodily disfigurement’,Tamm (1883–84, 311) in his review of Rydqvist’s work considers
that the form in the A-text can stand and that it refers to facialdisfigurement, the element lit occurring in several words relating
to the face (cf. ModSwe anlete ‘countenance’). Wessén takes thefirst element as litr m. ‘colour, appearance and the second element
as a noun derived from OWN adjective vanr ‘lacking’. The extra
compensation to be paid for such disfigurement is laid down at theend of the provision. If no healing took place, the full two marksof silver was paid for a nose or lip and half that for an ear.
19/25–30. The criteria given here for judging the severity of a facialdisfigurement, whether it could be seen across the road or acrossthe assembly and whether it could be masked by a hat or hood, aresimilar to those in several Swedish provincial laws, the Old Danish
laws and VStL (cf. VmL Mb 21 §1; SdmL Mb 5 pr; SkL 95 (CISk I94); JL1 III §29; VStL I 15 §6–7).
19/30. The phrase ‘and wound compensation in addition’ (ok þau
sara bytr), indicating that compensation for the initial wound was
additional, applies to both the preceding criteria (cf. VStL I 15§§6–7; SdmL Mb 5 pr).
19/33. The Gutnish text has himin eþa hinna for ‘membrane’. Schlyter(CIG, 379; CISG, 274) considers himin ‘membrane’ to be a scribal
error, corrected by the scribe to eþa hinna, but Pipping (GLGS, 24
note 2) and Wessén (SL IV, 263 note 14) argue that the two expressions supplement each other. Cf. the parallelisms noted by Pippingat GLGS, 58 line 17 and 68 line 5 (in Guta saga), which are also
taken by Schlyter (CISG, 415 and 273) to be scribal amendments,
and the Notes to 13/7–8, 21/16–17, 60/6. There are further examples from B-text at 6/18, 25/48, 25/50 and 28/70.
19/35–36. The singular method of measuring the size of a bone fragment by dropping it into a bowl and hearing if it rang (i skalu
skieldr), seems to have been common in Scandinavia. It also occurs
in the Frisian laws (see SL IV, 263 note 15). Similar regulations
appear in ÖgL Vb 19, Eriks SjL1 Text 1 II §39, GulL 185 (NGL 1,
67–68) and FrostL IV 49 (NGL 1, 172). These last two read

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respectively Eyri firi bein hvert er ór leysir, ef skellr i skalom ander bein leysir or sári manns, þó at alllítit se oc skellr á skilldi, þáscal eyrer uppi. Larson (1935, 139 and note 11) translates the firstas ‘an öre for every [bit of] bone that has to be removed if thesilver rings in the scales’ and interprets this as meaning that the‘money is ready for payment’. This, however, seems to be a misunderstanding, since the word ‘silver’ does not appear in the original
text. Similarly, in FrostL, Larson (1935, 277 and note 11) translates oc skellr á skilldi as ‘and [the coins] rattle on the shield’ witha footnote that this means that ‘the money is ready for payment’.
Again, this does not seem to be the correct interpretation. Bothinstances seem to refer to the bones themselves rattling in a receptacle as a measure of their size.
19/37. The form eln ‘ell’ is recorded on a standard (half) ell measurefound at the church at Stånga, a parish in the southeast of Gotland: hitta ier ret gota eln ‘this is the true ell of Gotland’. The
length of an ell varied from time to time and place to place, but
the ell at Stånga is about 55.36 cm. Two further ell measures fromthe same part of Gotland, at Havdhem and at Hemse Church, aresimilar in length, but there is evidence of a shorter ell (52.1 cm) in
use in the twelfth century (see Jansson 1936, 44). In 1863 the lastrecorded Swedish ell measured 59.38 cm (about 23 1/3 inches). In
England an ell was 114.3 cm (45 inches), approximately doublethat measurement.
19/36–38. This stipulation is obscure and may be corrupt. There is
no record elsewhere of a similar method of measuring larger boneshards than those in the previous sentence. The German translation, tyGL, provides the interpretation that the shards had to be solarge that with an ell-long thread attached, they could be thrownover a five-ell (2.75 metre) high roof beam. Säve (GU, xxx) suggests that ri ‘pillar’ or ‘beam’ is a loan from Estonian, transmitted
to Gotland by the Swedish population of Estonia’s western seaboard and islands. See SL IV, 263 note 16 and references.
19/38–40. Wessén (SL IV, 263 note 17) points out that iiii markum
penninga equates to a mark of silver and this is the fine quoted indaGL. In tyGL, which mistakenly gives one mark in coin as thefine for a finger, it states that a thumb is equal to all the otherfingers, instead of counting it as equivalent to two fingers. If thefingers of both hands are included, valued at one mark in coineach, the total would be eight marks in coin, or two marks of silver

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

as in GL. Loss of a thumb was thus valued at one third of a hand
(19/48–49), as opposed to a half in the majority of Swedish provincial laws (cf. ÄVgL Sb 4; ÖgL Vb 18 pr).
19/43–47 and footnotes. Pipping (1904, 10–12) provides detailed
commentary on these lines. The thrust of his argument is that Schlyter(CIG, 38–39 and notes) has made an error in saying that the Gtn
for ‘toe’ is ta (written in error as þa on occasions). Pipping argues
that neither is correct and that tia is the correct form. By a careful
comparison of the A- and B-texts, Pipping shows convincingly thatthe scribe of the former has omitted two separate phrases, which
are found in the latter (and so identified in this translation), byskipping from one occurrence of an abbreviation of marcum to thenext. This supposition, supported by Wessén, removes any objection to the word ok ‘also’ in line 46, since the fines concerned areboth two marks of silver (cf. GGD, 56 note 9; SL IV, 263 notes 20
and 22). It also renders unnecessary Schlyter’s change of the preceding þa to ta in the disputed sense ‘toe’ and replaces theemendation that gave rise to it. The B-text form thia follows apractice common in that manuscript of writing th for t as well asfor þ. Wessén points out additionally that although loss of use of afinger was considered as serious as its being cut off, only one thirdof the compensation was paid for disablement of a hand or foot as
for its complete loss, for which one quarter of a wergild was due(cf. SL IV, 263 notes 20 and 23).
19/46. Jacobsen (GGD, 56 note 8) points out the implied alliterationin þan hels eþa (h)nakka ‘the heel or neck’ and that this could
date the phrase to the period prior to the loss of the initial h in thelatter, i.e. c.1100. Schlyter (CISG s. v. hæl) points out that earliertranslations mistakenly take hels to mean ‘throat’, whereas it is thegenitive of hel.
19/47–49. The six marks of silver that were payable for loss of hand,foot or eye was one quarter of a wergild, in contrast to the one halfthat was stipulated in VStL (I 24 §1, 28 §1, 18). The reduced levelhas parallels in German regional laws (cf. Brunner 1906–28, II,
823 note 77; Wilda 1960, 762–63; Hasselberg 1953, 305 note 12
and references; Notes to 16/5–8 and 17/19–21).
19/49. The sense ‘assault’ for the verb laika, alongside ‘play’, iscommon in other Scandinavian languages, the most infamous example
being Håtunaleken in 1306, when King Birger was imprisoned byhis brothers at the estate in Håtuna (cf. GGD, 57 note 1).

NOTES

109

19/49–52. Wessén (SL IV, 263 note 25) points out that the fine forthe loss of two hands, feet or eyes is ambiguous. The issue seems
to be whether the fine is twelve marks for the two (i.e. simply twice
the fine for one) or twelve marks each, giving the equivalent of awergild for the loss of both hands, both feet or both eyes in one
attack. Wessén thinks that the latter is the more likely, since otherwise there would have been no need to differentiate between thissituation and that relating to the loss of one hand, foot or eye.
19/58. Ólafur Halldórsson (1990, 115, 121–22, 130) notes that, in aseries of riddles in a sixteenth-century Icelandic manuscript, uígnyrum,from vígnýra n., means ‘testicle’ and compares this to vigniauri m.
‘testicle’ in GL. He comments that these are the only instances ofthis word, but that nýra is recorded by Ivar Aasen in his Norsk
ordbog in the sense ‘testicle’, as is hvítanýra in Faeroese, particularly of rams and bulls. There is a single instance in Icelandic of
nýra, in Mábilar rímur, where the sense is obviously ‘testicle’.
19/58–61. The fine for the removal of both testicles (i.e. castration)is twelve marks of silver (half a wergild) and it is only if the penis
is cut off that the fine rises to ¾ wergild. For the crime of castrationÄVgL Sb 4 §6 sets nine marks of silver for the disfigurement andnine for the wound, two wergilds in total (as were payable for akilling), while in YVgL Urb 2 §§7, 16 the act is regarded as a despicable act (niþings værk) and the fine is fifty-four marks of silver or
six wergilds. In ÖgL Vb 5, the crime is considered to be the ‘most
serious’ wound (as it is in the laws of Svealand) punishable with aforty-mark fine in coin for the wound and another forty for the
disfigurement. This amount is doubled by the addition of forty
marks for an unborn son and forty for an unborn daughter, givinga total of 160 marks in coin or four wergilds. The laws of Svealandfall into two groups: UL Mb 30 pr and HL Mb 15 pr give selfjudgement, and failure to pay results in the perpetrator losing both
hands and helpers one hand as a retaliatory punishment. SdmL, DL,
VmL follow ÖgL, with slight variations (see SL IV, 263 note 27).
The relatively lenient fine stipulated in GL might suggest that thisprovision belonged to an early form of the law.
19/63. The verb tielga (here ‘split’) has led to discussion and two
translations: (1) ‘cut, score’, related to OWN telgia (Schlyter (CIG,
glossary) and Kock (Låle II, 348)) and (2) ‘split’, related to OWN
tialga (Noreen 1897, 26; 1904, §231 note). From the context, relating
to damage to bones, this latter seems to be preferable. Note that

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the present translation, which refers to a ‘smaller bone’, follows all
previous editors, but is not explicit in the text.
19/67. The definition of onytr ‘useless’ must be related to the use ofsword and sickle as defined at 19/43 (see SL IV, 264 note 31).
19/69–70. The right (as well as the obligation) of proof fell to a
defendant if there was no visible damage. The clause ‘the defendant has the right to substantiate his denial’ (hafi þan vitorþ sumvers), which occurs three times more, was a standard legal expression (see GGD, 58 note 4).
19/72. Swearing an oath on one’s own behalf was unusual and an
exception to the procedure set out at the start of the chapter (seeSL IV, 264 note 34). It is the only instance of ainsyri ‘self-witness’in GL although there are a number of occasions on which only one
person has to give witness: a priest supporting a woman’s claim tohave been shriven of infanticide (2/10–11), a man stating that hehad witnessed a woman’s cry of ‘rape’ (22/5), a woman confirmingthat all the laces on her clothing had been restored (23/14–15),
someone whose property has been stolen confirming how much
had been taken (Addition 8/7–9).
19/73–79. Provisions relating to deafness caused by blows do notoccur in Swedish provincial laws, but equivalents are to be foundin VStL I 15 §§1–4.
19/75. This is the only reference to fowl in GL. In contrast to geese,they are mentioned infrequently in provincial laws, although alimit of a cockerel and two hens is set in DL Tjb 17.
19/77. A deleted wi preceding the phrase siex manna aiþi ‘six-man
oath’ appears to be an example of the scribe deciding to substitutethe word siex, having already written the Roman numeral. In another case (31/4), he has not noticed his error and has not deleted
the latter. Pipping (1901a, 95 note 1) argues that the A-text possibly
originally had Roman numerals throughout for numbers greaterthan one.
19/80–86 and footnote. Further differences in fines laid down between
the A- and B-texts are in evidence here. The fine for loss of an ear
is two marks of silver in all manuscripts of GL apart from B 64,
and that for damage to an ear without its loss is one mark in the Btext and in daGL. It is not clear why eyeteeth are singled out for
mention, since the fine for them was the same as for other teeth in
the same jaw. It is possible that there was a time when they werevalued differently. The B-text, incidentally, lacks the differentiation

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found in the A-text (and tyGL) with regard to upper and lower
teeth. See also Addition 4/3–5.
19/90–91. The concept of a non-verbal insult (þunki) occurs several
times in GL, even if the word itself is not used in every instance.
Apart from throwing ale in someone’s face, insults included manhandling a person riding or walking on the highway (19/128), making
a minor attack on a man’s beard or hair (19/100–02), damaging a
man’s inner clothing (19/110), knocking the clasp of a woman’s
clothing to the ground or displacing her clothing slightly (23/9–10,
23/15–17), grasping her elbow or knee (23/22, 23/25–26). The
fine was eight örtugar in each case. Carrying off wood from another man’s forest (26/38–46), breaking his fence (26/48–49) or
taking his horse in error, leaving your own instead (35/10–12)
incurred the same penalty, which gives an insight into the importance that was attached to these non-verbal insults (cf. SL IV, 264
note 38). Wennström (1936, 57 notes 66 and 67; 1940, 310–12)
compares þunki in GL with OldSwe þokki, which he relates to the
OldSwe verb þykkia ‘think’ (see CISG s. v. þokka bot, þokki).
19/91. Ertaug was the Gtn equivalent of OldSwe örtugh (ModSweörtug). As a weight it was recorded from Viking times as 1/24 markor 1/3 öre. The mark, öre and örtug had the same relationship allover Scandinavia, but the number of pennies (i.e. coin) to an örtug,and thus to a mark, was variable over region and time. A fine ofeight örtugar is common in GL, although fines of a half, one, fourand five also occur. Eight örtugar were equivalent to 1/3 mark inweight or coin (see SL IV, 264 notes 38 and 44). This is confirmedby the fact that the sum is greater than two öre (¼ mark, cf. fines
for damage to clothing, 19/110) and less than ½ mark (cf. fine forstriking off a woman’s buckle, 23/9–10). See Appendix C for further details of the monetary system in Gotland.
19/92–94. It is worth noting that admitting to one blow laid one
open to an accusation of up to three further blows and gave theinitiative to the plaintiff, whereas if one did not admit to an attack,one had the right to present one’s defence.
19/97–98. From the context, lukahagg is clearly not a blow with theflat of the hand (cf. Note to 19/18), but presumably any blow that
did not draw blood, although it might in other cases leave theperson disabled (cf. GGD, 59 note 6; SL IV, 264 note 40).
19/98–99. The words Þet iru lag guta ‘That is the law of the Gotlanders’must previously have signalled the end of a major section of the112

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

law. The B-text has the singular of the verb (ier), which seems to
be more correct grammatically after þet.
19/100 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (20) at this point.
19/100–08 and footnotes. It is possible that the stringent laws against
pulling out hair were related to a belief that magic could be wroughtusing hair (cf. BorgL I 16 (NGL 1, 350–51)). Hair and nails wereconsidered to have magic properties as they grew visibly, and abald person was regarded as a possible subject of black magic (cf.
de Vries 1957, I, §202 and §239). Note the additional references topulling hair at 8/11, 8/38 and 41, 11/4, 19/87 and 62/3–5, and thevariations in the B-text given in Addition 5.
19/101–05. The detailed compensation relating to hair-pulling isreflected only in VStL I 15 and not in Swedish provincial laws.
19/105–08. See Note to Addition 5/2–5.
19/109 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (21) at this point.
The yfirkleþi ‘outer garments’ were a cloak or cape, probably
the same as the gangkleþi ‘walking-clothes’ referred to at 20/108
and 20/113–14.
19/110. Although Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok, 46) translates kurtil ‘kirtle’as ‘kjortel, underklädning’ (kirtle, underclothing), it more properly referred to a gown worn over a likvari ‘undergarment’, but
under any cloak or outer garment, the equivalent of modern ‘indoor
clothing’ (cf. Falk 1919, 145).
Bugge (1877–78, 267) derives likvari ‘undergarment’ from lik‘body’ and verja ‘to dress’. The meaning is thus the clothes nearest the body.
19/112. It is not clear whether the author is distinguishing between
serkr ‘vest’ and skyrta ‘shirt’, or if this is simply a synonymousalliteration. The two garments seem to have been similar, made of
sheep wool, but Falk (1919, 141–45) believes that a serkr was
possibly sleeveless, although longer than a skyrta, which had long
sleeves. Pipping’s Swedish translations ‘linne, lintyg’ (vest) and‘skjorta’ (shirt) might be anachronistic, but will serve as a distinction.
19/116 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (22) at this point.
19/120–21. Witnesses were required only to confirm the veracity of
the injured man’s story, not to give evidence of his injury.
For an account of the system of judges, see Introduction, pp.
xxv–xxvi, xxix–xxx.
19/126 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (23) at this point.
19/132 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (24) at this point.

NOTES

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19/134–36. Two öre is ¼ mark, which is half the fine for extra blows
to the free man in the fight.
19/139–41. It is worth noting that minor wounds to slaves, for example
a blow with a stone, attracted the same compensation as to a free man.
19/141–42. A slave could neither give nor receive an insult, thelatter because of his lack of status and the former because any
adverse comment from such a person would presumably have been
regarded as unworthy of consideration.
19/142. The paragraph that follows this in the A-text has been moved
to its proper place in Chapter 20 (Chapter 26 in the B-text).
Chapter 20 Af allum lutum
The laws of inheritance in Gotland as recorded in GL are complex
and to some extent contradictory. The most thorough analysis ofthem is to be found in Holmbäck (1919, 219–41), where previous
studies by Pipping (1904), Delin (1909) and others are taken into
account. The following notes relate to specific aspects in individual
provisions.
20/6. Jacobsen (GGD, 63 note 1) suggests that the use of ar ‘year’
instead of vintr ‘winter’ here might indicate that this provision is
younger than others in the law.
20/6–7. The phrase skiauþa ok skalar ‘scrip and scales’ might be a
fixed expression for the possessions that a younger son took awayfrom the farm. Schlyter (CIG, 46), referring to Schildener’s Germantranslation ‘Pferd und Schaale’ (horse and cup) (G-L, 211), suggests the noun sciaut n. ‘draught animal’ should be substituted forskiauþa f. Säve (GU, 14) follows Schlyter. Bugge (1877–78, 269)
thinks that the latter is not an error but that the word’s sense has
been forgotten and that it was a leather bag for keeping one’s
possessions in, comparable to OWN skjóða. The English word scrip
has the same sense, but probably a different origin. In this particular context, Wessén (SL IV, 265 note 2 and references) suggeststhat the bag could be one in which scale weights were stored. The
implication is that when a young man attained his majority, hetook charge of weighing out his portion. Although the age ofmajority appears to have been fifteen here for men, they were notliable to take part in the defence of the province, for which they
had been provided with weapons (20/107), until they were twenty
years of age (54/2). See also Note to 14/15.

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20/8. The verb selia is used here to mean ‘transfer, make over, entrust,part with’ since the context makes it clear that outright sale is notin question.
20/11–12. In the phrase nequar taki ungan oformaga til sina ‘someone takes the young minor as a ward’ Jacobsen (GGD, 63) interprets
nequar as referring to one of the heirs, but this does not seem tobe a necessary assumption, and makes the following clauseambiguous (referring either to the guardian or the ward), whereas
Wessén (SL IV, 266 note 4) argues that it was the minor who retained
his full portion. Indeed, it would seem logical that the guardianmust have been outside the farm, since his or her action would nototherwise have relieved the situation. Compare this action to thatin respect of an illegitimate child by a non-Gotlandic (20/103–05,
20/108–10, 20a/33–35) or a Gotlandic woman (20a/27–28,
20a/31–32), where the obligation seems to be only to raise thechild and not to ‘take it as one’s own’.
20/16. ‘Remain in their grandfather’s care’ (Gtn sitia i karls skauti). The
literal meaning is ‘sit in a man’s lap’. The word karl is used of thehead of a family, in this case the paternal grandfather of the girl or
girls. The action of taking a child into one’s lap signified adoption or acceptance (especially of an illegitimate child), and the
granddaughters would have been treated as daughters of the household, as is clear from inheritance arrangements that immediately
follow (cf. GGD, 63 note 6, 64 note 1; SL IV, 266 notes 5 and 6).
20/19–21. If there were surviving sons (in addition to any who had
predeceased their father) then division of the inheritance gave thedaughters of each deceased son their father’s notional share between
them (see GGD, 64 note 2).
20/21–23. The property referred to here is evidently the property
that the deceased woman possessed in her own right. See Note to
20/71–80.
20/24. All translators and commentators agree that the clause i hueria quislsum þet kumbr means ‘to whichever branch [i.e. generation] it has
come’, that is, ‘however many branches [generations] there might be’.
20/24–26. The Gtn lindagyrt eþa gyrþlu- ‘male or female’ has been
the subject of considerable debate. It is clear that one of these(feminine or neuter singular) participles refers to the male (line)
and the other to the female. The equivalents in OWN were bauggildismaðr ‘agnatic kinsman’ and nefgildismaðr ‘cognatic kinsman’(cf. GulL 37 (NGL 1, 22–24)). The English equivalents are ‘distaff

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side’ and ‘spear side’. Both lindi and gyrþla have the sense ‘belt,
girdle’, but neither is unambiguously used of female or male dress inmedieval sources. Around the beginning of the fourteenth century
a type of belt, called in Swedish a ländbält or ländgördel, wasintroduced. This fitted lower down (literally around the loins) and wassewn to the garment (see KL s. v. Gördel och gördelmakare). It is
possible that women more commonly used this type, and that theearlier waist-fitting girdle was a male accessory, particularly as it
would have been more useful for kilting garments for work. The
previous scholarship may be summarised as follows. Those who argue
that lindagyrt refers to the female (line) and thus translate tua lindagyrta as meaning ‘two [male descendants] of the female line’ are(1) Schlyter (CISG, 396–97) and (2) Hadorph (Gothlandz-Laghen,21). Schlyter states that a linda was a woman’s girdle. He refers to
Söderwall (OSMS I, 531 s. v. linde) and hence to the legend of St
George (MD, 192 ll. 219–22), a passage about the nuns of St Birgitta(HBU V, 42), Ett fornsvenskt legendarium (FL I–II, 501 ll. 15–19)
and to Ihre (1769 s. v. garland) who states that linda was any belt,
especially one worn by a virgin. Schlyter nevertheless acknowledges that Ihre has the opposite interpretation under Linda andHadorph has the reverse translation in the earlier phrase. Those
who take lindagyrt to refer to the male (line) and thus translate tua
lindagyrta as meaning ‘two [male descendants] of the male line’are (1) Pipping (1904, 7–10); (2) Wessén (SL IV, 266–67 note 12)
and (3) The Low German translation of Guta lag (tyGL 21 §2).
Pipping argues that the male would be mentioned first and that
Hadorph is inconsistent. He also cites Fritzner (1891, 531), wholists instances in which lindi is used of male clothing, and Ihre
(1769 s. v. Linda), who refers to the priest’s girdle in YVgL Kkb 2.
Wessén argues that the grammatical form of tua lindagyrta meansthat it must be male and cites MLBL, VIII §8 (NGL 2, 271) wherelindi is used of a male garment. In tyGL lindagyrt(a) is translated‘mannes namen’ and gyrþlu(gyrt) ‘vrouwen namen’. Jacobsen (GGD,
64–65 note 7), however, retains the ambiguity of the original. She
is unconvinced by Pipping’s first argument and notes that in GL
the female is three times referred to before the male. In the present
translation Pipping’s argument has been accepted with some reluctance, but a certain ambiguity has been retained.
20/25. The word bloz (translated ‘descendants’) means direct heirs of
the female in question, i.e. the bloodline. The genitive serves in

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this case as a nominative (cf. OldSwe goz, ModSwe gods ‘estate;property’). Säve (GU, xviii) considers the possibility that boþs-kyn
or bloþs-ett was intended. Relatives not in the direct bloodline
were given different designations (cf. Note to 28/13–17).
20/25–29. This provision may be summarised as stating that if there
were three male heirs in successive generations, following inheritance from a female, before the direct line ran out, the property inquestion stayed in the farm where it now resided, following normal inheritance rules, otherwise it reverted to the farm from which
it came (cf. GGD, 65 note 3; SL IV, 267 notes 13–17).
20/30. This provision could refer to property not in the form of land
(lutr as opposed to aign), or it could simply refer to a situation inwhich an heiress leaves no male heirs, in which case lutr refers to all
forms of inheritance (cf. CIG, 47; SL IV, 267 note 18). The latter seems
more likely, since this situation is not otherwise provided for.
20/33 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (26) at this point.
‘If there are no sons on the farm’ (Þar sum gangs i garþi). Thisand similar expressions are taken by Wessén (SL IV, 266 note 6) torefer to the end of the male line at a farm. Holmbäck (1919, 223–27)
argues that this expression refers only to lack of surviving sonsand that in these circumstances their sons and grandsons were
included in the general division of inheritance. Cf., however, Note
to 20/71–80.
20/36–37. As Wessén (SL IV, 267 note 21) points out, ‘their father’smaternal inheritance’ (sett faþurmyþrni) must mean their own (andtheir brother’s) maternal inheritance.
20/38. The word penningr is used here to mean ‘coin, currency, thatwhich could be counted’ as opposed to other property.
The ‘paternal inheritance’ refers to the father of the daughters(af feþrni sinu), that is, the brother of the unmarried aunts.
20/40–45 and footnotes. Wessén (SL IV, 265 note 65) gives two
circumstantial explanations for this paragraph appearing at the endof Chapter 19/142, footnote), rather than in its proper place here.
The more likely, in view of the fact that the B-text has this paragraph in the margin, is that the originals for the A- and B-texts(both assumed to derive from v on the stemma on p. xix) alreadyhad this paragraph misplaced. The scribe of the former presumably
simply copied what he had in front of him, whereas Bilefeld (orthe scribe of his immediate original) observed the error. He theneither decided to show the error in his original by means of a

NOTES

117

marginal note, or intended to insert the paragraph at the proper
place but subsequently forgot to do so and had to insert it in
the margin. The paragraph appears in its proper place in tyGL
and daGL.
20/40–41. From the context, Holmbäck (1919, 223–27) argues, ‘thekinsmen . . . fourth generation’ (niþiar . . . a fiarþa mann) mustrefer to kin in the male line. He then considers what the last part ofthis phrase might mean, and comes to the conclusion that the deceased was included in the generation count, although this was
not always the case in Swedish provincial laws. This means thatthe fourth remove from the deceased father was (1) amongst his
ascendants his paternal grandfather; (2) amongst his descendants
his great grandsons in the male line and (3) amongst collateral kin
his brother’s sons and father’s brothers. These all inherited equallywith the deceased’s daughters (see following note) but how thisdivision functioned in practice is not known. Diplomas show thatduring the thirteenth century farms were divided into small, barely
supportable, holdings and occasionally it appears that the smallerof these, if sold, returned to the mother farm. The provision in
Chapter 28/71 relating to the division of property seems specifically to be limited to liquid assets.
Concerning the form burnum ‘daughters’ in the B-text, Schlyter(CIG, 247) argues that this variant reading should be ignored, but
Valter Jansson (1935, 7–8, 10–13) in a study of a runic inscription
from Bro parish in Gotland, offers evidence from other inscriptions
that borna means ‘daughter’. He cites the fact that tyGL has myt
den tochteren ‘with the daughters’ and the Danish, daGL, medt
burne in support of his suggestion. On this basis Wessén’s acceptance (SL IV, 267 note 23) that miþ burnum means ‘with the daughters’
has been followed here.
20/43 footnote. ‘and the women’s portions are discharged’ (ok quinna
lutir iru ut rettadir). Wessén (SL IV, 267 note 25) thinks that thisclause was original, although it is missing from the A-text, since it
relates to the immediately following provision. A widow’s claim
was treated as a debt to the estate, payable before the inheritancewas divided (cf. Note to 13/60).
20/43 and footnote. The masculine form hann instead of the feminine appears again at 22/20, also corrected by Säve in GU (cf.
Pipping 1904, 15). The B-text continues with the plural here: En
qwindi takin slict yr gardj sum thar i haffdu ‘But women take118

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

those things from the farm that they brought to it’. The reference
is to the widow of the owner of the farm and to the return of the
dowry (haimfylgi) she brought to the marriage.
20/44–45. If a dowry claim was not properly laid out in the year
immediately following her husband’s death, the estate had the rightto withhold payment, or at least the right of proof if a case werebrought (see SL IV, 268 note 27). Iuul (1941, 174–77) suggeststhat dowry provisions in GL represent an earlier situation thanthose in mainland provincial laws.
20/46–47. The widow of a family where the male line had expired
received support for just one year, if she did not remarry. It seems
to be tacitly assumed that she was free to do this if she wished, as
she would have been in Svealand. In Götaland, she would have
had to have agreement from her giftoman (the one who received
her bride-price). The provisions here seem to be less generous thanthose laid out at 20/66–70, but they may have been granted inaddition to the latter.
20/47–48. Grain and other produce were normally measured by capacity rather than weight in the Middle Ages. A laupr was ¼ barrel,roughly equivalent to a bushel (circa thirty-six litres). It has thesame derivation as Old English leap ‘basket’. The word laupr for
grain measure was apparently unique to Gotland and it is still
current (cf. GGD, 105 note 4; GO s. v. *löp1; Gustavson 1940–42,
1948, 217; 1936, 300–01). The capacity measure normally in use,equivalent to half a barrel, was variously called a skäppa or aspann, depending on the part of Sweden (cf. Aakjær 1936, 211;
Jansson 1936, 2, 5, 22). Neither is used in GL, but spannamal andvariants are found in Gotlandic dialect.
On the evidence of pollen analysis, rye began to be cultivatedin Scandinavia in the early Iron Age, but did not become a significant crop until the Viking Age. It was more resistant to drought
and less demanding in terms of soil quality, and its good baking
qualities caused it to advance over other types of grain in thesixteenth century. The oldest provincial laws all mention rye, it
being the only seed crop referred to in ÄVgL (cf. ÄVgL Äb 81;
YVgL Äb 33; ÖgL Kkb 2 pr). It also occurs in UL Kkb 7 §5, SdmLKkb 5 pr; Bb 13 pr, VmL Kkb 6 §4. Rye seems to have been grownas an autumn crop and MELL Jb 29 refers to rye in such a context
that winter rye must be intended. In southern Sweden rye seems tohave been sown after 14th October (about a week later by theNOTES

119

Gregorian calendar), that is, at the start of winter. Rye was also thecrop sown on newly cleared land (cf. Note to 48/2–3).
20/50. ‘as she has put in’ (han i quam). The reference is to property
that the wife brought to a marriage, not to the wife herself. Pipping(GLGS, 31 note 1) expands on Schlyter’s translation (CIG, 48),
considering it to be a misreading. Cf. ‘as many as they brought tothe farm’ (sum þar þet i garþ flyttu) at 65/3–4.
20/52. The Gutnish expression for ‘all children . . . equally’ is sobarn sum barn, literally ‘each child the same as the other; child forchild’.
20/53–54. This provision is obscure, but has presumably to be readin conjunction with the provision at 24d/2–7 concerning the protection given to sisters by their brothers before their marriage, andthe portion given to them afterwards.
20/54–56. Normally a widow would have a right to her dowry(haimfylgi) and bride price (morgongåva, hogsl in GL, see Note to
20/60–61), her bed and best clothes and then that part of theinheritance which fell to her on its division: one third of the liquid
assets and land bought during the marriage, up to half the estate.
In VStL IV 3 §§4–6, for instance, full property sharing rights existedwith a man receiving two thirds or a half of the property on thedeath of his partner and a woman a half or one third depending on
the number of offspring. In GL, however, there seems to have beenno such division and, in the case of a widow left childless, herfamily reclaimed the dowry. This could represent a much older
system of inheritance than was in place on the mainland, perhaps
regarding the dowry as an advance on the woman’s inheritance(see Amira 1882–95, I, 528–30).
20/60–61. ‘Consolation and provision’ (hogsl ok iþ). The word hogsl
is used later in the text of a sum of money paid in compensation toan unmarried mother by the father of her child (Chapter 20a). Although no level of payment is mentioned in connection with awidow, full hogsl for an unmarried mother was eight marks in coin
(two marks of silver). The translator of tyGL has related this word
to Middle Low German höger ‘higher’, but it might have resulted
from a loan word: Middle Low German hogen ‘gladden, comfort,
console’ (cf. CISG, 279; Amira 1882–95, I, 521–22; GU, xxvii;
GLGS, cxiii; GLGS, Ordbok, 38 s. v. hogsl). This interpretation
would suit both situations in which the sum was to be paid: aconsolation either for loss of a husband or loss of one’s honour.

