Form６(by MS Word data)
Grant No.

13－ G40

Research Report
Name : Steve Pickering
Organization (at the time of the grant): Graduate School of Law, Kobe University

Title of Research: Borderlines: Maps and the spread of the Westphalian state from Europe to Asia

Purpose of Research:（400 words）
For researchers and students of International Relations (IR), one date looms larger than all others: 1648. The end of
the Thirty Years War, formalized by the signing of the Treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, led to a period known as
the “Peace of Westphalia.” Westphalia represented a fundamental change in the power balance of European
politics: instead of the Holy Roman Empire holding supreme authority, power would now rest with states
themselves, manifested in terms of sovereignty, territory and equality. One of the chief ways in which these“Westphalian” states would cement this authority was through the use of maps. Before 1648, there was little ona European map to indicate where one country ended and another one began. But after 1648, this all changes: these
new Westphalian states are represented with bright colors and clearly marked boundaries, defining borders andbecoming an important part in creating the state and justifying its sovereignty. The role which maps have played in
the spread of the Westphalian state is only just beginning to be researched. Yet the limited efforts to date have all
focussed on Europe. This is unfortunate, as today, while Europe has, according to some observers, moved into a
stage in which Westphalia is no longer a useful model with which to understand the state and the ways in which it
relates to sovereignty, government, power and the individual, the old Westphalian model of the state has more
recently been exported all around the world.
The purpose of this research was to ask: when did the Westphalian state start being exported to the rest of theworld? What function did the map take in this? Did non-European maps exhibit properties of Westphalian maps
before the arrival of European maps? How did European maps influence non-European maps?
Content/Methodology of Research:（800 words）
To start the research, a typology was developed for the different types of ‘political’ maps of Europe. Once thistypology was developed, it was possible to categorise existing European maps, and find new maps in Asia.
Starting in 1568, this typology of maps and borders is presented below.
1. No obvious border
The first type of European political map is one in which there are no obvious borders: there are no dotted/ dashedlines and there is no use of colour. Mountains and rivers, two types of traditional bona fide border, are presented,
but they do not necessarily indicate the presence of a border. The map Europæ brevis by an unknown cartographer,presented in Figure 1 provides a good example. The Pyrenees are readily identifiable, but there is nothing toindicate that they constitute a border. The words “Francia” and “Spagna” can be made out, but there islittle to show where one ends and the other begins.

Figure 1: Unknown cartographer, 1568, Europæ brevis: No obvious border
2. Dotted/ dashed border
Next, we have dashed or dotted borders. The 1611 map by Jodocus Hondius the elder, Nova Europæ, presented inFigure 2 serves as an example here. Again, country names can be found (“Gallia” and “Hispania”). Also,
the Pyrenees are once again evident, but this time, a line made of small black dots is drawn through the mountain
range, indicating a border. Notice how, again, there is no use of colour. This does not mean that a coloured
version of this map does not exist; it means instead that the researcher has not found one. The colouring of maps
was very much an ‘optional extra’ and it is apparent that many people chose not to pay for this extra service.
Ceteris paribus, we would not expect the colouring of maps to change over time, yet as time progresses, maps
become more colourful in several ways, as will be seen.

Figure 2: Jodocus Hondius (the elder), 1611, Nova Europæ: Dashed border3.

Two colour border

The next step in the evolution of the European political map is the two-colour border. Figure 3 presents such a map,and in the detail, we can see the border between France and Spain: France’s border is pink, while Spain’s borderis green. The pink line indicates ‘this is where France ends’ while the green line would suggest ‘and here iswhere Spain begins.’ The Pyrenees are again a clear part of the engraving, but interestingly, there is no dottedborder; only the watercolours indicate the border (or borders: one where state A ends, and another where state B
begins).

Figure 3: Unknown cartographer, 1630, Europa: Two-colour border4.

