A NEW INTRODUCTION TO OLD NORSEPART I: GRAMMARA NEWINTRODUCTION TO
OLD NORSE
PART IGRAMMAR
THIRD EDITIONBYMICHAEL BARNES

VIKING SOCIETY FOR NORTHERN RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON2008

© M. P. Barnes 1999/2004/2008
ISBN: 978-0-903521-74-1

First published 1999
Reprinted with corrections and additions 2001
Second edition 2004
Third edition 2008

Printed by Short Run Press Limited, Exeter

Preface
This Grammar is intended for university students with no previous
knowledge of Old Norse. It covers considerably more than the essentials, however, and is suitable for study up to first degree level. Fullaccount is taken of the fact that grammatical concepts may be unfamiliar to many using the work, and all but the most basic are explained.
Comparison is made with English where helpful, and a glossary ofgrammatical terms included at the end. Although it is possible to study
the Grammar on one’s own, the guidance of a tutor is strongly recommended.
The bulk of the Grammar was available in draft by the time of the
1998–99 session, and was tried out by several teachers at British universities. Content and presentation have benefited greatly from thecomments and suggestions of both teachers and students. I would likein particular to thank Alison Finlay, Judith Jesch and SvanhildurÓskarsdóttir, who offered many valuable insights, Peter Foote, whoread the whole work and improved it in countless ways, and finally
Anthony Faulkes, who not only commented on numerous points ofdetail but designed the layout and saw the production of the bookthrough from start to finish. Needless to say, such faults as remain are
my responsibility.
Michael P. Barnes
University College London
July 1999

Preface to second edition
The necessity for a further reprint has made it possible to introduce anumber of corrections and changes, and to add a new section on points
of syntax (3.9.9).
Users will also be pleased to know that there is now a CD that canbe obtained from the Viking Society containing extracts I, II, IV, VIIB,VIII (b) and (e), IX and X from NION II read with Modern Icelandic
pronunciation by Icelanders: Selected Readings from A New Introduction to Old Norse, published by The Chaucer Studio, 2003.
April 2004

Preface to third edition
The book has been corrected and revised throughout, and a postscript
added (pp. 262–3).
May 2007Contents
Abbreviations and Symbols ........................................................... xii
1.

Introduction
1.1 The aim of the Grammar .................................................. 1
1.2 What is Old Norse? ........................................................... 1
1.3 Old Norse and modern English ......................................... 2
1.4 Pronunciation .................................................................... 3
1.5 Orthography ...................................................................... 4
1.6 General advice to the student ............................................ 5

2.

Pronunciation and Orthography
2.1 Old Norse .......................................................................... 8
2.1.1 Pure vowels .......................................................... 8
2.1.1 Exercise ................................................................ 9
2.1.2 Diphthongs ........................................................... 9
2.1.2 Exercise .............................................................. 10
2.1.3 Consonants ......................................................... 10
2.1.3 Exercise .............................................................. 12
2.1.4 Syllables ............................................................. 13
2.1.4 Exercise .............................................................. 13
2.2 Modern Icelandic ............................................................ 14
2.2.1 Vowels ................................................................ 14
2.2.1 Exercise .............................................................. 16
2.2.2 Consonants ......................................................... 16
2.2.2 Exercise .............................................................. 20
2.2.3 Syllables ............................................................. 20
2.2.4 The epenthetic vowel ......................................... 20
2.2.3/2.2.4 Exercise ......................................................... 21

3.

Morphology and Syntax
3.1 Noun inflexions and their function ................................. 22
3.1.1 Number ............................................................... 22
3.1.2 Case .................................................................... 22
3.1.3 Gender ................................................................ 27
3.1.1/3.1.2/3.1.3 Exercise ................................................ 28
3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions ......................................... 28
3.1.4 Exercise .............................................................. 31

3.1.53.1.5
3.1.6

Examples of noun usage ..................................... 31
Exercise .............................................................. 37
Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions
and ways of overcoming them ..................... 37
3.1.6 Exercise .............................................................. 39
3.1.7 Important variations in noun inflexion ............... 39
3.1.7.1 Labial mutation ............................................ 39
3.1.7.1 Exercise ....................................................... 41
3.1.7.2 Front mutation ............................................. 41
3.1.7.2 Exercise ....................................................... 44
3.1.7.3 Breaking ...................................................... 44
3.1.7.4 Deviations from the basic endings .............. 45
3.1.7.5 Minor irregularities ...................................... 45
3.1.7.3/3.1.7.4/3.1.7.5 Exercise ................................. 46
3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion ............................... 47
3.1.8 Exercise .............................................................. 53
3.1.9 The suffixed definite article ............................... 56
3.1.9 Exercise .............................................................. 58
3.2 Pronoun inflexions and their function ............................. 60
3.2.1 Personal pronouns: form .................................... 61
3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns: form .......................... 63
3.2.3 Indefinite pronouns: form .................................. 65
3.2.4 Negative pronouns: form .................................... 66
3.2.5 Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form ... 67
3.2.1/3.2.2/3.2.3/3.2.4/3.2.5 Exercise .............................. 68
3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage ............................... 68
3.2.6 Exercise .............................................................. 76
3.3 Adjective inflexions and their function ........................... 77
3.3.1 Number, case and gender ................................... 77
3.3.2 Definiteness ........................................................ 78
3.3.3 Degree (comparison) .......................................... 79
3.3.1/3.3.2/3.3.3 Exercise ................................................ 79
3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions .................................. 80
3.3.4 Exercise .............................................................. 84
3.3.5 The free-standing definite article ....................... 84
3.3.5 Exercise .............................................................. 86
3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage .............................. 87
3.3.6 Exercise .............................................................. 953.3.7

Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions
and ways of overcoming them ..................... 96
3.3.7 Exercise .............................................................. 97
3.3.8 Important variations in adjective inflexion ........ 98
3.3.8.1 Labial mutation ............................................ 98
3.3.8.1 Exercise ....................................................... 99
3.3.8.2 Front mutation ............................................. 99
3.3.8.3 Suppletive forms ........................................ 100
3.3.8.4 Deviations from the basic endings ............ 101
3.3.8.5 Minor irregularities .................................... 102
3.3.8.2/3.3.8.3/3.3.8.4/3.3.8.5 Exercise ................... 103
3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion ....................... 104
3.3.9 Exercise ............................................................ 111
3.4 Numerals ....................................................................... 115
3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions .................... 115
3.4.1 Exercise ............................................................ 119
3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage ............................. 120
3.4.2 Exercise ............................................................ 123
3.5 Adverbs ......................................................................... 124
3.5.1 Adverb formation ............................................. 124
3.5.2 Inflexion for degree .......................................... 125
3.5.3 Examples of adverb usage ................................ 127
3.5.1/3.5.2/3.5.3 Exercise .............................................. 129
3.5.4 Adverbs and adverbials .................................... 130
3.6 Verb inflexions and their function ................................. 131
3.6.1 Person and number ........................................... 131
3.6.2 Tense ................................................................ 132
3.6.3 Mood ................................................................ 134
3.6.4 Voice ................................................................. 135
3.6.1/3.6.2/3.6.3/3.6.4 Exercise ..................................... 136
3.6.5 Basic verb inflexions ........................................ 137
3.6.5.1 Endings ...................................................... 137
3.6.5.1 Exercise ..................................................... 139
3.6.5.2 Vowel alternations ..................................... 140
3.6.5.2 Exercise ..................................................... 143
3.6.5.3 The -sk form .............................................. 144
3.6.5.3 Exercise ..................................................... 146

3.6.6 Finite and non-finite forms; principal parts ..... 146
3.6.6 Exercise ............................................................ 152
3.6.7 Preterite presents and other irregular verbs ...... 152
3.6.7 Exercise ............................................................ 155
3.6.8 Examples of verb usage ................................... 155
3.6.8 Exercise ............................................................ 164
3.6.9 Important variations in verb inflexion .............. 164
3.6.9.1 Phonological variation ............................... 165
3.6.9.2 Morphological variation ............................ 168
3.6.9.3 Idiosyncratic variation ............................... 169
3.6.9.1/3.6.9.2/3.6.9.3 Exercise ............................... 171
3.6.10 Examples of verb inflexion .............................. 171
3.6.10 Exercise ............................................................ 177
3.7 Prepositions ................................................................... 181
3.7.1 Prepositions triggering the accusative .............. 182
3.7.2 Prepositions triggering the genitive ................. 184
3.7.3 Prepositions triggering the dative ..................... 185
3.7.4 Prepositions triggering the accusativeand dative ................................................... 189
3.7.5 Prepositions triggering the accusative andgenitive ...................................................... 196
3.7.6 Preposition triggering the accusative,
genitive and dative ..................................... 197
3.7.7 Residual remarks .............................................. 197
3.7 Exercise ......................................................................... 199
3.8 Conjunctions ................................................................. 200
3.8.1 Coordinating conjunctions ............................... 202
3.8.2 Subordinating conjunctions .............................. 204
3.8.2.1 The particle er ............................................ 204
3.8.2.2 The particle at ............................................ 212
3.8.2.3 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs .......... 215
3.8.2.4 Other adverbial sentence introducers ....... 218
3.8 Exercise ......................................................................... 221
3.9 Residual points of syntax .............................................. 223
3.9.1 Sentence word-order ........................................ 223
3.9.1 Exercise ............................................................ 228

3.9.2 Word-order in noun phrases ............................. 228
3.9.2 Exercise ............................................................ 230
3.9.3 Impersonal constructions ................................. 230
3.9.3 Exercise ............................................................ 236
3.9.4 Accusative and infinitive .................................. 236
3.9.4 Exercise ............................................................ 240
3.9.5 Omissions ......................................................... 240
3.9.5.1 Objects ....................................................... 241
3.9.5.2 vera ............................................................ 241
3.9.5.3 Verbs of motion ......................................... 243
3.9.5 Exercise ............................................................ 243
3.9.6 Points of nominal syntax .................................. 244
3.9.6.1 Idiomatic uses of personal pronouns andpossessive adjectives .......................... 244
3.9.6.2 The genitive and dative of respect ............. 246
3.9.6 Exercise ............................................................ 248
3.9.7 Points of verbal syntax ..................................... 248
3.9.7.1 The perfect and past perfect ...................... 248
3.9.7.2 The passive ................................................ 251
3.9.7.3 The ‘dative absolute’ ................................. 253
3.9.7.4 Present participles expressing potentiality
or obligation ........................................ 254
3.9.7 Exercise ............................................................ 255
3.9.8 Points of syntax affecting more than one
type of phrase ...................................... 256
3.9.8.1 Adjectival and adverbial complements ..... 256
3.9.8.2 Agreement between subject, verb andsubject complement ........................... 257
3.9.8.3 -sk verb forms and ‘preposition adverbs’ .... 259
3.9.8 Exercise ............................................................ 260
3.9.9 Adverbial ok ..................................................... 261
A postscript on ‘impersonal constructions’ ................................. 262
References to linguistic terms explained in the Grammar .......... 264
Select glossary of linguistic terms not explained in the Grammar ... 266
Bibliography ................................................................................ 270

Abbreviations and Symbols
acc.
act.
adj.
art.
aux.
comp.
COMP

dat.
def.
f.
gen.
imp.
indic.
inf.
interrog.
m.
n.
NION I–III
nom.
NP
ON
pass.
pl.
pos.
pp.
pres.
refl.
REFL. POSS.
sg.
subj.
sup.
vb.
*
>
<
~

accusative
activeadjective
articleauxiliarycomparativecomplementiser
dativedefinitefeminine
genitive
imperative
indicative
infinitive
interrogative
masculine
neuterA New Introduction to Old Norse I: Grammar;
II: Reader; III: Glossary and Index of Names
nominative
noun phrase
Old Norse
passivepluralpositive
past participle
present
reflexivereflexive possessive
singularsubject; subjunctive
superlative
verb
reconstructed form; ungrammatical sentencedevelops todevelops fromzero ending1 Introduction
1.1 The aim of the Grammar
From the point of view of the student, many existing grammars of Old
Norse suffer from two major defects. First, they are largely constructedon historical principles and thus contain detail about earlier stages ofthe language and linguistic development, little of which is of direct
use to someone seeking to acquire a reading knowledge of Old Norse.
Second, they assume a level of linguistic sophistication which theschool system no longer cultivates, and so leave unexplained manythings which to the modern student are opaque.
The present Grammar has been written with one aim only: to facilitate the learning of Old Norse for as wide a range of students as possible.
It therefore eschews historical digressions except where they throw
essential light on the workings of the language, and an attempt is madeto explain all but the most basic ideas, concepts and terms on theirfirst appearance or, failing that, in the Select Glossary (pp. 264–6).
The emphasis throughout is pedagogical, and the work thus represents
not so much a re-think of Old Norse grammar as a re-think of the ways inwhich the basics of Old Norse may be best presented to the learner.

1.2 What is Old Norse?
The term ‘Old Norse’ has been used in various ways. For some it is abroad concept covering the language of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, as well as Iceland and the other Scandinavian colonies, throughout the Viking Age (c. 750–1050) and the early and high Middle Ages(c. 1050–1350). At the other extreme it has been taken to mean only
the Old Norwegian of the early and high Middle Ages. In the present
context it is used principally to signify the language of Norway in the
period c. 750–1350 (after which Norwegian changes considerably) andof Iceland from the settlement (c. 870) to the Reformation (c. 1550 —a date that sets a cultural rather than a linguistic boundary). Known inmodern Icelandic as norræna, in Norwegian as norrønt and in English
sometimes as Old West Norse, this type of speech is a western variety

2

A New Introduction to Old Norseof Scandinavian. Scandinavian itself represents the northern branchof the Germanic group of languages, whose western branch includes
Dutch, English and German.
As a result of Viking-Age expansion, Old Norse (in the sense justdefined), which had its origins in Norway, came to be spoken in suchwidely different places as Faroe, Greenland and Ireland, but it was
only in Iceland and Norway — especially the former — that a significant scribal culture developed, and it is upon manuscripts in Icelandic
and Norwegian written with the roman alphabet that our knowledgeof Old Norse is chiefly based. The earliest Icelandic and Norwegianvernacular manuscripts that have survived are dated to c. 1150, but thebulk are from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and many Icelandic manuscripts are later still. For insights into Old Norse prior to1150 we are dependent on runic inscriptions, bits and pieces preservedin foreign language sources, and verse composed in the Viking Age
but recorded in medieval manuscripts.
Although Icelandic c. 870–1550 and Norwegian c. 750–1350 are
here given the designation ‘Old Norse’, it would of course be wrong
to think of this language as entirely uniform, without variation in timeor space. The form of Scandinavian spoken in Norway around 750
differed in a number of important respects from that spoken around
1350, and by the latter date the Norwegian carried to Iceland by theoriginal settlers had begun to diverge from the mother tongue. Nevertheless, in the period c. 1150–1350, when the great medieval literatureof Iceland and Norway was created, there existed an essential unity oflanguage in the western Scandinavian world, and it is on that unitythat the present Grammar is based.

1.3 Old Norse and modern English
A major difference between Old Norse and modern English is that Old
Norse is a much more highly inflected language. Modern English still
has certain inflexions, by which is meant that words change their form
according to their function in a sentence (e.g. she came, I saw her; sg.
cat, pl. cats; pres. run, past ran), but Old Norse has a far greater number.
In English the function of a word can often be deduced from its position in relation to other words. We understand:Introduction

3

Olav saw the old woman
to mean that Olav was the one who saw and the old woman the one
who was seen because Olav precedes saw. Reverse the order and the
opposite applies. In a corresponding Old Norse sentence it would be
perfectly possible for the order to be reversed without a change inmeaning. Everything would depend on the inflexions. Thus:Óláfr sá konu ﬂá ina gƒmlu
andKonu ﬂá ina gƒmlu sá Óláfr
both mean ‘Óláfr saw the old woman’, because the forms Óláfr andkonu ﬂá ina gƒmlu are unchanged. If we wish the sentence to mean‘the old woman saw Óláfr’, we must alter the forms of the words so thatÓláfr becomes Óláf and konu ﬂá ina gƒmlu becomes kona sú in gamla.
It is obvious, therefore, that from the very start the student will
have to pay the closest attention to inflexions. Failure to do so will
result in the regular misunderstanding of Old Norse texts.

1.4 Pronunciation
Even in the case of dead languages, pronunciation is of some importance. If students cannot translate letters on the page into sounds, it
becomes well-nigh impossible for them to discuss the language they
are trying to learn. Furthermore, for those without an exclusively visualmemory, the association of image and sound is a valuable aid tolearning.
The pronunciation of Old Norse, like that of Latin, varies from country to country and sometimes from teacher to teacher. In the Englishspeaking world a widespread practice is to adopt modern Icelandic
pronunciation. Although it is often claimed there is little difference
between modern Icelandic and Old Norse (and this is true enough as
regards the inflexional system and the basic vocabulary), the pronunciation has changed a great deal since the first centuries of the settle-

4

A New Introduction to Old Norse

ment of Iceland. The adoption of modern pronunciation, while putting
the learner at some distance from the speech of those who wrote theliterature s/he is reading, nevertheless has the great advantage that
one can in effect listen to native speakers reproducing the language,
and thus learn to read aloud not only with fluency but with natural
intonation (patterns of voice pitch). For those whose chief interest is
Old Norse literature, modern Icelandic pronunciation has much torecommend it. The pure language student, on the other hand, will findthe modern pronunciation frustrating: not only does it obscure the relationship between several common sounds — and thus also between
large numbers of words or word-forms — it can render meaninglessrules involving syllable length (especially important in poetry). In thepresent work, therefore, an outline is given of the pronunciation bothof Old Norse and of modern Icelandic. For the former we can rely to aconsiderable extent on a twelfth-century work, the so-called First
Grammatical Treatise (ed. Haugen 1972; Hreinn Benediktsson 1972),
which discusses in some detail the vowel and consonant sounds of the
Icelandic of that age. This, together with what we can deduce fromspelling, historical comparisons and modern pronunciation (Icelandic
and different varieties of Norwegian) means that guidance on theessentials of Old Norse pronunciation during the golden years of literary
production can be offered with reasonable confidence.

1.5 Orthography
The scribes who wrote Old Norse did not conform to standardised
rules of spelling, any more than their counterparts in medieval England and elsewhere. They wrote words more or less as they had been
trained to do at the scriptorium where they studied, although they mightalso be influenced by forms in an exemplar from which they were
copying — and occasionally by their own pronunciation. The result isthat most Old Norse words appear in manuscripts in a variety of spellings. In order to facilitate the making of grammars, dictionaries andtext books, therefore, and to help the learner, modern scholars haveadopted a normalised orthography for Old Norse. Some editions of
Old Norse writings, designed more for the philologist and linguist
than the literary reader, follow closely the spelling of the manuscript

Introduction

5or manuscripts on which they are based, while in others the normalised
orthography may be adapted to bring it into greater harmony with thatof the manuscript source. This last practice means that normalisationof Old Norse does not conform to an immutable standard. Even between
grammars, text books and dictionaries a degree of variation can befound. The present Grammar, for example, does not always acknowledge the lengthening of a, o, ƒ, u which took place in twelfth–thirteenth
century Icelandic before various consonant clusters beginning withl (e.g. hjalpa > hjálpa, folk > fólk, hjalmr > hjálmr), although suchlengthening is generally indicated in Parts II and III (Reader andGlossary and Index of Names) of A New Introduction to Old Norse.
The conventions adopted here are in the main those found in E. V.
Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse (1957), which deviates little fromusage in many of the major editions and dictionaries. It should be noted,
however, that the two dictionaries most used by English-speaking
students, Richard Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson, An IcelandicEnglish Dictionary (1957) and Geir Zoëga, A Concise Dictionary of
Old Icelandic (1910), make a few concessions to modern Icelandic
orthography (for which see, for example, Stefán Einarsson 1945, 1–31).

1.6 General advice to the student
The present Grammar is intended primarily for university students,and how it is used will be determined largely by individual tutors.
Nevertheless, it may be helpful to both students and staff, and to anyone studying on their own, to offer outline guidance on the learning
process — not least because it is the author’s understanding of how
Old Norse can most effectively be learnt that has determined the structure of the Grammar. With the emphasis on learning, the following
remarks are addressed direct to the student.
Decide at the outset which pronunciation to adopt, and stick to it.
Vacillating between rival pronunciations is confusing. Having decided,
read through the relevant part of section 2. Do not attempt to learn all
the rules of pronunciation at once. Read words, then phrases, thenwhole sentences aloud, referring to the rules as and when necessary. If
you adopt modern Icelandic pronunciation, try to obtain recordings ofnative speech.

6

A New Introduction to Old NorseYour learning of morphology and syntax should initially be concentrated on the basics of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs. These
are the most highly inflected word classes in Old Norse, and the mostcentral to the understanding of what you are reading.
Begin with the nouns. If you are uncertain about concepts like‘number’, ‘case’ and ‘gender’, read sub-sections 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3
and do the accompanying exercise. Now learn the endings given in
3.1.4, noting the patterns. If you find this material too abstract, you
can compare the endings with those of the actual nouns listed in 3.1.8.
There is much greater variety of inflexion there, though, and that may
confuse rather than help you in the early stages. The noun paradigms
of 3.1.8 are meant primarily for reference as the learning proceeds.
When you are satisfied you have mastered everything in 3.1.4, do theexercise. Next, study in detail the examples of noun usage given in
3.1.5, paying particular attention to the accompanying notes. This is
your introduction to the basics of Old Norse syntax, and you should
be prepared to spend a fair amount of time on it. When you have assimilated all the information in 3.1.5, do the exercise. Then read through3.1.6 and answer the questions at the end of it. Now try the exercise in
3.1.8, using a dictionary or the Glossary in NION III and the noun
paradigms listed in this sub-section. Do not worry if you do not get all
the answers right straight away; this exercise is part of the learning
process as well as a test of knowledge. Sub-section 3.1.7 on the mostimportant variations in noun inflexion is not intended to be read at one
go and learnt, but is there to be consulted as and when problems arise.
You should, however, familiarise yourself with the fundamentals oflabial mutation as soon as possible.
Following the nouns, section 3.1.9 on the suffixed definite article
should be studied and the accompanying exercise completed.
Now go on to section 3.2. Learn the pronoun paradigms set out here,
noting the correspondences between them, and follow this by doing
the exercise covering 3.2.1–3.2.5. Next, study in detail the examples
of pronoun usage given in 3.2.6, paying due attention to the accompanying notes. When you have assimilated all the information in 3.2.6,
do the exercise.
Section 3.3 on adjectives follows largely the pattern of 3.1 on nouns,
and the various items should be tackled in the same order and manner(with 3.3.8 for consultation as necessary, and the paradigms in 3.3.9

Introduction

7

for reference). Note, however, that the free-standing definite article istreated immediately after basic adjective inflexions; it should be studied before you go on to the examples of adjective usage, where thisform of the article occurs quite widely.
From adjectives proceed to section 3.6 on verbs. Work through subsections 3.6.1 to 3.6.8 in the order they appear (3.6.1 to 3.6.4 may beomitted if you are familiar with the concepts discussed). 3.6.9 is for
consultation as necessary. The paradigms in 3.6.10 are for reference;the exercise at the end of this section is, however, an essential task.
Having assimilated the basic forms and functions of Old Norse nouns,
pronouns, adjectives and verbs, you should go on to tackle numerals (3.4)
and adverbs (3.5). When studying the numerals, note in particular similarities with other inflexional types and the various idiomatic usages
detailed in both 3.4.1 and 3.4.2. Regarding the adverbs, pay particularattention to adverb formation and inflexion for degree (3.5.1, 3.5.2).
As soon as practicable, you should begin to read an Old Norse text.
It is recommended you start with the extract from Hrólfs saga kraka
in Part II of A New Introduction to Old Norse, which has word-forword linguistic commentary on the first 40 lines. While reading this(or another) text you will meet prepositions, conjunctions, and various
syntactic structures not dealt with in sections 3.1 to 3.6 of the Grammar.
That is where sections 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9 come in. As you read, you
should consult them regularly for such information as you may require on the areas they cover. The exercises in these sections should
be attempted when you feel you have reached an appropriate level ofexpertise.
It is of course possible to work through 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9 in the same
methodical way as the earlier parts of the Grammar. This should not,however, be done before starting on your first text. The importance ofreading a continuous piece of Old Norse at the earliest possible opportunity cannot be emphasised too strongly.
Finally, an important piece of practical information: where nothingother is stated, Old Norse words are given in their dictionary form, i.e.
nominative singular for nouns, nominative for personal pronouns,
nominative masculine singular for other pronouns, strong nominative
masculine singular positive for adjectives, nominative masculine
singular or plural (as appropriate) for numerals, positive for adverbs,
and infinitive for verbs.

Pronunciation and orthography

8

2 Pronunciation and Orthography
2.1 Old Norse
Stress was in principle always on the first syllable. About intonation
nothing is known for sure, but it probably varied somewhat from area
to area.
Regarding the speech sounds themselves, we have a good idea ofthe system as a whole, but are less certain about precise shades ofsound. The equivalents in other languages suggested below should beunderstood as rough approximations.

2.1.1 Pure vowels
Old Norse had nine basic vowel sounds, which might be long or short,nasal or oral, giving 36 potential distinctions. Nasality seems to havebeen lost in most people’s speech by about 1200, and so is ignored
here. Length is normally indicated by an acute accent. The relationship between spelling and sound is as follows.
á
a
é
e
í
i
ó
o
ú
u
‡
y
æ
œ
ø
ƒ

as in English father
the same sound, but short
as in French été, but longer
as in French été
as in English eat
the same sound, but short
as in French eau, but longer
as in French eau
as in French bouche, but longer
as in French bouche
as in French rue, but longer
as in French rue
as in English pat, but longer
as in French feu, but longer
as in French feu
as in English hotár ‘year’dagr ‘day’él ‘storm’ben ‘wound’lítr ‘looks [vb.]’
litr ‘colour’sól ‘sun’hof ‘temple’hús ‘house’sumar ‘summer’k‡r ‘cow’
yfir ‘over’sær ‘sea’œrr ‘mad’døkkr ‘dark’ƒl ‘ale’Old Norse

9

Notes:
There is no short counterpart of æ or long counterpart of ƒ. Bothsounds existed at one time, but in the kind of Old Norse on which thenormalised spelling is based short æ had coalesced with e and  with
á. The use of œ to denote the long equivalent of ø is an arbitrary
convention, and in some works Õ is found.
Most of these sixteen distinctive vowels occur exclusively in stressedsyllables. In unstressed syllables there is no distinction of length andfor the most part a basic three-way contrast is found between a, i andu. Some uncertainty exists about how these unstressed vowels werepronounced, but the student will be safe enough using the following.
aiu

as stressed a
as in English city
as in English woodleysa ‘[to] release’máni ‘moon’
eyru ‘ears’

2.1.1 Pure vowels — Exercise
1. Pronounce á and a. What is the difference?
2. Which are the long vowels of Old Norse?
3. How many unstressed vowels did Old Norse have, and what did
they sound like?
4. Pronounce o and ƒ.
5. Pronounce the following words (use English equivalents for the
consonants): tál ‘deceit’, tal ‘talk’, sénn ‘seen [pp. nom. m. sg.]’(3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3), senn ‘at the same time’, lítr ‘looks [vb.]’, litr
‘colour’, hól ‘praise’, hol ‘cavity’, dúra ‘[to] doze’, dura ‘doorway [gen. pl.]’, fl‡tr ‘floats [vb.]’, flytr ‘conveys’, ær ‘ewe’, bœr‘farm’, gøra ‘[to] make’, ƒl ‘beer’, gestir ‘guests [nom. pl.]’, gƒtur
‘paths [nom./acc. pl.]’.

2.1.2 Diphthongs
Diphthongs are vowel sounds that exhibit a change in quality within
a single syllable, contrast English beer with a diphthong and be earlywith the same vowel qualities spread over two syllables. Diphthongs

10

Pronunciation and orthography

may be falling (where the first element is stressed and the second unstressed, the latter usually a semi-vowel like English w in low or y insay), rising (where the unstressed (semi)-vowel precedes the vowel asin English with or yes) or balanced (where both elements are given
equal stress — as often in Faroese). Old Norse had three falling and agreat many rising diphthongs. However, because rising diphthongs
tend to be spelt with initial ‘j’ or ‘v’ in most forms of Scandinavian,they are often regarded simply as sequences of j (as in English yes) orv + vowel. This is more a theoretical than a practical question. Here
only the three falling diphthongs are listed separately. They were alllong and were pronounced as follows:
au
ei
ey

as in English now
as in English bay
ON e + ylauss ‘loose’
bein ‘bone’hey ‘hay’

2.1.2 Diphthongs — Exercise
1. What is a diphthong?
2. What is the difference between a falling and a rising diphthong?
3. Which are the falling diphthongs of Old Norse?
4. Pronounce: lauss, bein, hey.

2.1.3 Consonants
Just as the vowels, so Old Norse consonants too may be long or short.
Consonants with prolonged articulation are not a normal feature ofEnglish, but are heard in compounds, e.g. lake-country, pen-knife,
where the k and n sounds are extended. Consonant length in Old Norse
is indicated by gemination (doubling). The relationship between spelling and sound is as follows.
b
bb
d
dd

as in English buy
the same sound, but longas in English day
the same sound, but longbíta ‘[to] bite’
gabb ‘mockery’dómr ‘judgement’
oddr ‘point’Old Norsef(1) as in English far(2) as in English very
ff as in English far, but longg (1) as in English goal
(2) as in Scots loch(3) as in Scots loch, but voicedgg (1) as in English goal, but long(2) as in Scots lochh as in English havej
as in English yeark
as in English call
kk the same sound, but longl
as in English leafll the same sound, but longm as in English home
mm the same sound, but longn (1) as in English sin(2) as in English singnn as in English sin, but longp as in English happy
pp the same sound, but longrrolled, as in Scottish English
rr the same sound, but longs
as in English thisss the same sound, but longt
as in English boat
tt the same sound, but longv
as in English win
ﬂ as in English thin
› as in English thisx
two sounds, as in Scots lochsz
two sounds, as in English bits11
fé ‘money’
haf ‘ocean’offr ‘offering’gefa ‘[to] give’lágt ‘low [nom./acc. n. sg.]’
eiga ‘[to] own’egg ‘edge’
gløggt ‘clear [nom./acc. n. sg.]’horn ‘horn’jafn ‘even [adj.]’kƒttr ‘cat’
ekki ‘nothing’nál ‘needle’
hellir ‘cave’frami ‘boldness’
frammi ‘in front’
hrinda ‘[to] push’
hringr ‘ring’
steinn ‘stone’œpa ‘[to] shout’heppinn ‘lucky’
gøra ‘[to] do’verri ‘worse’
reisa ‘[to] raise’áss ‘beam’tƒnn ‘tooth’nótt ‘night’vera ‘[to] be’
ﬂing ‘assembly’jƒr› ‘earth’øx ‘axe’góz ‘property’

Notes:
f
Pronunciation (1) occurs in initial position (i.e. at the beginning of words), pronunciation (2) in medial and final position(i.e. in the middle or at the end of words).
g
Pronunciation (1) occurs in initial position and immediately

12

gg
k
kk
n

p
pp
s

Pronunciation and orthography
after n, (2) immediately before s and t, (3) in all other positions(‘voiced’ means using the vocal cords, as, for example, in English bill versus pill; b is voiced, p unvoiced). (2) may alternatively be sounded as in English act.
Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before s and t, (1) in allother positions. (2) may alternatively be sounded as in English act.
Immediately before s and t this may alternatively be sounded
as in Scots loch.
Ditto.
Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before g or k; note thatin the combination ng the g is pronounced, as in some forms ofnorthern English.
Immediately before s and t this may alternatively be sounded
as in English far.
Ditto.
Never sounded as in English rise, always as in goose.
It will be seen that h, ﬂ, › and the semi-vowels j and v arealways short.

2.1.3 Consonants — Exercise
1. How are long consonants denoted in Old Norse orthography?
2. Can all Old Norse consonants be both long and short? Give details.
3. Does Old Norse use any consonant letters not found in English?
Give details.
4. What sounds do ‘x’ and ‘z’ stand for in Old Norse?
5. Pronounce the following words: bjƒrn ‘bear’, gabba ‘[to] mock’,
dagr ‘day’, padda ‘toad’, fullr ‘full’, hof ‘heathen temple’, offra‘[to] make an offering’, gle›i ‘joy’, sagt ‘said [pp.]’, sag›i ‘said[3rd sg. past]’ (3.6.1, 3.6.2), steggi ‘he-bird’, hafa ‘[to] have’, jƒr›‘earth’, sekr ‘guilty’, sekkr ‘sack’, fela ‘[to] hide’, fella ‘[to] fell’,frami ‘boldness’, frammi ‘in front of’, men ‘necklace’, menn ‘men’,mengi ‘multitude’, krapi ‘slush’, krappi ‘narrow [weak nom. m.
sg.]’ (3.3.2), vera ‘[to] be’, verra ‘worse [n. sg.]’, áss ‘beam’, ás‘beam [acc. sg.]’, nót ‘net’, nótt ‘night’, ver›a ‘[to] become’, ﬂjófr‘thief’, rá› ‘advice’, vƒxtr ‘growth’, íslenzkr ‘Icelandic’.

Old Norse

13

2.1.4 Syllables
Because of the distribution of long and short vowels and consonants,stressed syllables in Old Norse were of four types (disregarding any
consonants before the vowel):short vowel + short consonant, e.g. ba› ‘bath’.
short vowel + long consonant or consonant cluster(i.e. a group of consonants), e.g. rann ‘ran [1st/3rd
sg. past]’, ƒnd ‘breath’, ‘spirit’.
3 — long:
long vowel + short consonant or no consonant, e.g.
hús ‘house’, fé ‘money’, gnúa ‘[to] rub’.
4 — overlong: long vowel + long consonant or consonant cluster,e.g. nótt ‘night’, blástr ‘blowing’.
1 — short:
2 — long:

In simplex (i.e. non-compound) words of more than one syllable, it
is customary to assume that the syllable division occurs immediately
before a vowel, e.g. far-a ‘[to] go’, kall-a ‘[to] call’, gƒr›-um ‘walls[dat.]’, gam-all-a ‘old [gen. pl.]’, kall-a›-ar ‘called [pp. nom./acc. f.
pl.]’, hundr-a›-a ‘hundreds [gen.]’. In compound words the division
comes at the point where the elements of the compound meet, e.g.
spá-ma›r ‘prophet’, vápn-lauss ‘weaponless’, vík-ing-a-hƒf›-ing-i‘viking chieftain’ (with the division after -a marking the meeting pointof the words víkinga- ‘of vikings [gen. pl.]’ and hƒf›ingi ‘chieftain’.
In Old Norse metrics (in which one long syllable is the equivalentof two short ones), length is sometimes measured differently. There,
for example, all monosyllables (such as ba›) count as long. This is nota matter that need concern the beginner, and the system of length described in 2.1.1, 2.1.2, and 2.1.3 should be adhered to.
2.1.4 Syllables — Exercise
1. How many syllable lengths are there in Old Norse?
2. What constitutes a short stressed syllable?
3. What constitutes a long syllable?
4. In words of more than one syllable, where does the division come?
5. Exemplify each of the following with two Old Norse words: shortstressed syllable; long syllable; overlong syllable; unstressed syllable.

Pronunciation and orthography

14

2.2 Modern Icelandic
Radical changes affected the sound system of Icelandic during the latemedieval period. This means that normalised Old Norse orthography
is not the best of guides to modern Icelandic pronunciation. Even so,
the correspondence between the two is far more regular than between
current spoken and written English.
Stress in modern Icelandic falls without exception on the initial syllable of a word; in compounds the first syllable of the second element
has a strong secondary stress, e.g. spákona ‘prophetess’, with primarystress on spá-, secondary on -kon-. Intonation can only sensibly belearnt from listening to native speakers, or recordings of connectedspeech, and will not be described here. The equivalents of Icelandic
sounds in other languages suggested below should be understood asrough approximations.
2.2.1 Vowels
The modern Icelandic vowel system is fundamentally different fromthat of Old Norse. What was originally a difference of length (e.g.
between á and a) has become one of quality, and vowel length is regulated by the number of immediately succeeding consonants. In stressedsyllables, a vowel before a single consonant, or no consonant at all, islong; a vowel before two or more consonants (including long consonants, which count as two) is short. The relationship between spellingand sound is as follows.
á
a

é
e
í
i
ó

as in English now(1) as in French mal(2) as in English now(3) as in English myas in English yes(1) as in English let(2) as in English bay
as in English eat(1) as in English pit(2) as in English eat
as in American roamár ‘year’raf ‘amber’langr ‘long’hagi ‘pasture’léttr ‘light [adj.]’verri ‘worse’engi ‘no one’hlí› ‘hillside’
hli› ‘side’
hringr ‘ring’sól ‘sun’Modern Icelandic
o
ú
u

‡
y
æ
œ
ø
ƒ
au
ei
ey

(1) as in English law(2) as in English boy
as in French bouche(1) a sound between the vowels
in French pu and peu(2) as in French bouche(3) as in French huile
as in English eat
as in English pit
as in English mythe same soundas in French peur(1) as in French peur(2) as in French œil
as in French œil
as in English bay
the same sound15
hof ‘temple’
bogi ‘bow’
hús ‘house’sumar ‘summer’ungr ‘young’hugi ‘mind’k‡r ‘cow’
yfir ‘over’sær ‘sea’œrr ‘mad’døkkr ‘dark’ƒl ‘ale’lƒgin ‘the law’lauss ‘loose’
bein ‘bone’hey ‘hay’Notes:aPronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng, (3) immediately before gi, (1) in all other positions.
ePronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng, gi and gj,(1) in all other positions.
iPronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng and gi, (1)in all other positions.
oPronunciation (2) occurs immediately before gi, (1) in allother positions.
uPronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng, (3) immediately before gi, (1) in all other positions.
ƒ
Pronunciation (2) occurs immediately before ng and gi, (1)in all other positions.
Although some of the above examples show long and others shortrealisations of the different sounds, all vowels (except the diphthongal variants of o and u, which are always short) may have either length.
Corresponding to long á in ár, for example, we have short á in árs‘year [gen. sg.]’ (and also in langr, although written ‘a’); and corresponding to short é in léttr we have long é in lét ‘let’, ‘caused’ (1st/3rd
sg. past of láta).

16

Pronunciation and orthography

As in Old Norse, the vowels of unstressed syllables are essentiallythree. All are short and are pronounced as follows:aiu

as stressed a
as stressed i
as stressed u

leysa ‘[to] release’máni ‘moon’
eyru ‘ears’

2.2.1 Vowels — Exercise
1. Where does stress fall in modern Icelandic?
2. In what positions do long vowels occur?
3. In what positions do short vowels occur?
4. Work through all the examples in 2.2.1, pronouncing each several
times.
(Since modern Icelandic is a living language, access to native speech
is available. Try to obtain an Icelandic pronunciation tape, or recordings of the spoken language. If you know an Icelander, get him or her
to record the examples in 2.2 for you. Icelandic radio is now available
on the internet, and a CD can be obtained from the Viking Society
containing extracts I, II, IV, VIIB, VIII (b) and (e), IX and X from
NION II read with Modern Icelandic pronunciation by Icelanders.)

2.2.2 Consonants
Consonants in modern Icelandic may be short or long, as in Old Norse(see 2.1.3). However, several of the long consonants of the medieval
language have developed other pronunciations, although still spelt as
geminates (double consonants). The relationship between spelling andsound is as follows. (On unvoiced sounds see the last paragraph ofthis sub-section.)b as in English buy, but unvoiced
bb the same sound, but longd as in English day, but unvoiced
dd the same sound, but longbíta ‘[to] bite’
gabb ‘mockery’dómr ‘judgement’
oddr ‘point’Modern Icelandicf17(1) as in English far
fé ‘money’(2) as in English very
haf ‘ocean’(3) as in English buy, but unvoiced hefna ‘[to] avenge’ff as in English heifer, but longoffr ‘offering’g (1) as in English goal, but unvoiced gata ‘path’(2) as in English geese, but unvoiced
and with English y-sound following gefa ‘[to] give’(3) as in Scots lochlágt ‘low [nom./acc. n. sg.]’(4) as in Scots loch, but voiced
eiga ‘[to] own’(5) as in English year
stigi ‘ladder’
gg (1) as g (1), but longegg ‘edge’(2) as g (2), but longkleggi ‘haycock’(3) as g (3)gløggt ‘clear [nom./acc. n. sg.]’h (1) as in English havehorn ‘horn’(2) as in English hugehjarta ‘heart’(3) as in English callhvass ‘sharp’
j as in English year
jafn ‘even [adj.]’k (1) as in English callkƒttr ‘cat’(2) as in English keep, butwith English y-sound following
kyrr ‘quiet’(3) as in Scots lochlíkt ‘similar [nom./acc. n. sg.]’
kk (1) as k (1), but preaspirated
brekka ‘slope’(2) as k (2), but preaspirated
ekki ‘nothing’(3) as k (3)skakkt ‘skew [nom./acc. n. sg.]’l as in English leaf
nál ‘needle’ll (1) as in English leaf
illt ‘bad [nom./acc. n. sg.]’(2) as in English badly
hellir ‘cave’m as in English homeframi ‘boldness’
mm the same sound, but longframmi ‘in front’n (1) as in English sin
hrinda ‘[to] push’(2) as in English sing
hringr ‘ring’nn (1) as in English sin, but longrenna ‘[to] run’(2) as in English kidney
steinn ‘stone’p (1) as in English happyœpa ‘[to] shout’(2) as in English far
eptir ‘after’
pp as p (1), but preaspirated
heppinn ‘lucky’r (1) rolled, as in Scottish English gøra ‘[to] do’(2) as r (1), but followed by dbarn ‘child’18

Pronunciation and orthography

rr as r (1), but longs as in English thisss the same sound, but longt as in English tug
tt the same sound, but preaspirated
v as in English very
ﬂ as in English think› as in English thisx two sounds, as in Scots lochs
z as in English thisverri ‘worse’
reisa ‘[to] raise’áss ‘beam’tƒnn ‘tooth’nótt ‘night’vera ‘[to] be’
ﬂing ‘assembly’jƒr› ‘earth’øx ‘axe’góz ‘property’

Notes:
f
Pronunciation (1) occurs in initial position (i.e. at the beginning of words), pronunciation (2) in medial and final position(i.e. in the middle or at the end of words); (3) occurs immediately before l and n (except where a consonant follows, in whichcase fl may be pronounced as in English flat before a voicelessand as in English naval before a voiced consonant, and fn as m(e.g. fíflt ‘seduced [pp.]’, fífldi ‘seduced [3rd sg. past]’, hefndi‘avenged [3rd sg. past]’).
g
Pronunciation (1) occurs initially before á, a, ó, o, ú, u, ø, ƒ, auand consonants, medially before l and n (e.g. sigla ‘[to] sail’)and also between consonants and a or u (e.g. saurga ‘[to] dirty’),and finally after consonants (e.g. ﬂing); pronunciation (2) occurs
initially before e, í, i, ‡, y, æ, œ, ei, ey and j, and medially between
consonants and i or j (e.g. helgi ‘holiness’); (3) occurs before sand t (e.g. hugsa ‘[to] think’); (4) occurs between vowels anda, u, r or ›, and finally after vowels; (5) occurs between vowels
and i or j.
gg
Pronunciation (1) occurs between vowels and a, u, r or v, andin final position; (2) occurs between vowels and i or j; (3)occurs before t.
hPronunciation (2) occurs before é and j, (3) before v, (1) in allother positions.
kPronunciation (2) occurs before e, í, i, ‡, y, æ, œ, ei, ey and j, (3)before s and t, (1) in all other positions.
kk
Pronunciation (2) occurs between a vowel and i or j, (3) befores and t, (1) in all other positions; preaspiration means that aModern Icelandic

ll
n
nn

p
pp
r
s
tt

19

puff of air similar to the one expelled after k, p or t in (southern)
English keg, put and take precedes the kk.
Pronunciation (1) occurs before consonants other than n and r,(2) between vowels and before n and r.
Pronunciation (2) occurs before g and k, (1) in all other positions.
Pronunciation (2) occurs following all vowels with an acuteaccent (e.g. á), as well as æ, œ and the diphthongs au, ei, ey, (1)following other vowels.
Pronunciation (2) occurs before k, s and t, (1) in all other positions.
Concerning preaspiration, see the note on kk.
Pronunciation (2) occurs in the clusters rl and rn where they
appear between vowels or in final position, (1) elsewhere.
Never sounded as in English rise, always as in goose.
Concerning preaspiration, see the note on kk.

The pronunciation of modern Icelandic consonants involves many
subtleties which it would be out of place to describe in a brief accountsuch as this. The following may, however, be noted. (1) The voicelessness of b(b), d(d) and g(g) signifies that these consonants are pronounced much like their English equivalents (fairly laxly and with nofollowing puff of air as with p, t, k), but without the use of the vocal
cords. (2) There is a tendency to unvoice voiced consonants in voiceless environment (in particular when they immediately precede k, p, s,t: this is the norm in southern Icelandic pronunciation). (3) The clusters hl, hn and hr denote voiceless l, n, r (there is nothing like this in
English: try pronouncing l, n and r without using the vocal cords). (4)Long consonants tend to be shortened when they occur immediately
before another consonant (e.g. ﬂykkna ‘[to] thicken’, brenndi ‘burnt[3rd sg. past]’). (5) Preaspiration (see above) occurs where k, p or t
precede l, m or n as well as before kk, pp and tt (e.g. vakna ‘[to] awake’,ætla ‘[to] intend’). (6) In clusters of more than two consonants, one ormore may be altered or lost (e.g. rigndi ‘rained [3rd sg. past]’ is pronounced as though it were ringdi (the g not being sounded), barns‘child [gen. n. sg.]’ as though it were bass).

Pronunciation and orthography

20

2.2.2 Consonants — Exercise
1. Of the written geminates bb, gg, ll, mm, nn, tt, which always denote long consonants in modern Icelandic?
2. How many different sounds can f denote, and what are they?
3. How many different sounds can g denote, and what are they?
4. Work through all the examples in 2.2.2, pronouncing each several
times.
(See the note following the exercise at the end of 2.2.1.)

2.2.3 Syllables
The fact that vowel length is regulated by the length of following consonants means that in modern Icelandic there are effectively only two
types of stressed syllable, both long:
(1)

(2)

short vowel + long consonant or consonant cluster, e.g.
blástr ‘blowing’, nótt ‘night’, rann ‘ran [1st/3rd sg. past]’,ƒnd ‘spirit’.
long vowel + short consonant or no consonant, e.g. ba›‘bath’, hús ‘house’, fé ‘money’, gnúa ‘[to] rub’.

An exception to this pattern of distribution are clusters formed of k,p, s, or t + j, r or v, before which the vowel is always long. If bothconsonants are reckoned part of the syllable, it is clearly overlong, butconceivably only the first should be counted, so that in words likevekja ‘[to] wake’, daprar ‘sad [nom./acc. f. pl.]’, ﬂysja ‘[to] rush’,vƒkva ‘moisture’, etc., the syllable boundary would be placed immediately after k, p and s. Syllable boundaries are otherwise as outlined
in 2.1.4.

2.2.4 The epenthetic vowel
Also called the svarabhakti vowel, this intrusive u-sound began todevelop towards the end of the Old Norse period. Because it did notModern Icelandic

21

originally form part of the words in which it is now found, and because of its relatively late arrival, the epenthetic vowel is not indicated in normalised Old Norse orthography. It develops between a
consonant (other than r) and r, especially an r in final position. Thus
ON ma›r ‘man [nom. m. sg.]’, dapr ‘sad [nom. m. sg.]’, eitr ‘poison[nom./acc. n. sg.]’, bindr ‘tie(s) [2nd/3rd sg. pres.]’, for example, arepronounced ma›ur, dapur, eitur, bindur (the first three with longstressed vowels because only a single consonant immediately follows)— and so written in modern Icelandic orthography.

2.2.3/2.2.4 Syllables/The epenthetic vowel — Exercise
1. What feature of length characterises stressed syllables in modern
Icelandic?
2. What is the epenthetic vowel?
3. How does the occurrence of the epenthetic vowel affect the use ofmodern Icelandic pronunciation for Old Norse?

It should be stressed that section 2.2 is offered simply as an initialguide to help those learners who wish to pronounce Old Norse as aliving language. For a detailed, if slightly old-fashioned, descriptionof the sounds of modern Icelandic, see Stefán Einarsson 1945, 1–31;
for a briefer but more recent analysis, see Höskuldur Thráinsson 1994,
142–52. As urged above, such accounts should preferably be studiedin conjunction with recordings of spoken Icelandic.

22

Morphology and syntax

3. Morphology and Syntax
Morphology deals with the form and structure of words, and syntax
with the ways in which words are combined to form sentences. In
section 3 we shall be concentrating on inflexional morphology (changes
in word-form that express grammatical categories and relationships,
sometimes called accidence) and the ways in which it interrelates withsyntax. In dealing with a language like Old Norse, where grammaticalcategories such as number, gender, case, person, tense (see below
and 3.2, 3.6.1, 3.6.2) are expressed by variation in word-form, it isunhelpful to divide the inflexions from the syntax, as has been common practice in earlier grammars. The student needs to appreciate fromthe outset that form and function are interlinked: the form has no purpose other than to express the function, and often the function cannot
be expressed without the form.

3.1 Noun inflexions and their function
Nouns in Old Norse are inflected for number and case.

3.1.1 Number
Number in nouns is restricted to a difference between singular andplural, as in English boy, foot compared with boys, feet. Thus ON hlí›means ‘slope’, hlí›ir ‘slopes’, ma›r ‘man’, menn ‘men’. (On the relationship between number in nouns and number in verbs, see 3.6.1.)

3.1.2 Case
Case is a much more complex matter than number. It is sometimes
defined as a grammatical category that expresses the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. While true as far as it goes, thisdefinition is too abstract for our purposes. It gives no indication of
how to recognise case. It does not explain what syntactic relations are,

Noun inflexions and their function

23

how they are, or may be, expressed, or the nature of the link between
the means of expression and the thing expressed.
In modern English a few words change form according to their function in a sentence. Thus we say (as a complete sentence):
I saw himbut
He saw menot:*Me saw heor*Him saw I
This change of form between I and me and he and him according tofunction provides a clear example of what is traditionally called case:a particular form expresses a particular syntactic relation — in theseexamples subject (I, he; see pp. 31–2) or object (me, him; see pp. 32–3).
For the most part, however, modern English expresses syntactic
relationship by other means than changes in the form of words. We
may say both:John saw the cat
in which John is subject and the cat object, and:The cat saw Johnin which the roles are reversed, but it is the word-order that signals thefunction (as it does additionally in I saw him and he saw me) not theparticular forms of the words involved, which do not change. Anothercommon means of expressing syntactic relationship in English is by
the use of function words (words which have little or no meaning on
their own) such as of, with, than. In:

24

Morphology and syntax
The king of Englandfor example, of England modifies king, in much the same way as would
the addition of the adjective English. In:
He broke it with a stone
with a stone is an adverbial (3.5.4) expressing instrumentality (i.e.
defining the ‘tool’ or ‘instrument’ used to cause the breakage). In:
My brother is taller than methan me supplies the part of the comparative phrase that denotes theentity with which the comparison is made.
Where English uses word-order or function words to indicate syntactic relationship, Old Norse regularly uses changes of word-form
instead or as well. This means that not only pronouns, but nouns andadjectives (and also verbs and adverbs, as to some extent in English),
are likely to change form according to their relationship to other partsof the sentence. It is their form that — wholly or partly — specifies
their grammatical role, as with I/me in English. English has traces ofsuch a system in the -’s (singular) or -s’ (plural) that may be added tonouns. Instead of saying (or writing) the king of England as above, forexample, we may alternatively use England’s king; instead of the
comfort of passengers, passengers’ comfort. However, the Old Norse
system is vastly more complex than anything in English. Its heavy
reliance on form to indicate a variety of functions means that a simple
two-way distinction like that between English I and me or Englandand England’s offers a wholly inadequate parallel.
Old Norse nouns, adjectives and pronouns exhibit four distinctive
case-forms, known as nominative, accusative, genitive and dative.
This means that a noun (or adjective or pronoun) potentially has eight
different actual forms (four in the singular, four in the plural), but inreality most have fewer because the same form occurs in more than
one case.
The number of functions expressed by these case-forms greatly exceeds four. This means that no case is uniquely associated with a particular function: each is used in a variety of ways. The accusative, forNoun inflexions and their function

25

example, commonly marks the object of a verb (as English him in I
saw him; see pp. 32–3), but among other functions it also expresses
duration of, or point in, time, as well as occurring after a number of
prepositions (see 3.7). The following sentences (each accompanied
by a literal and an idiomatic English translation) illustrate these threepossibilities (the words in the accusative form are in bold):
Hann orti vísu ﬂessa‘He made verse this’‘He made this verse’ (object)
Hann dval›isk ﬂar mestan hluta sumars‘He stayed-sk [see 3.6.5.3] there most part of-summer’‘He stayed there for most of the summer’ (time)ﬁeir gengu á skóg
‘They went into wood’‘They went into the wood’ (after preposition á)‘Case-form’ in relation to the nominative, accusative, genitive anddative has so far been used in an abstract sense. In reality, we are
dealing not with one nominative, accusative, genitive or dative form,
but with many (see the three examples just given). Thus to a question
like: ‘What is the nominative singular form of nouns in Old Norse?’
there is no answer, only a return question: ‘Which kind of noun doyou have in mind?’ Common nominative singular noun endings are -r,-i, -a, but there are others besides these, and a large group of nouns
indicates this ‘form’ by exhibiting no ending at all.
It is time now to return to the starting point of the discussion: thedefinition of case. Three questions were thrown up by the definition
initially suggested. (1) What are syntactic relations? (2) How are or
may they be expressed? (3) What is the nature of the link between themeans of expression and the thing expressed? In answer to the firstquestion discussion and examples of common syntactic relations havebeen offered. In answer to the second it has been shown that change inword-form, word-order, and the use of function words are all important ways of expressing syntactic relations. The third question on thenature of the link between syntactic relations and the means by which26

Morphology and syntax

they are expressed bears more directly on the understanding of case.
There are two main issues. First, what can be usefully recognised ascase, and what not? Second, in so far as case is identified primarily as
the expression of syntactic relations by changes in word-form, whereis case to be found — in the syntactic relations or in the differing
word-forms?
Some have identified case in English sentences like John saw thecat or phrases like the king of England. This is either because they
were arbitrarily transferring the rules of another language (as often as
not Latin) to English, where the rules do not necessarily apply, or
because they related case primarily to the level of meaning. Neither
approach seems likely to be helpful in the learning of Old Norse. The
rules of Old Norse must be derived from Old Norse itself, not from
Latin or any other language, and seeing case in terms of meaning
ignores the fact that in Old Norse form is also a crucial factor. For
present purposes, therefore, case would seem a term best restricted tothe expression of syntactic relations by changes in word-form. There
are difficulties here, though, that have already been alluded to. Caseas thus defined refers both to form and function and denotes entities— nominative, accusative, etc. — that have a variety of forms and avariety of functions. It can therefore be hard to see what the essence ofa case is — leading to uncertainty about what one means by the term.
Is the Old Norse accusative, for example, the sum of the inflexions bywhich certain syntactic relations are expressed or the sum of thosesyntactic relations? There is no clear answer to this question. Nevertheless it seems that most writers conceive of case in a language like
Old Norse primarily as a morphological category: they prefer to thinkof the different inflexions a case may exhibit as varying realisations ofa single underlying form than to think of its differing functions as
somehow derived from a single abstract meaning — and indeed thelatter idea does require considerably greater intellectual elasticity. We
will therefore adopt the concept of morphological case here. We willconsider, for example, the -r, -i, -a etc. endings of nouns in the nominative singular to be realisations of an underlying form NOM in its
singular incarnation. The morphological category thus established as
primary can then be seen as having a range of different functions.
The upshot of this discussion is that there are four cases in Old Norse:
nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. The cases are regarded as

Noun inflexions and their function

27

relating primarily to form, although there is no single nominative,
accusative, genitive or dative form as such. Each case expresses a rangeof syntactic relations. The student’s task is therefore twofold: tolearn to recognise one case from another by mastering the essential inflexions, while simultaneously getting a grasp of the principal syntactic relations expressed by each case.