120

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSThe word hogsl occurs only in GL and seems to be equivalent to
the morgongåva paid by a bridegroom to his bride, according toother provincial laws, on the morning after the wedding (the pricefor her virginity). This latter also reverted to the woman if shewere widowed. Säve (GU, xxvii) offers several alternative derivations and relationships for hogsl, including one to OWN hógr‘friendly, gentle’, which he thinks might support a sense equivalent to that of the morgongåva.
The word iþ means literally ‘occupation, industriousness’ and it
seems likely that this sum was paid in recognition of the work thata widow had contributed to the farm during her years of marriage,
although it might have simply been a provision for her new unsupported state (see SL IV, 268 note 31). Schlyter (CISG, 279 s. v.
hogsl) suggests that the phrase might be an example of parallelism
and that the two sums were not separate. There do, however, seemto have been distinct payments that were applicable. A widow
certainly, according to the following provision, received payment
for care of her family for the first eight years after her widowhood,
if she did not remarry, and if her sons died leaving no heirs duringthat time. This has led to speculation that the iþ might also havevaried and been proportional to the length of the marriage (cf.
GLGS, cxii; GGD, 67 note 2; Holmbäck 1919, 221–22).
20/63–64. The presumption is that the widow could, in addition tohogsl ok iþ, claim a mark in coin for each year, up to eight, that
she remained on the farm supporting her sons or their offspring. It
is implied that the sum was taken at the end of the period, rather
than year by year and that, even if any sons survived beyond thattime or left offspring, she would not have been entitled to further
money from the estate, although the wording is ambiguous.
20/66–70. A childless widow received board and lodging (but nopayment for care of her family) for as long as she wished, or ½
mark in coin a year up to sixteen years, payable on an annual
basis, if she chose not to remain on the farm. The total amount was
the same as that for a widow with children and presumably
the latter also received her board and lodging if she stayed on
the farm. These two provisions seem to be at odds with that at
20/46–49 also relating to childless widows where it is impliedthat they only received support for a year. It is possible, however,that both were applicable. Previous editors have not commented
upon this inconsistency.

NOTES

121

20/71 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (27) at this point.
20/71–80. The first half of this paragraph, together with the provisions at 20/23–25 and 33–59, are taken by Westholm (2007, 72–73)
to be evidence of the relatively high status of women in Gotland.
She suggests that there might have been farms run and owned by
women, giving rise to the Gotlandic farm or estate name Kvinnogårde.
20/79. ‘And they are both equal in blood relationship’. See Notes to
20/24, 20/25 and 20/25–29.
20/82. The provision that sisters are equal to daughters presumes
that the son died before his father in the fire (cf. the provision at
20/14–16), whereas a more modern supposition is that the older
person died first, in which case the provisions at 20/33–37 would
have applied.
20/87. In the expression innan staurs ‘within the farmstead’, staur
appears to have been not just a single pole or stake, but a series ofpoles that marked the boundary of the home farm. The enclosed
area had certain rights associated with it, which were important inlegal terms, but which were sometimes equally applicable to land
lying outside the boundary (cf. 25/38–39, 57/4, 63/2–3).
20/91. The word for land yielding a certain rent was laigi and was
originally used in connection with the rent to be paid by a tenant
farmer. The expression marka laigi came later to be used in reference to any area of land that would fetch a mark of silver in annual
rent, if tenanted, the equivalent of markland in UL and elsewherein mainland provincial laws. This usage seems to have continued
into the eighteenth century in Gotland. In UL Jb 1 rent is stated to
be one twenty-fourth of the freehold value of the land. According
to this valuation, a mark laigi would thus have been land to thefreehold value of twenty-four marks of silver or three of gold (cf.
Note to 3/4). One mark of gold in terms of freehold land would
thus have been equal to 1/3 of a mark laigi and nine marks of gold,
three markar laigi. The basis for land taxation was freehold value,
but this could also be expressed in acreage, varying from district
to district depending on the fertility of the soil (cf. SL III, SdmL,
95–96; Note to 28/35–39). Land worth one mark of silver was
subject to a rent of one örtug (1/24 mark) and was called an örtugland.
Lönnroth (1940, 87–101) summarises five different theories relating to the origin of the term markland and concludes that it was an
assessment unit for land (in relation to inheritance), which eventually became a measure of obligation to taxation. Cf. CISG s. v.

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

laigi; Styffe 1864, 64–66; Jacobsen (GGD, 68 note 8); Thulin 1911,
122; Sandström 1927, 41–42; Ambrosiani 1939, 162–63; Wessén(SL IV, 269 note 39 and references); Dovring 1947, 357–58.
20/92 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (28) at this point.
The prefix þy- used in GL to denote illegitimate children was aword for a female servant, female slaves frequently being taken as
concubines. The word þysun (similarly þydotir and þybarn) thus
originally meant ‘son of a slave woman’, but here it includes theillegitimate son of a free man and woman (cf. Holmbäck 1919,
228–31). The coming of Christianity brought about a differentiation between children born to married and unmarried parents,
particularly after the Synod of Skänninge in 1248. Provincial laws
other than GL imply that such a child could only inherit from its
mother, if at all (cf. ÄVgL Äb 8, YVgL Äb 11–12; ÖgL Äb 4).
20/93. The adjective aþal is used in two contexts in GL, here
meaning ‘trueborn’ and in Chapter 25 concerning land meaning‘cultivated’ as opposed to ‘woodland’. In the present chapter there
seem to be two senses, both related to ‘trueborn’: Gotlandic as
opposed to non-Gotlandic and legitimate as opposed to illegitimate (20/101).
20/94–96. This provision presupposes that written genealogical tables were common in Gotland, although none survive (cf. SL IV,
269 note 43). They did not come into use elsewhere until later inthe Middle Ages, although there are genealogical elements on somerunic inscriptions, in diplomas and in literature, e.g. Erikskrönikan(ll. 202–31). It is worth noting that it was the female line of anillegitimate son that had to be Gotlandic for him to inherit. This
presumably excluded both non-Gotlandic women and slaves (cf.
Notes to 20/92, 20/93).
20/103–05, 20/108–11. The responsibility taken by a father for the
support of his illegitimate children by non-Gotlandic women,
as well as Gotlandic, contrasts with certain mainland provincial
laws in which they were the responsibility of their mother (cf.
ÄVgL Äb 8, YVgL Äb 11–12; ÖgL Äb 4). The laws of Svealand
distribute responsibility between the parents (cf. UL Äb 23 §2; 24
pr; HL Äb 14 §2).
20/107–08. It is possible to detect an alliterative passage behind thelist of items to be provided: fulkvapn ok sengakleþi, faldu ok legvitu
ok vengi, ok femtan elnar kleþis til gangkleþa. Such alliteration
would have been an aid to memory.

NOTES123

20/107. The battle weapons (or equipment) for the levy in defence ofthe province (fulkvapn) were distinguished from murder weapons,or weapons used by knights. In HL Rb 14 §2, the folkvapen are
named as sword or axe, iron helmet, shield, brynia or musa (chain
mail helmet or hood), bow with three dozen arrows. These last
were also considered (at least potentially) to be murder weapons(cf. SdmL Mb 26 §3; DL Mb 19; SL II, DL, 45 notes 61 and 62).
Sometimes a spear and club were included, although these are notmentioned in provincial laws and the axe was considered to be themost important weapon of the levy (Grieg 1943b, 124; Hellsten
1943, 186). The shield was originally round and made from lime
wood, but this later proved ineffective and was superseded (Grieg
1943a, 69). The word fulkvapn occurs also in SkL 88 (CISk I 87),with respect to breaking and entering, and elsewhere in Danish
and Swedish provincial laws. Cf. GGD, 69 note 7; SL IV, 269 note
48; SL IV, 72 note 15 and references.
The top covering of a bed (falda) was made of skins, but anotherskin might have been used under the sleeper to cover the straw (cf.
Neogard’s collection, Gautau-Minning; SL IV, 270 note 49).
Mattress fillings were, for example, down, feathers, hair, hay,moss, seaweed, leaves or chaff, according to the social status of thefamily and what was available. Hay and straw were most common.
Säve (GU, xxviii) describes beds as having first a straw mattress,
then an under sheet (‘underkläde’), then a wool or homespun blanket called the ‘lägita’ or ‘legta’ and lastly a sheet, but this conflicts
with alternative suggestions. According to Bugge (1877–78, 266–67)
legvita was still current in nineteenth-century Gotland to designate a woollen blanket put on a bed between the under sheet andthe top sheet. He thinks that the word derives from elements meaning ‘a white blanket for lying on’. The final blanket or bedcovering(sengakleþi) was sometimes the sleeper’s cloak.
20/108. The vengi mentioned may have been a pillow for the bed, or
else a raiþvengi ‘saddle cushion’.
From the context, kleþi in this single instance means not ‘garments’, but ‘cloth’. It was fine woollen material (cf. English‘(broad)cloth’) in contrast to native homespun (Swedish vadmal),of which there is, curiously, no mention in GL, although the term
appears in ÖgL Bb 9 pr and in MELL Jb 9.
20/108–14. The assumption that illegitimate daughters remained athome until they were eighteen years of age implies that this was

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

the age of majority for women (as opposed to fifteen for men,20/6). There is, however, no other support for this in GL. Daughters received an extra mark in coin and a cow instead of weapons,
which suggests that the latter were worth at least a mark morethan a cow.
20/114–16. The rights of illegitimate children had to be honouredin the presence of the parishioners and with their given witness(cf. SL IV, 270 note 51).
20/118. The expression ‘charged with violation’ (fallas viþr) is anextension of the usual sense of the Gtn, which is ‘be found guilty’(cf. OWN fallerask ‘prove false’, (of a woman) ‘fall’).
20/120. The compensation (hogsl) given here was four marks in coin(one mark of silver), half of the maximum, whereas eight marks incoin (two marks of silver) were payable to a Gotlandic woman(20a/20–21). Cf. högsl, högen in tyGL (CIG, 134, l.24; 136, l.17);
Note to 20/60–61.
20/121–22. The difference in penalty applicable to intercourse thatwas not discovered (a fine, in effect, of one mark of silver) fromthat in which the couple were innitakin ‘caught in the act’ (mutilation
or a fine of three marks of silver) is striking. Both these fines werehalf of what would have been payable for a wholly Gotlandic woman.
The mutilation here and in the next chapter, loss of a hand or foot,was a shaming punishment, but it was not regarded as a mirroringor symbolic punishment, which was only meted out for a specificcrime (e.g. loss of the nose for seduction or adultery, hanging fortheft) or a retaliatory one, which repeated the result of the crime(e.g. loss of a corresponding limb for a wounding). Burning alive
for an arsonist could be considered either symbolic or retaliatory(cf. Brunner 1906–28, II, 767–68; Hasselberg 1953, 235–42; KL s.
v. Speglande straff). This provision is first in a series relating tosexual misconduct and, unusually, mixed relationships are mentioned before wholly Gotlandic ones (see SL IV, 270 note 54). As
Wessén also points out, it provides a link between the provisions
relating to inheritance and those relating to adultery and othersexual misdemeanours. This arrangement is typical of the organic
structure of GL, with no strict division into sections and with analmost seamless transition from one subject to the next.
20/123–25. It is worth noting that the provisions were the same
whether the father of an illegitimate daughter was Gotlandic andher mother non-Gotlandic, or vice versa.

NOTES

125

Chapter 20a: <Af manni innitaknum>This new chapter (29) in the B-text is not signalled in the A-text,
although the chapter title appears in the table of contents. The complex
provisions relating to sexual misconduct in this and the following
chapter reflect a little of the gradually changing attitudes to marital
fidelity. In older Germanic laws it was only the husband who wasconsidered to be shamed by the behaviour of his wife, and not viceversa. The Christian view that both parties to a marriage were equally
responsible was slowly introduced into Scandinavian law, althoughequality of treatment is not evident in GL or in Swedish provincial
laws, and in GL no fines to the bishop or other church official are
mentioned (cf. Brunner 1906–28, II, 854–55; Wilda 1960, 821–22;
Hemmer 1928, 241–42; Hasselberg 1953, 332–33).
20a/4–5. This is the only instance in GL in which loss of liberty, as
opposed to life, status or money, is mentioned as a punishment.
Stocks were used temporarily to hold a wrongdoer until he/she wasredeemed by the family. It was only with the development of towns
that prisons came into being. Originally, it was the duty of the
injured party to keep a wrongdoer at his farm and conduct him to
the assembly. As the very act of detention and binding was a serious infringement of personal rights, there were carefully constructed
rules surrounding this procedure, and the wrongdoer had to becaught in the act of committing a serious offence (cf. ÖgL Db 2 §1;
VmL Mb 26 §5). On the other hand, if the injured party let such aperson escape, they were themselves subject to fines (cf. Hasselberg
1953, 328–29 and notes 5 and 6; Thomson 1972, 89–90; Note to
Addition 8/17–20).
20a/5–8. The fine of six marks of silver with which an offender could
redeem his hand or foot was ¼ of a man’s wergild, but also the sum
payable in compensation for loss of a hand or foot (see 19/47–49).
This sum was presumably paid to the woman’s family (as opposedto the hogsl paid to her if she became pregnant).
20a/12–14. The six men were to swear to the truth of the witness
statement by the two parishioners, that no word had been heard of
the man’s involvement in the conception of the child before its
birth. They were thus swearing to the truthfulness of the accused
man himself (see SL IV, 270 note 60).
20a/14–15. The accused man was entitled to obtain a six-man oath if
he could obtain two resident parishioners as witnesses. Jacobsen

126

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS(GGD, 71 note 3) offers the interpretation that the six men were toinclude the defendant and the two parishioners, but Wessén’s translation appears more likely.
20a/17–18. Men of equal birth with the woman would in thisinstance presumably have been of Gotlandic birth (see SL IV, 270
note 62).
20a/18–21. If the man was unmarried as well as the woman, he might
be expected to marry her, but if not he had to pay her full compensation (eight marks in coin) as if she were his widow.
20a/22–23. The three marks referred to here are most probably threemarks in coin, as silver is not specified (see SL IV, 271 note 64).
This payment is strikingly low in comparison to the sums payable
to Gotlandic or (illegitimate) half-Gotlandic women for a discovered seduction (six or three marks of silver respectively). It is possiblethat three marks of silver was intended, which would have beenequal to the amount payable in respect of an illegitimate halfGotlandic woman (20/121–22). The sum is, however, the same asthat payable by a non-Gotlandic man in similar circumstances,again with no reference to silver or coin (cf. Note to 20a/24–31,
33–36).
20a/23–24. Schlyter’s punctuation, with a semicolon after ‘discovered in flagrante delicto’ (innitakin), does not seem to be correct.
The meaning appears to be that the non-Gotlandic woman must bea resident and not a camp follower or a prostitute. Cf. GGD, 71
note 8; SL IV, 271 note 65.
20a/24–31 33–36. Compensation rules depended on the status of
the woman in the case, and not on that of the man. If the woman
were Gotlandic, her ‘consolation’ was eight marks in coin (twomarks of silver), which was one twelfth of her wergild (twenty-four
marks of silver). If she were non-Gotlandic, it was three marks incoin, which was just a little less than one twelfth of her wergild offorty marks in coin (see SL IV, 271 note 71).
20a/27–28. Since the fine payable in all these cases depended on
the status of the woman involved, and a Gotlandic woman is again
under consideration here, one can infer from the expression hogsl
atta markar here that fult hogsl (20a/20), compensation payablefor undiscovered intercourse resulting in pregnancy, was also eightmarks in coin.
20a/32 and footnote. Although the A-text has ‘. . .if she is unmarried’(en han ogipt ier), Säve (GU, 16) and Pipping (GLGS, 34 note 4)

NOTES127

prefer the reading of the B-text and replace ogipt with ogiptr, reading han in the A-text as an error (or an alternative) for hann(nominative singular masculine). Both tyGL and daGL follow thereading of the A-text and Schlyter (CIG, 54), Jacobsen (GGD, 72
note 2) and Wessén (SL IV, 271 note 69) consider that there is noneed to make a change. The sense is quite clear without any amendment: if the woman was unmarried her father or, if he were dead,her brother was to take charge of the compensation and raise her
child, but if she were married, then her husband presumably did so.
Since the B-text has han for the masculine nominative pronounand haan for the feminine nominative pronoun, it seems possiblethat an error existed in the manuscript Bilefeld was using and that
this led to his writing ogipter rather than ogipt. It is worth notingthat in this case the (Gotlandic) woman was not expected to marrythe (non-Gotlandic) man.
20a/33 and footnote. The B-text reading ogutnischir ‘non-Gotlandic’is probably correct, although the circumstance of a Gotlandic man
having a child with a non-Gotlandic woman is not previously referred
to either. Both tyGL and daGL have this same reading.
Chapter 21: Gierir mandr hor
This chapter continues the theme of the end of the previous one,covering provisions relating to cases in which one or more of theparties was married, or in which seduction or violence were involved.
It is significant that the chapter title refers specifically to the malepartner, and that no punishment is suggested for an erring wife. This
is in contrast to some mainland provincial laws. In ÄVgL Gb 5 she
has to leave home in her everyday clothes and in YVgL Gb 5 and 6
she is shamed in her banishment from the house by having her clothes
cut if caught in the act, but otherwise must leave in her everyday
clothes. The woman also forfeited her morgongåva ‘bride price’ andeverything she received at her marriage. Adultery was usually thesole reason for divorce, although there is an exception in ÖgL Kkb
27, where incompatibility seems to have been permissible as a reason. In SdmL Gb 4 and VmL Äb 6 a woman catching her husband in
adultery, in her marriage bed, could maim her rival or tear her clothes
and in UL and VmL (Äb 6 §1) she has the right to kill her rival. Thereis no mention in GL of any similar punishments.
The Swedish provincial laws with the sole exception of GL haveprovisions forbidding sexual relations with kin closer than the fifth

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degree (cf. ÄVgL Gb 8, YVgL Kkb 52 and Urb 3, ÖgL Kkb 15 pr).
There could be two reasons for this omission: GL totally lacks asection relating to church law, and/or the law was codified during
the period preceding the Lateran Council of 1215, when the fourth
degree limit was imposed, relaxing a previous limit of the sixth
degree. This uncertainty could have led to the exclusion of any
related statutes.
21/2–3. The first provision of this section refers, by a process of
elimination, to payment by a married man committing adultery
with an unmarried woman in addition to her consolation (21/5–7),
or by an unmarried man committing adultery with a married woman
but not caught in the act by her husband. The amount payable wasonly nine marks in coin, of which six went to the family of thewoman or her husband.
21/4. Despite Jacobsen’s doubts (GGD, 72 note 3), it is clear thatyfirhor means ‘double adultery’ and this is confirmed by the reading in tyGL, which is czwevald obirspil also das sy beide echtelute synt. This concept came into being with the introduction of
Christianity and more equal responsibility for faithfulness between
partners (cf. UL Äb 6). The existence of married priests is impliedby the phrase lerdir ella olerdir in the B-text, which all editors
consider should be applied as an emendation to the A-text, bycomparison with tyGL and daGL and with 21/9 (cf. CIG, 54; GLGS,
34 note 6; SL IV, 271 note 2). The wronged party, malsaigandi,
was always the husband of the woman in the case. If the woman’s
seducer was a married man, rather than a single man, the husband
received double the compensation and the community four times.
Whether different recipients were intended by the use of the wordland as opposed to þing is unclear, but cf. 31/10–12. The punishment for discovered adultery was different (see Note to 21/9–12).
21/5–8. The compensation paid by a married man to an unmarried
woman (in addition to that to her family) seems to have been thesame as if an unmarried man fathered a child with an unmarried
woman, that is hogsl, presumably dependent upon the status of thewoman (eight marks or three marks). This is the sole instance of
the word hogsl used in a circumstance in which no child is involved,
and perhaps compensated for the man’s inability to marry his victim. If the situation were reversed, nothing was payable to thewoman, who was considered to be partly culpable in this case, justto her husband (21/3).

NOTES

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21/9–12. No differentiation between the treatment of a married andan unmarried man is made for discovered adultery with a married
woman. Community fines do not seem to have been paid in suchcases. The right of a cuckolded husband, who catches his wife in
the act of adultery, to kill the male offender occurs in several mainland provincial laws (e.g. ÖgL Eb 26, Vb 30). In earlier laws, it was
not necessary for the pair to be caught in the act (cf. ÄVgL Md 11;
YVgL Db 22). In the provincial laws of Svealand, but not of Götaland,
the woman could also be killed, but suitable proof had to be taken
to the assembly (cf. VmL Äb 6). Wessén (SL IV, 271 note 5) thinksthat the option of the wrongdoer redeeming his life for forty marks(the wergild of a non-Gotlander) was borrowed from mainland laws
and the sum involved seems to support this suggestion. The clausegiving the husband the right to choose between the punishments
occurs only in the A-text, but this might be presumed to have been
the case.
The death sentence is mentioned in GL only in connection withfive specific types of action: (1) for discovered adultery with amarried woman as detailed here; (2) for abducting an unmarried
girl without her parent or guardian’s consent (21/15–20, 20–22);(3) for rape (22/16–19, 26–28); (4) for theft of property over acertain value, or subsequent theft (38/6–9); (5) for misappropriation or abuse of land of a certain value (63/11–12). The punishment
is unconditional only in cases (4) and (5), otherwise the wronged
party can choose compensation instead. Loss of one’s neck, presumably decapitation, was the punishment for cases (2) and (5),and a shameful death by hanging is specifically mentioned fortheft, but not otherwise. Medieval German laws showed a gradualincrease in use of the death penalty from about the middle of thethirteenth century, together with a greater variety of means ofexecution. Swedish provincial laws as well as VStL show a similar
trend (see Hasselberg 1953, 226–31). GL thus exhibits an older
pattern of punishment, although a move from direct revenge forcrimes of honour is reflected in its provisions (cf. Note to 8/25–
26). A number of theories have been proposed concerning therelationship between the death penalty and sacrifice. Mogk (1909,
642–43) concludes that Germanic sacrifice was a cult act, not apunishment, while Amira (1922, 57–64) argues that there was alink between sacrifice and the death penalty, supported by theobservation that offences punishable by death were sacrilegious or

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shameful in some way. Wennström (1936, 505–07) and Rehfeldt(1942, 164–66) reject this suggestion and Ström (1942, 277–78)
thinks that superstitions that surrounded the act of killing itself,even judicial killing, led to the development of rituals that madesuch a death appear to be voluntary and self-inflicted. Strömbäck(1942, 67–69), after a study of new evidence, thinks that there
might have been a connection in some cases between sacrifice andpunishment. Cf. Hemmer 1928, 55–57; 1960, 188–89; Notes to
21/15–20, 22/13–19, 22/26–28, 38/6–9, 63/11–13.
21/12–15. The implication in this and the following provision isthat the agreement of father and close kin was necessary for adaughter to enter into a lawful marriage. Luring a girl into
betrothal, although not as serious as abduction and forced
marriage, was regarded as a crime. Wessén (SL IV, 271 note 6)
thinks that this provision was borrowed from ÖgL Gb 6 §1, where
the fine was 13 1/3 marks to the härad ‘hundred’. The word festa
in the sense of ‘betrothal’ is not used elsewhere in GL, nor are
there any specific provisions relating to procedures for entering
into marriage. This is in marked contrast to the provincial laws of
the mainland, where there are detailed provisions concerning payments to be made by the various parties. Hildebrand (1879–1953,
I, 90–100) summarises these procedures and implications of marriage for the extended family (dynasty, clan or tribe) in Swedish
provincial laws.
21/15–20. Abduction, without the finesse of seduction, was usuallyregarded as a serious crime, not a normal precursor to marriage,
and the punishment was frequently outlawry (cf. UL, VmL, and HL
Äb 1 pr). The penalty imposed in GL for abduction of a Gotlandic
woman was either the life or the wergild of the offender (vereldihans), i.e. twenty-four marks of silver (three marks of gold) if theman were Gotlandic, otherwise ten marks of silver. The principle
was usually, however, that the wergild of the victim applied, as in
the following clause: if the woman were non-Gotlandic, the sum
was ten marks of silver (her wergild), whatever the status of theman (cf. Delin 1926, 268 note 1). The sum payable to the general
assembly from each fine was twelve marks, presumably in coin,
although this is not explicit (cf. Delin 1926, 269 note 2). The
abduction of a Gotlandic woman by a Gotlandic man was thus
compensated much more generously than the three other possible
cases. For other instances of compensation or punishment to some

NOTES131

extent depending upon the status of the perpetrator of the crime,
see Chapters 22/26–28, 38/6–9, 51/3–4 and 59/6. Whether the general
assembly received anything if the family of the woman chose theabductor’s life is not recorded. The form of execution was probably beheading, but GL does not state this (cf. Notes to 21/9–12,
63/11–13).
21/16–17. The word ran ‘[by] force’ generally meant ‘(open) robbery’, less despicable than þiaufnaþr meaning ‘(secret) theft’, inSwedish provincial laws, but this meaning does not occur in GL.
The implication here is the same as in ÖgL Äb 8, where taka kunu
rane means ‘force a woman to sexual intercourse’, although otherforms of violence (vald) seem to be included in the crime. Alternatively, one might take this as another example of parallelism (cf.
Notes to 13/7–8, 19/33, 25/48 and 50, 60/6).
Chapter 22: <Af quinna skam>
22/1 and footnote. This chapter (31 in the B-text) has no rubric in
the A-text, although it appears in the table of contents. Most editors number it Chapter 22, although Jacobsen (GGD, 73) numbers
it 21a and subsequent chapters 22 onwards. The content of thisand the following chapter should be compared with provisions inÖgL Eb 3 pr; UL Kgb 6; VStL I 43–47.
22/2–3. The noun symni ‘forced intercourse’ occurs only in GL. It isrelated to the verb sufa ‘sleep’ (cf. GU, xxix; GGD, 73 note 5). GL
is the earliest of the Swedish provincial laws to recognise rape as aseparate crime before the instigation of edsöreslag (cf. YVgL Ub 1
§7, which is not found in ÄVgL Ub; SL IV, 272 note 10; Note to
12/9–10). In mainland provincial laws, the expression taka kunu
mæþ vald implies not only rape but also the forcible abduction ofa woman, particularly one about to be married to another (cf. 21/
15–17; ÄVgL Gb 3; YVgL Gb 2). GulL 199 (NGL 1, 71) specifies aneven higher fine for rape (forty marks) or outlawry plus a double
wergild to the woman. Westholm (2007, 73–74) notes that a woman
does not appear to have been considered legally liable in the caseof unlawful intercourse, even if rape was not involved (cf. 21/2–12)
and suggests that this is further evidence of the higher status of
women in Gotlandic society compared to other Swedish provinces.
22/3–4. It was important that a woman proclaim her attack publicly
at the first possible opportunity, if she was to receive compensation. A shout was a common legal device, often associated with

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counteracting witchcraft (cf. ÖgL Eb 3 pr; UL Kgb 6; SdmL Kgb 6
pr; VmL Kgb 3 pr; HL Kgb 3 pr; MELL Eb 14 pr; MEStL Eb 11 pr;
Eriks SjL1 Text 1 II §20; Holmbäck 1920, 13–14). The use of ashout with legal effect is also evident in Chapter 36/13–14 inconnection with an abandoned boat and, as a means of witness, isconsidered by some researchers to be a feature of early Germanic
law. Hammerich (1941, 70–79) postulates, however, that it might
have come about as a result of church law in the twelfth and thirteen centuries, referring to Deut. 22 vv. 25–27, although he considers
Saxon law a more likely influence (see Westman 1944, 52–56).
The notion that a woman who had just been raped would be physically or emotionally able to run after her assailant and name him(22/9) is perhaps an indication of how unusual this law was andhow little understanding the lawmakers had of the circumstances
involved. That said, it is much more likely that the woman would
be able to name her attacker in a close rural community, such as
GL applied to, than in a town. The idea that the woman mightclaim to recognise her attacker later (22/21–22), having been unable
to do so earlier, is perhaps not so unusual, however.
22/7–12. If there was no witness to her shouting, the victim had to
declare her attack before witnesses and name the attacker at thenearest habitation within twenty-four hours. She could then use
the inhabitants as witnesses to the truth of her claim (that she had
declared the attack). If she delayed, it was advisable to keep silent
as the accused then had the right of defence.
22/9, 21. Jacobsen (GGD, 74 note 1) remarks that the word by ‘habitation’ occurs only here in GL and that it means a farmstead orother inhabited place rather than a town. Byamaþr (65/17, Addition 9/1), on the other hand, means ‘town-dweller’, more specificallyan inhabitant of Visby.
22/13–19. The penalty for rape was half of her wergild for a freewoman (the amount depending on whether she was Gotlandic or
non-Gotlandic) and one-sixth of her wergild for a slave. In eachcase, this was the same amount as would have been payable forkilling a woman within her circle of safety. If the woman was
married, the man could be killed (presumably by her husband,
although this is not explicit); alternatively he could pay her fullwergild. Slave women are excluded from this provision since they
could not be lawfully married. The wording seems to imply thatthe offender could offer to pay compensation in return for his life,

NOTES

133

whereas in the previous chapter it is the family of the victim who
had the choice (cf. Delin 1926, 268 note 1).
22/20 and footnote. This is one of a number of instances in which
the use by the B-text of the feminine nominative pronoun haanassists in reading the A-text; others are at 15/7, 18/5, 20/43, 23/21(cf. Pipping 1904, 15). See also second Note to 20/43.
22/26–28. The phrase ‘pays the wergild penalty’ (Gtn miþ vereldi
vert hann, literally ‘protects him with a wergild’) is ambiguous inthat it is not clear whose wergild was involved. Jacobsen (GGD, 75
note 2) assumes that it was the woman’s wergild, whereas Wessén(SL IV, 272 note 9 to Chapter 22) assumes that it was the slave’s. If
it were the slave’s wergild, the amount would be 4½ marks in coin,
which would seem to be derisory. Earlier in the chapter (22/13–19)
the compensation relates to the status of the woman. One can compare this provision to another in which a slave’s master made payment:
three öre for a theft of up to an öre, three times the value plus theproperty for greater amounts (Addition 8/1–3). In this case the owner
was not responsible for more than the value of his slave (Addition
8/30–32). This value seems to have been set at three marks ofsilver or twelve marks in coin (cf. 16/9–13, 13–17). In Chapters
21/2–8, 38/6–9, 51/3–4 and 59/6, penalties also seem to be related
to the status of the wrongdoer. Wessén compares these provisions
with those in ÖgL Eb 3 pr and UL Kgb 6, which represent edsöreslag(cf. Note to 12/9–10). Other points of interest are that it is not clear
whether a married or an unmarried victim is under considerationand that no mention is made of rape by a slave of a non-Gotlandic
woman. This last would appear to be an error of omission.
Chapter 23: Um quinna gripi
23/3. A tuppr (OWN toppr m.) was a pointed linen hood worn bymarried women and a huifr was possibly a headscarf, similar to a
wimple, worn underneath this.
23/5–6. In an agreement dated c.1199 between the governor of
Novgorod and the Germans and Gotlanders trading there (STFM I,
106–07), a provision relating to a similar incident set a fine of six
old grivna for the insult. The value of a grivna is not clear, as
there were several kinds (as there were of mark) (cf. MRL, 24–25;
SL IV, 272 note 3 to Chapter 23).
23/8–9. The clause excepting slave women from compensation
for anything but injury, which applies to the whole chapter, is134

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consistent with the statement in Chapter 19/141–42 that slaves
can neither insult nor be insulted.
23/9. The alliterative phrase nast eþa nestli refers to the two parts ofa clasp that fastened a woman’s clothing, the hook and the eyerespectively (cf. GGD, 75 note 5; SL IV, 272 note 5 to Chapter
23). In Laxdœla saga, Chapter 75, nist f. is taken to be the fastening of Halldórr’s gown, whereas nist n. was a pin or brooch (cf. ÍFV, 219 note 2).
23/11–12. The hook and eye or clasp can hardly be the hann ‘it’referred to; this must be the cloak to which they are the fastenings.
23/12–14. Reference to the maximum fine must be to the maximum
fine in this chapter, that is, two marks in coin. The laces presumably fastened a woman’s bodice. The provision that everything
must be returned to the woman refers to all the previously mentioned items (see SL IV, 272–73 notes 7 and 8).
23/15–30. The provisions in this part of the chapter fall into two
sets. The first set relates to manhandling of a generally boorish
nature, with fines rising from eight örtugar (1/3 mark) to two marks.
The second set relates to approaches of a more sexual nature, withfines falling from ½ mark to nothing depending on the intimacy of
the area involved, under the assumption that a woman should haveregistered her protest at the first opportunity, if she was to receive
maximum compensation. When a man committed what would today be termed an indecent assault, a woman was held to haveagreed to it by implication (see GGD, 76 note 3).
23/21. The verb kera ‘plead [a case]’ is common in early Danish law,
but has later been replaced both there and in Swedish law by klaga,from German klagen (cf. GGD, 35 note 4).
23/27–28. Bugge (1877–78, 262–63) rejects the translation in tyGL
and by Schlyter (CIG, 58) of handar mair as ‘en hand längre upp’
(a hand further up), and proposes instead that the whole expression means ‘videre, længere bort’ (further, further away), taking
handar to be related to OWN handan, meaning ‘on the other side’
and handar mair as a comparative (cf. Noreen 1894, 138; OSMS I,
463 s. v. handarmer; Rydqvist 1850–83, II, 443, 450).
23/28–29. The lack of any compensation for indecent (ohaiþverþr)assault, despite the fact that it is called a ‘fool’s grip’, is puzzling.
The sequence of fines clearly reflects the notion that a woman
should protest at the first opportunity, but in that case one might
query why the most invasive assault is described in the way it is.