Two colour border and solid colour states

The next big evolution in the European political map is the use of solid colour. Sanson’s 1651 map, just three
years after Westphalia, gives a good example (see Figure 4). As has been said, the use of colour in European maps
is certainly not new in the seventeenth century, and indeed, examples of sixteenth century European-produced maps
using solid colours have been found as part of this research in Japan. What is new, however, is the use of different,
solid colours to represent the states, with two colour borders to show the boundaries (Figure 4 also uses dottedborders, although in this case, they are not exclusively for states; they are also used for smaller administrative units).
Here, the use of colour is suggesting that the states have uniform sovereignty or control over a defined territory.
This is an important precedent for future “Westphalian maps,” even when the territories they are presenting
may not really be “Westphalian states.”Figure 4: Nicolas Sanson, 1651, L’Europe: Two-colour border and solid-coloured statesConclusion/Observation（400 words）
It was now possible to apply this typology to European maps, and start to look at examples of Asian maps.
The table below shows the ways in which maps change over time.

Year
1568
1570
1571
1572
1581
1595
1602
1611
1619
1620
1623
1630
1631
1639
1640
1640
1640
1641
1644
1646
1650
1651
1653
1654
1658
1660
1660
1661
1661
1661
1666
1667
1668
1669
1669
1670
1670
1671
1676
1686
1690
1690
1692
1699
1700
1700
1700

CartographerUnknown
Ortelius, A.
Forlani, P.
Unknown
Thevet, A.
Ortelius, A.
Le Clerc, J.
Hondius, J. (sr.)
Hondius, J. (sr.)
Hondius, J. (jr.)
Mercator, R.
Unknown
Hondius, H.
Tavernier
Bertius, P.
Cluverio, P.
Blaeu, W. J.
Boisseau, J.
Hondius, H.
Janssonius, J.
Sanson, N.
Sanson, N.
Briet, P.
Sanson, N.
Visscher, N.
Unknown
Duval, P.
Lea, P.
Duval, P.
Duval, P.
Sanson, G.
Sanson, G.
Duval, P.
Sanson, G.
Sanson, N.
Duval, P.
Sanson, N.
Berey, N. (jr.)
Duval, P.
Duval, P.
Vischer, N. J.
Vischer, N. J.
Sanson, G.
Fer, N. deDelisle, G.
Berey, C. A.
Berey, N. (jr.)

DottedborderTwo-colour
borderSolidcolours

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

Maps in Asia were found to follow these trends, but only after the introduction of the Europeanmaps. Indeed, one of the strongest influences came from European cartographers applying theirskills to Asia. For instance, Figure 5, found while researching in Japan, shows this European

influence on an Asian map quite clearly: the solid coloured regions (not states in this instance),
dotted borders and two colour borders, first evidenced by Nicolas Sanson in 1650, immediately afterWestphalia, can all be seen in this 1715 map of Japan by Dutch cartographer Adriaan Reland.

Figure 5: Adriaan Reland, 1715, Imperium Japonicum: Two-colour dotted border and solid-coloured regions
However, this becomes more interesting when we see this influence transfer to cartographers inAsia, such as in the segments from the globe presented in Figure 6 by Sawada Innori.

Figure 6: Sawada Innori, 1759, Globe. Two colour borders and solid-coloured states
There have been three major outputs from this research, all of which feature references to thefunding provided by the Konosuke Matsushita Memorial Foundation.
The first is currently in print:
1. Pickering, Steve (2014). “Divide and Conquer: The impact of political maps on internationalrelations”. Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy. 20(3): 461—478.
The second applies the research presented above, and shows how maps can and have been used asdeterministic factors for the justification of conflict. At the time of writing, this is about to beprinted by the publishers:
2. Pickering, Steve (2014). “Geography and War: Avoiding the Curse of High Geopolitics” in
Tor G. Jakobsen, War: An Introduction to Theories and Research on Collective Violence Second

Edition. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
The third extends this work into a monograph. This has been accepted for publication by Palgraveand will be published in 2015:
3. Pickering, Steve (2015). Geography and War: Misperceptions, Foundations and Prospects.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
More details on these are provided in the document, “Report of Publication Research Results.”