3.1.3 Gender
As well as number and case, the role of gender in the inflexion of Old
Norse nouns needs to be considered. Gender is an inherent categoryof the noun, that is, it is only when a noun is modified or referred tothat its gender becomes manifest. There is, for example, nothing about
the word dalr ‘valley’ to show that it is masculine rather than feminine
or neuter, but if it is modified by an adjective, that adjective will appear
in the appropriate masculine form, e.g. djúpr dalr ‘deep valley’ where
djúp- is the root of the word and -r the nom. m. sg. ending (see 3.3.4).
Similarly, if we wish to refer to a valley as ‘it’, it must be by the masculine form of the personal pronoun: hann ‘he’.
While there is thus nothing gender-specific about any individual
Old Norse noun in its dictionary form, it is nevertheless true that gender
plays a part in the inflexional system of nouns, if only a minor one.
Most masculines, for example, end in -r or -i in the nominative singular, and many feminines in -a; neuters are characterised in both
singular and plural by a lack of distinction between nominative andaccusative, and many have no specific nom./acc. pl. inflexion either(so that kvæ›i ‘poem’, for example, may be nom. or acc. sg. or pl.).
However, given that none of the above features (except the nom./acc.
sg./pl. identity of neuters) is totally restricted to one particular gender,
they cannot be classed as gender markers in the same way as the formsof modifying adjectives or of anaphoric pronouns (pronouns that referback to some previously expressed meaning, as, for example, it referring to valley above). What the features do offer is guidance about thelikely gender of a noun — a useful insight since it can help (a) to see
which words in a sentence belong together and (b) to predict whatforms a given noun will have other than the particular one encountered.

28

Morphology and syntax

3.1.1/3.1.2/3.1.3 Number/Case/Gender — Exercise
1. What does the grammatical category number refer to? Give examples from Old Norse.
2. What does the grammatical category case refer to? Give examples
from Old Norse.
3. What does the grammatical category gender refer to? Give examples from Old Norse.
4. To what extent does case occur in English?
5. In what ways other than change in word-form can syntactic relations be expressed?
6. Which cases are found in Old Norse, and how do we recognisethem?

3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions
In learning the inflexions of Old Norse it is important not to lose sightof the wood for the trees. This is not least true of the noun inflexions.
If account were taken of every minor variation, it would be possible tolist pages of paradigms (patterns of inflexion), as some grammars do,but that is likely to put the learner off and thus be counter-productive.
Initially it is the essential patterns that need to be grasped. The small
details can be added bit by bit. (Students keen to see the complete
range of inflexions are recommended to consult one of the more traditional Old Norse grammars. In English there is Gordon 1957, in Norwegian Iversen 1973 and in German Noreen 1923. Less traditional
grammars in Norwegian are Spurkland 1989 and Haugen 2001, thelatter particularly systematic and lucid. An exhaustive account ofmodern Icelandic inflexions is given in Thomson 1987.)
Fundamentally there are two types of noun inflexion in Old Norse,
traditionally known as strong and weak. The student should not look
for any deep significance in these names. They have none. The two
types could as well be called ‘A’ and ‘B’ or ‘1’ and ‘2’. Strong nouns
have a wider range of endings than the weak; weak nouns tend mostly
to end in -a, -i or -u.
The strong and weak inflexional types can be sub-divided according to gender (cf. above). With three genders, masculine (m.), femi-

Noun inflexions and their function

29

nine (f.) and neuter (n.), this gives us six basic sets of endings. They
are as follows (~ = zero, i.e. there is no ending, the form consisting of
the root of the noun alone — e.g. dal ‘valley’, acc. m. sg.; ( ) = theending does not always occur; actual paradigms are given in 3.1.8).
Strong masculine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-r
~
-s/-ar
-(i)

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-ar/-ir-a/-i/-u-a-um

Weak masculine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-a
-a
-a

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-ar
-a
-a
-um

Strong feminine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

~
~
-ar
~

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-ar/-ir-ar/-ir
-a
-um

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-ur
-ur
-na
-um

Weak feminine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-a
-u
-u
-u

Pl.

Morphology and syntax

30Strong neuter
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

~
~
-s
-i

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

~
~
-a
-um

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-u
-u
-na
-um

Weak neuter
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-a
-a
-a
-a

Pl.

Certain regularities and patterns will be observed in these endings.
(1) The dat. pl. always ends in -um.
(2) The gen. pl. always ends in -a, in the case of the weak feminines
and neuters preceded by -n-.
(3) There are no distinct case-forms in the weak sg. except in thenom. masculine and feminine.
(4) The strong nom. sg. ends in -r or has no ending.
(5) The strong acc. sg. is characterised by the absence of an inflexional ending.
(6) The strong gen. sg. ends in -s or -ar.
(7) The strong dat. sg. ends in -i or has no ending.
(8) The masculine and feminine nom. pl. end in -a, -i or -u + r.
(9) The masculine acc. pl. ends in -a, -i or -u, and the feminineacc. pl. in -a, -i or -u + r.
These are the essentials of noun inflexion in Old Norse. It is by
no means the whole story, but all other noun inflexions can beseen as variations on this basic pattern. It is vitally important thatthe student masters the above sets of endings before proceeding to
the finer detail.

Noun inflexions and their function31

3.1.4 Basic noun inflexions — Exercise
1. Where is a difference between the nom. and acc. pl. to be found?
2. How many endings does the gen. pl. exhibit?
3. What characterises the singular inflexions of strong feminines?
4. What characterises the singular inflexions of weak masculines andfeminines?
5. In what way do the plural inflexions of strong neuter nouns differ
from those of strong masculines and feminines?
6. What are the different nom. sg. endings?
7. What are the different gen. sg. endings?
8. What are the different dat. sg. endings?

3.1.5 Examples of noun usage
To assist in the task of learning, examples will now be given of a
selection of the different noun case-forms in function. The relevant
inflexions are in bold (or the whole word where there is no difference
from the root form). Two translations are normally provided, the firstliteral for a better understanding of the structure of the Old Norse
sentence, the second idiomatic. Notes explain the relationship between
form and function. Compare the case-forms used with those set out on
pp. 29–30. Observe, too, the differences between Old Norse and English phraseology and sentence formation.
(1)

Ger›isk Eiríkr ﬂá konungsma›r‘Made-sk [see 3.6.5.3] Eiríkr then king’s-man’‘Eiríkr then became a king’s man’Eiríkr (strong nom. m. sg.) is the subject, konungsma›r (strong nom. m. sg.)
the subject complement; for both subject and subject complement the nominative is almost always the case used. Subject is an extremely hard concept to
get to grips with; it is sometimes loosely defined as ‘what the sentence isabout’; where the verb denotes an action, the subject is often the agent, or‘doer’ of the action. However, such definitions relate chiefly to meaning. Syntactically subjects may be defined both in English and Old Norse as the firstnoun phrase of a sentence in unmarked word-order (where ‘noun phrase’ meansa noun or pronoun with or without accompanying modifiers — e.g. John, she,

32

Morphology and syntax

the white-bearded old man — and ‘unmarked word-order’ word-order notdeliberately altered for emphasis). The subject complement is Y in constructions like: X is Y, X becomes Y or X is called Y.

(2)

Var bardagi milli ﬂeira‘Was battle between them’‘There was a battle between them’Bardagi (weak nom. m. sg.) is the subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence.

(3)

Konur tvær vƒk›u yfir lei›inu‘Women two watched over tomb-the’‘Two women kept a vigil over the tomb’

Konur (weak nom. f. pl.), modified by tvær, is the subject; it is the first nounphrase in the sentence and the women perform the action denoted by the verbvƒk›u. Lei›inu (strong dat. n. sg. + def. art. — see 3.1.9) does not function
here as a noun phrase, but is part of the preposition phrase yfir lei›inu, inwhich the noun is governed (i.e. has its case determined) by the preposition
yfir (see 3.7, 3.7.4).

(4)

Vápn bíta ekki á hann‘Weapons bite not on him’
‘Weapons make no impression on him’Vápn (strong nom. n. pl.) is the subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence;
whether the weapons are seen as the agent, or ‘doer’, of the action, will depend
partly on the wider context, partly on the analysis; normally a human agent
wields weapons and the weapons are thus the instrument, but they can also be
portrayed as agent.

(5)

Hann tekr eigi mat né drykk‘He takes not food nor drink’‘He takes neither food nor drink’

Mat and drykk (both strong acc. m. sg.) are objects of the verb tekr. Like
subject, object is a hard concept to define; traditionally a distinction is madebetween ‘direct object’, the goal of an action, and ‘indirect object’ the beneficiary, as in: I sent Peter (indirect object) a letter (direct object), but such definitions have to do with meaning rather than syntax. Syntactically objects may

Noun inflexions and their function

33

be defined both in English and Old Norse as the second and third noun phrases
of a sentence in unmarked word-order, with the accusative commonly marking the direct and the dative regularly marking the indirect object in Old Norse,
second position the indirect and third position the direct object (by and large)
in English. Mat and drykk are both direct objects: they are the goal of theaction, and whereas direct objects regularly appear unaccompanied by indirect objects, the reverse is very uncommon (cf. the impossibility of English *I
gave him). The direct objects appear here in the accusative, the most common
case for this function.

(6)

ﬁeir báru ﬂar rei›a allan af skipinu‘They bore there tackle all off ship-the’‘There they carried all the tackle off the ship’Rei›a (weak acc. m. sg.), modified by allan, is the second noun phrase in thesentence and the direct object of the verb báru. Skipinu (strong dat. n. sg. +def. art.) does not function here as a noun phrase, but as part of the prepositionphrase af skipinu, and its case is determined by the preposition af (see 3.7.3).

(7)Hann átti margar orrustur í Englandi‘He had many battles in England’Orrustur (weak acc. f. pl.), modified by margar, is the second noun phrase in
the sentence and the direct object of the verb átti. Englandi (strong dat. n. sg.)
is part of the preposition phrase í Englandi, and its case is determined by the
preposition í (see 3.7.4).

(8)ﬁeir drukku ﬂar of daga í skála miklum‘They drank there during days in hall big’
‘They drank there by day in a big hall’

Daga (strong acc. m. pl.) is governed by the preposition of, skála (weak dat.
m. sg.), + its modifier miklum, by the preposition í.

(9)

Lát ﬂér ﬂat ekki í augu vaxa
‘Let to-you that not into eyes grow’‘Don’t make a mountain of it’This is an idiomatic phrase, of which Old Norse has its fair share. Augu (weakacc. n. pl.) is governed by the preposition í, which requires the accusative here
because a sense of motion is involved (contrast examples 7 and 8).

34
(10)

Morphology and syntax
Dval›isk Brúsi litla hrí›
‘Stayed-sk [see 3.6.5.3] Brúsi little while’‘Brúsi stayed for a short time’Brúsi (weak nom. m. sg.) is the subject; it is the first noun phrase in the sentence and the man bearing the name performs the action denoted by the verb
dval›isk. Hrí› (strong acc. f. sg.), modified by litla, is an adverbial phrase
expressing duration of time (it answers the question: ‘How long?’).

(11)

Hann hefndi dráps ﬁorgríms‘He avenged killing of-ﬁorgrímr’‘He avenged the killing of ﬁorgrímr’Dráps (strong gen. n. sg.), the second noun phrase of the sentence, is the
direct object of the verb hefndi; hefna is one of the few verbs that take a direct
object in the genitive. ﬁorgríms (strong gen. m. sg.) is an objective genitive,that is, it corresponds to English ‘of ﬁorgrímr’ and presents ﬁorgrímr as theobject or goal of an action (cf. ‘NN killed ﬁorgrímr’).

(12)Hann sendi ﬂá vestr at leita ƒndvegissúlna sinna‘He sent them west to seek high-seat-posts REFL. POSS.’‘He sent them west to look for his high-seat posts’¯ndvegissúlna (weak gen. f. pl.), modified by sinna, is the direct object of theverb leita. It comes in an infinitive clause (i.e., we have the infinitive at leita‘to seek’, but only an implied subject). A full sentence might run: ﬂeir leitu›uƒndvegissúlna ‘they sought the high-seat posts’, in which the direct object
would be the second noun phrase.

(13)

Gunnarr var eina nótt at Sigrí›ar, frændkonu sinnar‘Gunnarr was one night at Sigrí›r’s, kinswoman’s REFL. POSS.’‘Gunnarr stayed one night at Sigrí›r’s, his kinswoman’s’Gunnarr (strong nom. m. sg.), the first noun phrase in the sentence, is the
subject; he does the staying. Nótt (strong acc. f. sg.), modified by eina, is anadverbial phrase expressing duration of time. Sigrí›ar (strong gen. f. sg.) andfrændkonu (weak gen. f. sg.) + sinnar are subjective (possessive) genitives,that is, they correspond to English ‘-’s’ and present Sigrí›r, the kinswoman,as the owner of the house where Gunnarr stayed (cf. ‘NN owns the house’);note that ‘house’ is not expressed in the Old Norse sentence, paralleling English
usage as above or in, e.g., I am at Peter’s.

Noun inflexions and their function
(14)

35

Ingólfr var frægastr allra landnámsmanna‘Ingólfr was most-famous of-all settlers’‘Ingólfr was most famous of all the settlers’Ingólfr (strong nom. m. sg.) is the subject, the first noun phrase in the sentence and what it is about. Landnámsmanna (strong gen. m. pl.), modified byallra, is a genitive of type, that is, it corresponds to English ‘of the settlers’and presents landnámsmenn as a type of which Ingólfr is a representative.

(15)

Hann bar hann til vatns nƒkkurs‘He bore him to lake some’‘He carried him to a certain lake’

Vatns (strong gen. n. sg.), modified by nƒkkurs, is governed by the preposition til.

(16)

Eigi leyna augu ef ann kona manni‘Not hide eyes if loves woman man’
‘The eyes do not hide it if a woman loves a man’This is an adage, consisting of two sentences. Augu (weak nom. n. pl.), thefirst (and only) noun phrase in sentence 1, is the subject of the verb leyna; theeyes fail to perform the action denoted by the verb. Kona (weak nom. f. sg.) is
the subject of the verb ann, the first noun phrase in sentence 2 and what it isabout. Manni (strong dat. m. sg.) is the direct object of ann, the second nounphrase; a good many verbs take a direct object in the dative.

(17)

Hon skyldi bera ƒl víkingum‘She should bear beer to-vikings’‘She was to serve beer to the vikings’¯l (strong acc. n. sg.) is the direct object of the verb bera; it is the goal of theaction and the second noun phrase in the sentence. Víkingum (strong dat. m.
pl.) is the indirect object of bera; it denotes the beneficiary of the action and is
the third noun phrase. In English the indirect object may be expressed by apreposition phrase (‘to the vikings’) or word-order (‘She was to serve thevikings beer’ — indirect object before direct); in Old Norse the indirect object
appears in the dative.

(18)

ﬁeir hétu Rƒgnvaldi traustri fylg›‘They promised Rƒgnvaldr firm support’36Morphology and syntaxRƒgnvaldi (strong dat. m. sg.) is the indirect, fylg› (strong dat. f. sg.), modified by traustri, the direct object of hétu. As noted in connection with (16),many verbs take a direct object in the dative, and heita ‘promise’ is among these.

(19)

ﬁeir ljá jarli lífs
‘They grant earl life’‘They spare the earl’s life’

Jarli (strong dat. m. sg.) is the indirect, lífs (strong gen. n. sg.) the direct
object of ljá. As noted in connection with (11), a few verbs take a direct object
in the genitive, and ljá ‘grant’ is among these.

(20)

Hann kastar beinum smám um ﬂvert gólfit
‘He throws bones small over crossways floor-the’‘He throws small bones across the floor’

Beinum (strong dat. n. pl.), modified by smám, has instrumental sense; in Old
Norse people are conceived as throwing with something (cf. the close semantic relationship between English: He threw water onto the ground and He
splashed the ground with water). Instrumentality in Old Norse is expressed
either by the dative on its own or by the preposition me› ‘with’ + dat. Gólfit
(strong acc. n. sg. + def. art.), modified by ﬂvert, is governed by the preposition um.

(21)

Hon var hverri konu frí›ari‘She was than-every woman more-beautiful’‘She was more beautiful than any other woman’

Konu (weak dat. f. sg.), modified by hverri, is the second proposition in acomparative construction — the proposition denoting the entity with which
the comparison is made (i.e., taking every other woman as the basis — thestandard by which ‘she’ is to be judged — ‘she’ is more beautiful); in Old
Norse the basis of the comparison may be expressed either by the dative, as
here, or by the conjunction en ‘than’ (3.8, 3.8.2.4) + the appropriate case.

(22)

Váru dyrr á enda
‘Was doorway on end’
‘There was a doorway at the end’Dyrr (nom. f. pl.) is the first noun phrase in the sentence and the subject. It has
only plural forms, although it corresponds to the English singular ‘doorway’.

Noun inflexions and their function

37

These forms are also in part irregular (see 3.1.7.2, 3.1.7.4), and the nom. f. pl.
is indicated by other means than the adding of -a, -i or -u + r to the root. Enda
(weak dat. m. sg.) is governed by the preposition á.

3.1.5 Examples of noun usage — Exercise
1. What are the principal functions of the nominative case in Old
Norse?
2. What cases are used to denote the direct object?
3. What role do prepositions play in the assignment of case?
4. Account for the use of all the genitives in the above examples.
5. What case is used to denote the indirect object?
6. How is instrumentality expressed?
7. What is the role of the dative case in comparative constructions?
8. Where may the accusative be found other than as a marker of thedirect object?

3.1.6 Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions and ways of overcoming them
Unfortunately it is not enough just to learn the endings listed in thetables in 3.1.4. For one thing, Old Norse nouns ring the changes on arelatively small number of endings. We find little other than the vowels-a, -i, -u or the consonants -r, -s on their own, or -a, -i, -u in conjunction with the consonants -m, -n, -r. This parsimony has the effect thatthe same ending may be found in a variety of different cases. While -s
clearly signals the genitive singular, and -um the dative plural, forexample, -ar may be genitive singular or nominative or accusative
plural, and -a can denote any case in the singular as well as accusativeand genitive plural.
Very often the context can determine which number and case a particular form represents. It will be clear from the overall sense of thesentence and the passage of which it forms a part — and usually, too,from the forms of words dependent on the noun: their number, andregularly their case and gender as well. Thus in the example sentence (4):Vápn bíta ekki á hann

38Morphology and syntax

we know that vápn is plural because the verb-form bíta, dependent on
the number of the subject (see 3.6.1), is also plural (cf. English dogs
bite as opposed to John bites). Since vápn has no plural ending we
may further deduce that it is neuter — though this deduction is in
itself no help in gauging the role of the noun in the sentence, since
we have already established that it is the subject and plural. In sentence (10):Dval›isk Brúsi litla hrí›
we can tell from the agreement between the noun form hrí› and theadjective form litla that we are dealing with the accusative feminine
singular. ‘Agreement’ means that there is a formal relationship between the two words, expressed by their having the same case, genderand number (see further 3.3.1), and since litla can only be acc. f. sg. or
acc. m. pl. (see 3.3.9, paradigm 9), and hrí› cannot be acc. m. pl., thecase, gender and number they have in common must be acc. f. sg.
Having established that, we may further deduce that accusative casein conjunction with a verb meaning ‘stayed’ (dval›isk) — and given
the sense of hrí› (‘while’ ‘short time’) — indicates duration of time.
In (6):
ﬁeir báru ﬂar rei›a allan af skipinu
it is the form of the agreeing adjective, allan ‘all’, which shows that ofthe various cases rei›a might be, singular or plural, it is in fact accusative singular, the adjective ending -an denoting acc. m. sg. alone (see3.3.4). That it is accusative means it is likely to be the direct object ofthe verb báru ‘carried’ (examination of the other words in the sentence and their forms will in fact show that to be the only possible
analysis). That it is singular is of little consequence, since rei›i does
not normally appear in the plural (any more than ‘tackle’ in English).
That it is masculine is of importance to the extent that when used witha function that requires accusative case, the agreeing adjective willshow the case, gender and number unambiguously.

Noun inflexions and their function

39

3.1.6 Difficulties in recognising noun inflexions and ways of overcoming them — Exercise
1. Why may it sometimes be difficult to recognise the case and numberof nouns in Old Norse?
2. What means can we use to help deduce their case and number?
3.1.7 Important variations in noun inflexion
A further problem for the learner of Old Norse is that the endings
listed so far are by no means the whole story (cf., e.g., dyrr, nom. f.
pl., in example sentence 22). To be reasonably sure of recognising aparticular case-form for what it is, the student needs to be aware ofadditional features that play their part in noun inflexion. These will
now be examined.

3.1.7.1 Labial mutation
Mutation, sometimes known by the German term Umlaut, occurs wherethe vowel of a stressed syllable adopts one or more of the features ofthe vowel or semi-vowel of the immediately following unstressedsyllable. The vowel u and the semi-vowel w (the latter written ‘v’ instandardised Old Norse spelling) are labial sounds, that is, they are
pronounced with rounded lips. Rounding is thus one of the featuresthat characterise them. This feature is regularly adopted by a preceding stressed a, so instead of appearing as a it takes the form ƒ, i.e. it ispronounced like a with lip-rounding (see 2.1.1). In fact, it is a rule of
Old Norse that a cannot appear before u or v in the next syllable. A
noun with a in the root will therefore always change that a to ƒ whenthe ending consists of or contains a u. Thus, the dative plural of thenouns ma›r ‘man’, bardagi ‘battle’, and vatn ‘lake’, which appear in
the example sentences, is mƒnnum, bardƒgum, vƒtnum (see paradigms
2, 9, 26 below). A weak feminine noun like saga ‘story’ has root aonly in the nominative singular and genitive plural; the remaining forms
are sƒgu (acc./gen./dat. sg.), sƒgur (nom./acc. pl.) and sƒgum (dat. pl.,see paradigm 23). Likewise, the weak neuter hjarta ‘heart’ has thenom./acc. pl. forms hjƒrtu and dat. hjƒrtum.

40

Morphology and syntax

The rule that root a changes to ƒ before u should not cause the learnerproblems, as long as s/he remembers that an unknown word with
ƒ in the root and u in the ending must be looked up in a dictionary
as though it had root a if it cannot be found there with root ƒ. For
example, stjƒrnur (nom./acc. pl.), fjƒru (acc./gen./dat. sg.), dƒlum,grƒnnum (both dat. pl.) will be found not under stjƒ-, fjƒ-, dƒ-, grƒ-,but under stjarna ‘star’, fjara ‘shore’, dalr ‘valley’, granni ‘neighbour’.
Somewhat greater difficulties are caused for the learner by the factthat strong feminine and neuter nouns may exhibit root ƒ in certain
forms even though no u or v follows. The reason for the occurrence ofƒ here is the presence of a following u at an earlier stage of the language.
This u caused a to develop to ƒ and was subsequently lost (e.g.
nom./acc. n. pl. *landu > lƒnd ‘countries’). The forms concerned are:nominative, accusative and dative feminine singular and nominative
and accusative neuter plural. In addition, a small group of masculine
nouns (several of them very common) has root ƒ in the nominative
and accusative singular. If the feminine or masculine nouns are met
with in forms with root ƒ, no problem arises for the learner, since thenominative singular is also the entry form in dictionaries. For neuter
plurals with root ƒ, however, root a must be substituted before
the word is sought in a dictionary, e.g. fjƒll ‘mountains’, lƒnd ‘countries’ will be found under fjall, land (see paradigm 26).
Difficulties with masculines and feminines of this type occur wherea form other than one with root ƒ is encountered. The bulk of thefeminines are the least troublesome: in the genitive singular, nominative, accusative and genitive plural these have root a, so the process oflooking such words up is simply the reverse of that which applies in
the case of those like stjƒrnur, fjƒru, dƒlum, or grƒnnum. For example, kvalar (gen. sg. or nom./acc. pl.), hafnar (gen. sg.), hafnir (nom./acc. pl.), kvala, hafna (gen. pl.) will be found not under *kval or *hafn,
but under kvƒl ‘torment’, and hƒfn ‘harbour’ (see paradigm 12). The
residual feminines and the masculines with original root a present a
more complex picture in that it is only in the genitive singular andplural that a appears. In the remaining forms, where there is or has
been no u in the endings (automatically triggering a > ƒ, cf. above),i.e., dative singular and nominative (also analogically accusative) pluralmasculine, nominative and accusative plural feminine, we most often
find root e, though sometimes i (see 3.1.7.2). Thus vallar (gen. sg.),

Noun inflexions and their function

41

valla (gen. pl.), velli (dat. sg.), vellir (nom. pl.) should all be looked up
under vƒllr ‘field’, m., fjar›ar (gen. sg.), fjar›a (gen. pl.), fir›i (dat.
sg.), fir›ir (nom. pl.) under fjƒr›r ‘fjord’, m., strandar (gen. sg.),
stranda (gen. pl.), strendr (nom./acc. pl.) under strƒnd ‘beach’, f. (seeparadigms 4, 5, 18).
U-mutation affects unstressed as well as stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, however, it results in u, thus enabling the mutation
to spread further. The strong masculine noun fƒgnu›r ‘joy’, for example, comes ultimately from *fagna›uz via the intermediate forms, first*fagnƒ›uz and then *fagnu›uz. The u-mutated forms — nom. and acc.
sg. and dat. pl.: fƒgnu›r, fƒgnu›, fƒgnu›um — thus contrast markedly
with the other parts of the paradigm whose root is fagna›- (see paradigm 6). A strong neuter noun like sumar ‘summer’ has nom. and acc.
pl. sumur (< *sumuru < *sumƒru < *sumaru) (paradigm 27).

3.1.7.1 Labial mutation — Exercise
1. What does the term ‘mutation’ (‘Umlaut’) refer to?
2. In what circumstances does root a change to ƒ in Old Norse?
3. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in the
Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find:nƒfnum (n.), gƒtur (f.), vƒku (f.), ƒrmum (m.).
4. In which cases, genders and numbers can we expect to find root ƒ
where no u follows in the next syllable?
5. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in the
Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find:gjƒld (n.), lƒmb (n.), raddar (f.), sagnir (f.), hatta (m.), vaxtar (m.).

3.1.7.2 Front mutation
Front mutation, in common with its labial counterpart, mainly concerns the adoption by the vowel of a stressed syllable of a feature of
the vowel or semi-vowel of the immediately following unstressed syllable. Here, however, the principal conditioning factors were the front
vowel i and the front semi-vowel j. So-called ‘palatal r’ (or z, as in*kuz/*kuR, which developed to k‡r, see below), and the combined

42Morphology and syntax

influence of earlier -ge, -ke (as in *dage, which became degi, see below)— as well as analogical levelling (the restructuring of forms by theforce of analogy) — also played their part in this process. All the conditioning sounds are likely to have been pronounced with the front of
the tongue raised close to its maximum height, and their presence had
the effect of turning a preceding back vowel (one pronounced with theback of the tongue raised or lowered) into its front counterpart. Thusó, for example, which is a mid-high back vowel (the back of the tongue
is raised to above mid-height, but not to its full extent), became œ, a
mid-high front vowel, when an i, j or other ‘conditioner’ followed.
That is why the masculine noun fótr ‘foot’ and the feminine bók ‘book’
have nominative plurals fœtr, bœkr respectively (see paradigms 7 and19).
As these introductory remarks and examples suggest, front mutation, unlike the labial variety, is very much a historical process (it isalso common to most Germanic languages, cf. English foot — feet,man — men, German Fuß — Füße, Mann — Männer). It occurred ata stage of Scandinavian language development that preceded Old
Norse, and had ceased to be productive some time before the Old Norse
period. This has two important consequences for the recognition of
inflexions. First, we find an unstressed i that does not cause front mutation because it arose after the period when mutation was taking place,e.g. dat. m. sg. armi ‘arm’ (< *arme). This circumstance makes it
impossible to formulate a hard-and-fast rule (like a > ƒ before u, v)
stating which stressed vowels we can expect to find immediately preceding i. Second, the i, j or other conditioner triggering the fronting
may no longer be present (very often it is not — cf. fœtr and bœkrabove, earlier forms of which were *fotiz, *bokiz). This latter situation is parallel to the loss of u in forms such as fjƒll ‘mountains’, hƒfn‘harbour’, noted in 3.1.7.1.
With such complications, what the learner of Old Norse needs toknow are the front mutation products of the back vowels affected, sothat s/he may recognise that fótr — fœtr or bók — bœkr, for example,
are different forms of the same lexical item. It is further useful toknow where in different paradigms to expect front-mutated root vowels.
The back : front correspondences arising from front mutation, together with examples (contrasting nom. sg. with nom. pl. unless otherwise stated), are as follows:Noun inflexions and their function
a —— eá —— æ
o —— ø
ó —— œ
u —— yú —— ‡
au —— ey43

(dagr —— degi ‘day’, nom. and dat. m. sg.)(tá —— tær ‘toe’, f.)(hnot —— hnøtr ‘nut’, f.)(bóndi —— bœndr ‘farmer’, m.)(dura —— dyrr ‘doorway’, gen. and nom. f. pl.)(mús —— m‡ss ‘mouse’, f.)(aurar —— eyrir ‘ounce’, nom. m. pl. and sg.)

Occasionally o (from an earlier u) and ó (from an earlier lengthened a) can correspond to y and æ respectively (e.g. sonr —— synir‘son’, m.; nótt —— nætr ‘night’, f.).
The places where front mutation forms are to be expected in noun
paradigms are:(1) nom., acc., gen. sg. of words (all masculine) ending in -ill (e.g.
lykill ‘key’ — dat. sg. lukli, pl. forms all with root lukl-; see paradigm 3).
(2) dat. sg. of certain masculines (notably those with root vowel ƒ inthe nom. sg., e.g. hetti — nom. sg. hƒttr ‘hood’; birni — nom. sg.
bjƒrn ‘bear’ (not strictly mutation, but often counted as such, see
3.1.7.3); fœti — nom. sg. fótr ‘foot’; see paradigms 4, 5 and 7).
(3) nom. pl. of a good many masculines (again, notably those withroot vowel ƒ in the nom. sg.) and feminines (e.g. kettir — nom. m. sg.
kƒttr ‘cat’; ﬂættir — nom. m. sg. ﬂáttr ‘strand’, ‘short story’; fe›r —nom. m. sg. fa›ir ‘father’; hendr — nom. f. sg. hƒnd ‘hand’; bœtr —nom. f. sg. bót ‘compensation’; k‡r — acc. f. sg. kú ‘cow’ (see (5)below); paradigms 5, 8, 18, 19, 21).
(4) acc. pl. of a few masculines (and, in later texts, of most of thosewith root vowel ƒ in the nom. sg.) and all feminines included under(3) (e.g. fœtr — nom. m. sg. fótr ‘foot’; velli (as alternative to vƒllu)— nom. m. sg. vƒllr ‘field’ ‘ground’; fe›r, hendr, bœtr, k‡r — as under(3); paradigms 5, 7, 8, 18, 19, 21).
Additional cases of front mutation in nouns, affecting only a few
words, but often very common ones, are:(5) nom. and gen. sg. of the feminines k‡r ‘cow’; s‡r ‘sow’; ær ‘ewe’(contrast acc. and dat. sg., gen. and dat. pl. of, e.g., k‡r: kú, kú, kúa,
kúm; paradigm 21).
(6) gen. sg. of certain feminines (e.g. bœkr — nom. sg. bók ‘book’;nætr — nom. sg. nátt ‘night’; the genitives of these feminines can also
be found without mutation and with the more usual ending -ar;paradigm 19).

44

Morphology and syntax(7) dat. sg., gen. and dat. pl. of four nouns of relationship: fa›ir‘father’, m.; bró›ir ‘brother’, m.; mó›ir ‘mother’, f.; dóttir ‘daughter’, f.
(e.g. fe›r, dat. sg., fe›ra, gen. pl., fe›rum, dat. pl.; mœ›r, dat. sg.,mœ›ra, gen. pl., mœ›rum, dat. pl.; the dative singular of these nouns
can also be found with the ending -ur, causing labial rather than front
mutation in fa›ir; paradigms 8, 22).
It is further worth noting a small group of weak masculines consisting of root + -and- suffix. These have front mutation in the nom. andacc. pl., but it affects the suffix only (e.g. dómandi ‘judge’, nom. andacc. pl. dómendr; with contraction of the suffix: bóndi (< búandi)‘farmer’, nom./acc. pl. bœndr; paradigm 10).

3.1.7.2 Front mutation — Exercise
1. Which front-mutated vowels correspond with which back vowels?
2. In which parts of noun paradigms are front-mutated vowels to be
expected?
3. Does front mutation ever affect other syllables than the initial?
4. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in NION
III and write down the entry forms you find: strendr (f.), rœtr (f.),
mætti (m.), br‡r (f.), tugli (m.), erni (m.), eigendr (m.), katlar (m.).

3.1.7.3 Breaking
Like front mutation, breaking is a historical phenomenon. Its causes
are disputed, but it results in a diphthong where earlier there was asingle vowel sound, cf. ON jafn ‘even [adj.]’, hjƒr› ‘herd’, f., with theEnglish and German counterparts even, eben and herd, Herde. Though
there are many nouns in ON with a broken (diphthongised) root vowel,
there are only a few where this alternates with unbroken varieties within
the paradigm, causing difficulties of recognition for the learner. In asmall group of masculine nouns conditions have favoured breaking inall cases except the dat. sg. and nom. pl., where the root vowel i (fromearlier e) is found. While the acc. and gen. sg. and acc., gen. and dat.
pl. of skjƒldr ‘shield’ are thus skjƒld, skjaldar, skjƒldu, skjalda,skjƒldum respectively, the dat. sg. and nom. pl. are skildi, skildir (seeparadigm 4). All such nouns have root vowel jƒ in the nom. sg.

Noun inflexions and their function

45

3.1.7.4 Deviations from the basic endings
Certain endings occur that do not accord with those given on pp. 29–30.
We have already seen in 3.1.7.1 and 3.1.7.2 above that the nom. andacc. pl. of a number of common masculine and feminine nouns end in-r rather than -a, -i or -u + r. Other deviations which may cause problems of recognition are:(1) Nominative masculine singulars that lack the -r ending. These
are due to the assimilation of r to an immediately preceding l, n, s (e.g.
lykill ‘key’, m. (< *lykilr); hrafn ‘raven’, m. (< *hrafnn < *hrafnr);
áss ‘god’, m. (< *ásr); see paradigms 3, 5). Hrafn exemplifies a generalrule that consonant + geminate (double) consonant is simplified toconsonant + single consonant (thus also in nouns with consonant +root r; compare, e.g., nom. and acc. m. sg. vetr ‘winter’, the former
from earlier *vetrr). Nominative and accusative plural -r can be
assimilated in the same way as nom. sg. when the pl. ending does notcontain a vowel (e.g. mús ‘mouse’, f. — nom. and acc. pl. m‡ss).
(2) A small group of strong feminines that has -r in the nom. sg., justas most strong masculines, and -i in the acc. and dat. sg. (e.g. hei›r,hei›i, hei›i ‘moor’; see paradigm 17).
(3) Strong feminines with the suffix -ing or -ung, as well as a few
others, that have -u in the dat. sg. (e.g. dróttning ‘queen’, dat. sg.
dróttningu; sól ‘sun’, dat. sg. (usually) sólu; see paradigm 14).
(4) A small group of weak feminines that has -i throughout the
singular (e.g. gle›i ‘joy’; see paradigm 24). These nouns denote abstract concepts and have no plural form.
(5) A few nouns with root nn that have -›r in the nom. sg. (e.g. mu›r‘mouth’, m., acc. sg. munn; forku›r ‘strong desire’, f., gen. sg.
forkunnar).

3.1.7.5 Minor irregularities
The inflexions of ON nouns exhibit yet other deviations from the basic
pattern, but these are less likely to cause the learner problems ofrecognition.
(1) The unstressed syllables of many disyllabic nouns lose their vowel
when an inflexional ending is added which itself consists of a syllable(e.g. ﬂistill ‘thistle’, m. — dat. sg. ﬂistli, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. ﬂistlar,

46

Morphology and syntax

ﬂistla, ﬂistla, ﬂistlum; hir›ir ‘shepherd’, m. — dat. sg. hir›i (not*hir›ii), nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. hir›ar, hir›a, hir›a, hir›um; sumar‘summer’, n. — dat. sg. sumri, gen., dat. pl. sumra, sumrum; kvæ›i‘poem’, n. — dat. sg. kvæ›i (not *kvæ›ii), gen., dat. pl. kvæ›a, kvæ›um;
see paradigms 3, 27; note also 28).
(2) The vowels of inflexional endings tend to be dropped when they
immediately follow a long vowel of the same or similar quality (e.g. á‘stream’, f. — gen. sg. ár, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. ár, ár, á, ám; kné‘knee’, n. — dat. sg. kné; see paradigms 16, 29).
(3) Where stressed é is followed by unstressed a or u, the stresstends to be shifted onto the latter (with resultant vowel lengthening
and occasionally vowel change), the é becoming the semi-vowel j (e.g.
kné ‘knee’, n. — gen. pl. knjá (< *knéa), dat. pl. knjám or knjóm(< *knéum); paradigm 29).
(4) In some nouns j is inserted before inflexional endings consistingof or beginning in a or u; in others v is inserted before endings consisting of or beginning in a or i (e.g. erfingi ‘heir’, m. — acc., gen., dat.
sg. erfingja, nom., acc., gen., dat. pl. erfingjar, erfingja, erfingja,
erfingjum; ey ‘island’, f. — gen., dat. sg. eyjar, eyju, nom., acc., gen.,dat. pl. eyjar, eyjar, eyja, eyjum; sker ‘skerry’, n. — gen., dat. pl. skerja,
skerjum; sƒngr ‘song’, m. — dat. sg. sƒngvi, nom., acc., gen. pl.
sƒngvar, sƒngva, sƒngva; ƒr ‘arrow’, f. — gen. sg. ƒrvar, nom., acc.,
gen. pl. ƒrvar, ƒrvar, ƒrva; see paradigm 15).

3.1.7.3/3.1.7.4/3.1.7.5 Breaking/Deviations from the basic endings/
Minor irregularities — Exercise
1. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in the
Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find:birni (m.), skildir (m.), djƒful (m.), sveinar (m.), byr›i (f.).
2. Which group of strong nouns have -u in the dative singular?
3. What is unusual about the inflexion of the noun gle›i and of otherfeminines in -i?
4. Look up the following nouns in an Old Norse dictionary or in NION
III and write down the entry forms you find: himnar (m.), hersar(m.), gamni (n.), erendum (n.), gjár (f.), benjar (f.), hƒggvi (n.).

Noun inflexions and their function

47

3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion
Having established the basic pattern of noun inflexions (pp. 29–30),
and discussed the principal variations, we can now proceed to flesh
out this skeleton with complete paradigms of individual nouns. Thesefollow below.
It is customary when presenting nouns in Old Norse grammars toprovide an example of every or virtually every inflexional type and to
divide this wealth of data into classes and sub-classes, based often on
features that had died out before the Old Norse period began. This
does not help the learner much, and here instead an example is givenof each of the basic patterns of noun inflexion, augmented by suchothers as will assist in the recognition of the majority of forms likely
to be encountered in Old Norse texts. These examples should be studied in conjunction with the guidance given in 3.1.4, 3.1.6 and 3.1.7.
Each pattern or paradigm is numbered for ease of reference.

Strong masculine (basic pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(1) hestr ‘horse’
hestr
Pl.
nom.
hest
acc.
hests
gen.
hesti
dat.

hestarhesta
hesta
hestum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(2) sta›r ‘place’
sta›r
Pl.
nom.
sta›
acc.
sta›ar
gen.
sta›
dat.

sta›irsta›ista›astƒ›umStrong masculine (other patterns)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(3) ketill ‘kettle’‘pot’
ketill
Pl.
nom.
ketil
acc.
ketils
gen.
katli
dat.

katlarkatla
katlakƒtlumMorphology and syntax

48

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(4) skjƒldr ‘shield’skjƒldrPl.
nom.
skjƒldacc.
skjaldargen.
skildidat.

skildirskjƒlduskjaldaskjƒldum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

ƒrn
ƒrn
arnar
erni

(5) ƒrn ‘eagle’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

ernir
ƒrnu/erni
arna
ƒrnum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(6) fƒgnu›r ‘joy’fƒgnu›rPl.
nom.
fƒgnu›
acc.
fagna›argen.
fagna›idat.

fagna›ir
fagna›ifagna›afƒgnu›um

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

fótr
fót
fótar
fœti

(7) fótr ‘foot’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

fœtr
fœtr
fóta
fótum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(8) fa›ir ‘father’
fa›ir
Pl.
nom.
fƒ›ur
acc.
fƒ›ur
gen.
fe›r/fƒ›ur
dat.

fe›r
fe›r
fe›ra
fe›rumWeak masculine (basic pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(9) bardagi ‘battle’bardagiPl.
nom.
bardagaacc.
bardagagen.
bardagadat.

bardagarbardagabardagabardƒgumNoun inflexions and their function

49

Weak masculine (other pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(10) eigandi ‘owner’eigandiPl.
nom.
eigandaacc.
eigandagen.
eigandadat.

eigendreigendreigandaeigƒndum

Strong feminine (basic pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(11) laug ‘bath’
laug
Pl.
nom.
laug
acc.
laugar
gen.
laug
dat.

laugarlaugarlauga
laugum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(12) mƒn ‘mane’
mƒn
Pl.
nom.
mƒn
acc.
manar
gen.
mƒn
dat.

manar
manar
mana
mƒnum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(13) hlí› ‘slope’ ‘hillside’
hlí›
Pl.
nom.
hlí›
acc.
hlí›ar
gen.
hlí›
dat.

hlí›irhlí›irhlí›ahlí›umStrong feminine (other patterns)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(14) kerling ‘old woman’
kerlingPl.
nom.
kerlingacc.
kerlingar
gen.
kerlingu
dat.

kerlingar
kerlingar
kerlinga
kerlingumMorphology and syntax

50

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(15) ey ‘island’
ey
Pl.
nom.
ey
acc.
eyjar
gen.
eyju
dat.

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

á
á
ár
á

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(17) hei›r ‘heath’
hei›r
Pl.
nom.
hei›i
acc.
hei›ar
gen.
hei›i
dat.

hei›arhei›arhei›ahei›um

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(18) strƒnd ‘shore’strƒndPl.
nom.
strƒndacc.
strandargen.
strƒnddat.

strendrstrendrstrandastrƒndum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(19) bók ‘book’
bók
Pl.
nom.
bók
acc.
bœkr/bókar
gen.
bók
dat.

bœkr
bœkr
bóka
bókum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

tá
tá
tár
tá

(16) á ‘stream’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(20) tá ‘toe’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

eyjar
eyjar
eyja
eyjum

ár
ár
á
ám

tær
tær
tá
tám

Noun inflexions and their function(21) k‡r ‘cow’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

k‡r
kú
k‡r
kú

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(22) dóttir ‘daughter’dóttirPl.
nom.
dótturacc.
dótturgen.
dœtr/dóttur
dat.

51

k‡r
k‡r
kúa
kúm

dœtr
dœtr
dœtra
dœtrumWeak feminine (basic pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(23) saga ‘story’
saga
Pl.
nom.
sƒgu
acc.
sƒgu
gen.
sƒgu
dat.

sƒgur
sƒgur
sagna
sƒgum

Weak feminine (other pattern)Sg.

(24) rei›i ‘anger’nom., acc., gen., dat.
rei›iStrong neuter (basic pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

or›
or›
or›s
or›i

(25) or› ‘word’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

or›
or›
or›a
or›um

Morphology and syntax

52

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(26) vatn ‘water’,‘lake’
vatn
Pl.
nom.
vatn
acc.
vatns
gen.
vatni
dat.

vƒtn
vƒtn
vatna
vƒtnum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(27) sumar ‘summer’
sumar
Pl.
nom.
sumar
acc.
sumars
gen.
sumri
dat.

sumur
sumur
sumra
sumrum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(28) erindi ‘message’, ‘speech’
erindiPl.
nom.
erindiacc.
erindisgen.
erindidat.

erindierindierindaerindum

Strong neuter (other pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

kné
kné
knés
kné

(29) kné ‘knee’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

kné
kné
knjá
knjám/knjóm

Weak neuter (basic pattern)

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

auga
auga
auga
auga

(30) auga ‘eye’
Pl.
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

augu
augu
augna
augum

Noun inflexions and their function

53

The learner who has conscientiously mastered the above should
be in a position to recognise the forms of virtually all the Old Norsenouns with which s/he is confronted in a text. It should further bepossible to deduce the nominative singular form of unfamiliar
nouns, so that these can be looked up in a dictionary. (The amountof help offered by dictionaries varies, but in addition to the nominative singular, the genitive singular and nominative plural are usually
noted, as well as (other) forms that cannot easily be predicted.)

3.1.8 Examples of noun inflexion — Exercise
Identify the case, gender, number, syntactic function and semantic roleof the nouns printed in bold in the following passage (adapted fromHrafnkels saga Freysgo›a ‘The Saga of Hrafnkell, Priest of Freyr’).
Where a noun appears in a case other than the nominative singular,
give the nominative singular — the dictionary entry — form. In thecase of compound nouns, give the case, gender, number, function androle of the last element only (e.g., in Brei›dal, analyse -dal, inHallfre›arstƒ›um, -stƒ›um and in fjárskiptis, -skiptis).
ﬁat var á dƒgum Haralds konungs ins hárfagra, Hálfdanar sonarins svarta, at sá ma›r kom skipi sínu til Íslands í Brei›dal, er
Hallfre›r hét.
It was in days of-Haraldr king the hairfair, Hálfdan’s son the black, thatthat man came with-ship REFL. POSS. to Iceland into Brei›dalr, who Hallfre›r
was-called.
It was in the days of King Haraldr fairhair, son of Hálfdan the black, thata man called Hallfre›r brought his ship to Iceland, to Brei›dalr.

ﬁar var á skipi kona hans ok sonr, er Hrafnkell hét. Hann var fimmtán
vetra gamall. Hallfre›r setti bú saman.
There was on ship wife his and son, who Hrafnkell was-called. He wasfifteen of-winters old. Hallfre›r put dwelling together.
On board the ship was his wife and son, who was called Hrafnkell. He
was fifteen years old. Hallfre›r established a farmstead.

54

Morphology and syntax

En um várit fœr›i Hallfre›r bú sitt nor›r yfir hei›i ok ger›i bú ﬂar,
sem heitir í Geitdal.
But in spring-the moved Hallfre›r dwelling REFL. POSS. north over moor
and made dwelling there that is-called in Geitdalr.
But in the spring Hallfre›r moved his dwelling northwards across the moor
and made a dwelling in the place called Geitdalr.

Ok eina nótt dreym›i hann, at ma›r kom at honum ok mælti: ‘ﬁar
liggr ﬂú, Hallfre›r, ok heldr óvarliga. Fœr ﬂú á brott bú ﬂitt ok vestr
yfir Lagarfljót. ﬁar er heill ﬂín ƒll.’And one night dreamt him that man came to him and said: ‘there lie you,
Hallfre›r, and rather unwarily. Move you a(-)way dwelling your and west
over Lagarfljót. There is fortune your all.’And one night he dreamt that a man came to him and said: ‘There you lie,
Hallfre›r, and rather unwarily. Move your dwelling away and westwards
across Lagarfljót. There is where all your good fortune lies.’

Eptir ﬂat vaknar hann ok fœrir bú sitt út yfir Rangá í Tungu, ﬂar sem
sí›an heitir á Hallfre›arstƒ›um, ok bjó ﬂar til elli.
After that wakes he and moves dwelling REFL. POSS. out over Rangá into
Tunga, there that later is-called at Hallfre›arsta›ir, and lived there till old-age.
After that he wakes up and moves his dwelling out across Rangá to Tunga,
to the place which has since been called Hallfre›arsta›ir, and lived there
into his old age.

En honum var› ﬂar eptir geit ok hafr. Ok inn sama dag, sem Hallfre›rvar í brott, hljóp skri›a á húsin, ok t‡ndusk ﬂar ﬂessir gripir, ok ﬂvíheitir ﬂat sí›an í Geitdal.
But to-him came-to-be there behind she-goat and billy-goat. And the same
day that Hallfre›r was a(-)way, ran landslide onto houses-the, and lost-sk[see 3.6.5.3] there these animals, and therefore is-called it since in Geitdalr.
But it turned out he left a she-goat and a billy-goat there. And the same day as
Hallfre›r moved away, a landslide fell onto the buildings and these animals
perished there, and for that reason the place has since been called Geitdalr.

Noun inflexions and their function

55

Hrafnkell lag›i ﬂat í van›a sinn at rí›a yfir á hei›ar á sumarit. ﬁá varJƒkulsdalr albygg›r upp at brúm.
Hrafnkell laid that in custom REFL. POSS. to ride over onto moors in summerthe. Then was Jƒkulsdalr fully-settled up to bridges.
Hrafnkell made it his practice to ride up onto the moors in the summer. At
this time Jƒkulsdalr was fully settled right up to the (rock) bridges.

Hrafnkell rei› upp eptir Fljótsdalshei›i ok sá, hvar ey›idalr gekk af
Jƒkulsdal. Sá dalr s‡ndisk Hrafnkatli byggiligri en a›rir dalir.
Hrafnkell rode up along Fljótsdalshei›r and saw where empty-valley wentfrom Jƒkulsdalr. That valley showed-sk to-Hrafnkell more-habitable thanother valleys.
Hrafnkell rode up over Fljótsdalshei›r and saw an uninhabited valley leading off from Jƒkulsdalr. The valley seemed more habitable to Hrafnkell
than other valleys.

En er Hrafnkell kom heim, beiddi hann fƒ›ur sinn fjárskiptis, oksag›isk hann bústa› vilja reisa sér.
But when Hrafnkell came home, asked he father REFL. POSS. for-divisionof-property, and said-sk he dwelling-place want raise for-self.
And so when Hrafnkell came home, he asked his father for a division of
the property, and said he wanted to build a dwelling for himself.

ﬁetta veitir fa›ir hans honum, ok hann gerir sér bœ í dal ﬂeim, ok
kallar á A›albóli.
This grants father his to-him, and he makes for-self farm in valley thatand calls at A›alból.
His father grants him this, and he makes himself a farm in that valley andcalls it A›alból.

Hrafnkell fekk Oddbjargar Skjƒldólfsdóttur ór Laxárdal. ﬁau áttutvá sonu.
Hrafnkell got Oddbjƒrg Skjƒldólfsdóttir from Laxárdalr. They had two sons.
Hrafnkell married Oddbjƒrg Skjƒldólfsdóttir from Laxárdalr. They had
two sons.