NOTES

135

23/32. The alliterative phrase frels ok friþvetr ‘free and freeborn’ occurs
in Swedish provincial laws (e.g. UL Rb 9 §4, SdmL Rb 9 §4, VmL Rb
18 §3). The adjective frels and the noun frelsi n. ‘freedom’ derive fromfri hals, someone who did not have the neck ring that denoted a slave.
The person concerned might be a freed slave. On the other hand,friþvetr meant ‘free-born’ (cf. ÖgL Äb 24: fræls ok friþætta), or‘known to be free’ (cf. GGD, 76 note 4; SL IV, 273 note 10). The
expression in HL Kkb 2 pr in relation to the tax-free state of achurch is fult och frælst foræ allom wtskyldom ‘fully free from alltaxes’. Cf. also Note to 16/23–26.
Chapter 24: Af bryllaupum
Only the first section of this chapter in the A-text strictly refers to
weddings, as can be seen from chapter divisions in the B-text andthe table of contents in the A-text. The remainder of the chapter (thefinal one in the section covering family law) contains a miscellanyof provisions, a number relating to inheritance. It is possible that atleast some of these were later additions.
The concept behind the wedding ceremony described was that abride was taken from her family home to her new home. There islittle detail relating to marriage laws and customs in GL, but there
must have been traditions and accepted forms of ceremony (cf. Spegel,53). Chapter 21/12–14, 15–17 implies that a woman is only lawfully
married if she has the agreement of her father and family, and Chapter 20/15 that a father might arrange a marriage for his son. Only if
he had his father’s agreement could he have a share in his inheritance to put into the marriage (Chapter 28/69–71). Reading the banns
was instituted as a necessary precursor to a lawful marriage in 1215
by Pope Innocent III at the fourth Lateran council and imposed in
Sweden on 5/4/1216 (cf. DS I, 182–83, note 156; UL Kkb 15 §2).
Banns and church weddings took time to become established, however, and it was only with Laurentius Petri’s church statute of 1571
that church weddings became obligatory for a lawful marriage. In
Sweden the church law that replaced the statute in 1686 was instituted as a civil obligation only in 1734, thus the omission of any
mention of banns does not provide evidence of an early date for GL.
24/2–3. The custom of having a bride accompanied by male members of her family on horseback in a mågfärd or magfärd ‘processionof in-laws’ was an enduring one and is noted by Spegel (53), whointerprets the word as derived from makafärd ‘spouse procession’,136

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

and by Neogard in his collection Gautau-Minning (cf. Amira 1882–
95, I, 536–39; GO s. v. måg, mage).
24/2. In contradiction to Schlyter (CIG, 302), Bugge (1877–78, 272–73)
argues that the second element of vagnikil ‘wagon-rider’ is related
to the verb aka ‘travel’. The noun thus refers to ‘wagon-travellers’
who followed the procession of the dowry. This was done with acertain ceremony, as elsewhere in northern Europe (see GGD, 77
note 1). Picture stones from Alskog and Grötlingbo (ninth century) and Levide and Ekeby (eleventh century) show the earliest
pictorial evidence of a wagon being used to transport people.
24/3. The pronoun huar, used here, as has been pointed out by Säve
(GU, viii), means ‘each of two’. It is rarely confused in older sections of GL with huer, meaning ‘each of three or more’, although
this confusion occurs in later sections of the text. The implicationis thus that only two wagons were permitted, with two travellers
on each. The B-text, however, has the dative of huer and Säve
emends to hwerium here (cf. Pipping 1904, 5; SL IV, 274 note 3).
24/4–5. Weddings originally took place outside the church and were
followed by a nuptial mass (bruþmessa) in the church. This custom was later forbidden and a church ceremony had to be thecentre of the proceedings. Wedding rings, candles, bridal canopies
and eventually the bridal crown were all later (re)introductions,although a pell ‘canopy’ is mentioned at 65/12 and was abolishedas part of the sumptuary laws.
24/6. Bugge (1877–78, 260) suggests that the second element of
bryttuga ‘chief bridal attendant’ relates to a verb meaning to guideor lead. The bride’s representative at a wedding was called thebrudefører in West Norse sources. This person was thus the ‘leaderof the bride’. The person who usually dressed and decorated abride for weddings in Gotland was the priest’s wife and a bride
was only dressed in her bridal clothes when she arrived at theplace where she was to be married (see SL IV, 274 note 5). No
other helpers of the bride are mentioned, nor any formal gifts tothe bridal couple. There is also no equivalent of a gift to the sponsor of the bride by the bridegroom, although it occurs in mainland
provincial laws (e.g. ÄVgL and YVgL Gb 2).
24/8–10. Although wedding guests were henceforth forbidden tobring food for the feast, they were invited to bring voluntary gifts
for the couple. These gifts are unusual in that they seem to havebeen given without obligation. The custom of guests bringing an

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137

edible contribution (föring) to a feast or party is still current in
Gotland and other parts of Scandinavia (cf. Amira 1882–95, I, 524–
25, 533–34; GGD, 77 note 7).
24/13. The host (drotsieti) led each of the guests to his seat, and theruler of the feast (gierþamaþr, cf. John 2 v. 9) organised events andarrangements (cf. GGD, 78 note 1; SL IV, 274 note 8). It appears
from ÄVgL Gb 9 §1 and YVgL Gb 9 §2 that one of the duties of thelatter was to give the speech that finalised the marriage. He wascalled the kunemädre in Gotlandic dialect (Spegel, 53). The wordgierþamaþr was also used of a spokesman for the witnesses to otherlegal proceedings, such as a land purchase and pledging. Later his
function was taken over by the church, just as in the case of landpurchase it was taken over by the civil authorities.
24/17–18. Wessén points out that the high level of fine for breaking
the provisions regarding weddings and the fact that payment was
not to the parish, but to the province, indicate that this was a later
insertion. The drinking of toasts in Sweden was usually associatedwith guilds and the practice of drinking a toast to the Virgin Maryas the final toast of the wedding feast is unique to GL, although
toasts to St Catherine are mentioned in other sources (cf. Stadga,
150; Amira 1882–95, I, 539; SL IV, 274 note 9).
Chapter 24a: <Af erfisgierþum>24a/1 and footnote. This new chapter (34) in the B-text is not signalled in the A-text.
24a/2–4. The prohibition on funeral feasts might have been to avoid
any suspicion of ancestor worship. A suggested donation of clothing and footwear to the innansoknafulk, presumably the poor of
the parish, as an alternative would seem to indicate that this was
not simply another element of the sumptuary laws.
24a/3. Lis Jacobsen (GGD, 79 note 1) comments that kleþi ok skyþi ‘clothing
and footwear’ is ‘et af de sjældne Exempler paa forsætligt Enderim
i Lovsprog’ (one of the rare examples of intentional end rhyme inlegal language). The noun skyþi appears only here and Schlyter
suggests it was coined for the sake of a rhyme (see CISG s. v. Skyþi).
Chapter 24b: <Af skarlaþi>24b/1 and footnote. A new chapter is not signalled in the A-text. The
B-text has at this point (the start of Chapter 35) the first nine sentencesof Chapter 65 (the third of the additional chapters in the A-text).

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24b/2. The coupling of fine woollen cloth and wallcoverings (skarlaþ
ok bladragning) suggests that both words relate to hangings,
and Jacobsen (GGD, 79 note 3) assumes that both refer to funeralhangings. OWN blár was the colour of mourning, although
the word seems to have been used of both ‘black’ and ‘blue’.
The latter often referred to fine cloth, since blue was an expensive
dye. Falk (1919, 23) suggests that the word is related to Old
English bleo ‘colour; dye’, although a connection is usually
made with Old English blæw (cf. C-V s. v. blár). In Rígsþula,verse 29, síðar slœðor, serc bláfán, the fine shift must be blue (cf.
Edda, 284). In GulL 223 (NGL 1, 75), however, blá-feldr, listed
as legal tender, must be black sheepskin, not blue (cf. Falk 1919,
23–24, 40).
The practice of decorating the walls for a funeral was common
in Scandinavia, but such decorations were also used at weddings,
when black would have been inappropriate. It is possible, therefore, that the skarlaþ cloth in fact referred to hangings in red orsome other festive colour used at weddings (cf. GGD, 79 note 4;
SL IV, 274 note 13). The cloth called skarlaþ was known from the
beginning of the thirteenth century in Scandinavia as a costly
imported woollen cloth, which was of various colours: brown, blue,
white, although chiefly red. It was a smooth cloth, of a fine anddelicate texture, produced by a complex process. That imported
from Lincoln was particularly prized, although it was also produced in Germany and the Netherlands. Geirmundr, Kjartan and
Bolli Bollason in Laxdœla saga, Chapters 29, 40 and 63, eachwear a skarlatskyrtill rauðr ‘a red kirtle of scarlet’, and Bolli’s
cloak in Chapter 77 is a skarlatskápa rauð ‘red cloak of scarlet’,all of which imply that skarlats- describes not the colour but the
fabric (cf. Falk 1919, 54–55; ÍF V, 79, 118, 187, 225). The prohibition of this cloth and other hangings in GL might stem from thetime of the conflict between the town of Visby and the countryside (1288) and be symptomatic of the economic problems that
this tension caused. These provisions appear to be later additions,since the A- and B-texts differ in their disposition of material justhere, and the provisions at 65/11–13 are certainly later.
Chapter 24c: <Af raiþkleþum>24c/1 and footnote. This chapter is only indicated in the table ofcontents of the A-text.

NOTES

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24c/2. Saddles were not used by farmers during the period of GL. A
thick blanket was used for riding, augmented by cushions for apack animal. The significance of this provision, which is marked
as a new sub-section in the B-text, but without a rubric, is unclear.
Cutting saddlecloths and cushions into parts (whether more or fewer
than four) seems to make little sense and no editor offers any
explanation (cf. GGD, 79 note 6; SL IV, 275 note 16).
Chapter 24d: <Af gutniskum kunum>
24d/1 and footnote. This new chapter (36) in the B-text is not signalled in the A-text.
24d/2–5. This provision clearly relates to a situation in which thefather of a woman has died. If her brother or brothers were notwilling to arrange a marriage and a dowry for her, they were obliged
to commit one-eighth of their land to her. She was to manage theproperty with advice from her kinsmen and other parishioners. Wessén(SL IV, 275 note 18) compares this to provisions in JL1 I §8 andÖgL Gb 4 and to those in Chapter 20/33–39. In the latter an unmarried sister of deceased brothers, without male heirs, inherited
one-eighth of the property once debts were paid and before any
further distribution.
Chapter 24e: <Af ogutnisku fulki>
24e/1 and footnote. This chapter is only indicated in the table ofcontents of the A-text.
24e/2–3. Since this provision occurs in all extant manuscripts, theredactions lying behind these texts, including the A-text, would
appear to have a date no earlier than 1260 (cf. Introduction, pp.
xx, xxxvi–xxxvii).
Chapter 24f (64): Af farvegum manz
24f/1 and footnote. This chapter (37 in the B-text) was omitted fromits proper place by the scribe of the A-text (or possibly by thescribe of his original) and inserted between the last two of the later
chapters (63 and 65 in the present translation) (cf. CIG, 61 note
56; GLGS, 38 note 6). It appears preceding the chapter concerning
disputes about woodland in the table of contents in the B-text andin tyGL, but is absent from daGL. All previous editors leave thischapter at the end, whereas Wessén in his translation places it where

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it belongs. This latter arrangement has been adopted (cf. SL IV,
226, 275 note 1).
24f/2–8. A farvegr seems to have been a public right of way acrossprivately owned land that was wide enough for wheeled vehicles.
The word ta means a road or path of any width (see GGD, 82 note
9). A fence bordering a road was thus a tagarþr. If a landowner had
no property bordering a road (tafastr), he had the right to cross theland of a neighbour, if that bordered a road (ypin), to gain access tothat road. As Wessén (SL IV, 275 note 4) remarks, this is an interesting provision, in that it seems specifically to exclude generalaccess to a neighbour’s property other than in this particular circumstance. This provision runs counter to current Swedish right of access(allemansrätt), which applies to most land, provided that damage
cannot result and that private land around a house (e.g. the garden)
is not encroached upon. The reason behind this stricture in GL could
be that farming was intensive and that farmers did not wish too muchof their land to be lost to unnecessary footpaths of convenience.
24f/4. Schlyter (CIG, 91) translates varst as ‘jord’ (ground, land),but Säve (GU, xxix–xxx) thinks that the primary sense relates toan enclosed or fenced-in area. This interpretation conflicts, however, with the adjective ypin ‘open’.
24f/9. The talaut was grazing land, outside the farm boundaries, andsituated alongside a path or road.
The Gutnish word used for ‘path’ is related to the Gotlandic dialect
word kväiar, a narrow path, road or track between two boundary
fences, often leading to a single farm or property (cf. GO s. v. kväiar).
Fifteen paces (about fourteen metres) seems a generous width fora ‘narrow path’, but presumably this would have been necessary
for the movement of sheep, cattle and timber. The provision could
also be regarded as an active discouragement from fencing in landbordering a right of way. The width of a similar path between twoboundary fences, together with a means of calculating it, is specified in GulL 90 (NGL 1, 43–44) as about 2.75 metres. In ÄVgL Jb
12 it is seven ells, that is, about 3.85 metres. Both of these are
narrower than the width specified in GL. It is possible, however,that they were not intended for the movement of stock, but merely
for access by foot or on horseback.
24f/12. Jacobsen (GGD, 112 note 4) interprets hagi ‘enclosure’ as‘indhegnet Græsgang’ (enclosed grass path), but points out that
etymologically it was any enclosed place.

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141

24f/13. The liþ ‘gap’ that had to be made would have been closed
by an easily manipulated slip-rail (cf. SL IV, 275 note 7).
24f/14. Although the B-text reading lad could be a straightforward
scribal error for laga ‘lawful’, Säve (GU, xxxi–xxxii) offers analternative explanation. He suggests that the writer intended laþfarvegr, a track to or over a laþ or laþr. Säve takes this latter to berelated to OWN láð n. ‘grassland’, ‘grazing land’ or simply ‘land’.
The meaning of laþ-farvegr could therefore be ‘track through theland’. Since all tracks have to go through some sort of land, a morecircumscribed sense, ‘track to grazing land’ perhaps, would seemto be a more likely alternative. The difference between this provision and the immediately preceding one is subtle and not entirely
clear. Both relate to fencing placed across another’s right of way
and the provision of a gap for access, but in one case an enclosureis mentioned and in the other simply a fence. It is probable, however, that the second provision simply clarifies the responsibilities:
the owner of a fence for the provision of a gap, but the owner of aright of way for its security (cf. Note to 25/48).
24f/15–17. The owner/user of a right of way was responsible for
ensuring that the gap was properly closed in order to shut out strayanimals (cf. GulL 83 (NGL 1, 41)).
Chapter 25: Af skoga brigslum
In general, those with a share in common (oskiptr) (wood)land could
cut down wood from non-fruit bearing trees irrespective of the sizeof their holding. Swedish provincial laws have similar provisions inthat if someone became dissatisfied with the behaviour of others,
they could demand that the land be divided (cf. YVgL Fnb 12; ÖgL
Bb 30 §1; UL Bb 14 §12–13; DL Bb 43; VmL Bb 14 §11).
25/3. The precise sense of liksvitni ‘evidence of neighbours’ is disputed, but it clearly refers to evidence equivalent to the evidenceof kin provided in cases involving cultivated land as opposed towoodland (25/12). Schlyter’s suggestion that it was the evidenceof neighbours seems not unreasonable, but he admits that he does
not know what the element lik- means here (cf. CIG, 276; GGD, 80
note 3). The word ortarvitni is immediately explained in the text
as a ‘witness as to work done’, but the only deduction that one canmake about liksvitni is that it involves the testimony of certain
persons (cf. SL IV, 276 note 1). Hald (1975, 55–56) suggests an
original form *liz-, genitive of *liþ ‘evidence from a group of people,

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neighbours’, and that this provides a parallel to the evidence of
kin in the following provision.
25/4–7. Three types of forestry crop are mentioned here: viþr‘firewood’, troþur ‘fencing wood’ and quistir ‘branches’. These
are translated by Wessén as ‘ved’, ‘gärdsle’ and ‘grenar’ and areequivalent to the three types of wood listed at 26/55: ‘a man’s
firewood, fencing wood or timber’ (viþ manz eþa garz virki eþa
timbr).
25/6. Lidén (1892, 94) suggests that OWN há could mean ‘after
grass, grass left over’. If this were the derivation of the first element of hafall, the whole could mean ‘time of the cutting of thegrass left over’, i.e. ‘haymaking time, autumn’, a sense that fits thecontext.
25/7–8. Wessén (SL IV, 276 note 2) observes that tyGL offers a translation that is a misunderstanding of this sentence.
25/8–9. The expression ‘one of those who owns most’ (an af þaimsum mest a) could not refer to the parties in the dispute, but mustrefer to the one amongst the witnesses who was the greatest landowner (Wessén). If this witness did not wish to swear, then his
evidence was not valid for either of the disputing parties.
25/10–11. The translation ‘either party’ for huargum (dative singular masculine of huargi, ‘one or other of two’) is derived from
Pipping (1904, 6) and from Wessén’s ‘någondera’ (SL IV, 276 note3). Schlyter’s translation (CIG, 61) ‘aldrig’ (never) is rejected.
25/14–16. Jacobsen (GGD, 81 note 3) interprets Brigþr þan sum
kringum a ‘if one owning neighbouring property disputes this’ as
referring to a situation in which one of the neighbours was involved in the dispute; he would then not have been permitted togive evidence. She infers from this that the clause cannot refer todisputes about cultivated land, since ‘neighbour’ witnesses were
not required in such cases. It seems simpler to assume that one of
the neighbours asked to provide evidence of work on cultivatedland disputed that work had been done. The next nearest neighbour would then have been approached for his support.
25/18–25. This entire provision is obscure, but Holmbäck (1920,
18–19 and note 4) offers the following explanation. He first assumes
that when there was a dispute of this type, it was between
communities or settlements, in relation to common woodland orother uncultivated land, rather than between individual landowners. He considers that the latter would have been such a rare

NOTES

143

occurrence that it would not have been provided for in GL. He
further suggests that if, at the point where the two settlements abutted
the disputed woodland, their land was of the same type then theywould have divided the unclaimed land equally. If one settlement
had cultivated land up to the disputed area and the other uncultivated,then the latter took one third of the unclaimed land and the former
the remainder, since it would not presumably have exercised all its
right to available woodland. Holmbäck also assumes that theprovisions for the settlement of disputes in the first section ofthis chapter also refer to that between residents in different communities.
25/18–20 and footnote. The words ok skogr ok myr, þa takin aþaliorþ tua luti ‘and woodland . . . two thirds’ were evidently omitted
by the scribe because consecutive lines in his original began withoc scogr. The phrase has been added in the margin, according to
Schlyter by a sixteenth-century hand.
25/23. Schlyter (CIG, 62) translates millan stumbla ok starþufur as‘emellan stubbar och starrtufvor’ (between stump and tufts of sedge),
which Wessén (SL IV, 276 note 5) interprets as meaning ‘at theboundary between tree-bearing land and marshland’.
25/24–25. Schlyter (CIG, 62) interprets this as meaning that owners
of woodland or marshland could not give evidence as neighbours
in matters covered by the immediately preceding provisions. The
sense, however, is not clear.
25/26. Woodland and marshland described as oskiptr was that inshared ownership (cf. 25/41). Swedish provincial laws all containpenalties for cutting wood illegally, often with the power of confiscating equipment (cf. ÄVgL Fns 2; YVgL Fnb 3–10; UL Bb 13–14;
ÖgL Bb 29, GL 26 §9; SdmL Bb 15–17; VmL 14; HL Bb 13; MELL
Bb 17). For related provisions, see 7/2–9, 26/38–46, 26/55–61,
and 63/2–4.
25/27. The sedge called Cladium mariscus (Gtn agr) was formerly incommon use for roofing in Gotland (cf. HRSH29, 388 note; SL IV,
276 note 7).
25/29. The verb yrkia refers to the type of work just described.
25/31. There have been a number of translations of anbol (here ‘building material’): Schlyter (CIG, 62) and Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok, 5)
have ‘körredskap’ (driving harness); Jacobsen (GGD, 82 note 1)
and Wessén (SL IV, 276 note 8), have ‘virke’ (raw material forwoodworking, etc.). They cite a Gotlandic dialect ambul with wide-

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

spread usage (cf. GO s. v. anbol, amble). Hald (1975, 53–55) argues
that anbol has the specific sense ‘building material’, the result of
the forestry work, and that this would naturally have been forfeit
along with the means of transport (Gtn faruskiaut).
25/32. Pipping (GLGS, 39 note 6) prefers the plural of the verb ‘prove’(vitin) in the A-text to the singular (vitni) in the B-text, sinceboth parties were witnesses to the act. He refers to instances at
13/57–58, 14/28 and 18/9. The singular seems, however, to bepreferable as it agrees with the first half of the sentence.
25/33. The reliance on an eyewitness, sometimes a professional witness or judge, to provide evidence in property disputes or othercases may have originated in Danish law (cf. Eriks SjL1 Text 1 II
§68) and was apparently native to Scandinavia. Further examples
are to be found in HL Kkb 18, ÄVgL Jb 16 and UL Bb 17 §4 (cf.
Westman 1912a, 208–12; Almquist 1923, 39–40).
25/45–46. See Note to 24f/2–8.
25/46–48. The person responsible for a fence was fined if damage
was caused by lack of proper upkeep to it.
25/48 and 50 and footnotes. The extra words ella hafa and ellaeygir appear in the margin in the B-text. They possibly indicate
a correction by the scribe, or that the original Bilefeld wasusing had both words. The scribe of the A-text has dropped theparallelism and used the verb hafa in each case (cf. Notes to 13/7–8,
19/33, 60/6).
25/48. The garþr originally denoted the fencing put in place toprotect crops from grazing cattle, but later came to refer to thefenced-in area itself. When crop rotation was being practised,various different fencing methods were used. Fences were commonly built of verticals and horizontals, but the halfgierþi, whichmarked a shared boundary between fields or pasture, consistedof timber palings (OWN skíðgarðr, Swedish skidgärdesgård) on
top of a low stone wall, called a vast in Gotland. The provincial
laws have various rules about the construction of lawful boundary
fences. ÖgL Bb14 gives a detailed description of how strong
and high a lawful boundary fence should be and how a gate
should open inwards and not outwards. HL Bb 5 gives rules similar to those in GL. The stated purpose of a fence in all provincial
laws apart from GL, where the purpose seems to be to protect
crops from people and animals, was to divide two villages andthere were complex rules about responsibility for its upkeep. Cf.

NOTES145

also GulL 80, 82–84 (NGL 1, 40–41); FrostL XIII 18–22 (NGL 1,
245–46).
The adjective aumbr ‘in a bad state’ is cognate with Swedish öm‘sore, sensitive, delicate’, which, as Jacobsen (GGD, 83 note 3)
remarks, is only used of sentient beings.
The preceding provisions form a bridge to the following chapter.
Chapter 26: Af halfgierþi
Once again the rubric applies only to the first part of the chapter; theremainder contains provisions relating to cutting of wood on someone else’s property.
26/3–4. The parishioners were to determine where a fence should beplaced, i.e. where the boundary between the two properties in question ran.
26/7–14. The defaulting party had a year to fulfil his obligation of
fencing, after which he had to deposit a pledge of ½ mark, as well as
paying for any damage, if his animals broke out. This process continued, the deposit being forfeited each fortnight, until the fencing
obligation had been fulfilled. The lutadagr ‘division day’ is theequivalent of the garðskipti or gerðing in GulL 82 (NGL 1, 40–41).
26/16. The expression garþr ir granna setir ‘a fence is a mediator
between neighbours’ is translated by Hadorph (Gothlandz-Laghen,30) as ‘laggill hägnat gör godh Gransämia’. The same expression
occurs in GulL 82 (NGL 1, 40–41) and there is a Danish proverb,
Gærde gjør Grander saate (Mau 1879, I, no. 3342) (cf. SL IV, 277
note 6; Pipping 1938, 43).
26/17. There is a new chapter in tyGL at this point. This could havebeen present in the original used by the scribe of tyGL, since it
follows a proverbial expression, which seems to form a natural break,but there is no similar indication in the other manuscripts of GL.
26/21–22. It was the responsibility of a landowner to have a viable
fence, once he had been warned (cf. 25/46–48).
26/22–30. These provisions are an extension of that at 26/8–11, withthe addition of payment for other damage done by the animal.
26/30–31. A hobble (hornband), which tied one horn to a back foot,was still used for bulls in the early twentieth century (see GGD, 84
note 3). Cf. the fines for straying animals in Chapters 40–46.
26/33, 26/47–48. Säve (GU, xix) argues that the two instances of
banda (in ‘[upper] band’) come not from band (cf. Schlyter, CIG,

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

242), but from bandi m., which exists in Gotlandic dialect withthe sole meaning ‘osier switch, withy’. The dative plural bandum(in ‘[two] bands’) occurs at 26/32 (cf. Läffler 1878, 287).
The height of the upper tie of a lawful fence was approximately
1.38 metres.
26/34–37. Different, although unspecified, rules clearly applied tofencing for animals that were liable to fly over or crawl understandard fences, or dig holes under them. Suin (as here) was thenormal word for domesticated pigs, (sma)gris being reserved for
piglets. Pigs were reared chiefly in richer agricultural areas, but inthe medieval period were still relatively small and similar to wild
pigs in appearance.
26/38 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (40) at this point.
26/38–42. The meaning here is that if the wood cut was somuch that it could not be carried away by hand, the fine wasthree marks to the owner and three to the community, but if thethief carried it home the fine was only 1/3 mark. Presumably he
had to make full restitution in either case (cf. SL IV, 277 notes 14–17). For related provisions, see 7/2–9, 25/26–37, 26/55–61 and
63/2–4.
26/45. The reading of the A-text (oyk vagn) is taken by Wessén (SLIV, 277 note 18) to refer to a wagon drawn by a pair (yoke) of
oxen, although his translation is ‘ök och vagn’ ([yoke of] draught
animal[s] and wagon). This latter is the reading of the B-text, which
seems to be more likely in that it balances the smaller rus ok kerru‘horse and cart’, or ‘pony and trap’ that follows. In CISk V (5 A 15,
17, 19–20) it is suggested that a kerra was half the size of a vagnin terms of load capacity, which may also be inferred from GL
Chapter 6/8–9. In Old Danish laws, øk means ‘mare’, but there isno evidence that this sense was ever current in Gotland (see GGD,
85 note 3). Cf. also Notes to 6/8–9 and 48/5.
26/50. Pipping emends iiii (ertaugar) to xiiii, following Schlyter(CIG, 66 note 33) and daGL. Wessén (SL IV, 277–78 note 20)
rejects this and agrees that the fines were cumulative: ½ mark (twelveörtugar) for the withy in the first pair of uprights, plus 1/3 mark(eight örtugar) for the next pair, plus one-sixth of a mark (fourörtugar) for the third pair, totalling one mark, almost certainly incoin (cf. Hemmer 1928, 188 and notes; Wennström 1936, 355–61;
1940, 78). Hemmer suggests that even if the lower of the two ties
between a pair of supports were also broken, there would have

NOTES

147

been no additional fine. He comments on the fact that the (additional) fine is reduced with the amount of extra damage. Wennström
broadly agrees, but suggests that the fines concerned were in marksof silver (see following note).
26/50–52. The word lids-meli or liss-meli occurs in Gotlandic dialectwith an original sense ‘gap the width of a track’, from the elements
lid ‘track’ and mela ‘measure’ (cf. GU, xxviii; GO s. v. led1). It is
now used of any gap in a fence of unspecified width, not necessarily for a track, but also of a ride in woodland, particularly one
offering a vista (cf. Rietz 1862–1955 s. v. lid (3); Wennström 1936,
355–57). The later provision (63/4–6), apparently relating to damage to fences in woodland (as opposed to farmland) wide enoughfor passage, stipulates a fine of three marks in coin, which was
greater than the two marks in coin here, but less than two marks ofsilver. Wessén (SL IV, 278 note 21) thinks that the difference merely
records an increase in the fine, but Wennström (1936, 358–59)
argues that provisions here, referring to farmland, must have intended
marks of silver. His reason is that fences in farming land would
surely have been valued more than those in woodland, although
he also questions whether Chapter 63 refers only to woodland fencing. The devaluation of the coinage over time should probably
also have been taken into consideration and this might restore thebalance between the two instances, even if this earlier provisionwere in coin (cf. Wennström 1940, 299).
26/55. Three types of wood are listed in increasing size. Firewood(viþr) was probably lightweight or short in length, fencing timber(garz virki) might have been equivalent to paling, althoughsubstantial enough to keep out stock, and timber (timbr) was
probably more substantial wood for buildings, ships, tools and utensils. Although farm buildings in Gotland were not universally wooden
as those on the mainland were, timbr would have had other uses on
the farm and elsewhere. Cf. ModSwe ved, virke and timmer and thethree types of forestry work listed at 25/4–6, and for related provisions, see 7/2–9, 25/26–37, 26/38–46, and 63/2–4.
26/57–58. ‘if one does not leave one’s own behind’ (en hann ekkilaifir sett atr). This clause refers to the offender in the third person,
whereas surrounding clauses are in the second person. The implication is that if an offender left his own wood behind, he could
have taken another’s in error (see GGD, 86 note 2). A similarassumption is made relating to horse theft (35/6–12).

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26/60–61. Wennström (1936, 220 note 70) considers Schlyter andJacobsen mistaken and that it was the offender who had responsibility for swearing that full restitution had been made, but cf. 23/
14–15, where a woman whose clothing has been disturbed has todeclare that everything has been returned to her.
The provisions concerning cutting wood in the final paragraphof this chapter seem to be related to those in Chapter 25/26–37.
Chapter 27: Af sauþi
27/4–5. Jacobsen (GGD, 86 note 5) observes the alliteration in i
engium eþa aign ‘in a meadow or [on another part of] your land’ andthe fact that the whole chapter is very rhythmical and full ofalliterations.
27/5. The expression gangr ok gata ‘path and track’ is probably a
synonymous alliteration (or parallelism), although the former isused of a narrower path for animals and the latter for a wider track
for wheeled vehicles (see GGD, 86 note 6).
27/5–6. The expression iemgoþr fran sum til ‘as good away as towards’ presumably means not that two separate paths had to be
made, but perhaps that the path had to be wide enough for two
animals or groups of animals to pass.
Chapter 28: Af aignakaupi
28/2. That land could only be sold in time of need was a principle
no doubt enforced to prevent the fragmentation of farms (cf. DL
Bb 1). It seems as if in Gotland ownership of land still mostly lay
in the hands of individual farmers, sometimes larger landowners,
but not the crown or the church, during the time of GL.
28/4–7. The principle of caveat emptor seems to have applied toland purchase in thirteenth-century Gotland as now. The main loser
in any illegal sale was the potential purchaser, who not only lostthe land price, but was also subject to a fine.
28/8–10. The assembly had to agree any land purchase, presumably
with the support of witnesses in cases of dispute. There are no
surviving deeds of transfer of land from Gotland, from which one
may infer that they were not customary (see SL IV, 278 note 2).
28/9. The masculine noun afraþr ‘kinsman’s portion’ was a payment made to the nearest kin of the seller of a piece of land if thatkinsman were not the purchaser. This recognised his right of preemption in the purchase and amounted to an eighth of the purchase

NOTES

149

price, according to tyGL (cf. CIG, 146; SL IV, 278 note 3). This
right is only mentioned in GL and afraþ n. means ‘annual rent’ inmainland provincial laws (see CISG s. v. afraþ). If a kinsman did
not take up his right within a year, thus approving the sale andconfirming that he could not or did not wish to purchase the land,
the payment lapsed and the sale was validated by default. Various
exceptions are listed at 28/33–35 and 28/35–39. Arrangements for
placing land in surety for a loan were the same as for an outrightsale. There are further details of these arrangements in Chapter 63.
28/13–17. Three (or possibly four) different types of blood relationship were recognised: skyldir menn ‘closely related kin’, quislarmenn‘relations from another family branch’ and etarmenn (moredistant family members, those who ‘belonged’). The terms frendi
and niþi were used of (male) kinsmen in general, with the context,
or an adjective, determining how closely related they were. At 25/
16–17, for instance, it seems that niþiar refers to more distantrelatives, whereas at 28/31 more closely related kin are intended.
In Gotland, as on the mainland, the concept of land as a birthrightto be kept within the family prevailed (cf. ÄVgL Jb 3; YVgL Jb 5
and 6; ÖgL Jb 3; UL Jb 1, 2 §4). The frendar seem particularly tohave been involved in approving marriages (e.g. 21/14, 24/14)
and other legal arrangements, such as ransoming captured family
members (e.g. 28/48–49, 56–57). A woman passed from one family
to another on her marriage, as did the property she took with her.
Any stock, for example, could be rebranded (see 46/3). The provisions in the present chapter should be compared with those in
Chapters 20/86–89 and 63/9–13. Although it is specifically statedthat land may not be sold outside the family, it seems that in extremis such a sale was legal, but resulted in the seller losing his
rights of citizenship (cf. DL (and VmL) Bb1; HL Jb 1; SL IV, 278–
79 notes 5 and 6).
28/22–23. As Wessén (SL IV, 279 note 7) states, lack of any relevant kin
meant that only a twelve-mark fine to the assembly was applied.
28/32–33. The phrase þa iru quindismenn nerari þan utanmenn ‘then
the female members are nearer than outsiders’ suggests that landsales could be made outside the family (cf. Note to 28/13–17). The
word utanmaþr is, however, unique to GL and similar words inmainland provincial laws refer to people outside the province(utlænzker man) or outside the village (ut byamæn), who might
still have been members of the family (cf. VgL III 87, 117).

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28/33–39. The apparent contradiction between the two juxtaposed
provisions is explained by the fact that in the first case, land was
exchanged value for value, for the convenience of the owners, andno sale occurred that reduced the value of the estate (see SL IV,
279 note 11).
28/35–39. The first provision exempting a sale from afraþr covers asituation in which the whole family sells the estate and the second
that in which land must be sold to pay wergild. The fourth exemption allows land to be sold to pay compensation for theft. The
third provision, relating to dowry in the form of land specifies
land yielding a maximum of one mark in rent (see Notes to 3/4,
20/91). Wessén assumes that the freehold value of a mark laigi ofland was calculated to be twenty-four marks of silver or three ofgold (cf. SL IV, 273 note 1, 281 note 2 to Chapter 32). Since threemarks of gold was the wergild for a Gotlander, Wessén’s assumption is reasonable in this context and that of 20/91. A comparison
should, however, be made with the provision in Chapter 65, which
specifies a maximum of two marks of gold for the value of a dowry,
although what form it may take is not specified. Wessén (SL IV,
279 note 12) states this to be equivalent of two mark laigi, but itshould, of course, be 2/3 mark laigi (cf. Note to 65/9–11). Schlyter(CIG, 273) observes that in one Gotlandic source from 1527 itappears that a mark laigi was equivalent to twelve marks (presumably of silver) in land value, that is, 1½ marks in gold (cf. Note to32/6). It is obvious from these differing opinions that the rental
value of a plot of land with a certain freehold value varied considerably with time and it is not possible to determine an exact
equivalence.
28/37–38. According to ÄVgL Jb 1, haimfylgi to a daughter was oneof five lawful ways of passing property from one person to another. The others were: inheritance, hemgæf to a son on his marriage,
purchase and by gift. According to MELL Jb 1, the five ways were:
inheritance, exchange, purchase, gift, and mortgage (provided themortgage was of long standing). This second list is enshrined in
the law of 1734 and is still current in Sweden.
28/38. The malaþing ‘betrothal meeting’ was a meeting at which amutual promise of marriage was confirmed, and a dowry agreed,with a ceremonial feast and exchange of gifts. The word is related
to OWN málþing ‘interview’, but it seems here to have had judicial importance (cf. Amira 1882–95, I, 80, 266, 278). A dowry

NOTES

151

could be up to one third or even half of the inheritance of the sons,and was probably no less than one-eighth of the total value of thefarm, which a daughter would have received if unmarried (24d/3–6) (cf. Amira 1882–95, I, 528–30). It included stock (65/2–4) as
well as household goods, jewellery, precious metals and land (cf.
SL IV, 273 note 1).
28/44 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (43) at this point.
No differentiation was normally made between combatant andnon-combatant hostages. Non-combatants were often sold as slavesin the medieval period, although combatants could be executed.
The idea of a hostage as the property of the victor is confirmed by
the fact that he or she could be released by payment of a ransom as
described here.
28/45. Jacobsen (GGD, 89 note 2) suggests that the use of eþa insteadof ok in the synonymous expression iorþ eþa aign ‘land orproperty’ is remarkable, since both mean property in the form ofland, as opposed to money or movables. There are, however, further examples of eþa where ok would seem more natural.
28/47–48. The maximum sum that a third party could redeem another’s son for unchallenged was the same as the value of a slave (cf.
ÖgL Gb14 §1; Note to 28/44). A limit was presumably set because,in addition to the money to pay the ransom, the third party received
a third of that sum for himself, making a maximum of four marks inall. It seems that this was a courtesy payment and that if the overall sum, including his third, exceeded three marks of silver the
relations could contest it.
28/54–57. What appears to be some sort of international agreement
is not referred to elsewhere (cf. SL IV, 279 note 16).
28/63–80. The remainder of this chapter contains provisions relating
to inheritance and more properly belongs in Chapter 20. There is alink, however, between the first of these provisions and the immediately preceding ones, which has clearly influenced the existing
sequence. Wessén (SL IV, 280 note 25) gives a more detailed
explanation of the provisions, which expands upon his translation.
Cf. also Kock 1926, 12–31.
28/65–67. Cf. provisions in SkL 85–86 (CISk I 84–85) and SkL Add
II (CISk Add B 5).
28/68 and footnote. The B-text has a new chapter (44) at this point.
28/69–70. The implication here seems to be that the marriage of ason, as well as that of a daughter, had to be with the agreement of

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the family (cf. Note to 21/12–15). The B-text has the parallelism‘counsel and consent’ here.
28/71. Division of property on a per capita basis is considered bysome to represent an older custom than that exhibited in mainland
provincial laws (cf. Iuul 1941, 113–15, 122–24).
28/74–75. Schlyter (CIG, 71), and Pipping (GLGS, 46) take theiremendation (Gtn raiþi to raþi) from the B-text to give the reading‘have the authority’ (raþi). Kock (1904, 72–73), however, does
not think that the A-text reading raiþi need be changed. He believes
that it comes from a verb raiþa (cf. OldSwe reþa), meaning ‘prepare himself’. This would give the clause raiþi sielfr firi sir fara
huert hann vil the sense ‘prepare himself to travel where he wishes’.
Kock observes that this makes as good sense as ‘have the authority to go where he wishes’.
28/75–80. The remainder of this chapter appears in the margin in
the B-text, and is not found in tyGL. There do not seem to be any
mainland provincial laws that contain the provision set out here.
Both ÖgL and UL Äb 8 pr, however, exhibit a reduced right ofsons to demand a division of property (cf. Holmbäck 1919, 64–
65; SL IV, 280 note 25). On a son’s right to inheritance in advance,see Kock (1926, 12–13). The rights of daughters to dowry arecovered in Chapter 24.
28/77. Schlyter (CIG, 71) and Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok, 61) translateoraþamaþr ‘unreasonable person’ as ‘en obetänksam människa’(an inconsiderate person). Wessén (SL IV, 279 note 24) suggeststhat the word, as well as meaning a father who makes an unfair
division of property, could also mean someone who was foolish(perhaps suffering from dementia) or a bad householder. Jacobsen(GGD, 90 note 5) translates it as ‘urimelig’, which could have
either sense. Kock (1926, 16) thinks that the passage means that if
a father was considered to be asking too high a rent (for the farmthat the son inhabits), a property division should occur at once
(cf. ÖgL Gb 19).
28/77–80. For non-Gotlanders, rules were more stringent inthat, even if they were married, sons could not force a division of
the estate except in the case of their father being ‘unreasonable’,in whatever sense. In both this and the previous provision,
the verb skynias ‘prove to be’ suggests that outside evidence
was required, possibly from relations or parishioners (cf. GGD, 90
note 6).

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Chapter 29: Af gieldum
29/2–3. A person could become indebted up to the extent of his
personal share in his inheritance. His fellow heirs were not liable
for any of his debt (cf. GGD, 91 note 1).
29/3–4. Payment for a deceased person’s debts could not exceed his
liquid assets (cf. UL Äb 25 pr; GGD, 91 note 2; Note to 5/7–9).
Chapter 30: Af veþium
30/2–4. Jacobsen (GGD, 91 note 6) infers that the one who had taken
the surety (veþ) kept what he had taken, but was to pay back to thedebtor the difference between the value of the surety and the (outstanding) debt (cf. UL Kmb 7). Cf. the provision in 63/9–11 andthe accompanying note.
30/3. The stefn was a summons in a civil case. It is assumed thatjudgement took place under the leadership and on the advice of
one or two legal experts, who obtained unanimous agreement fromthe rest of the assembly. Later this responsibility passed to special
judges. The cases considered were originally only those that affected society in general, while others were decided between therespective families. If agreement was not reached, or was not honoured, a wronged party could resort to ‘self counsel’ (independentjudgement).
30/4–5. Other examples of parishioners (or assembly members) making a valuation occur in respect of stray animals (40/4, 41/5, 45a/4) and concerning land valuation (32/8). For the alternative meaning of Gtn virþa ‘seize in payment of a debt, claim [something]from [someone]’, see Notes to 10/5, 63/9–11, Addition 9/5–6.
Chapter 31: Af þingum
31/4 and footnote. Pipping (1901a, 95 note 1) thinks that the scribe
has here inserted þria and then in error also copied iii from his
original (cf. Note to 19/77).
31/8–9. A similar restriction concerning the duration of the assembly occurs in ÖgL Rb 12 pr. Cf. also UL Rb 5 §3.
31/10–11. A three-mark fine (in coin) to the (local) community (mogi)
is referred to in Chapters 12/7, 19/131, 25/28–29, 40, 42, 26/40,
31/7, 35/4–5, 9 and, by implication, 36/17. In these instances asimilar sum was paid to the complainant. Wessén (SL IV, 281 note4) assumes that the sixth assembly was referred to in these cases,

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but cites further instances of fines at that level where the riding(þriþiungr) assembly might be intended: see 2/17, 4/14–15, 11/5,
21/2, 37/26, 48/8, 52/4 and 61/4.
31/11–12. A six-mark fine is mentioned in respect of unpaid wergild(see 13/62–63) and unspecified fines to the þriþiungr for lost animals (see 41/4, 42/3, 42/5, 45a/3).
31/12. Fines of twelve marks to the general assembly (land) are
mentioned a number of times, but despite the limit laid down here,fines of forty marks are stipulated on a number of occasions (cf.
Appendix D (ii)). The forty-mark fine may well have originatedlater than the present chapter, under influence from the mainland.
Jacobsen (GGD, 92 note 2) assumes that the limits simply apply
to the listed misdemeanours committed at the assembly. This is apossible explanation, although it seems rather narrow.
31/12–14. Further provisions concerning legal procedures are given
in Chapter 8/18–21 and Chapter 32.
Chapter 32: Af fearkrafi
32/2–20. These provisions do not specify which party had the rightof proof.
32/6. The phrase mark gulz refers to land worth a mark of gold
freehold. Chapters 47/10, 53/3–4 and, presumably, 65/10 refer tothe same method of land valuation, whereas Chapters 20/91, 28/37
and 63/11–12 refer to land valued in terms of the rent that it will
yield (mark laigi).
32/12–13 and footnote. The phrase ‘forward to the third’ (fram tilþriþiu) relates to an assumed ‘another period of a fortnight’ (*halfmanaþ frest aþra), which is missing from both the A-text and the
B-text. The phrase in angled brackets is supplied from tyGL, bycomparison with the following provision, which refers to disputes
relating to land worth less than a mark of gold. The implicationsof these provisions seem to be that if a defendant did not appear
after six or three weeks (depending on the value of the property indispute) a plaintiff either took his oath in his absence (if he had
the right of proof) or possibly won his case by default (if the defendant
had the right of proof) (cf. SL IV, 282 note 5 to Chapter 32). Wessén
assumes that in each case a defendant could move the oath-taking
twice from the original four or two weeks. It seems more likely,
however, that he could move it once, to give himself half as muchtime again (making a total of six weeks or three weeks), provided

NOTES

155

that he did this within the first fortnight or week respectively. He
would be ‘moving it by a fortnight (or a week) to the third fortnight (or week)’ from the date of the summons. This interpretationis adopted by both Schlyter and Jacobsen.
32/15. Wessén interprets the phrase vi manna stemnu ‘a six-man summons’ as meaning that one summoned the defendant to take asix-man oath.
Chapter 32a: Af manna kaupi
32a/1 and footnote. See Addition 7.
Chapter 33: Kaupir þu uxa
33/3–4. Concerning oxen ‘breaking out’, see 26/27–30.
Chapter 33a: <Af kauptri ko>
33a/1 and footnote. In the table of contents in the A-text, but not the
B-text, a separate chapter Af kauptri ko ‘Concerning a purchased
cow’ is recorded, although there is no equivalent indication in the
text. There is a new chapter in tyGL.
33a/4. If a milking cow was dry, this was regarded as a sign of witchcraft. Witches were supposedly able to steal milk from the cow ofa stranger (cf. Heurgren 1925, 297–98; SL IV, 283 note 3 to Chapter 33). In GulL 57 (NGL 1, 29) it is specified that a slave may bereturned to the vendor if he sucks cows. Also in GulL 44 (NGL 1,25) one hidden fault listed in a cow is that it suckles itself. This
could be regarded as the same problem, expressed differently, inthat one assumes she was then lacking in milk for her owner. DL
Bb 31 pr is alone in setting a value on the quarters of a cow’s
udder: one öre for one quarter, two öre for two and the option of
returning the cow for faults in three quarters.
Chapter 34: Kaupir þu hest
34/4. The form of blindness termed starblindr ‘moonblind’ usuallyrefers to cataracts (Swedish gråstarr), although the word canbe used figuratively to mean ‘purblind’. Cataracts in horses canoccur as a result of periodic ophthalmia, which is a well-documented equine disease, probably viral in origin. It was first recordedin the fourth century and called ‘moon-blindness’ because symptoms

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appear at roughly regular intervals, with periods of remission. The
effects are progressively more severe and the horse eventually
becomes totally blind in the affected eye. In view of the fact thatthe periods of remission could last for several months at a time,
the three days allowed for detecting the problem seem less than
generous (cf. Hayes 1968, 167–68). FrostL X 48 (NGL 1, 228) lists
the following faults related to horses: deafness, blindness, being
disabled (‘broken down’), permanent lameness, shying or stubbornness. A purchaser had five days within which to returnthe horse. HL Kmb 3 refers to lameness or noko annær laster ‘anyother disablement’.
Chapter 35: Af hesti
The chapter titles in the tables of contents in the A-text and in the Btext are more specific: Af hestatekt ‘Concerning the taking of horses’
and Ridir tu annan mans hest ‘If you ride another man’s horse’ respectively.
35/6–12. Presumably if one left one’s own horse behind, one could
simply have made a mistake. There was still, however, a fine attached to this action (35/10–12). Compare this to taking woodfrom another person (26/57–58), where there does not seem tohave been a fine if an equal amount were left.
35/11. Jacobsen (GGD, 96 note 2) assumes that, in the phrase kum
hanum hailum haim atr, the pronoun hanum refers to the owner ofthe horse (‘bring [it] back unharmed to him’), but kuma in thesense ‘bring’ takes the dative, so hanum in all probability refers to
the horse.
Chapter 36: Af skipa gezlu
36/2–3. The generic term for any vessel, ‘ship’, in which one put tosea was skip, but there were many terms to designate the size andtype of vessel. The general term for a merchant ship of a smaller
type (thirteen ribs and three benches as it states here) was kaupskip(see Hjärne 1929, 103). Trade between Gotland and the Baltic
countries had begun by the end of the Viking Age, but during theeleventh century trade with Russia was of increasing importanceand this continued into the twelfth century. With the rise of the
Hanseatic League the focus changed and trade was more directedto the south and west. Gotland had few natural resources but farmers

NOTES

157

dealt in weapons, ships, horses and provisions, all referred to in apapal letter of 1229 (DS I, 255–56, note 253, 16/2/1229). This
trade was also recognised in 1285 by Magnus Ladulås. The merchant vessels were principally sail-driven, although they would
have had a few oar-benches fore and aft (three in the case of thekaupskip described here). They were wide-beamed, deep-keeled andseaworthy, as opposed to the narrower, faster and more tender ships
for the levy (cf. KL s. v. Skibstyper).
36/4. A cargo vessel was a byrþingr, a term covering ships of various
sizes, from those used for coastal traffic to larger cargo ships, eventually succeeded by the kogge. Jacobsen (GGD, 96 note 3) remarksthat forms of the word byrþingr are still used in the Baltic of cargovessels and that in Eriks SjL1 Text 1 III §58 the word is used of asmall ship for freight, larger than a baat. In MLBL, VI §17 (NGL 2,
250–52) a byrþingr is stated to be smaller than a knarr and it
seems generally to have been a small, broad-beamed coastal vessel. In tyGL it is glossed as a cargo boat. The word birþakiR on
inscription G 351 from Visby is interpreted by Snædal (2002, 87–88)
as byrþing (cf. Brøgger and Sheteling 1950, 284–85; AEW s. v.
byrþing; KL s. v. Handelssjöfart).
36/5–6. The expression hus þet sum þiauþ sufa i ‘a house in whichpeople sleep’, describing the building to which a byrþing had tobe tied, refers in all probability to the sort of seasonal fishing hut(e.g. the fiskiahus mentioned in HL) found along the coastline in
all Scandinavian countries (see Erixon 1955, 132–33).
36/6–7. This, the only reference to a housewife in GL, implies that
she was more likely to have the keys than her husband. In UL Äb 3
pr there is reference to a wife having the right til lasæ ok nyklæ ‘tolock and key’ as a symbol of her control over the care and protection of the house. This right was claimed for her by her own family,
before the marriage act itself and brought with it great responsibility, as much of the wealth of a household would be in the silver
and jewels to which she had access.
36/11, 14, 16. The relative sizes of the two types of vessel referred to,a ‘small vessel’ (myndrikkia, 36/11) and a ‘boat’ (batr, 36/14, 16), areobscure. It may be that no distinction is intended. Both were certainly small coastal vessels, probably driven by oar or paddle only.
Säve challenges Schlyter’s translation of myndrikkia (based on the
text of tyGL) as ‘mindre skuta’, a small sailing vessel or ferry for
cargo. He suggests that a myndrikkia might originally have been a

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small vessel propelled with a single oar by a backward-facing boatman. He further suggests a derivation from OldSwe mynda ‘row
backwards’ and that the second element meant either ‘drive forward’ or ‘rock to and fro’ (describing the mode of propulsion of
the vessel). Säve agrees it is logical to assume that the vessel was
slightly larger than a boat (batr), and not just a punt (flat-bottomedboat), since the sequence of vessels mentioned appears to go fromthe larger to the smaller. The way in which the provision is phrased,
however, is ambiguous: a batr could have been valued more highly
than a myndrikkia. The former should not be left on the shore
without supervision, or anyone could claim it, whereas the latter
could be left if the owner were within shouting distance, otherwise
it could again be taken with impunity. Furthermore, if a batr weretaken from a landing place or mooring, the theft was treated in thesame way as that of a horse, whilst no penalty seems to be attachedto the taking of a myndrikkia if accepted procedures were followed. Cf. GU, xxvii–xxix; GO s. v. mynn-vricka; KL s. v. Myndrik.
Another word for a small boat was fluti (cf. Addition 8/42).
If a vessel was found varþalaus ‘unattended’ it could be treatedas a wreck to all intents and purposes in certain cases, and thefinder could claim a higher proportion of the value (cf. BjR 19 pr).
36/13–14. On the use of a shout as a legal instrument, see Note to22/3–4.
36/15–17. This provision seems to contradict the previous one, unless one assumes that a ‘landing place’ was always under watch, or
was deemed to be so, or that at staþum specifically means ‘tied up
at a mooring’, i.e. that the boat was obviously owned by someone
who intended to return to it.
For further responsibilities with regard to ships and boats, see
Addition 8/39–50.
Chapter 37: Af ranzsakan
37/6–7. Tracing property by means of house-searches has ancientorigins (see Westman 1912a, 223–24). The reason for the insistence on the searchers being loosely girded and without coats was
to avoid the possibility of evidence being planted. A similar stipulation is made in MLBL, VIII §8 (NGL 2, 271): þeir skulu ganga inlinda lausir ‘they should go in ungirded’ (cf. ÄVgL Tjb 5 §1; UL
Mb 47 §1). Jacobsen (GGD, 97 note 4) suggests that the kapa
referred to (in ‘coatless’) might have been a hooded cloak. ThisNOTES

159

implies that the searchers were to be easily recognised, as well as
unable to conceal evidence (cf. Hammerich 1959, 196–99; Wennström 1936, 148–64). The provisions relating to house-searches
varied considerably between different Swedish provincial laws andin MEStL Tjb 2 §1 anyone wishing to search without official permission had to lay down a deposit of forty marks.
37/7–9. The removal of immunity, effectively haimafriþr (cf. Note
to 12/2), from the dwelling of a person who refused a house-search
was a serious matter. The doors could be broken down without
redress, irrespective of whether stolen goods were found (cf. ÄVgLTjb 5 pr, 6; YVgL Tjb 30, 34; ÖgL Vb 32 §4).
37/12–13. According to Wessén (SL IV, 283 note 5 to Chapter 37)
þa al laiþznum fylgia ‘the warrant for ownership must be traced’ isa standard Scandinavian legal expression. The meaning is that proofof ownership must be traced from the previous owner to the person
now in possession of the goods. Wessén (SL IV, 233) inserts the
explanatory word ‘fångesman’ (assignor) in his translation of thispassage. This person was the one who had granted the right inproperty (of whatever type) to the assignee (in this case the person
under suspicion).
37/14. ‘The person to whom he first referred’ (þar sum hann fyrsti til
skiautr). Wessén (SL IV, 283 note 6 to Chapter 37) and Jacobsen(GGD, 97) call the person to whom the accused refers the‘hemulsman’ (Swedish) or ‘hjemmelsmand’ (Danish). This was the
person who had a legal obligation to defend a buyer’s right togoods against a challenge and to defend a buyer’s innocence if heconsequently lost ownership; in many circumstances this would
have been the previous owner or keeper. It is not clear from Wessén’snotes if he intends this person to be the same as the assignor referred
to in his note 5, but Jacobsen (GGD, 97 note 6) assumes only one
person is involved. The circumlocutions of the text make this passage rather obscure, but a translation assuming a single third party,
the assignor, from whom the accused person claims he received theproperty, makes perfect sense.
37/22–24. It appears from the context that the goods planted by themiscreant were assumed to be his own, which he was intending toaccuse his neighbour of having stolen, rather than goods he himself had taken and was trying to dispose of.
37/24–26. The wergild to be paid would be three marks of gold for a
Gotlander, or ten marks of silver for a non-Gotlander.

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37/26. The emended words, ‘But if’, derive from Pipping (GLGS,
xxxvi note 4) who prefers the B-text reading þar til, en ‘. . . inaddition . . . If’ to the A-text reading þar til et ‘until, unless’.
Schlyter (CIG, 78) and Säve (GU, 25) accept the A-text reading.
Wessén (SL IV, 233 and 284 note 11 to Chapter 37) follows these
two but acknowledges Pipping’s alternative interpretation, whichis perhaps to be preferred; it would be unusual to mention a finerelating only to a non-Gotlander before that to a Gotlander. The
twelve marks to the general assembly were according to Pippingin addition to the three marks payable to the (presumably) local
assembly, rather than instead of them (see also Jacobsen GGD, 98).
Chapter 38: Af þiaufa ret
Theft (þiaufnaþr) was secret theft of movables, as opposed to open
robbery. Although it is sometimes assumed that in pre-Christian times
this crime was regarded as a particularly serious offence against thecommunity at large, alongside murder and rape, and had to be atoned
for to the gods with the life of the perpetrator, there is little evidenceof this in the provincial laws. Admittedly, the worst crimes were
punishable by death, but the limit varied between the provinces:ÄVgL Md 8 sets the limit at two öre, GL at one mark of silver, theremainder of the laws at ½ mark (two marks in coin). GL, SdmL, UL
and HL are the only provincial laws that rely purely on monetary
value to judge the severity of a theft, indicating the generalised useof coinage in these areas (cf. Hemmer 1928, 159–64; Wennström
1936, 58–65; Hasselberg 1953, 341–47).
38/3–4. The word snattanbot in the sense ‘fine for petty larceny’
does not occur widely in medieval Scandinavian law (cf. Wennström
1936, 17).
38/5–6. ‘And [be] marked and be committed to pay wergild’ (okmerkia ok til vereldis dyma). The thief was to be branded (which
was normally done on the cheek), or possibly had his ears cut off,
as a visible punishment. Whether merkia always signified one orother punishment is a matter for conjecture (cf. Brunner 1906–28,
II, 788; Hemmer 1928, 62 note 9; Carlsson 1934, 102; Wilda 1960,
514–15). A thief also had to pay a fine of either three marks ofgold or ten of silver. Schlyter’s note (CIG, 79 note c) is ambiguous
on how this was determined: ‘D. ä. till lika stor bot, som hade skolat
erläggas om han hade blifvit dräpen’ (That is, to a fine as great aswould have been paid if he had been killed). The use of the passive

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161

gives no indication of the principal of han ‘he’. Jacobsen (GGD,
98 note 8) assumes that the sum was determined by whether the
person robbed was a Gotlander or not. On the other hand, Wessén(SL IV, 284 note 2) assumes that the sum depended on whether thethief was a Gotlander or a non-Gotlander. In view of the fact thatthe immediately previous mention of wergild related specificallyto the status of the wronged person, Jacobsen’s interpretation seems
the more likely, although some payments for abduction, rape, firedamage and damage to fruit trees depended on the status of theperson inflicting the injury (see Chapters 21/2–8, 22/26–28, 51/3–4
and 59/6). Hasselberg (1953, 231) assumes that if a thief could not
pay the wergild, he lost his life, but there is no direct evidence of this.
38/6–9. Wennström (1936, 76) points out that GL is the only Swedishrelated provincial law to follow the Germanic laws in stipulating
hanging for a subsequent theft of whatever value. Hanging, as
opposed to beheading, was a shameful death and even female thieves
were not hanged (cf. ÖgL Vb 35). Hanging is the only means ofexecution specified in GL, but there are examples from mainland
provincial laws of other forms, for example stoning on a beach (cf.
DL Tjb 2 pr; KL s. v. Dödsstraff; Notes to 21/9–12, 63/11–13). A
summary of non-monetary punishments appears in Appendix D (i).
38/8–9 and footnote. The B-text omits this final provision but has
further provisions relating mostly to theft by slaves, presumably
omitted from the A-text for the same reason that provisions regarding the purchase of slaves were omitted. These are given in Addition 8.
38/9. Schlyter in his glossary (CIG, 310) suggests that þau ‘nevertheless’ be emended to þa ‘then’. Pipping (GLGS, 50 note 7) rejects
this and refers to Kock (1895, 126) for corroboration. The meaningis that a thief who took a mark of silver or more was to hang, even
if this were his first offence.
Chapter 39: Af oqueþinsorþum
The fines for verbal insults in VStL I 53 pr are double those for themost serious bodily injury, whereas here in GL they are equivalent
to those of a more minor wound. The punishment was more severe in
Iceland: lesser outlawry and a fine of six marks of silver, irrespectiveof the social standing of the person insulted (cf. Grágás II §237 (LEI
2, 195)). In Norwegian laws, the fine for a similar offence was threemarks for a landowning farmer, and on a sliding scale for other social classes (cf. GulL 98, 178, 196 (NGL 1, 46–47, 66, 70)).