Morphology and syntax

56

3.1.9 The suffixed definite article
As in the Scandinavian languages in general, the definite article —the word for ‘the’ — may be suffixed to the noun. That is to say, ittakes the form of an ending. Like the noun itself, the definite article isinflected for number and case. In addition, it is inflected for gender,
i.e. it has different forms for masculine, feminine and neuter.
The forms of the suffixed article in Old Norse are as follows.
Masculine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-(i)nn-(i)nn-(i)ns-(i)num

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-(i)nir-(i)na
-nna
-num

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-nar
-nar
-nna
-num

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-(i)n
-(i)n
-nna
-num

Feminine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-(i)n
-(i)na-(i)nnar-(i)nniPl.

Neuter
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-(i)t
-(i)t
-(i)ns-(i)nuPl.

The presence or absence of the initial -i (in some texts -e) is unlikely
to cause the learner serious problems of recognition. In the example
sentences in 3.1.5 we had on the one hand (3), (6) lei›inu, skipinu,
with dat. n. sg. -i noun ending + -nu, and on the other (20) gólfit withacc. n. sg. zero noun ending + -it, all of them unambiguously combinations of noun and definite article (cf. also vár-it, sumar-it (both acc.
n. sg.) and hús-in (acc. n. pl.) in the extract from Hrafnkels saga above).
Contrastive examples with and without -i, based on the list of noun
paradigms in 3.1.8, are:

Noun inflexions and their function
hestr-innsta›ar-ins
menn-inirhlí›-inastrƒnd-inni
kné-in

—
—
—
—
—
—

bardagi-nn
eiganda-ns
skildir-nir
sƒgu-naá-nni
erindi-n

57(nom. m. sg.)(gen. m. sg.)(nom. m. pl.)(acc. f. sg.)
(dat. f. sg.)(nom./acc. n. pl.)

The most general rule governing the occurrence of initial -i in the def.
art. is that it is found in conjunction with words of one syllable andomitted elsewhere (contrast the left and right-hand lists above). However, there are several exceptions to this.
The -i is omitted after the following monosyllabic forms.
(1)
Nom./acc. m./f. pl. (cf. fœtr-nir (nom. m. pl.), fœtr-na (acc.
m. pl.) dœtr-nar (nom./acc. f. pl.)); an exception to the exception is represented by menn-inir, menn-ina (nom. and acc.
m. pl. respectively), though this is a rare type.
(2)
Those ending in a vowel, but only where the article is disyllabic (contrast kné-in with á-nni above).
(3)
Dative masculine singulars that lack the usual -i ending (cf.
sta›-num).
The -i is retained after genitive singulars in -ar (cf. sta›arins above,
further eyjarinnar (gen. f. sg.)).
Note that in the dative plural, the noun ending -(u)m loses its m andthe article is suffixed onto the u or stressed vowel (cf. kƒtlunum,sƒgunum, or›unum, knjánum).
As with the nouns, certain regularities will be observed in the definite article paradigms. It will also be noticed that there are various
points of similarity between noun and article endings.
(1)
The dat. pl. always ends in -um (as with nouns).
(2)
The gen. pl. always ends in -a (as with nouns).
(3)
It is only in the f. sg. and m. pl. there is a difference between
nom. and acc. forms.
(4)
The gen. m. and n. sg. ends in -s, the gen. f. sg. in -ar (as withmost nouns, though some masculine genitives end in -ar).
(5)
The nom. m. pl. ends in -ir, the acc. m. pl. in -a, and thenom./acc. f. pl. in -ar (cf. the pattern for nouns: nom. m. pl.
and nom./acc. f. pl. = vowel + r, acc. m. pl. = vowel alone).
As well as the -(i)nn suffix dealt with here, Old Norse has a free-Morphology and syntax

58

standing definite article. However, since its use is closely bound up
with that of the adjective, it is dealt with in 3.3.5, following the description of adjective inflexions.
It should be noted that the definite article is used more sparingly in
Old Norse than in modern English. It is regularly omitted, for example,
from nouns that denote something familiar to writer and reader. Thus
konungr may mean ‘a king’ or ‘the king’ depending on the context.
Contrast:
Fornjótr hefir konungr heitit‘Fornjótr has king been-called’‘There was a king called Fornjótr’Konungr var› rei›r mjƒk‘King became angry very’‘The king became very angry’

3.1.9 The suffixed definite article — Exercise
Identify the case, gender, number, syntactic function and semantic roleof the definite nouns printed in bold in the following sentences, andinsert a hyphen between noun and article. Where the noun appears ina case other than nominative singular, give the nominative singulardefinite form.
(1)

Brú›rin var heldr dƒpr‘The bride was rather sad’

(2)

Illugi kipp›i inn aptr vƒrusekkunum‘Illugi snatched in again the sacks of wares’(3)

ﬁeir kómu til bo›sins‘They came to the feast’(4)

Tekr Skr‡mir nestbaggann‘Skr‡mir takes the provision-bag’(5)

Konan ﬂakka›i honum vel gjƒfina
‘Woman-the thanked to-him well gift-the’‘The woman thanked him well for the gift’Noun inflexions and their function(6)59ﬁá sendi hann gestina út eptir ﬂeim
‘Then he sent the retainers out after them’(7)

ﬁeir kómu ﬂá til borgarinnar‘They came then to the castle’(8)

Berserkrinn leit aptr yfir ána‘The berserk looked back across the river’(9)ﬁá smugu ﬂeir milli spalanna‘Then they slipped between the bars’(10)

Lítil var gle›i manna at bo›inu‘Little was joy of-men at feast-the’‘Men were not very joyful at the feast’(11)

Jarl kom út í eyjarnar‘The earl came out to the islands’(12)ﬁorsteinn lag›i fæ› á Austmanninn, ok fór hann á brottum sumarit, ok er hann nú ór sƒgunni‘ﬁorsteinn laid coldness on easterner-the, and went he a(-)way
in summer-the, and is he now out-of story-the’‘ﬁorsteinn was cold towards the Norwegian, and in the summer he left, and now he is out of the story’(13)

ﬁeir eru vanir at halda til móts vi› hƒf›ingjana‘They are accustomed to hold a(-)gainst towards chieftains-the’‘They are accustomed to offer resistance to the rulers’(14)

Í hellinum var féván mikil, ok kaupmenninir ré›u til
ok gengu hellinn‘In cave-the was treasure-hope great, and merchants-the set
about and walked cave-the’‘There was great hope of finding treasure in the cave, and themerchants had a go and explored the cave’(15)

ﬁeir lƒg›u saman skipin‘They laid together ships-the’‘They laid the ships alongside each other’60

Morphology and syntax

3.2 Pronoun inflexions and their function
Pronouns are sometimes defined as words that stand in place of nouns.
A more accurate definition is that they are words that occupy the same
position in sentences as noun phrases. What this means is that in English, for example, noun phrases such as (1) the old man with the longwhite beard, (2) my colleague, who works at the university, (3) all thepeople, (4) not the tiniest little bit are reducible to single words like(1) he, (2) she, (3) everyone, (4) none. Of course, a noun phrase willoften consist of just one word, e.g. John, moonlight, and these too
may be replaced by pronouns (he, it), but a definition of pronoun thatlooks no further than this is clearly inadequate.
Many pronouns in addition to replacing noun phrases may be usedadjectivally, i.e. as modifiers of noun phrases, like English this andsome in this man, some particularly interesting ideas. Although arguably function should determine word class, it is impractical in a basic
learners’ grammar such as this to operate with both pronominal andadjectival this, some etc. Section 3.2 therefore deals with words that
regularly function as pronouns, irrespective of how else they may be
used.
The personal pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they, together with thedemonstratives this, that, the indefinites some, any, the negatives noone, nothing, none and the interrogatives who, what, are among themost commonly occurring words in English, and the same is true of
their Old Norse equivalents. It is therefore clearly essential to learn
the (often somewhat idiosyncratic) inflexions of these words as
quickly as possible.
Since pronouns occupy the same position in sentences as nounphrases, it is no surprise to find that, like nouns, they are inflected fornumber and case in Old Norse, and that the function of the inflexions
is in general the same as for nouns (cf. 3.1.1, 3.1.2). In addition, because pronouns ‘stand for’, i.e. take their reference from, noun phrases,
many of them are also inflected for gender. Personal pronouns distinguish ‘person’, that is, the choice of pronoun depends on the perspective from which the participants in a situation are viewed. Old Norse,
like English, has a three-way contrast: 1st person, in which a speakeror writer refers to him/herself (English I) or a group of which s/he is apart (Eng. we), 2nd person, in which a speaker/writer refers to a person

Pronoun inflexions and their function

61

or persons s/he is addressing (Eng. you, sg. or pl.), 3rd person, in which
a person or persons other than the speaker/writer him/herself or the
one/those s/he is addressing are referred to (Eng. he, she, it, they).

3.2.1 Personal pronouns: form
1st person: ‘I [sg.]’, ‘we two [dual]’, ‘we [pl.]’
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

Sg. ekmik
mín
mér

Dual vitok(k)rokkar
ok(k)rPl. vér
oss
vár
oss

2nd person: ‘you [sg.]’, ‘you two [dual]’, ‘you [pl.]’
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

Sg. ﬂú
ﬂik
ﬂín
ﬂér

Dual (ﬂ)ityk(k)rykkar
yk(k)rPl. (ﬂ)ér
y›ry›(v)ary›r

3rd person singular: ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hann
hann
hans
honum

hon
hana
hennar
henni

ﬂat
ﬂat
ﬂess
ﬂ(v)í

3rd person plural: ‘they’
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m. ﬂeirﬂáﬂeir(r)aﬂeim

f. ﬂærﬂærﬂeir(r)aﬂeim

n. ﬂauﬂauﬂeir(r)aﬂeim

62

Morphology and syntax
Reflexive, 3rd person only: ‘-self’
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

—
sik
sín
sér

Various features of these paradigms are worthy of note.
(1) No distinction of gender is found in the first and second person,
or in the third person reflexive. Observe, though, that, unlike English,
Old Norse employs a masculine, feminine or neuter form of ‘they’
depending on the gender of the entity referred to. Where more than
one gender is involved, the neuter plural is used.
(2) The three-way distinction: singular (used of one entity) — dual
(used of two) — plural (used of more than two), occurs only in thefirst and second person.
(3) A separate reflexive pronoun is found only in the third person.
The same forms are used whether the entity referred to by the pronoun
is singular or plural, masculine, feminine or neuter. The only distinction made is of case, and then only between accusative, genitive anddative. No nominative form exists since reflexives are normallycoreferential with (i.e. refer to the same entity as) the subject (cf.
English: John hurt himself, but not *heself hurt John). In the first andsecond person, the accusative, genitive and dative forms function bothas non-reflexives and reflexives (thus mik, for example, means ‘me’or ‘myself’, y›r ‘you [pl.]’ or ‘yourselves’).
Beyond this, the student will observe certain regularities in the paradigms, and similarities with other inflexions. The accusative, genitiveand dative of the first and second person singular and of the reflexive
vary only in the initial consonant. There is also minimal variation between the first and second person dual. First and second person dual
and plural do not distinguish accusative and dative, and all have agenitive ending in -r (-ar except for vár). The third person endings,
especially in the singular, will be seen to correspond quite closely tothose of the suffixed definite article, while the masculine and neuter
genitive singular in -s and the feminine in -ar, the nominative masculine
and nominative/accusative feminine plural in -r, the accusative masculine plural in a vowel, the genitive plural in -a and the dative pluralin -m show a marked similarity to noun inflexions as well. Finally, itPronoun inflexions and their function

63

should be noted that the nominative forms ek and ﬂú can sometimes
be found suffixed to the verb, in which case ek loses its vowel (e.g.
haf›ak < haf›a ek ‘I had’, kannk < kann ek ‘I can’), while the ﬂ of ﬂú
undergoes partial or complete assimilation with the immediately preceding consonant (e.g. heyr›u < heyr ﬂú ‘hear you [i.e. listen!]’, fórtu< fórt ﬂú ‘you went’, seldu < sel ﬂú ‘hand you [i.e. hand over!]’).
Occasionally other of the personal pronoun forms may be suffixed inthis way, but the student is unlikely to come across them in straightforward prose texts.
3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns: formsá ‘that’, ‘those’

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
sá
ﬂann
ﬂess
ﬂeim

f.
sú
ﬂá
ﬂeir(r)arﬂeir(r)i

n.
ﬂat
ﬂat
ﬂess
ﬂ(v)í

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

ﬂeir
ﬂá
ﬂeir(r)a
ﬂeim

ﬂær
ﬂær
ﬂeir(r)a
ﬂeim

ﬂau
ﬂau
ﬂeir(r)aﬂeim

The neuter singular and all the plural forms of this pronoun will beseen to be identical with those of the personal pronoun, third person,
given in 3.2.1. In fact we are dealing with one and the same word. Thechange in meaning from, for example, ‘those female beings’ or ‘thosefeminine objects’ to ‘they [f.]’ is very small. Indeed, the same development can be observed in many languages (French il ‘he’, elle ‘she’, forexample, come from the Latin pronoun ille ‘that’), and on occasion
Old Norse sá, sú are found in place of hann, hon.
Although there is considerable irregularity in the paradigm, compare the acc., gen., dat. m. sg. endings -nn, -ss, -m and the acc., gen.,dat. f. sg. -á, -ar, -i with those of the corresponding forms of the suffixed definite article (3.1.9) and of hinn immediately below.

Morphology and syntax

64hinn ‘that’ ‘the other’, ‘those’ ‘the others’

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
hinn
hinn
hins
hinum

f.
hin
hina
hinnar
hinni

n.
hitt
hitt
hins
hinu

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hinir
hina
hinna
hinum

hinar
hinar
hinna
hinum

hin
hin
hinna
hinum

The student will observe the close similarity between the forms ofthis pronoun and those of the suffixed definite article (though note the-tt in the nom./acc. n. sg.). There is in fact a strong likelihood that thesuffixed article is a reduced form of hinn. Not only does the similarityof form suggest this, the development: demonstrative pronoun > definite article is quite widely attested (cf., for example, French le, la —like il, elle, though by a different route — from Latin ille ‘that’). On
the relationship between hinn and (h)inn, the free-standing definite
article of Old Norse, see 3.3.5.
sjá, ﬂessi ‘this’, ‘these’

Sg. nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
sjá/ﬂessi
ﬂenna
ﬂessa
ﬂessum/ﬂeima

f.
n.
sjá/ﬂessi
ﬂetta
ﬂessa
ﬂetta
ﬂessar/ﬂessar(r)ar ﬂessa
ﬂessi/ﬂessar(r)i
ﬂessu/ﬂvísa

Pl. nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

ﬂessirﬂessa
ﬂessa/ﬂessar(r)aﬂessumﬂessarﬂessarﬂessa/ﬂessar(r)aﬂessumﬂessi
ﬂessi
ﬂessa/ﬂessar(r)aﬂessum

In this paradigm the number of alternative forms is noteworthy, but
few are likely to cause problems of recognition. The nominativePronoun inflexions and their function

65

singulars sjá and ﬂessi are both common, but dat. m. sg. ﬂeima anddat. n. sg. ﬂvísa are much less so. The genitive and dative feminine
singular and the genitive plural can be thought of as ﬂessar, ﬂessi,
ﬂessa respectively, basic forms which are sometimes expanded by suffixes (ﬂessar-(r)ar, ﬂessa-r(r)a), or infixes (ﬂess-ar(r)-i). Although
the forms of this pronoun may appear anomalous, similarities withother paradigms can still be found. The endings of the plural in particular are very close to those of hinn (above), and even in the singular
we notice the characteristic -a and -ar endings in the feminine accusative and genitive, and -um, -i, -u in the masculine, feminine and neuterdative respectively. Some of the remaining forms also show characteristic features, though not in the endings — observe the n, t and s ofacc. m. -nn-, nom./acc. n. -tt- and gen. m. and n. -ss-.

3.2.3 Indefinite pronouns: formBy far the most common indefinite pronoun in Old Norse is nƒkkurr(in some texts with o for ƒ: nokkurr, nokkut, etc.) ‘some(one/thing)’‘any(one/thing)’ ‘(a) certain’. Its endings are almost identical to thoseof a strong adjective (see 3.3.4), and very close to those of hinn (above).
The difference between the inflexions of nƒkkurr and hinn is largely
determined by the final consonant of the root: the n of hin- assimilatesa following r, and so we get forms like nom. m. sg. hinn, dat. f. sg.
hinni, gen. pl. hinna (instead of *hinr, *hinri, *hinra).

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
nƒkkurrnƒkkurnnƒkkursnƒkkurumf.
nƒkkurnƒkkuranƒkkurrarnƒkkurrin.
nƒkkutnƒkkutnƒkkursnƒkkuru

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

nƒkkurirnƒkkuranƒkkurranƒkkurumnƒkkurarnƒkkurarnƒkkurranƒkkurumnƒkkurnƒkkurnƒkkurranƒkkurumMorphology and syntax

66

In the oldest sources many of the forms of this pronoun appear withroot nakkvar-.
Other indefinite pronouns are einnhverr ‘some(one/thing)’, and sumr
‘some’. The former consists of an invariable ein-, except in thenom./acc. m. and n. sg. (einn-, eitt- respectively), and occasionally thegen. m. and n. sg. (eins-), + hverr, the inflexions of which are described below. The latter inflects like a strong adjective (see 3.3.4).

3.2.4 Negative pronouns: form
Of the sundry negative pronouns of Old Norse the only one the learner
will encounter regularly is engi ‘no one’ ‘nothing’ ‘none’ ‘no’. The
various forms of the other negatives, manngi ‘no one’, vættki ‘nothing’,hvárigr or hvárgi ‘neither’, will, when met with, be well enough understood from the glosses and examples given in Old Norse dictionaries.

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
engi
engan/engi
enskis
engum

f.
engi
enga
engrar
engri

n.
ekki
ekki
enskis
engu

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

engir
enga
engra
engum

engar
engar
engra
engum

engi
engi
engra
engum

The paradigm presented here gives the most common forms of engi.
A complete list of attested forms will be found in Noreen 1923 (p. 323).
Virtually all of these are easily deducible, however, as long as it is
known (1) that the root of the word may be eing- or øng- as well as
eng-, and (2) that -v- may be added before endings beginning with -a(e.g. nom./acc. f. pl. øngvar, engvar) and before the -ir of the nom. m.
pl. (e.g. øngvir, engvir).
The inflexions of engi present a familiar enough pattern (observe,
however, nom./acc. n. sg. ekki, from *eitt-ki < *eitt-gi). The student

Pronoun inflexions and their function

67

should compare the endings given above with those of hinn andnƒkkurr, especially the latter, and make a note of where they coincide.
Only forms peculiar to engi need be learnt specially.

3.2.5 Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form
The two principal pronouns in this category are hverr ‘who’ ‘what’‘which’, ‘each’ ‘every’, and hvárr ‘which of two’, ‘each of two’ (sg.),‘which of two groups’, ‘each of two groups’ (pl.). With the exceptionof the acc. m. sg. forms, hvern and hvárn, both decline like strong
adjectives (see 3.3.4). In common with some adjectives hverr inserts
a -j- between root and endings beginning with -a or -u; hvárr does not.
For ease of overview, the complete paradigm of hverr is now given.

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
hverr
hvern
hvers
hverjumf.
hverhverjahverrarhverri

n.
hvert
hvert
hvers
hverju

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hverirhverjahverrahverjum

hverjarhverjarhverrahverjumhver
hverhverrahverjum

In addition to hverr and hvárr we have hvat ‘what’, ‘each (thing)’‘every(thing)’, hvatki ‘each thing’, and hvatvetna ‘everything’. Noneof these occurs with anything like a complete set of forms; indeed,apart from odd relics of a masculine equivalent of hvat, they are neuter
singular only. Even then, except in the case of hvatvetna (gen.
hversvetna, dat. hvívetna), the paradigms are defective. For although
hvess and hví are often quoted as the genitive and dative form of hvat,
they tend to function as separate words (hví, for example, occurs mostly
in the sense ‘why?’). And while a genitive hves(s)kis and dative hvígi
of neuter singular hvatki are indeed found, the meaning, ‘whatsoever’,is somewhat removed from that of hvatki.

68Morphology and syntax

3.2.1/3.2.2/3.2.3/3.2.4/3.2.5 Personal pronouns: form/Demonstrative
pronouns: form/Indefinite pronouns: form/Negative pronouns:
form/Interrogative and distributive pronouns: form — Exercise
1. Which of the personal pronouns are inflected for gender?
2. Which of the personal pronouns distinguish three numbers (singular, dual and plural)?
3. Give the forms of the 3rd person reflexive pronoun and explain
why there is no nominative.
4. What regularities can be observed in the forms of the personalpronouns?
5. What similarities are there between the endings of hinn and sjá/
ﬂessi?
6. In what respects do the endings of hinn, nƒkkurr and engi differ?
7. Give the full paradigm of hvárr and compare its endings with thoseof hverr.
8. In what sense is the paradigm of hvat defective?

3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage
As was done for nouns, examples will now be given of pronouns infunction. With the wide range of pronominal words and forms thatexists, nothing like a comprehensive survey can be provided; the aim
is rather to illustrate typical usage. The exemplification follows thesame pattern as for nouns (see the preamble on p. 31). Note in particular that the ending or word-form being illustrated is printed in bold
type. Compare the endings and word-forms used with those set out
and discussed on pp. 61–67. Observe, too, the differences between
Old Norse and English phraseology and sentence formation. Definitions of basic concepts that have already been given are not repeated;
if in doubt, the student should consult the individual commentaries
that accompany each of the examples of noun function.
(1)

Eigi sag›a ek ﬂér ﬂat‘Not said I to-you that’‘I did not tell you that’Pronoun inflexions and their function69

Ek (1st person sg. nom.) is the subject; ‘I’ is the agent or ‘performer’ of theaction and the first noun phrase in the sentence. ﬁér (2nd sg. dat.) is the indirect
object; ‘you’ is the beneficiary of the action and the second noun phrase. ﬁat(3rd. sg. n. acc.) is the direct object, the goal of the action (i.e. what is said)
and the third noun phrase.

(2)ﬁá skutu ﬂeir spjótum inn at ﬂeim
‘Then they threw spears in at them’The subject is ﬂeir (3rd pl. m. nom.), the agent and first noun phrase in thesentence. ﬁeim (3rd pl. dat.) does not function here as a noun phrase, but ispart of the preposition phrase at ﬂeim, in which the pronoun is governed (i.e.
has its case determined) by the preposition at (see 3.7, 3.7.3).

(3)

Viltu nƒkkut li›sinni okkr veita?
‘Will-you any help to-us-two give?’‘Will you give us two any help?’

The subject is -tu (2nd sg. nom., suffixed to the verb); it is the agent and firstnoun phrase in the sentence. Nƒkkut is part of the direct object. The second
noun phrase and the goal of the action consists of the noun li›sinni (acc. n.
sg.) modified by the pronoun nƒkkut (which since it appears here in the role ofmodifier functions adjectivally; see 3.2). As a modifier nƒkkut appears in thesame case (acc.), gender (n.) and number (sg.) as its head word (li›sinni). This
formal relationship between the two (whereby the head word determines theform of its modifier) is known as grammatical agreement or concord and is aregular phenomenon in Old Norse (see 3.3.1). Okkr (1st dual dat.) is the indirect
object; it denotes the beneficiary of the action and is the third noun phrase in
the sentence.

(4)ﬁórhildr lag›i yfir hann skikkjuna, ok gekk hann út á me›alﬂeira‘ﬁórhildr put the cloak over him, and he went out between
them’This example consists of two sentences. Hann (3rd sg. m. acc.) in sentence 1
is part of the preposition phrase yfir hann, and its case is determined by the
preposition yfir (see 3.7, 3.7.4). Hann (3rd sg. m. nom.) in sentence 2 is subject, the first noun phrase and the agent. ﬁeira (3rd pl. gen.) is part of the
preposition phrase me›al ﬂeira, and its case is determined by the prepositionme›al (see 3.7.2).

70
(5)

Morphology and syntax
Hefn ﬂú vár, en vér skulum ﬂín, ef vér lifum eptir‘Avenge you us, but we shall you, if we live afterwards’‘Avenge us, and we shall (avenge) you, if we survive’This example consists of three sentences. ﬁú (2nd sg. nom.) in sentence 1 isthe subject (of an imperative verb, cf. 3.6.3, 3.6.5.1), the first noun phrase andthe agent; vár (1st pl. gen.) is the direct object of the verb (hefn) and thesecond noun phrase. Vér (1st pl. nom.) in sentence 2 is subject, the first nounphrase and agent (of the understood verb hefna); ﬂín (2nd sg. gen.) is the
direct object of the (understood) verb and the second noun phrase. Vér (1st pl.
nom.) in sentence 3 is subject, not so much agent here, rather the ‘experiencer’,denoting those who (may) experience survival.

(6)

ﬁau væntu sér af honum nƒkkurs trausts‘They expected for-self of him some support’‘They expected (for themselves) some support from him’ﬁau (3rd pl. n. nom., referring to persons of more than one gender) is subject,
the first noun phrase and the experiencer. Sér (refl. dat.) is the indirect object,
the second noun phrase and the intended beneficiary; it is coreferential withthe subject (i.e. both subject and indirect object refer to the same entity; see
3.2.1). Honum (3rd sg. m. dat.) is part of the preposition phrase af honum, andits case is determined by the preposition af (see 3.7.3). Nƒkkurs is part of thedirect object: the third noun phrase, denoting what is experienced (the goal of
the experiencing), consists of the noun trausts (gen. n. sg.) modified by the
pronoun nƒkkurs, which has the same case, gender and number as its head
word (see example (3) above).

(7)

ﬁví skaltu heita mér, at koma aptr til mín at ƒ›ru hausti‘That shall-you promise to-me, to come back to me at second
autumn’‘You must promise me to come back to me next autumn’ﬁví (3rd sg. n. dat.) is the anticipatory direct object: the thing promised is ‘tocome back . . . ’, but the infinitive clause — the equivalent of a noun phrase —is postponed and its place filled by the pronoun ﬂví. The unmarked position
for the direct object would be somewhere after the subject and the finite verb
(skaltu), but here it has been moved to the front of the sentence for emphasis.
The subject is -tu (2nd sg. nom., suffixed to the verb); it is the agent, and —the fronted ﬂví apart — the first noun phrase in the sentence. Mér (1st sg. dat.)is the indirect object, the beneficiary (the person to whom the promise is made),and the second or third noun phrase. Mín (1st sg. gen.) is part of the preposition phrase til mín, and its case is governed by the preposition til (see 3.7.2).

Pronoun inflexions and their function(8)

71

Taki› hana ok haldi› henni‘Take her and hold her’This example contains two sentences, each with its finite verb in the imperative (‘take!’, ‘hold!’; see (5) above, but also 3.6.3). The subject is left unexpressed, as generally happens with imperatives in English too. Hana and henni(3rd sg. f. acc. and dat. respectively) are both direct objects, the goals of theactions; their case is determined by the verb they are object of (taka ‘take’normally has a direct object in the accusative, halda in the sense ‘hold fast’‘restrain’ has its direct object in the dative).

(9)

Megu› ﬂér vel bí›a ﬂess, er eldrinn vinnr ﬂá
‘Can you well await that, that fire-the overcomes them’‘You can easily wait for the fire to overcome them’This example consists of two sentences. ﬁér (2nd pl. nom.) is the subject ofsentence 1, the agent and the first noun phrase. ﬁess (3rd sg. n. gen.) is the
anticipatory direct object (see (7) above): the thing being waited for is ‘thatthe fire overcomes them’, but this dependent sentence — the equivalent of anoun phrase — is postponed and its placed filled by the pronoun ﬂess. ﬁá isthe direct object of (the dependent) sentence 2, the goal of the ‘action’ and thesecond noun phrase (the first — the subject — being eldrinn).

(10)ﬁær hvíla sik ﬂar nƒkkurar nætr‘They rest self there some nights’‘They rest themselves there for a few nights’ﬁær (3rd pl. f. nom., referring to women) is subject, the first noun phrase in
the sentence and the agent. Sik (refl. acc.) is the direct object, the goal of theaction and the second noun phrase; it is coreferential with the subject (see (6)above). Nƒkkurar is part of the adverbial phrase nƒkkurar nætr (acc. f. pl.),which expresses duration of time; nƒkkurar modifies the head word nætr, andso appears in the same case, gender and number.

(11)

Hvers ﬂykkir y›r sá ver›r, er ﬂetta rá› gaf til?
‘Of-what seems to-you that-man worthy who this advice gave
towards [a solution of the problem]?’‘What do you think the man who proffered this advicedeserves?’

This example consists of an interrogative sentence, followed by an ellipticalinfinitive clause (3.9.5.2) and a dependent sentence. Hvers (gen. n. sg.) is aninterrogative pronoun, and as such is moved out of an unmarked position after

72

Morphology and syntaxver›r (sá er ver›r X ‘that person is worthy of X’) to the front of the sentence(cf. the identical movement in English); its case is determined by the adjective ver›r (cf. English worthy/deserving of something), and its neuter genderby the fact that it does not refer to anything of specifically masculine or feminine gender. In traditional analysis y›r (2nd pl. dat., but used here as a singularhonorific, like French vous — the person being addressed is the king) would
be classed as the indirect object (the recipient or experiencer of the ‘seeming’,
cf. ‘to-you’), but recently claims have been made for the existence of a classof ‘oblique’ (i.e. non-nominative) subjects into which y›r here would fall(note that with ﬂyk(k)ir ‘seems’ the person to whom something seems isnormally always the first noun phrase in the sentence; see further 3.9.3). Sá(nom. m. sg.) is the subject of the elliptical infinitive clause (sá [vera] ver›r‘that man [to be] worthy’) — what the clause is about. ﬁetta rá› (acc. n. sg.),with ﬂetta modifying rá›, is the direct object of the dependent sentence, thegoal of the action (the words refer to the thing given or proffered); it is the
only noun phrase in the sentence, the subject being subsumed into the relative
particle or complementiser er, which is best regarded as being outside thesentence (see 3.8, 3.8.2.1).

(12)Hin vistin fœ›ir likaminn, sjá fœ›ir sálina
‘That sustenance feeds the body, this feeds the soul’This example consists of two sentences. In sentence 1, hin vistin (nom. f. sg.),with hin modifying vist-in (noun + def. art.), is the subject; it is the ‘performer’of the action and the first noun phrase. In sentence 2, sjá (nom. f. sg.) is also
the subject, fulfilling on its own the same function as hin vistin in sentence 1.
Notice how hin contrasts with sjá: ‘that other one’ as opposed to ‘this one’.

(13)

Hon vir›i ﬂenna meira en hinn
‘She valued this more than that’‘She held this one in higher esteem than the other’Hon (3rd sg. f. nom.) is the subject, the agent and the first noun phrase in thesentence. ﬁenna (acc. m. sg., referring to an entity — person, animal or object— of masculine gender) is the direct object (what is valued) and the second
noun phrase. Hinn (acc. m. sg., likewise referring to an entity of masculine
gender) is part of a comparative phrase; this can be understood as ‘more than[she valued] the other’, and hinn taken as a direct object too.

(14)

Nú ver›r hann varr ﬂessara tí›inda‘Now becomes he aware of-these tidings’‘Now he becomes aware of these events’Pronoun inflexions and their function73

Hann (3rd sg. m. nom.) is the subject, not the agent here but the experiencer,
and the first noun phrase in the sentence. The noun phrase ﬂessara tí›inda(gen. pl.), with ﬂessara modifying tí›inda, has its case determined by theadjective varr (cf. English aware of something).

(15)

Sumir váru drepnir ok sumir fl‡›u ór landi‘Some were killed and some fled from (the) country’This example consists of two sentences, in both of which sumir (nom. m. pl.)is subject, the first noun phrase and, in sentence 2, the agent. In sentence 1
with its passive verb phrase (váru drepnir ‘were killed’, see 3.6.4) the subject
is the recipient or goal of the action (a typical feature of passive constructions).

(16)

Engi er svá lítill drykkjuma›r, at . . .
‘None is so little drinking-man that . . . ’‘No one is so feeble a drinker that . . . ’

Engi (nom. m. sg.) is the subject (the X in an X is Y construction, see 3.1.5,
sentence 1) and the first noun phrase in the sentence.

(17)

Hon svarar engu
‘She answers nothing’Hon (3rd sg. f. nom.) is subject, the agent and first noun phrase in the sentence. Engu (dat. n. sg.) can be construed as the direct object of svarar (whatis answered), but in origin it probably had instrumental sense (the idea ofanswering with something, cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20).

(18)

Engi skip skulu sigla burt
‘No ships shall sail away’

Engi skip (nom. n. pl.), with engi modifying skip, is subject, the (potential)‘performer’ of the action and the only noun phrase in the sentence.

(19)

Hverju skal launa kvæ›it?
‘With-what shall reward poem-the?’‘What shall one reward the poem with?’

Hverju (dat. n. sg.) as an interrogative pronoun is moved out of an unmarked
position after the verb launa (X launar kvæ›it Y, where Y represents the dative

74

Morphology and syntax

phrase) and fronted (cf. (11) above); the sense is instrumental, hence the useof the dative. It will be observed that (19) is without a subject (i.e. there is noelement that corresponds to X in the abstraction above); although rare in
English, subjectless sentences are a regular feature of Old Norse (see 3.9.3).

(20)

Hvárr ykkar hefir drepit d‡rit?
‘Which (of the two) of you two has killed the animal?’

Hvárr (nom. m. sg.) is an interrogative pronoun (‘which of two?’), but unlike
hverju in the preceding example it is the subject of its sentence and thus stands
in its unmarked position as the first noun phrase (cf. X hefir drepit d‡rit where
X is the agent). Ykkar (2nd dual gen.) has partitive sense: ‘you two’ is thewhole of which one is the part (cf. English: five of the students (five = part,students = whole), the south of the country (the south = part, country = whole)).

(21)

Hvat s‡nisk ﬂér rá›?
‘What shows-sk to-you plan?’‘What seems to you a good plan/advisable?’

Hvat (nom. n. sg.) is an interrogative pronoun; traditionally it would beanalysed as subject and ﬂér as indirect object (the recipient or experiencer ofthe ‘seeming’), but more recent approaches (cf. (11) above) would class ﬂér
as (an oblique) subject and hvat as direct object (notwithstanding the latter isnominative, cf. 3.1.2 and 3.1.5, sentences 1 and 5), in which case theinterrogative must be deemed to have moved from its unmarked position to
the front of the sentence (cf. mér s‡nisk ﬂat rá› ‘to-me shows-sk that plan [i.e.
that seems to me advisable/I think that advisable]’, where ﬂat (nom.) is theputative object). Note that the pronoun hvat normally only occurs in thenominative and accusative neuter singular (cf. 3.2.5).

(22)

Nú forvitnar mik at vita, hverja ek hefi hér fóstrat, e›r hverrarættar ﬂit eru›
‘Now interests me to know whom I have here fostered, or ofwhat family you-two are’
‘Now I am curious to know whom I have been fostering here,
or what family you two belong to’

This example consists of three sentences and an infinitive clause (at vita).
Sentence 1 is what is traditionally called ‘impersonal’, by which is meant thatit has no nominative subject; such an analysis would class mik (1st sg. acc.) as
direct object. More recent approaches would see mik as an oblique subject (cf.

Pronoun inflexions and their function75(11) and (21) above), the experiencer and first (and only) noun phrase. Hverja(acc. m. pl.) in sentence 2 is the direct object — the goal of the action — but
since it takes the form of an interrogative pronoun, it is fronted from its unmarked position after subject and finite or non-finite verb (cf. ek hefi fóstrathann or ek hefi hann fóstrat). Ek (1st sg. nom.) is the subject of sentence 2, theagent and, apart from the fronted interrogative, the first noun phrase. In hverrarættar (gen. f. sg.) in sentence 3, with hverrar modifying ættar and the wholephrase fronted because of the presence of the interrogative, the genitive has adefining or connective sense (note that once again the Old Norse genitive cancorrespond to English of). ﬁit (2nd dual nom.) is the subject: the X of an X is
Y construction, and, the fronted interrogative apart, the first noun phrase.

(23)

Hann er hverjum manni betr vígr
‘He is than-every man better able-to-fight’‘He is a more able fighter than anyone else’

Hann (3rd sg. m. nom.) is subject: the X of an X is Y construction and the firstnoun phrase. Hverjum manni (dat. m. sg.), with hverjum modifying manni, isthe second proposition in a comparative construction — the proposition denoting the entity with which the comparison is made (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 21);the dative phrase is the equivalent of the noun phrase X (in whatever case isappropriate) that follows en ‘than’ in a comparative adjective + en construction (e.g. fleiri en X ‘more than X’).

(24)ﬁá skyldu ein manngjƒld koma fyrir hvern hinna‘Then should single compensation come for each of-theothers’‘Then there was to be single compensation for each of theothers’Hvern (acc. m. sg.) does not function here as a noun phrase, but is part of the
preposition phrase fyrir hvern, and its case is determined by the preposition
fyrir (see 3.7.4). Hinna (gen. pl.) has partitive sense: ‘the others’ is the wholeof which each individual is a part (cf. (20) above).

76

Morphology and syntax

3.2.6 Examples of pronoun usage — Exercise
1. What is the principal grammatical function of pronouns?
2. What does it mean that pronouns may be used ‘adjectivally’? Give
two Old Norse examples of such usage.
3. Explain the difference between singular, dual and plural function.
Give one example of each from Old Norse.
4. How are the reflexive forms sik, sín, sér used?
5. ﬁau can refer to a plural entity of neuter gender. What else may it
refer to?
6. What is the difference in function between hann/hon on the one
hand and sá/sú on the other?
7. In what sense is the pronoun hinn contrastive? Give two examplesof the way in which it is used.
8. What is the difference in meaning between hverr and hvárr?
9. Give the case and, where appropriate, the gender and number ofthe pronouns (printed in bold) in the following sentences, and explain their syntactic function and semantic role:(a) Váru ﬂeir me› honum ﬂann vetr
‘They were with him that winter’(b) Sel mér fé nƒkkut at láni
‘Give me some money on loan’(c) ﬁessu skulu engi undirmál fylgja‘No deceit is to accompany this’(d) Hverr y›ar skal fá okkr eyri silfrs‘Each of you is to give us two an ounce of silver’(e) Hann vildi hefna sín‘He wanted to avenge himself’Adjective inflexions and their function

77

3.3 Adjective inflexions and their function
The principal function of adjectives is to modify nouns, and to a lesser
extent pronouns. Adjectives may occur as part of a noun phrase —attributive function — or as the complement of a noun phrase —predicative function. English examples, using the adjective yellow,
are: a yellow car or the yellow car (attributive), and the car is yellow
or he painted the car yellow (predicative). In addition, adjectives are
sometimes used in place of nouns, as in English the old and the new orgood and evil. The fact that nouns, pronouns and adjectives all occur
in noun phrases either alone or in conjunction with other words indicates that the three word classes have much in common.
Like nouns and pronouns, adjectives in Old Norse are inflected fornumber and case. In common with many but not all pronouns, they arealso inflected for gender. In addition they are inflected for definiteness and degree. This variety of adjectival inflexion means it isparticularly important for the student to be able to distinguish
one form from another and understand what function any particular form has.

3.3.1 Number, case and gender
Definitions and exemplification of number, case and gender have been
given in 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3. What the student needs to grasp about
adjectival inflexion for these categories is that it is determined by thenoun or pronoun being modified by the adjective. That is to say, there
is a formal relationship between the two whereby the form of thenoun/pronoun requires a corresponding form of the adjective. E.g. gó›r
(nom. m. sg.) is the appropriate form of ‘good’ when modifying ma›r
(nom. m. sg.), gó› (nom. f. sg.) when modifying kona (nom. f. sg.),
gott (nom./acc. n. sg.) when modifying skip (nom./acc. n. sg.), gó›ir(nom. m. pl.) when modifying menn (nom. m. pl.), etc. This relationship is known as (grammatical) agreement or (grammatical) concord.
It operates more widely than simply between noun/pronoun andadjective (see especially 3.6.1), but is particularly important in thenoun/pronoun~adjective context because it governs much of adjectival
inflexion in Old Norse. Furthermore, it is very often in the grammatical

78

Morphology and syntax

agreement between an adjective and a noun that the gender of thenoun is manifested (see 3.1.3).

3.3.2 Definiteness
In Old Norse, as in all Germanic languages originally, there were two
types of adjective inflexion, known traditionally as strong and weak.
We saw (3.1.4) that the terms themselves had no particular significance when applied to the noun, and the same is true of the adjective.
The weak adjective shares formal similarities with the weak noun.
In the singular the two have identical endings, and overall, just as with
the nouns, the weak paradigm exhibits much less variety than the strong(cf. that in the plural weak adjectives end either in -u (nom., acc.,gen.) or -um (dat.)).
In terms of use the weak noun and weak adjective have little incommon. The weak noun, as we have seen, is an inflexional type andnothing more: a noun is either strong or weak, and remains so, however it is used. Adjectives can inflect according to both the strong andthe weak pattern. Choice of form depends on function: strong adjectives by and large have indefinite function, weak adjectives definite.
What this means in practice is that strong adjectives chiefly occur innoun phrases without determiners, e.g. ríkr konungr ‘a powerful king’,ma›r gamall ‘an old man’, strendr langar ‘long beaches’ (with attributive ríkr, gamall and langar); konungr var› rei›r mjƒk ‘the kingbecame very angry’, fƒgr er hlí›in ‘beautiful is the hillside’ (withpredicative rei›r and fƒgr, which belong to different noun phrases fromkonungr and hlí›in, cf. English: the king [NP1] became a beggar [NP2];
because of their function, predicative adjectives are almost always
strong — but cf. 3.3.6, sentence 24). Where strong adjectives do appear
in conjunction with determiners, these are usually indefinite, e.g.
nƒkkurri mannligri mynd (dat. f. sg.) ‘any human shape’.
Weak adjectives typically occur in noun phrases with determiners:
the definite article (3.3.5 below), demonstratives (3.2.2) and possessives(3.3.4 below), the latter two commonly in conjunction with the definite article, e.g. hinna ríku konunga (gen. pl.) ‘the powerful kings’,sjá hinn ungi ma›r ‘this the young man [i.e. this young man]’, ﬂeim
helga manni (dat. m. sg.) ‘that holy man [i.e. that saint]’, hinn yngsta

Adjective inflexions and their function79

son ﬂinn (acc. m. sg.) ‘the youngest son your [i.e. your youngest son]’.
Sometimes where used as an epithet a weak adjective may occur without a determiner, e.g. Eiríkr rau›i ‘Eiríkr the red’; here the adjective
alone carries the definite sense ‘the red’.

3.3.3 Degree (comparison)
Adjectives in Old Norse, together with adverbs, are inflected for degree.
There are three degrees: positive, comparative and superlative, corresponding in form to English: big — bigger — biggest. As in English,
the positive degree has no special inflexion, and therefore the form ofan adjective in the positive is simply its root plus the appropriate
inflexion to indicate number, case, gender and definiteness. The comparative and superlative degrees are normally marked by the suffixes-(a)r, -(a)st respectively; to the superlative suffix is added the appropriate strong or weak ending just as in the positive, to the comparative
suffix a limited range of endings that indicate number, case and gender(see 3.3.4 below). Comparative and superlative forms of the adjective
are thus double-inflected, e.g. hvass-ar-i (comp. nom. m. sg., f. sg.,
nom./acc./gen. pl.) ‘sharper’, d‡r-r-a (comp. acc./gen./dat. m. sg.,
n. sg.) ‘dearer’ ‘more precious’, hvass-ast-ar (sup. strong nom./acc.
f. pl.) ‘sharpest’, d‡r-st-a (sup. strong acc. f. sg., acc. m. pl., weakacc./gen./dat. m. sg., nom. f. sg., n. sg.) ‘dearest’ ‘most precious’.

3.3.1/3.3.2/3.3.3 Number, case and gender/Definiteness/Degree —Exercise
1. For what grammatical categories are adjectives inflected in Old
Norse?
2. What does the term grammatical agreement (or grammatical concord) mean, and how does it apply to the adjective in Old Norse?
3. What governs the choice between strong and weak adjectives in
Old Norse?
4. What does it mean that adjectives are inflected for degree?
5. Analyse the following words into root, comparative or superlative
suffix and grammatical ending: sterkastir, sœmri, sannara, rei›asti.

Morphology and syntax

80

3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions
Just as in the case of noun inflexion (see 3.1.4), it is the basic patterns
the student needs to grasp. Minor variations — to the extent they cause
problems of understanding — can be noted and learnt when they areencountered.
From 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 above it will be clear that — the comparativeand superlative suffixes and comparative endings apart — there are
two distinct types of adjective inflexion in Old Norse, strong and weak.
Both types, as already observed, inflect for number, case and gender.
With two numbers, four cases and three genders, there is thus a possible total of twice twenty-four different inflexions. In fact, because thesame form may occur in different parts of the paradigm, the total ismuch smaller: fundamentally, there are thirteen different strong adjective forms and just four weak. They are as follows (~ = zero, i.e.
there is no ending, the form consisting of root alone — e.g. rík ‘powerful’, strong nom. f. sg.; actual paradigms are given in 3.3.9).
Strong masculine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-r
-an
-s
-um

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-ir
-a
-ra
-um

Weak masculine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-a
-a
-a

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-u
-u
-u
-um

Strong feminine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

~
-a
-rar
-ri

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-ar
-ar
-ra
-um

Adjective inflexions and their function

81

Weak feminine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-a
-u
-u
-u

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-u
-u
-u
-um

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

~
~
-ra
-um

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-u
-u
-u
-um

Strong neuter
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-t
-t
-s
-u

Pl.

Weak neuter
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-a
-a
-a
-a

Pl.

Certain regularities will be observed in these paradigms.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

The dat. pl. always ends in -um.
Apart from the dat., the weak pl. ends in -u throughout.
There are no distinct case-forms in the weak sg. except in thenom. masculine and feminine.
The strong gen. pl. always ends in -ra.
There is no difference between the neuter nom. and acc., sg.
or pl., weak or strong.
The strong feminine nom. and acc. pl. have the same ending.
The strong masculine and neuter gen. sg. have the same ending.

As well as observing these regularities, the student will notice that
adjectival and noun inflexion have much in common. Attention has
already been drawn to the complete identity between the singular forms
of weak nouns and adjectives. Other instances where the forms are
identical or closely similar (all in the strong declension bar (10), whichapplies to both strong and weak) are as follows.

82
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)

Morphology and syntax
Nom. m. sg. in -r.
Gen. m. and n. sg. in -s.
Nom. f. sg. with zero ending.
Gen. f. sg. in -ar (noun), -rar (adj.).
Nom. m. pl. in vowel + r.
Acc. m. pl. in vowel.
Nom./acc. f. pl. in vowel + r.
Nom./acc. n. pl. with zero ending.
Gen. pl. in -a (noun), -ra (adj.).
Dat. pl. in -um.

The student should further observe the close similarity between thestrong adjectival endings and those of pronouns such as hinn, nƒkkurr,
engi, hverr (cf. 3.2.2, 3.2.3, 3.2.4, 3.2.5). The similarity becomes evenclearer when the many adjectives with an -in suffix are added to theequation and the comparison is extended to certain of the possessive
adjectives and the suffixed definite article (probably a reduced formof hinn, cf. 3.2.2).
Adjectives in -in inflect according to the tables above, but with three
distinct deviations (see the example kominn, 3.3.9, paradigm 7).
(1) Where the tables show an ending in or beginning with -r, adjectives
in -in have -n instead, e.g. -inn (strong nom. m. sg.), -inni (strong dat.
f. sg.). This is because an earlier r has assimilated to the n (-inn < *-inr,-inni < *-inri, cf. hinn < *hinr, 3.2.3). (2) The n of the suffix disappears in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. ending, giving -it (the end result of
the development *-int > *-itt > -it, cf. hitt, nom./acc. n. sg. of hinn
(3.2.2)). (3) The strong acc. m. sg. has the same form as the nom.,ending in -inn. It should also be noted that the -i- of the -in suffix is
dropped when the inflexional ending consists of an additional syllable, except in the strong gen. and dat. f. sg. and the strong gen. pl., e.g.
-nir (strong nom. m. pl.), -ni (weak nom. m. sg.), -inna (strong gen.
pl.). This is not unlike what happens to the suffixed definite article(see 3.1.9), although the pattern is not wholly identical. Most twosyllable adjectives, in fact, drop the unstressed vowel of the secondsyllable according to the pattern of those in -in. A great many of thesehave an -al, -il, or -ul suffix (see the example gamall, 3.3.9, paradigm 8),
and, just as with the n of -in, the immediately following r of the inflexional endings is assimilated to the l, giving -ll(-) instead of the
expected *-lr(-), e.g. -all (strong nom. m. sg.), -allar (strong gen. f. sg.).

Adjective inflexions and their function

83

The possessive adjectives of the first and second person and thethird person reflexive possessive (i.e., words corresponding to English‘my’, ‘our’, etc. and, with pronominal function, ‘mine’, ‘ours’, etc.)
inflect according to one or other of the strong adjective patterns justdiscussed. Minn ‘my’ (see 3.3.9, paradigm 21), ﬂinn ‘your [sg.]’, sinn
‘his/her/its/their own’ go for the most part like adjectives in -in (butwithout loss of the i at any point since in the possessives it is part of
the root syllable). It is worth noting, however, that in having the nom./acc. n. sg. forms mitt, ﬂitt, sitt, they parallel even more closely theparadigm of the pronoun hinn, the only difference between the twobeing that the root vowel of the possessives is long before everything
except a geminate consonant, e.g. minn (nom. m. sg.), míns (gen. m.
or n. sg.). Várr ‘our [pl.]’ is inflected according to the strong patternof the tables above, except that, as with certain pronouns, the acc. m.
sg. ends in -n (várn). Okkarr ‘our [dual]’, ykkarr ‘your [dual]’ andy›(v)arr ‘your [pl.]’ parallel várr (acc. m. sg. okkarn, ykkarn, y›(v)arn),but as two-syllable words drop the unstressed vowel of the secondsyllable according to the pattern of the two-syllable adjectives discussed above (giving, for example, acc. f. sg. okkra, ykkra, y›ra).
It remains to list the adjective endings that follow the comparative
suffix.
Masculine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-a
-a
-a

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-i
-i
-um

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-i
-i
-um

Feminine
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-i
-i
-i

Pl.

Morphology and syntax

84

Neuter
Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-a
-a
-a
-a

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

-i
-i
-i
-um

This minimal set of endings is also the one used with present participles, e.g. sofandi (nom. m. sg., f. sg., nom./acc./gen. pl.) ‘sleeping’(see 3.3.9, paradigm 19).
These are the essentials of adjectival inflexion in Old Norse. It is
not the whole story, but all other adjective inflexions can be seen
as variations on this basic pattern. It is vitally important that thestudent masters the endings set out and discussed on pp. 80–84
before proceeding to the finer detail.

3.3.4 Basic adjective inflexions — Exercise
1. How many different endings do the strong masculine, the weakneuter, and the comparative adjective exhibit respectively?
2. Is there a difference between the strong and weak dat. pl. forms?
3. Where is a difference between the nom. and acc. pl. to be found?
4. Enumerate the gen. sg. endings.
5. Enumerate the acc. pl. endings.
6. What characterises the nom. and acc. of neuter adjectives?
7. Where is there (1) identity and (2) close similarity between noun
and adjective endings?
8. Compare the principal adjective inflexions as given on pp. 80–81
with the paradigm of hinn. What similarities and differences between their inflexions can be observed?

3.3.5 The free-standing definite article
Before examples of adjective usage are given, it will be helpful toexpand on what was said about definite function in 3.3.2, and show

Adjective inflexions and their function

85

how the definite article manifests itself in noun phrases that include
adjectives.
As will have been apparent from certain of the examples in 3.3.2,
Old Norse has a free-standing definite article in addition to the suffixed variety (just as in the modern Scandinavian languages). The freestanding article occurs where a definite noun is modified by an adjective(the adjective normally always being weak), e.g. (h)inn blindi ma›r‘the blind man’. It is also used where an adjective with definite function (once again weak) is ‘substantivised’, i.e. used without a noun
and thus, in a sense, in its place, e.g. (h)inir au›gu ‘the rich [pl.]’. (Theinflexional forms of (h)inn are the same as those of the demonstrative
pronoun hinn given in 3.2.2, except for the nom./acc. n. sg. which is(h)it with a single t. Note that in some texts instead of (h)inn, (h)it,(h)inir, etc. we get enn, et, enir, i.e., no initial h- and root vowel e.)
In Old Norse prose neither of the constructions just illustrated is infact particularly common except where something or someone is being
distinguished from another or others of the same type or name, e.g.:
hin sí›asta orrosta ‘the last battle’, hinna gƒmlu skálda ‘the old poets[gen. pl.]’ (as opposed to the new ones), hendi inni hœgri ‘the righthand [dat. f. sg.]’, Óláfr inn helgi ‘Óláfr the saint’, hit sí›ara ‘thelatter’, hinn ﬂri›i ‘the third’. (Observe that the free-standing article
and its accompanying weak adjective may be found either before orafter the noun).
To express the equivalent of English the + adj. ± noun Old Norse
employs a variety of other constructions. In prose a much more common rendering of the definite article than (h)inn on its own is (h)inn
together with the demonstrative pronoun sá (see 3.2.2), giving phrasesof the type: sá (h)inn blindi ma›r ‘that the blind man’, ma›r sá (h)inn
blindi ‘man that the blind’, or, less commonly, sá ma›r (h)inn blindi‘that man the blind’, i.e. (in all three cases) ‘the blind man’. (Note thepossible variations in word-order, and that sá and (h)inn agree with,i.e. always appear in the same case, gender and number as, adjective
and noun — here nom. m. sg.; see 3.3.1.) Occasionally (h)inn may beomitted, and we then get the phrase-type: sá blindi ma›r or ma›r sá
blindi, where sá alone renders ‘the’. In Norwegian sources in particular, the suffixed article may be used in addition to its free-standing
counterpart, or the demonstrative sá, or both together, giving phrases
like hinn hvíti bjƒrninn ‘the white bear-the’ (literally), hƒndin sú hœgriMorphology and syntax

86‘hand-the that right’, sá hinn ﬂƒgli ma›rinn ‘that the silent man-the’,vápnin ﬂau in gó›u ‘weapons-the those the good’, all equivalents ofEnglish the + adj. + noun. (Note that the phrase-types without hinn,e.g. sá blindi ma›r, hƒndin sú hœgri, sometimes have greater deictic
emphasis, i.e. the pronoun is closer in meaning to ‘that’ than ‘the’.)Observe the fundamental identity of (h)inn and the suffixed definite
article, the former of which certainly and the latter probably derivefrom demonstrative hinn (see above and 3.2.2). Additional notes on
word-order in noun phrases will be found in 3.9.2.