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39/2. The insult morþingi ‘murderer’ refers to a killer who does not
admit his or her killing and attempts to hide the crime, or perhaps
accuse another. Here it is equated with the shameful epithets thief(þiaufr) and highway robber (rauferi), which were punishable bydeath if serious enough, or second offences. The word is not used
elsewhere in GL, where bani is the usual word for a killer.
39/2–3. The term ran has been translated elsewhere as ‘open robbery’,and was not originally considered as shameful as secret theft. It
usually (but not always) involved a greater or lesser degree of violence, and provincial laws differed in the weight they gave to thetwo elements of the crime. Over the period covered by the provincial laws, the punishment became more severe and in the nationallaws rån was treated as an edsöresbrott, a crime against the king’s
peace (cf. Introduction, p. xxxviii; Note to 12/9–10). It seems thatin GL it was regarded as equal in severity to secret theft.
39/3. The word kasnavargr ‘murdering arsonist’ is also found in
Swedish provincial laws (cf. ÖgL Eb 31 pr; Wennström 1936, 270–
74, 301). The table of contents of VmL (CIS V, 80) has kaxnawargh,which prompts Säve (GU, xxxi) to speculate whether the first element of the word had its origins in a form kâx ‘landing place, place
for boats’, which he takes to be Estonian. If this were the case, hesuggests, kasnavargr could originally have meant ‘burner of boats’,
vargr being the perpetrator of a violent action, criminal or outlaw.
The connection seems tenuous, however, and Schlyter (CISG, 340–41) offers a number of alternatives for the origin of the element
kasna- amongst which are Latin casa ‘house’, OldSwe kasa ‘topile up’ and Swedish dialect kase ‘bed warmer’. Wessén (SL I, ÖgL
51 note 50) offers the explanation that kase meant ‘hög av ris, ved,
stubbar o.d. att brännas, bål (vårdkase)’ (pile of brushwood, firewood, stubble or similar for burning, pyre (beacon)), but gives nosource for this information. No punishment for the crime itself isgiven in GL, or in SdmL 34, where it is also listed as a punishable
insult. In Norway, however, actual murderous arson was considered to be an úbótamál, that is, an injury not able to be reconciledby fine, and the perpetrator was called a brennuvargr (cf. GulL 98,
178 (NGL 1, 46–47, 66)).
39/4. Jacobsen (GGD, 102 note 2) rightly points out that hordombr‘adultery’ and fordeþskepr ‘witchcraft’ are abstract nouns and do
not refer to the person committing these acts, as do all the remaining nouns. Säve speculates whether the B-text reading fordenschep’r

NOTES

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reflects an older fornskapr, comparing it with fyrnska ‘old customs, superstition’ at 4/3. The word used in Guta saga (GLGS, 64
line 13) to describe Avair Strabain is fielkunnugr ‘skilled in manythings’, and this word and its equivalents were also used, frequently
with a positive connotation, to indicate ‘skilled in magic arts’,
especially in OWN sources. The word fordeþskepr and its equivalents were more often used negatively in the sense ‘witchcraft,black arts’. In the Christian law provisions, all forms of witchcraft,white or black, were forbidden although sometimes the punishment for the two was different. Both Norwegian and Swedish
provincial laws vary in the severity of the punishment to be metedout to witches, including the death penalty. The stricter attitude
stems from the southern tradition of Christianity and church law.
The more moderate punishments laid down are closer to those of
the Irish church. GL refers only to fordeþskepr as an insult against
women, and not to the crime itself.
Insulting a woman by calling her an adulteress implies that this wasconsidered to be disgraceful behaviour, but as noted earlier (Note to
Chapter 21) GL prescribes no punishment of the woman for it. On
the other hand, accusing a man of such an act does not seem to havebeen considered an insult, although his life might be forfeit (21/10).
39/8. Jacobsen (GGD, 102 note 4) observes that the prefix o- in
osinum, literally ‘at a bad time, untimely’, is not the usual negation,
but pejorative, as in Swedish otyg ‘witchcraft, nuisance’ (cf. Note to
Chapter 17). It (osinum) seems to be the dative of a noun meaning‘a bad time’. Insults offered when the speaker was drunk would betreated leniently if they were duly retracted and compensated for.
39/9–12. Once summoned to the church, a person accused of slander
must either defend himself or offer restitution, both accompanied
by a three-man oath, sworn by parishioners. Public apology isdemanded for insults in GulL 196 (NGL 1, 70) and VStL I 53 pr,but is not mentioned in Swedish provincial laws, although shaming punishments are laid down for other crimes. The involvementof a parish in the legal process is also incorporated in Chapter 30,
relating to surety.
39/13. The expression sokn all means ‘all the parishioners’ in thesame way that land alt means ‘the general assembly’.
39/15–16. The more public insult incurred a much higher penalty.
Wessén (SL IV, 285 notes 4 and 5) compares the fines and proceduresin these provisions (the siex manna aiþi ‘six-man oath’) with those164

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for breaking the assembly peace (Chapter 11) and to accusations
against women (Chapter 2). Cf. CISk IV 21–22 for insults in general.
Chapter 40: Af smafileþi
In the table of contents, and in the B-text, it is made clear that thischapter refers specifically to unbranded (omerkt) small livestock. The
word omerkt in the B-text has, however, been added later and may
not have been in the manuscript from which Bilefeld made his copy.
By elimination, only immature stock is covered by this provision
since adult pigs, sheep, goats, cattle and horses are specifically namedin later, and different, provisions. Otherwise, sheep, goats and othersmall livestock were normally included in the concept of smafileþi,OldSwe söþer.
40/3. The assembly intended here must be the sixth assembly,
since the riding assembly is mentioned specifically in later chapters where relevant.
40/4, 41/6, 42/4, 43/3 and 43/4 and footnotes. Bugge (1877–78,
265–66) gives an account of possible forms: -lausn and -launs,
concluding that the latter is an appropriate correction for all instances of -laun in the manuscripts of GL. He notes that lausn
rather than launs is used in Guta saga (GLGS, 67 line 18), buttakes this to be an example of linguistic differences between the
two texts. He considers the form laun to be incorrect, the sense notbeing a reward to the finder, but a fee to secure the release of theanimal. Pipping (GLGS, 53 note 8) follows this correction, butnotes that daGL offers two different translations: lön for the first
and third occurrences and lösen for the last (cf. Läffler 1878, 287–89;
GLGS, xlii note 4). Although daGL recognises a difference, thetranslation appears to be inconsistent. Wessén (SL IV, 285 note 3
to Chapter 40) implies that the þinglaun (of one örtug per visit)
was compensation for taking an animal to the assembly if it were
unclaimed, and that this was different from the heptalauns, paidby the owner of a stray animal to redeem it (see Chapter 43). Wessén
does not, however, maintain this distinction; he translates þing(s)laun
as ‘tinglösen’ and (hepta)launs as ‘lösen’. A translation lön ‘reward’appears to be more appropriate for the former, in the same way thata fundarlaun (Addition 8/34) is the compensation or reward paid
to a person who returns a slave and the goods he has stolen. Incidentally, Pipping has not suggested a change to the latter. It is
entirely possible that two different words, (þing)laun or (þings)laun,

NOTES

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related to OWN laun n. pl., Swedish lön ‘payment, reward’, and(hepta)launs, related to OWN lausn f. pl., Swedish lösen ‘fee, ransom’, are involved, and have become confused. This assumption
has been followed in the present translation.
40/4–5. In neither this chapter nor in the following one is it statedwhat happened to the animal(s) in question if unclaimed. Presumably the finder kept the animal(s), paying to the parishioners thedifference between their valuation and the þinglaun ‘assembly
payment’ due to him.
Chapter 41: Af suinum
41/4. Specific mention of the riding assembly in relation to the thirdpresentation of the beasts in this and the next chapter suggeststhat the sixth assembly is intended elsewhere in this section.
41/6–7 and footnotes. The clause and word in angled brackets aresupplied from the B-text.
Chapter 42: Af bolambum
The eventual fate of stray sheep is even more ambiguous in thischapter, nor is it clear what was paid by an owner to a finder, although
this can perhaps be assumed to have been an örtug, as in Chapter
43. No mention is made of valuation, only of the ownership of any
lambs carried by the ewes. These went to the finder, presumably
regardless of whether the sheep itself were claimed. The word bolamb
refers to a tame sheep as opposed to the utegångsfår of Gotland,
which lived out all year round. These retained several primitive characteristics, such as the mane and genetically inherited extra horns(encouraged by selective breeding) on the tups or rams. Selective
breeding was made possible by the fact that the ewes were frequently
kept indoors. It is reasonable to suppose that a bolamb was such ahoused ewe or possibly a castrated ram, reared for meat.
Chapter 43: Af fastum veþuri okliptum
The use of the participle (o)klipt ‘(un)shorn’ in 43/1, 43/2, 44/1 and44/2 is to some extent ambiguous in the B-text since kliptr canitself have the meaning ‘gelded’. (See relevant footnotes.) The A-text,
however, refers in both Chapters 43 and 44 to ungelded (fastr) rams:
unshorn (okliptr) and shorn (kliptr) respectively, and this reading
seems preferable.

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43/3 and footnote. The word heptalauns (literally ‘tethering ransom’) clearly means a fee paid by a legal owner to redeem his
animal, as opposed to a payment (in effect for expenses) to thefinder simply for bringing an (unclaimed) creature to the assembly(cf. Note to 40/4, 41/6, 42/4, 43/3 and 43/4; GGD, 103 note 4).
Various forms of restraint were employed to prevent straying and it
is possible that a fine was imposed because the animal had been
inadequately tethered. Schlyter (CIG, iv) takes heptalauns as an
example of the degradation of the language in that the genitive
form has been used instead of the accusative following the
preposition firi. Säve (GU, xvii) takes it for a scribal error, whereas
Pipping (GLGS, 53 note 8), following Bugge, accepts the manuscript reading (cf. Läffler 1878, 287).
43/4 and footnote. The form launs instead of laun in this instancehas been taken by earlier commentators (Bugge and Läffler referred
to above) to support the argument that the latter was incorrect inall cases. Säve (GU), on the other hand, following the B-text, uses
the form laun throughout. The differentiation suggested in the preceding Notes is preferred.
Chapter 44: Af fastum veþuri kliptum
Whilst an unshorn ram seems to have been treated similarly to abolamb, a shorn ram was not, because of the season of the year.
44/2–3. The feast of Saints Simon and Jude is October 28th, so the caseimagined is one of a breeding ram being loose over the winter period.
44/3–4. The clause ‘up to the time that it is usual to release them’must qualify the phrase ‘after the feast of St Simon and St Jude’and not the intervening clause in GL, ‘it has rendered itself forfeit
by wandering’. The normal time for the release of the ram with theewes was in the early spring, possibly on Lady Day, the 25th March(cf. Note to 57/2–3).
44/6–9. In this case it appears that the animal was not taken to theassembly and valued. The finder neither received expenses nor
paid anything to the parishioners. His reward was simply the ram
itself, unless his owner redeemed him (for an unspecified fee).
Chapter 45: Af gaitum ok bukkum
Goats do not seem to have been widely kept in Sweden, but they
were important elsewhere in Scandinavia. They were clearly not highlyNOTES

167

valued in Gotland since the price for redeeming a goat was half thatof a horse or cow and much less than for a sheep, but in Norway and
Denmark they were kept as milk-yielding animals, giving profitablecheese, and for their meat and skins.
45/3–4. ‘Then they shall be redeemed: a nanny for six pence for each
assembly’ (so skal atr loysa gait firi siex penninga a hueriu þingi).
This provision implies that an owner redeeming his goats paid
according to how many assemblies the finder had attended. The
previous reference to payments by an owner (Chapter 43) does not
mention multiple assembly visits, so it is not possible to infer that
this was the rule in all cases. The finder, however, received expenses
for each assembly visit, so it seems to be a logical conclusion.
45/3–4. The penningr ‘penny’ was the lowest unit of currency in
Scandinavia up to the end of the thirteenth century. It is referred toonly here and in Chapters 47, 49 and 56a. The number of pennies perörtug and thus per öre and mark varied from area to area, although
no records exist earlier than the end of the thirteenth century (cf.
GGD, 25 note 1; Jansson 1936, 65; KL s. v. Ørtug). Contemporary
sources state that the Gotlandic system was taken over by Riga (cf.
the letters of the Bishop of Riga HRSH29, 1–14) with an örtug
divided into twelve pennies. The same system is recorded for Öland,
although later the sixteen-penny standard current in Götaland wasin use (cf. DS I, 456, no. 549 (6/4/1271); DS I, 591–93, no. 736(29/12/1281)). In Svealand, from around 1300 there was a unificationof the system: a mark was eight öre, each of three örtugar, each ofeight pennies, giving 192 pennies to a mark (in coin), i.e. half as
many as in Götaland. Norway adopted the same system at about
this time. Although the consensus amongst scholars appears to bethat there were eight pennies to an örtug in Gotland during theperiod of GL, other rates have also been proposed and the relationship between the fees for a nanny-goat and a billy-goat mightsuggest a rate of twelve pennies to an örtug (see Appendix C).
Chapter 45a: <Af nautum ok russum>
45a/1 and footnote. The chapter title occurs in the table of contents,
but not in the A-text, although a new chapter occurs in both the Btext (63) and tyGL.
45a/7–8. ‘. . . not travel to Visby with them’ (. . . fari ai til Visbyar
miþ). This is the only reference to Visby in GL. It is not clear

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what the implications are of this provision. It might be that there
was a horse fair at Visby and that the finder of a horse or pony
was not to take it there for recognition or possible sale, but tothe assembly. It could also mean that, whilst they might use thehorse on their farm, they were not permitted to use it for travelling
longer distances until they had presented it three times at an assembly.
45a/10–11 and footnote. A motstukkr was one of the posts at thecentre of the assembly, possibly marking an area with legal
significance. Four tingstockar are mentioned in several medieval
sources from Skåne (e.g. CISk IV 21) (cf. CISk IV, 408 note 8; SL
IV, 200 note 22). Stray cattle and ponies were to be tied up withinsight of these, but a distance away so that they were not confusedwith animals belonging to the people attending the assembly. It is
possible that the assembly was in a natural hollow and that byhaving the animals a distance away the men holding them could
see the posts over the heads of others at the assembly, or alternatively that potential claimants could see the beasts (cf. GGD, 105note 1; SL IV, 286 note 2 to Chapter 45a).
Table iii in Appendix D summarises the provisions in chapters
40–45a.
Chapter 46: Af merki
46/2–4. The crime referred to here is that of altering an existing
earmark on a sheep, or other creature, to one for a different owner.
Such earmarks have been used until relatively recently to distinguish sheep grazing on common land and are still used on thereindeer herds of the Sami. Altering a mark was equal to theft insome provincial laws (cf. VmL Mb 26). Obviously, if an animal had
been purchased or received in dowry, a change was quite lawful.
Chapter 47: Af akrum
47/6. Jacobsen (GGD, 105 note 2) remarks that a landboi ‘tenant’was someone who leased or rented land, as opposed to owning it
freehold. The word land was not generally used to describe property (Ruthström 2002, 128) and the original form seems to havebeen lanbo, meaning someone living on leased property (related
to the word for ‘loan’). This changed as a result of folk etymology
to landboi, a word that occurs only here in GL. The common OWN
equivalent laigulenningr occurs at 3/18 (cf. SkL 238–39 (CISk I225)). Tenancy conditions were fixed and for a limited period,

NOTES

169

with an initial payment and often an annual rent. Jacobsen also
points out that the only other word for farmer in GL is bondi. This
is in contrast to the several words used for different classes oflandowner in Danish and mainland Swedish laws.
47/7. The standard area measure for arable land in Gotland appears
to have been laupsland, the land upon which a bushel (about 36
litres) of seed corn (barley) could be sown. One equivalent, recordedin early fourteenth-century Norway, was 1/3 markebol (cf. Steinnes
1936, 142; Note to 20/47–48).
47/8. Haymaking generally ran from the first weekday after St Peter’sday (29th June) and could continue until St Michael’s day (29thSeptember). After this, cattle could graze on the meadows, just as
they could graze on arable fields after the harvest (cf. UL Bb 10;
DL Bb 8).
47/9–10. Unlike other instances of lass ‘load’, the reference here isto a specific volume. The standard conversion for a ship’s cargo
was that a lass or läst was twelve skeppund and the same relationship appears to have been current with the lispund. This does not,however, give an absolute volume, since the capacity of a pundvaried from time to time and place to place (cf. Note to 6/8).
47/10. The expression at markum refers to the calculated value ofthe land according to the same principles as those in Chapter 32.
Wessén (SL IV, 286 note 4 to Chapter 47) uses the word marktal,
equivalent to Gtn markatal (cf. Note to 53/3–5). The word refers
to weighed marks, despite the element -tal.
Chapter 48: Af rofnakrum
48/2–3. Turnips were introduced to Scandinavia at an unknown date,but by the Middle Ages they were a significant crop and numerous statutes related to their cultivation occur in the provincial
laws, except for VgLL and SkL, the very earliest laws. UL, SdmL,DL, VmL have several less categorical statutes mentioning the cultivation of turnips. UL Kkb 7 §5 names turnips as one of the crops
on which tithe was to be paid and this occurs also in some Norwegian laws. In ÖgL Bb 28 §5 there is a description of crop rotation
on clearings: turnips (for a year), then rye (for two years), the land
to be left fallow after three harvests.
48/3–4. Those ‘who have no arable land, but have a house’ (seþalaustfulk sum hus hafr) were crofters who perhaps only kept livestock(see Chapter 56a). It is not clear from the wording whether the170

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land for the turnips was part of the holding, or extra land provided
by the landlord, but he was clearly expected to provide the meansof cultivation. The provision given here for care of the poor in aparish seems to be unique to GL.
48/5. This is the only case where oykr refers to ploughing in particular, as opposed to draught in general. Yoked oxen did this work insouthern Sweden, whereas in the north of the country a horse andchest harness was used. Cf. Notes to 6/8–9 and 26/45.
Chapter 49: Af hafreki
For all the provisions in this chapter, it must be assumed that (as was
the case in respect of stray animals) the remainder of the find was
returned to the owner of the property, or to the parish or assembly if
no owner was determined. The sliding scale of payments to a finderof jetsam, flotsam and lagan reflects the risk involved in recovering
the goods, and the likelihood of determining the original owner.
Similar provisions are to be found in Swedish provincial laws and in
VStL (cf. UL Mb 54 pr; VStL III iii 13; Hasselberg 1953, 117–18).
49/6. The expression yr lanzsyn ‘out of sight of land’ is rendered intyGL as us der kennunge, the same expression as is used in VStL III
iii 8 to indicate that a sea voyage has properly started.
Chapter 50: Af eldi
50/3. The word skurstain ‘hearth’ appears in Gotlandic dialect as
kurstain or kustain and is a loan word from Middle Low Germanscorsten. It meant originally the whole of the covered hearth andchimney (but now only the latter). This former sense was current inDanish as late as the early nineteenth century and according to Lis
Jacobsen (GGD, 106 note 6) survived in Danish dialects a century
later. The form of fireplace with a covered chimney arrived in Scandinavia in the Middle Ages and this reference in GL is one of theearliest (see SL IV, 287 note 1 to Chapter 50).
In MELL Bb 28, if fire broke loose from a stova ‘dwelling’,
stekara hus ‘kitchen’ or kölno hus ‘malt kiln’, the farmer was not liable.
Chapter 51: Af bierueldi
51/2. It was previously common to take burning material from one
place to another to kindle further fires or ovens, because of the
difficulty of starting a fire (see GGD, 107 note 1). One might even

NOTES

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have to borrow fire from a neighbour, carrying it from one farm toanother. Similar provisions occur in UL Bb 24 §1, DL Bb 45 §4,
VmL Bb 24 §1, SdmL Kkb 2 pr and SdmL Bb 18 §7 (cf. SL IV, 287
note 1 to Chapter 51).
51/3–4. For further occasions on which compensation to some extent
depended upon the status of the perpetrator of a crime, see Chapters 21/2–8, 22/26–28, 38/6–9 and 59/6.
Since the wergild of a minor was the same as that of an adult (cf.
18/16), the compensation payable by the responsible adult was
the same. This is the reverse of the situation at 14/25, relating tokillings and 59/6 relating to damage to fruit trees, where compensation is halved if a minor commits the crime.
Chapter 52: Af broagierþ
52/1. The verb bro ‘make a bridge’ or ‘surface a road’ survives in
Gotlandic dialect (cf. GO s. v. bro1). Here bro is a noun meaning afilling of stones, branches or other material placed annually acrossa track to make marshy and otherwise inaccessible places passable.
52/2. The routes concerned were recognised summer roads, as opposed
to simple cleared tracks in the forest, and their upkeep was a communal responsibility. Only in later times was the whole track surfaced(cf. GGD, 107 note 3; SL IV, 287 note 1 to Chapter 52). Most
mainland provincial laws (e.g. ÖgL Bb 4 and 5) contain statutes
concerning roads, road building and road repair (broagierþ) (cf.
Yrwing 1940, 104). One important purpose of these constructions wasto provide routes to the parish churches, mills and other necessary
destinations. ÄVgL Jb 12 and YVgL Jb 26 mention markvägar andkyrkovägar, but also (Fnb 32) quærnæuægher and allmannævægher, which
foreshadow the more detailed statutes of the national law. In Upplandalone seventy-five runic inscriptions commemorate bro builders.
52/4. The three-mark fine extracted for default was presumably paid
to the sixth assembly.
Chapter 53: Af skuti
As Jacobsen (GGD, 107 note 4) comments, the taxes referred to inthis chapter are those funds gathered together from contributions
made during time of need. The word survives in the Swedish förskott‘advance’, sammanskott ‘collection’ and tillskott ‘contribution’, eachrelating to a contribution in some form (see SL IV, 287 note 1 toChapter 53). The annual tax (skattr) to the Swedish crown and the levy

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

tax (laiþingslami) are described in Guta saga, but are not referred toin GL (cf. GS, xxxiii–xxxvi, xlviii, 32 note to 6/12, 59 note to 14/5).
53/3–5. Despite the fact that the words markatal and tald mark wereused elsewhere in Scandinavia to mean marks counted (i.e. in coin,rather than weighed), it seems that the Gotlandic tax based onmarkatal was calculated on the gold or silver value of property
and liquid assets, rather than on the penningr value. This would
have had the effect of taking into account any devaluation of thecurrency in respect of liquid assets. Wessén (SL IV, 287 note 2 toChapter 53) simply refers to the value of the land in marks (asdescribed in Chapter 32) and liquid assets, but by implication intends
weighed value, e.g. ounces (oyrar) of gold, silver and other goods
that could legally be used as currency. The phrase ai af garrum
gersemum ‘not of manufactured valuables’ specifically excludes
such items, but covers manufactured household chattels of goldand silver. Gradually, (lös)öre came to apply to all movables (seeRuthström 2002, 141–42, 180). Later sumptuary laws (Chapter 65)
forbade the purchase of gold and silver items, presumably since
this would constitute tax avoidance, as they were non-taxable assets (cf. Notes to 2/35, Addition 9/5–6).
53/4–5. The word gørsomme in the sense ‘valuables’ was still foundin Danish dialect when Lis Jacobsen produced her translation in1910 (GGD, 108 note 1).
Chapter 54: Af varþi
Provisions relating to the watch are to be found in UL Kgb 12,
SdmL Kgb 12 and HL Kgb 9. Farmers in coastal areas carried aparticular responsibility. The duty of the watch was to light beacons
to summon troops in case of an attack. Those sitting watch paid
their own expenses, and any fines due if they failed in theirduty. The level of the fine is not given in GL, but in UL it is forty
marks. In SdmL and HL the fine varies depending on the natureof the failure in duty. The Danish translation (daGL) records anincreasing level of responsibility with the increase in the age ofthe person from eighteen to twenty-two years. Another aspect of defence
was the laiþingr, referred to in Guta saga (GLGS, 68).
54/2–4. Although Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok) defines the varþpenningar
as ‘en årlig skatt, som erlades af alla vapenföra män’ (an annual
tax, paid by all men capable of bearing arms), comparison with

NOTES

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mainland provincial laws suggests that it refers to fines payable
for not keeping proper watch.
54/3. The skyldir ‘expenses’ were usually communal taxes, but it seems
more likely that expenses incurred in keeping watch are intended here.
Chapter 55: Af husum ok husþiauþum
55/1. The husþiauþ ‘household servants’ were people working inthe (farm)house itself, perhaps specifically as opposed to those
doing outside farm work, referred to in the following chapter.
55/4. Wessén (SL IV, 288 note 2 to Chapter 55) observes that the
scribe of manuscript B 65 (tyGL) has here mistaken (hus)þiauþ forþiaufr ‘thief’ and inserted a new chapter heading, Van husdyben‘Concerning house thieves’. This provision probably refers to permanent members of a household, rather than seasonal workers, but
the reason for it is obscure. Since those who did not grow theirown crops could be pressed into service by any farm for harvesting, it might have been regarded as unethical to subsume people
into one’s household, thus making them unavailable for this work.
Chapter 56: Af byrslufulki
56/4. The payment for a day’s hire is set out in the following provision, Chapter 56a. The byrslufulk ‘harvesters’ were hired seasonal
workers who received daily wages.
Chapter 56a: <Af seþalausu fulki>
56a/1 and footnote. This new chapter (75) in the B-text (and in
tyGL) is not signalled in the A-text, although the chapter title
appears in the table of contents.
56a/2. The seþalaust fulk (with no arable land) were crofters, as
described in the notes to Chapter 48.
56a/3–5. Payment was according to the area worked and the grain
harvested and did not include provisions. The barley and rye would
have been for flour and food and the oats possibly to feed horses andperhaps make porridge and soup (see KL s. v. Havre; Korn; Råg).
Chapter 57: Af ikornum
57/2–3. Only the winter pelts (gråverk) of squirrels were valued as
currency, so the close season coincides with the period when they
were in their summer coats (routhskyn). The open season was usually

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

from 13th October (28th October in Gotland, 1st November inUppland) to 14th April (25th March in Västmanland and in Gotland,
2nd February in Södermanland). Forty skins were equivalent invalue to one timber. Sources from 1235 mention rights granted tofour Gotlandic fur traders to trade toll-free in England for three
years, and payments to Gotlandic merchants for these skins arerecorded in 1237, 1242, 1244, 1248 and 1250 (cf. HansUB I, 270,
283, 322, 359, 333, 395).
Chapter 58: Af herum
58/2–3. Once again the close season for hare trapping was thesummer half year. Although a gin is referred to, the usual method
for catching hare in the winter was in a snow-pit, loosely covered
with brushwood (see KL s. v. Harar; Jakt). GL is the only provincial law that specifies a close season for catching hares, althoughhares are mentioned in ÄVgL Fnb 7 §1, YVgL Utb 15 and ÖgL Bb
36 §5 in relation to who owned a hare that had been caught.
Chapter 59: Af skafli
59/1. The word ska(f)vel is used in Gotlandic dialect for fruit fromtrees, e.g. apples (cf. GO s. v. skavel). Schlyter (CISG, 550) andJacobsen (GGD, 109 note 4) think that edible fruit in general might
be meant in this instance. The word skafl occurs in UL in the tableof contents against Chapter 49 of Mb and in HL in the chapter
heading of Mb 32 referring to one who steals any edible crop (e.g.
turnips, peas). In UL Bb 14 §6 and other provincial laws there arefines for felling another person’s fruit trees, with varying levels offine depending on whether a tree was in fruit or not. The fine in GL
for picking fruit before September 8th appears to apply even to theowner of the trees in question, or it might refer to trees on commonly owned land. The date might suggest the type of fruit thatwas cultivated in Gotland (possibly apples), or the time when the
fruit concerned was ripe. Cf. KL s. v. Frugttræer.
59/6. Further instances of variable penalties depending on the person committing an offence are to be found in Chapters 21/2–8, 22/
26–28, 38/6–9 and 51/3–4.
Chapter 60: Af messufalli
60/5–6. A feast of nine lessons in the Catholic Church was one on
which nine lessons (Bible or other readings) were included in the

NOTES

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service of Matins. These services were reserved for the more
important minor feast days, others having fewer readings.
60/6. Schlyter (CIG, 379; CISG, 415) takes eþa hafas ‘or held’ as a
scribal correction for lesas ‘read’, rather than a parallelism, but cf.
Notes to 13/7–8, 19/33, 21/16–17, 25/48 and 50.
60/7. The fine for omitting to say mass on a Sunday or major feast
day was twice that for a Friday or lesser feast day.
Chapter 61: Af dufli
61/4 and footnote. The sixth assembly is presumably intended here
as elsewhere. Dicing is forbidden in MEStL, which has a separate
Dobblara balker, and in MLLL VIII 28 (NGL 2, 165), but there isno equivalent in any of the mainland provincial laws. Wessén(MEStLNT, 292) assumes, therefore, that the phenomenon was one
encountered in towns rather than in the countryside. For the B-text
version, see Addition 9.
61/5–10. The second half of this chapter forms the closing sectionof the B-text (following Chapter 83). Neither there nor in the A-text
is there a separate chapter heading, nor is the section listed in thetable of contents of either text as an independent chapter. It is thisparagraph that seems to suggest that GL, as it has been preservedin the two Gutnish manuscripts, was either a living statute book ora justice book, rather than merely a scholarly work.
61/6–10. Wessén compares this passage to the final words of the
preface to VStL: unde queme en niye recht dat in dem boke nicht
were, dat scolde man richten also id recht, unde scriuen dat inbeyde böke ‘and if there comes a new law, which was not in thisbook, then one should judge what the law should be, and write
it in both books’. He also makes the not unreasonable assumptionthat additions following this paragraph in the A-text have been
made in just the manner described. In the B-text, following
the chapter on gambling and preceding these closing words, there
are chapters covering purchases on credit (absent as a separate
chapter from the A-text) and misuse of woodland (the first half ofChapter 63 in the A-text). The remainder of the additions in the
A-text have been absorbed (in appropriate places) into the bodyof the B-text and the chapter on tracks and paths appears in its
proper place.
61/7–9. Wessén (SL IV, 288 note 2 to Chapter 61a) points out thatlegislation would have taken place at the general assembly.

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Chapter 62: Hitta ier þet sum nylast var takit um loyski

62/1 and footnote. Cf. Chapter 19/104–07, where the fines are halfof those stated here. The content of this chapter appears in Chapter
20 of the B-text (cf. Addition 5).
Chapter 63: Um skoga
The title of this chapter covers only the first provision. The remainder of the chapter contains a miscellany of provisions.
63/2–4, 4–6. Cf. provisions in Chapter 26/38–40 and 50–52, and for
related provisions see 7/2–9, 25/26–37 and 26/55–61. The older
provision relating to tearing down a neighbour’s fence limits thefine to two marks, rather than the three stated here. On the implications of the difference, see Note to 26/50–52.
63/7. A glugga was an opening, not large enough for passage with avehicle and possibly no larger than a window, but perhaps large
enough for a person on foot to crawl through.
63/9–11. It seems that a pledge was originally a sale with right topurchase back within three years (as in the B-text of GL, Addition
9/3–7). This gradually changed to a much shorter period and Chapter
30/2–5 suggests that change: the pledge-holder is instructed tocall the pledge-giver to the church or assembly to redeem the pledge
on a certain date. If he did not, the pledge should be valued by theparishioners or men of the assembly, although the creditor would
still obviously receive payment.
Wessén (SL IV, 289 note 4 to Addition A) suggests that the Gtn
verb virþa here means ‘to sell’ rather than ‘to value’. The translation offered in the present translation, ‘to take in payment (of adebt)’, is intended to cover both senses. Cf. Notes to 10/5, 30/4–5
and Addition 9/5–6.
63/11–13. Further examples of loss of status or money as a result ofa misdemeanour in relation to land occur in Chapter 25/26–29 andChapter 28 (e.g. lines 22–23). The penalty here seems particularly
harsh (hanging or beheading) but the crime was one of theft ofland or misappropriation of it in some other way, and in particulara breach of trust, since the miscreant was presumably a steward of
the land in question. Although later editors translate firigiera as‘föröda’ (lay waste, devastate), Schlyter translates it as ‘förskingra’,
which is particularly associated with a breach of contract or duty
in respect of the misappropriation of property. This latter, trans-

NOTES

177

lated as ‘misappropriation’, seems to be preferable, although theformer is also a recognised crime in current law, involving the
poisoning of land or animals. On the means of execution, see also
Notes to 21/9–12, 38/6–9.
63/12. The expression at þranglausu ‘without coercion’ implies that
there might be cases in which such an action was permissible.
Schlyter assumes that this meant that a sale was forced by straitened circumstances (Swedish trångmål). There is, however, a Swedish
legal concept of tvång ‘coercion’ and this might be intended.
Both kirkiurum and kirkiustedr (in the B-text) refer to an allocated pew. Most preserved early medieval church pews in Sweden
are from Gotland. The designation of pews to particular people is
not recorded before the end of the fifteenth century on the mainland (see KL s. v. Kirkestole).
63/14–17. Cf. the provisions in the first section of Chapter 24 (i.e.
lines 14–17), where the number of toasts is unlimited. The B-text
has this material only in Chapter 33 (Chapter 24 in the A-text).
63/15. There is no record of the size of en half skal ‘half bowl’ norof whether this measure covered the entire quantity of drink offeredor that offered to each guest.
63/16. The exact level of a double fine (tuibyt) is not clear. This is
the only occasion on which such a fine is specifically referred toand no previous editor has suggested an amount. On various instancesof twibote in VStL and other contemporary laws, including Bjarkörätten, see Hasselberg 1953, 62–65, 168–72. These, however, refermainly to acts of violence in church or market, or in a bathhouseor latrine. Wennström (1931, 45–46, 77–80) suggests that the threemark fine evolved as double an older twelve-öre fine (cf. Björling
1893, 104 note 3; Hemmer 1928, 71; Wilda 1960, 345). It is possible, therefore, that a three-mark fine is intended here.
Chapter 65: Af quinna ret
65/2–4. Cf. the provisions concerning widows in Chapter 20/43–45.
Even if a widow had brought more than ten oxen with her, she
could not take more away. She could, however, take as many horses
and sheep as she had brought, presumably even if the actual animals were no longer alive.
65/3. The word band ‘pair’ here must mean the same as oykr elsewhere, i.e. yoke joining a pair of oxen, and hence, by transference,
the actual pair of animals.

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65/5. The word *tassal is unknown elsewhere, but must have thesense ‘buckle, clasp’. Schlyter (CISG s. v. tassal) relates it to English tassel. According to CODEE, this comes from Old French tas(s)el.
It is first recorded in English in the thirteenth century in the sense‘clasp, fibula’ and only from the fourteenth century as ‘pendantornament with a fringe attached’. Schlyter, in the light of the factthat gilding is in question, seems correct in assigning the earlier ofthese meanings and rejecting Ihre’s translation (1769 s. v. tassal),
which follows the later sense. Schlyter also refers to FrostL IX 9(NGL 1, 210, 211; 282) where gullað appears alongside assala. He
suggests that the latter must mean the same as tassala. Säve (GU,xxix), citing the same reference, suggests further alternatives, including snöre ‘laces’.
65/6. The word gullaþ ‘golden headdress’ describes a circlet for thehead, such as was worn both by men and women. Bolli Bollason inLaxdœla saga, Chapter 63, has knýtt gullhlaði um h†fuð honum(cf. Falk 1919, 114–15; ÍF V, 187). Wessén’s translation, ‘guldbräm’(gold edging), assumes that the adjective slungin ‘plaited’ applies
to this word as well as silkisband, and that fringes with gold thread
woven into them are intended (see SL IV, 240). This description
seems more likely to apply only to silfrband referred to below.
65/7. Jacobsen (GGD, 113 note 3) translates slungin silkisband as‘Snørelidser’ (laces). These were presumably laces to fasten a woman’s bodice, and plaited silk would have been the strongest, mostdurable material available, and therefore valuable. Cf. the reference in Chapter 23/13–14 to the fact that the laces had to be returnedto their owner if they were pulled out. They are in this case calledsnoþir, but they were probably the same item.
65/9–11. In relation to the value of a haimfylgi ‘dowry’, see Chapters 20/54–56, 28/37–38 and Notes, also Notes to 3/4, 20/91, 28/
35–39. Wessén’s assumption in his note to Chapter 24 (SL IV, 273
note 1) is that the amount of the dowry in this later provision
relates to property in movables only.
65/11. The bladragning ‘wall covering of blue cloth’ referred to inthis instance was no doubt of the same quality and value as thatreferred to in Chapter 24b, but would hardly have been black for awedding, which is the subject here. It is possible that the cloth wasscarlet, since this is referred to in the following sentence, or it
might have been blue, which was another expensive dye (cf. Note
to 24b/2).

NOTES

179

65/12. The word pell ‘canopy’ derives from Latin pallium ‘cover;mantle’, not pellis ‘hide, skin’. In OWN, pell was any type of
expensive cloth, originally specifically satin from China or India,
used as a bed-cover or to cover a bier (see Falk 1919, 67–69, 73).
It could also be material used for clothing. In Laxdœla saga, Chapter
77, it is said that Bolli Bollason vildi engi klæði bera nema skarlatsklæði ok pellsklæði ‘would wear no clothes that were not of scarlet
and satin’ (ÍF V, 225). Here the sense is either a festive altar covering, or a canopy held over the bridal couple at a particular point
in a wedding ceremony. This is still done in some Eastern Orthodox churches.
65/12–13 and 15. Linen was one of the currencies in which tithes orfines could be paid (cf. UL Kkb 6 §5; ÖgL Vb 6 §1). The prohibition against expensive gifts was presumably intended to preventthe impoverishment of farms through marriage, and possibly to
reduce any chance of dispute when wives were widowed.
65/16. The silver bands (silfrband) referred to were most probably
decorative ribbons or bindings that had silver thread woven into
them (cf. Note to 65/7). Silver wire had been used in the costliest
materials from the time of the Vikings, as witnessed by the Gokstad
find, and silver was used in a variety of ways to decorate fabrics.
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, new techniques developed,
and were imported from Italy and elsewhere.
The underskirt decoration (kurtilbonaþr) was any decoration on
the kirtle or gown.
65/17–19. The normal method of purchase in the medieval period
was in currency (coin or otherwise). The word burgan ‘buying on
credit, related to OWN borga ‘borrow’, had various senses apartfrom the one here ‘purchase against a promissory note’. It could
also mean ‘hostage’ or ‘bail’, as well as a promise of service rather
than money. One could avoid arrest for debt by raising a surety(borgen) with a borghans maþer (OWN borganarmaðr) (cf. SdmL
Kmb 9 pr; VmL Rb 12 §2). No interest appears to have been payable, although this was not forbidden by the church. The prohibition
against borrowing from the people of Visby was probably a later
addition, motivated by the conflict between them and the farming
population outside the town (see Introduction, pp. xii–xiii, xxxvii;
Addition 9/2–7). The twelve-mark fine might apply to an infringement of any of the provisions in this chapter, since no other fines
are prescribed.

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Addition 1: Aff prestom och prestbarnom

Addition 1/2–3. The phrase han taki i verra ‘he marries beneathhim’ is possibly corrupt, as Jacobsen (GGD, 33 note 4) suggests.
The meaning is, however, that a priest by marrying a woman who
was not free lost his right to the status of a Gotlander.
Addition 1/8–10 and footnote. As indicated in the Note to 5/7–9,
this sentence, which is also on the A-text, is out of context. The
han ‘he’ who is assumed to have died is the wrongdoer, the lay sonof a priest (prestson olerþr) referred to at the end of the previous
paragraph (SL IV, 249 note 10).
Addition 1/14. The fact that it is stated that a claimant (in this caseagainst a priest rather than a lay person) can accept compensation
without shame makes it clear that immediate acceptance of compensation was regarded as less honourable than taking revenge.
Even after the abolition of blood vengeance, protracted negotiations were considered to be desirable before compensation was
accepted (see SL IV, 249 notes 12 and 14).
Addition 1/19–20. Pipping explains the whole phrase Tha en han
hempn at eyger so budit ‘If he should take revenge when it has
been offered’ by assuming it to be a mechanical translation from astatute in medieval Latin: Si vindicatum habet, (damno) sic præbito,. . . He considers it very likely that a provision relating to priests
would first have been formulated in Latin. Wessén (SL IV, 250
note 19), on the other hand, thinks that the text is corrupt. Schlyter(CIG, 105 note 9) and Säve (GU, 36) suggest the emendation hempnar,
þa so ier budit ‘takes revenge, when [compensation] is offered’.
Addition 1/21. The priest was to be compensated for with his fullwergild, despite the fact that the killing was blood vengeance.
Addition 1/25. A taki ‘surety man’ was a receiver of a promise (cf.
OWN taka ‘bail’ and tykr ‘forfeit’, 6/29). The nearest equivalent toa taki as referred to in GL would be a Swedish löftesman, who went
bail for the person concerned to the effect that he would bring
witnesses to his innocence. In mainland provincial laws a taki ismentioned where a case concerns goods claimed by the plaintiff.
He had responsibility for the fulfilment of any oath taken and had
to live in the same hundred and be accepted by the parties involved. A farmer could not refuse to take on this responsibility (cf.
ÄVgL Tjb 8–12; YVgL Tjb 39–44; ÖgL Rb 6–8).
Addition 1/35–36. It is not quite clear what procedure was intended
by raþin þeir fyrir fe ‘be responsible for the payment’. Schlyter

NOTES

181(CIG, 106) offers the translation ‘råde de om godset’, but thenadds as a note ‘D. ä. folket tage boten’. The first could mean that
assembly members ‘discuss the level of compensation’ or ‘takecustody of the compensation’, but the note implies that assembly
members received the fine itself. How the money was then distributed is not stated. Cf. the provision at Addition 1/18–19 (see SL
IV, 250 notes 17 and 24).
Addition 1/39–41. This is the sole instance in GL in which directspeech and the first person singular are used. The first person plural is used in the introductory section, (1/3–9) but not otherwise.
This passage is similar in style to some of the oldest Swedish
provincial laws, so it seems reasonable to assume that it formed
part of the earliest edition of GL.
Addition 2: Aff osoydom
Addition 2/1. Swedish nöt is used of beef cattle, both on the hoof
and at table. The word rus (cf. OWN hross m.) is used here in the
B-text where hestr occurs earlier in the chapter, and in the A-text.
Whilst it is possible that no significance can be attached to thisdifference, rus is used only of draught animals and hestr is used inonly two cases out of eleven (6/9 and 10/5) in a context that
precludes reference to a riding horse. The modern Gotlandic pony,
the skogsruss, is descended from animals native to Gotland since
the Stone Age. They are small, tough animals that perform well inharness, but are not of traditional riding type. As late as the fifteenth century, horses from Gotland were exported to the Teutonic
Order. They, like the horses from Öland, were particularly toughand hardy, since they came from herds that lived out all year.
Addition 2/6. The expression than sakir wird ‘than the case is worth’
has led to a number of translations, several involving amendments
to the text. Schlyter (CIG, 107) offers the reading warder for the
manuscript’s wird and translates ‘som varder saker’ (who keeps
the thing [the animal in question]). Säve (GU, xxiv) considers thischange too radical and takes sakir to be genitive and wird to be anoun meaning ‘värde’ (worth, value). He translates ‘än sakens värde’(than the value of the thing), but further expresses doubts as to themeaning of sak that this interpretation imposes, and thinks thatthe context could alternatively carry the usual sense of sak ‘(legal)case’. Wadstein (1894–95, 14–15) suggests a reading sak ir forsakir, with no further changes necessary, and translates ‘än saken

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uppskattas till’ (than the case is valued at). This requires minimumchange and retains the usual sense of sak. Pipping (1901a, 23 note
5) offers palaeographic support for this and it has been followed in
the present translation. The seemingly overriding provision thatno one was to be liable for more than the value of the creature
involved cannot have applied in the case of carelessness, otherwise this latter provision would make no sense.
Addition 2/7–8. Jacobsen (GGD, 52 note 4) observes that the sentence Þa en minni lastir . . . halfu minna ‘If the damage . . . half as
much’ is far from clear. It appears to mean that if damage was lessthan the creature was worth, the owner was liable to half of theactual value of the animal. This might, of course, be less than thevalue of the case, and can thus hardly apply to cases involving
carelessness, which were to be doubly penalised. The structure of
the sentence makes it possible that Bilefeld has made a scribal
error and omitted a clause.
Addition 2/10–14. The latter part of this paragraph gives an alternative version of fines payable for injuries by dogs to that laid out in
the A-text.
Addition 3: Aff sara farom
These provisions offer a slightly different reading from the equivalent ones in the A-text (19/62–66). The following differences areapparent in the level of fines.
Addition 3/1–2. Damage to bones in a hand or foot are valued at twomarks in coin instead of one. The provision in the A-text relating
to more bones being broken but a full recovery being made does
not appear in the B-text. There is however, evidence of a scribal
amendment to the latter at this point, and it is possible that Bilefeld
derived this clause from a third manuscript (see Pipping 1901a, 27
note 1).
Addition 3/2. Each rib is valued at two marks in coin, as in the
A-text, but there is no limit set on the number of ribs to be counted
for compensation.
Addition 3/3. The compensation for disability is two marks of silver
as in the A-text. The provision is here inserted in the margin, according
to Pipping from a lost manuscript other than that of 1470, as touched
on in the Introduction, pp. xviii–xx.
Addition 3/4–5. The provision relating to visible wounds does notoccur in this form in the A-text.

NOTES

183

Addition 4: Aff sara farom
These provisions offer a slightly different reading from the equivalent ones in the A-text (19/81–86). The following differences areapparent in the level of fines.
Addition 4/1. The fine for a damaged ear is two marks in coin in the
A-text, rather than a mark of silver, i.e. half as much.
Addition 4/1–2. Fines relating to shinbones and forearms do notappear in the A-text. They appear in the margin of the B-text,
which lends support to Pipping’s theory that Bilefeld had a third
manuscript to hand when he was writing AM 54 4to (see Introduction, pp. xviii–xx).
Addition 4/3–5. Fines for teeth in the A-text are two marks in coin foreach of the two central upper teeth, one mark in coin for each of theeye teeth and one mark for each of the other teeth in the upper jaw.
Teeth in the lower jaw were valued at half of this throughout. The
B-text does not differentiate between the upper and lower jaw andthe fines are twice as much as the A-text specifies for the upper jaw.
Addition 5: Aff loyski
Addition 5/2–5. These provisions offer a slightly different readingfrom the equivalent ones in the A-text (19/104–08, 100 respectively), but they correspond exactly with Chapter 62, a later additionin the A-text. Specifically, the fine for pulling out hair more than
the flat of a hand can cover, or all the hair, is doubled in bothcases. The remaining provisions are repeated unchanged. For thedifferent treatment of these additions in the two manuscripts, see
Introduction, pp. xv, xvi, xx and SL IV, 264 note 47.
Addition 6: Aff wagnikla ferdir
Addition 6/1–4. These provisions correspond exactly to those at theend of the A-text addition, Chapter 63/14–17.
Addition 7: Af manna kaupi
This chapter, although listed in the table of contents in the A-text,
following Chapter 32, does not appear in that text. Addition 7 istaken from the B-text, where it appears in the position expected in
the A-text. The chapter appears in tyGL and daGL. Schlyter (CIG,
viii–ix) thinks that the reason for the omission of this chapter, andsections of the chapter on theft, can be found in an assumption that

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slavery was no longer current when the A-text manuscript was written. He considers that slavery was dying out even when GL originated,since the period of slavery was limited (2/37–38). Jacobsen (GGD,
93 note 4) observes that the word þrel ‘slave’, although used elsewhere in GL, does not appear in this chapter. She also remarks thatthe chapter was most probably present in the manuscript from which
the scribe of the A-text made his copy. For an analysis of the provisions relating to slaves in GL, see Nevéus (1974, 54–67).
Addition 7/2. Säve (GU, xx) does not interpret mandr as ‘slave’, but
simply as a ‘man belonging to another’. The translation ‘slave’ inthis particular context does, however, make the meaning clearer.
Addition 7/8–10. Wessén (SL IV, 282 note 5 to Chapter 32a) remarksthat in Gotland it appeared to be the one who followed usual legal
process who had (the right) to substantiate his claim, rather thanthe one who deviated from it.
Addition 7/15. The symptoms of epilepsy or falling sickness (brutfall) were described in accounts of miracles as early as 1134 andappear in detail on the gravestone of Abbot Vilhelm in Æbelholt
from c.1205. One description mentions frothing at the mouth, clenching of the teeth and the following coma, lasting several hours. The
patient was cured by drinking from the holy well at Haraldsted(see KL s. v. Ligfald). In GulL 57 (NGL 1, 29) and FrostL V §41(NGL 1, 182) epilepsy was, as in GL, considered to be a fault in a slave
for which the seller was responsible for a month. The OWN word
for the condition is stiarva or stjarfa.
Jacobsen (GGD, 94 note 5), unlike other editors, is clear about
the implications of bedroyta, describing it as bed-wetting, whether
deliberate or through negligence, which would indeed have rotted
the straw in a bed. In GulL 57 (NGL 1, 29) a slave can be returned
if he is incontinent in any way, not just in his bed.
Addition 7/16. The phrase ny ok niþan, referring to the waxing andwaning of the moon, was used in a number of contexts to denote amonth, although manaþr is more usual (cf. GulL 56, 57 (NGL 1,29); ÄVgL Tjb 19; YVgL Tjb 54). The two Swedish instances also
are in connection with the detection of faults in a bought slave.
Addition 7/17. The nature of the illness represented by the phrase
beyni verkir, literally ‘he hurts in the bone or leg’, is not clear.
Wessén suggests that it was benröta ‘caries’, or something similar.
Arthritis is another possibility. The parallel passage in GulL 57(NGL 1, 29) specifies oc við stinga ‘a stitch in the side’.

NOTES

185

Addition7/18. The word brigsl ‘ownership claim’ has a number of
meanings, but here it clearly means a dispute relating to ownership. The vendor was deemed responsible in perpetuity for thelegal ownership of a slave he was selling in ÄVgL Tjb 19 and in
GulL 57 (NGL 1, 29–31) (cf. SL IV, 282 note 9).
Addition 7/23. The expression mid mala, translated here as ‘underconditions’, seems to imply that the sale was temporary, for a limited
period of time; the agreement was effectively a lease. It is notclear whether this provision relates specifically to the immediately preceding one or not, but presumably the argument presented
by the vendor was that the purchaser had to return the slave aftera stipulated period. Whether the slave was his to sell or not was
thus irrelevant, since he would expect eventually to be able toreturn him or her to the legal owner. Right appeared always tohave been on the side of the person who believed that the transaction was a straightforward purchase, and they had the right of proof(cf. Note to Addition 7/8–10).
Addition 8: Aff tiaufa rethi
The contents of this addition occur also in tyGL. The provisions referto theft by slaves, which accounts for their omission from the A-text.
Addition 8/1–3 and 3–5. Wessén (SL IV, 284 note 4) observes thatthe implication in each of these cases seems to be that if the ownerof the slave (rather than the victim) detected his theft and returned
the goods, he had nothing further to pay.
Addition 8/6. A þrigildi ‘triple fine’ is referred to only in the B-text
and not in mainland provincial laws.
Addition 8/8. The noun þiaufnaþr is here a synonym for þypti (Addition
8/2) ‘stolen goods’. The noun can also mean the abstract
concept of ‘theft’ itself. At Addition 8/28, either meaning would
make sense.
Addition 8/11. The translation ‘bar nor bolt’ (hun ella hell) reflects
the alliteration of the original Gutnish, but previous scholarshiphas led to a number of translations. (1) hun ‘takås’ (roof ridge) andhell ‘tröskel . . . sten’ (threshold stone) (Schlyter (CISG s. v. hun,hell); GO s. v. hun); (2) hun ‘bom’ (bar) and hell ‘hängsle’ (padlock) (Wadstein 1890–92, 228–29); (3) hell ‘tränagel varpå dörren
vrider sig’ (wooden pintle on which the door rotates) (Lidén 1892,
89–90); (4) hun ‘dørrskodde’ (door shutter), related to OldDan

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THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

hund, and hell ‘tværbjælke’ (cross-timber) related to OWN hælland Danish dialect hæl in tøjre-hæl ‘mooring peg’ (Jacobsen GGD,
99 note 4); (5) hun ella hell, ‘hun och häl’ (lock mechanism andbolt) (Wessén SL IV, 284 notes 6, comparing to VmL Kkb 5 pr and
SL II, VmL, 23–24 note 12). A concrete translation is preferred toan abstract interpretation of Schlyter’s translation: ‘if the house isundamaged from top to bottom’. The inference drawn from the factthat no part of the door lock was damaged was that no break-in
had taken place. Either the owner had failed to secure his property,
or his own household people were involved.
Addition 8/12. The use of torture to extract a confession where thegoods concerned were not under lock and key seems to be exceptionally harsh, but is another example of betrayal of trust being
regarded as particularly reprehensible. The assumption is that atleast some of the stolen items were found (cf. Addition 8/15) andthat there was reason to suspect the slave. Although instances of
torture in Scandinavian medieval laws are uncertain, it formed partof Roman law, and there is a suggestion of it in VStL I 41 (cf.
Munktell 1939, 103–05; Hasselberg 1953, 67 note 1).
The concept of viþrlag, væþ or witæ ‘compensation, deposit’
occurred across the Scandinavian laws. It meant either a forfeit(pant) or a deposit in relation to a legal case, so that one could
charge a slave on suspicion. Both parties placed deposits with ataka either at the beginning of a case, or at the end of a case after
judgement had been passed, in which case the judges and the person who had lost the case laid down money with the taka. The
result of the appeal determined if the appellant or the judges received
the deposited money (cf. KL s. v. Veddemål). In the first instance,
the accuser forfeited the money if the case was not proved. The
viþrlag referred to here is the six-öre deposit demanded under othercircumstances.
Addition 8/13–14. Jacobsen (GGD, 99 note 7) takes bainheilom ‘wholein bone’ to refer to the slave’s joints, rather than his bones ingeneral.
It is not certain what is meant by brustheilom ‘whole in . . . breathing’,
but it was clearly part of a stock phrase that has an exact parallelin that used of horses: sound in wind and limb. In other words, theslave had to be in a state in which he could resume his duties.
Addition 8/15. In reference to the meaning of agripr ‘material evidence’, Wessén (SL IV, 284 note 9) questions that offered by Schlyter

NOTES

187

and Pipping: ‘tjufgods, hvarmed någon blifvit befunnen’ (stolen
goods with which someone has been discovered). He thinks that
this might be a possible translation here, but not at Addition 8/22.
He suggests a translation meaning in general ‘items left behind by
or taken from a suspected thief, which are to be used as evidence’.
For the meaning of OldSwe agriper or agreper, see DL Kkb 9 §3;
SL II, DL, 17 note 57.
Addition 8/17–18. ‘Bring him back uninjured and pay a fine of six
öre’. There is an apparent corruption in the B-text at this point.
The suggested interpretation by Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok, 45) does
not entirely solve the problem as an auxiliary verb appears to be
missing and the subject of byti ‘pay a fine’ cannot be the slave. If
the sense of kuma is ‘to bring’, with the dative object (the slave)understood (as in the parallel passage at Addition 8/13–14), theverb should be in the third person singular subjunctive (as is byti).
This interpretation has been used in the translation.
Addition 8/17–20 and footnote. ‘Bring him back uninjured and pay
six öre for the wristbands . . . six öre’ (Kumi ok hailum atr ok byti
vi oyra fyri baugband . . . vi oyra). Schlyter (CIG, 110 note 24),
Jacobsen (GGD, 100 note 3) and Wessén (SL IV, 284 note 10)
recognise that the scribe has omitted a line of text. Wessén reconstructs the missing text from tyGL and this reconstruction has been
incorporated in the present translation in angled brackets. The finefor unlawful imprisonment is low here in comparison to that in
Swedish mainland provincial laws and in VStL, where it was forty
marks, i.e. the equivalent of a wergild. Even a slave’s wergild of
4½ marks in coin was considerably higher than the six öre offered
here (cf. Hasselberg 1953, 326–29 and note 6).
Addition 8/18. There appears to be no description of wristbands(baugband), and they may have been no more damaging than apair of handcuffs with which a thief was restrained for presentation
before the assembly (see Wennström 1936, 131). This in itself wasconsidered to be a severe infringement of a person’s rights and so
could not be done on mere suspicion (or at least not without payment of a deposit). It is, however, possible that baugband were an
instrument of torture or punishment, which would explain why anaccuser had to pay for inflicting them upon the slave, even if a
confession were extracted. Thieves were sometimes bound with
their hands behind their backs, which was considered extremely
insulting, or with their hands in front of them, which was less so

188

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS(cf. KL s. v. Fängelse). Although Åke Ohlmarks (1976, 613) glosses
baugband as a strap around the elbows (which, if fastened behindthe back, would have been particularly uncomfortable), baugliþr
‘wrist’ seems to be a more likely connection than *albugi ‘elbow’.
A combination tjuva-band ‘thief band’ is listed as occurring in
Gotlandic dialect, but no meaning or instances cited (cf. GO
s. v. band). On the other hand, a båg-band is defined as a tie tofasten an animal in a barn, while baug is found in Gotlandic dialect in senses relating to the training and restraint of oxen andhorses (cf. GO s. v. båge, *bög).
Addition 8/20–21. ‘In need someone forced says things he has notdone’ (I nauþ segir nauþugir, þet han ey valdir). The implication
here is that one could not take a confession extracted under torture
as proof of guilt if there were no material evidence to support it(see SL IV, 284 note 11 to Chapter 38).
Addition 8/21–28. Further to notes on agripr at Addition 8/15, Wessén(SL IV, 284 note 12) argues that a person who had had his property
stolen could clearly not bring the latter when he was conducting ahouse-search. What must be referred to here is further material evidence against the slave in question: enough to instigate a searchof his master’s farm. If the farm owner refused a search, but one wasnonetheless conducted and stolen goods were found, he was liable
to a triple fine. There is thus no question of the stolen property
having been brought to the scene by the accusers. Receipt of stolen goods (as here by the master of a slave) was treated in somemainland provincial laws as equal with theft itself (cf. ÄVgL Tjb 4;
YVgL Tjb 29; ÖgL Vb 32 §5). The laws of Svealand, however, seemto differentiate between the two (cf. SdmL Tjb 10 §1; VmL Mb 31;
26 §9; HL Mb 31 §4). See also Notes to 37/7–9, 37/12–13 and37/22–24.
Addition 8/28–30. If treble the value of the stolen property exceeded
the value of the slave, then the master was not expected to pay thisamount, but to relinquish the slave instead.
Addition 8/30–32. This sentence reinforces the meaning of the preceding one. The verb firistiela means ‘forfeit as a result of theft’.
Cf. the use of the verb firibiera (37/24).
Addition 8/34–35. One-eighth of the value appears to have been ausual reward for finding stolen property (cf. 49/2–3). No specificmention is made of a portion of the value of the goods themselves
being paid, but it is possible that fundarlaun ‘reward’ is also intendedNOTES

189

to cover this. The alag ‘fine’ referred to was presumably the threefold fine that the owner of a slave had to pay to a victim of theft,since no other fine is mentioned. Elsewhere in OWN álög usuallyrefers to an extra payment made if a deal settled by a handshake is
not honoured.
Addition 8/36. The expression mulslaghu (or muslaghu) maþær ‘fugitive’ appears also in ÖgL Bb 34 §1 in relation to an escapedslave and the suggestion by Ihre is that the first element derives
from a verb musla meaning ‘hide, abscond’. Schlyter, however,thinks a simpler derivation from mus ‘mouse’ and liggia ‘lie’ ismore likely. Such men were fugitives and had to lie low as far as
they were able to avoid detection, ‘as quiet as a mouse’ (cf. CISG,
xiii and s. v. muslaghu maþer). Once the slave was on the run, hismaster’s responsibility for his actions in regard to his survival
ceased and no compensation was paid for any theft of food that hemight commit.
Addition 8/41. ‘on land’ (a landi). This means in Gotland, that is,
before he had escaped overseas.
Addition 8/43–44. Provisions relating to the lawful securing of vessels of various types are contained in Chapter 36. It is notable thatthe owner of an unprotected ship was responsible to a slave’s ownerfor his safety, even if the slave were a thief (Addition 8/48–50).
Addition 8/44–45. The clause specifying that a slave’s owner had toredeem (i.e. pay recompense for) any goods stolen by the slave
while he was on the run appears to contradict the clause at Addition 8/37–39, but this latter refers presumably only to food.
Addition 8/51. ‘in the absence of material evidence’ (agripslaus).
This is translated by Pipping (GLGS, Ordbok, 2) as meaning ‘oneon whom no stolen goods have been found’. Wessén, on the other
hand, takes the view that this has the broader sense of the Swedish
utan avtäkt. This means strictly ‘in the absence of the right by aproperty owner to confiscate tools, weapons or stolen goods heldby a thief’, but ‘in the absence of material evidence’ is probably a
preferable translation (see SL IV, 285 note 22).
Addition 8/51–56. Jacobsen (GGD, 101 and note 9) assumes that ‘aman’ (naquar madir) in Addition 8/51 refers to a slave and supports this theory by pointing out that this final paragraph is also
missing from the A-text. On the other hand, Wessén (SL IV, 285
note 24) considers that this paragraph is clearly a continuationof provisions in Chapter 38 relating to free men and that it was

190

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

inadvertently omitted when the A-text was constructed. Since nomention of assemblies occurs otherwise in the section on theft byslaves, Wessén’s interpretation seems preferable.
Addition 8/56. The action to be taken in the case of material evidence being available was to be the same as if there were none.
Schlyter, in line with his interpretation of agripr, and with different punctuation, translates this passage thus: ‘De skola vitna det
som de höra, om han är skyldig eller oskyldig, så ock om han är
funnen med tjufgods’ (They should bear witness of what they hear,
if he is guilty or innocent, even if he is discovered with stolen
goods). See Note to Addition 8/15.
Addition 9: Af burgan viþr byamen
Addition 9/2–3 and footnote. These two provisions coincide withthose in the addition to the A-text, Chapter 65/17–18. No fine islaid down here, although the fine implied in the A-text is twelve
marks to the general assembly.
Addition 9/3. The verb betala ‘pay for’ is a loan word from Low
German; in the A-text, gielda is always used.
Addition 9/5–6. This provision relates to the one in the addition to
the A-text (63/9–11), but expands upon it. Cf. the use of the verb
virþa in these passages, where it means ‘take in (or make) payment(of a debt)’ to those at e.g. 30/4–5 and 40/4, where it seems tomean ‘place a value on’. (Cf. Notes to 10/5, 30/4–5 and 63/9–11).
As the provision here is a later one, it is possible that the meaningof virþa changed over time. The whole expression carries theimplication that liquid assets (oyrar) and real estate were not interchangeable in respect of debt payment, except by agreement (cf.
Notes to 2/35, 53/3–5).