3.3.5 The free-standing definite article — Exercise
Identify the case, gender, number, syntactic function and semantic roleof the definite noun phrases printed in bold in the following sentences.
(1)

Inn blindi ma›r kom í húsit‘The blind man came into the house’(2)

Gekk hann ﬂegar fram fyrir ﬂá kristnu hƒf›ingja‘Went he immediately forward before the Christian rulers’‘He at once went forward in front of the Christian rulers’(3)

Hann skipa›i lƒgunum me› rá›i hinna vitrustu manna‘He organised the laws with the advice of the wisest men’(4)

ﬁrándr fór til Nóregs me› kaupmƒnnum ﬂeim hinumnorrœnum‘ﬁrándr went to Norway with the Norwegian merchants’(5)

Engi ma›r mátti nefna hann annan veg en jarl hinn illa
‘No man might call him another way than earl the bad’‘No man might call him anything other than “the bad earl”’(6)

En ﬂau hin stóru skip, er á›r hƒf›u siglt, ok ﬂeir hug›uat Ormrinn væri, ﬂat var hit fyrra Tranan, en hit sí›ara
Ormr hinn skammi‘But those the big ships which before had sailed, and they
thought that Ormrinn were, that was the former Tranan but
the latter Ormr hinn skammi’Adjective inflexions and their function

87‘But as for the big ships which had sailed previously and which
they thought were “The Serpent”, the former was “The Crane”
and the latter “The Short Serpent”’(7)ﬁá minntisk hann ﬂess er mærin sú hin mikilláta haf›imælt til hans
‘Then he remembered that which the proud girl had said to him’

(8)ﬁeir snúa ﬂegar at hinni miklu hƒllinni‘They turn immediately to the big hall’(9)

Konungr hét ﬂar fyrir Óláfi hinum mestum afarkostum‘King promised there for to-Óláfr the greatest hard-treatments’‘The king promised Óláfr in return the harshest treatment’

3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage
As was done for nouns and pronouns, examples are now given of
adjectives in function. With the wide range of adjectival functions andinflexions that exists, only a selection can be illustrated, with theemphasis on the most common types. As far as is practicable, the examples are ordered as follows: (a) strong adjectives; (b) weak adjectives; (c) substantivised adjectives (strong and weak); (d) superlatives(strong and weak); (e) comparatives — though some sentences contain examples of more than one type. In other respects, the exemplification follows the same pattern as for nouns (see the preamble on
p. 31). Note that the adjectival inflexions being illustrated (or the wholeword where there is no difference from the root form) are printed inbold type. To underline the grammatical relations involved, bold isalso used for the noun or pronoun with which the adjective agrees.
Compare the inflexions used below with those set out and discussed
in 3.3.4. Observe, too, the differences between Old Norse and English
phraseology and sentence formation. Definitions of basic concepts thathave already been given are not repeated; if in doubt the student should
consult the individual commentaries that accompany each of the examples of noun function in 3.1.5.

88
(1)

Morphology and syntax
ﬁví var hann skakkr kalla›r‘Therefore was he crooked called’‘For that reason he was called crooked’

Skakkr and kalla›r are nom. m. sg., agreeing with hann, the subject. Skakkr isused predicatively (see 3.3), as the subject complement (i.e. as Y in: X is/
becomes/is called Y); it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.
Kalla›r is the past participle of the verb kalla ‘[to] call’ which together with
var forms a passive phrase (see 3.6.4); in such phrases the past participle(which itself functions not unlike a subject complement) inflects as a strong
adjective.

(2)

ﬁar ver›r orrosta bæ›i mikil ok hƒr›‘There happens battle both great and hard’‘There a great and hard battle ensues’

Mikil and hƒr› are nom. f. sg., agreeing with orrosta (f.), the subject. They are
attributive adjectives (see 3.3), occurring in an indefinite noun phrase andtherefore having strong inflexion. Although hƒr› as a nom. f. sg. strong adjective is without ending, the root vowel has u-mutation, just as the nom. sg. ofstrong feminine nouns (see 3.1.7.1 and 3.3.8.1).

(3)

Eigi mun ﬂat kauplaust‘Not will that chargeless’‘That will not be free of charge’

Kauplaust is nom. n. sg., agreeing with ﬂat, the subject. It is the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion. Eigi mun
ﬂat kauplaust is elliptical for Eigi mun ﬂat kauplaust vera (see 3.9.5.2).

(4)ﬁeir lágu búnir at sigla til Su›reyja‘They lay ready to sail to the Hebrides’

Búnir is nom. m. pl., agreeing with ﬂeir, the subject. It is the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.

(5)ﬁau váru skamma hrí› ásamt
‘They were short while together’‘They were together for only a short while’Adjective inflexions and their function

89

Skamma is acc. f. sg., agreeing with hrí› (f.), which is accusative because it
functions as a time adverbial (see 3.1.2 and 3.1.5, sentence 10). The adjective
is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong
inflexion.

(6)

ﬁeir fengu í Dynrƒst strauma vá›væna‘They got in Dynrƒst currents dangerous’‘They encountered dangerous currents in Sumburgh Roost’

Vá›væna is acc. m. pl., agreeing with strauma (m.), which is the direct object.
The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase,
has strong inflexion.

(7)

Konungsmenn ger›u jarl handtekinn‘King’s-men made earl captured’‘The king’s men seized the earl’Handtekinn is acc. m. sg., agreeing with jarl (m.), which is the direct object.
The adjective is used predicatively, as the object complement; it has indefinite
function and therefore strong inflexion.

(8)

Hann ba› ﬂá vinda segl sín‘He bade them hoist sails REFL. POSS.’‘He told them to hoist their sails’

Sín is acc. n. pl., agreeing with segl (n.), which is the direct object of theinfinitive clause. Note that though the reflexive possessive agrees with ﬂá(the subject of vinda, cf. 3.9.4) in person (both are 3rd), it agrees with segl incase, gender and number. Possessives have only strong forms: they arethemselves determiners, not part of what is determined or defined.

(9)

ﬁví næst heyr›u ﬂeir út til hƒggva stórra‘To-that next heard they out to blows big’
‘Thereupon they heard the sound of great blows outside’

Stórra is gen. pl., agreeing with hƒggva (n.), the noun of the preposition phrase
til hƒggva stórra. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition til (see3.7, 3.7.2). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite
noun phrase, has strong inflexion.

90
(10)

Morphology and syntax
Oss er ván snarpligrar orrostu‘To-us is expectation of-hard battle’‘We can expect a hard battle’

Snarpligrar is gen. f. sg., agreeing with orrostu (f.), which is an objective
genitive, that is, it corresponds to English ‘of . . . ’ and presents the battle as
the object of the expectation (cf. the idiomatic translation above). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase, has strong
inflexion.

(11)

Nú skulu› ﬂér taka ƒmbun verka y›varra‘Now shall you [pl.] take reward of-works your [pl.]’‘Now you shall reap the reward of your deeds’Y›varra is gen. pl., agreeing with verka (n.), which is an objective genitive,that is, it corresponds to English ‘of . . . ’ and presents the deeds as being
rewarded (cf. ‘X rewarded the deed’). Note that though the possessive adjective(here functioning as a reflexive, cf. 3.2.1) agrees with ﬂér in person (they areboth 2nd pl.), it agrees with verka in case and number (gender is not marked
in the gen. pl.). (On the strong inflexion of y›varra, see (8) above.)(12)

ﬁeir dvƒl›usk ﬂar í allgó›um fagna›i‘They stayed-sk [see 3.6.5.3] there in very-good hospitality’‘They stayed there with excellent hospitality’

Allgó›um is dat. m. sg., agreeing with fagna›i (m.), the noun of the prepositionphrase í allgó›um fagna›i. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition
í. The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite noun phrase,
has strong inflexion.

(13)

A›ils konungr var mjƒk kærr at gó›um hestum‘King A›ils was very fond of good horses’Kærr is nom. m. sg., agreeing with A›ils (m.), the subject. It is the head wordof the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore strong
inflexion. Gó›um is dat. pl., agreeing with hestum (m.), the noun of the
preposition phrase at gó›um hestum. The case of the noun is governed by the
preposition at. The adjective is used attributively and has indefinite function
and therefore strong inflexion. The preposition phrase modifies the adjective kærr.

Adjective inflexions and their function
(14)

91

Hverr er ﬂessi ma›r hinn drengiligi?
‘Who is this man the valiant?’‘Who is this valiant man?’Drengiligi is nom. m. sg., agreeing with ma›r (m.), the subject (cf. who is X?
X is Y, where X is the subject). The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion.

(15)

Erlingr jarl lét drepa Eindri›a unga
‘Erlingr earl let kill Eindri›i ungi’‘Earl Erlingr had Eindri›i the young killed’

Unga is acc. m. sg., agreeing with Eindri›a (m.), the direct object. It is used
as a ‘defining’ epithet (Eindri›i ‘the young’ as opposed to any other Eindri›i);
as such it is part of a definite noun phrase and therefore has weak inflexion.
Observe that definite function in itself is enough to trigger weak inflexion,
there being no determiners in the noun phrase in question.

(16)

Hann var sonr Óláfs ins hvíta ok Au›ar innar djúpú›gu.
‘He was the son of Óláfr the white and Au›r the deep-minded’

Hvíta is gen. m. sg., agreeing with Óláfs (m.), and djúpú›gu gen. f. sg., agreeing with Au›ar (f.); both nouns are subjective (possessive) genitives (Óláfr
and Au›r have ‘him’ as their son). As in (15), the adjectives are used as‘defining’ epithets, but here in conjunction with the free-standing article (h)inn.
Both are part of definite noun phrases and therefore have weak inflexion.

(17)

Hann bau› ambótt sinni ﬂeirri ﬂrœnzku at hon skyldi . . .
‘He ordered bondwoman REFL. POSS. that Throndish that sheshould . . .’‘He ordered his bondwoman from ﬁrœndalƒg to . . .’Sinni and ﬂrœnzku are dat. f. sg., agreeing with ambótt (f.), which is the indirect object of bau› (cf. that he gave an order to the bondwoman). Note thatthough the reflexive possessive agrees with hann in person (both are 3rd), it
agrees with ambótt in case, gender and number. ﬁrœnzku is used attributively,
and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion (on the strong
inflexion of sinni, see (8) above).

92
(18)

Morphology and syntaxﬁá sendi hann braut ena gauzku menn
‘Then he sent away the Gautish (= from Gautland) men’Gauzku is acc. m. pl., agreeing with menn (m.), the direct object. It is usedattributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has weak inflexion.

(19)

ﬁví munu fáir trúa
‘That will few [pl.] believe’‘Few will believe that’

Fáir is nom. m. pl. (masculine is the default gender where the reference is topeople in general). The adjective stands on its own without a noun and forms
the subject. It has indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.

(20)

Hann lét jafna refsing hafa ríkan ok óríkan‘He let equal punishment have mighty [sg.] and unmighty[sg.]’‘He gave both mighty and unmighty equal punishment’

Jafna is acc. f. sg., agreeing with refsing (f.), which is the direct object of
hafa. The adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in an indefinite nounphrase, has strong inflexion. Ríkan and óríkan are acc. m. sg. They stand on
their own without a noun — but referring to individual males — and form thedirect object of lét. They have indefinite function and therefore strong inflexion.
The construction here is what is known as an accusative and infinitive: theaccusative objects of lét, ‘mighty and unmighty’, are in a sense also the subjectsof hafa (see 3.9.4).

(21)

Snústu frá illu ok ger gott
‘Turn from evil and do good’Illu is dat. n. sg. It stands on its own without a noun and is part of the preposition phrase frá illu, its case being determined by the preposition. Gott is acc.
n. sg., and it, too, stands on its own without a noun. It is the direct object of theverb ger. Both adjectives have indefinite function and therefore strong
inflexion. They are neuter because they do not refer to an entity of masculine
or feminine gender. (Note that snústu is a contracted form of snúsk ﬂú: -sk
verb (see 3.6.5.3) + the personal pronoun ﬂú (literally ‘turn you’). Gott is anirregular nom./acc. n. sg. form (see 3.3.8.4), nom. m. sg. gó›r.)

Adjective inflexions and their function
(22)

93

S‡n ﬂik ﬂessum enum n‡komna‘Show yourself to-this the newly-come’‘Show yourself to this newly arrived one’N‡komna is dat. m. sg. It stands on its own without a noun — but referring toa male animal — and forms the head of the indirect object phrase ﬂessum
enum n‡komna. Determined by ﬂessum enum, it has definite function andtherefore weak inflexion.

(23)

Sveinn var allra manna skygnastr‘Sveinn was of-all men most-sharp-sighted’‘Sveinn was the most sharp-sighted of men’Skygnastr is nom. m. sg. sup., agreeing with Sveinn (m.), the subject. The
adjective is the subject complement; it has indefinite function and therefore
strong inflexion (which follows the superlative -ast suffix). (Note that thesuperlative here is what is known as absolute, i.e. it denotes not the highest
but a very high degree.) Allra is gen. pl. of allr ‘all’, which has only strong
forms; it agrees with manna, a genitive of type: menn are presented as a typeof which Sveinn is a particularly sharp-sighted member (see 3.1.5, sentence 14).

(24)

Var› ﬂessi fer› in frægsta
‘Became this expedition the most-famous’‘This expedition became most famous’Frægsta is nom. f. sg. sup., agreeing with fer› (f.), the subject. It is the subject
complement; it has definite function and therefore weak inflexion (which follows the superlative -st suffix). (Note that here too the superlative is absolute(see (23)) — notwithstanding the definiteness of the noun phrase.)(25)

Me›an hann var á léttasta aldri, haf›i hann hvert sumarlei›angr úti‘While he was at lightest age, had he each summer levy out’
‘While he was at the most active age, he made naval expeditions each summer’Léttasta is dat. m. sg. sup., agreeing with aldri (m.), the noun of the preposition phrase á léttasta aldri. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition á. The adjective is used attributively and has definite function and therefore
weak inflexion (which follows the superlative -ast suffix). On the occurrenceof weak inflexion in the absence of determiners, cf. (15).

94
(26)

Morphology and syntax
Sá mun ﬂér hinn bezti‘That will to-you the best’‘That will be the best one (i.e. option) for you’Bezti is nom. m. sg. sup. It stands on its own without a noun and forms the
subject complement. It has definite function and therefore weak inflexion.
Bezt- and the comparative betr- are suppletive forms (i.e. they have a different
root from other parts of the word, cf. positive gó›-; see further 3.3.8.3); ‘z’denotes the sounds ts (cf. 2.1.3), so what we have is in effect *bet-st-. The
phrase hinn bezti is elliptical for hinn bezti kostr ‘the best choice/option’.

(27)

Ok svá var, ﬂví at jarl var ﬂess fúsari
‘And thus was, therefore that earl was of-that keener’‘And thus it was, because the earl was more in favour of it’Fúsari is nom. m. sg. comp., agreeing with jarl (m.), the subject of the second
sentence. The adjective is the subject complement. Following the comparative suffix -ar, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion, which remains
the same whether the function is indefinite or definite.

(28)

ﬁar gekk Rƒgnvaldr jarl af skipum ok allt it gƒfgara li› ﬂeira‘There went Rƒgnvaldr earl off ships and all the more-noble
force their’‘There Earl Rƒgnvaldr and all the more noble of their force
left the ships’

Allt is nom. n. sg. of allr ‘all’, which has only strong forms. Together withgƒfgara (nom. n. sg.) it agrees with li› (n.), one of the two subjects. Bothadjectives are used attributively. In gƒfgara, following the comparative suffix-ar, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion (see (27)). The comparativeand superlative forms gƒfgar-, gƒfgast- show loss of an unstressed vowel: thepositive root is gƒfug- (see 3.3.8.5 point (1)).

(29)

Hin yngri skáld hafa ort eptir dœmum hinna gƒmlu skálda‘The younger poets have composed following the examplesof the old poets’

Yngri is nom. n. pl. comp., agreeing with skáld (n.), the subject. The adjective
is used attributively. Following the comparative suffix -r, we get the appropriate comparative inflexion (see (27)). The comparative and superlative forms
yngr- yngst- have a different root vowel from the positive ung- (because of

Adjective inflexions and their function

95

front mutation, see 3.3.8.2). Gƒmlu is gen. pl., agreeing with skálda (n.), a
possessive genitive (the examples, in a sense, ‘belong to’ the old poets). The
adjective is used attributively, and, occurring in a definite noun phrase, has
weak inflexion. The form gƒmlu has suffered loss of the second, unstressed,
syllable, and its root vowel has undergone u-mutation (strong nom. m. sg.
gamall; cf. 3.3.4, 3.3.8.5 point (1), 3.1.7.1, 3.3.8.1).

(30)

ﬁeir lƒg›u á ﬂat hit mesta kapp, hverr betri hesta átti‘They laid on that the most contest, who better horses owned’‘They made it a matter of the greatest rivalry who owned thebetter horses’

Mesta is acc. n. sg. sup., agreeing with kapp (n.), the direct object of lƒg›u.
The adjective is used attributively; it has definite function and therefore weak
inflexion (which follows the superlative -st suffix). The comparative and superlative forms meir-, mest- are suppletive (positive mikil-; see (26)). Betri isacc. m. pl. comp., agreeing with hesta (m.), the direct object of átti. The adjective is used attributively. Following the comparative suffix -r, we get theappropriate comparative inflexion (see (27)). Like the superlative bezt-, betri
is a suppletive form (cf. (26)).

3.3.6 Examples of adjective usage — Exercise
1. In which of the above examples do comparative forms occur? List
all that you find.
2. In which of the above examples are adjectives used predicatively?
List all that you find together with the nouns or pronouns withwhich they agree.
3. In which of the above examples are adjectives used with definite
function? List all that you find.
4. In which of the above examples do possessive adjectives occur?
List all that you find and explain which other words in their respective sentences they agree with and in what way.
5. Explain the following forms (i.e. state what inflexion or inflexions
they have and, where possible, the reason for the inflexion(s)):
kauplaust in example (3), handtekinn (7), djúpú›gu (16), gauzku(18), ríkan (20), léttasta (25), gƒfgara (28).

96Morphology and syntax

3.3.7 Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions and ways of overcoming them
As in the case of nouns (cf. 3.1.6), the learner may initially experiencesome difficulty in recognising which adjective inflexions are which.
The strong endings are by and large distinctive, and even where an
ending recurs in different parts of the paradigm there are unlikely to
be serious problems of understanding. Although the genitive masculine and neuter singular, for example, both end in -s, they clearly signal the genitive singular, just as -ra is an unambiguous sign of thegenitive plural. The identity between nominative and accusative in
the neuter singular and feminine and neuter plural may be problematic,
but very often their function and therefore their case will be apparent
from the context.
It is when confronted with the minimal distinctions of the weak andcomparative systems of endings — and their overlap with certain strong
endings — that the learner will regularly have to rely on the presenceor absence of other words in the noun phrase, and, where appropriate,
their forms, to determine the case, gender and number of the adjective. Fortunately, as we have seen, it is the way of adjectives, andweak adjectives in particular, to be accompanied by words with which
they exhibit grammatical agreement. In sentence (17), for example:
Hann bau› ambótt sinni ﬂeirri ﬂrœnzku at hon skyldi . . .
it can be shown that ﬂrœnzku is dat. f. sg., even though one strong andeleven other weak forms have the -u ending, because of the presenceof sinni and ﬂeirri. These words determine the noun that ﬂrœnzku modifies, which means (a): the function of the adjective is definite and theform weak, and (b): ﬂrœnzku will have the same case, gender andnumber as sinni and ﬂeirri since all three agree with the noun ambótt.
Given that sinni and ﬂeirri are unambiguously dat. f. sg., we can thus
deduce that ﬂrœnzku represents the same combination of case, genderand number. Similarly, in sentence (22):S‡n ﬂik ﬂessum enum n‡komna
it can be shown that n‡komna is dat. m. sg., even though two strongAdjective inflexions and their function97

and seven other weak forms have the -a ending. Here the noun phrase
lacks a noun with which the adjective can agree, but there is agreement with the determiners ﬂessum enum. Their presence indicates thephrase is definite and the adjective therefore weak, and although ﬂessum
enum can represent the dat. m. sg. or dat. pl., in combination withn‡komna the pair can only be dat. m. sg. since the dat. pl. adjective
ending (weak and strong) is -um. In sentence (27):
Ok svá var, ﬂví at jarl var ﬂess fúsari
it is clear that fúsari is nom. m. sg. even though a total of fourteencomparative forms share the -i ending. Jarl, with which fúsari agrees,is masculine and singular, and the only masculine singular comparative form ending in -i is the nominative.
Sometimes direct pointers may be lacking. In sentence (15):
Erlingr jarl lét drepa Eindri›a unga
unga might represent the strong acc. f. sg. or acc. m. pl., or the weakacc., gen. or dat. m. sg. or n. sg. (any case). The only word with which
unga can agree, Eindri›a, is masculine singular. That excludes thepossibility of feminine or neuter gender, or masculine plural, but giventhat weak nouns have exactly the same forms in the singular as weak
adjectives, it does not help determine whether unga is acc., gen. or
dat. (m. sg.). Here one has to rely on function. The verb drepa takes adirect object in the accusative, and since its -r ending shows Erlingr to
be nominative and thus subject, and there are no other noun phrases inthe sentence, Eindri›a unga must be the direct object and therefore
accusative.

3.3.7 Difficulties in recognising adjective inflexions and ways of overcoming them — Exercise
1. Why may it sometimes be difficult to recognise the case, genderand number of adjectives in Old Norse?
2. What means can we use to help us deduce their case and number?

98

Morphology and syntax

3.3.8 Important variations in adjective inflexion
Adjectives in Old Norse are not subject to as much inflexional variation as nouns (cf. 3.1.7). Nevertheless, they exhibit a wider range offorms than those described in 3.3.4 (cf., e.g., the comparative yngri
and the weak pl. gƒmlu in (29)). The significant variations will now
be examined.

3.3.8.1 Labial mutation
The basics of labial mutation were discussed in 3.1.7.1. Since, as
pointed out there, it is a rule of Old Norse that a cannot appear beforeu or v, it is clear that adjectives with a in the root, just as nouns, willchange that a to ƒ whenever an ending is applied that consists of orcontains a u. Thus, the strong dat. m. sg. and dat. pl. of har›r ‘hard’ ishƒr›um, and the strong dat. n. sg., weak acc., gen., dat. f. sg. and weaknom., acc., gen. pl. hƒr›u (see paradigms 2 and 14 in 3.3.9).
This rule should not cause the learner problems, as long as s/he
remembers that an unknown word with ƒ in the root and u in theending must be looked up in the dictionary as though it had root a
if it cannot be found there with root ƒ (for an example of the latter
type, cf. fƒlr ‘pale’ — paradigm 6 below). Just as hƒr›um and hƒr›uwill be found under har›r, so grƒnnum or grƒnnu must be looked up
under grannr ‘thin’, lƒngum or lƒngu under langr ‘long’, snƒrpum orsnƒrpu under snarpr ‘keen’, ‘hard’, etc.
Like certain noun forms, adjectives may have ƒ in the root even
where no u or v follows in the next syllable. The cause is the same: thepresence of a following u at an earlier stage of the language. We haveseen (pp. 81–2) how closely adjective inflexions parallel those of nouns,
and it is therefore no surprise (and of some help to the student) tolearn that it is in part in the same forms that root ƒ is encountered inadjectives. The forms concerned are: strong nom. f. sg. and strong
nom./acc. n. pl. The strong nom. f. sg. and nom./acc. n. pl. of har›r isthus hƒr› (< *har›u; cf. sentence (2)), of grannr grƒnn, of langr lƒng,etc. (see paradigm 2 below). In these cases, too, an unknown wordwith root ƒ must be looked up in a dictionary as though it had root a if
it cannot be found there with root ƒ.

Adjective inflexions and their function

99

U-mutation in adjectives affects unstressed as well as stressed syllables, just as with nouns. In adjectives, too, it results in u in the unstressed syllable, and the mutation can then spread further (for thehistorical process, see p. 41). The superlative suffix -ast, for example,
appears as -ust when a -u or -um ending follows. Thus skygnastr ofsentence (23) and léttasta of (25) become skygnustu, léttustu, skygnustum, léttustum in the appropriate forms; adjectives with root a, e.g.
har›r, exhibit u in the superlative suffix and ƒ in the root: hƒr›ustu,
hƒr›ustum (see paradigms 12, 17 below). Adjectives with two-syllable
stems are also affected: spurall ‘inquisitive’, ykkarr ‘your [dual]’, forexample, become spurul, ykkur in the (strong) nom. f. sg. and nom./acc. n. pl., and gamall ‘old’, with root a, has strong nom. f. sg. andnom./acc. n. pl. gƒmul (< *gamalu) (see paradigms 8, 22). Present
participles are a partial exception in that the -and- suffix by which
they are formed becomes -ƒnd- in the dat. pl., e.g., sofƒndum ‘sleeping’ (paradigm 19); this is because the suffix has secondary stress.

3.3.8.1 Labial mutation — Exercise
1. In which forms of the adjective does root a change to ƒ?
2. Explain the differences in vowel quality (a) between the strong
nom. m. sg. sup. spakastr and the dat. pl. sup. spƒkustum ‘wisest’,and (b) between the strong nom. m. sg. atall and the strong nom. f.
sg. ƒtul ‘fierce’.
3. Look up the following adjectives in an Old Norse dictionary or in
the Glossary in NION III and write down the entry forms you find:sƒnnu, glƒ›, spƒkurum, ﬂƒgul, vitrustu.

3.3.8.2 Front mutation
The basics of front mutation were discussed in 3.1.7.2. The only partsof adjectival inflexion affected by this process are certain comparativeand superlative forms. Those adjectives that form the comparative withthe -r and the superlative with the -st suffix undergo front mutation ofback root vowels. We find the following back : front correspondences(the examples contrast the strong nom. m. sg. pos. form with the nom.
m. sg. comp.):100
a ——— e
á ——— æ
ó ——— œu ——— y
ú ——— ‡
ƒ ——— øMorphology and syntax(langr ——— lengri ‘long’, ‘longer’)(lágr ——— lægri ‘low’, ‘lower’)(stórr ——— stœrri ‘big’, ‘bigger’)(ungr ——— yngri ‘young’, ‘younger’)(djúpr ——— d‡pri ‘deep’, ‘deeper’)(ﬂrƒngr ——— ﬂrøngri ‘narrow’, ‘narrower’)Observe the loss of j in d‡pri. The corresponding superlative forms(strong nom. m. sg.) are: lengstr, lægstr, stœrstr, yngstr, d‡pstr, ﬂrøngstr.
If the learner is confronted by what appears to be a comparative or
superlative form with one of the above front vowels, and s/he is unable to find the word in a dictionary, it should be looked up substituting the appropriate back vowel. No entry *fegr will be found, forexample, so the learner puzzled by the word fegrstu in the phrase enir
fegrstu litir ‘the fairest colours’ should try under fagr.

3.3.8.3 Suppletive forms
As will have become clear from certain of the examples in 3.3.6, a
few comparative and superlative forms (mostly very common) aresuppletive, i.e. they have a completely different root from that of theirpositive counterpart. There are unfortunately no rules or guide-lines
here and the student will simply have to learn the positive and the
suppletive forms as separate items. Some help is to be had from thefact that many of the suppletives also occur in English, cf. the following list (featuring the (strong) nom. m. sg. positive, comparative andsuperlative forms):
gamall —— ellri —— elztr
gó›r —— betri —— beztr
illr —— verri —— verstr
lítill —— minni —— minnstr
margr —— fleiri —— flestr
mikill —— meiri —— mestr‘old’, ‘older’, ‘oldest’ (cf. elder, eldest)‘good’, ‘better’, ‘best’‘bad’, ‘worse’, ‘worst’‘little’, ‘smaller’, ‘smallest’‘many a’, ‘more’, ‘most’‘big’, ‘bigger’, ‘biggest’

Observe that in minni (< *minri) the r of the comparative suffix
assimilates to the n of the root (cf. 3.3.8.4 below). Fleiri, flestr areused of entities that can be counted, e.g. í flestum lƒndum ‘in mostAdjective inflexions and their function

101

countries’; for non-count entities, meiri, mestr are employed in thesense ‘more’, ‘most’, e.g. meira fé ‘more wealth’.
3.3.8.4 Deviations from the basic endings
Certain endings occur that do not accord with those given in 3.3.4. We
have already seen there that consonantal assimilations affect adjectives with the -in and -al, -il, -ul suffixes as well as the possessives
minn, ﬂinn, sinn, and that the -in-suffix adjectives and the possessives
have an acc. m. sg. in -n rather than -an (see paradigms 7, 8, 21, 22).
Other deviations that may cause problems of recognition are:(1) Consonantal assimilations in monosyllabic adjectives that follow
the pattern of the disyllabic types and the possessives just mentioned.
In some monosyllabic adjectives whose root ends in l, n, s, an immediately following r (in the strong nom. m. sg., gen. and dat. f. sg. andgen. pl. endings, and in comparatives with an -r suffix) assimilates tothe l, n or s (e.g. háll ‘slippery’ (< *hálr); dat. f. sg. heilli ‘whole’,‘healthy’, (< *heilri); gen. f. sg. vænnar ‘hopeful’, ‘beautiful’ (< *vænrar);
dat. pl. comp. hreinnum ‘purer’ (< *hreinrum); jafn ‘equal’, ‘even’(< *jafnn < *jafnr); frjáls ‘free’ (< *frjálss < *frjálsr); see paradigms
3, 4, 20). Jafn and frjáls exemplify the general rule that consonant +geminate consonant is simplified to consonant + single consonant (thusalso in adjectives with consonant + r in the root: contrast, for example,
strong nom. f. sg. fƒgr ‘beautiful’ (< *fagru) with strong nom. m. sg.
fagr (< *fagrr), strong gen. pl. fagra (< *fagrra)).
(2) Consonantal assimilations that result in the loss or alteration ofroot -d or -› before the strong nom./acc. n. sg. -t ending (e.g. ó›r ‘furious’— nom./acc. n. sg. ótt (< *ó›t); vandr ‘difficult’ — nom./acc. n. sg.
vant (< *vandt, with simplification of -ntt to -nt, cf. above); kalla›r‘called’ (pp.) — nom./acc. n. sg. kallat (< *kallatt < *kalla›t, withsimplification of geminate tt in unstressed position); see paradigms 2, 11).
(3) A miscellaneous group of very common adjectives with irregularforms.
(a) Lítill ‘little’ and its antonym mikill ‘big’, with roots lítil- (contracted litl-), mikil-, have strong acc. m. sg. forms lítinn and mikinn andstrong nom./acc. n. sg. lítit and mikit (i.e. they behave in these cases as
though they were -in-suffix adjectives, cf., e.g., opinn ‘open’, tekinn ‘taken’— strong acc. m. sg. opinn, tekinn, strong nom./acc. n. sg. opit, tekit; seeparadigms 7 and 9). Mikill also sometimes has strong dat. n. sg. myklu.

102Morphology and syntax(b) The strong nom./acc. n. sg. of gó›r is gótt (cf. point (2) above)or, much more commonly, gott, of margr mart (also sometimes margt)
and of sannr ‘true’ satt.
(c) The two-syllable adjective heilagr ‘holy’, which drops the a of
the unstressed syllable on the pattern of those in -al etc. (see 3.3.4 and3.3.8.5 point (1)), regularly undergoes monophthongisation (i.e. thediphthong ei changes to a single vowel) in the shortened forms, cf.,
for example, strong nom./acc. f. pl. helgar, weak nom. m. sg. helgi.
3.3.8.5 Minor irregularities
The inflexions of Old Norse adjectives exhibit yet other deviations
from the basic pattern, but these are less likely to cause the learnerproblems of recognition.
(1) As already outlined in 3.3.4 (and cf. also 3.1.7.5 point (1)), theunstressed syllables of many disyllabic adjectives lose their vowel when
the inflexional ending itself consists of a syllable — except in thestrong gen. and dat. f. sg. and strong gen. pl. It remains to be addedthat not only adjectives with an -in or -al, -il, -ul suffix are affected,
but the many in -ig, -ug as well, and that the last, together with -al, -il,-ul types, but unlike those in -in, have strong acc. m. sg. forms in -anwith resulting loss of the preceding syllable (contrast gamall ‘old’ —acc. m. sg. gamlan, au›igr ‘rich’ — acc. m. sg. au›gan with hei›inn‘heathen’, opinn ‘open’ — acc. m. sg. hei›inn, opinn; see paradigms
8, 10). The comparative -ari and superlative -ast suffixes also
commonly trigger loss of the unstressed vowel of disyllabic adjectives(e.g. nom. m. sg., f. sg., etc. comp. hei›nari ‘more heathen’, strong
nom. m. sg. sup. au›gastr ‘richest’; see paradigm 20).
(2) In accordance with the rule stated in 3.3.8.4 point (1), to theeffect that consonant + geminate consonant is simplified to consonant+ single consonant, adjectives that end in consonant + t do not add afurther -t in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. (e.g. fluttr ‘conveyed’ (pp.) —strong nom./acc. n. sg. flutt (< *fluttt); hvassastr ‘sharpest’ (strong nom.
m. sg. sup.) — nom./acc. n. sg. hvassast (< *hvassastt; see paradigm 12).
(3) Consonants may sometimes be lengthened when immediately
following long, stressed vowels. This is the rule with t in the strong
nom./acc. n. sg., and more or less the rule with r in the strong gen. anddat. f. sg. and gen. pl. and in the comparative (e.g. grár ‘grey’ — strong
nom./acc. n. sg. grátt, strong gen. f. sg. grár(r)ar; hár ‘high’ — nom. m.

Adjective inflexions and their function

103sg., f. sg., etc. comp. hær(r)i (with front mutation); see paradigms 5, 20).
(4) As with nouns (cf. 3.1.7.5 point (2)), the vowels of inflexional
endings tend to be dropped when they immediately follow a long vowelof the same or similar quality (e.g. grár — strong acc. m. sg. grán,strong dat. m. sg., dat. pl. grám, strong acc. f. sg., dat. n. sg. and acc.
m. pl., all weak forms except nom. m. sg. and dat. pl. grá; trúr ‘faithful’ — strong dat. n. sg., weak acc., gen., dat. f. sg. and nom., acc.,
gen. pl. trú; see paradigms 5, 15, 20).
(5) As with nouns (cf. 3.1.7.5 point (4)), j is inserted in some adjectives
before inflexional endings or suffixes consisting of or beginning in aor u; in others v is inserted before endings or suffixes consisting of or
beginning in a or i (e.g. n‡r ‘new’ — strong acc. m. sg. n‡jan, strong
dat. m. sg., dat. pl. n‡jum, strong acc. f. sg. and acc. m. pl., weak acc.,
gen., dat. m. sg., nom. f. sg. and n. sg. n‡ja, strong nom. m. sg. sup.
n‡jastr; døkkr ‘dark’ — strong acc. m. sg. døkkvan, weak nom. m. sg.
døkkvi, nom. m. sg., f. sg., etc. comp. døkkvari; see paradigms 6, 20).
(6) As a final irregularity, it is worth noting that a few adjectives
including the third person possessives are uninflected. These will cause
the learner little trouble, since, like adjectives in English, their form
remains unchanged whatever their function. Examples are: einskipa‘with one ship’, fulltí›a ‘full-grown’, andvaka ‘sleepless’. Some ofthese, e.g. andvaka, can also appear in the nom. m. sg. with an -i ending: andvaki. The possessives are: hans ‘his’, hennar ‘her’, ﬂess ‘its’,ﬂeir(r)a ‘their’, i.e. the genitive forms of the corresponding pronouns
which have taken on an additional, adjectival function.
3.3.8.2/3.3.8.3/3.3.8.4/3.3.8.5 Front mutation/Suppletive forms/
Deviations from the basic endings/Minor irregularities — Exercise
1. Where in Old Norse adjectival inflexion does front mutation playa role? Give examples.
2. What are the comparative and superlative forms of gó›r, lítill,
mikill? In what way does the inflexion for degree of these adjectives differ from that of the majority?
3. In what forms of the adjective may inflexional -r(-) be assimilated
to an immediately preceding l, n or s?
4. Look up the following adjectives in an Old Norse dictionary or in
NION III and write down the entry forms you find: breitt, helgustu,
trúm, fƒlvir, tekit, færri, mikinn, fƒrlan, mi›jum, vaknat.

Morphology and syntax

104

3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion
Complete paradigms of individual adjectives are now given using thesame selection criteria as for nouns (cf. 3.1.8, preamble). While Old
Norse grammars in general tend to be over-lavish in their exemplification of nouns, they are sparing in the number of adjective paradigms
they include. The current work breaks with this tradition and prints a
selection big enough to enable the learner to recognise with the minimum of difficulty the majority of forms likely to be encountered in
Old Norse texts. The examples should naturally be studied in conjunction with the guidance given in 3.3.4, 3.3.7 and 3.3.8. Eachparadigm is numbered for ease of reference.

Strong inflexion

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(1) Basic pattern: sjúkr ‘ill’
m.
f.
sjúkr
sjúk
sjúkansjúka
sjúks
sjúkrarsjúkumsjúkri

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

sjúkirsjúka
sjúkrasjúkumSg.

Pl.

sjúkarsjúkarsjúkrasjúkum

n.
sjúkt
sjúkt
sjúks
sjúku
sjúk
sjúk
sjúkrasjúkum(2) With root a and final ›: har›r ‘hard’
m.
f.
nom.
har›r
hƒr›
acc.
har›an
har›a
gen.
har›s
har›rardat.
hƒr›umhar›ri

n.
hart
hart
har›s
hƒr›u

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hƒr›
hƒr›
har›rahƒr›umhar›irhar›ahar›rahƒr›umhar›arhar›arhar›rahƒr›umAdjective inflexions and their function

Sg.

Pl.

105

(3) Monosyllable with final n: hreinn ‘pure’
m.
f.
n.
nom.
hreinnhrein
hreintacc.
hreinanhreinahreintgen.
hreinshreinnarhreinsdat.
hreinumhreinnihreinu
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hreinir
hreinahreinnahreinumhreinarhreinarhreinnahreinum

hrein
hrein
hreinnahreinum(4) Monosyllable with root a and final ss: hvass ‘sharp’
m.
f.
n.
Sg.
nom.
hvass
hvƒss
hvasstacc.
hvassanhvassahvasstgen.
hvass
hvass(r)ar
hvass
dat.
hvƒssum
hvass(r)ihvƒssu
Pl.

Sg.

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hvassirhvassahvass(r)ahvƒssum

hvassarhvassarhvass(r)ahvƒssum

hvƒss
hvƒss
hvass(r)ahvƒssum(5) With final long vowel: grár ‘grey’
m.
f.
nom.
grár
grá
acc.
grán
grá
gen.
grás
grár(r)ar
dat.
grám
grár(r)i

n.
grátt
grátt
grás
grá

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

grá
grá
grár(r)a
grám

gráir
grá
grár(r)a
grám

grár
grár
grár(r)agrám

Morphology and syntax

106

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

Sg.

Pl.

Sg.

Pl.

(6) With v insertion: fƒlr ‘pale’
m.
f.
fƒlr
fƒl
fƒlvanfƒlvafƒlsfƒlrarfƒlumfƒlrifƒlvir
fƒlva
fƒlra
fƒlum

fƒlvarfƒlvar
fƒlra
fƒlum

n.
fƒlt
fƒlt
fƒls
fƒlu
fƒl
fƒl
fƒlra
fƒlum

(7) With -in suffix: kominn ‘come’ (pp.)
m.
f.
nom.
kominnkomin
acc.
kominnkomna
gen.
kominskominnardat.
komnumkominni

n.
komit
komit
komins
komnu

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

komin
komin
kominnakomnumkomnirkomna
kominnakomnumkomnarkomnarkominnakomnum(8) With root a and -al suffix: gamall ‘old’
m.
f.
n.
nom.
gamallgƒmul
gamaltacc.
gamlangamla
gamaltgen.
gamalsgamallargamalsdat.
gƒmlumgamalli
gƒmlu
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

gamlirgamla
gamallagƒmlumgamlargamlargamallagƒmlumgƒmulgƒmulgamallagƒmlumAdjective inflexions and their function

Sg.

Pl.

Sg.

Pl.

Sg.

Pl.

107

(9) With -il and -in suffix: mikill ‘big’
m.
f.
nom.
mikillmikil
acc.
mikinnmikla
gen.
mikilsmikillardat.
miklummikilli

n.
mikit
mikit
mikils
miklu

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

mikil
mikil
mikillamiklummiklirmikla
mikillamiklummiklarmiklarmikillamiklum(10) With -ig suffix: au›igr ‘wealthy’
m.
f.
nom.
au›igrau›ig
acc.
au›ganau›ga
gen.
au›igsau›igrardat.
au›gumau›igrin.
au›igtau›igtau›igs
au›gu

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

au›ig
au›ig
au›igraau›gumau›girau›ga
au›igraau›gumau›garau›garau›igraau›gum(11) With -a› suffix: elska›r ‘loved’ (pp.)
m.
f.
n.
nom.
elska›relsku›
elskatacc.
elska›anelska›aelskatgen.
elska›selska›rarelska›sdat.
elsku›um
elska›ri
elsku›u
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

elska›ir
elska›aelska›raelsku›um

elska›arelska›arelska›raelsku›um

elsku›
elsku›
elska›raelsku›umMorphology and syntax

108(12) With root a and superlative suffix: har›astr ‘hardest’
m.
f.
n.
Sg.
nom.
har›astrhƒr›usthar›astacc.
har›astanhar›astahar›astgen.
har›asts
har›astrar
har›astsdat.
hƒr›ustumhar›astrihƒr›ustu
Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

har›astirhar›astahar›astrahƒr›ustumhar›astarhar›astarhar›astrahƒr›ustumhƒr›usthƒr›usthar›astrahƒr›ustum

Weak inflexion

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(13) Basic pattern: sjúki ‘ill’
m.
f.
sjúki
sjúka
sjúka
sjúku
sjúka
sjúku
sjúka
sjúku

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

sjúku
sjúku
sjúku
sjúkum

Sg.

Pl.

sjúku
sjúku
sjúku
sjúkum

n.
sjúka
sjúka
sjúka
sjúka
sjúku
sjúku
sjúku
sjúkum(14) With root a and -al suffix: gamli ‘old’
m.
f.
n.
nom.
gamli
gamla
gamla
acc.
gamla
gƒmlu
gamla
gen.
gamla
gƒmlu
gamla
dat.
gamla
gƒmlu
gamla
nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

gƒmlu
gƒmlu
gƒmlu
gƒmlum

gƒmlu
gƒmlu
gƒmlu
gƒmlum

gƒmlu
gƒmlu
gƒmlu
gƒmlumAdjective inflexions and their function

Sg.

Pl.

Sg.

Pl.

109

(15) With final long vowel: grái ‘grey’
m.
f.
nom.
grái
grá
acc.
grá
grá
gen.
grá
grá
dat.
grá
grá

n.
grá
grá
grá
grá

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

grá
grá
grá
grám

grá
grá
grá
grám

grá
grá
grá
grám

(16) With -a› suffix: elska›i ‘loved’
m.
f.
nom.
elska›ielska›aacc.
elska›aelsku›ugen.
elska›aelsku›udat.
elska›aelsku›un.
elska›aelska›aelska›aelska›a

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

elsku›uelsku›uelsku›uelsku›um

elsku›uelsku›uelsku›uelsku›um

elsku›uelsku›uelsku›uelsku›um(17) With root a and superlative suffix: har›asti ‘hardest’
m.
f.
n.
Sg.
nom.
har›astihar›astahar›astaacc.
har›astahƒr›ustu
har›astagen.
har›astahƒr›ustu
har›astadat.
har›astahƒr›ustu
har›asta
Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

hƒr›ustuhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustumhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustumhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustuhƒr›ustumMorphology and syntax

110Comparative and present participle inflexion(18) (With root a) har›ari ‘harder’m.
f.
har›arihar›arihar›arahar›arihar›arahar›arihar›arahar›arin.
har›arahar›arahar›arahar›ara

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

har›arihar›arihar›arihƒr›urum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(19) sofandi ‘sleeping’m.
f.
sofandisofandisofandasofandisofandasofandisofandasofandin.
sofandasofandasofandasofanda

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

sofandisofandisofandisofƒndum

sofandisofandisofandisofƒndum

har›arihar›arihar›arihƒr›urumsofandisofandisofandisofƒndum

har›arihar›arihar›arihƒr›urum

Degree inflexion(20) Main types, illustrated by strong and comp. nom. m. sg. forms
pos.
comp.
sup.
sjúkr ‘ill’sjúkarisjúkastrhreinn ‘pure’
hreinnihreinstr
hvass ‘sharp’hvassari
hvassastr
grár ‘grey’grár(r)i
grástrfƒlr ‘pale’fƒlvarifƒlvastrhei›inn ‘heathen’hei›narihei›nastr
au›igr ‘wealthy’au›igriau›gastr

Adjective inflexions and their function

111

Irregular comp. and sup. forms involving front mutation andsuppletion are dealt with in 3.3.8.2 and 3.3.8.3 above.
Possessive adjective inflexion

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(21) minn ‘my’
m.
f.
minn
mín
minn
mína
míns
minnar
mínum
minni

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

mínir
mína
minna
mínum

mínar
mínar
minna
mínum

mín
mín
minna
mínum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

(22) ykkarr ‘your [dual]’m.
f.
ykkarrykkur
ykkarnykkra
ykkarsykkarrarykkrumykkarrin.
ykkartykkartykkars
ykkru

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

ykkrirykkra
ykkarraykkrumykkur
ykkur
ykkarraykkrumykkrarykkrarykkarraykkrum

n.
mitt
mitt
míns
mínu

3.3.9 Examples of adjective inflexion — Exercise
Identify the case, gender, number, type of inflexion (strong, weak,comparative/present participle) and, if comparative or superlative, thedegree of the adjectives printed in bold in the following sentences.
Comment, in addition, on the syntactic function and semantic role ofthe noun phrases they form part of. Where an adjective exhibits a form
other than the strong nominative masculine singular positive — theone used in dictionary entries — give that form as well.

Morphology and syntax

112
(1)

Hann var inn vaskasti ma›r
‘He was the most-valiant man’‘He was the most valiant of men’(2)

Hann var íslenzkr at kyni, skyldr honum‘He was Icelandic by kin, related to him’

(3)

Er ﬂar mikill ma›r á baki í blám klæ›um‘Is there big man on back in dark clothes’‘There is a big man on horseback there in dark clothes’(4)ﬁér hafi› œrnar bœtr eptir ﬁorkel, frænda y›varn‘You have sufficient payments after ﬁorkell, kinsman your’‘You have sufficient compensation for ﬁorkell, your kinsman’(5)

Hann spur›i, hverr fyrir skipi ﬂví ré›i enu vegliga‘He asked who over ship that commanded the magnificent’‘He asked who commanded the magnificent ship’(6)

ﬁeir áttu lengri lei›
‘They had longer way’
‘They had a longer route’(7)

Nú má ok ﬂat vera, at gƒmlum manni sé eigi ósárari
sonardau›i sinn
‘Now may also that be, that to-old man is not unsorer son’sdeath REFL. POSS.’‘Now it may also be that to an old man his son’s death is notless painful’(8)

Eru honum sƒg› tí›indin‘Are to-him said tidings-the’‘The news is told to him’

(9)Hann var fa›ir Eiríks ins spaka‘He was the father of Eiríkr the wise’(10)

ﬁeir fundu ﬂegar sveininn ﬂar sofanda hjá húsi einu
‘They found immediately boy-the there sleeping by house one’
‘They at once found the boy sleeping there beside a certain
building’Adjective inflexions and their function
(11)

113

Hér mun ﬂinn ﬂroski mestr‘Here will your advancement greatest’‘Here is where you will prosper most’(12)

Hann hélt ƒll heit sín drengiliga vi› sína menn
‘He kept all promises REFL. POSS. nobly with REFL. POSS. men’‘He nobly kept all his promises to his men’(13)

Ek hefi til fás hlutazk, sí›an ek kom til Íslands‘I have to few allocated-sk since I came to Iceland’‘I have been active in little since I came to Iceland’(14)

ﬁar var brekka brƒtt ofan í dalinn‘There was slope steep down into valley-the’‘There was a steep slope down into the valley’(15)

Erlendr vildi ekki, at synir hans hef›i lægra hlut ﬂar í
Eyjum‘Erlendr wanted not that sons his had lower lot there in Islands’‘Erlendr did not want his sons to have a poorer position there
in the Orkneys’(16)

Gangi sá inn gamli ma›r fyrir‘Go that the old man in-front’‘Let the old man walk in front’(17)

Hlaut hann ﬂar inn mesta hei›r‘Received he there the greatest honour’‘There he received the greatest honour’(18)

ﬁau váru allra skipa skjótust
‘They were of-all ships fastest’‘They were fastest of all ships’(19)

ﬁeir ráku fyrir sér sextán klyfja›a hesta‘They drove before them sixteen pack-saddled horses’(20)

ﬁar er svar›laus m‡rr
‘There is grassless bog’
‘There is a grassless bog there’Morphology and syntax

114
(21)

Hann lét ﬂar gera steinkastala gó›an; var ﬂat ƒruggt
vígi‘He let there make stone-castle good; was that secure fortress’‘He had a fine stone castle made there; it was a secure fortress’(22)Ma›rinn var nú miklu vinsælli en á›r‘The man was now much more popular than before’(23)

Hann sótti málit til fullra laga
‘He pursued case-the to full laws’‘He pursued the case to the full extent of the law’(24)

Kona sú in gó›a d‡rka›i ﬂann helga konung me› mikilli
ást‘Woman that the good venerated that holy king with great love’‘The good woman venerated the holy king with great love’(25)

Veita skulum vér ﬂurfƒndum líkamliga fœzlu‘Give shall we to-needing bodily food’‘We are to give bodily sustenance to the needy’(26)Fƒstur eru en hvƒssustu vápn í gegn djƒfli
‘Fasts are the sharpest weapons against the devil’(27)

ﬁeir mæltu fund sín á milli í ákve›num sta›
‘They arranged meeting self be(-)tween in appointed place’‘They arranged a meeting between themselves in an appointed
place’(28)

Einarr kva› hann mann gƒfgastan ok hana fullvel gipta‘Einarr said him man noblest and her full-well married’‘Einarr said he was a most noble man and she was very wellmarried’(29)

Bakkar hávir váru umhverfis‘Hills high were around’‘High hills were all around’(30)

Hann ba› ﬂann milda konung leysa in seigu syndabƒnd
af sér‘He bade that gracious king loose the stubborn sin-bonds off self’‘He prayed to the gracious king to remove the stubborn bondsof sin from him’

Numerals

115

3.4 Numerals
Numerals are sometimes regarded as adjectives, and indeed several of
the inflexions exhibited by the Old Norse numerals either parallel orare strongly reminiscent of adjectival forms. Numerals may also befound classified as pronouns, and, in more recent grammatical literature, as quantifiers. They are treated here as a separate word class. One
of several reasons for separating them from pronouns and adjectives
is that three of the Old Norse numerals inflect and function as nouns.