NOTES

Stockholm, Kungl. biblioteket, MS B 64, 2r(reproduced by permission of Kungl. biblioteket)

191

192

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Copenhagen, Den Arnamagnæanske Samling, MS AM 54 4to, 41r(reproduced by permission of Den Arnamagnæanske Samling)APPENDIX A

193

APPENDIX A: COMPARISON OF MANUSCRIPTS(i) Manuscript content comparison
B65
Manuscript
AM 54 4toAM 55 4to
B64
Content
Oldest statutes Chapters 1–47 Chapters 1–65 Chapters 1–59 Chapters 1–67
Later statutes Chapters 48–61 Chapters 66–80 Chapters 60–75 Chapters 68–80
Priests’
No (Chapter 5) Yes (Chapter 4) No (Chapter 5) No (Chapter 5)childrenRights ofYes–––
betrothed(Chapter 13)
women
Extra clauses No
Yes
No
No
relating to(Chapter 17) (Chapter 17) (Chapter 18)(Chapter 17)
unruly animals
Yes
Yes
No
ClauseNo(Chapter 19) (Chapter 19) (Chapter 21)
concerning(Chapter 19)
bruising
Yes
Yes
ClauseNo
Yes(Chapter 19) (Chapter 19) (Chapter 21)
concerning(Chapter 19)
partialdisability
No
No
Yes
ClauseNo(Chapter 19) (Chapter 19) (Chapter 21)(Chapter 19)
concerning
hiddendisability
Yes
Yes
No
ClauseYes(Chapter 19) (Chapter 19) (Chapter 21)
concerning ale (Chapter 19)
throwing
Yes
Yes
ClauseYes
No(Chapter 19) (Chapter 20) (Chapter 22)(Chapter 19)
concerning
slaves fighting
ClauseYes
Yes
Yes (misplaced Yes
concerningin chapter 19) (Chapter 25) (Chapter 21) (Chapter 23)
inheritance ofchildless man
StatutesYes (misplaced Yes
Yes
Yes
concerningin Chapter 20) (Chapter 29) (Chapter 23) (Chapter 24)
seduction
Clause
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
concerning(Chapter 23)(Chapter 29) (Chapter 26) (Chapter 27)
displacing awoman’s coif

194

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Concerning
travellers’
pathways
Purchase ofslavesCare of ships

Yes (Chapter Yes
64, misplaced (Chapter 37)
from after 24)
Yes
No (although(Chapter 49)
in Contents)
Yes
Yes(Chapter 36) (Chapter 53)
Yes
No(Chapter 38) (Chapter 55)

Yes(Chapter 31)
Yes(Chapter 43)
Yes(Chapter 47)
Yes(Chapter 50)–
Yes(Chapter 43)–

No
Statutes(Chapter 49)
relating totheft by slaves
Gilded items
cf. Chapter 24 cf. Chapter 35 cf. Chapter 28 Chapters 51, 30, 81––
Yes (Chapter 52)
The sale of ale–
Watch duty
cf. Chapter 54 cf. Chapter 72 cf. Chapter 63 Chapters 53, 71
Yes
Cutting down–––
(Chapter 54)
specific trees
Yes
Cutting down
(Chapter 55)
trees in–––someone’s
enclosure
Taking timber cf. Chapter 26 cf. Chapter 40 cf. Chapter 36 Chapters 56, 35
Yes
Cutting down–––
(Chapter 57)
a slip rail
Yes
Cutting down–––
(Chapter 58)
doors
Yes
Cutting down
(Chapter 59)––
posts or–supports
Yes
Concerning
Yes
Yes
–
(Chapter 62)
taxes(Chapter 53) (Chapter 71)
Yes
Yes (afterYes (after
Epilogue
Yes(Chapter 75)
Chapter 75)(Chapter 61) Chapter 82)
Yes
Yes
Concerning
Yes–(Chapter 82)
hair pulling(Chapter 62) (Chapter 20)
Yes
Concerning
Yes
Yes
–
(Chapter 83)
woodland(Chapter 63) (Chapter 82)
No
Clause limiting Yes (misNo
Yes
toasts at(Chapter 27) (Chapter 28)(Chapter 33)
placed in
weddings
Chapter 63)
Concerning
Yes
Yes
Yes
women’s–(Chapter 81)(Chapter 65) (Chapter 35)
inheritance
Forbidding
Yes (firstYes
Yes (first–creditclause ends
(Chapter 81)
clause ends
Chapter 65)
Chapter 81)

Where a clause does not appear in a certain manuscript, the chapter containing
the related clauses, if any, is shown; otherwise a dash appears in the table.

APPENDIX A

195(ii) Chapter sequence comparison of the fourteen later statutes
Manuscript
B64 AM 54 4to B 65 AM 55 4to
Chapter
Concerning turnip fields
60
48
77
66
Concerning shipwrecks
74
49
68
67
Concerning fire
72
50
69
68
Concerning carried fire
73
51
70
69
Concerning road repair
61
52
79
70
Concerning taxes
53
53
–
71
Concerning the watch
63
54
71
72
Concerning houses, etc.
64; 6555
78
73
Concerning harvesters
66; 6756
76
74; 75
Concerning squirrels
68
57
72
76
Concerning hares
69
58
73
77
Concerning tree fruits
70
59
74
78
Concerning failure to read mass 60757579Concerning gambling
71
61
80
80

196

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSAPPENDIX B: CHRONOLOGY OF HISTORICAL EVENTS

Outline of Gotland’s history and related mainland Swedish events
1164 Swedish archbishopric, under that of Lund, founded in Uppsala
Cistercian monastery of Beata Maria de Gutnalia founded at Roma
1195 Henry of Livonia leads a crusade against Kurland including
Gotlanders
1203 Name Wysbu appears in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia
Andreas Suneson, Archbishop of Lund, visits Gotland
Battle of Lena. Sverker defeated and Erik Knutsson assumes Swedish throne
Letter from Pope Innocent III concerning the rural deans in Gotland
1216 Johan Sverkersson king of Sweden
1217 Gotland’s tithe distribution law confirmed by Pope Honorius III
1221 Letter from Andreas Suneson and Bishops Karl and Bengt concerning
the relationship between Gotland and the See of Linköping
1222 Erik Eriksson king of Sweden
1225 The name Visby appears in a letter from Bengt, Bishop of
Linköping
Records relating to Riga mention ius Gutorum as applying there
1230 Gotland’s tithe law again confirmed by Pope Gregory IX
1248 Birger Magnusson appointed Jarl
Papal legate Vilhelm of Sabina declares priestly celibacy at Synod
of Skänninge
1249 Erik Eriksson dies; Birger Jarl governs Sweden
1250 Valdemar Birgersson crowned; Birger Jarl regent
1253 Tithe arrangements again confirmed by Pope Innocent IV
1255 German and English merchants start to take over Gotlandic trade1260 Law of inheritance makes two daughters equal to a son in Sweden
1266 Birger Jarl dies; Valdemar Birgersson rules in his own right
1275 Magnus Birgersson (Ladulås) king; position of jarl replaced bysveahertig
1285 Annual laiþingslami tax declared; Gotland effectively under
Swedish rule

APPENDIX B

197

1288 King Magnus intervenes in civil war between Visby and the farmers
Visby stadslag put in place
1290 Magnus Birgersson dies
1298 Birger Magnusson king of Sweden
1310 Sweden partitioned; Birger Magnusson assigned Gotland
1313 Taxes in Gotland increased
Battle of Röcklingebacke; Birger defeated in his attempt to annex
Gotland1318 Birger flees to Gotland, then Denmark
1319 Magnus Eriksson king, but with a minority government
1320 Taxes in Gotland reduced to previous levels
1322 Visby’s privileges confirmed
1332 Magnus Eriksson king in his own right
1335 Slavery abolished under the Statute of Skara
1347 Magnus Erikssons landslag replaces mainland provincial laws
1350 Black Death in Visby1361 Valdemar IV Atterdag of Denmark invades and conquers Gotland
1398 The Teutonic Order seizes power in Gotland from the Vitalian
Brotherhood
1408 The Teutonic Order returns Gotland to Erik of Pommern
1645 Gotland finally returned to Swedish rule at the peace of Brömsebro

198

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSAPPENDIX C: MONETARY SYSTEM
Units of Value
Denomination
Mark (weight)
Mark (weight)
Mark (counted,
Gutnish markpenninga)

Standard
gold
silvercoin

Half markusually coin,once silver
usually coinusually coinÖre (Gutnish oyrir)Örtug (Gutnish
ertaug)Penny (Gutnish*penningr)

coin

Equivalent
8 silver marks
4 marks in coin

/8 mark/3 öre (i.e. 1/24

1
1

mark)
8, 10, 12 or 16
to the örtug

Referencee.g. Chapter 15/3
e.g. Chapter 13/62
e.g. Chapter 15/5–6

e.g. Chapter 19/3,
28
e.g. Chapter 2/35
e.g. Chapter 19/91
e.g. Chapter 45/3

For the relationship between the mark of gold and that of silver, see
Wessén (SL IV, 259 note 1). There is little doubt that his conclusion iscorrect. The exact relationship between the silver mark (a unit of weight, also
divided into 24 örtugar) and the coined mark (a counted unit) is far fromunambiguous and interpretation is not assisted by the following circumstances: (1) the definitions silfr and penningr are often omitted; (2)the manuscripts of GL occasionally give different fines for the sameoffences (Wennström 1940, 74–75). Jacobsen (GGD, 25 note 1) suggeststhat the silver mark was ‘mere end det dobbelte af en Mark Penge’ (morethan double a mark in coin), whereas Wessén (SL IV, 245 note 4) equates asilver mark to four marks in coin and there is certainly internal evidence(19/80–81) to suggest this. It seems to be generally the case that, if aqualification is omitted, a mark in coin is intended (cf. SL IV, 245 note 4),
but this assumption must naturally be made with circumspection andthere is certainly one instance in which this is not the case (see Appendix D(ii) note 2). Lilienberg (1908, 12) states that Birger Jarl introduced a standard in mainland Sweden of two marks in coin to one of silver as shown inÖgL, whereas in the time of Magnus Ladulås the relationship was three toone. By 1303 there were four marks in coin to one of silver and, by 1311, five.
The number of pennies to the örtug in Gotland has been given variously as:

APPENDIX C
8
1216, later 8‘probably’ 88 or 1010

199

Schlyter (CIG, 287), Pipping (GCGS, Ordbok, 62), Jacobsen(GGD, 25 note1)
Hildebrand 1879–1953, I, 893, 941; Jansson 1936, 65; N. L.
Rasmusson in KL s.v. Penning
Hauberg 1891, 9–10
Thordeman 1936, 17
Wennström 1940, 15
Lilienberg 1908, 11, referring to the period 1013–22; Hasselberg
1953, 204 n. 1, referring to the time of VStL

Jansson (1936, 12) states that a weighed örtug was 7–9 grams withan öre being 24–27 grams. He also holds (1936, 65) that there were
twelve pennies to the örtug in Denmark, Gotland, and Öland and in
the rest of the Baltic. Jacobsen (GGD, 25 note 1) states, however, thatthe number of pennies to the örtug was ten in Denmark as in Norway,
and this is confirmed in Andreas Suneson’s translation of Skånelagen(e.g. SkLAS 119; CISk II 65). Suggestions that there were twelve pennies
to the örtug in Jylland during the medieval period are unsubstantiated. In Svealand there were eight pennies to the örtug, in Götaland(particularly Västergötland) initially 16 (although later 8). It was thus
possible that the penning coin was originally considerably smaller insize in some areas, and a mark was respectively 288 (Gotland, Öland
and possibly Jylland), 240 (Denmark), 192 (Svealand) and 384 (Västergötland) pennies. Rasmusson in KL states that there were four, notthree örtugar of twelve penningar to the öre in Gotland, but this is
not supported elsewhere. The standard of Svealand gradually took
over in Sweden after 1300.

200

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSAPPENDIX D: TABLE OF PENALTIES EXACTED(i) Non-monetary penalties
Chapter Crimeand line
2/37
If a female slave commits
infanticide
Carting more than permitted on
6/10
the Sabbath
6/37–38 If work is done on the Sabbath bya slave man or woman
7/5
Damaging or stealing monastic
property
8/15–18 Killing or wounding during
Church Festivals
13/60
16/9–11

Refusing to offer compensation fora killing within the specified time
Killing of a Gotlandic or nonGotlandic man by a slave

19/133– A slave fighting a free man
134
20/87–89 Selling the family farm illegally

20/12220a/4

Adultery of any man with theillegitimate daughter of a Gotlandic
man with a non-Gotlandic woman(or vice versa) when taken in
flagrante delicto
Adultery with an unmarried
Gotlandic woman when taken in
flagrante delicto

21/10

Adultery with a married woman

21/18

Carrying off a woman without her
family’s consent

22/17–18 Rape of a married woman, whether
Gotlandic or not
Rape of a Gotlandic woman by a
22/28
slave

PenaltySix extra years of bondage (plus afine paid by her master)
Confiscation of the load until
redeemedThree extra years of bondage(plus a fine paid by the master)
Excommunication
Withholding of church offices(excommunication) until fines are
paid
Outlawry (and see below for
additional fines)
Master to bring slave bound to thefarm of the dead man within forty
nightsTwo blows to the slave equate to
one and matters are considered even
Loss of inheritance shared withsiblings and reduction of weregild
to that of a non-Gotlander
Loss of a hand or foot (or paymentof three marks in silver as statedbelow)

Placing in the stocks for threenights, followed by loss of a handor foot (or payment of six marks insilver by his family)Life (or 40 marks as chosen by
the wronged husband)
Life (literally ‘neck’) (or his
wergild if she is Gotlandic or ten
silver marks otherwise)Life (or the wergild set on the
woman)
Life (unless the woman prefers to
be paid her wergild by the slave’s
master)APPENDIX D
25/30–
31
38/5

Working in another man’s
woodland or marsh
Stealing more than two öre and up
to a mark in silver

38/6–9Recidivist theft, or theft of a markin silver or more
Misappropriating land worth threemarks in rent, without cause

63/11–
13

201
Confiscation of the result of his
work and his draught animal
Presentationn before the assembly and branding (as well as awergild fine)Hanging [considered a shameful execution]
Life (literally ‘neck’) for the
man and loss of her church pew
for his wife

The non-monetary punishments could be summarised as:
1. Hanging
2. Other unspecified method of execution.
3. Outlawry
4. Excommunication
5. Loss of inheritance and status
6. Loss of a hand or foot7. Branding or other disfigurement
8. Placement in the stocks
9. Temporary withdrawal of church offices
10. Increase of period of bondage
11. Confiscation of goods involved in offence(ii) Monetary penalties
Chapterand line
2/9

2/18–19

2/20–21
2/22–23
2/35
3/19

4/8
4/14–15

Crime

To whom paid (if not Fine (in coin unlessclearly the victim or stated otherwise)
his heirs)
Infanticide by aParishioners, returnable Three marks
free woman
if she is foundinnocent
as aboveThree marks to each
(Local or hundred)assembly members, if
the case goes further,and the dean
as above
Twelve marks
General assembly
Sheltering a child Unspecified
Three marks
killer
If a slave commits
Six öre (paid by the
infanticide
master, and see above)
Failure to pay tithe Parishioners, church,
Three marks
on time, or before priest
moving parish
Heathen practices Parishioners
Three marks
as aboveThree marks(Local) assembly202

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

General assembly
Twelve marks
Half to the informant Six öre to redeem theand half to the priest load and six öre inand parishioners
fine
Half to the informant Six öre and the loss
6/33
and half to the parish, of the work done
priest and church
Three öre in fine to
Working on the Sabbath Unspecified
6/36
be paid by the masterby slave men or women(and see above)
A fine twice that
Damage to or theft from
7/5
payable to a farmer
monastic property(and excommunication
as noted above)
Damage to or theft from General assembly (if Three marks (above
7/8
it comes that far)the fine to the cloister)monastic property
Parishioners, church, Three marks
Killing during Church
8/8
priestfestivals
8/8–9 Wounding during Church Parishioners, church, Twelve öre (three if
priestdone by a slave)
festivals
Parishioners, church, Six öre
Striking with a blunt
8/10
instrument during Church priest
festivals
8/10– Scuffling or punching in Parishioners, church, Three öre
priestanger during Church
12
festivals
40 marks (Ten marks
General assembly
8/25– Killing in a church
in silver)
26
Twelve marks (ofKilling in a churchyard General assembly
8/26
which three go to the[and it might be assumed
footdean)wounding in a church]note
40 marks
General assembly
Killing a criminal in
8/32
sanctuary in one of thethree sanctuary churches,churchyards or rectory
grounds
Parishioners, church, Six marks
8/36– Bruising in church orpriestwounding in a church37
yard
8/37– Scuffling in a church or Parishioners, church, Three marks
bruising in a churchyard priest
40
8/40– Scuffling or punching in Parishioners, church, Twelve örea churchyard
priest42
Three marks
8/42– Reconsecration after the Churchabove
44
As much wergild as theGeneral assembly
9/9–11 Killing during theuniversal sanctity
man is worth (as wellas the normal payment
to the heirs)
4/16
6/10

as above
Overburdening an animalor transporting forbidden
goods on the SabbathWorking on the Sabbath
by free men or womenAPPENDIX D

203

9/11–12 Wounding or
attacking during theuniversal sanctity
9/14–16 Destroying property
during the universal
sanctity
10/4–7 Taking a man’s horseor ox as surety during
the spring sanctity
11/4–6 Taking someone by
the hair, or punchingthem during theassembly
11/7–8 Striking someone witha blunt weapon or
causing a wound at
the assembly
11/8–9 Killing or maiming aman, except inrevenge, at theassembly
12/3–5 Killing or maiming a
man at his home

Unspecified (presumably the general
assembly)
Unspecified (presumably the general
assembly)
Unspecified

Three marks

Unspecified

Three marks (inaddition to fines forthe crime)

12/5–7The community andthe victim

14/25

Striking someone intheir home with ablunt weapon or
causing a wound
Refusing to offer
compensation for akilling within thespecified time, or not
keeping to his circleof truce
Killing by a minor

14/32–
33

Killing a pregnant
woman

13/61–
65

Three marks

Three marks

Unspecified
Three marks

Unspecified

Six marks

General assembly andthe victim or his heirs

Twelve marks to each(in addition to wergild
in the case of death)Three marks to each (inaddition to the normal
fine)

General assembly andthe claimant

Six marks in silver to
eachTwelve marks in silver(i.e. half a wergild)
Twelve marks in silver
for the child and fullwergild for the woman
Three marks in gold
(i.e. 24 marks in silver,
96 marks in coin)
Ten marks in silver (i.e.
40 marks in coin, as in
Sweden)His or her heirs
15/2–3; Killing a Gotlanderor the child of a
7–9
Gotlandic man
His or her heirs
Killing a non15/4;
15/11– Gotlander or the childof a non-Gotlandic
12man
1[His master, presumably] Four and a half marks
15/5–6 Killing a slave
1This does not seem to be the same as the value of the slave, which appears
to be three marks in silver.

204
16/2–316/3–4

16/4
16/6–716/7–8
16/11

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS
Killing a Gotlander in
his circle of truce
Killing a nonGotlander in his circleof truce[Presumably the
Killing a slave in his
victim’s master]
circle of truce
Maiming a nonGotlander’s hand or
footOther maiming
Killing of a Gotlandic
man by a slave

16/12–
13

Killing of a Gotlandic
man by a slave whothen escapes

16/13–
14

Killing of a nonGotlandic man by aslave
Killing of a nonGotlandic man by aslave who then escapes
In both the above
cases, if the masterdoes not get an oath todeny his own
involvement[Presumably the
Killing of one slave
victim’s master]by another
Killing of a man by
an uncastrated ox offive years old or more
Killing of a Gotlander
by an ox, horse,
three-year-old orolder boar or dog
Killing of a nonGotlander in the same
circumstances
Wounding, etc. byanimals

16/15–
17
16/18–
19

16/20–
22
17/2–4

17/14–
16

17/17–
19
17/24–
25

Twelve marks in silver(half a wergild)
Five marks in silver (halfa wergild)Six öre (a sixth of aslave’s wergild)
Ten marks in coin (1/ 4wergild)[1/4 wergild, presumably]
Nine marks in silver(plus the slave, valued atthree marks in silver)
Twelve marks in silver(i.e. half the wergild
for a Gotlander from theslave’s master)Two marks in silver(plus the slave)
Five marks in silver (i.e.
half the wergild
for a non-Gotlander)
Full wergild for the deadman (24 or ten marks insilver)Four and a half marks in1lieu of the slave himself
Tweve marks [in silver],2i.e. half his wergild
Tweve marks in silver

One third of his wergild,i.e. 131/3 marks in coin3
(31/3 marks in silver)
One third of the normal
fine

2This is one of the few instances in which ‘silver’ is not stated explicitly,
but is clearly intended.
3This is quite specifically at odds with the practice for a Gotlander, where
half the wergild is offered.

APPENDIX D
17/26–27 Dog bites
18/2–3

Striking a woman sothat she miscarries
18/14–16 Killing a properly
supervised child under
three by accident at agathering
19/2–4
Causing a wound one ormore nail-breadths deep

19/5–6

19/13–15
19/15–16
19/16–17
19/17–20
19/21–23

19/24–25

19/25

Causing a wound lessthan a nail-breadth deep,
but needing treatment
Causing a body wound
Stabbing with a knife
Throwing stones orother missiles
Causing a visible woundthat does not bleed
Causing a woundthrough the nose or lipsthat heals
As above, when it does
not heal
As above two entries,
for an ear

19/25–30 Causing a scar on theface between hat andbeard
19/30–32 Splitting the scalp

19/32–34 Cracking the skull

19/35–36 Each sizeable fragmentof bone chipped off
19/36–38 Each larger bone
19/38–40, Each finger lost or badly
damaged
40–42
Loss of a thumb, or
19/40,
damage to the hand so
42–44
that it is partly disabled

205
Two öre per bite, up to
four
Half a wergild
Full wergild

Half a mark for eachnail-breadth in lengthand depth [c. one inch]
up to eight
A quarter of a mark foreach nail-breadth inlengthOne mark in silver
Two marks in silver
Three marks
Half a mark for eachblow up to four
Two marks and thenextra for the scar
Maximum price for awound (i.e. two marks
in silver)
One mark (and extra
for the scar if applicable) or one mark insilver if it does not heal
Half a mark in silver ora mark in silver if thescar is very noticeable
One mark (in coin) or
two if the skull isvisibleOne mark in silver, or
two if the membrane isvisibleOne mark
Two marks for each up
to four bones
Four marks (in coin)
Two marks in silver(i.e. twice as much)

206

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

19/44–47 Loss of mobility or
breaking the heel or
neck
19/47
Each toe lost
19/47–49 Loss of hand, foot oreye
19/49–52 Loss of both hands orboth feet or both eyes
in a survived attack

19/52–54 Loss of the nose
19/54–56 Loss of the tongue
19/56–68 Loss of a testicle,
resulting in infertility
19/58–59 Loss of both testicles
19/59–61 Loss of the penis
19/62
Each broken rib
19/62–64 Smaller bones in handor foot
19/64–65 Larger bones in handor foot
19/70–72 An invisible injury
resulting in minor
disability
19/73–76, Injury resulting in
78–79
deafness
19/80–81 Loss of an ear

19/81–86 Loss of teeth

19/87–89 Hair-pulling

19/89–90, Shaking, pushing,
91–92
kicking or punchingsomeone19/90–91 Throwing ale insomeone’s eye
4

Two marks in silver

Two marks
Six marks in silver foreach (of these different
things)Twelve marks in silver
for each (of thesedifferent pairs of things,
disagreeing with SL IV,
263, note 25)
Twelve marks in silver
Twelve marks in silver
Six marks in silver
Twelve marks in silver
Eighteen marks in silver
Two marks for each up
to four
One mark
One mark in silver, or
two if disability results
One mark

Twelve marks in silver,
or six if it is partial
One mark in silver; twomarks in coin if the ear
4
is retained damaged
Two marks for each
upper front tooth, one
for every other upper
jaw tooth; lower teeth at
half this rate
Two öre (1/4 mark) if
done with one hand,
otherwise half a markTwo öreEight örtugar (1/3mark), for the insult

A silver mark is thus more than two marks in coin, probably twice asmuch.

APPENDIX D

Half a mark per blow
up to two marks unlessdisfigurement results
Eight örtugar, half amark, a mark, two
5
marks

19/95–97 Striking someone witha staff
19/101–105

19/105–107
19/107–108
19/109–113
19/126–128
19/128–131
19/134–136
19/136–137

Creating a bald patch
the size of a finger,
two fingers, twofingers and a thumb,hand
Pulling out all a man’shair
Removing a man’s
scalp
Damage to outer
clothing, kirtle,
undergarments
Blocking someone’s
way, or turning themaside
Violently forcing a
man to abandon his
route
A slave getting morethan two blows for
one from a free man
A free man getting
more than one blow
for two from a slave
Any non-injuringattack on a slave
Any injury to a slave

19/137–139
19/139–141
20/118– Seduction by any manof the illegitimate
121,
123–125 daughter of a
Gotlandic man with a
non-Gotlandic woman(or vice versa)
20/121– Any man taken in theact of seduction of the122,
123–125 illegitimate daughterof a Gotlandic manwith a non-Gotlandic
woman (or vice versa)

207

4

One mark in silver
One mark in silver

One öre, two öre, eightörtugar, plus repair to theclothing
Eight örtugar (for the
insult)
The victim and thecommunity

Three marks to each

[The slave’s master, Two öre per blow, up to
presumably]four blows
Half a mark per blow, up
to four blows
Half the free man’scompensation
The same as for a free
man up to three marks
Hogsl of four marks

Three marks in silver (toavert the loss of a handor foot)

5
Eight örtugar must thus be less than half a mark and more than a quarter ofa mark. This shows that there were most likely three örtugar to the öre (1/8 mark)in Gotland as elsewhere.

208

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

20a/5–8; Any man taken in theact of seduction of a
24–26
single Gotlandic woman
20a/18– If a Gotlandic man
loses a paternity case,21
when he was not taken
in flagrante delicto
20a/21– Any man taken in the24; 35– act of seduction of a
non-Gotlandic woman
36
in her home
20a/26– If a non-Gotlandic man
is not taken in flagrante
28
delicto with a Gotlandic
woman, but has a childwith her
20a/28– If a non-Gotlandic man
loses a paternity case,32
when he was not taken
in flagrante delicto
20a/33– If a non-Gotlandic man
has a child with a non35
Gotlandic woman
21/2–3 Adultery (presumably The wronged party
by an unmarried man) (presumably thehusband) and the(local) assembly
The wronged party
21/3–5 Double adultery
and the general
assembly
21/5–8 Adultery by a married The unmarried
man with an unmarried woman
woman, but not viceversa
21/9–12 Adultery by any man
taken in flagrantedelicto with a married
woman
Father or guardian
21/12– Luring a woman toand the generalmarriage without her
15
assembly
family’s agreement
Father or guardian
21/15– Taking a woman by
and the general
20; 20– force without her
assembly
family’s agreement23

Six marks in silver (toavert the loss of a handor foot)
Maintaining the motherand child, or full hogsl,
if she is Gotlandic
Three marks

Eight marks in hogsl(and brings up thechild), if he acknowledges it
Full hogsl, if she is
Gotlandic, the childbeing maintained by her
father or brother if she isunmarried
Three marks in hogsl(and he is to bring up thechild)
Six marks and threemarks respectively

Twelve marks to eachHogsl

40 marks (or execution,
as decided by the
cuckolded husband)
40 marks, of which
twelve went to theassemblyMan’s wergild (or ten
marks in silver if she was
non-Gotlandic), of
which twelve (in coin)went to the assembly(otherwise his neck)APPENDIX D
22/13–15 Rape of a woman:
Gotlandic, nonGotlandic or slave
22/16–19 Rape of a married
free woman
22/26–28 Rape by a slave of a
Gotlandic woman

23/2–6(Half) uncovering awoman’s head (of afree woman only)
23/9–12 Striking off a clasp
or buckle or both, or
knocking them tothe ground
23/12–13 Pulling off awoman’s lacing

23/15–17 Pushing a woman sothat her clothes are
displaced
23/17–20 If clothing isdisplaced to midcalf, knee, loins
23/20–
Grasping a woman
21; 22– by the wrist, elbows,
24
shoulders, breast

209
Twelve marks, five marks
or six öre respectively (cf.
the banduvereldi)
Her wergild value (inreturn for his life)
Her (or his) wergild (fromhis master) only if thewoman allows this insteadof the slave’s life(One) two marks

Eight örtugar or ½ markor one mark

½ mark for each up to the
maximum [probably twomarks] and the return ofthem
Eight örtugar½ mark, one mark, twomarks½ mark, eight örtugar,
five örtugar, one öre; half
this if the woman is not
Gotlandic½ mark, eight örtugar,
23/24–
Grasping a woman
five örtugar; half this if the25; 25– by the ankle, lower
woman is not Gotlandic,
27
leg, thighbut freeborn
No fine, as the woman is23/27–30 Grasping her higher
held responsible by thisuptime
24/17–18 Providing more than The general assembly Twelve marks
the stipulated ale at a
wedding
Three öre24/19–20 Gate-crashing awedding or otherfeast
Three marks to each
The wronged party
25/26–29 Giving leave foranother to cut wood and the community
or reeds inunallocated wood or
marsh

210

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

25/33–37

Refusing to allow asearch for property
taken from another’s
wood or otherproperty
The wronged party
25/38–40 Damaging anotherand the community
person’s property
25/40–42 Enclosing unallocated The wronged party
and the communityland
26/8–14 Not having a stockproof fence, resulting
in animals breaking
through
26/25–27 Animal breaking
through a legallyconstructed fence
26/27–29 Ox breaking through afence of any sort
26/29–30 Ox jumping over afence, but only if it islegally constructed
The wronged party
26/38–40; Cutting wood on
and the community
41–42
another’s property

26/47–48; Breaking a man’s fence
48–49;
at the top tie, then a
49–50
second section or athird
26/50–52 Breaking open a whole
fence section
26/55–56; Stealing firewood,
fencing or timber
56–58
28/4–728/22–23
28/47–49

28/66–68

31/4–5

Unspecified fineThree marks to eachThree marks to each
½ mark (towards the
fencing), exacted again
each fortnight if thefence is not made good
The damage caused (duefrom the animal’s owner)
The damage caused (duefrom the ox’s owner)
The damage caused (duefrom the ox’s owner)
Three marks to each andan extra eight örtugar if
he takes it home and full
restitution½ mark plus eightörtugar plus four örtugar(i.e. one mark in all)Two marks (and themending of the fence)Six öre (three marks if hehas driven it to the road)plus full restitution
The wronged parties Twelve marks to each. The
Purchasing landpurchaser also lost the priceand the generalunlawfullyof the land
assembly
Twelve marks
The general
Selling outside theassembly
family or parish
Three marks in silver,
Maximum ransom for
whoever is paying thea farmer’s son, etc.
ransomThe appropriate fine (byBrothers possessing
the brother who does theundivided property andkilling)a killing occurring
The hundred (local) Three öre
Any magistrate (raþmaþr) not attending the assembly
assemby by midday

APPENDIX D
31/5–7

If all the magistrates
are absent

31/9–10

Continuing cases aftersunset35/2–5;
Horse theft
6–9
35/10–12 Taking the wrong
horse by mistake
36/15–17 Taking a boat from its
moorings and using it
37/22–26; Planting stolen goods
on another
26–28

38/2–4

The first personbringing an action
and the community

The wronged party
and the community

211
Three marks to each

The highest fine that theassembly concerned cancommand: three, six or
twelve marks
Three marks to each
Eight örtugar

The wronged party Three marks to eachand the community (by implication)
The wronged party The person’s wergild
and the (local)
and three marks (orassembly respectively twelve marks to thegeneral assemby for a
Gotlander)Six öre for petty theft

Theft of two öre or
less
Wergild (plus branding
38/4–6
Theft of up to a markas detailed above)in silver
Three öre39/10–12 Specific insults atchurch level
Three marks
39/12–16 Specific insults
repeated at a higher
level
Three marks
46/2–4
Altering a brand on an
animal neither bought
nor inherited
The parish
Three öre48/5–6
Not planting turnips
Three marks (from the48/6–8A parish not enforcing The assembly
parish)turnip-planting
The affected farms
Three marks (maxiCausing damage to50/4–5mum)other farms from your (to be divided
between them)
fire
Half the wergild of theCausing damage with
51/2–4
perpetrator orfire carried into a
responsible adultman’s farm (to light
his fire)
A parish not maintain- The (local) assembly Three marks (from the
52/3–4
parish)ing roads
The parish
Three marks (andBuilding a house
55/2–4demolish the house)
without permission
Unspecified
Three öreEmploying indoor
55/4–5workers without parish
permission (presumably during harvest)

212

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

The farmer
One örtug per day and an
Harvest workers
extra day’s work
taking unauthorised
leave
Three öre56a/6–7 Crofters refusing to The farmer
work at harvest timeThree marks
57/2–4; Hunting squirrels or [Presumably theparish]58/2–4 trapping hares
between the Annunciation and the Feastof Simon and JudeThree öre (1½ for minors)
59/4–5 Harvesting fruit too Parishioners, withhalf to the informearly
ant
Three marks to each;
60/2–4; Failure to say mass The dean and thetwelve öre to eachon Sunday or feast parish
4–7
day; on Fridays ordays when the litany
is said
The parish
Three öre61/2–3 Gambling
The (local) assembly Three marks
61/3–4 A parish notprosecuting agambler
One mark in silver and
62/3–5 Revised punishment
two marks in silver
for pulling out hairrespectively
to the size of a palm
or completely
Three marks plus
63/2–4 Cutting wood in
restitution
another’s woodland
Three marks
63/4–6 Breaking down
another’s fence topass throughThree öre63/6–8 Trespassing or
tearing a gap in
another’s fence
63/16– Providing too many The general assembly A double fine and twelvemarks
drinks at a wedding
17
The general assembly Twelve marks
65/18– Buying on credit
from town-dwellers
19
No fine is to be greater
Addition Cases in generalthan the perpetrator can
1/8–10affordAddition If a priest inherits a The complainant and Full wergild; 40 marks
1/19–21 defence in a murder the general assembly
respectively
case and thecomplainant does
not wish to accept
compensation
56/2–5APPENDIX D
Addition If two brothers,
1/27–28 one ordained andthe other not,inherit a case andneed to compensate
Addition Personal injury
2/1–3
caused by cattle,
horses or pigs
Addition Injury caused by
2/5–6; an animal declared
7–8
at church and to
the parish to be arogue animal
Addition Dog causing
2/9–10 damage
Addition Dog bites
2/10–11Addition Dog causing
2/12–13 wounds or maiming
Addition Small bones
3/1–2; broken in the foot2–3
or hand; each rib
Addition Disability follow3/3
ing the above
Addition If so many bones
3/4–5
are broken that thedamage is obvious
Addition If an ear isdamaged but not
4/1
totally cut off
Addition If the long bonesof the leg or arm
4/1–2
are broken
Addition If teeth areknocked out
4/3–5

Addition If hair is pulled
out leaving a bald
5/2–4
patch larger in size
than a palm; total
hair loss
Addition If the scalp is cut
5/4–5
6

213
Each their own personalportionThe value of the animal at
the most
Twice the normal fine forthe injury, but half as
much if the injury isnormally fined at less than
the animal’s value
Up to half wergild
Two öre per bite up to four
Half the maximum fine(not revenge)
Two marks

Two marks in silver½ mark per bone

One mark in silver (thiswas two marks in coin in
the A-text)
Two marks in silver

One mark in silver for eachof the two central upper orlower teeth, otherwise twomarks in coin
One mark in silver; two
6marks in silver

One mark in silverThis series suggests that a mark in silver was worth four times a mark in coin at
this period.

214

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSThe general assembly Twelve marks
Addition Providing too much
ale for the wedding
6/3–4
party
Three öre, payable byAddition Stealing by a slave or
each master, the stolen
slaves of an öre or less
8/1–3
goods being alreadyrecovered
The stolen goods plus
Addition Stealing by a slave of
three times the value of
8/3–5
more than an öre
the goods
Three times the value of
Addition Stealing by more thanthe missing goods
8/5–7
one slave of an öre or(payable by each master)less
Six öre, unless there was
Addition For taking a slave on
no sign of a break-in
8/15–20; suspicion without(which constitutes
10–15
proof, even if heproof)
confesses
Three times the value
Addition Stealing by a slave of(up to the value of the
8/23–28 more than one öreslave), plus the goods[assumed], where there
themselves (payable byis material evidence
the master unless heallows a search, in whichcase there is no triple
fine)
The slave to be handed
Addition For a theft greater thanover to the owner of the
8/23–28 the slave’s owner canstolen goods
affordNo triple compensation
Addition If a thief goes on thefor food stolen, but
8/35–38 run
return of what remains
Two öre; three öre; ½Addition Redeeming a slave: onmark
8/39–43 land; in a boat; out ofsight of landCompensation is paid byAddition If a slave escapes in an
the owner of the boat (to8/43–44; unlocked boat, or
the owner of the slave)drowns at sea
48–50
Three marks maximum
from the slave’s owner
Addition If a slave, in escaping,
for the goods stolen
8/44–48 has stolen goods

The maximum case a siettungr (sixth, district) assembly could hear wasfor three marks, the þriþiungr (riding) assembly six marks and the general assembly twelve marks. No fine limit is given for the local or hundred
assemblies.

APPENDIX D

215(iii) Fees and rewards for stray animals
Chapter Type of Number and Fine fromowner if
and line animal type of
assembly
claimedTwo, church
40/2–5 Small
livestock plus (presumably) local
assembly
Two localÖrtug per41/3–4; Swine
plus riding
assembly
6–7
42/2–5;
5–6
43/2–3;
3–4
44/5–7;
7–8
45/2–445a/2–5

Fee per
assembly if
unclaimed
Assemblyfee

Assemblyfee

Paid for
Paid tobeast bywhomfinderValue lessParishioners
the assemblyfeeValue lessParishioners
the assembly
feeRidingNo amount Not
Two local
The
Tameassembly fee specified
applicableplus riding
offspringsheep‘As forNo amount Not
ÖrtugUnshorn Unspecified
other sheep’ specified
applicablerams
No amount Not
Unspecified, Unspecified The ram
Shorn
itselfspecifiedapplicablerams in possibly none
held in winterwinterNo amount Not
Two over two Örtug for a Not
Goats
specified
specifiedapplicable
years;
billy-goat
presumably
and six
ridingpence for aassemblies
nanny perassemblyNot
No amount Not
Two
Horses Two local
specifiedapplicableplus ridingörtugar per specified
assembly

216

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSAPPENDIX E: OATHS AND WITNESSES REQUIRED(i) Oaths
Number of oath-takers
Page and Circumstances of ‘character’
line
oaths
2/15
rehabilitation oath (symdaraiþr) in Six
respect of innocence of infanticide
not specified
2/28–30 as above, in the case whereprosecution witnesses fail to put up
their depositSix
4/11–12 in respect of a man defending
himself if accused of pagan
practicesSix
4/12–14 as above at the local assembly
Twelve
4/15–17 as above at the general assembly
Twelve13/57–58 in respect of a man claiming that
he has offered compensation threetimes, with a year between eachoffer in respect of a manslaughter
case; this was an oath in addition toactual witness as to fact (see below)
16/17–18 in respect of the master of a slave Six
claiming that he had nothing to dowith the killing perpetrated by theslave, if the latter is not present tocarry the case
19/8–10 in respect of a wound compensated Six, including the injured party
at more than three marks
19/10–11 in respect of a wound compensated Three, including the injured party
at three marks or less
19/73;
in respect of a man injured so that Six, plus the same factual witness as
for a wound (see below)
76–77
he loses his hearing
22/21–23 in respect of the defence of a man Twelve
accused of rape, where the woman
initially claims not to haverecognised the assailant, butchanges her mind
22/23–27 in respect of a woman, who claims Twelve, plus her witnesses (seebelow)
rape, being pregnant and giving
birth at the appropriate time for it
to have been the result of the rapeSix (at the most)
32/2–4in respect of a demand for
payment in money, where there isdisagreement over the sum
involved

APPENDIX E

217

32/4–7 in respect of a demand for payment Eighteen
in land, where the value involved is agold mark or greater
39/9–10 in respect of the defence of a man
Three, with the witness of thecharged with slander
parishioners
39/12
Three, in church
in respect of the remedy by a man
found guilty of slander at parish level
39/16
as above, but when the insult is more Six, with the witness of the
public and is brought to the local
assembly
assembly(ii) Witnesses as to fact and juries
Page and Circumstances for the witness as to Number of witnesses
linefact; those marked * also swore
oaths as to the facts
2/4–7
in respect of a woman claiming that Two (i.e. three with herself)
her child was stillborn
2/10–11 in respect of a woman guilty ofOne (the shriving priest)
infanticide having confessed anddone penance
3/32–34* in respect of proof that a man has
Three parishioners (including
lawfully taken part in the building himself)and consecration of a new church
3/35–39 as above, when three or more years Two parishioners and the priest
have passed
4/5–7
confirmation that someone had held Unspecified number of witnesses
a sacrificial meal
13/53–56 in respect of a man claiming thatThree (who were present when thehe has offered compensation three offers were made)times, with a year between eachoffer in respect of a manslaughtercase
14/26–
in respect of a woman killed while Husband or, if he is not alive,
28*
pregnant
closest relative with two morelandowners and a further nine ofequal birth
18/4–7; in respect of a woman who has a
Two landowners to witness the
7–9
miscarriage as a result of being
blow and her complaint and two
struckfemale witnesses to witness the
miscarriage
18/9–10* as above, swearing that the child
Herself and five others; note that
was alive when she was struck
this says ‘person-oath’ rather
than ‘man-oath’, indicating,perhaps, that some of thewitnesses in this case might bewomen
19/6–8witness (as to the fact of the wound) Three (two local magistrates andbut not swear the oathone district, i.e. sixth, judge)

218

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS

Self-witness
19/71– in respect of a hand damaged sothat it cannot tolerate hot and cold
72
Four landowners and three judges
19/117– in respect of a non-open woundfrom the same sixth and thencausing the injured person to be121
others to make up twelve in all
bedridden for a year or more
20/92– in respect of an illegitimate child’s A genealogical tableclaim to inheritance, that his father
96
and three successive female
ancestors were trueborn Gotlanders
Six (including two landowners fromin respect of a man denying a
20a/
9 – 1 4 * paternity suit, claiming that he had the woman’s parish)
not been named before the childwas born
20a/15– as above, in support of the woman, Six (all of equal birth with her)when the case is not found in18*
favour of the man
22/5–7 in respect of a woman being raped, One, the witness to the ‘shout’
whose shout immediately after theattack is heard
22/7–10 in respect of a woman being raped, An unspecified number ofwhose shout after the attack is not witnesses to her complaint, madewithin a day, who may also act as
heard
witness to her attack
22/23– in respect of a woman, pregnant as An unspecified number ofa result of being raped, to confirm witnesses to the fact, as in the26
previous entry
the date of her rape
23/6–8 in respect of attacks upon a woman Unspecified number of eyewitnesses, including herself
resulting in whole or partial
removal of her headdress,
according to witness
23/14– in respect of laces being removed The woman herself
as to whether compensation and15
restitution have been madeTwo: a neighbour and a work witness
25/2–3; in respect of disputes about
8–11* woodland; the witness had to swear
on oath, or it was invalid
Two: a (distant) kin witness and a work
25/11– in respect of disputes about
witness owning neighbouring land
cultivated land
17
The disputing parties and an
25/32– in respect of the taking of timberfrom another’s wood, to deny the eyewitness
33
justification to confiscate the one’s
property
Self, on oath26/60– in respect of the taking of timberfrom his wood, that he has
61*
received restitution
Unspecified number of magistrates
32/7–9 in respect of a dispute about thein the hundred to decidevalue of property owed, if of amark in gold or more

APPENDIX E

219

32/14–16 in respect of a dispute about the
Six–man jury to decidevalue of property owed, if less thana mark in gold
37/11–15 in respect of the possession of
The assignor
disputed goods where their origin isagreed37/19–22 in respect of the possession of stolen An unspecified number of those
goods, when the knowledge of their who were present when the goods
having been stolen is denied, andwere handed over, if the assignor
responsibility laid on the supplierdenies responsibility
Addition in respect of a theft in which the
Self-witness
8/7–9
stolen goods are not to hand, howmuch has been taken
Addition in respect of a man caught without Three magistrates from the same
8/51–56 the relevant stolen goods in his
hundred or sixth to decide orpossession, to witness to what is said witness(iii) Official witness for reference in the future in case of dispute
Number of witnesses
Page and Circumstances for the official
witness
line
Unspecified number of parishion16/23–25 in respect of a slave who has
worked out his bondage timeers, perhaps all of them
Unspecified number of parishion20/114– in respect of the rights of illegitimate children
ers, who will administer their rights
116
One neighbour or parishioner; an
26/2–3; in respect of declarations being
made in a claim for a party fence; unspecified number of neighbours
4–5
erection of a party fence
Unspecified number of neighbours
26/17– in respect of animals straying or
19, 22– breaking through a lawful fence
being offered back to the owner25
28/8–10 in respect of the sale or mortgage Unspecified number of (assemblyof property and the offering of the members as) witnesses
kinsman’s portion
Unspecified number of parishion28/25–28 in respect of property sold to amore distant relative and informing ers
the receiver of the kinsman’s
portion
Unspecified number of parishion44/5–6, in respect of a stray ram found
before covering time and its being ers
7–9
offered for redemption, and rebranded if unclaimed
Unspecified number of parishion45a/5–7 in respect of a stray bullock or
draught pony being found and its ers
being offered for redemption, andbeing available for use if unclaimed
that any new laws are true
The majority of the judges
61/8–9Gotlandic laws

220

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSBIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used throughout for Swedish provincial laws and for the sections (balkar) within them. They are to a great
extent those used in the series Svenska landskapslagar (SL), since these
are widely current in the literature referenced. Where page numbers are
given, they refer to the indicated volumes in the series Corpus iuris
sueo-gotorum (CIS). Schlyter’s editions of the laws of Magnus Eriksson(CIS X and CIS XI) are abbreviated to MELL and MEStL. The Swedishtranslations of these laws are referred to as MELLNT and MEStLNT. These
two abbreviations are listed in the Bibliography, as are abbreviations oflaw texts in volumes in the series Norges gamle love indtil 1387 (NGL)and Danmarks gamle Landskabslove (DGL).
BjRThe town law for Bjärkö (CIS VI, 111–34)
DL (ÄVmL) The law of Dalarna (older law of Västmanland) (CIS V, 1–
66)
daGL
Danish translation of the law of the Gotlanders (CIS VII,
169–218)
GL
The law of the Gotlanders (CIS VII, 1–112)
HL
The law of Hälsingland (CIS VI, 1–93)
KrLL
Kristoffer’s national law (CIS XII)
MELL
Magnus Eriksson’s national law (CIS X)
MEStLMagnus Eriksson’s town law (CIS XI)
SdmL
The law of Södermanland (CIS IV)
SkL
The law of Skåne (in general, regardless of edition)
CISk IThe law of Skåne (CIS IX, 1–238)
CISk II
Andreas Suneson’s Latin text of the law of Skåne (CIS IX,
239–354)
CISk IV
The town law of Skåne (CIS IX, 397–434)
CISk V
Miscellaneous additions to the law of Skåne (CIS IX, 435–
500)
tyGL
German translation of the law of the Gotlanders (CIS VII,
113–168)UL
The law of Uppland (CIS III)VgL III
Lydekinus’ excerpts and notes on the laws of Västergötland(CIS I, 255-281)
VgL IV
Notes by the priest of Vidhem and the monk of St John on
the laws of Västergötland (CIS I, 283–344)
VgLL
The laws of Västergötland as a group

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABBREVIATIONS

221

VmL
VStL
YVgL
ÄVgL
ÖgL

The (younger) law of Västmanland (CIS V, 67–239)
The town law of Visby (CIS VIII, 1–182)
The younger law of Västergötland (CIS I, 77–253, VgL II)
The older law of Västergötland (CIS I, 2–74, VgL I)
The law of Östergötland (CIS II)

Add
Bb

Additions (to YVgL, etc.)
The section concerning building (SdmL, MELL, etc.)
The section concerning community (village) law (HL, UL)
The section concerning manslaughter (YVgL, ÖgL, MELL,MEStL)The section concerning the King’s oathflock, chapter of the law
The first section concerning honour (ÄVgL)The second section concerning honour (ÄVgL)The section concerning personal injury (YVgL)The section concerning matrimony
The section concerning land
The section concerning the monarchy
The section concerning church or Christian law
The section concerning trade
The section concerning personal and property rights (UL, etc.)
The section concerning killing (ÄVgL)principium (first or principal paragraph in each chapter)
The section concerning slaves and outlaws (ÄVgL, YVgL)The section concerning the legal process (UL, VmL, MELL, etc.)
The section concerning wounding (ÄVgL, MELL, MEStL)The section concerning theft
The section concerning outlawry cases (ÄVgL, YVgL)The section concerning off-farm activities (YVgL)
Concerning accidental injury (ÄVgL, YVgL)The section concerning accidental injury, wounding, adultery, robbery and theft (ÖgL)
The section concerning inheritance

Db
Eb
fl.
Fns
Fnb
Gb
Jb
Kgb
Kkb
Kmb
Mb
Md
pr
Rb
Sb
Tjb
Urb
Utb
Vb

Äb

222

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERS
Manuscripts and unpublished works

Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence. Codex Laur. Ashburnham,
1554. c.1120. The so-called ‘Florensdokumentet’; list of bishoprics,
church provinces, etc.
Det kongelige Bibliotek, Copenhagen. Den gamle kongelige samling(GKS) 3363 4to. Late 17th or early 18th century. Lex Gothlandica
1470 scripta.
Det kongelige Bibliotek, Copenhagen. Kalls samling 650 4to. Late
17th or early 18th century. Copy of Lex Gothlandica 1470 scripta.
Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm B 64. 14th century. [Gottlandz landzlagh.]
Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm B 65. 1401. [Gottlands landslag
på Plattyska.]
Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm B 68 4to. Early 17th century. [Vangamla gullands love 4to.]
Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm C 81 4to. Late 16th century. [KHanses recess paa Gullands lov 1492 4to.]
Neogard, Lars Nilsson 1732. Gautau-Minning, Thet är, Något omthen ofgamla Gautaun ell Gjötiska Ön Guthiland, nu kallad
Gothland, Med någon dryg tidspillan sammanhemtat af Lars
Neogard 1732. Copies held in the libraries of Visby Läroverk andUppsala University.
University Library, Copenhagen. Den arnamagnaeanske håndskriftsamling AM 54 4to. 1587. Guta lag. Copy by David Bilefeld of alost manuscript from 1470.
University Library, Copenhagen. Den arnamagnaeanske håndskriftsamling AM 55 4to. Mid 16th century. Den gamle Gullands Low.
Danish translation from c.1492.
Printed worksAakjær, Svend 1936. ‘Maal, Vægt og Taxter i Danmark’. In NK XXX,
175–282.
Aasen, Ivar Andreas 2003. Norsk ordbog med dansk forklaring. Ed.
Kristoffer Kruken and Terje Aarset.
AEW = Jan de Vries 1961. Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch.
AL = Adolf Noreen 1904. Altschwedisches Lesebuch. Mit Anmerkungen
und Glossar. Zweite Auflage.
Almquist, Jan Eric 1923. Det processuella förfarandet vid ägotvist:
studier över jordabalkens 14 och 15 kapitel.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABBREVIATIONS223

Almquist, Jan Eric 1942. ‘Om formerna för tingsfridens lysning i
Sverige under äldre tid’. In Historiska studier tillägnade Sven Tunberg, den 1 februari 1942. Ed. Adolf Schück and Åke Stille, 61–81.
Ambrosiani, Sune 1939. ‘Mark och markland. “Marca” and “marcaterræ”’. Rig. Tidskrift utgiven av Föreningen för svensk kulturhistoria
22, 153–65.
Amira, K. von 1882–95 (reprint 1973). Nordgermanisches Obligationenrecht. 2 vols.
Amira, Karl von 1913 (3rd revised and enlarged edn). Grundriss desgermanischen Rechts.
Amira, Karl von 1922. Die germanischen Todesstrafen: Untersuchungen zur Rechts- und Religionsgeschichte.
Beckman, Natanael 1920. ‘Gutalagens inledningsord och Gotlands
kristnande’. Minnesskrift utgiven af Filologiska samfundet i Göteborg
på tjugoårsdagen av dess stiftande den 22 oktober 1920 in Göteborgs högskolas årsskrift 26:2, 9–14.
BjarkR = Den ældre By-lov eller Bjarkö-Ret 1846. Ed. R. Keyser and
P. A. Munch. (NGL 1, 301–36).
Björkander, Adolf 1898. Till Visby stads äldsta historia. Ett kritisktbidrag.
Björling, Carl Georg Emanuel 1893. Om bötesstraffet i den svenska
medeltidsrätten.
BoG = Boken om Gotland 1945. Ed. (Vol. I) Mårten Stenberger, (Vol.
II) Richard Steffen. 2 vols.
Bohman, Lennart 1951. ‘Gotlands förbindelser med Stockholm före
Kalmarunionen’. GArk 23, 30–56.
BorgL = Den ældre Borgathings- eller Vikens-Christenret 1846. Ed.
R. Keyser and P. A. Munch. (NGL 1, 337–72).
Brunner, Heinrich 1906–28 (2nd edn). Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte(2. Aufl. / neu bearbeitet von Claudius von Schwerin). 2 vols.
Brøgger, A. W. and Shetelig, Haakon 1950. Vikingeskipene: deres
forgjengere og etterfølgere.
Bugge, Alexander 1899. ‘Gotlændingernes handel paa England og
Norge omkring 1300’. Historisk tidsskrift utgitt av Den norske
historiske forening Række 3, Band 5, 145–80.
Bugge, Sophus 1877–78. ‘Sproglige Oplysninger om Ord i gamle
nordiske Love. I. Svenske Ord’. Nordisk Tidskrift for Filologi 3(Ny række), 258–75.
Carlsson, Lizzie 1934. ‘Bödelsämbetet i det medeltida Stockholm’.
Samfundet S:t Eriks årsbok 32, 95–118.

224

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSCCS = Corpus codicum suecicorum medii aevi. . . 1943–67. Ed. Elias
Wessén. 20 vols.
Christiansen, Eric 1997. The northern crusades.
CIG = GL, tyGL and daGL. In Codex iuris Gotlandici, cum notis criticis,
variis lectionibus, nova versione suecana, glossariis et indicibus nominum propriorum. Gotlands-lagen 1852. Ed. C. J. Schlyter. (CIS VII).
CIS = Corpus iuris sueo-gotorum antiqui . . . Samling af Sweriges
gamla lagar 1827–77. Ed. (Vols I–II) H. S. Collin and C. J. Schlyter;(Vols III–XIII) C. J. Schlyter. 13 vols.
CIS I = Codex iuris Vestrogotici, . . . Westgöta-lagen utgifven av H.
S. Collin och C. J. Schlyter [Facsimile edition with an addendum
by Otto von Friesen, Our oldest manuscript in Old Swedish] 1976.
Ed. Gösta Holm.
CIS II = Codex iuris Ostrogotici, . . . Östgöta-lagen utgifven av H. S.
Collin och C. J. Schlyter [Facsimile edition with addendum by themain part of Emil Olson, Östgötalagens 1300-talsfragment (reprint)
and Carl Ivar Ståhle, De Liedgrenska fragmenten av Östgötalagens
C-text (first print)] 1980. Ed. Gösta Holm and Carl Ivar Ståhle.
CIS III = Codex iuris Uplandici, . . . Upplands-lagen 1834. Ed. C. J.
Schlyter.
CIS IV = Codex iuris Sudermannici, . . . Södermanna-lagen 1838.
Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
CIS V = Codex iuris Vestmannici, . . . Westmanna-lagen 1841. Ed.
C. J. Schlyter.
CIS VI = Codex iuris Helsingici; Codicis iuris Smalandici pars de reecclesiastica; et, Juris urbici codex antiquior. Helsinge-lagen;Kristnu-balken af Smålands-lagen; Bjärköa-rätten 1844. Ed. C. J.
Schlyter.
CIS VIII = Codices iuris Visbyensis urbici et maritimi. Wisby stadslag
och sjörätt 1853. Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
CIS IX = Codex iuris Scanici, . . . Skåne-lagen 1859. Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
CIS X = Codex iuris communis Sueciae Magnaeanus. Konung Magnus
Erikssons landslag 1862. Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
CIS XI = Codex iuris urbici Magnaeanus. Konung Magnus Erikssons
stadslag 1865. Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
CIS XII = Codex iuris communis Sueciae Christophorianus. Konung
Christoffers landslag 1869. Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
CISG = Glossarium ad corpus iuris sueo-gotorum antiqui. . . Ordbok
till samlingen af Sweriges gamla lagar 1877. Ed. C. J. Schlyter.
(CIS XIII).

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ABBREVIATIONS

225

CODEE = The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology 1986.
Ed. T. F. Hoad.
C-V = Richard Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson 1957 (2nd edn
William A. Craigie). An Icelandic-English dictionary.
DD III = Diplomatarium Danicum (1340–1412) 1958–82. Ed. C. A.
Christensen (and Herluf Nielsen for later volumes). Række III, 9 vols.
Delin, Carl 1909. Om oäkta börd samt om oäkta barns rättställning
enligt äldre svensk rätt.
Delin, Carl 1926. ‘Om blodshämnden och götalagarnas straffbestämmelser för enkelt viljadråp’. In Skrifter tillägnade Johan C. W.
Thyrén vid hans avgång från professorsämbetet den 31 maj 1926,
238–305.
Delisle, M. Léopold 1886. Notice sur des manuscrits du fonds libri
conservés . . . la Laurentienne, . . . Florence.
DGL = Danmarks gamle Landskabslove med Kirkelovene 1933–61.
Ed. Johs. Brøndum-Nielsen and Poul Johs. Jørgensen. 8 vols and a
supplement to vol. 4 edited by Eric Buus.
Dovring, Folke 1947. Attungen och marklandet: studier över agraraförhållanden i medeltidens Sverige.
DS = Diplomatarium Suecanum 1829–1995. Ed. John Gustaf Liljegren
et al. 8 vols and 2 appendices.
DS I = Diplomatarium Suecanum 1829. Vol. I. Ed. John Gustaf
Liljegren et al.
DS II = Diplomatarium Suecanum 1834, 1837. Vol. II. Ed. John Gustaf
Liljegren.
DS Appendix 1 = Diplomatarium Svecanum appendix. Acta pontificum
Svecica. Acta cameralia. Auspiciis archivi regni Sveciae 1936–
42. Vol. I. Ed. L. M. Bååth.
Edda = Edda: Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern I: Text 1962 (3rd edn, revised Hans Kuhn). Ed. Gustav Neckel.
EidsL = Den ældre Eidsivathings-Christenret 1846. Ed. R. Keyser
and P. A. Munch. (NGL 1, 373–406).
Ekelund, Samuel 1906. Studien über eine mitteldeutsche Übersetzungdes altgutnischen Rechtes. Akademische Abhandlung.
Eriks SjL1 = Eriks sjællandske Lov Text 1–2 1932. Ed. Peter Skautrup.
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bebyggelsen’. In NK XI–XIIA, 124–35.

226

THE LAW OF THE GOTLANDERSFabre and Duchesne 1910 = Honorius III, Pope [Cencio Savelli] 1910.
Le Liber Censuum de l’Église Romaine. Publié avec une préface etun commentaire par . . . P. Fabre . . . et L. Duchesne. (G. Mollat).
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FrostL = Den ældre Frostathings-Lov 1846. Ed. R. Keyser and P. A.
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G 351 = Inscription 351 in Snædal 2002, 87–88.
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GGD = Guterlov og Gutersaga paa dansk 1910. Ed. Lis Jacobsen.
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GLGS = Guta lag och Guta saga jämte ordbok 1905-07. Ed. Hugo
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GO = Gotländsk ordbok på grundval av C. och P. A. Säves samlingar
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Gothlandz-Laghen = Gothlandz-Laghen på gammal Göthiska 1687.
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