3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions
As in English, the basic counting system in Old Norse is divided into
cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) and ordinal numbers (first,
second, third, etc.). The Old Norse numerals (nom. m. sg./pl. where
they inflect) are as follows.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Cardinal

Ordinal

einn
tveir
ﬂrír
fjórirfim(m)
sex
sjau
átta
níu
tíu
ellifutólf
ﬂrettán
fjórtán, fjƒgurtánfim(m)tán
sextánsjaut(j)án
át(t)jánfyrstrannarrﬂri›ifjór›ifim(m)ti
sétti
sjaundiáttandi, áttiníunditíundielliftitólftiﬂrettándi
fjórtándi, fjƒgurtándi
fim(m)tándi
sextándi
sjaut(j)ándi
át(t)jándi

116
19
20
21
22
30
31
40
50
60
70
80
90

Morphology and syntax
nítjántuttugu
tuttugu ok einntuttugu ok tveir
ﬂrír tigir
ﬂrír tigir ok einn
fjórir tigirfim(m) tigir
sex tigirsjau tigirátta tigir
níu tigir

nítjándi
tuttugundi
tuttugundi ok fyrsti
tuttugundi ok annarr
ﬂrítugundi
ﬂrítugundi ok fyrsti
fertugundifim(m)tugundi
sextugundi
sjautugundiáttatugundinítugundi

Beyond nítugundi the ordinals are not recorded. The cardinals are:
100
110
120
1000
1200

tíu tigir, hundra›
ellifu tigir, hundra› ok tíu
hundra›, hundra› ok tuttugu
ﬂúsundﬂúsundAs is apparent from this list, hundra› may denote either 100 (hundra›tírœtt ‘a hundred of ten tens’ (see below)) or 120 (hundra› tólfrœtt ‘ahundred of twelve tens’ ‘a “long” hundred’). Correspondingly, ﬂúsund
= either 1000 or 1200. With figures of this magnitude precision isoften unimportant in Old Icelandic literature; where the intention is toexpress exact numbers or amounts, either the text itself or the edition
may make clear what is meant by hundra› or ﬂúsund.
Many of the above numerals have variant forms (the most common
are specified), but none is likely to cause the learner problems of recognition. It is worth noting that the ordinal suffix -undi also appears as-andi (though níundi and tíundi are almost universal).
Tigir is nom. pl. of tigr (also tegr, tugr, tøgr), a masculine noun
meaning ‘a group of ten’ ‘a decade’; ﬂrír tigir, for example, thus literally means ‘three tens’. Hundra› is a neuter noun, and ﬂúsund a feminine. All three inflect according to noun paradigms (tigr according toparadigm 5 but without the vowel changes associated with root a,hundra› according to 27 but without the loss of unstressed a in dat.
sg. and gen./dat. pl., ﬂúsund according to 13).

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Of the other cardinals, only einn, tveir, ﬂrír and fjórir inflect, einn
for case, gender, number and definiteness (cf., e.g., ﬂat eina ‘the one’),tveir, ﬂrír and fjórir for case and gender alone. The paradigms are as
follows (only the strong forms of einn are given).
einn ‘one’
f.
ein
eina
einnar
einni
einar
einar
einna
einum

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
einn
einn
eins
einum

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

einir
eina
einna
einum

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
tveir
tvá
tveggjatveim(r)tveir ‘two’
f.
tvær
tvær
tveggjatveim(r)

n.
tvau
tvau
tveggjatveim(r)

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
ﬂrír
ﬂrjá
ﬂriggjaﬂrim(r)ﬂrír ‘three’
f.
ﬂrjár
ﬂrjár
ﬂriggjaﬂrim(r)

n.
ﬂrjú
ﬂrjú
ﬂriggjaﬂrim(r)

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
fjórirfjórafjƒgurra
fjórumfjórir ‘four’f.
fjórarfjórarfjƒgurra
fjórumn.
fjƒgurfjƒgurfjƒgurra
fjórum

Pl.

Pl.

Pl.

n.
eitt
eitt
eins
einu
ein
ein
einna
einum

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In the plural, einn has the sense ‘only’ ‘just’ (e.g. sagnir einar ‘justtales’), ‘some’ (einir hei›nir víkingar ‘some heathen vikings’) and‘roughly’ ‘about’ (einar ﬂrjár ‘about three’).
As a numeral (in the sense ‘the two’) we can include bá›ir ‘both’. It
has only plural (dual) forms and inflects as follows.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
bá›ir
bá›a
beggja
bá›um

f.
bá›ar
bá›ar
beggja
bá›um

n.
bæ›i
bæ›i
beggjabá›um

It will be seen that einn (in its strong form) inflects exactly like thepronoun hinn (3.2.2); it is also very similar in its forms to thepossessives minn, ﬂinn, sinn and adjectives with the -in suffix (3.3.9,
paradigms 21 and 7). Certain of the inflexions of tveir, ﬂrír, fjórir andbá›ir are reminiscent of corresponding noun, pronoun and adjective
forms. Compare (1) nom. m. tveir with nom. m. pl. ﬂeir ‘they’ ‘those’,and ﬂrír, fjórir, bá›ir with the common nom. m. pl. ending -ir;(2) acc. m. tvá, ﬂrjá with acc. m. pl. ﬂá ‘them’ ‘those’, and fjóra, bá›awith the common acc. m. pl. ending -a; (3) nom./acc. f. tvær with
nom./acc. f. pl. ﬂær, and ﬂrjár, fjórar, bá›ar with the common nom./acc. f. pl. ending -ar; (4) gen. tveggja, ﬂriggja, fjƒgurra, beggja with theubiquitous gen. pl. ending -a; (5) dat. tveim, ﬂrim, fjórum, bá›um withthe ubiquitous dat. pl. ending -(u)m. Observe also that the nom./acc. n.
of all four numerals, like the nom./acc. n. pl. of nouns, pronouns andadjectives, is without a final added -r.
The ordinals all inflect as adjectives (3.3.4), but subject to considerable restrictions: fyrstr has both strong and weak inflexion (contrast
hann gekk fyrstr ‘he went first’ and hit fyrsta sumar ‘the first summer’), annarr only strong, and the remaining ordinals only weak; ﬂri›i
has j insertion before -a and -u (3.3.8.5 point (5)). The paradigm ofannarr shows a number of irregularities and is therefore given here
in full.

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119

Sg.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

m.
annarrannan
annars
ƒ›rum

f.
ƒnnur
a›ra
annarrar
annarri

n.
annat
annat
annars
ƒ›ru

Pl.

nom.
acc.
gen.
dat.

a›rir
a›ra
annarra
ƒ›rum

a›rar
a›rar
annarra
ƒ›rum

ƒnnur
ƒnnur
annarraƒ›rum

In addition to these basic numerals, the learner may encountertvinnr/tvennr ‘double’ ‘twofold’ ‘consisting of two different things or
kinds’, ﬂrennr ‘triple’ etc. Both words inflect as strong adjectives. Also
adjectival is the suffix -tøgr, -tugr, which has the sense ‘of a numberof tens’; it is particularly used of age, e.g. tvítøgr (ﬂrítøgr, fertøgr,
fim(m)tøgr, etc.) ma›r ‘a man of twenty’ (‘thirty’, ‘forty’, ‘fifty’, etc.).
For 70 and tens above, the suffix -rœ›r is more common, e.g. áttrœ›r‘of eight tens’, tírœ›r ‘of ten tens’, tólfrœ›r ‘of twelve tens’ (cf. aboveon the ‘long’ hundred). Uninflected numerals are tysvar/tvisvar ‘twice’,ﬂrysvar/ﬂrisvar ‘thrice’.

3.4.1 The numerals and their inflexions — Exercise
1. What types of numeral are found in the basic Old Norse counting
system?
2. Which of the numerals are nouns?
3. In what way may hundra› and ﬂúsund be ambiguous?
4. Which of the cardinal numbers inflect, and what points of similarity are there between their paradigms and those of other word classes
in Old Norse?
5. Which of the ordinal numbers inflect, and according to which
pattern or patterns?

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Morphology and syntax

3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage
Inflexions, where they occur, are printed in bold (or the whole word,
where the inflected form is identical with the root). Notes explain therelationship between form and function, and usage in general. Compare
the inflexions used with those set out or identified above. Observe,too, the differences between Old Norse and English phraseology andsentence formation. Definitions of basic concepts that have alreadybeen given are not repeated; if in doubt, the student should in the first
instance consult the commentaries that accompany each of the examples of noun usage (3.1.5).
(1)ﬁat var tíunda dag jóla, er Rƒgnvaldr jarl stó› upp‘It was tenth day of-Christmas that Rƒgnvaldr earl got up’‘It was on the tenth day of Christmas that Earl Rƒgnvaldr got up’

Tíunda is an ordinal number in the acc. m. sg., agreeing with dag, which is
accusative because the phrase of which it is the head is a time adverbial (itanswers the question: ‘When?’; see 3.1.2). Note that jól ‘Christmas’ is a plural
noun.

(2)

Sigur›r jarl átti ﬂrjá sonu a›ra; hét einn Sumarli›i, annarr
Brúsi, ﬂri›i Einarr rangmunnr‘Sigur›r earl had three sons other; was-called one Sumarli›i,
second Brúsi, third Einarr rangmunnr’‘Earl Sigur›r had three other sons; one was called Sumarli›i,the second Brúsi, the third Einarr wry-mouth’ﬁrjá is a cardinal and a›ra an ordinal number; both are acc. m. (pl.), agreeing
with sonu, the direct object of the first sentence. Einn is a cardinal and annarr
and ﬂri›i are ordinal numbers; all three are nom. m. sg., the subjects of theirrespective sentences (cf. ‘ . . . the second [was called] . . . the third [wascalled] . . .’). Annarr, unlike almost all other ordinals, has strong inflexion.

(3)

Af herfangi ﬂví, er vér fám ﬂar, skulum vér fá fátœkum mƒnnum
inn fimmtuganda penning‘Of booty that which we get there, shall we give to-poor men
the fiftieth penny’‘Of the booty which we win there, we will give the fiftiethpart to the poor’Numerals

121

Fimmtuganda is an ordinal in the acc. m. sg., agreeing with penning, the direct
object.

(4)

ﬁar var mikill skáli ok dyrr á bá›um endum‘There was big hall and doorway on both ends’‘There was a big hall there and a doorway at both ends’Bá›um is a plural numerical adjective in the dat., agreeing with endum, thenoun of the preposition phrase á bá›um endum. The case of the noun is governed by the preposition á (see 3.7, 3.7.4).

(5)

Sámr haf›i ok fjóra tigu manna‘Sámr had also four tens of-men’‘Sámr also had forty men’Fjóra is a cardinal in the acc. m., agreeing with the numerical noun tigu, thedirect object. Together, fjóra and tigu make up the numeral ‘forty’. Numbers
which include or consist of the nouns tigr, hundra› or ﬂúsund are followed bya genitive of type, that is, one which expresses the nature of the entity towhich the numeral refers (cf. English hundreds of people).

(6)

ﬁar var saman tólfrœtt hundra› manna‘There were together duodecimal hundred of men’‘Altogether there were 120 men there’

Tólfrœtt is an adjective in the strong nom. n. sg., agreeing with the numericalnoun hundra›, the subject. On the genitive manna, see (5) above.

(7)

ﬁá er hann var fimtán vetra gamall, rei› hann til ﬂings‘Then when he was fifteen of-winters old, rode he to assembly’‘When he was fifteen years old, he rode to the assembly’

Fimtán is an uninflected cardinal which together with vetra functions as anadverbial of measure. Where a cardinal is thus used in combination with (theappropriate form of) gamall ‘old’, the noun expressing the spans of time bywhich age is reckoned (here: ‘winters’) appears in the genitive.

(8)

Hann rei› á Hƒskuldssta›i vi› tólfta mann
‘He rode to Hƒskuldssta›ir with twelfth man’‘He rode to Hƒskuldssta›ir with eleven men’

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Morphology and syntax

Tólfta is an ordinal in the acc. m. sg., agreeing with mann, the noun of the
preposition phrase vi› tólfta mann. The case of the noun is governed by the
preposition vi› (see 3.7.4). ‘With ORDINAL man’ is a common way in Old Norseof specifying the total number in a group: the subject (here: ‘he’) is includedin the group and the ordinal gives the total. In this particular example there
were twelve altogether: ‘he’ and eleven others.

(9)

Tveir menn ins fimta tigar váru me› Eyjólfi‘Two men of-the fifth ten were with Eyjólfr’‘Forty-two men were with Eyjólfr’

Tveir is a cardinal in the nom. m., agreeing with menn, the subject. Fimta is an
ordinal in the gen. m. sg., agreeing with tigar; ins fimta tigar is a partitive
genitive, that is, one that expresses the whole of which the number or numbers singled out for mention (here: ‘two men’) are a part (see 3.2.6, sentence20). Note how the number is expressed: the fourth ‘ten’ ends at 40 and thefifth at 50, thus two of the fifth ten, i.e. two on the way from 40 towards 50, is 42.

(10)

En frá Snæfellsnesi er fjƒgurra dœgra haf í vestr til Grœnlands‘But from Snæfellsnes is four days’ sea in west to Greenland’‘But from Snæfellsnes it is four days’ sailing to the west to
Greenland’Fjƒgurra is a cardinal in the gen., agreeing with dœgra; fjƒgurra dœgra is a
descriptive genitive, that is, one which modifies a noun (here: ‘sea’) by expressing a quality or characteristic associated with it.

(11)Rƒgnvaldr jarl gaf Haraldi jarli annat skipit; ﬂat hét Fífa, en
annat hét Hjálp‘Rƒgnvaldr earl gave to-Haraldr earl the-one ship-the; it
was-called Fífa, and the-other was-called Hjálp’‘Earl Rƒgnvaldr gave Earl Haraldr the one ship; it was called
Arrow and the other was called Help’

Annat is an ordinal. In the first sentence it appears in the acc. n. sg., agreeing
with skipit, the direct object. In the third sentence it is nom. n. sg. and is the
subject. Note that annarr not only means ‘second’, ‘other’, but ‘the one’ and‘the other’ of two entities. Observe further that skipit is definite (i.e. it is accompanied by the (suffixed) definite article); this gives the construction partitive sense (cf. (9) above), i.e. it means literally ‘the one of the [two] ships’.

Numerals
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123

Kómu sendimenn til jarls ﬂrimr nóttum sí›arr‘Came messengers to earl three nights later’‘The messengers came to the earl three nights later’ﬁrimr is a cardinal in the dat., agreeing with nóttum. ﬁrimr nóttum is anadverbial of degree, used together with comparatives to express by how muchone entity is more than another; ﬂrimr nóttum sí›arr thus means literally ‘laterby three nights’.

3.4.2 Examples of numeral usage — Exercise
1. In what different ways may annarr be used?
2. How might one say in Old Norse: ‘with six other men’?
3. What types of genitive construction are used in conjunction withnumerals?
4. How might one say ‘fifty-six’ in Old Norse?
5. Give the case, gender and number (as appropriate) of the numerals(printed in bold) in the following sentences, and explain theirsyntactic function and semantic role:(a) Hann haf›i fjƒgur skip ok tíu tigu manna‘He had four ships and a hundred men’(b) ﬁeir gengu ﬂa›an inn ﬂrettánda dag jóla
‘They went from there on the thirteenth day of Christmas’(c) Haraldr jarl var ﬂá nær tvítøgum manni‘Earl Haraldr was then a man of nearly twenty’(d) ﬁeir sátu í skemmu einni skammt frá sænum
‘They sat in a certain building a short distance from the sea’(e) Eptir fall Rƒgnvalds jarls var Haraldr jarl í Orkneyjum áttavetr ins fimmta tigar‘After the fall of Earl Rƒgnvaldr, Haraldr was earl in the Orkneys forforty-eight years’(f) Hét annarr Sƒrli ok annarr ﬁorkell‘The one was called Sƒrli and the other ﬁorkell’124

Morphology and syntax

3.5 Adverbs
Adverbs are sometimes defined as words that modify the verb or specify
its action (e.g. English quickly in he ran quickly, which denotes themanner of the running). In fact, the function of many words that are
traditionally classed as adverbs does not fit this definition. Indeed theadverb word class serves as a kind of dustbin into which items that do
not obviously belong to any other category can be put. In the English
sentence: unfortunately, they could not come, for example, unfortunately is classed as an adverb, yet it says nothing about the ‘coming’,
but means rather: ‘I/we think it is unfortunate they could not come’.
As in English, adverbs in Old Norse are a heterogeneous group.
One feature they all share, however, is that they do not inflect for
number, person, case or gender. Most, like adjectives, inflect for degree(see below), but that is all. The learner therefore needs to master nothing
more than the meanings of adverbs and to be able to recognise theircomparative and superlative forms.
3.5.1 Adverb formation
Although a number of Old Norse adverbs appear to be primary (nottransparently derived from other words, e.g. mjƒk ‘very’, svá ‘thus’‘so’, ﬂá ‘then’, vel ‘well’), the majority are derivatives. Many are basedon adjectives. A particularly common way of forming adverbs fromadjectives is by adding an -a suffix (e.g. illa ‘badly’ from illr ‘bad’);equally common is the use of the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form of theadjective with adverbial function (e.g. skjótt ‘quickly’ from skjótr‘quick’). Adverbs derived from adjectives with the commonly occurring -ligr suffix are formed in the same way as illa (e.g. makligr ‘fitting’, makliga ‘fittingly’); sometimes -liga is added to the root of otheradjectives (e.g. gløggr ‘clear’, gløggliga ‘clearly’), and thus itself
becomes an adverb suffix. A number of adverbs are fossilised caseforms of adjectives or nouns (e.g. jafnan ‘always’ ‘constantly’ fromjafn ‘equal’ ‘even’, alls ‘altogether’ ‘at all’ from allr ‘all’, miklu ‘much’(emphasising comparatives as in miklu meiri ‘much greater’) frommikill ‘big’, loks ‘finally’ from lok n. ‘end’, stundum ‘sometimes’ fromstund f. ‘while’ ‘time’).
Many adverbs indicating movement towards a place have counter-

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125

parts formed with an -i suffix that denote rest in a place and otherswith an -an suffix meaning movement from a place (e.g. inn ‘in’, inni
‘inside’, innan ‘from within’). Some have only two of the forms (e.g.
nor›r ‘northwards’ ‘in the north’, nor›an ‘from the north’ (with rootnor›-); thus also the other compass-point adverbs — on su›r ‘southwards’, sunnan ‘from the south’, see p. 126). Certain of these locational
adverbs can have special meanings (e.g. útan ‘from without’ and thus‘from Iceland’, seen from the perspective of Norway). The threefold
distinction: ‘to a place’, ‘in a place’ and ‘from a place’ is also found in
the commonly occurring hingat — hér — he›an ‘hither — here —hence’, ﬂangat — ﬂar — ﬂa›an ‘thither — there — thence’, hvert —hvar — hva›an ‘where (to) — where — whence’ (it should be notedthat none of these words has the slightly archaic ring of some of the
English equivalents). Adverbs with the -an suffix combine with a preceding fyrir (cf. 3.7.1, 3.7.4) to form prepositional phrases indicating
position relative to another (fixed) position (e.g. fyrir nor›an hei›ina‘north of the heath’, fyrir ofan húsin ‘above the buildings’; note theidiomatic fyrir nor›an/sunnan land ‘in the north/south of Iceland’).
3.5.2 Inflexion for degree
The suffixes used to form the comparative and superlative of adverbs
are the same as those found in adjectival comparison, namely -(a)r,-(a)st. As examples we may cite opt ‘often’ and lengi ‘long’ ‘for along time’.
positive
opt
lengi

comparative
optar
lengr

superlative
optastlengstAdverbs like skjótt that consist of the strong nom./acc. n. sg. adjective mostly have the corresponding adjective form in the comparative
as well (e.g. skjótara ‘more quickly’, with an -ara suffix, lengra‘farther’, from langt). In the superlative of such adverbs the strong
nom./acc. n. sg. form is always used (e.g. skjótast ‘most quickly’, lengst‘farthest’ with the -(a)st suffix (cf. 3.3.8.5 point (2)), added to theroots skjót-, leng- rather than to the positive adverb forms skjótt, langt).
Occasionally the -(a)ra comparative ending can be found in adverbs
other than those of the skjótt type.

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Morphology and syntax

Other minor deviations from the above pattern include the additionof an extra r to many comparatives in -ar (e.g. optar(r) ‘more often’,framar(r) ‘farther forward’ ‘farther on’ from fram ‘forward’) and the
spread of comparative r into many superlatives (e.g. frama(r)st ‘farthest forward’ ‘farthest on’, inna(r)st ‘farthest in’). As the brackets inthe examples indicate, regular forms may also be found.
Like adjectives, adverbs that form the comparative with the -r andthe superlative with the -st suffix undergo front mutation of back root
vowels (see 3.1.7.2 and 3.3.8.2). Few adverbs are in fact affected.
Common ones are lengra ‘farther’, lengst ‘farthest’ (see above), fremr‘farther forward’, fremst ‘farthest forward’ (alternative comparativeand superlative forms to framar(r), frama(r)st, see above), and theirregular fjarri ‘far off’ — firr ‘farther off’ — first ‘farthest off’ andgƒrva ‘thoroughly’, ‘precisely’ — gørr ‘more thoroughly’ — gørst‘most thoroughly’.
Also in common with adjectives, a small group of adverbs havesuppletive forms in the comparative and superlative (see 3.3.8.3). The
ones likely to be encountered regularly by the learner are:gjarna —— heldr —— helzt
illa —— verr —— verst
lítt ——minnr —— minstmjƒk —— meir(r) —— mest
vel —— betr —— bezt

‘willingly’, ‘rather’, ‘most of all’‘badly’, ‘worse’, ‘worst’‘little’, ‘less’, ‘least’‘much’, ‘more’, ‘most’‘well’, ‘better’, ‘best’

One or two of the deviations and minor irregularities affecting adjectives (3.3.8.4, 3.3.8.5) can be found in the comparative and/or superlative forms of adverbs also. Attention has already been drawn to
the loss of neuter -t in superlatives of the skjótast type (3.3.8.5 point(2)). Further to be noted are consonantal assimilations (3.3.8.4 point(1), cf., e.g., seinna ‘more slowly’ ‘later’ < *seinra) and loss of unstressed syllables in disyllabic adverbs when a further syllable is added(3.3.8.5 point (1), cf., e.g., sjaldan ‘seldom’ — sjaldnar ‘more seldom’ —sjaldnast ‘most seldom’).
Occasionally the alternation ›r — nn seen in nouns like mu›r‘mouth’, acc. munn, gen. munns etc. (cf. 3.1.7.4 point (5)) also distinguishes different forms of adverbs. We have already noted that the -anform of su›r is sunnan; its comparative and superlative manifestations are sunnar(r), sunna(r)st respectively.

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127

3.5.3 Examples of adverb usage
On the pattern of exemplification, see the preambles to 3.1.5, 3.2.6,
3.3.6 and 3.4.2. Adverbs are given in bold type.
(1)

ﬁeir kurru›u illa um brottvist sína
‘They grumbled badly about absence REFL. POSS.’‘They grumbled a lot about their having to be away’

Illa is an adverb of manner; it describes the way in which ‘they’ grumbled.

(2)

ﬁar eru jafnan dregin skip yfir
‘There are regularly dragged ships across’‘Ships are regularly dragged across there’

ﬁar is an adverb of place; it is the ‘rest’ counterpart to ﬂangat ‘thither’ andﬂa›an ‘thence’ (cf. (5) below), denoting neither movement to nor from a place.
Jafnan may loosely be described as an adverb of time; it denotes the regularity with which the event described takes place. Yfir is a preposition used here
as an adverb of place; it denotes movement within a specified area.

(3)

Tóku menn ﬂá ró›r mikinn ok fóru ákafliga‘Began men then rowing big and went furiously’‘Then men began to row hard and they travelled at a furious
pace’ﬁá is an adverb of time; it denotes the point in time at which men started torow. Ákafliga is an adverb of manner; it describes the way in which the vessels moved.

(4)

ﬁessu var skjótt neitat‘This was quickly refused’

Skjótt is an adverb of manner derived from the nom./acc. n. sg. of the adjective skjótr ‘quick’; it describes the speed with which the refusal was made.

(5)

Magnús konungr helt ﬂa›an í Su›reyjar‘Magnús king continued thence to Hebrides’‘King Magnús went on from there to the Hebrides’

ﬁa›an is an adverb of place; the -an suffix imparts to it the sense of movement from a place.

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(6)

Morphology and syntax
Magnús konungr helt sunnan me› Skotlandi‘Magnús king continued from-south along Scotland’‘King Magnús continued northwards along the coast of Scotland’Sunnan is an adverb of place; the -an suffix imparts to it the sense of movement from a place. Note, however, that here it seems more natural in English
to render the movement as motion towards, i.e. ‘northwards’ (cf. further: ofan‘from above’ ‘down’, ne›an ‘from underneath’ ‘up’).

(7)

Hann eignar sér svá allar eyjar fyrir vestan Skotland‘He assigns to-self thus all islands west of Scotland’‘He thus takes possession of all the islands west of Scotland’Svá is an adverb of manner; it refers to the way in which ‘he’ takes possessionof the islands. Note the compound preposition fyrir vestan incorporating theadverb of place vestan (see 3.5.1).

(8)Hann fór ﬂegar austr til Nóregs
‘He went immediately east to Norway’

ﬁegar is an adverb of time; it denotes the lack of any interval before ‘he’ left
for Norway. Austr is an adverb of place, here denoting movement towards theplace.

(9)

Eysteinn konungr tók vi› honum forkunnar vel‘King Eysteinn received him exceedingly well’

Forkunnar is an adverb of degree; it describes how well ‘he’ was received (asthe -ar ending suggests, this is in origin the gen. sg. form of a noun, forku›r f.
‘strong desire’, see 3.1.7.4 point (5)). Vel is an adverb of manner; it describes
the way in which Eysteinn received ‘him’.

(10)ﬁá rœddi Kali um, at ﬂeir myndi eigi fara lengra‘Then spoke Kali about that they would not go farther’‘Then Kali said that they would not go any farther’For ﬂá, see (3) above. Lengra is an adverb of place in the comparative; itdenotes movement additional to that already made towards a place.

(11)

Litlu sí›arr gekk ma›rinn út‘A little later the man went out’Sí›arr is an adverb of time in the comparative; it compares the time the man

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129

went out with an earlier event. Út is an adverb of place; it denotes movement
towards the outside. Although litlu is in form the strong dat. n. sg. of theadjective lítill (cf. 3.3.8.4 point (3)), it functions here as an adverb of degree,
expressing how much later the event described took place.

(12)ﬁór›r vann ﬂá allra s‡sligast‘ﬁór›r worked then of-all most-briskly’‘Then ﬁór›r worked more briskly than ever’For ﬂá, see (3) above. S‡sligast is an adverb of manner in the superlative; it
describes the way in which ﬁór›r worked and defines it as the highest degreeof that manner of working. Although allra is in form the gen. pl. of the adjective allr, it functions here as an intensifying adverb: ﬁór›r did not just work
most briskly, but most briskly of all (things).

3.5.1/3.5.2/3.5.3 Adverb formation/Inflexion for degree/Examples ofadverb usage — Exercise
1. In what ways do adverbs inflect in Old Norse?
2. Give examples of three common ways of deriving adverbs in Old
Norse.
3. What is the basic meaning of (a) the -i and (b) the -an adverb suffix?
4. How are the comparatives and superlatives of adverbs formed?
5. Give the positive and superlative forms of the following adverbs:
minnr, lengra, betr, fljótara, sí›arr.
6. Explain the form (where appropriate) and the function of the adverbs (printed in bold) in the following sentences.
(a) Heldu ﬂeir ﬂá ﬂegar su›r í Eyjar‘They then at once went south to the Orkneys’(b) ﬁeir vƒr›usk drengiliga‘They defended themselves manfully’(c) Hundrinn hljóp ofan til skipa‘The dog ran down to the ships’(d) ﬁeir kómu heldr sí›‘They came rather late’(e) Skip Sveins gekk meira‘Sveinn’s ship went faster’(f) Sveinn var› seinst búinn‘Sveinn was ready last’130

Morphology and syntax

3.5.4 Adverbs and adverbials
In the above we have dealt almost exclusively with adverbs, that is,single words whose basic function is adverbial and which are therefore assigned to the adverb word class. However, as litlu and allra inexample sentences (11) and (12) above indicate, non-adverbs can sometimes be used in such a way that they assume adverbial function. Thisapplies not only to single words, but to whole phrases. Many preposition phrases, for example, are reducible to adverbs. Thus í + a placename is in a sense the equivalent of ﬂar ‘there’ or hér ‘here’ in that it
answers the question ‘where’ (e.g. í Nóregi ‘in Norway’), and í + a noun
denoting a point in time or a period of time is the equivalent of ﬂá,answering the question ‘when’ (e.g. í ﬂeim tíma ‘at that time’). Nounphrases, too, may have adverbial function (e.g. ﬂat var einn dag ‘that
happened one day’ where einn dag is accusative and expresses a point
in time; cf. 3.1.2 and 3.1.5, sentence 10). Even complete dependent
sentences may be reducible to a single adverb and thus be shown tohave adverbial function (e.g., me›an hann lif›i ‘while he lived’ refers
to a period of time and can be replaced by ﬂá ‘then’).
Phrases or clauses that have adverbial function are known as
adverbials. But since adverbs by definition also have adverbial function, they are clearly adverbials too. The difference between the two isa matter of perspective. Adverbs are a word class on a par with nouns,
adjectives, verbs, etc., while adverbials are functional elements in thesentence, comparable to subjects, objects, etc. Although this Grammar
attempts as far as practicable to integrate morphology and syntax, itsdifferent sections are rooted firmly in the word class. Adverbials will
therefore not be further discussed. In fact, Old Norse and English do
not differ greatly with respect to adverbial formation and use, so it isunlikely the student will encounter much difficulty in recognising Old
Norse adverbials for what they are.

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131

3.6 Verb inflexions and their function
Traditionally the verb has been defined as a ‘doing’ or ‘action’ word.
This definition, based on meaning, is not wholly satisfactory, since it
can be shown that many words classed as verbs do not denote actions(e.g. English seem, need, must). Verbs can also be defined by theirmorphology, i.e. as words which (may) have different forms to distinguish, inter alia, person, number, tense, mood, and voice. In terms offunction, verbs are the non-reducible part of the predicate. On the one
hand we have the subject — ‘what the sentence is about’ (cf. 3.1.5,
sentence 1), on the other the predicate — what is said of the subject.
Every predicate must contain a verb; it will usually contain more thanthis, but some predicates consist of a verb alone (e.g. English John
(noun/subject) arrived (verb/predicate)).
The verb in Old Norse is most easily recognised by its morphological features. It inflects for person, number, tense, mood, and, to a limited extent, voice (see further below). Analysis will also show it to be
the non-reducible part of the predicate, but such analysis may often be
difficult for the learner. In any case, what s/he needs first and foremost to acquire is knowledge of the different verbal forms and anunderstanding of their meaning. We begin, therefore, with a brief introduction to person, number, tense, mood and voice and a schematic
account of how these categories are expressed in Old Norse.

3.6.1 Person and number
As explained in the case of the pronouns (cf. 3.2, 3.2.1), person in
linguistic description refers to the perspective from which the participants in a situation are viewed. We saw that in Old Norse, as in English, there were three persons, represented by the pronouns ek ‘I’, vit‘we two’, vér ‘we [pl.]’ (1st person), ﬂú ‘you’, (ﬂ)it ‘you two’, (ﬂ)ér
‘you [pl.]’ (2nd person), hann ‘he’, hon ‘she’, ﬂat ‘it’, ﬂeir ‘they [m.]’,ﬂær ‘they [f.]’, ﬂau ‘they [n.]’, sik ‘self’ ‘selves’ (3rd person).
In English, the form of the verb may occasionally change depending on which person (in the grammatical sense) is used as subject (e.g.
I/you/we/they sing, but he sings). In older English, and still today withthe verb to be, there are further changes (e.g. I/we/ye/they sing, thou132

Morphology and syntax

singest, he singeth; I am, you/we/they are, he is). In Old Norse each
person, singular and dual/plural, by and large has its own distinctive
verbal inflexion. Thus if we wish to render ‘I judged’ in Old Norse,
we must say ek dœm›a, but ‘you [sg.] judged’ is ﬂú dœm›ir, ‘he judged’hann dœm›i, ‘we [pl.] judged’ vér dœm›um, ‘you [pl.] judged’ (ﬂ)ér
dœm›u›, ‘they [m.] judged’ ﬂeir dœm›u. Note that it is the person
and number of the subject that determines the form of the verb. Further
that it is only person in conjunction with the singular : plural distinction that triggers this verbal agreement (on the concept of agreement,see 3.3.1); the gender of 3rd person subjects never affects the form of
the verb, nor does the dual : plural distinction (‘she judged’ is thus
hon dœm›i, ‘we two judged’ vit dœm›um, ‘you two judged’ (ﬂ)itdœm›u›, ‘they [f.] judged’ ﬂær dœm›u, etc.)

3.6.2 Tense
Tense is a difficult concept to define. In the broadest sense it refers to
the way in which a verb marks the time at which whatever it denotes
takes place. The relationship between tense and time is, however, anything but clear-cut. Thus, what is generally agreed to be the past tense
in English (alternatively known as the preterite or imperfect) may
express a counter-factual rather than a temporal sense (e.g. if I knew
— but I don’t), and what is accepted as the present may refer to the
future (e.g. Helen performs there tomorrow), the past (e.g. I hear thatyou plan to move) or a regular occurrence (e.g. the sun rises in theeast). Nor do the problems end there. While we may express past timein English with the past tense (e.g. David came yesterday), and present
time with the present (e.g. I am bored), there is no corresponding verbform with which to express the future. Indeed, English has no othermorphological tenses than the present and the past. Some argue thatverb phrases like shall come and will come represent the English futuretense, and further that have come represents the ‘perfect’ and had comethe ‘pluperfect’. Others go further and claim that would come andshould come are ‘conditional’, but this is all rather far removed fromEnglish morphology. To be sure, have come and had come express
something different from came and from each other (chiefly differences of time orientation), and would come does not mean the same asVerb inflexions and their function

133

will come, but if tense is to be related solely or chiefly to meaning, theneed for clarity requires the creation of a separate term to denote tenseforms, that is, variations in the morphology of the verb whose primaryfunction is to signal temporal meanings.
The difficulty is, no such term obviously suggests itself. ‘Tense’ inthe sense ‘tense-forms’, is well established, traditional usage. Since
the lack of clarity arises from the application of the term to a varietyof periphrastic (i.e. separate-word) constructions that express meanings
similar or identical to those expressed by tense-forms, it seems betterto choose different terms for the periphrastic constructions. Verbphrases with temporal and related meanings that are not simple tenseforms will accordingly be described as ‘phrases’ or ‘constructions’,
and, where necessary, terms like ‘perfect construction’, ‘future construction’, etc. will be used.
All Germanic languages share with English the minimal tense systemoutlined above — using ‘tense’ in the sense just defined. Old Norse
thus exhibits a contrast between present and past tense inflexions, but
has no set of endings whose primary purpose is to mark the future, incontrast to French or Latin, for example. Nor does it have individual
inflexions for the perfect, the pluperfect or any other of the wide rangeof tenses that may be found in some other languages. In place of suchtenses, much as English, it employs periphrastic constructions involving what are called auxiliary verbs (i.e. ones subordinate to the mainverb, which express mood, voice, time orientation etc.). English I have(aux.) killed (main) the vikings thus has its Old Norse counterpart inek hefi drepit víkingana, and I will (aux.) kill (main) the vikings in ek
mun drepa víkingana (see further 3.6.7, 3.9.7.1).
The past is distinguished from the present in Old Norse in much thesame way as in English: either by root vowel change (e.g. Old Norseek tek — ek tók, English I take — I took) or the suffixation of -›, -d or-t (e.g. Old Norse ek fylgi — ek fylg›a, English I follow — I followed;
note, regarding the varying form of the suffix in Old Norse, that whatis written ‘ed’ in English is not always pronounced as a simple d, cf.
voted, walked). Traditionally these two types of past tense formation
are known as strong and weak. As in the case of noun and adjective
inflexion, the terms themselves have no special significance, and one
could as easily speak of ‘type A’ and ‘type B’.
A further difference between present and past, as fylgi versus fylg›aMorphology and syntax

134

indicates, lies in some of the personal inflexions, but this is of secondary importance compared with the root vowel alternation or the presence or absence of the -›/-d/-t suffix. The vowel alternation and theoccurrence or otherwise of the suffix affect all forms of the tense concerned and are more immediately obvious. Some of the personal inflexions, on the other hand, are identical in both tenses (e.g. ﬂú fylgir‘you follow’ — ﬂú fylg›ir ‘you followed’, and cf. tek — tók above
with zero ending).

3.6.3 Mood
Mood is sometimes known as ‘modality’, and refers in its broadest
sense to the attitude of a speaker or writer to what s/he is saying. Moodis thus concerned with matters like certainty, vagueness, possibility,
will, obligation, etc. and the ways in which they may be expressed. In
English, modal auxiliaries (subordinate verbs expressing mood, cf.
3.6.2) like ought, shall, may, etc. are widely used to convey such attitudes, and that is also the case in Old Norse. To a limited extent, English may also employ inflexion, i.e. in addition to indicating person,
number and present or past tense, forms of the verb may suggest something about the speaker’s or writer’s attitude to what is being said. In
the sentence:
He goes every day
the ‘going’ is presented as factual — as taking place — whereas in:
I suggest that he go
the ‘going’ is merely something that is envisaged. Similarly, in:I was single thenthe speaker or writer presents his/her unmarried status at a time in thepast as fact. In:
If I were single . . .
on the other hand, the presupposition is that the speaker/writer is married, and the counter-factual sense of the hypothesis is (in part) conveyed by the form of the verb. Both was and were are 1st person singular
past tense forms of to be in English, but they indicate different atti-

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135

tudes to the truth value of what is said on the part of speaker or writer.
Was, as also goes in the previous pair of examples, represents what is
known as the indicative mood, were, together with go in the previous
pair, the subjunctive.
Beyond these cases (3rd person singular present of most verbs and1st (and 3rd) singular past of to be), there is little of mood inflexion in
English. In Old Norse, in contrast, each verb has two full sets of endings. As in English, indicative endings are used by and large in sentences where the predicate denotes something regarded by the speaker/
writer as factual or certain. Subjunctive endings are found chiefly insentences where the predicate denotes something regarded by the
speaker/writer as hypothetical: a wish, request, instruction, supposition, possibility, etc. In addition, Old Norse has an imperative mood(used for commands — see below), but this only manifests itself inthe 2nd person singular (some have reckoned with 1st and 2nd pl.
imperatives, but these are distinctive usages, not forms). Contrastive
examples, illustrating differences between indicative, subjunctive andimperative forms in the present tense and indicative and subjunctive
forms in the past (there is no past imperative) are: ﬂú kastar ‘you
throw’ (indic.) — nema ﬂú kastir ‘unless you throw’ (subj.) — kasta(ﬂú) (or: kasta›u, cf. 3.2.1) ‘throw!’ (imp.); ﬂeir dœm›u ‘they judged’(indic.) — ﬂó ﬂeir dœm›i ‘though they judged’ (subj.).
3.6.4 Voice
Voice is a term used to denote the way in which the relationship between the subject and the object of a verb is expressed. The main
distinction in many languages, and the only one it is useful to make in
Old Norse, is between active and passive. If in English we say Johnhit him, the subject is also the agent (i.e. John is the one who does thehitting, cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1). But we may turn the sentence round, as
it were, and say he was hit (by John), where the subject, ‘he’, is thegoal of the action, or the ‘patient’, and the agent appears (optionally)in a preposition phrase (cf. 3.7). The first type of construction is known
as active and the second as passive.
Old Norse forms passive verb phrases in much the same way as
English (e.g. ﬂeir halda hátí› mikla ‘they hold a great festival’ (act.)— hátí› mikil er haldin ‘a great festival is held’ (pass.); ﬂeir nefndu

136Morphology and syntax

hann Óláf ‘they named him Óláfr’ (act.) — hann var nefndr Óláfr ‘he
was named Óláfr’ (pass.)). Morphologically, such passives are periphrastic: the main verb does not itself inflect for voice, rather we havethe appropriate form of the present or past tense of the verb vera ‘[to]be’ used as an auxiliary in combination with the past participle of themain verb, which inflects as an adjective (haldin, nom. f. sg., agrees
with hátí›, nefndr, nom. m. sg., agrees with hann, cf. 3.3.1). (See further
3.9.7.2.)
Old Norse does, however, possess an inflexion that sometimes has
passive function. This is the -sk form of the verb (so-called because inmost manifestations it consists of an -sk added to the appropriate verbal
ending). It would be misleading, however, to consider the -sk a passive
form since it more commonly appears with other functions (see 3.6.5.3).
Examples of passive usage are: hann fyrirdœmisk af illum mƒnnum
‘he is condemned by wicked men’, á hans dƒgum bygg›isk Ísland ‘inhis days Iceland was settled’, hann fannsk eigi ‘he was not found’ ‘hecould not be found’. Fyrirdœmisk ‘is condemned’ contrasts withfyrirdœmir ‘condemns’, bygg›isk ‘was settled’ with bygg›i ‘settled’and fannsk ‘was found’ with fann ‘found’.

3.6.1/3.6.2/3.6.3/3.6.4 Person and number/Tense/Mood/Voice —Exercise
1. In what ways do person and number affect the form of the verb in
Old Norse?
2. How many tenses may the Old Norse verb be said to have, andwhy?
3. How is the past tense distinguished from the present in Old Norse?
4. How is the subjunctive mood marked in Old Norse, and what are
its chief functions?
5. To what extent can the passive voice be expressed by inflexions in
Old Norse?

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137

3.6.5 Basic verb inflexions
Having introduced the main categories of the Old Norse verb, we will
now present the basic inflexions by which these categories are expressed. The emphasis is on ‘basic’. As in the case of nouns, pronouns
and adjectives, it is important for the learner not to lose sight of thewood for the trees. Deviations from the basic patterns are not infrequent, but there is little point in trying to learn those until the essentials have been mastered. In any case, it will often be possible torecognise an irregular form for what it is once one has become familiar
with the underlying system. (For students keen to see the full range of
inflexions, the grammars cited in the preamble to 3.1.4 are recommended.)

3.6.5.1 Endings
This section sets out the inflexions that are attached to the verbal root,i.e. the personal endings and the past tense suffix of weak verbs (see3.6.2). Because strong verbs lack a past tense suffix and some of theirpersonal forms are different from those of the weak verbs, it is clearest
to provide separate tables for the two types. The student should observe, however, that the majority of personal endings are common toboth strong and weak verbs. With either type, each tense potentiallyhas six different endings for the indicative and six for the subjunctive(three persons, 1st, 2nd and 3rd, times two numbers, singular andplural), and also the 2nd sg. present imperative. In reality the number
is smaller because the same form can occur in more than one position.
The endings are as follows (~ = zero, i.e. there is no ending, the form
consisting of root alone (e.g. ek tek ‘I take’, hon tók ‘she took’); actual
paradigms are given in 3.6.10).

138

Morphology and syntax
Strong verbs
Indicative

Subjunctive

1st sg. pres.
2nd sg. pres.
3rd sg. pres.
1st pl. pres.
2nd pl. pres.
3rd pl. pres.

~
-r
-r
-um
-i›
-a

-a
-ir
-i
-im
-i›
-i

1st sg. past
2nd sg. past
3rd sg. past
1st pl. past
2nd pl. past
3rd pl. past

~
-t
~
-um
-u›
-u

-a
-ir
-i
-im
-i›
-i

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.)~

Weak verbs
Indicative

Subjunctive

1st sg. pres.
2nd sg. pres.
3rd sg. pres.
1st pl. pres.
2nd pl. pres.
3rd pl. pres.

~/-a/-i-r/-ar/-ir-r/-ar/-ir
-um
-i›
-a

-a
-ir
-i
-im
-i›
-i

1st sg. past
2nd sg. past
3rd sg. past
1st pl. past
2nd pl. past
3rd pl. past-›a/-da/-ta-›ir/-dir/-tir-›i/-di/-ti-›um/-dum/-tum-›u›/-du›/-tu›-›u/-du/-tu-›a/-da/-ta-›ir/-dir/-tir-›i/-di/-ti-›im/-dim/-tim-›i›/-di›/-ti›-›i/-di/-ti

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.)~/-aVerb inflexions and their function

139

Certain regularities and patterns will be observed in these paradigms.
(1) The 2nd and 3rd person sg. present indic. always end in -r; thisis what distinguishes them from the 1st person, which either has no
ending or a vowel (the same vowel, minus the following r, as is foundin the 2nd and 3rd person).
(2) The 1st person pl. always ends in -m: -um in the indicative, -imin the subjunctive.
(3) The 2nd person pl. always ends in -›: -i› in the present indicative and the subjunctive, -u› in the past indicative.
(4) The 3rd person pl. always ends in a vowel: -a in the present
indicative, -u in the past indicative, -i in the subjunctive.
(5) The 1st person sg. ends in -a in most cases, the exceptions
being the present indicative of many verbs, and the past indicative ofstrong verbs.
(6) The 2nd person sg. ends in -ir in most cases, the exceptions
being the same as those noted in (5).
(7) The 3rd person sg. ends in -i in the past indicative of weakverbs and in the present and past subjunctive.
(8) The 1st person sg. present and past indicative of strong verbs
has no ending.
(9) The subjunctive endings of the present and past tense are the same,
except that in weak verbs they are preceded by an -›, -d or -t suffix.
These are the essential verb endings of Old Norse. Certain variations on this pattern can be found, but if the student has mastered
the above table s/he should be able to recognise the overwhelming
majority of endings encountered.
3.6.5.1 Endings — Exercise
1. In what way does the ending of the 2nd and 3rd person sg. present
indic. differ from that of the 1st?
2. Which verb-form ends in -t?
3. What endings does the 3rd person pl. exhibit, and in what forms
are the different endings to be found?
4. What characterises all 1st person pl. endings?
5. Which verb-forms have zero ending?
6. In what ways do the indicative endings of strong and weak verbs differ?
7. What endings does the 2nd person pl. exhibit, and in what forms
are the different endings to be found?
8. What characterises the subjunctive endings?

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Morphology and syntax

3.6.5.2 Vowel alternations
In order to grasp the grammatical function of individual verb-forms,
and thus their sense, it is not sufficient simply to be familiar with thevarious endings. It is also necessary to know the fundamentals of thevowel alternations that occur in the root syllables of the majority ofverbs. These are of different kinds. Some are readily predictable, others
less so, and some are not predictable at all.
Wholly predictable is the change a > ƒ caused by labial mutation. It
will have been seen that a number of verb endings contain or consistof u. As explained in relation to nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.1, 3.3.8.1),
it is a rule of Old Norse that a cannot appear before u or v, but alters
instead to ƒ in stressed syllables and to u in unstressed. Thus it is no
surprise to find that although kasta ‘[to] throw’, for example, has roota, the 1st pl. present indic. is (vit/vér) kƒstum, the 1st pl. past indic.
(vit/vér) kƒstu›um, 2nd pl. past indic. (ﬂit/ﬂér) kƒstu›u›, 3rd pl. past
indic. (ﬂeir) kƒstu›u.
Front mutation (cf. 3.1.7.2, 3.3.8.2) also causes root vowel alternations
in verbs. This too is predictable, but not directly from the verb-forms
themselves since the conditioning factor has in many cases disappeared.
All the student needs to know, however, is in which forms of whichverbs to expect front mutation, and to be aware of the back : front
correspondences arising from it.
The three parts of the verbal paradigm affected by front mutation
are the entire present indicative and subjunctive of one class of weak
verb, the singular present indicative of strong verbs, and the past subjunctive of all verbs with the exception of one weak class.
Weak verbs with a short root syllable (cf. 2.1.4) and a -ja infinitive(infinitive = the dictionary entry form, corresponding to the English‘to’ form as in to go, to hear; see 3.6.6) have front mutation throughout the present tense (and also in the infinitive), but mostly revert tothe original root vowel in the past indicative. Virtually all verbs of thistype have either a or u in the past indicative, which mutates to e, yrespectively in all other tensed forms (e.g. hann velr ‘he chooses’—hann val›i ‘he chose’, ek spyr ‘I ask’ — ek spur›a ‘I asked’).
All strong verbs that are susceptible (i.e. those with original backroot vowels) exhibit front mutation in the singular present indicative.
The back : front correspondences that arise (contrasting 3rd pl. with
3rd sg.) are as follows:Verb inflexions and their function
a —— eá ——æ
o —— ø
ó —— œ
ú —— ‡
ƒ —— ø
au —— ey
jó —— ‡
jú —— ‡

(fara —— ferr
(gráta —— grætr
(sofa —— søfr (> sefr)(blóta —— blœtr
(lúka —— l‡kr(hƒggva —— høggr(hlaupa —— hleypr(skjóta —— sk‡tr(fljúga —— fl‡gr

141‘go’, ‘goes’)‘weep’, ‘weeps’)‘sleep’, ‘sleeps’)‘sacrifice’, ‘sacrifices’)‘end’, ‘ends’)‘strike’, ‘strikes’)‘leap’, ‘leaps’)‘shoot’, ‘shoots’)‘fly’, ‘flies’)

The last two examples illustrate a more complex process thanstraightforward front mutation: ?*jó > *jœ > *j‡ > ‡ and *jú > *j‡ > ‡.
All disyllabic past subjunctive forms with original back root vowels
exhibit front mutation. The back : front correspondences that arise(contrasting 3rd pl. indic. with 3rd pl. subj. unless otherwise stated)
are as follows:a —— eá ——æ
ó ——œ
u —— yjo —— yjó —— ‡

(val›i (3rd sg.) —— vel›i ‘chose’)(báru —— bæri ‘carried’)(fóru —— fœri ‘went’)(brunnu —— brynni ‘burnt’)(bjoggu ——byggi ‘lived’)(hljópu —— hl‡pi ‘leapt’)

On the correspondences jo — y and jó — ‡, see above.
Breaking (cf. 3.1.7.3) may also cause root vowel alternation in verbs.
The plural present indicative and the present subjunctive of a small
number of common strong verbs have the diphthong ja, while the singular present indicative has the original e (e.g. ﬂeir gjalda ‘they pay’
— hann geldr ‘he pays’). As with the workings of front mutation, thedichotomy is thus between the singular present indicative on the one
hand and the rest of the present on the other, though here it is the latterthat has undergone the change.
Strong verbs, as already noted, form their past tense by root vowelchange. The alternations concerned, known as ‘vowel gradation’ orby the German term Ablaut, have nothing to do with mutation or breaking, but are a feature inherited from a pre-Germanic stage of language
development. With its origin rooted so far back in linguistic history,
the factors that shaped vowel gradation have long since disappeared,

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and there is therefore nothing like the u of labial mutation or even thehistorical i of front mutation to warn us what vowels to expect andwhen to expect them. The alternations concerned are not arbitrary,
however, but conform to regular patterns, so as soon as one particularform of a strong verb is encountered, it is often possible to predict
what the root vowels of all the other forms will be.
Here we are concerned with the present and past tenses. In these amaximum of three different gradation vowels are found, one throughout the present (subject to front mutation in the singular indicative
and to breaking in the plural indicative and subjunctive), another inthe singular past indicative, a third in the plural past indicative and thepast subjunctive (the latter also subject to front mutation). In all, there
are six regular gradation series, that is, ways in which root vowels mayalternate, and a few minor patterns found only in a small number ofverbs, albeit some quite common ones. One series, for example, has íin the present tense, ei in the sg. past indic., and i in the remaining pasttense forms. If therefore we come across the sentence hann greip sver›
sitt ‘he grasped his sword’, we may deduce (a) that greip is a singular
past tense form (in the absence of the -r 3rd sg. present ending or the -iof the subjunctive, and noting that there is in any case no verb *greipa),
and (b) that the root of the present tense will be gríp- and of the pastplural and past subjunctive grip-. Another series has a in the present, óthroughout the past. An unfamiliar verb-form fór (there being no *fóra)
may therefore be taken as singular past and its present root confidently assumed to be far-, but with front mutation in the singular present
indicative (cf. hon ferr ‘she goes’, ﬂér fari› ‘you [pl.] go’, hon fór ‘shewent’). The six basic vowel gradation series have the following alternations in the present, past sg. indic., and past pl. indic./past subj.
(front mutation forms are given in brackets):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

í —— ei —— ijó/jú (‡) —— au —— u (y)e —— a —— u (y)e —— a —— á (æ)
e —— a —— á (æ)
a (e) —— ó —— ó (œ)

It will be observed that (4) and (5) are identical. This is because acomplete series also takes in the past participle (see 3.6.6), and thereVerb inflexions and their function

143

the root vowel of (4) and (5) does vary. As noted above, certain verbs
which form their past tense by vowel change follow patterns otherthan the six just described. We find a — e —e, á — é — é, au — jó —jó, ei — é — é and variations on each. Most of the few verbs involved
are very common, and it is probably sensible for the student to learn
them individually as they are encountered.
In order to flesh out this rather abstract account, a verb illustratingeach of the six series and the minor patterns is now provided; the forms
are cited in the following order (the pl. past subj. has the same root
vowel as the sg., and indeed the 3rd pl. has exactly the same form as
the 3rd sg.; only the basic meaning(s) of the verb are given):
3rd sg., pl. present indic., 3rd sg., pl. past indic., 3rd sg./pl. past subj.
rí›r —— rí›a —— rei› —— ri›u —— ri›i ‘ride’
br‡tr —— brjóta —— braut —— brutu —— bryti ‘break’
dettr —— detta —— datt —— duttu —— dytti ‘fall’stelr —— stela —— stal —— stálu —— stæli ‘steal’drepr —— drepa —— drap —— drápu —— dræpi ‘kill’grefr —— grafa —— gróf —— grófu —— grœfi ‘dig’
fellr —— falla —— fell —— fellu —— felli ‘fall’ræ›r —— rá›a —— ré› —— ré›u —— ré›i ‘advise’ ‘rule’
hleypr —— hlaupa —— hljóp —— hljópu —— hl‡pi ‘leap’ ‘run’
leikr —— leika —— lék —— léku —— léki ‘play’

3.6.5.2 Vowel alternations — Exercise
1. Enumerate the different factors that cause root vowel alternationin the Old Norse verb.
2. Why does kastar have root vowel a and kƒstum root vowel ƒ?
3. Which three parts of the verbal paradigm are affected by front
mutation?
4. Account for the difference in root vowel between rá›a and ræ›r,
brjóta and br‡tr, taka and tekr and gjalda and geldr.
5. Account for the difference in root vowel between tóku and tœki,brutu and bryti and krƒf›u and kref›i.
6. What is meant by vowel gradation? What part does it play in theinflexion of strong verbs?

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3.6.5.3 The -sk form
As indicated above (3.6.4), the -sk form of the verb consists for themost part of an -sk suffix added to existing endings. Where the final
sound in an ending is -r, this is assimilated to the s and the resulting ss
is then simplified (e.g. finnsk ‘is found’, 3rd sg. present indic.,< *finnssk < *finnrsk). Where the final sound of an ending is -› or -t,
the juxtaposition with s is rendered z (e.g. fœ›izk ‘are brought up’, 2nd
pl. present indic., < *fœ›i›sk; cf. 2.1.3). This applies even where › ort is juxtaposed to s after the assimilation of r as just outlined (e.g. gezk
‘is begotten’, 3rd sg. present indic., < getsk < *getssk < *getrsk).
In older texts the 1st person singular forms deviate from this pattern:they appear with an -umk ending attached to the plural root of the relevanttense and mood (e.g. ek kƒllumk ‘I am called’, with labially mutatedroot kall-, ek rá›umk frá ‘I refrain from’, with root rá›-, contrast ekræ› ‘I advise’). 1st person -sk verbs are not very common at all,however, especially 1st person singular (and very rarely do they havepassive sense either in the singular or plural, cf. rá›umk above).
In younger texts not only is the 1st person sg. -umk replaced by the
2nd/3rd person sg. form, but a bewildering variety of suffixes is foundas well as or in place of -sk, -umk. The more common are -zk (which
spreads from its original domain, cf. above), -s, -z, -st and -zt; hybrids
such as 1st sg. -umsk, -ums also occur. Ultimately, the -st form replaces all the others, and is the one used in modern Icelandic, Faroeseand Norwegian nynorsk.
Most normalised texts will use the forms set out in the table below,
but even where that is not the case, or the student is confronted withan unnormalised text, there should be few problems of recognition.
What needs to be remembered is, first: that -umk, -sk, -zk, -s, -z, -st,-zt, etc. are variant realisations of a single underlying form and choiceof any particular one does not change the meaning; second: that inmost cases the suffix — whichever is employed — will simply beattached to the verbal ending (e.g. nefndisk ‘named him/herself’ ‘wasnamed’ consists of nefn-di-sk: root + 3rd sg. past ending + -sk); theexceptions to this rule have been described above.
With these reservations, the -sk form of the verb may be set out asfollows. (Both personal and -sk endings are given; actual paradigms
will be found in 3.6.10.)

Verb inflexions and their function
Strong verbs
Indicative

Subjunctive

1st sg. pres.
2nd sg. pres.
3rd sg. pres.
1st pl. pres.
2nd pl. pres.
3rd pl. pres.

-umk
-sk
-sk
-umsk
-izk
-ask

-umk
-isk
-isk
-imsk
-izk
-isk

1st sg. past
2nd sg. past
3rd sg. past
1st pl. past
2nd pl. past
3rd pl. past

-umk
-zk
-sk
-umsk
-uzk
-usk

-umk
-isk
-isk
-imsk
-izk
-isk

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.)

145

-sk

Weak verbs
Indicative

Subjunctive

1st sg. pres.
2nd sg. pres.
3rd sg. pres.
1st pl. pres.
2nd pl. pres.
3rd pl. pres.

-umk-sk/-ask/-isk-sk/-ask/-isk
-umsk
-izk
-ask

-umk
-isk
-isk
-imsk
-izk
-isk

1st sg. past
2nd sg. past
3rd sg. past
1st pl. past
2nd pl. past
3rd pl. past-›umk/-dumk/-tumk-›isk/-disk/-tisk-›isk/-disk/-tisk-›umsk/-dumsk/-tumsk-›uzk/-duzk/-tuzk-›usk/-dusk/-tusk-›umk/-dumk/-tumk-›isk/-disk/-tisk-›isk/-disk/-tisk-›imsk/-dimsk/-timsk-›izk/-dizk/-tizk-›isk/-disk/-tisk

Imperative (2nd sg. pres.)-sk/-ask

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Although we are concerned in this section with form rather thanfunction, a few lines on the use of the -sk form will not be amiss.
The Old Norse -sk verb is often termed the ‘middle voice’. This isunhelpful because we are dealing here not with a voice in the sense of
the active or passive (cf. 3.6.4), but with a verbal inflexion that has avariety of functions. One such is reflexive: the -sk suffix can often be
the equivalent of the reflexive pronoun sik (e.g. hann nefndi sik/nefndisk‘he named himself’). It will be seen, however, that ‘he named himself’or ‘he called himself’ overlaps semantically with ‘he was named’ ‘hewas called’, and it is probably in constructions of this kind that -sk
first came to take on a passive function. The -sk suffix can also havereciprocal function (e.g. bítask ‘bite each other’, gefask ‘give eachother’). In the case of many verbs, the addition of -sk simply imparts,
or may impart, a different meaning from that of the simple form (e.g.
gera ‘[to] do’ — gerask ‘[to] become’, minna ‘[to] remind’ — minnask‘[to] remember’). Some verbs only exist in an -sk guise (e.g. óttask‘[to] fear’). For the learner the best procedure is probably to treat -sk
verbs as separate words from their non-sk counterparts, until s/he hasdeveloped some feel for Old Norse. (See further 3.9.8.3.)

3.6.5.3 The -sk form — Exercise
1. Of what elements are the majority of -sk verb-forms composed?
2. What happens when the -sk suffix is added to a verbal ending in -›or -t?
3. Why do we find the 3rd sg. present indic. -sk forms kallask, teksk,
nefnisk and not *kallarsk, *tekrsk, *nefnirsk?
4. Where is the suffix -umk found, and what form of the verbal root is
it attached to?
5. In what guises other than -sk and -umk does the -sk form of theverb appear?
6. Enumerate the principal functions of the -sk verb-form.

3.6.6 Finite and non-finite forms; principal parts
So far we have discussed only present and past tense forms of theverb. The reason for treating these separately, and first, is that they areVerb inflexions and their function

147

central to every sentence. It was pointed out in 3.6 that the verb is the‘non-reducible part of the predicate’, but it would be more precise to
say that it is the tensed verb that is the essential element — and inGermanic languages that means a verb in the present or past tense.
Thus we may attest in English: he sings and he sang, but not: *he sing,*he sung or *he singing. Nevertheless, sing, sung and singing are considered to belong to the same lexical item (dictionary word) as singsand sang, and to that extent to represent the same word class. In termsof function, however, sing, as in to sing, behaves more like a noun(compare I want to sing and I want beer, in which to sing and the nounbeer occupy the same slot in the sentence), and sung and singing more
like adjectives (compare a sung chorus, the singing detective and anoisy chorus, the smart detective, in which sung, singing occupy thesame slots as the adjectives noisy, smart; note that singing may also
be a pure noun as in I like singing, but then it is not considered part ofthe verb at all).
There is thus every reason to make a distinction between to sing,sung and singing on the one hand and sings and sang on the other. In
grammatical description the former are commonly said to represent
the non-finite parts of the verb, the latter the finite. This terminology
is based on the observation that sings and sang make a contrast oftense; they are in one way or another bound by time. The same is nottrue of to sing, sung and singing, which are independent of time. Thatis perhaps not immediately obvious in the case of sung or singing.
Sung appears to refer to the past (I have sung mass), and is even calleda ‘past participle’. Consider, however, the hymn was/is/will be sung in
unison, where the time distinctions are not applicable to sung, but arein the finite verbs, was/is/will. Singing is even harder to connect with
past, present or future. It is known as a ‘present participle’, but is infact timeless (cf. the singing detective); in verb phrases of the typewas/is/will be singing, it is again the finite verbs that provide the timereference.
Old Norse has the same non-finite forms as English, to wit: theinfinitive — at syngja ‘to sing’, the past participle — sunginn ‘sung’,and the present participle — syngjandi ‘singing’. Mention is occasionally made of a ‘past infinitive’, but the form concerned is in origin
the 3rd pl. past indic. and its use as an ‘infinitive’ seems to have arisen
through the recasting of certain finite clauses on analogy with common constructions that employ the standard infinitive. Very few ‘past

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infinitive’ forms are attested, in Old Norse prose only three regularly.
The usage is illustrated in 3.9.4.
Being non-finite forms, the infinitive and the participles do not haveverbal inflexion. The Old Norse infinitive is not inflected at all. It
regularly ends in -a, to which the -sk form may be suffixed as appropriate (e.g., berja ‘beat’, berjask ‘fight [literally: beat each other]’).
The participles, as we have seen (3.3.9, paradigms 7, 11, 16, 19; also
3.3.6, sentences 1, 4, 7, 22), inflect as adjectives. The past participleof strong verbs has the adjectival -in suffix, that of weak the same -›,-d, -t suffix as the past tense (e.g. farinn, farit ‘gone’, from fara, kraf›r,
kraft ‘demanded’, from krefja, strong nom. m. and nom./acc. n. sg. inboth cases). The -sk inflexion is added to the nom./acc. n. sg. form invarious periphrastic constructions (e.g. hafa farizk ‘have perished’ (farit+ sk, with ts written z), var sætzk ‘was come to terms [i.e. terms wereagreed]’ (sætt + sk)). The present participle is formed with an -andsuffix, as shown in 3.3.9, paradigm 19. It does not normally take the-sk inflexion.
Although the non-finite verb-forms in terms both of inflexion andfunction are largely non-verbal, they are nevertheless, as noted above,
considered to belong to the same word class as the finite. This is because it is counter-intuitive to view the present and past tense of any
given verb as a separate word from the infinitive and the participles.
The non-finite forms thus have their place in the verbal paradigm.
Indeed, the infinitive is usually taken as the basic form — as the word
itself, of which all the other manifestations are inflected parts. That is
why the infinitive regularly appears as the dictionary entry form.
As we have seen, the endings of verbs in Old Norse and the root
vowel alternations caused by labial and front mutation and breaking
are predictable. This means that it is only necessary to cite a minimal
number of basic forms for the student to be able to identify a particularverb-form s/he has encountered, i.e. to determine what verb it is partof and its person, number, tense and mood. These basic forms, known as‘principal parts’, include the infinitive and the past participle. Fromthe infinitive it is possible to deduce all the present tense forms (provided the person and number endings and the workings of labial andfront mutation and breaking are known). From the 3rd sg. past indicative(or alternatively the 1st or 2nd person) all the past tense forms of weakverbs can be readily predicted. This is less true of strong verbs: many

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149

undergo vowel change between the singular and plural past indicative,
so they need to be cited in both a singular and plural form; the past
subjunctive of strong verbs, on the other hand, can be deduced fromthe plural indicative (once again, provided the inflexional basics are
known). Finally, the past participle needs to be given since those ofstrong verbs usually exhibit further root vowel change; a few weakverbs, too, show irregular forms, but for the most part their participles
are deducible from the past tense. We thus have a minimum of threeprincipal parts for weak verbs and four for strong. Front-mutatedpresent singular indicatives and past subjunctives may be included as
optional extras, but these are non-essential. The decision whether or not
to cite them will depend on how much help one thinks the learner needs.
This is how the system works. A strong verb like rjúfa ‘break’ ‘violate’ will be listed in a grammar or dictionary with its infinitive, rjúfa,
the 3rd (or 1st) sg. past indic. rauf, 3rd (or 1st) pl. past indic. rufu
(rufum), and pp. rofinn or rofit (the choice in the case of the pp. being
between the strong nom. m. or nom./acc. n. sg. forms). From theinfinitive, the present sg. indic. forms r‡f, r‡fr can be deduced byapplying the appropriate endings and the rule: ‘in the present sg. indic.
strong verbs with back root vowels undergo front mutation’. All theother present tense forms will have root rjúf-. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd sg.
past indic. have root rauf- with the -t ending added in the 2nd person.
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd pl. past indic. have root ruf- plus the appropriate
endings, and from this the subjunctive root ryf- can be deduced, towhich the appropriate subjunctive endings are added. The participial
root is rof-, which remains unchanged whatever the adjective ending.
A weak verb like krefja ‘demand’ will be listed with infinitive krefja,
3rd (or 1st) sg. past indic. kraf›i (kraf›a), and pp. kraf›r or kraft. Fromthe infinitive all the present tense forms can be deduced simply byadding the appropriate endings. (One will need to recognise the typeof weak verb involved (see below) to know whether the indicative sg.
endings are ~, -a or -i (1st), -r, -ar or -ir (2nd/3rd), but this variationis unlikely to cause problems of understanding to the reader of Old Norse.)
From the 3rd or 1st sg. past indic. all the past tense forms can be
deduced by applying the appropriate endings, the labial mutation rule,and the rule: ‘all disyllabic past subjunctive forms with original backroot vowels exhibit front mutation’. Thus, the pl. indic. root + -› suffixof krefja will be krƒf›-, because all three plural endings begin with u;150

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the subjunctive root + -› suffix will be kref›-, because a is a backvowel and thus susceptible to front mutation. The pp. root + suffix,
kraf›-, will undergo labial mutation like any other adjective (cf.
3.3.8.1), so we find that the strong dat. m. and nom. f. sg. forms, forexample, are krƒf›um and krƒf› respectively.
In the case of the majority of weak verbs, which, unlike krefja, havethe same root vowel in the past indic. as in the present, often only thepast suffix (with ‘connecting vowel’ where appropriate; see below) is
given in addition to the infinitive (e.g. kalla (a›) ‘call’, hefna (d)‘avenge’, œpa (t) ‘shout’). From this minimal information all forms ofthe verb concerned are deducible. Kalla undergoes only labial mutation of the root vowel since it is trisyllabic (a three-syllable word) in
the past tense; hefna and œpa already have a front-mutated root vowel
and this cannot undergo further mutation.
Having now established what the principal parts of strong and weakverbs are, and how any form of a given verb may be deduced fromthese, we conclude this section by listing the principal parts of a strong
and weak verb of each major type, and then explaining more fully
what is meant by ‘type’ of weak verb. The principal parts of each verb
are listed in the following order (those in brackets are optional, seeabove; the pp. is given in the strong nom. m. sg. form):inf., indic. (3rd sg. pres.), 3rd sg. past, 3rd pl. past, (subj. 3rd sg./pl. past), pp.
Strong verb type 1: bíta ‘bite’bíta —— bítr —— beit —— bitu —— biti —— bitinn
Strong verb type 2: skjóta ‘shoot’skjóta —— sk‡tr —— skaut —— skutu —— skyti —— skotinn
Strong verb type 3: bresta ‘burst’
bresta —— brestr —— brast —— brustu —— brysti —— brostinn
Strong verb type 4: bera ‘bear’
bera —— berr —— bar —— báru —— bæri —— borinn
Strong verb type 5: reka ‘drive’reka —— rekr —— rak —— ráku —— ræki —— rekinn

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Strong verb type 6: fara ‘go’
fara —— ferr —— fór —— fóru —— fœri —— farinn
Minor strong verb types:
falla ‘fall’, gráta ‘cry’, hlaupa ‘leap’ ‘run’, leika ‘play’falla —— fellr —— fell —— fellu —— felli —— fallinn
gráta —— grætr —— grét —— grétu —— gréti —— grátinn
hlaupa —— hleypr —— hljóp —— hljópu —— hl‡pi ——hlaupinn
leika —— leikr —— lék —— léku —— léki —— leikinn
Weak verb type 1: krefja ‘demand’krefja —— krefr —— kraf›i —— krƒf›u —— kref›i —— kraf›r
Weak verb type 2: kalla ‘call’
kalla —— kallar —— kalla›i —— kƒllu›u —— kalla›i ——kalla›r
Weak verb type 3: heyra ‘hear’heyra —— heyrir —— heyr›i —— heyr›u —— heyr›i —— heyr›r
The three types of weak verb differ in a number of ways. For thelearner what will be most noticeable is: type 1 has root vowel change
between the present and past indic. (krefja — kraf›i) and no vowel inthe sg. present indic. endings (hann krefr); type 2 has a ‘connecting
vowel’ a in the past tense (kalla›i) and a in the sg. present indic. endings (hann kallar); type 3 has the same root vowel throughout, noconnecting vowel in the past tense and i in the sg. present indic. endings (hann heyrir). The three distinct past tense suffixes, -›, -d and -t,
are distributed not according to type of verb, but phonetic environment, so that › occurs after vowels and most voiced consonants (kalla›i,
fá›i ‘coloured’, kraf›i, heyr›i), d chiefly after n (hefndi ‘avenged’),and t after unvoiced consonants (vakti ‘wakened’, œpti ‘shouted’). In
the earliest texts ﬂ is found after unvoiced consonants, and from thelate thirteenth century onwards d replaces › after certain voiced
consonants, particularly l and m (val›i/valdi ‘chose’, dœm›i/dœmdi
‘judged’).

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3.6.6 Finite and non-finite forms; principal parts — Exercise
1. What essential differences are there between finite and non-finite
verb-forms?
2. What non-finite verb-forms are found in Old Norse?
3. What is meant by the ‘principal parts’ of an Old Norse verb, andwhy are these important?
4. Look up the verb hljóta in an Old Norse dictionary or in the Glossary in NION III. Give the four basic principal parts and thereafter
the 1st person sg. present indic., the 3rd pl. present indic. and subj.,
the 2nd pl. past indic., and 3rd pl. past subj.
5. Look up the verb verja ‘[to] defend’. Perform the same operation
as for hljóta in question 4.
6. How many types of strong and weak verb are there in Old Norse?
7. What distinguishes the different types of weak verb?
8. What determines the form of the past tense suffix of weak verbs?

3.6.7 Preterite presents and other irregular verbs
The preterite present verbs of Old Norse form a small but importantclass — important because virtually all its members are extremelycommon. The majority are modal auxiliaries (verbs subordinate to themain verb, which express mood, e.g. English I would come, she mightgo; cf. 3.6.3). The term ‘preterite present’ reflects the fact that verbs ofthis type have strong past tense forms in the present; in the past they
inflect for the most part like weak verbs, though not all of them havethe dental suffix associated with weak inflexion. The reason for thepreterite present aberration lies in linguistic pre-history. Put at its most
simple, the Germanic past tense is a development of an earlier perfect,
which expressed completed action or the state obtaining after the action.
While the perfects of most verbs happily made the transition to past,
those of what became the preterite presents seem so firmly to haveexpressed present state that they were ultimately absorbed into thepresent tense by the creation of new (weak) past tense forms. Thus,
ON vita ‘know’ is related to Latin videre ‘see’ ‘perceive’, and hon veit
‘she knows’ (cf. past tense beit ‘bit’, leit ‘looked’, etc.) must derivefrom a form that originally meant something like ‘she has perceived’.

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The principal parts of the preterite presents are listed in the following order (the pp. is given in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form, for someverbs the only one used; note the infinitives munu and skulu, modelled on the 3rd pl. present indic., which in virtually all verbs has thesame form as the infinitive):inf., 3rd sg., pl. pres. indic., 3rd sg. pres. subj., 3rd sg. past indic., subj., pp.
eiga ‘own’
eiga —— á —— eigu —— eigi —— átti —— ætti —— átt
kunna ‘know’ ‘understand’
kunna — kann — kunnu — kunni — kunni — kynni — kunnat
mega ‘be able to’mega — má — megu — megi — mátti — mætti — mátt/megat
muna ‘remember’
muna — man — munu — muni — mundi — myndi — munat
munu ‘will’ ‘shall’ (denoting future time or uncertainty)
munu — mun — munu — muni/myni — mundi — myndi — (lacking)skulu ‘shall’ (denoting obligation or intention)skulu — skal — skulu — skuli/skyli — skyldi — skyldi — (lacking)unna ‘love’
unna — ann — unnu — unni — unni — ynni — unnt/unnat
vita ‘know’vita — veit — vitu — viti — vissi — vissi — vitat
ﬂurfa ‘need’
ﬂurfa — ﬂarf — ﬂurfu — ﬂurfi — ﬂurfti — ﬂyrfti — ﬂurft/ﬂurfat
Two verbs not historically preterite presents have something in common with the above. They are vilja ‘wish’ ‘want’, a weak modal
auxiliary with (in later texts) 2nd sg. present indic. in -t like the other

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preterite presents, and vera ‘be’, a highly irregular strong verb basicallyof type 5 but with preterite-type forms in the present indic. (2nd sg.
ert, 2nd, 3rd pl. eru›, eru; note also 1st sg. em). Of vilja the same
principal parts are given as for the preterite presents above; of vera
the same plus the 3rd pl. past indic. (cf. the principal parts of strong
verbs in 3.6.6 above):vilja — vill — vilja — vili — vildi — vildi — viljat
vera — er — eru — sé — var — váru — væri — verit
In addition to the above, there is a small group of common verbs
that have regular strong present tense forms, but a past whose root
undergoes radical change, metamorphosing to initial consonant(s) +er or ør, to which weak endings are attached. The pp. has the sameroot as the infinitive and the -in participial suffix of a strong verb. The
verbs concerned are gnúa ‘rub’, gróa ‘grow’, róa ‘row’, sá ‘sow’, snúa
‘turn’. Two examples will suffice (citing the same principal parts as
for the preterite presents above).
róa — rœr — róa — rói — reri/røri — reri/røri — róit
snúa — sn‡r — snúa — snúi — sneri/snøri — sneri/snøri — snúit
Finally, the principal parts of valda ‘cause’, gøra/gera ‘do’ ‘make’,hafa ‘have’ and ver›a ‘become’ are given, the first because it is highly
irregular (with strong forms in the present, a radically altered root andweak endings in the past), the latter three because they are extensively
used in a variety of constructions (hafa and ver›a often as auxiliaries)and exhibit certain forms that may not be wholly transparent. For valda,
gøra/gera and hafa, with weak pasts, it is enough to cite inf., 3rd sg.
pres. indic., 3rd sg. past indic. and subj., and pp. (for gøra/gera withroot vowel change only in the pp. fewer forms would in fact do); forver›a, the full complement of strong verb principal parts is given (cf.
3.6.6). The pp. is in each case in the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form.
valda —— veldr —— olli —— ylli —— valdit
gera —— gerir —— ger›i —— ger›i —— gƒrthafa —— hefr/hefir —— haf›i —— hef›i —— haftver›a —— ver›r —— var› —— ur›u —— yr›i —— or›itVerb inflexions and their function155

3.6.7 Preterite presents and other irregular verbs — Exercise
1. What is the meaning of the term ‘preterite present’?
2. What inflexional features characterise preterite present verbs?
3. What function do many preterite present verbs have?
4. Study the principal parts of kunna (above), and then give the following forms: 2nd person sg. and pl. present indic., 1st pl. present
subj., 3rd pl. past indic. and subj.
5. What forms do vilja and vera have in common with preterite present
verbs?
6. What is unusual about the inflexion of (a) gróa, (b) valda, (c) hafa?

3.6.8 Examples of verb usage
Following the same procedure as for other word classes, examples are
now given of verbs in function. With the vast range of verbal forms
and functions that exists, only a selection can be illustrated, with theemphasis on the most common types. Equally, because so many different features are involved — person and number, tense, mood, voice,-sk forms, periphrastic constructions — and several features combine
in the one verb phrase, it has proved difficult to order the examples inany meaningful way. Note that the verbal inflexions being illustrated(or the whole word where there is no difference from the root of theinfinitive or an inflexion cannot easily be discerned) are printed inbold type. To underline the grammatical relations involved, bold isalso used for the subject, which triggers the person and number formin the verb. Compare the inflexions used below with those set out anddiscussed in 3.6.5, 3.6.6 and 3.6.7.
(1)Hann b‡r fer› sína ok fór til Nóregs
‘He prepares journey REFL. POSS. and went to Norway’‘He gets ready to depart and went to Norway’B‡r is 3rd sg. present indic. of the strong verb búa (minor type). Fór is 3rd sg.
past indic. of the strong verb fara (type 6). Indicative is used because factual
statements are being made about what happened. The abrupt change frompresent to past tense is characteristic of Old Norse prose style.

156
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Morphology and syntax
Jarl svarar ok ba› konung gefa sér frest at hugsa ﬂetta mál‘Earl answers and bade king give self respite to consider thismatter’‘The earl answers and asked the king to give him time toconsider this matter’

Svarar is 3rd sg. present indic. of the weak verb svara (type 2). Ba› is 3rd sg.
past indic. of the strong verb bi›ja (type 5, but with root i in the inf. andpresent tense, see 3.6.9.1 point (5)). Indicative is used in both cases because
factual statements are being made about what happened. Gefa is an infinitive,
a complement of ba›; it has no overt subject, but konung, the object of ba›,functions as covert (understood) subject (i.e. it is the king who is to do thegiving; see further (24) below and 3.9.4). Hugsa is likewise an infinitive, acomplement of frest; again there is only a covert subject: the earl (i.e. it is he
who is to do the considering).

(3)

ﬁorfinnr vissi eigi, at Brúsi haf›i upp gefit ríki sitt‘ﬁorfinnr knew not that Brúsi had up given realm REFL. POSS.’‘ﬁorfinnr did not know that Brúsi had surrendered his realm’Vissi is 3rd sg. past indic. of preterite present vita. Haf›i is 3rd sg. past indic.
of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together with the pp. gefit, from
gefa (strong type 5), it forms a so-called ‘past perfect’ construction, the equivalent of English ‘had given’ (the strong nom./acc. n. sg. form of the pp., whenused in perfect and past perfect constructions, is known as the supine, see
3.9.7.1). On the use of the indicative mood, see (1) and (2) above.

(4)

Skil›usk ﬂeir me› kærleikum‘They parted with friendship’

Skil›usk is 3rd pl. past indic. of weak skilja (type 1) with the -sk suffix (skil›u+ sk). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2) above. Skilja means ‘separate’ ‘divide’; the -sk form imparts a reciprocal sense: ‘they separated (from)each other’.

(5)

Eptir ﬂat sefask Rƒgnvaldr‘After that Rƒgnvaldr calms down’Sefask is 3rd sg. present indic. of weak sefa (type 2) with the -sk suffix (sefar+ sk with assimilation rs > ss and simplification ss > s in unstressed position(see 3.6.5.3)). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2). Sefa means ‘soothe’Verb inflexions and their function

157‘calm’; the -sk form is probably in origin a reflexive (‘calms himself’), but it
can also be conceived as passive (‘is soothed’), and thus illustrates how thefunction of the -sk form could develop from reflexive to passive.

(6)

Sumir menn segja, at hann hafi fallit‘Some men say that he has fallen’Segja is 3rd pl. present indic. of weak segja (type 3, but with vowel change inthe past tense, see 3.6.9.2 point (5)). Hafi is 3rd sg. present subj. of weak hafa(see (3)); together with supine fallit, from falla (strong minor type), it forms a
perfect construction (see (3)). Observe the difference between the use of theindicative and subjunctive: that ‘men say’ is what the writer reports as fact;that ‘he has fallen’ is not what the writer says, but what he claims other people
say, and thus from the writer’s point of view no longer a statement of fact.

(7)

Ef ﬂú vill eigi gerask minn ma›r, ﬂá er sá annarr kostr, at
ek setja ﬂann mann yfir Orkneyjar, er ek vil.
‘If you will not make-sk my man, then is that other choice,that I put that man over Orkneys whom I want’‘If you are not willing to become my man, then the alternative is that I put whatever man I want in charge of the Orkneys’

Vill is 2nd sg. present indic. of weak vilja (type 1, but irregular, see 3.6.7 and3.6.9.1 point (11)); together with inf. gerask, -sk form of weak gera ‘do’ ‘make’(type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7), it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3).
Gerask has a different meaning from gera, though the origin of the sense‘become’ can probably be sought in the reflexive ‘make oneself’. Er is 3rd sg.
present indic. of irregular vera (3.6.7). Setja is 1st sg. present subj. of weak
setja (type 1, but with no vowel alternation between present and past, see
3.6.9.3). Vil is 1st sg. present indic. of vilja (see above); here, too, it functions
as a modal, although not accompanied by an overt infinitive (the sense, however, is ‘whom I want to put’). Observe the difference between the use of theindicative and subjunctive. In present tense conditional sentences beginningwith ef ‘if’ (see 3.8.2.4) the indicative is normally used even though no statement of fact is being made, hence vill. In the independent sentence which
follows there is hardly a recording of fact either, rather a statement of thesituation that will obtain if the condition is not fulfilled, but such sentences,too, have the indicative. Setja, however, denotes a wholly hypothetical action,and is accordingly subjunctive. With vil we are once again back with theindicative: the speaker’s will is presented as real and immediate.

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Morphology and syntax
Hann tók til or›a ok gneri nefit‘He took to words and rubbed nose-the’‘He started to speak and rubbed his nose’

Tók is 3rd sg. past indic. of strong taka (type 6, but with root e in the pp., see
3.6.9.1 point (4)). Gneri is 3rd sg. past indic. of irregular gnúa (3.6.7). Bothstatements are factual and the indicative is therefore used.

(9)

Váru sumir drepnir, sumir á braut reknir‘Some were killed, some driven away’

Váru is 3rd pl. past indic. of irregular vera (3.6.7); together with the pp.s
drepnir and reknir, from drepa and reka (both strong type 5), it forms passive
constructions, the equivalent of English ‘were killed’, ‘(were) driven’ (in such
constructions the pp. inflects as a strong adj. (see 3.6.4), here nom. m. pl.,agreeing with the subjects sumir . . . sumir). For the use of the indicative, see(1) and (2).

(10)

Hefir ﬂú eigi heyrt ﬂat, at ek em ekki vanr at bœta ﬂá mennfé, er ek læt drepa‘Have you not heard that, that I am not accustomed to compensate those men with-money whom I let kill’‘Have you not heard that I am not accustomed to paying compensation for the men I cause to be put to death’

Hefir is 2nd sg. present indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7);
together with the supine heyrt, from heyra (weak type 3), it forms a perfect
construction (see (3)). Em is 1st sg. present indic. of irregular vera (3.6.7).
Bœta is an infinitive, a complement of vera vanr ‘be accustomed’; its covert
subject is the ek of the finite sentence: ek em ekki vanr (see (2)). Læt is 1st sg.
present indic. of strong láta (minor type); it acts here as an auxiliary, andtogether with the infinitive (drepa, strong type 5) forms a construction withthe sense ‘cause to be killed’ ‘have killed’. Indicative is used throughout because nothing is presented as unreal or hypothetical; after verbs meaning ‘hear’,‘learn’, ‘discover’, etc., the indicative is almost always found, the truth valueof what is ‘heard’ being taken for granted; the unwillingness of the speaker topay compensation and his propensity to have people killed are in no doubt.

(11)Nor›menn ok Danir herju›u mjƒk í vestrvíking ok kómu
optliga vi› eyjarnar, er ﬂeir fóru vestr e›a vestan, ok námu
ﬂar nesnám

Verb inflexions and their function

159‘Norwegians and Danes harried much in west-viking andcame often to islands-the when they went west or from-west,
and took there headland-plunder’‘Norwegians and Danes made many raiding expeditions to
the West and often called by the Orkneys when they weregoing west or (returning) east and plundered the headlands’
Herju›u is 3rd pl. past indic. of weak herja (type 2). Kómu, fóru and námu are
likewise 3rd pl. past indic., of strong koma (historically type 4, but highly
irregular, see 3.6.9.3), fara (type 6) and nema (type 4). On the use of theindicative, see (1) and (2).

(12)

Fyrir ofdrambs sakar haf›i hann villzk ok snúizk ífrá gu›i
‘For arrogance sake had he bewildered-sk and turned-sk fromGod’
‘Because of arrogance he had gone astray and turned from God’Haf›i is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7);
together with the -sk supines villzk and snúizk (< villt + sk, from weak type 3
villa, snúit + sk, from irregular snúa (3.6.7), both with ts written ‘z’) it forms
past perfect constructions (see (3)). Both the -sk forms are in origin probably
reflexives (‘led himself astray’, ‘turned himself’). On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

(13)

Muntu ok eigi vilja vita ﬂat á ﬂik, at ﬂú liggir hér sem kƒttr
í hreysi, ﬂar er ek berjumk til frelsis hvárumtveggjum‘Will-you also not want know that onto you, that you lie
here like cat in cranny, there where I fight-sk for freedom
for-both’‘You will also not want to be accused of lying here like a cat
in a cranny while I fight for the freedom of both of us’

Muntu (either munt + ﬂú with assimilation tﬂ > tt and simplification tt > t after
another consonant or mun + ﬂú with loss of -t ending before ﬂú and partial
assimilation nﬂ > nt, see 3.2.1) is 2nd sg. present indic. of preterite present
munu; together with infinitives vilja (weak type 1, but irregular, see 3.6.7,
3.6.9.1 point (11)) and vita (preterite present) it forms a double modal construction (i.e. two modal verbs ‘will [future]’ and ‘want to’ are involved).
Liggir is 2nd sg. present subj. of strong liggja (type 5, but irregular, see 3.6.9.3).
Berjumk is 1st sg. present of weak berja (type 1) with the -umk suffix (which

160

Morphology and syntax

replaces -sk in the 1st sg.). The -sk form of berja is in origin reciprocal (‘beateach other’), but it comes to have the more general meaning ‘fight’ — inwhich ‘each other’ may or may not be understood. Of the three finite verbs inthis example one is indic., one subj. and one indeterminate on the basis ofform: mun(t) records what the speaker presents as fact, whereas liggir refers
to a hypothetical event; berjumk is almost certainly indic. since the speaker isin no doubt about the fighting in which he will be involved.

(14)

Hverr veit, nema ek ver›a ví›a frægr
‘Who knows, but-that I become widely famous’‘Who knows whether I may not become famous far and wide’

Veit is 3rd sg. present indic. of preterite present vita. Ver›a is 1st sg. present
subj. of strong ver›a (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7). The first sentence contains a direct present-tense question introduced by an interrogative pronoun(hverr) and, like all sentences of this type, has a verb in the indicative. The
second sentence is introduced by the conjunction nema which automaticallytriggers a subjunctive verb-form since it presupposes a hypothetical situation.

(15)

Bei›ir ﬂá Einarr, at Rƒgnvaldr skyli rá›ask til fer›ar me›
ﬂeim‘Requests then Einarr that Rƒgnvaldr shall set-out-sk onjourney with them’‘Einarr then requests that Rƒgnvaldr should set out on thejourney with them’Bei›ir is 3rd sg. present indic. of weak bei›a (type 3). Skyli is 3rd sg. present
subj. of preterite present skulu; together with inf. rá›ask, -sk form of strongrá›a ‘advise’, ‘rule’ (minor type), it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3).
Rá›ask has various meanings, mostly different from those of rá›a; the semantic
development can often be hard to trace. Bei›ir is indic. because it denotes
what the writer regards as fact; skyli, in contrast, refers to what Einarr wants
to happen, but which may or may not take place.

(16)ﬁá hru›usk skip ﬂeira Sigur›ar ok Magnúss‘Then cleared-sk ships their Sigur›r’s and Magnús’s’‘Then Sigur›r’s and Magnús’s ships were cleared of men’Hru›usk is 3rd pl. past indic. of hrjó›a (strong type 2) with the -sk suffix. The
sense of -sk here is clearly passive: some agency cleared the ships (i.e. killed
those on board) but the goal of the action, ‘ships’, has been made subject andthe agent is left unexpressed. On the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

Verb inflexions and their function
(17)

161

Var› engi uppreist ímóti konungi gƒr‘No rebellion was made against the king’

Var› is 3rd sg. past indic. of strong ver›a (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7);
together with gƒr, pp. of gøra/gera (weak type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7), it
forms a passive construction (see (9)). Ver›a, as well as vera, may be used as
the equivalent of English ‘be’ in passive verb phrases (see further 3.9.7.2). On
the use of the indicative, see (1) and (2).

(18)

ﬁó at ﬂú ver›ir rei›r, ﬂá mældu fátt‘Though that you become angry, then speak-you little’‘Though you become angry, yet say little’Ver›ir is 2nd sg. present subj. of strong ver›a (type 3, see 3.6.7). The conjunction ﬂó at or ﬂótt (3.8.2.2), which introduces the first sentence, automaticallytriggers a subjunctive verb-form since it mostly presupposes a hypotheticalsituation. Mældu (mæl + ﬂú, with partial assimilation lﬂ > ld, see 3.2.1) is theimperative of mæla (weak type 3) with the subject pronoun attached; it expresses an instruction.

(19)

Eigi vil ek, at ﬂit hittizk optarr‘Not want I that you [dual] meet-sk more-often’‘I do not want you two to meet again’

Vil is 1st sg. present indic. of weak vilja (type 1, but irregular, see 3.6.7, 3.6.9.1
point (11)). As a modal auxiliary, it is regularly followed by an inf., but herethat is replaced by the dependent sentence at ﬂit hittizk. Hittizk is 2nd pl. presentof hitta (weak type 3) with the -sk suffix (›s being written ‘z’). The sense of -sk
here is reciprocal: ‘meet each other’. The mood of the verb cannot be deduced
from the form, but it is almost certainly subj., determined by the sense of the preceding independent sentence: that which is wanted or wished for is hypothetical.

(20)Ætla›a ek ﬂá, at ek mynda hvergi ﬂess koma, at ek mynda
ﬂess gjalda, at ek væra of fri›samr vi› óvini mína, en nú
geld ek ﬂess, er ek hefi ﬂér gri› gefit‘Thought I then, that I would nowhere of-that come that I
would for-that pay, that I was too peaceful towards enemies
my, but now pay I for-that, that I have to-you quarter given’‘I never thought then I would get into a situation where I
would pay for being too easy on my enemies, but now I am
paying for having given you quarter’162

Morphology and syntaxÆtla›a is 1st sg. past indic. of weak ætla (type 2). Mynda is 1st sg. past subj.
of preterite present munu; together with infinitives koma (strong type 4 historically, but highly irregular, see 3.6.9.3) and gjalda (strong type 3, see 3.6.5.2)
it forms modal constructions (3.6.3). Væra is 1st sg. past subj. of irregularvera (3.6.7). Geld is 1st sg. present indic. of strong gjalda (see above). Hefi is
1st sg. present indic. of weak hafa (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7); together
with supine gefit, from gefa (strong type 5), it forms a perfect construction(see (3)). The three subjunctives, mynda (twice) and væra, all depend on ætla›ain the independent sentence: this is what the speaker thought would happen,
but events have proved him wrong. With geld, we are back to statements the
speaker presents as factual.

(21)

Hann veitti allri hir› sinni bæ›i mat ok mungát, svá at menn
ﬂyrfti eigi í skytning at ganga‘He gave all his retainers both food and ale, so that men would
not need to go to an inn’

Veitti is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak veita (type 3). ﬁyrfti is 3rd pl. past subj. ofpreterite present ﬂurfa; together with inf. ganga (strong minor type) it forms a
modal construction (see 3.6.3). Indic. veitti is used in what the writer presents
as a statement of fact. The subjunctive ﬂyrfti suggests a purpose rather than aresult sentence: svá at ‘so that’ can mean either ‘in order that’ or ‘with theresult that’ (see 3.8.2.2); the former is putative, normally requiring the subj.,
the latter factual, normally requiring the indic.

(22)

Ef hann væri heill at sumri, sag›i hann, at ﬂeir skyldi finnask‘If he were hale at summer, said he, that they should find-sk’‘If he were alive when summer came, he said, they should meet’Væri is 3rd sg. past subj. of irregular vera (3.6.7). Sag›i is 3rd sg. past indic.
of weak segja (type 3, but with vowel change in the past tense, see 3.6.9.2
point (5)). Skyldi is 3rd pl. past of preterite present skulu; together with inf.
finnask, -sk form of strong finna ‘find’ (type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.9.2 point(2), 3.6.9.3), it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). The -sk form has reciprocal sense: ‘find each other’, and thus ‘meet’. Indicative sag›i presents what
the writer regards as fact, namely that ‘he’ said the accompanying sentences.
Væri conforms to the usage whereby past tense verbs in conditional sentences
are almost always subjunctive (even when, as here, the condition is ‘open’,i.e. may or may not be fulfilled, and the past tense form is simply the reported
speech equivalent of direct: ‘if I am alive when summer comes’). The moodof skyldi cannot be deduced from the form, but it is certainly subj., referring tohypothetical circumstances dependent on the indirect-speech condition of efhann væri heill at sumri.

Verb inflexions and their function
(23)

163

Mun samﬂykki okkart mest, at vit innimsk lítt til um ﬂann
ﬂri›jung landa‘Will concord our [dual] greatest, that we allude-sk little toabout that third of-lands’‘Our concord will be greatest if we make little mention ofthat third of the country’

Mun is 3rd sg. present indic. of preterite present munu; vera ‘be’, with which
it forms a modal construction, is omitted but understood (see 3.9.5.2). Innimsk
is 1st pl. present subj. of weak inna (type 3) with the -sk suffix (innim + sk).
The -sk form is in origin reciprocal: ‘speak to each other’. Indicative mun
expresses what the speaker regards as certain, subjunctive innimsk the hypothetical situation he envisages.

(24)

Kalla›i hann sér gefit hafa verit ﬂat ríki
‘Called he to-self given have been that realm’‘He said that that realm had been given to him’Kalla›i is 3rd sg. past indic. of weak kalla (type 2). Gefit is the pp. of strong
gefa (type 5), acc. n. sg., agreeing with ﬂat ríki; together with verit, supine ofirregular vera (3.6.7), it forms a passive construction (see (9)). Verit for its
part joins with inf. hafa (weak type 3, but irregular, see 3.6.7) to form a perfect. We thus have a non-finite perfect passive construction. The lack of afinite verb arises because the complement of kalla›i is what is known as an‘accusative and infinitive’ clause — one that takes the object of the matrix
verb as its subject. This is all somewhat complex, so a detailed analysis is now
offered: kalla›i (finite verb), hann (subject), ﬂat ríki (direct object of kalla›iand subject of gefit), gefit hafa verit (non-finite perfect passive construction),sér (indirect object of the infinitive clause, but coreferential with the subjectof the independent sentence); a semi-literal translation is: ‘he said that realm
to have been given to himself’. (Some would argue that sér is subject of theinfinitive clause and ﬂat ríki object. These theoretical considerations need notconcern the learner, but see 3.9.3. On acc. + inf. clauses, see further 3.9.4.)(25)

ﬁér skulu› nú frá mér ﬂess mest njóta, er ﬂér gáfu› mér líf
ok leitu›u› mér slíkrar sœm›ar sem ﬂér máttu›‘You [pl.] shall now from me that most enjoy, that you [pl.]gave me life and sought for-me such honour as you [pl.] could’‘What chiefly benefits you now as far as I am concerned isthat you gave me my life and tried to show me as much honour as you could’164

Morphology and syntax

Skulu› is 2nd pl. present indic. of preterite present skulu; together with inf.
njóta (strong type 2) it forms a modal construction (see 3.6.3). Gáfu› is 2nd
pl. past indic. of strong gefa (type 5). Leitu›u› is 2nd pl. past indic. of weakleita (type 2). Máttu› is 2nd pl. past indic. of preterite present mega; although
not accompanied by an overt infinitive, it functions as a modal (the sense is‘as you could show me’). The indic. is used throughout because everything
said is perceived by the speaker as factual.

3.6.8 Examples of verb usage — Exercise
1. In what different ways may the passive voice be expressed in Old
Norse?
2. What are the principal factors that govern the choice between indicative and subjunctive?
3. What are the principal functions of the -sk form as revealed in theabove examples?
4. What is meant by a ‘covert subject’? Give an example.
5. In which of the above examples do modal constructions (modal
auxiliary + inf.) occur? List all that you find.
6. In which of the above examples do passive constructions occur?
List all that you find.
7. In which of the above examples do perfect and past perfect constructions occur? List all that you find.
8. Explain the following forms (i.e. state what inflexion or inflexions
they have and the reasons for the inflexion(s)): sefask in example(5), hafi fallit (6), váru drepnir (9), læt drepa (10), haf›i snúizk(12), hru›usk (16), ver›ir (18), mældu (18), væri (22), máttu› (25).

3.6.9 Important variations in verb inflexion
Difficulties in recognising verb-forms for what they are arise morefrom the irregularity of the principal parts than from the endings. Certainly, verb endings show the same degree of overlap and ambiguity
as those of nouns and adjectives (3.1.6, 3.3.7), but they carry lessmeaning. Since in Old Norse the subject is virtually always expressed(unlike, say, in Latin or Italian), the endings are largely redundant forthe purposes of denoting person and number. Thus in hann drap tvá
menn ‘he killed two men’, we know that drap is 3rd sg. because that isthe person and number of hann, the subject.

Verb inflexions and their function

165

Other parts of the verbal system are equally transparent. Those whohave studied the preceding sections will not fail to recognise hann
haf›i drepit tvá menn ‘he had killed two men’ as a past perfect construction and tveir menn váru drepnir ‘two men were killed’ as passive. The -sk suffix is also hard to confuse with any other ending (thoughoccasional uncertainty may arise when it appears in its -st, -zt manifestations).
Less easy to spot is the difference between indicative and subjunctive mood. To get this right consistently the student will have to be
familiar with the relevant endings, but quite often it is enough to recognise the form of the root (contrast hann drap ‘he killed [indic.]’ withﬂótt hann dræpi ‘though he killed [subj.]’). How far it is essential toknow whether a verb-form is indicative or subjunctive will depend on
the context. As the examples in 3.6.8 show, the choice between the
moods is sometimes automatic, sometimes dependent on meaning,
though the differences of meaning can often be subtle and difficult torender in English.
In the light of these considerations, the deviations from the established patterns of verbal inflexion to be concentrated on here are chiefly
those affecting principal parts. The presentation will be divided into
three major sections. First, deviations that follow phonological rules
the student can apply; second, unpredictable deviations that affect agroup of verbs; third, idiosyncratic deviations.

3.6.9.1 Phonological variation(1) In general, v is lost before rounded vowels. Strong type 3 ﬂverra‘decrease’, verpa ‘throw’, for example, have 3rd pl. past indic. ﬂurru,
urpu (past subj. root ﬂyrr-, yrp-) and pp.s ﬂorrinn, orpinn (cf. alsover›a, 3.6.7). Strong type 4 vefa ‘weave’ has pp. ofinn. Strong type 6va›a ‘wade’, vaxa ‘grow’ have 3rd sg. and pl. past indic. ó› — ó›u,óx — óxu (past subj. root œ›-, irregular eyx- or yx-).
(2) Strong verbs with vowel + g as the basic root have, or may have,a long monophthong and no g in the past sg. indic. Type 1 stíga ‘step’,for example, has 3rd sg. past indic. sté or steig, type 2 fljúga ‘fly’ has
fló or flaug, type 5 vega ‘kill’ vá, type 6 draga ‘drag’ dró.
(3) Strong verb roots that end in -d, -nd and -ng undergo change to-t, -tt and -kk respectively in the imperative and the past sg. indic.

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Morphology and syntax

Type 3 binda ‘bind’ (on root vowel i, see 3.6.9.2 point (2)), gjalda‘pay’, for example, have imp. bitt, gjalt, 3rd sg. past indic. batt, galt;
minor types ganga ‘walk’, halda ‘hold’ have imp. gakk, halt, 3rd sg.
past indic. gekk, helt (sometimes regular imp. forms are encountered— in the above cases: bind, gjald, gang, hald).
(4) Pp.s of type 6 and minor type strong verbs normally undergo
front mutation of the root vowel when the root ends in -g or -k, e.g.
dreginn from draga, genginn from ganga, tekinn from taka ‘take’.
(5) Present roots of type 6 strong verbs undergo front mutation of
the root vowel when j occurs before endings consisting of or beginning with a or u, e.g. hefja ‘lift’, sverja ‘swear’, 3rd sg. past indic. hóf,sór (see (1) above). Note also that the same conditions give root vowel
i instead of e in type 5 strong verbs, e.g. bi›ja ‘ask’, sitja ‘sit’.
(6) Pp.s of type 3 and 4 strong verbs have root vowel u rather than owhen the immediately following consonant is m or n, e.g. bundinnfrom binda ‘bind’, sprunginn from springa ‘spring’ ‘burst’, unninn(see (1) above) from vinna ‘work’ (on root vowel i, see 3.6.9.2 point(2)), numinn from nema ‘take’.
(7) Weak verbs undergo a number of consonantal assimilations andsimplifications when the past tense and participial suffixes -›, -d, -t
are added. Such phonological adjustments are not restricted to verbs,
but are found elsewhere in the language (see 3.1.7.4 point (1), 3.3.8.4
point (2), 3.3.8.5 point (2)). Verbs whose root ends in consonant + ›, dor t do not add a further ›, d or t to mark the past-tense or participial/supine suffix, e.g. vir›a — vir›i — vir›r ‘value’, senda — sendi —sendr ‘send’, svipta — svipti — sviptr ‘deprive’. This applies equallywhen the root ends in tt, e.g. rétta — rétti — réttr ‘straighten’ ‘stretchout’. Verbs whose root vowel is immediately followed by › show
assimilation ›d > dd in the past tense and past participle, e.g. ey›a— eyddi — eyddr ‘destroy’, gle›ja — gladdi — gladdr ‘gladden’. The -t
ending of the nom./acc. n. sg. of the pp. regularly amalgamates withthe participial suffix (by processes of simplification or assimilationand simplification; see further 3.3.8.4 point (2) and 3.3.8.5 point (2)),
e.g. flutt (< flutt + t) from flytja ‘convey’, kastat (< kasta› + t) fromkasta ‘throw’, sent (< send + t) from senda, leyst (< leyst + t) fromleysa ‘loosen’, ‘resolve’, hitt (< hitt + t) from hitta ‘meet’.
(8) As with nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.5 point (2), 3.3.8.5 point(4)), the vowels of endings tend to be dropped when they immediately

Verb inflexions and their function

167

follow a long vowel of the same or similar quality. Thus weak type 3
trúa ‘believe’, for example, has a 1st pl. present indic. form trúm(< *trúum)’, deyja ‘die’ 3rd pl. past indic. dó (< *dóu), fá ‘get’ 1st pl.
present indic. fám (< *fáum), sjá ‘see’ pp. sénn (< *séinn) (these last threeverbs are highly irregular and their principal parts are listed in 3.6.9.3).
(9) As with adjectives, t is lengthened when immediately following
long, stressed vowels. Thus the 2nd sg. past indic. of strong type 1
stíga ‘step’ (see (2) above) is stétt, of búa ‘prepare’, ‘dwell’ (3.6.9.3)
bjótt.
(10) Strong verbs whose root ends in -› or -t suffer changes to these
consonants in the 2nd sg. past indic. The › assimilates to the -t ending(cf. (7) above), e.g. reitt, from strong type 1 rí›a ‘ride’. Where the rootends in -t, the usual ending is -zt, e.g. bazt, from strong type 3 binda‘bind’ (3rd sg. past indic. batt, see (3) above; on root vowel i see
3.6.9.2 point (2)), lézt, from strong minor type láta ‘let’. This latterchange affects preterite present vita ‘know’ too (2nd sg. present indic.
veizt). Some verbs with root final -› may have the -zt ending as analternative to -tt, e.g. bazt or batt from strong type 5 bi›ja (on root
vowel i, see 3.6.9.1 point (5)). Some with root final -t may as analternative add t in the normal way, e.g. létt from láta (see above), or
have the same form as the 1st and 3rd sg. past indic., e.g. helt fromstrong minor type halda ‘hold’ (see (3) above). Strong verbs with root
final -st have zero ending in the 2nd sg. past indic., e.g. laust fromstrong type 2 ljósta ‘strike’.
(11) As in the case of nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.4 point (1), 3.3.8.4
point (1)), an -r ending may sometimes be assimilated to an immediately preceding l, n or s, e.g. 3rd sg. present indic. vill (< *vilr), from
irregular weak type 1 (3.6.7) vilja ‘want’, skínn (< *skínr) from strong
type 1 skína ‘shine’, les(s) (< *lesr) from strong type 5 lesa ‘gather’, ‘read’.
(12) The 2nd sg. past indic. -t ending of strong verbs is often dropped
when the 2nd person pronoun immediately follows, e.g. gekkt ﬂú orgekk ﬂú ‘you went’, tókt ﬂú or tók ﬂú ‘you took’.
(13) The 1st pl. -m ending is often dropped when the 1st person dualor pl. pronoun immediately follows, e.g. tƒkum vit or tƒku vit ‘we two
take’, tókum vér or tóku vér ‘we took’.
(14) The 2nd pl. -› ending is often dropped when the 2nd person
dual or pl. pronoun in the form ﬂit, ﬂér immediately follows, e.g. taki›
ﬂit or taki ﬂit ‘you two take’, tóku› ﬂér or tóku ﬂér ‘you took’.

168

Morphology and syntax(15) The 3rd sg. present indic. -r ending of the verb ﬂyk(k)ja ‘seem’
is often dropped when the dat. of the 1st or 2nd person sg. pronoun
immediately follows, e.g. ﬂyk(k)ir mér or ﬂyk(k)i mér ‘it seems to me’.

3.6.9.2 Morphological variation(1) A few strong verbs of type 2 have present tense root vowel úrather than jó or jú, e.g. lúta ‘bend down’, súpa ‘sip’.
(2) Several strong verbs of type 3 have present tense root vowel irather than e or ja, and a few have y or ø, e.g. binda ‘bind’, finna‘find’, syngva/syngja (see (6) below) ‘sing’, søkkva ‘sink’. The verbs
with present tense i and y have root vowel u in the pp. (see 3.6.9.1
point (6)); those with present y and ø have root vowel ƒ in the past sg.
indic., e.g. sƒng ‘sang’, sƒkk ‘sank’.
(3) Some weak verbs of type 1 and type 3 have pp.s like those oftype 2, e.g. huga›r (or hug›r) from hyggja ‘think’ ‘intend’, viljat fromvilja ‘want’, ﬂorat from ﬂora ‘dare’. Many type 1 verbs have alternative pp. forms with connecting vowel -i-, e.g. bar›r or bari›r ‘beaten’.
Because the nom./acc. n. sg. of the i-forms is identical with thenom./acc. n. sg. of the pp. of strong verbs (barit ~ farit), we also getanalogical ‘strong’ pp.s of type 1 weak verbs, e.g. barinn nom. m. sg.
(4) A few weak verbs of type 3 have an -i ending in the imperative
as well as zero, e.g. vak or vaki from vaka ‘keep awake’. The imp. of
ﬂegja ‘stay silent’ is always ﬂegi.
(5) The type 3 weak verbs segja ‘say’ and ﬂegja (3rd sg. pres. indic.
segir, ﬂegir) have root vowel a in the past indic., e in the past subj.,
like type 1 verbs (3rd sg. sag›i, ﬂag›i, seg›i, ﬂeg›i respectively).
(6) As with nouns and adjectives (3.1.7.5 point (4), 3.3.8.5 point (5)), j
may be found in some verbs before endings consisting of or beginningin a or u; in others v may be found before endings consisting of or
beginning in a or i. With most verbs such insertions are found only inconnection with the present root, but type 2 weak verbs have them throughout the paradigm. Examples are: svíkja ‘betray’ (strong type 1) — 1st pl.
present indic. svíkjum — 3rd pl. past indic. sviku, syngva ‘sing’ (strong
type 3, on root vowel y, see 3.6.9.2 point (2)) — 3rd pl. present subj.
syngvi — 3rd pl. past subj. syngi, berja ‘strike’ (weak type 1) — 1st sg.
past indic. bar›a, eggja ‘incite’ (weak type 2) — 3rd pl. past indic. eggju›uVerb inflexions and their function169— supine eggjat, bƒlva ‘curse’ (weak type 2) — 3rd pl. past indic.
bƒlvu›u — supine bƒlvat. Note that strong verbs with v insertion and yin the present tense root may alternatively have j insertion (e.g. syngja).

3.6.9.3 Idiosyncratic variation
A number of common verbs are irregular in varying degrees. While itwould be possible to offer historical explanations for their irregularity
and, where this has not already been done, assign them to one or otherof the weak and strong types, it is easier for the learner simply to list
their principal parts. For strong verbs inf., 3rd sg. and pl. past indic.
and supine are given, for weak verbs inf., 3rd sg. past indic. and supine.
Forms that cannot easily be deduced from these are described in thenotes that follow, as are other peculiarities.
Strong verbs
blóta —— blét —— blétu —— blótit
breg›a —— brá —— brug›u —— brug›it
búa —— bjó —— bjoggu —— búit
deyja —— dó —— dó —— dáit
draga —— dró —— drógu —— dregit
drekka —— drakk —— drukku —— drukkit
eta —— át —— átu —— etit
fá —— fekk —— fengu —— fengit
fela —— fal —— fálu —— folgit
finna —— fann —— fundu —— fundit
flá —— fló —— flógu —— flegit
fregna —— frá —— frágu —— fregit
frjósa —— frøri —— frøru —— frørit
ganga —— gekk —— gengu —— gengit
hanga —— hekk —— hengu —— hangit
heita —— hét —— hétu —— heitithlæja —— hló —— hlógu —— hlegithƒggva —— hjó —— hjoggu —— hƒggvit
kjósa —— køri —— køru —— kørit
koma —— kom —— kómu —— komit‘sacrifice’‘move’‘prepare’, ‘dwell’‘die’‘drag’‘drink’‘eat’‘get’‘hide’‘find’‘flay’‘ask’, ‘learn’‘freeze’‘walk’‘hang’‘be called’, ‘promise’‘laugh’‘strike’, ‘kill’‘choose’‘come’

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Morphology and syntax

liggja —— lá —— lágu —— legitsjá —— sá —— sá —— sét
slá —— sló —— slógu —— slegit
sofa —— svaf —— sváfu —— sofit
standa —— stó› —— stó›u —— sta›itsveipa —— sveip —— svipu —— sveipit
svima —— svam —— svámu —— sumit
tro›a —— tra› —— trá›u —— tro›it
tyggva —— tƒgg —— tuggu —— tuggit
ﬂiggja —— ﬂá —— ﬂágu —— ﬂegit
ﬂvá —— ﬂó —— ﬂógu —— ﬂvegit

‘lie’
‘see’
‘hit’
‘sleep’‘stand’‘wrap’‘swim’‘tread’‘chew’‘accept’‘wash’

Weak verbs
heyja —— há›i —— há(i)tkaupa —— keypti —— keypt
leggja —— lag›i —— lagtljá —— lé›i —— lét
selja —— seldi —— selt
setja —— setti —— settsœkja —— sótti —— sóttyrkja —— orti —— ort
ﬂreyja —— ﬂrá›i —— ﬂrát
ﬂykkja —— ﬂótti —— ﬂótt

‘perform’, ‘conduct’‘buy’‘lay’ ‘put’‘lend’ ‘grant’‘hand over’, ‘sell’‘set’ ‘place’‘seek’, ‘attack’‘work’, ‘make poetry’‘long for’
‘seem’

Búa has past subj. root bjƒgg-, bjøgg- or bygg-.
Frjósa and kjósa have weak endings in the past sg. indic. Both alternatively have strong type 2 forms (fraus — frusu — frosit, kaus —kusu — kosit).
Hanga has a connecting vowel i in the present sg. indic. (e.g. vápnit
hangir ‘the weapon hangs’), as does heita in the sense ‘be called’.
Hanga lacks front mutation in the relevant forms.
Koma, sofa, and tro›a have certain alternative forms. Present sg.
indic. root: kem- or køm-, sef- or søf-, tre›- or trø›-; past pl. indic. rootkvám-, sóf- (past subj. root is either kœm- or kvæm-, svæf- or sœf-).
Svima has an alternative inf. symja, and an alternative strong type 3
paradigm (with root final mm): svimma — svamm — summu — summit.
For the present tense of sjá, which has highly irregular inflexions,see p. 175.

Verb inflexions and their function

171

3.6.9.1/3.6.9.2/3.6.9.3 Phonological variation/Morphological variation/Idiosyncratic variation — Exercise
1. Explain the following forms: 3rd pl. past indic. ur›u, from ver›a;
1st sg. past indic. hné, from hníga; imp. statt, from standa; pp.
ekit, from aka.
2. Why can sverja (past indic. root sór-) be said to belong to the samestrong verb type as fara (past indic. root fór-)?
3. Which pp.s of type 3 and 4 strong verbs have root vowel u rather
than o?
4. What is the past tense root of weak verbs benda, hitta, myr›a andskipta, and why?
5. What is the past tense root of weak verbs fœ›a and ry›ja, andwhy?
6. Give the 1st pl. present indic. of búa.
7. Give the 2nd sg. past indic. of strong verbs láta and slá, and the
2nd sg. present indic. of preterite present vita.
8. Give the 3rd sg. present indic. of fregna, skilja, vaxa.
9. Enumerate the different present tense roots of type 2 and type 3strong verbs.
10. What variations does the imperative form exhibit?
11. In what way are the paradigms of frjósa and kjósa unusual?
12. Give the principal parts of koma and sofa, including all alternative
forms.
3.6.10 Examples of verb inflexion
Complete paradigms of selected verbs are now given. As with adjectives, Old Norse grammars tend to be somewhat parsimonious in theirexemplification of verbs. To be sure, most forms likely to be
encountered can be identified using the guidance provided in the preceding sections, but this can often be a long and arduous process forthe novice. The present grammar therefore gives more paradigms thanstrictly necessary, but not so many, one hopes, that the student is overwhelmed and unable to see the wood for the trees. To illustrate themain patterns, two strong verbs are displayed, one with root-final t(skjóta) and one with root a (fara), and three weak, one of each type(berja, ﬂakka, brenna). In addition, a preterite present verb, mega, is172Morphology and syntax

presented, and vera and sjá, since not only are these two irregular andextremely common, but certain of their forms are easily confused.
Finally, the paradigms of one strong (fara) and one weak verb (berja)
are repeated with the -sk suffix added. Finite forms precede non-finite.
The past participle is given in the nom./acc. n. sg. form. Rather than
the abstract ‘1st sg.’ etc., pronouns are used to indicate person andnumber; hann ‘he’ is used for the 3rd sg., vér for the 1st pl., ﬂér for the
2nd pl., ﬂeir for the 3rd pl. The imperative is always 2nd sg. (cf. 3.6.3).

Strong verb (type 2): skjóta ‘shoot’Present indicative
ek
sk‡t
ﬂú
sk‡tr
hann sk‡tr
vér
skjótumﬂér
skjóti›ﬂeir skjóta

Present subjunctive
ek
skjótaﬂú
skjótir
hann skjóti
vér
skjótimﬂér
skjóti›ﬂeir skjóti

Past indicative
ek
skaut
ﬂú
skauzthann skautvér
skutumﬂér
skutu›
ﬂeir skutu

Past subjunctive
ek
skyta
ﬂú
skytirhann skyti
vér
skytimﬂér
skyti›
ﬂeir skyti

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle

skjót
skjótaskjótandi
skotitVerb inflexions and their function
Strong verb (type 6): fara ‘go’
Present indicative
ek
fer
ﬂú
ferr
hann ferr
vér
fƒrum
ﬂér
fari›
ﬂeir fara

Present subjunctive
ek
fara
ﬂú
farir
hann fari
vér
farim
ﬂér
fari›
ﬂeir fariPast indicative
ek
fór
ﬂú
fórt
hann fór
vér
fórum
ﬂér
fóru›
ﬂeir fóru

Past subjunctive
ek
fœra
ﬂú
fœrir
hann fœri
vér
fœrim
ﬂér
fœri›
ﬂeir fœri

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle

far
fara
farandifarit

Weak verb (type 1): berja ‘beat’Present indicative
ek
ber
ﬂú
berr
hann berr
vér
berjumﬂér
beri›
ﬂeir berja

Present subjunctive
ek
berja
ﬂú
berir
hann beri
vér
berim
ﬂér
beri›
ﬂeir beri

Past indicative
ek
bar›a
ﬂú
bar›irhann bar›ivérbƒr›umﬂér
bƒr›u›
ﬂeir bƒr›u

Past subjunctive
ek
ber›a
ﬂú
ber›irhann ber›i
vér
ber›imﬂér
ber›i›
ﬂeir ber›i

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle

ber
berja
berjandi
bart/barit

173

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Morphology and syntax
Weak verb (type 2): ﬂakka ‘thank’Present indicative
ek
ﬂakka
ﬂú
ﬂakkarhann ﬂakkar
vérﬂƒkkumﬂér
ﬂakki›
ﬂeir ﬂakka

Present subjunctive
ek
ﬂakka
ﬂú
ﬂakkirhann ﬂakki
vér
ﬂakkimﬂér
ﬂakki›
ﬂeir ﬂakki

Past indicativeek
ﬂakka›aﬂú
ﬂakka›ir
hann ﬂakka›ivérﬂƒkku›umﬂérﬂƒkku›u›ﬂeir ﬂƒkku›u

Past subjunctive
ek
ﬂakka›aﬂú
ﬂakka›ir
hann ﬂakka›ivér
ﬂakka›imﬂér
ﬂakka›i›
ﬂeir ﬂakka›i

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle

ﬂakka
ﬂakka
ﬂakkandi
ﬂakkatWeak verb (type 3): brenna ‘burn’ (transitive)
Present indicativeek
brenniﬂú
brennir
hann brennir
vér
brennumﬂér
brenni›ﬂeir brenna

Present subjunctive
ek
brennaﬂú
brennir
hann brenni
vér
brennimﬂér
brenni›ﬂeir brenni

Past indicativeek
brenndaﬂú
brenndirhann brenndi
vér
brenndumﬂér
brenndu›ﬂeir brenndu

Past subjunctive
ek
brenndaﬂú
brenndirhann brenndi
vér
brenndimﬂérbrenndi›ﬂeir brenndi

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participlebrenn
brennabrennandi
brenntVerb inflexions and their function
Irregular verb: vera ‘be’
Present indicative
ek
em
ﬂú
ert
hann er
vér
erum
ﬂér
eru›
ﬂeir eru

Present subjunctiveeksjá/sé
ﬂú
sérhann sé
vér
sém
ﬂér
sé›
ﬂeir séPast indicative
ek
var
ﬂú
vart
hann var
vér
várum
ﬂér
váru›
ﬂeir váru

Past subjunctive
ek
væra
ﬂú
værir
hann væri
vér
værim
ﬂér
væri›
ﬂeir væri

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle

ver
vera
verandiverit

Irregular verb: sjá ‘see’
Present indicative
ek
sé
ﬂú
sér
hann sér
vér
sjám/sjóm
ﬂér
sé›
ﬂeir sjá

Present subjunctive
ek
sjá
ﬂú
sér
hann sé
vér
sém
ﬂér
sé›
ﬂeir séPast indicative
ek
sá
ﬂú
sátt
hann sá
vér
sám
ﬂér
sá›
ﬂeir sáPast subjunctive
ek
sæa
ﬂú
sæir
hann sæi
vér
sæim
ﬂér
sæi›
ﬂeir sæi

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participlesé
sjá
sjándi
sét

175

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Morphology and syntax

Preterite present verb: mega ‘be able to’ ‘be allowed to’ ‘can’Present indicative
ek
má
ﬂú
mátt
hann má
vér
megum
ﬂér
megu›
ﬂeir megu

Present subjunctive
ek
mega
ﬂú
megir
hann megi
vér
megim
ﬂér
megi›
ﬂeir megi

Past indicative
ek
mátta
ﬂú
máttirhann mátti
vér
máttumﬂér
máttu›
ﬂeir máttu

Past subjunctive
ek
mætta
ﬂú
mættirhann mætti
vérmættimﬂérmætti›
ﬂeir mætti

Imperative
Infinitive
Present participle
Past participle

lackingmegamegandimátt/megat

Strong verb (type 6): farask ‘perish’
Present indicativeekfƒrumkﬂú
fersk
hann fersk
vérfƒrumskﬂér
farizkﬂeir farask

Present subjunctive
ekfƒrumkﬂú
fariskhann farisk
vérfarimskﬂér
farizkﬂeir farisk

Past indicativeek
fórumkﬂú
fórzk
hann fórsk
vér
fórumskﬂér
fóruzkﬂeir fórusk

Past subjunctive
ekfœrumkﬂúfœriskhann fœrisk
vérfœrimskﬂérfœrizkﬂeir fœriskInfinitive
Past participle

faraskfarizkVerb inflexions and their function

177

Weak verb (type 1): berjask ‘fight’Present indicativeek
berjumkﬂú
bersk
hann bersk
vér
berjumsk
ﬂérberizkﬂeir berjask

Present subjunctive
ek
berjumkﬂú
beriskhann berisk
vérberimskﬂér
berizkﬂeir berisk

Past indicativeek
bƒr›umkﬂú
bar›iskhann bar›iskvér
bƒr›umskﬂérbƒr›uzk
ﬂeir bƒr›usk

Past subjunctiveek
ber›umkﬂú
ber›iskhann ber›isk
vér
ber›imsk
ﬂér
ber›izk
ﬂeir ber›isk

Infinitive
Past participle

berjaskbarzk/barizk

Imperatives and present participles with the -sk suffix are uncommon and in many verbs unattested. To the extent they occur, they will
be found to consist of the basic form + sk, e.g. dvelsk ‘stay!’, dveljandisk‘staying’, from dvelja (weak type 1).
3.6.10 Examples of verb inflexion — Exercise
Identify the verb-forms printed in bold in the following sentences. If
the form is non-finite, state whether it is an infinitive, present or past
participle, and, if either of the latter, give the case, gender and number.
If the form is finite, give its person (1st, 2nd or 3rd), number (sg. orpl.), tense (pres. or past), mood (indic., subj. or imp.) and voice (act.
or pass.). In all cases, say what type of verb is involved (strong type X,
weak type X, preterite present, etc.), and list its principal parts. Finally,
comment, as appropriate, on the syntactic function and semantic roleof the verb-forms, paying due attention to any with the -sk suffix.
(1)

Fóru vinir á milli ok leitu›u um sættir
‘Went friends be(-)tween and sought for settlement’‘Friends intervened and tried to get a settlement’Morphology and syntax

178
(2)

Hann hljóp fyrir bor› ok svam til lands ok bjó svá umí hvílu sinni, at ﬂar s‡ndisk, sem ma›r lægi‘He jumped over side and swam to land and arranged thus
around in bed REFL. POSS., that there showed-sk as man lay’‘He jumped overboard and swam to shore and arranged his
bed in such a way that it looked as though a man lay there’(3)‘Eigi veit ek ﬂat’, segir Skarphe›inn‘“Not know I that”, says Skarphe›inn’‘“I don’t know about that”, says Skarphe›inn’(4)

Heyrt hefi ek, at ﬂér hafi› kvisat í milli y›var, at ekværa ekki lítill ma›r vexti‘Heard have I that you have whispered a(-)mong you that I
was not little man in-stature’‘I have heard you whispering among yourselves that I was
not a little man in stature’(5)ﬁetta ﬂótti ƒllum rá›ligt, ok var ﬂetta heit fest
‘This seemed to-all advisable, and was this vow made’‘This seemed a good idea to everyone, and this vow was made’(6)

Eigi vil ek, at ﬂit sé› missáttir
‘Not want I that you-two are discordant’‘I don’t want you two to be on bad terms’(7)

ﬁeir vƒr›usk vel um hrí›
‘They defended themselves well for a while’(8)

ﬁeir sjá, hvar tveir menn gengu frá skálanum‘They see where two men went from hall-the’‘They see two men going from the hall’(9)Hann haf›i tvau skip ok jafnmarga menn, sem mæltvar
‘He had two ships and equally-many men as stipulated was’
‘He had two ships and as many men as was stipulated’(10)

En ﬂví næst laust ﬂú mik me› hamrinum ﬂrjú hƒgg‘But to-that next hit you me with hammer-the three blows’‘But then you hit me three blows with the hammer’Verb inflexions and their function
(11)

179

Væntir hann ﬂess, at ﬂú mynir honum gri› gefa, ef
kastalinn ver›r unninn‘Hopes he that, that you will to-him quarter give if castlethe is won’‘He hopes that you will spare his life if the castle is taken’(12)

Ver kátr bóndi, ok grát eigi
‘Be cheerful, farmer, and cry not’
‘Cheer up, master, and don’t cry’(13)Átján váru drepnir, en tólf ﬂágu gri›‘Eighteen were slain, and twelve received pardon’(14)Ósœmt er, at líkamr fœ›isk ok klæ›isk ítarliga, en hinni›ri ma›r sé óprú›r ok missi sinnar fœzlu
‘Unseemly is that body feeds-sk and clothes-sk finely, but the
inner man is unadorned and lacks REFL. POSS. food’‘It is unseemly that the body is finely fed and clothed, but the
inner man is unadorned and goes without his food’(15)

En ek á nú nor›r lei› til fjalla ﬂessa, er nú munu ﬂér sjá
mega‘But I have now northwards path to mountains these which
now will you see be-able’‘But my path now lies northwards to these mountains which
you will now be able to see’(16)

Ek vil, at vit takim menn til gør›ar me› okkr
‘I want that we-two take men for arbitration between us-two’‘I want us to choose men to arbitrate between us’(17)

Eigi er ﬂat kynligt, at ﬂér undrizk ﬂetta‘Not is that strange that you wonder-at-sk this’‘It is not strange that you are amazed at this’(18)

Hann haf›i loganda brand í hendi‘He had a flaming brand in his hand’(19)

Heyr ﬂú dróttinn bœn ﬂá, er ﬂræll ﬂinn bi›r ﬂik í dag,
at augu ﬂín sé upp lokin ok eyru ﬂín heyrandi yfir hús
ﬂetta dag ok nótt

Morphology and syntax

180‘Hear you, Lord, prayer that which servant your asks you
to(-)day, that eyes your be up opened and ears your hearing
over building this day and night’‘Hear, O Lord, the prayer which your servant asks of you today, that your eyes be opened and your ears listening over thisbuilding day and night’(20)

Fyrir hví reiztu ﬂessu hrossi, er ﬂér var bannat?
‘For why rode-you this horse which to-you was forbidden?’‘Why did you ride this horse which was forbidden to you?’(21)

Ma›rinn heilsar ﬂeim ok spyrr, hverir ﬂeir væri‘The man greets them and asks who they were’(22)

Vel má ek gøra ﬂat til skaps fƒ›ur míns at brenna innime› honum, ﬂví at ek hræ›umk ekki dau›a minn
‘Well can I do that for pleasure of-father my to burn insidewith him, therefore that I fear-sk not death my’‘I can happily please my father by burning alive in the housewith him, because I do not fear death’(23)

Lézk ﬂar Adam byskup, ok var líkit lítt brunnit, er
fannsk‘Lost-sk there Adam bishop, and was body-the little burnt whenfound-sk’‘Bishop Adam died there, and his body was scarcely burnt
when it was found’(24)

Sér ﬁórr ﬂá, at ﬂat haf›i hann haft of nóttina fyrir skála‘Sees ﬁórr then that that had he had during night-the for house’‘Then ﬁórr sees that that was what he had been using during
the night as a house’(25)

Hann skyldi halda sætt ok fri› vi› ﬂá menn alla, er í
ﬂessi rá›agør› hƒf›u vafizt‘He should keep truce and peace with those men all who inthis plot had entangled-sk’‘He was to keep the peace agreement with all the men who
had become embroiled in this plot’Prepositions

181

3.7 Prepositions
Prepositions are non-inflecting words that appear in conjunction withnoun phrases and together with them form sentence elements known
as preposition phrases. English examples, with the preposition given
in bold, are: with John, in town, for two weeks, about them.
Usually a preposition will immediately precede its noun phrase, although in Old Norse other words may occasionally intervene (e.g. —with the preposition phrase given in bold — nú ræ›r ﬂú, hversu ﬂú
skalt vi› una ﬂitt ørendi ‘now decide you how you shall with be-content your mission [i.e. now it is up to you what satisfaction you derivefrom your mission]’). Where the noun phrase comes first, as can also
happen in Old Norse, the term ‘preposition’ is often replaced by themore precise ‘postposition’ (e.g. mælti nú engi ma›r ﬂví í móti ‘noman now spoke against it’, with ﬂví ‘it’ preceding í móti ‘against’).
Although prepositions do not themselves inflect, in many languages
they determine the case of the noun phrase they are used in conjunction with, and are thus said to ‘govern’ it (cf. about them above, not*about they).
Typically prepositions convey concepts like time, place, possession,
instrumentality. This means that many preposition phrases areadverbials (cf. 3.5.4). In the English sentence John did it during theinterval, for example, during the interval answers the question ‘when?’and is reducible to the adverb then. Similarly, outside the shop in we
met outside the shop answers the question ‘where?’ and can be reduced to the adverb there. Some prepositions, however, simply act as
connectors between verb and noun phrase: contrast English he visitedthem with American he visited with them.
Old Norse has about thirty common prepositions, several of whichoccasionally function as postpositions. They trigger accusative, genitive and dative case in the noun phrases they govern, but never nominative. Some always trigger the same case, some trigger two, and oneeven three; among the second group, difference of case usually implies a difference of meaning.
In the following, the chief Old Norse prepositions are presented,
ordered according to the case or cases they trigger. A selective rangeof their principal meanings is given, together with examples of usage.
It should be noted, however, that prepositional usage is often very

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idiomatic, and one-to-one equivalence between the prepositions of Old
Norse and English is not to be expected. ON at, for example, shareswith English at a common form, origin and spatial sense, but appropriate English equivalents — as well as ‘at’ — can be ‘against’, ‘to’,‘along’, ‘around’, ‘near’, ‘by’, ‘in’ and ‘on’, to name but some.
Observe that prepositions with initial á, í, um may also be foundwritten as single words, e.g. áme›al, ímóti, umfram.
3.7.1 Prepositions triggering the accusative(í) gegnum ‘through’Hallbjƒrn lag›i í gegnum skjƒldinn‘Hallbjƒrn thrust through shield-the’‘Hallbjƒrn thrust his spear through the shield’of(a) [motion] ‘over’ ‘across’
Hann fór su›r of fjall‘He went south across the mountain’(b) ‘during’ ‘in’
Of aptan, er myrkt var, ﬂá . . .
‘In evening when dark was, then . . .’‘In the evening when it was dark, then . . .’Occasionally of is construed with the dative case, either in sense (b) or withthe locational meaning ‘over’ ‘above’ (e.g. konungr sat of bor›i ‘the king sat
over [i.e. at] table’). The latter usage is one of shares with the prepositions um
and yfir (see below). In most functions of and um are interchangeable, and of
was more or less ousted by um, and to a lesser extent yfir, in the course of thethirteenth century.

um (a) [motion] ‘around’ ‘over’ ‘across’Slógu ﬂeir ﬂá hring um ﬂá‘Threw they then ring around them’‘Then they encircled them’Prepositions

183(b) ‘during’ ‘in’ﬁeir váru ﬂar um nóttina‘They were there during the night’(c) ‘about’ ‘concerning’ﬁeir tƒlu›u ﬂá um málit‘They spoke then about the matter’
Like of, um may occasionally be construed with the dative, either in sense (b)or, rarely, with the locational meaning ‘over’ ‘above’.

um fram ‘beyond’ ‘above’ ‘more than’ﬁat er ﬂakt me› ísum, umfram ƒll ƒnnur hƒf‘It is covered with ice, more than all other seas’umhverfis ‘around’
Gengr hann umhverfis skemmuna‘He walks around the hut’
Apart from the above, there is a series of complex prepositions thattrigger the accusative, made up of fyrir and a following adverb withthe -an suffix (cf. 3.5.1). These indicate position relative to another(fixed) position, e.g. fyrir vestan hafit ‘west of the sea’, fyrir ne›ankné ‘below the knee’ (further examples under 3.5.1). Sometimes theorder fyrir + -an adverb may be reversed, but it should be noted thatwhile, e.g., fyrir ofan always means ‘above’, ofan fyrir has two meanings: ‘above’ and ‘down past’ ‘down along’; in the latter sense it is not
a complex preposition but a sequence of adverb + preposition (see3.7.4, fyrir).

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3.7.2 Prepositions triggering the genitive
innan ‘within’
Innan kastalans var eitt munklífi‘Within the castle was a monastery’Occasionally innan may be construed with the accusative or dative.

(á/í) me›al ‘among’ ‘between’
Hann settisk ni›r á me›al ﬂeirra‘He sat (himself) down between them’(á/í) milli/millum ‘among’ ‘between’
Ríki gu›s er y›ar í milli‘The kingdom of God is among you’
Each of the three above prepositions can denote time as well as location (e.g.
innan lítils tíma ‘within a short time’, milli jóla ok fƒstu ‘between Christmas
and Lent’).

til(a) ‘to’ ‘towards’
Hann fór vestr um haf til ﬁorfinns jarls‘He went west over the sea to Earl ﬁorfinnr’(b) ‘regarding’ ‘concerning’ﬁeim var› gott til manna‘To-them became good regarding men’
‘They managed to gather together a good many men’(c) ‘to’ ‘until’
Helt hertoginn ƒllu sínu ríki til dau›adags‘Kept duke-the all REFL. POSS. dominion till death-day’‘The duke kept all his lands until the day he died’Prepositions

185

Somewhere between a preposition phrase and a preposition stands
fyrir . . . sakar/sakir/sƒkum, fyrir sakar/sakir/sƒkum ‘because of’ ‘regarding’, which triggers the genitive (e.g. fyrir sára sakir ‘because ofwounds’, fyrir vits sakir ‘as regards intelligence’, fyrir sakar ﬂess ‘forthat reason’).

3.7.3 Prepositions triggering the dativeaf(a) ‘off’ ‘from’Rƒgnvaldr jarl kom af hafi vi› Hjaltland‘Rƒgnvaldr earl came off sea at Shetland’‘Earl Rƒgnvaldr landed in Shetland’

While af in this sense can simply denote [source] — where someone/somethingcomes from — it often correlates with prepositions meaning ‘on’, first andforemost á: that which is ‘on’ something can come ‘off’ it (cf. the above
example where Rƒgnvaldr has been on the sea sailing to Shetland).

(b) [time] ‘(gone) from’ﬁrjár vikur váru af sumri‘Three weeks were from summer’‘Three weeks of summer were gone’(c) [partitive, cf. 3.2.6, sentence 20] ‘of’ﬁorfinnr haf›i mikinn hluta af Skotlandi‘ﬁorfinnr had a big part of Scotland’(d) [in passive constructions] ‘by’
Ek em sendr hingat af Starka›i‘I am sent hither by Starka›r’(e) [cause] ‘of’ ‘from’ ‘because of’Inn nør›ri hlutr liggr óbygg›r af frosti ok kul›a‘The northern part lies uninhabited because of frost and cold’Morphology and syntax

186at(a) ‘at’ ‘to’ ‘towards’
Hleypr Kolr ﬂá at honum‘Kolr then runs at him’(b) ‘at’ ‘in’
Eigi má ek hér vera at h‡b‡lum mínum‘Not can I here be at home my’‘I cannot stay here at my home’

The above uses of at can be temporal as well as locational (e.g. lei› at kveldi‘it passed on to evening’, at jólum gaf jarl honum gullhring ‘at Christmas theearl gave him a gold ring’). In addition at can signify future time (e.g. at vári‘next spring’ ‘when spring comes’).

(c) ‘from’Ari nam marga frœ›i at ﬁurí›i‘Ari gained much knowledge from ﬁurí›r’(d) ‘according to’Óláfi var gefit konungs nafn at upplenzkum lƒgum
‘To-Óláfr was given king’s name according-to Upplandic
laws’‘Óláfr was declared king in accordance with the laws ofUppland’
At + acc. in the sense ‘after’ (particularly ‘after someone’s death’) may also
be encountered (e.g. sonr á arf at taka at fƒ›ur sinn ‘a son is to take inheritanceafter his father’). Historically this appears to be a different preposition from at+ dat., probably an assimilated form of apt, related to eptir (see below).

frá (a) ‘from’ﬁau róa frá skipinu‘They row from the ship’Prepositions

187(b) ‘concerning’ ‘about’Er mér svá frá sagt konungi‘Is to-me thus about said king’‘I am told so about the king’
As distinct from af, frá does not correlate with particular locational prepositions, but denotes source or origin of any kind. It can have temporal as well as
locational function (e.g. frá ﬂessum degi ‘from this day’).

gagnvart/gegnvart ‘opposite’
Skipa›i Hrútr honum gagnvart sér‘Hrútr placed him opposite himself’(í) gegn (a) ‘against’
Mestr hluti manna mælti honum í gegn
‘Most part of-men spoke him against’‘Most of the men spoke against him’(b) ‘towards’
Hann rí›r út í gegn ﬂeim
‘He rides out towards them’hjá (a) ‘at someone’s (house)’
Var hann á gistingu hjá ﬁóri‘Was he on night-stay at ﬁórir’s’‘He was staying the night at ﬁórir’s’(b) ‘close to’ ‘next to’ ‘by’
Konungr ba› hann sitja hjá sér‘The king bade him sit by him’Morphology and syntax

188(c) ‘past’

Gengr kona hjá ﬁormó›i‘A woman walks past ﬁormó›r’(d) ‘compared with’ﬁórr er lágr ok lítill hjá stórmenni ﬂví, er hér er me› oss‘ﬁórr is short and small compared with the big men who arehere with us’
In sense (a) and, to a certain extent, (b), ON hjá corresponds to French chez.

(á/í) mót(i) (a) ‘against’Mælti ﬂá ok engi ma›r í mót honum‘Spoke then also no man a(-)gainst him’‘And indeed no man then spoke against him’(b) ‘towards’
Gengu tveir menn í móti ﬂeim
‘Two men walked towards them’nær ‘near’
Austma›rinn kvezk vilja fyrir hafa land ok ﬂó nær sér‘Easterner-the says-sk want for-it have land and yet near self’‘The Norwegian says he wants to have land in exhange forit, but near him’Nær can have temporal as well as locational sense (e.g. nær aptni ‘near
evening’). Since nær is in origin an adverb, it has comparative and superlative
forms (cf. 3.5.2), and occasionally these are also used with prepositional function (e.g. nær(r) honum ‘nearer him’, næst hinum fremstum ‘closest to theforemost (people)’).

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ór/úr ‘out of’ ‘from’Hann haf›i í brot komizk ór brennunni‘He had a(-)way come-sk out-of burning-the’‘He had escaped from the burning’Ór often correlates with prepositions meaning ‘inside’ ‘within’; in the above
example the escape was made from within a burning building.

undan ‘away from’Ek get ﬂess, at ﬂú vilir eigi renna undan ﬂeim
‘I guess that, that you want not run away-from them’‘I do not imagine you want to run away from them’
Where one entity is moving and another following or due to follow in orderly
fashion, undan corresponds to English ‘ahead of’ ‘before’ (e.g. fara undan
ﬂeim ‘go ahead of them’).

Also used with the dative is a series of constructions — with a wide
range of meanings — consisting of preposition + various forms of thenoun hƒnd. Like fyrir . . . sakar etc. (cf. 3.7.2), preposition + hƒndconstructions stand somewhere between a preposition phrase and a
preposition. Among the most common are: á hƒnd/hendr ‘against’, til
handa ‘for’ ‘on behalf of’ (e.g. fara á hendr Rƒgnvaldi jarli ‘go against[i.e. attack] Earl Rƒgnvaldr’, bi›ja konu til handa honum ‘ask woman
for him [i.e. ask for a woman in marriage on his behalf]’).

3.7.4 Prepositions triggering the accusative and dative
Prepositions in this category are construed with the accusative or dativelargely according to sense. The principal distinction is between motion(usually towards some goal) and location (rest), the former triggering
the accusative, the latter the dative. Only eptir, me› and vi› are unaffected by this dichotomy. Eptir, together with fyrir, tends to trigger theaccusative when denoting time. Me› may historically have been
followed only or chiefly by the dative and vi› by the accusative, but inMorphology and syntax

190

classical Old Norse the two prepositions have become somewhat mixed
up and the one can rather often be found with the sense and/or case of
the other. In connection with the motion : location dichotomy it isworth noting first that the movement or rest involved is often denotedor suggested by a word other than the preposition (usually a verb oradverb, cf., e.g., á + acc. (a) and á + dat. (a) below), and second that an
English speaker’s conception of movement and rest may not always
tally with that of speakers of other languages (cf., e.g., ﬂeir sá bo›amikinn inn á fjƒr›inn ‘they saw a great breaker [i.e. breaking wave] inthe inlet [literally: (looking) into the inlet]’).
á + acc. (a) ‘onto’ ‘on’ ‘to’
Hann gekk á land
‘He went on land’‘He went ashore’(b) ‘during’ ‘at’ ‘in’Standa ﬂar yfir vƒtn á vetrinn, en á várin . . .
‘Stand there over waters in winter-the, but in springs-the . . .’‘It is covered with water in the winter, but in the spring . . .’When used in a temporal sense á tends to trigger the accusative where thenoun is accompanied by the definite article (contrast dat. (b) below). Á + acc.
may indicate a point in time as well as a recurring period (e.g. á laugardaginn
næsta ‘on the next Saturday’).

á + dat. (a) ‘on’ ‘in’
Reri hann yfir á Nes einn á báti
‘Rowed he over to Nes one in boat’‘He rowed over to Caithness in a boat on his own’
Note the contrast between the accusative yfir á Nes, where the adverb yfirindicates motion towards a place, and the dative á báti, which implies location. The verb reri combines with both senses.

Prepositions

191(b) ‘during’ ‘at’ ‘in’
Hann gaf Hrómundi gelding hvert haust, en lamb á várum‘He gave to-Hrómundr wether each autumn, but lamb insprings’‘He gave Hrómundr a wether each autumn, but a lamb in thespring’Á + dat. may indicate a point in time as well as a recurring period (e.g. á ﬂví
sumri ‘in that summer’).

(c) [inalienable possession] ‘X’s Y’
Lag›i hann í fótinn á honum‘Thrust he into leg-the on him’
‘He thrust (his weapon) into his leg’
Á in this sense is typically used of body parts, but can also be found in othercontexts (e.g. allar dyrr á húsunum ‘all the doorways of the buildings’).

eptir + acc. [time] ‘after’
Eptir orrostuna fór hann nor›r til ﬁrándheims‘After the battle he went north to ﬁrándheimr’
Eptir + acc. can also be used in the sense of ‘after someone’s death’ (e.g. ﬂá
tók hann arf eptir fƒ›ur sinn ‘then he took inheritance after his father’).

eptir + dat. [motion] ‘after’ ‘following’
Hann rei› eptir ﬂeim
‘He rode after them’The sense ‘following’ can extend to ‘along’ (e.g. gekk hann aptr eptir skipinu‘he walked back along the ship’), and to ‘according to’ (e.g. gekk allt eptir
ﬂví, sem Hallr haf›i sagt ‘everything went according to what [literally: thatwhich] Hallr had said’).

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fyrir + acc. (a) [motion] ‘before’ ‘in front of’Hann kom skildinum fyrir sik‘He came shield-the before self’‘He put the shield in front of him’(b) [directional] ‘over’ ‘past’ﬁeir drógu hann ofan fyrir brekkuna‘They dragged him down over the slope’(c) [time] ‘before’
En litlu fyrir jól fór hann í Papey ina litlu‘But shortly before Christmas he went to Papa Stronsay’(d) ‘in return for’ ‘in place of’ﬁú skalt gjalda fyrir hana ﬂrjár merkr silfrs‘You shall pay three marks of silver for her (a slave)’fyrir + dat. (a) [location] ‘before’ ‘in front of’Var› fundr ﬂeira fyrir Rau›abjƒrgum
‘Took-place meeting their before Rau›abjƒrg’‘They met off Roberry’Locational fyrir has a number of extended meanings. Particularly common
are: (1) ‘in charge of’, developed from the sense ‘in front of’ via the idea of‘leading’ (e.g. vera fyrir li›i ‘be in charge of a body of men’), and (2) ‘in thepresence of’, widely used with verbs of speaking (e.g. mæla fyrir honum ‘say
to [literally: before] him’, kæra fyrir ﬂeim ‘complain to them’).

(b) ‘ago’Ek skil›umk vi› Óláf konung fyrir fjórum nóttum
‘I parted from King Óláfr four nights ago’

Prepositions193

í + acc. (a) ‘into’ ‘in’ ‘to’
Eigi miklu sí›arr sendir hann menn í Su›reyjar‘Not much later he sends men to the Hebrides’Í in the above sense may be used with abstract as well as concrete nouns (e.g.
kominn í allmikla kærleika vi› ‘come into very great friendship with [i.e. become very great friends with]’).

(b) ‘during’ ‘in’ ‘at’
Í ﬂenna tíma kom út Geirrí›r‘At this time came out Geirrí›r’‘At this time Geirrí›r came to Iceland’Í in this temporal sense is commonly used with the words dagr ‘day’ and nótt‘night’ as well as the names of parts of the day and the seasons to indicate‘time now’ or ‘time closest to the present’ (e.g. í nótt ‘tonight’, í kveld ‘thisevening’, í sumar ‘this summer’).

í + dat. ‘in’Dval›isk Rƒgnvaldr skamma stund í Nóregi
‘Rƒgnvaldr stayed a short while in Norway’Í in this sense may be used with abstract as well as concrete nouns (e.g. í
miklum kærleikum vi› ‘in great friendship with’).

me› + acc. ‘with’Hann fór til Íslands me› konu sína ok bƒrn‘He went to Iceland with his wife and children’Me› here implies that ‘he’ took his wife and children to Iceland rather thansimply going together with them (see me› + dat. (a) below). Because it carries
the notion of ‘control’ over whatever entity one is ‘with’, me› + acc. is commonly found with nouns denoting inanimate objects (e.g. kom Bár›r eptir
ﬂeim me› horn fullt ‘Bár›r came after them with a full horn’, i.e. carrying ahorn full of drink).

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194me› + dat. (a) ‘together with’Dóttir hans fór me› honum‘His daughter went with him’(b) [instrumental] ‘with’ﬁeir ur›u at verja sik me› sver›um‘They had to defend themselves with swords’(c) [manner] ‘with’ ‘in’ ‘by’ﬁri›ju nótt var› gn‡r me› sama hætti
‘Third night happened clamour with same manner’‘The third night there was a clamour in the same way’(d) ‘among’ﬁat er si›r me› kaupmƒnnum, at . . .
‘It is a custom among merchants to . . .’Case usage after me› is more fluid than the above examples suggest. In particular it is not uncommon to find me› + dat. in what appears to be the ‘control’
sense (cf. me› + acc. above). As indicated in the preamble to this sub-section,me› can sometimes take the place of vi›; thus we may attest, for example,
berjask me› + acc. for earlier berjask vi› + acc. ‘fight with’ ‘fight against’,
where the noun phrase following the preposition denotes the goal of the action.

undir + acc. [motion] ‘under’Lag›i ﬁorfinnr jarl ﬂá undir sik allar Eyjar‘Laid ﬁorfinnr earl then under self all Islands’‘Then Earl ﬁorfinnr placed all the Northern Isles under his rule’
undir + dat. [location] ‘under’ﬁá brast í sundr jƒr›in undir hesti hans
‘Then burst a(-)sunder earth-the under horse his’‘Then the earth burst open under his horse’Prepositions

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In either of the above senses undir may be used metaphorically (e.g. gefa
undir kirkjuna ‘give to the church’, i.e. with the result that what is given comesunder the church’s control, undir ﬂeim biskupi eru ellifu hundru› kirkna‘under that bishop are eleven hundred churches’).

vi› + acc. (a) ‘near’ ‘by’ﬁeir sátu lengi vi› bakelda‘They sat long by baking-flames’‘They sat by the fire warming themselves for a long time’
This use of vi› may be temporal as well as locational (e.g. vi› sólarsetr ‘atsunset’, vi› ﬂetta ‘at this (point)’).

(b) [directional] ‘to’ ‘towards’ ‘vis-à-vis’Engu skiptir mik, hversu ﬂú hefir vi› a›ra menn gƒrt‘By-nothing concerns me how you have to other men done’‘It does not concern me at all how you have acted towards
other men’The noun following vi› in sense (b) denotes the entity at which an action is
directed. The usage is commonly found inter alia with verbs of saying (e.g.
tala vi› konung ‘speak to the king’). Because of the directional sense, thenoun following vi› can sometimes have the force of a direct object (the ‘goalof the action’, cf. 3.1.5, sentence 5). That is particularly the case with phrasal
verbs (those consisting of two or more words), although many of these denotemental processes rather than actions (e.g. fara til fundar vi› ‘go to meetingwith’, where the sense is more or less equivalent to the English transitivephrase go to meet, ver›a varr vi› ‘become aware of’, equivalent to notice,vera hræddr vi› ‘be afraid of’, equivalent to fear).

vi› + dat. ‘against’Hann kasta›i sér ni›r vi› vellinum‘He threw himself down against the ground’
Sometimes vi› + dat. may have the related sense ‘towards’ (e.g. horfa vi›‘look towards’). As noted above, vi› and me› have become confused, and we
may thus find vi› + dat. in all the senses of me› + dat. Potential ambiguities
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phrase stands or the wider context (e.g. slá honum ni›r vi› steininum mustmean ‘throw him down against the rock’ rather than ‘strike him down withthe rock’ because of the dative honum — cf. (3.1.5, sentence 20) that verbs ofthrowing take the dative of the entity thrown).

yfir + acc. [motion] ‘over’ ‘above’ﬁá tók Ska›i eitrorm ok festi upp yfir hann
‘Then took Ska›i poisonous-snake and fixed up above him’
‘Then Ska›i took a poisonous snake and tied it up above him’yfir + dat. [location]
Hvers manns alvæpni hekk yfir rúmi hans
‘Each man’s weapons hung above his seat’In either of the above senses yfir may be used metaphorically (e.g. hafa vƒxtyfir a›ra menn ‘have growth beyond [i.e. be taller than] other men’, konungr
yfir Englandi ‘king over England’).

3.7.5 Prepositions triggering the accusative and genitive
The only preposition regularly to trigger both accusative and genitiveis útan. It has two senses, and either case may have either sense.
útan + acc./gen. (a) ‘outside’
Hann nemr sta› í gar›inum útan hur› klaustrsins‘He takes stand in yard-the outside door of-convent’‘He stops in the yard outside the door of the convent’
ﬁeir fóru heldr útan hera›s til kaupa‘They went rather outside district to tradings’‘They preferred to go outside the district to trade’Prepositions

197(b) ‘without’Eigi er enn vi› honum tekit útan ﬂitt rá›‘Not is yet with him taken without your consent’‘He has not yet been received without your consent’. . . ef ﬂeir eru útan sætta
‘. . . if they are without a settlement’

3.7.6 Preposition triggering the accusative, genitive and dative
The only preposition to trigger all three cases is án. The meaning is
the same, irrespective of case.
án + acc./gen./dat. ‘without’
Kristnin mátti eigi vera lengi án stjórnarmanninn‘The Church could not be long without its leader’ﬁess máttu Gautar illa án vera
‘That could Gautar ill without be’‘The people of Gautland could not afford to be without it’
Giptisk hon Valgar›i án rá›i allra frænda sinna‘Married-sk she to-Valgar›r without consent of-all kinsmen
REFL. POSS.’‘She married Valgar›r without the consent of any of her kinsmen’

3.7.7 Residual remarks
Two further matters concerning Old Norse prepositions should be
noted.
First, they often combine with adverbs, particularly those that indicate direction. Thus a journey to Caithness from Orkney may be

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described as yfir á Nes, one in the opposite direction as út í Eyjar, andone into the hinterland of Scotland as upp í Skotland. Sometimes suchcombinations develop idiomatic senses considerably removed fromthe meanings of the two elements of which they are made up, e.g.
framan at ‘to the front side of [literally: from the front to]’ (cf. also
3.7.1 on the many combinations of fyrir + -an adverb). When confronted by an adverb + preposition (or preposition + adverb) sequencethat does not appear to make immediate sense, the student is advised
to look up the adverb first since often it will mainly be this that gives
the sequence its meaning.
Second, prepositions in Old Norse are often converted into adverbs
by the omission of the noun phrase they govern. Sometimes the nounphrase can be clearly understood from the context (e.g. hann kom sváá óvart, at eigi var› fyrr vart vi› en . . . ‘he came so on unawares thatnot became before aware of than . . . [i.e. he arrived so unexpectedlythat no one became aware of (him) before . . .]’. In other cases thereference is less specific (e.g. ni›amyrkr var á ‘pitch-darkness was on[i.e. it was pitch-dark]’. Students should be particularly on their guard
against prepositions used adverbially that yet appear to be prepositions because they are immediately followed by a noun phrase (e.g.
hann finnr, at ﬂar var stungit í sver›i Sigmundar ‘he notices that there
was thrust into with-sword of-Sigmundr [i.e. that Sigmundr’s sword
was thrust into it]’, where sver›i is an instrumental dative (cf. 3.1.5,
sentence 20) and í belongs with the adverb ﬂar, giving the adverb
phrase ﬂar í ‘therein’, or, more idiomatically, ‘into it’). As can be seenfrom the translation, ﬂar is here the equivalent of a pronoun, and ﬂar í
therefore effectively a preposition phrase. This type of construction isvery common in Old Norse; mostly it involves ﬂar, but hér ‘here’ also
occurs (cf. nú ver›r ﬂar frá at hverfa ‘now becomes there from to turn[i.e. now we must turn from that]’; . . . svá bjƒrt, at ﬂar af l‡sti ‘. . . sobright [n. pl.] that there from shone [i.e. so bright that they shone]’; ƒllsannindi hér um ‘all truth here about [i.e. all the truth about this]’).
(See further 3.9.8.3.)

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3.7 Prepositions — Exercise
1. Define and exemplify ‘preposition’, taking your examples from
Old Norse.
2. Do Old Norse prepositions always immediately precede the nounphrase they govern?
3. List the prepositions that trigger the accusative, the genitive or thedative only.
4. How far can case usage after Old Norse prepositions be related tomeaning?
5. What differences, if any, are there between the meanings of af, frá
and ór?
6. In what senses and with what cases may fyrir be used?
7. In what senses and with what cases may me› be used?
8. What is the difference in meaning between ofan and fyrir ofan?
9. Which Old Norse prepositions may have temporal sense?
10. Identify the basic meaning of each of the following prepositions(printed in bold); state, where appropriate, the case of the nounphrase governed and the reason for the choice of case (where a preposition is found to be used adverbially, discuss its relationshipwith other words in the sentence):(a) Var Kálfr ﬂá í miklum kærleikum vi› ﬁorfinn jarl
‘Kálfr was then on very friendly terms with Earl ﬁorfinnr’(b) Eptir ﬂat sendi ﬁorfinnr menn út í Eyjar‘After that ﬁorfinnr sent men out to the Orkneys’(c) Hann kærir fyrir ﬂeim, at ﬂeir ætla at fara me› her á hendr honum‘He complains to them that they intend to advance against him withan army’(d) Hann sigldi ﬂegar á haf um nóttina ok svá austr til Nóregs
‘He sailed straight to sea during the night and then east to Norway’(e) Konungr sat yfir mat‘The king sat over food’(f) Var kominn á byrr
‘A fair wind had sprung up’(g) Hann er jar›a›r at Kristskirkju‘He is buried at Christ’s Church’(h) Mƒrg lƒnd haf›i hann lagt undir sik me› herna›i‘Many countries he had placed under his rule by warfare’(i) Go›in skƒpu›u ﬂar ór mann
‘The gods created a man out of it’Morphology and syntax

200
3.8 Conjunctions

Conjunctions differ from most other words in that they do not form
part of a sentence, but stand outside it. Their function, as the term
conjunction suggests, is to join constituents together, and the constituents may be anything from sentences to single sentence elements(though even the latter can mostly be analysed as reduced sentences).
A distinction is made between coordinating and subordinating
conjunctions. The former join together constituents of the same level,
the latter constituents of different levels. Commonly, coordinating
conjunctions connect independent sentences (also known as matrix
sentences or main clauses), i.e. sentences that can stand on their own
as a complete utterance. The two most frequently occurring coordinating conjunctions in English are and and but. In:
Peter sat down and poured himself a drink
and connects the sentences Peter sat down and [Peter] poured himself
a drink (in the second sentence Peter is omitted because unless specified, the subject of poured will be understood to be the same as the
subject of sat down). Both these sentences are independent in the sensethat they require nothing further to complete them. The conjunction
but, while introducing an element of contrast not present in and, functions in a similar way. In:
Anne opened the door but did not go in
the sentences joined together are again both independent: (1) Anne
opened the door; (2) [Anne/she] did not go in.
Subordinating conjunctions typically function as connectors between
independent and dependent sentences, introducing the latter (alsoknown as embedded sentences or subordinate clauses). Dependent
sentences are those that cannot stand on their own as complete utterances. Examples of subordinating conjunctions in English are because,
when, if. In:
I like the summer because it is lightbecause joins the dependent because it is light to the independentConjunctions

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I like the summer. The former, unlike the other sentences so far adduced, is not a complete utterance. To say because it is light, which
details a reason, requires that we specify the action, event or state towhich the reason applies. Equally, the dependent when he arrives,
introduced by when, needs to be completed by an independent sentence
which details an action, event or state that stands in a time relation to‘his’ arrival, e.g.:
We will eat when he arrives
The conjunction if introduces the notion of condition: one action, eventor state is conditional upon another. The action/event/state that will/
would take place/ensue if the condition is/were met is expressed as anindependent, the condition as a dependent sentence, e.g.:
Joan will write the letter if you help her
Subordinating conjunctions are often grouped according to their
meaning, and the groups given designations such as ‘causal’ (e.g.
because, since), ‘temporal’ (e.g. when, while), ‘conditional’ (e.g. if,
unless), ‘final’ (e.g. in order that), ‘consecutive’ (so that [i.e. ‘withthe result that’]). As will be seen from these examples, some conjunctions consist of more than one word.
Not all words that introduce dependent sentences have traditionallybeen reckoned conjunctions. English who(m), which and whose areoften termed ‘relatives’ or even ‘relative pronouns’, the latter designation based on the observation that such words can have the samefunction as noun phrases (appearing as subjects and objects of sentences, for example), cf.:
Bill helped the girl who was drunk (subject)This is a prize which you can win (object)
Whatever other functions they may have, however, it is undeniable
that who, which in examples like the above (and in similar fashion
whom, whose) join together sentences, and to that extent can be classed
as conjunctions in the same way as because, when, etc.

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For who(m), which we may often substitute that in English (. . . thatwas drunk, . . . that you can win). A different function of that — likewise conjunctional, though, again, not always recognised as such —is to introduce what are often called that-clauses. These have a numberof functions, but are often the complements of verbs such as say, know,
think, suppose, hope, or, in a different type of construction, of be, e.g.:
He said that it was interesting
The upshot was that they all left
In such cases that is, of course, not interchangeable with who(m), which.
We are dealing here with three fundamentally different types of dependent sentence: (1) those reducible to an adverb (e.g. . . . when hearrives = then); (2) those reducible to an adjective (e.g. . . . which you
can win = winnable); (3) those reducible to a noun phrase (e.g. . . . that
it was interesting = it, the (following) thing, etc.). All dependent sentences are reducible in this way, which accounts for their dependent
status. They represent expanded versions of adverbial, adjectival or
nominal elements in independent sentences. Different though the threemain types of dependent sentence may be, it is unhelpful to divide thewords that introduce them into three separate categories since theircommon function as dependent sentence introducers is thereby
obscured. In keeping with this view, all Old Norse words that joinsentences together will in the following be treated as conjunctions.

3.8.1 Coordinating conjunctions
The principal coordinating conjunctions in Old Norse are ok ‘and’
and en ‘but’ ‘and moreover’ ‘and’. Others are e›a ‘or’ ‘but’, né ‘nor’.
Note further the expanded constructions bæ›i . . . ok ‘both . . . and’,
annattveggja . . . e›a ‘either . . . or’ and hvárki . . . né ‘neither . . . nor’.
As can be seen from the translations offered, the meanings of Old
Norse coordinating conjunctions are sometimes less clear-cut than thoseof their modern English equivalents, and the student may need to
examine carefully the contexts in which they appear in order todetermine the precise meaning.
The following examples illustrate typical usage.

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203

Eptir ﬂat fór ﬁorfinnr jarl til Orkneyja ok sat ﬂar um vetrinn‘After that went ﬁorfinnr earl to Orkneys and sat there during
winter-the’‘After that Earl ﬁorfinnr went to the Orkneys and stayed there
over the winter’
ﬁessu játa ﬂeir brœ›r, en Óláfr ferr heim
‘To-this agree those brothers, but Óláfr goes home’‘The brothers agree to this, but Óláfr goes home’
Lét ek ok ﬂar fé nƒkkut, en ek var leikinn sjálfr há›uliga‘Lost I also there property some, but I was treated myself
shamefully’‘I also lost some property there, and moreover I was myself
treated shamefully’
Here ok appears not as a conjunction, but as an adverb with the sense ‘also’.
For further uses of ok, see 3.8.2.4 and 3.9.9.

Hvárt sem hann ba› fyrir óvinum e›a hann ávita›i ﬂá . . .
‘Whether that he prayed for enemies or he rebuked them . . . ’‘Whether he prayed for his enemies or rebuked them . . . ’
Note that the sentences joined by e›a in this example are both dependent.

Ver vel kominn! E›a hvat mey er ﬂat, er ﬂér fylgir‘Be well come! Or what maid is that who you follows?’‘Welcome! But what maid is that who is with you?’This use of e›a to bridge two different themes is very common, especiallywhere the sentence it introduces is a question.

Nú mun fa›ir minn dau›r vera, ok hefir hvárki heyrt til hansstyn né hósta‘Now will father my dead be, and has neither heard to him
groan nor cough’‘Now my father must be dead, and neither a groan nor a coughhas been heard from him’
Although né joins together the two nouns styn and hósta, the second of these canbe seen as a reduced sentence: hefir hvárki heyrt til hans styn né [hefir heyrt til
hans] hósta.

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3.8.2 Subordinating conjunctions
As is the case with many languages, Old Norse boasts far more subordinating than coordinating conjunctions. The field is so broad, notleast because of the tendency for adverbs to metamorphose into subordinating conjunctions, that no attempt can be made here to provide
a complete list. For the student the most important thing is in any casenot the meaning of each individual conjunction. That can be looked
up in a dictionary. It is rather to grasp those features of the system that
constantly recur, in particular any which may not be immediately transparent to the learner.

3.8.2.1 The particle er
Old Norse er is an all-purpose subordinating conjunction. Having lost
any meaning of its own, it is used to introduce a wide variety of dependent sentences, either alone or together with one or more otherwords. In order to interpret er correctly, the student will usually needto understand clearly the context in which it appears. Consider thefollowing sentences (where the semantic emptiness of er is signalledby the literal rendering COMP (= complementiser), indicating a generalcomplementising — sentence introducing — function):(a)

Ok ﬂá er ﬂessi or›sending kom aptr til jarls, bjó hann fer›sína‘And then COMP this message came back to earl, prepared hejourney REFL. POSS.’‘And when this message got back to the earl, he made readyto leave’(b)

En er hann kom á Péttlandsfjƒr›, ﬂá haf›i hann ﬂrjá tigi
stórskipa‘But COMP he came into Pentland-Firth, then had he threetens of-large-ships’‘And when he got into the Pentland Firth, he had thirty large
ships’

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(c)

En um morguninn, er menn váru vakna›ir, var kominn á
byrr‘And in morning-the, COMP men were woken-up, was comeon favourable-wind’‘And in the morning, when men were awake, a favourable
wind had sprung up’(d)Ok er ﬂeir váru búnir, sigldu ﬂeir í haf‘And COMP they were prepared, sailed they to sea’‘And when they were ready, they sailed out to sea’(e)ﬁorfinnr jarl var ﬂá fimm vetra gamall, er Melkólmr Skotakonungr gaf honum jarlsnafn‘ﬁorfinnr earl was then five of-winters old COMP Melkólmr
king-of-Scots gave him earl’s-name’‘Earl ﬁorfinnr was five years old when Melkólmr, king of
the Scots, gave him the title of earl’In (a) er is immediately preceded by ﬂá, an adverb of time meaning‘then’. The latter (in conjunction with the tense of the verbs) supplies
past-time sense, while er introduces the dependent sentence; together
they form a temporal subordinating conjunction with the meaning‘when [past time]’. (b) has er as a sentence introducer without preceding ﬂá. The sense of the dependent sentence it introduces can, however, be deduced from the occurrence of the adverb ﬂá at the beginningof the following independent sentence: the earl commanded thirty ships‘then’, i.e. at the point when he entered the Pentland Firth. In (c) thetime adverbial um morguninn performs much the same function asﬂá in (a), even though um morguninn is more obviously than ﬂá partof the independent sentence that, as it were, ‘frames’ its dependent
partner (en um morguninn [ . . . ] var kominn á byrr). Past-time sense
is given by the tense of the verbs (váru, var). (d) lacks any adverbialthat could indicate the sense of er. Here we must be guided by context,
and the context is a sequence of events occurring at a particular timein the past. Immediately following (d) is the sentence: ﬂat var áƒndver›um vetri ‘that was at the beginning of winter’. This makes atemporal interpretation of er ﬂeir váru búnir the obvious one. (e) issimilar to (b) in that the er introducing the dependent sentence is206Morphology and syntax

rendered unambiguous by the occurrence of ﬂá ‘then’ in the accompanying independent sentence. The difference lies in the order of thetwo sentences and in the placing of ﬂá: in (b) it is the first element in
the independent sentence, in (e) it follows the verb.
The particle er appears in many temporal contexts. It commonly
combines with the adverbs me›an ‘meanwhile’, sí›an ‘since’, ﬂegar‘at once’ (yielding the conjunctions me›an er ‘while’, sí›an er ‘since’,
ﬂegar er ‘as soon as’), with the adverb phrase ﬂar til ‘thereto’ ‘up tothat point’ (conjunction: ﬂar til er ‘until’), and with preposition phrase
adverbials (see 3.5.4) such as eptir ﬂat ‘after that’ (conjunction: eptir
ﬂat er ‘after’), frá ﬂví ‘from that’ (conjunction: frá ﬂví er ‘since’), í ﬂví‘in that’ (conjunction: í ﬂví er ‘at the moment when’), til ﬂess ‘to that’(conjunction: til ﬂess er ‘until’). In most of these cases (and also withﬂá) er can be omitted, and there is then formal identity between conjunction and temporal adverbial (3.5.4) — as with English since (cf.
since (conj.) he came . . . , it has since (adv.) been lost). The following
can serve as a general example illustrating the use of temporal conjunctions with and without er.
Vér sœkjum ﬂangat miskunn gu›s, ﬂegar er vér komum í
heim, ok ﬂangat me›an vér erum í heimi, ok ﬂangat ﬂá er
vér fƒrum ór heimi‘We seek thither mercy of-God at-once COMP we come into
world, and thither while we are in world, and thither then
COMP we go from world’‘We seek God’s mercy there (in church) as soon as we enter
the world, and (we seek it) there while we are in the world,and (we seek it) there when we leave the world’Observe that the temporal contexts in which er operates are not restricted to past-time reference.
Location is another type of context in which er is commonly to befound, usually in combination with a locational adverbial. We findﬂar er ‘where’ (adverb ﬂar ‘there’), ﬂangat er (sometimes ﬂangat tiler) ‘to where’ (adverb ﬂangat ‘thither’, adverb til ‘to’ (cf. 3.7.7)), ﬂa›aner ‘from where’ (adverb ﬂa›an ‘thence’), and the further series hvar(gi)er ‘wherever’ (adverb hvar ‘where’), hvert(ki) er ‘to wherever’ (adverb
hvert ‘whither’), hva›an er ‘from wherever’ (adverb hva›an ‘whence’).

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Typical examples are:Helt hann ﬂangat, er hann spur›i til ﬁorfinns‘Proceeded he thither COMP he heard of ﬁorfinnr’‘He proceeded to where he heard ﬁorfinnr was’Gu› heyrir bœnir várar, hvar er vér bi›jum fyrir oss af ƒlluhjarta‘God hears prayers our where COMP we pray for ourselves ofall heart’‘God hears our prayers wherever we pray from our whole heart’
Er can introduce several other types of adverbial sentence. Some ofthese are easy enough to interpret since the words with which er combines are common and impart their characteristic meanings — e.g.
hversu, hvé ‘how’, hverr ‘who’, which give the conditional-concessives
hversu er, hvégi er ‘however’ (as in hversu/hvégi lengi er . . . ‘however long . . . ’), hverr er ‘whoever’. The circumstantial at ﬂví er ‘insofar as’ is not immediately deducible from its component parts, but its
sense is clear and unambiguous. Circumstantial or causal ﬂar er, on
the other hand, can only be distinguished from the formally identicallocational conjunction (see above) by the context. In, for example:Tƒl›u ﬂeir ﬂat órá› at leggja til bardaga vi› ﬁorgeir, ﬂar er
hann haf›i li› meira‘Said they that bad-counsel to go to battle with ﬁorgeirr, there
COMP he had force bigger’‘They said it was a bad idea to go to battle with ﬁorgeirr
since he had the bigger force’
there can be no question of a locational interpretation since no locations are mentioned. On the other hand, in:
Muntu ok eigi vilja vita ﬂat á ﬂik, at ﬂú liggir hér sem kƒttr íhreysi, ﬂar er ek berjumk til frelsis hvárumtveggjum
cited as 3.6.8, sentence 13, it can be hard to determine the precise
meaning of ﬂar er. There is the implied contrast of ﬂar with hér ‘here’,208

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suggesting a locational interpretation, but the greater contrast seems
to be circumstantial: hiding away as opposed to participating indesperate action. The translation offered in 3.6.8 is ‘while’; ‘given
that’ ‘seeing that’ are possible renderings too.
Another very common use of er is to introduce relative (adjectival)
sentences. This arises because Old Norse has no relative pronoun proper(though in Latinate style interrogative hverr ‘who?’ is sometimes used
as a relative in the same way as who(m), which, whose in English).
Since er is semantically empty, it is usual for the antecedent nounphrase modified by the relative sentence to be accompanied by theappropriate form of the demonstrative sá or sjá/ﬂessi (3.2.2). E.g.:
Erlendr átti ﬂá konu, er ﬁóra hét‘Erlendr had that woman COMP ﬁóra was-called’‘Erlendr was married to the woman who was called ﬁóra’
where konu is the antecedent noun phrase, ﬂá the accompanying demonstrative and er ﬁóra hét the relative sentence. Note however thatﬂá is in the same (independent) sentence as konu and agrees with it incase, gender and number (acc. f. sg.). It is thus of no help in indicating
the function of whatever correlates with (i.e. refers to the same entityas) konu in the relative sentence. Whether we take this to be er or a
relative pronoun that is absent but understood, it has subject function(‘the woman/she was called ﬁóra’), and nominative would therefore
be the appropriate case. This is not, however, shown, the only marker,
er, being uninflected, and the student thus has to deduce the functionof the correlate from the context.
Further examples will make the problem clearer, and indicate strategies for solving it. In:
Hann beiddisk ﬂess ﬂri›jungs, er átt haf›i Einarr jarl
‘He demanded that third COMP owned had Einarr earl’
the antecedent and its accompanying pronoun are in the genitive (governed by beiddisk), but what of the correlate? The student may ponder
two possibilities: ‘which had owned Earl Einarr’ (‘which’ = subject)or ‘which Earl Einarr had owned’ (‘which’ = object). The latter will
be preferred as by far the more likely statement, and any residual doubt

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can be resolved by the form Einarr. Einarr is nom. (acc. Einar). Sinceeiga ‘[to] own’ is construed with nom. subject and acc. direct object,
the subject of the relative sentence must be Einarr, leaving the correlateof ﬂess ﬂri›jungs as the object (accusative, though unmarked as such).
The idiomatic translation is thus:‘He demanded the third which Earl Einarr had owned’In:
Váru ﬂeir menn ﬂá út dregnir, er gri› váru gefin‘Were those men then out dragged [from the burning building] COMP truces were given’
the antecedent and its accompanying pronoun are in the nominative(the subject of váru . . . dregnir). The main verb of the relative sentence is to be found in the pp. form gefin, from gefa ‘[to] give’. Verbs
of giving are normally construed with nominative subject, accusative
direct object and dative indirect object in Old Norse, but in passive
constructions, which is what we have here, nominative subject (what
was given) and dative indirect object (to whom it was given) normallysuffice (see 3.6.8, sentence 24). The only noun phrase in the relative
sentence is gri›, and this will be found to be n. pl. The auxiliary verbform váru is pl. and its subject could thus be either the correlate of
ﬂeir menn or gri›; however, pp. gefin is either nom. f. sg. or nom./acc.
n. pl. (3.3.9, paradigm 7) and cannot therefore agree with a m. pl.
subject. The correlate must be indirect object (‘to whom truces were
given’), and an idiomatic rendering would be:‘The men who were given quarter were then pulled out’
Note finally that antecedent and relative sentence are discontinuous(i.e. ﬂá út dregnir intervenes), a common enough phenomenon in Old
Norse. In:Rƒgnvaldr segir, at ﬂann hlut Eyja, er ﬂeir kalla til, hef›ihann tekit í lén af Magnúsi konungi‘Rƒgnvaldr says that that part of-Islands COMP they call to,
had he taken in fief from Magnús king’210

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the antecedent and its accompanying pronoun are in the accusative(the object of hef›i tekit). The verb phrase of the relative sentence
consists of verb (kalla) + preposition (til). Since the verb is 3rd pl., its
subject cannot be the correlate of ﬂann hlut and must therefore benom. pl. ﬂeir. This means the correlate of ﬂann hlut is governed by til.
An idiomatic rendering is then:‘Rƒgnvaldr says that he had taken in fief from King Magnús
the part of the Orkneys to which they are laying claim’(Observe that in Old Norse constructions of this type the preposition
regularly comes at the end of the sentence; word-order equivalent toEnglish to which, from whom, etc., is seldom found, and never where
the particle er is used.)This last example indicates that the correlate can have functions (inaddition to reference to the antecedent) other than those of subject,direct and indirect object. The instrumental dative and the various
relationships expressed by the genitive — to mention the most common— can also be ‘built in’ to the correlate. Consider the following two
examples:Sá ﬂvengr, er mu›rinn Loka var saman rifa›r, heitir Vartari‘That thong COMP mouth-the of-Loki was together sewn iscalled Vartari’‘The thong with which Loki’s mouth was sewn up is called
Vartari’(er (or an understood correlate, cf. above) = instrumental dat. ‘with which’)Sjá ma›r, er vér segjum nú frá jartegnum, átti marga lærisveina‘This man, COMP we say now from miracles, had many disciples’‘This man, of whose miracles we are now telling, had many
disciples’(er (or understood correlate) = subjective gen. ‘whose’)Conjunctions

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Although pronoun + noun or noun + pronoun is the most common
antecedent of a relative sentence, a noun or pronoun may also occur
on its own. E.g.:¯zurr átti son, er Leifr hét‘¯zurr had a son who was called Leifr’Svínbeygt hefi ek nú ﬂann, er ríkastr er me› Svíum‘Made-root-like-a-pig have I now that-one [m.] COMP mostpowerful is among Swedes’‘I have thoroughly humbled him who is most powerful among
the Swedes’
Occasionally — mostly in early writings — a personal or demonstrative pronoun or possessive adjective may be included in the relative
sentence to make the function of the correlate clearer. E.g.:
Ekkja heitir sú, er búandi hennar var› sóttdau›r‘Widow is-called that-one [f.] COMP husband her was deadfrom-illness’‘She whose husband died from illness is called a widow’
Sometimes the particle er is replaced by sem. This is particularlycommon with relative, conditional-concessive (hverr er/sem ‘whoever’etc.) or locational ‘-ever’ sentences (hvar er/sem ‘wherever’ etc.). E.g.:
Gengu út ﬂeir, sem gløggs‡nastir váru at sjá‘Went out those COMP most-clear-sighted were to look’‘Those who were most clear-sighted went out to look’
Hann var kenndr at illu hvar sem hann fór‘He was known for bad where COMP he went’‘He had a bad reputation wherever he went’More problematically, er is interchangeable with at, another extremely common Old Norse particle which participates in a wide rangeof constructions (3.8.2.2).

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For example:

En ﬂeir allir, at ﬂau tí›indi heyr›u, lofu›u sannan gu›‘But those all, COMP those tidings heard, praised true god’‘And all who heard that news praised the true God’English-speaking learners may be helped by the quirk that that can
introduce both that- (noun) and relative (adjective) sentences (cf. 3.8),
making ‘and all that heard that news . . . ’ a possible English renderingof the above. This superficial similarity will not help in all cases whereat is substituted for er, however, nor where er is used for expected at,so it is important to understand the sentence structure. In, for example:
ﬁegar at hausta›i, tóku at vaxa reimleikar‘At-once COMP became-autumn, began to grow hauntings’‘As soon as autumn arrived the hauntings began to increase’
ﬂegar combines with at rather than er to form a temporal subordinating conjunction. Here it is quite impossible to think of at as the equivalent of English ‘that’. For the beginner the best advice is to try substituting er for at and vice versa when either is met in a context where
it does not make obvious sense.

3.8.2.2 The particle atUsed on its own, at introduces noun sentences and adverbial sentencesof purpose. The former are far commoner. Typical examples of at noun
sentences are provided by:ﬁeir segja, at hann væri ﬂar á hƒf›anum hjá ﬂeim
‘They say that he was there on the headland with them’En ek vil, Sveinn, at ﬂú farir í Orkneyjar‘But I want, Sveinn, that you go to Orkneys’‘But I want you, Sveinn, to go to the Orkneys’Conjunctions

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An adverbial sentence of purpose introduced by at is contained in:
Mun ek veita ﬂér slíkt li›, sem ﬂú vill, at ﬂetta fari fram‘Will I give you such aid as you want that this goes forward’‘I will give you as much aid as you want so that this may be
accomplished’
Noun sentences are sometimes anticipated by a demonstrative pronoun standing in the associated independent sentence, e.g.:Ræ› ek ﬂat, at vér vindim segl várt
‘Advise I that that we hoist sail our’
‘I advise that we hoist our sail’
Er sú bœn Kveldúlfs, at ﬂú takir vi› ﬁórólfi‘Is that [f.] request of-Kveldúlfr that you take with ﬁórólfr’‘It is Kveldúlfr’s request that you receive ﬁórólfr’
where at vér vindim segl várt, the object of ræ›, is represented by ﬂatin the independent sentence, and at ﬂú takir vi› ﬁórólfi, the subject ofer, by sú (agreeing with bœn, f.).
At regularly combines with other words to form subordinating conjunctions; these introduce various kinds of adverbial sentence. Moreoften than plain at the purpose conjunction is til ﬂess at ‘in order that’‘so that’ (til ﬂess at can alternatively, but less commonly, have thetemporal sense ‘until’). Sentences of reason or cause may be introduced by ﬂví at, af ﬂví at, fyrir ﬂví at, me› ﬂví at ‘because’ ‘since’; ofconcession by ﬂó at or ﬂót(t) (the latter a compound of the former)‘although’ ‘even though’; of result by svá at ‘so that’ ‘with the result
that’; and of comparison by svá . . . at ‘so . . . that’. Examples are:Skulu [3.6.9.1 point (13)] vér frændr ﬂínir veita ﬂér styrk, til
ﬂess at ﬂú komir aldrigi sí›an í slíkt ƒngﬂveiti‘Shall we kinsmen your give you support to that that youcome never subsequently into such straits’‘We your kinsmen will give you support so that you neveragain get into such straits’214

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Hrau› hann skipin skjótt, ﬂví at ﬂar var bor›amunr mikill‘Cleared he ships-the quickly therefore that there was difference-in-height great’‘He cleared the ships (of men) quickly because there was agreat difference in height (between his ships and the others)’
Kallar hann ﬂat meirr verit hafa fyrir ﬂví játtat, at ﬂeir váru
ﬂá komnir í greipr Óláfi konungi‘Calls he that more been have for that agreed that they werethen come into clutches [belonging] to-Óláfr king’‘He says it was agreed more readily because they had thenfallen into the clutches of King Óláfr’ﬁó at hann deyi í mƒrgum syndum, ﬂá lifir hann í trú sinni‘Though that he dies in many sins, then lives he in faith REFL.
POSS.’‘Even though he may die full of sin, he lives in his faith’Lƒg›u ﬂeir á flótta, svá at fá ein skip váru eptir me› jarlsskipi‘Set-off they to flight, so that few only ships were behindwith earl’s ship’‘They took to flight, so that only a few ships were left withthe earl’s ship’
Ekki eru ﬂeir enn svá nær oss, at eigi væri betr, at ek hef›asofit‘Not are they yet so near us that not were better that I had
slept’‘They are not yet so near us that it would not have been better if I had slept’

Note that conjunctions that consist of more than one word can be discontinuous (fyrir ﬂví . . . at; comparative svá . . . at is always so).

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Sometimes whole sentences may intervene between the different
elements, e.g.:
Af ﬂví eigum vér, gó›ir vinir, at leggja mikla rœkt á kirkjur
várar, at vér sœkjum ﬂangat miskunn gu›s
‘From that ought we, good friends, to place great care on
churches our that we seek thither grace of-God’‘We ought, dear friends, to take great care of our churches
because we seek there the grace of God’This in no way exhausts the list of subordinating conjunctions incorporating at, but students will find that once the basics are understood the sense of most can be deduced from the context. In addition
to result and comparison, for example, svá at can introduce sentencesof purpose, e.g.:
Af ﬂví er oss nau›syn, gó›ir brœ›r . . . at vér hreinsim brjóstkirkjur várar, svá at ekki finni gu› í mysteri sínu . . . ﬂat er
hann styggvisk vi›‘From that is to-us necessity, good brothers . . . that we cleansebreast-churches our, so that not finds God in temple REFL.
POSS. . . . that COMP he offends-sk with’‘Therefore it is necessary for us, dear brethren . . . to purify
the churches of our hearts, so that God does not find in his
temple . . . anything by which he is offended’
Note that af ﬂví here is the adverbial ‘therefore’, and does not belongwith the following at, which introduces the noun sentence subject ofer oss nau›syn (‘that we purify the churches of our hearts is to us anecessity’). Observe also a further example of a correlate in a relative
sentence governed by a preposition: er hann styggvisk vi› (3.8.2.1).

3.8.2.3 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs
The interrogative pronouns hverr ‘who’ ‘which’ ‘what’, hvat ‘what’
and hvárr ‘which of two’, and interrogative adverbs such as hvar‘where’, hva›an ‘whence’, hvert ‘whither’ ‘where’, hvárt ‘whether’,216

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hvé, hversu, hvernig ‘how’, nær, hvenær ‘when’, hví ‘why’, introduce
noun sentences. Typically such sentences occur after verbs of ‘asking’ or ‘knowing’, denoting the thing asked or known, but they may
be found in many other contexts. Since these interrogatives are among
the most common words in Old Norse and their meaning is usuallyclear, the dependent sentences they introduce are unlikely to cause thelearner many difficulties. It is worth noting, however, that the pronouns always appear in a case, gender and number appropriate to theirfunction in the dependent sentence. A selection of examples follows
to illustrate the range of Old Norse ‘indirect questions’ — as dependent sentences introduced by interrogatives are often called.
Hann lét frétta eptir, hverr fyrir eldinum ré›i
‘He let ask after who of fire-the had-command’‘He had people ask who was responsible for the fire’
Hverr is the subject of the verb ré›i and thus nominative (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1).
The noun sentence hverr fyrir eldinum ré›i is governed by the preposition
eptir (3.7.4) in the independent sentence: if hverr fyrir eldinum ré›i werereduced to a noun or pronoun, its case would be dative (e.g. hann lét frétta
eptir ﬂví ‘he had people ask about that’).

Ek vil vita, hverju ﬂú vill bœta mér bró›ur minn
‘I want know with-what you will compensate to-me brother my’‘I want to know what compensation you will give me for mybrother’s death’
Hverju is an instrumental dative denoting the means of compensation — withor by what someone or something is compensated (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20).
The noun sentence introduced by hverju is the object of the verb vita in the
independent sentence: it describes what the speaker wants to know (cf. 3.1.5,
sentence 5, 3.2.6, sentence 6).

Leita›i hann ﬂá eptir, hvern styrk ﬂeir vilja veita honum‘Sought he then after what support they will give him’
‘He then enquired what support they are willing to give him’
Styrk, with which hvern agrees, is accusative — the object of veita (what‘they’ (may) give). As in the first example, the noun sentence is governed by
the preposition eptir.

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ﬁat vil ek vita, hvat ﬂú vill veita oss‘That want I know what you will give us’‘I want to know what you are willing to give us’Hvat, like hvern styrk in the preceding example, is the object of veita. Observethat the noun sentence is anticipated by (and reduced to) ﬂat in the independent sentence: ‘I want to know that — namely, what you will give us’. Suchanticipation by a demonstrative pronoun is not uncommon. ﬁat is acc., because it and the noun sentence it stands for are the object of vita.

Eigi ﬂykki mér skipta, í hvárum flokki ek em‘Not seems to-me matter in which-of-the-two party I am’‘It does not seem to me to matter in which of the two parties
I am’
Hvárum agrees with flokki, which is dat., governed by the preposition í (3.7.4).
The noun sentence introduced by í hvárum flokki is the subject of the independent sentence — in which of the two parties the speaker finds himself is
what does not seem to him to matter.

Veit ek eigi, hva›an ﬂjófsaugu eru komin í ættar várar‘Know I not whence thief’s-eyes are come into families our’
‘I do not know from where thief’s eyes have come into ourkin’
Engi veit, nær sú stund kømr
‘No one knows when that time will come’Nú vil ek vita, hvárt ﬂú vill ﬂessa fer› fara me› mér‘Now want I know whether you will this journey go with me’‘Now I want to know whether you will make this journeywith me’Hva›an, nær and hvárt are interrogative adverbs and thus not inflected. The
noun sentences they introduce are the objects of veit/vita — what the speaker
does not know, what no one knows, and what the speaker wants to know.

Engu skiptir mik, hversu ﬂú hefir vi› a›ra menn gƒrt‘By-nothing concerns me how you have to other men done’‘It does not concern me at all how you have treated other men’

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Hversu is an interrogative adverb. The noun sentence it introduces is the subject of skiptir — what does not concern the speaker.

Hann spur›i, hví at eigi skyldi drepa flugumenn‘He asked why that not should kill assassins’‘He asked why assassins should not be killed’Hví is an interrogative adverb. The noun sentence it introduces is the object of
spur›i — what is asked. Observe that not only hví but also the particle at isused to introduce the dependent sentence. Such ‘doubling’ is not uncommon
and can also involve er, e.g.:

En nú haf ﬂú njósn af, nær er ﬂeir koma til bœjarins‘But now have you watch of when COMP they come to town-the’‘But now keep watch and see when they come to town’
The addition of at or er makes no difference to the meaning. It strengthens theimpression of these particles as general complementisers, and suggests thatinterrogatives were sometimes felt to be unequal to the task of introducing
dependent sentences on their own.

3.8.2.4 Other adverbial sentence introducers
We have already seen that the particles er and at can introduce adverbial sentences (3.8.2.1, 3.8.2.2). There are in addition several conjunctions with more specific meaning that perform this task. Commonest
among these are the conditionals ef ‘if’, nema, útan ‘unless’, thetemporals á›r ‘before’, unz ‘until’, the temporal and circumstantial
sí›an ‘since’ ‘seeing that’ (see 3.8.2.1), and the comparatives en ‘than’,sem ‘as’ ‘as though’. The following examples illustrate typical usage.
(a)

En ef vart ver›r vi› vára fer›, ﬂá látum vér enn hafit gæta vár‘But if aware becomes of our movement, then let we again
sea-the guard us’‘But if people notice our movements then we will once again
let the open sea hide us’(a) provides a good illustration of the way in which dependent sentences are
reducible to a single word. The adverb ﬂá ‘then’ ‘in that case’, which heads

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the independent sentence, encapsulates and repeats the adverbial sense of thepreceding conditional en ef vart ver›r vi› vára fer›. Observe further that theconditional sentence has no subject (cf. 3.9.3).

(b)

Nú ﬂykki mér Rƒgnvaldr eigi vel launa mér, ef ek skal núeigi ná bró›urarfi mínum, nema ek berjumk til‘Now seems to-me Rƒgnvaldr not well repay me if I shall
now not get brother’s-inheritance my unless I fight-sk for’‘Now it seems to me Rƒgnvaldr is not repaying me well if I
am not now to get my brother’s inheritance unless I fight for it’(c)

Nú sé ek, at ek mun deyja, útan ﬂú hjálpir mér‘Now I see that I shall die unless you help me’

Conditional sentences introduced by nema or útan are most often dependent
on a negative, as in (b).

(d)

ﬁeir kómu ﬂar árdegis, á›r menn váru uppsta›nir‘They came there early-of-day before men were risen’‘They came there early in the day before men had got up’(e)Ferr hann í Geirﬂjófsfjƒr› ok er ﬂar unz haustar‘Goes he into Geirﬂjófsfjƒr›r and is there until becomes-autumn’‘He goes to Geirﬂjófsfjƒr›r and stays there until autumn arrives’

As in (a), the dependent sentence of (e) is subjectless.

(f)

Einarr haf›i verit me› Óláfi Svía konungi sí›an Sveinn jarlanda›isk‘Einarr had been with Óláfr of-Swedes king since Sveinn
earl died-sk’‘Einarr had been with Óláfr, the Swedish king, since Earl
Sveinn died’(g)Villtu, at ek gæta vitans, sí›an ek geri ekki annat?
‘Want-you that I look-after beacon-the, since I do nothingother?’‘Do you want me to look after the beacon seeing that I am
not doing anything else?’

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Observe that sí›an may have circumstantial as well as temporal meaning,
testifying to the close relationship between a temporal sequence and the closed
condition or premise (sí›an ek geri ekki annat) that ties a circumstantial sentence to an independent fellow expressing the conclusion (villtu . . . ?). (InEnglish since and as function as temporal, circumstantial and also as causal
conjunctions.)(h)ﬁeir létu ok eigi fleiri menn sjá á skipinu en jarli hƒf›u fylgt‘They let also not more men see on ship-the than earl had
followed’‘Nor did they let more men be seen on the ship than had
accompanied the earl’(i)Hann létti eigi fyrr en hann kom á fund Magnúss konungs‘He stopped not earlier than he came to finding of-Magnús
king’‘He did not stop before he found King Magnús’

Just as English than, ON en requires a comparative adjective (here fleiri) oradverb (fyrr) in the independent sentence. It is possible to analyse fyrr en as acomplex temporal conjunction (cf. the idiomatic English rendering ‘before’),although, like most other compound conjunctions in Old Norse, it may bediscontinuous (i.e. the parts may be separated) as in: eigi var› fyrr vart vi› enﬂeir hƒf›u tekit allar dyrr á húsunum ‘not became earlier aware of than they
had taken all doorways on buildings-the [i.e. people did not become aware ofanything before they had seized all the exits from the buildings]’.

(j)

Konungr bau› honum me› sér at vera, svá lengi sem honum
líka›i‘King invited him with self to be as long as him pleased’‘The king invited him to stay with him as long as he pleased’(k)

Muntu gƒrr sekr, slíkir menn sem hér eigu eptirmæli
‘Will-you made outlawed, such men as here have prosecution’‘You will be condemned to outlawry, seeing what kind ofmen have to follow up the case’(l)

Magnús konungr ba› hann fara sem honum líka›i‘Magnús king bade him go as him pleased’‘King Magnús said he could go as he pleased’Conjunctions
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221

Sveinn lét, sem hann heyr›i eigi
‘Sveinn acted as-though he heard not’
‘Sveinn pretended he did not hear’

Comparative sem is often dependent on a preceding svá (j) or slíkr (k) — withslíkr in the appropriate case, gender and number — though it may appear
without either (l), and commonly does when the sense is ‘as though’ (m). The
precise syntactic function of svá and slíkr — with or without accompanying
adverb or noun phrase — can be difficult to analyse (true also of comparative
svá . . . at constructions, 3.8.2.2). In (j) and (k) above svá lengi and slíkir mennstand outside the independent sentence but before the sem which introduces
the dependent, comparative sentence. Since, however, similar constructions— equally difficult to analyse — are found in English, understanding is unlikely
to prove a problem for the learner. (On the lack of an Old Norse equivalent of‘be’ in (k)’s muntu gƒrr sekr, see 3.9.5.2.) Note that comparative sem issometimes replaced by ok. This normally only occurs where the comparativeis dependent on an antecedent meaning ‘same’ or ‘similar’. E.g.:

ﬁat segja sumir menn, at hann yr›i aldri sami ma›r ok á›r‘That say some men that he became never same man and before’‘Some men say that he was never the same man as (he was)before’3.8 Conjunctions — Exercise
1. What is the principal function of conjunctions? In what way dothey differ from most other words?
2. What is implied by the term ‘coordinating conjunction’? What are
the main coordinating conjunctions in Old Norse?
3. How can the meaning of er be deduced?
4. Outline the main sentence types introduced by er.
5. What types of sentence are introduced by at on its own?
6. With what words does at combine to form complex subordinating
conjunctions? Give the Old Norse forms and their meaning(s).
7. List the interrogative pronouns that introduce dependent sentencesin Old Norse and give their meaning(s).
8. Apart from er and at, which simplex (single-word) conjunctions
introduce adverbial sentences in Old Norse? Give the words andtheir meaning(s).
9. Find three examples of discontinuous conjunctions (either fromsentences in this section or elsewhere) and quote them.

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10. Analyse the conjunctions (printed in bold) in the following sentences. State whether they are coordinating or subordinating and,if subordinating, the type of sentence they introduce (noun, adjectival, adverbial; conditional, temporal, causal, etc.).
(a) ﬁá spur›i hann, at Haraldr var farinn yfir til Kataness‘Then he learnt that Haraldr had gone across to Caithness’(b) Er ﬂér eigi forvitni á, hversu mér líkar sagan?
‘Aren’t you curious to know how I like the story?’(c) Fór ﬂá Erlendr austr í Nóreg, en Anakol var eptir í Orkneyjum‘Then Erlendr went east to Norway, but Anakol remained in the Orkneys’(d) Íﬂrótt er ﬂat, ef ﬂú efnir‘That is a feat if you can perform it’(e) Hann var ﬂá barn at aldri, er hann tók ríkit‘He was only a child when he came to the throne’(f) ﬁó at ﬂú ver›ir rei›r, ﬂá mældu fátt‘Though you become angry, yet say little’(g) Konungr kalla›isk ﬂá vilja fá honum skip ok li›, svá sem hann
ﬂurfti‘The king said he would give him ships and men then as (many as) heneeded’(h) Tóku ﬂeir ﬂá byr›inginn ok allt ﬂat, er á var‘They then seized the cargo-boat and everything that was on it’(i) ﬁeir váru í Orkahaugi, me›an él dró á‘They were in Orkahaugr, while a storm passed over’(j) Gaf hann meir en fjór›ung biskupsdóms síns, til ﬂess at heldrværi tveir biskupsstólar á Íslandi en einn
‘He gave more than a quarter of his bishopric so that there should be
two episcopal seats in Iceland rather than one’(k) Sveinn skyldi fyrir sjá, hvert rá› er skyldi taka
‘Sveinn was to decide what plan should be adopted’(l) Konungr var› svá rei›r Agli, at hann vill eigi fara at finna
hann‘The king became so angry with Egill that he will not go to see him’(m) Hann sendi ﬂá or› ƒ›rum hƒf›ingjum ﬂeim, er honum var li›s
at ván‘He then sent word to the other leaders from whom he expected help’(n) ﬁví var hann kalla›r bló›øx, at ma›rinn var ofstopama›r‘He was called “bloodaxe” because he was an overbearing man’

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3.9 Residual points of syntax
The aim of this section is to introduce the learner to various aspects of
Old Norse syntax that may cause difficulty (some will have been briefly
alluded to in earlier parts of this Grammar). Only the essentials aredealt with. For more thorough accounts, see Faarlund 2004, Haugen2001, Heusler 1932, Iversen 1973, Nygaard 1905.

3.9.1 Sentence word-orderWord-order in Old Norse is freer than in modern English. That does
not mean, however, that words may appear in any sequence. One clear
rule is that the finite verb must be the first or second element in a
sentence, in dependent sentences most often the second. Awareness of
this pattern can help to determine whether a sentence is to be analysed
as independent and beginning with an adverb or dependent and introduced by a conjunction. For example:(a)

Sí›an gekk hann til messu

and:
(b)

Sí›an hann gekk til messu . . .

are to be interpreted differently. (a) is an independent sentence in which
the adverb sí›an ‘then’ occupies first position, the finite verb gekk
‘went’ second, and the subject hann ‘he’ third. (b) is a dependent sentence introduced by the subordinating conjunction sí›an ‘since’, inwhich the subject hann occupies first position and the finite verb gekk
second. The full meaning of (a) is thus ‘then he went to mass’ and of(b) ‘since he went to mass . . .’ Being dependent, (b) requires the
addition of an independent sentence to complete the utterance (cf. 3.8).
In English a finite verb in first position normally signals either aquestion (can you come?) or a command (come here!). In Old Norse
declarative sentences too may have verb-first order. Thus:
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may either be the question ‘have you a big force?’ or the declarative‘you have a big force’. Normally the context will make clear how sucha sentence is to be understood. Ambiguity can also be avoided by theuse of the question introducer hvárt (in origin nom./acc. n. sg. of theinterrogative pronoun hvárr ‘which of two’, cf. 3.2.5). Thus, while
Lifir hann enn‘Lives he still’
may either be the question ‘is he still alive?’ or the statement ‘he isstill alive’,
Hvárt lifir hann enn?
can only be the question.
As noted in 3.1.5 and elsewhere, the unmarked order of noun phrases
in Old Norse (order not deliberately altered for emphasis) is subject— object. Often the subject will precede the finite verb giving subject— verb — object:ﬁeir fundu konung‘They met the king’However, where some other word is in first position (a) or the verb isfirst (b), the order will be verb — subject — object (cf. above):(a)ﬁar fundu ﬂeir konung(b)

Fundu ﬂeir konung

The position of the direct and indirect object in relation to one another is not fixed, morphological case (mostly) indicating the function(see 3.1.5, sentences 5, 16–19). A tendency for the indirect to precede
the direct object is however noticeable.
The subject complement (3.1.5, sentence 1) also follows the subject
in unmarked word-order, and the object complement (3.3.6, sentence 7)
the object, as in:Points of syntax

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Var hann inn mesti hƒf›ingi‘Was he the greatest ruler’‘He was a very great ruler’
ﬁeir ger›u hann ﬂegar líflátinn
‘They made him at-once life-lost’‘They killed him at once’
Many sentences will of course contain more than subject, finite verb,
object(s) and/or complement. However, the learner is unlikely to bemuch confused by the order in which such additional elements appear,
even though this can vary considerably. Three features are worth noting.
First, non-finite verb-forms may follow as well as precede objects andcomplements. E.g.:
Hann haf›i heit strengt‘He had oath sworn’‘He had sworn an oath’
Eigi var hann jafna›arma›r kalla›r‘Not was he fair-man called’‘He was not called a fair man’
Second, although a finite verb may immediately follow a subordinating conjunction, it is common to insert a sentence element between
them. This element may be of almost any type. E.g. (with intervening
pronoun vér, supine byggt and adverb ﬂar in bold):
Af ﬂeira ætt er sú kynsló› komin, er vér kƒllum Ása ættir, er
byggt hafa Ásgar› ok ﬂau ríki, er ﬂar liggja til‘From their union is that family-line come COMP [3.8.2.1] wecall of-Æsir kinsfolk, COMP inhabited have Ásgar›r and those
realms COMP there lie to’‘From them has come the family line we call the Æsir kinsfolk, who have inhabited Ásgar›r and the realms which belong to it’226Morphology and syntax

Third, provided the subject is the only noun phrase in the sentence, it
may be postponed to the end. E.g.:
Tók ﬂá brátt at brenna bœrinn
‘Took then soon to burn farmhouse-the’‘Then the farmhouse soon began to burn’Not uncommonly, an object or complement is fronted (moved into
first position), either because it is an established discourse topic or togive it emphasis. These are cases of marked word-order (see 3.1.5,
sentence 1). A fronted object will usually be detectable from the factthat it has a case other than the nominative and one different from thatof any other noun phrase in the sentence, but a complement will havethe same case as one of the other noun phrases (cf. above and 3.1.5,
sentence 1, 3.3.6, sentence 7), often the nominative. Thus, in:Ásu dóttur sína gipti hann Gu›rø›i konungi‘Ása, daughter REFL. POSS., married he to-Gu›rø›r king’He gave his daughter, Ása, in marriage to King Gu›rø›r’
the accusative case of Ásu dóttur sína should warn the student against
trying to interpret it as subject, notwithstanding it is the first nounphrase in the sentence. The student will either know, or can ascertainfrom a dictionary, that gipta is construed with a nominative subject,accusative direct object and dative indirect object. Since Gu›rø›ikonungi is clearly dat., and Ásu dóttur sína clearly acc., hann must be
nom. (rather than acc., cf. 3.2.1) and is thus the only candidate forsubject. On the other hand, in:Vitr ma›r ertu
‘Wise man are-you’‘You are a wise man’both vitr ma›r and ﬂú (ertu = ert ﬂú, cf. 3.2.1) are nominative. Thereis nevertheless no doubt that ﬂú is subject and vitr ma›r subject complement. In sentences of the X is Y type X is the topic and Y the comment. Thus, you are a wise man is acceptable English since you can beinterpreted as an established discourse topic about which something

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is being said, whereas *a wise man is you is impossible because of the
difficulty of interpreting a wise man as topic and you as something
said about it. Not all examples are as clear-cut as this. Consider:
Dóttir Njar›ar var Freyja‘Daughter of-Njƒr›r was Freyja’‘Freyja was Njƒr›r’s daughter’
Here we may legitimately wonder what is subject and what subject
complement. The reason for identifying Freyja as subject is that dóttir
Njar›ar is more likely as a description of a named individual than a
named individual is as a description of dóttir Njar›ar (cf. English?John’s daughter was Sally).
It is not only objects and complements that are fronted in Old Norse.
Adverbials (cf. ﬂar fundu ﬂeir konung, eigi var hann jafna›arma›rkalla›r above) and non-finite verbs (ﬂakka viljum vér y›r ‘we want tothank you’) may also be topicalised or emphasised in this way.
Observe that in all these cases of fronting the finite verb remains thesecond sentence element (though not necessarily the second word).
This is even the case where a dependent precedes an independent sentence — the former being reducible to a single element (cf. 3.8), e.g.:
Er jarl heyr›i ﬂetta, var› hann rei›r mjƒk‘COMP earl heard this, became he angry much’‘When the earl heard this, he became very angry’
Dependent er jarl heyr›i ﬂetta can be reduced to ﬂá ‘then’, and whereﬂá heads an independent sentence the finite verb, here var›, must be
the next element.

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3.9.1 Sentence word-order — Exercise
1. What sentence positions may the finite verb occupy in Old Norse?
Give three examples.
2. In what order do the different noun phrases appear in an unmarked
Old Norse sentence? Give three examples.
3. What is meant by fronting? Give three examples.
4. Analyse the word-order of the following sentences:(a) Fé ﬂat allt gaf hann li›smƒnnum sínum‘He gave all that wealth to his followers’(b) Fornjótr hefir konungr heitit‘There was a king called Fornjótr’(c) Hug›u ﬂeir, er fyrir váru, at Rƒgnvaldr jarl myndi ﬂar fara
‘Those who were present thought that Earl Rƒgnvaldr would be on
the move there’

3.9.2 Word-order in noun phrases
Noun phrase word-order, like word-order in general, is freer in Old
Norse than English. Words modifying a noun may, with certain restrictions, appear either before or after it. Thus we find both gamall ma›r
(adj. + noun) and ma›r gamall (noun + adj.) ‘old man’, ﬂann gu›(pron. + noun) and gu› ﬂann (noun + pronoun) ‘that god’. Phrases
containing a pronoun, definite article and adjective may have threedifferent orders (cf. 3.3.5): sá (h)inn blindi ma›r (pron. + def. art. +adj. + noun), ma›r sá (h)inn blindi (noun + pron. + def. art. + adj.),and sá ma›r (h)inn blindi (pron. + noun + def. art. + adj.) ‘the blindman’.
Possessive adjectives tend to come after the noun they modify unless they are stressed: li› várt ‘our army’, mó›ir mín ‘my mother’,tungu hennar ‘her language’, but ﬂat er ekki mitt skap ‘that is not myinclination’ — with stress on ‘my’. This applies also to genitive modifiers: ﬂræll konungs ‘the king’s slave’, haugr Hálfdanar ‘Hálfdan’smound’, but margra manna vitor› ‘many men’s knowledge [i.e. known
to many men]’ with stress on ‘many’. Regularly placed after the nounare epithets and appositional modifiers: Eiríkr rau›i ‘Eiríkr the red’,ﬁorfinnr jarl ‘Earl ﬁorfinnr’.

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Comparative and superlative adjectives normally precede the nouns
they modify: (h)in stœrri skipin ‘the larger ships’, (h)inir spƒkustu
menn ‘the wisest men’. This is also true of adverbs modifying adjectives, though a few, such as the common mjƒk, vel, betr, bezt, tend tofollow their head word: ákafliga rei›r ‘furiously angry’, but gott mjƒk‘very good’, hær›r vel ‘well haired [i.e. with fine hair]’.
A further feature of noun phrases in Old Norse of which students
should be aware is their proneness to discontinuity. Elements which
belong together may be found at some distance from each other, separated by other elements. Consider the following examples (with theseparated elements in bold):
Er menn váru út dregnir flestir, gekk ma›r út í dyrrnar‘COMP men were out dragged most, went man out into doorway’‘When most men had been dragged out, a man went out into
the doorway’
Ma›r gekk í lyptingina í rau›um kyrtli mikill ok vaskligr‘Man went onto poop-deck-the in red tunic large and manly’‘A large and valiant-looking man in a red tunic came up onto
the poop-deck’ﬁorfinnr haf›i mikit skip ok vel búit
‘ﬁorfinnr had a large and well-equipped ship’ﬁórr fór fram á lei› ok ﬂeir félagar‘ﬁórr went forward on way and those companions’‘ﬁórr and his companions went on their way’
Such discontinuity should not on the whole cause students too muchdifficulty provided they pay proper attention to case, gender andnumber. The inflexions of nouns, pronouns and adjectives will normally suffice to make clear what belongs with what.

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3.9.2 Word-order in noun phrases — Exercise
1. Where is the place of the adjective (including the possessive) in
relation to the noun in Old Norse noun phrases? Give four examples, two indefinite, two definite, of Old Norse noun phrases containing adjectives.
2. Where is the place of genitive modifiers in relation to the noun in
Old Norse?
3. Where is the place of adverbs in Old Norse in relation to the adjectives they modify?
4. What is meant by discontinuity? Give two examples of its occurrence in Old Norse noun phrases.

3.9.3 Impersonal constructions
Certain verbs in Old Norse are construed without a subject. Many ofthese have to do with the weather, with the coming of the seasons or ofparts of the day or night. Common to all of them is that they denote an
event which has no obvious instigator; it is the event itself that thesentence ‘is about’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1). Examples are (with thesubjectless verb in bold):
Frost var ve›rs, en á›r haf›i snjófat nƒkkut
‘Frost was of-weather, but earlier had snowed somewhat’‘The weather was frosty, but earlier it had snowed a bit’ﬁegar at hausta›i, tóku at vaxa reimleikar‘At-once COMP became-autumn, began to grow hauntings’‘As soon as autumn arrived the hauntings began to increase’
En at morni ﬂegar daga›i, stendr ﬁórr upp ok ﬂeir félagar‘But in morning as-soon-as dawned gets ﬁórr up and thosecompanions’‘But in the morning as soon as dawn broke ﬁórr and his companions get up’Points of syntax

231

Because of their lack of a subject, constructions such as these areoften known as ‘impersonal’ — a reference to the absence both of an
instigator and of person agreement in the verb (cf 3.3.1, 3.6.1), 3rd
person sg. being used as the default form. ‘Impersonal’ is not only
applied to cases where the verb cannot have a subject, however, butalso to those where a potential subject is left unexpressed. This often
happens in Old Norse when the focus is on the object and the subject
is of no interest in the context, e.g. (once again with the relevant verb(s)in bold):(a)

Hér hefr kristni sƒgu‘Here begins of-Christianity saga’‘Here begins the history of the Church (in Iceland)’(b)Standi menn upp ok taki hann, ok skal hann drepa‘Stand men up and seize him, and shall him kill’‘Let men stand up and seize him; he is to be killed’(c)

Sjá má nú, at ekki n‡tir ﬂú hér af‘See can now that nothing benefit you here from’‘One can see now that you get no benefit at all from this’It is not uncommon for learners to take sƒgu in (a) or the second
hann in (b) as the subject. However, the form sƒgu, which differs fromnom. saga, and the meaning of hann, which can hardly be agent, warn
against such hasty conclusions. Sƒgu is acc., the object of hefr, and thesense is something like ‘here one begins the history of the Church’.
The Old Norse sentence has no word corresponding to ‘one’, however,and given that the subject and agent — the person or thing beginningthe history — is unspecified, there are several ways of rendering thesense into English, e.g. ‘here we begin . . . ’, rather than ‘here one
begins’ or the passive ‘here is begun’ (cf. 3.6.4 and further below).
Similarly in (b) both occurrences of hann are acc., the objects of taki
and drepa, but whereas taki (3rd pl. pres. subj.) has menn as its subject(understood because coreferential with the expressed subject of standi),
drepa is subjectless; menn cannot be subject here since the finite verb,
the auxiliary skal, is sg. In English we must once again introduce anunspecified ‘one’, ‘we’, ‘you’, etc. as subject and agent — the person

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or persons who are to do the killing — or we can make the rendering
passive, whereby the Old Norse object hann will correspond to theEnglish subject and the agent can be omitted: ‘he shall be killed’, ‘heis to be killed’ — by whom in particular is neither here nor there in thecontext. In (c) the impersonal construction is slightly easier to spotbecause there is no noun phrase at all in the independent sentence sjá
má nú, the object of sjá being the dependent at ekki n‡tir ﬂú hér af.
Otherwise (c) is not different in type from (a) or (b): the focus is on
the object of sjá — the thing seen — not the subject — the person or
persons who see. The seer or seers are unspecified and can thus berendered ‘one’, ‘people’, etc. in English, or omitted altogether by
substituting a passive for the Old Norse active phrase: ‘that you get nobenefit at all from this can now be seen’.
Insofar as the direct object in active verb phrases becomes the subject when the verb is made passive, active phrases lacking a direct
object will, if turned directly into passives (i.e. without further change),tend to be without a subject. In English such passivisation does notoccur: we may say the bed was slept in, but not *was slept in the bed.
In Old Norse, on the other hand, subjectless passives are a regularfeature. Thus, active:ﬁá lƒg›u ﬂeir at jarlsskipinu‘Then laid they at earl’s-ship-the’‘Then they attacked the earl’s ship’
Gekk hann inn nƒkkut fyrir l‡sing‘Went he in somewhat before dawn’‘He went in shortly before dawn’correspond to passive:ﬁá var lagt at jarlsskipinu‘Then was laid at earl’s-ship-the’‘Then the earl’s ship was attacked’
Var gengit inn nƒkkut fyrir l‡sing‘Was gone in somewhat before dawn’‘Someone went in shortly before dawn’Points of syntax

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Students should take careful note of these and the other types of‘impersonal’ construction mentioned above. By one means or anotherthey will have to supply a subject when translating them into English.
The designation ‘impersonal’ has further been applied to Old Norseverbs construed without a nominative, or where the nominative nounphrase is not the first in unmarked word-order (see 3.9.1, 3.1.5,
sentence 1). This is a moot point. Where there is no nominative, there
is no person agreement in the verb — the default 3rd sg. being used(see above); to that extent ‘impersonal’ might be deemed an appropriate term. On the other hand, it has been shown that oblique (nonnominative) noun phrases that appear first in unmarked word-order
behave like subjects in virtually every respect except the triggering of
person agreement. And such phrases may certainly denote ‘persons’.
While the question how constructions of this type are best describedis not of primary concern to the learner, it is important for him/her torealise that where a noun phrase in a case other than the nominative isthe first in a sentence, it is not automatically to be taken as a fronted
object (see 3.9.1). Thus, in:ﬁá skal hana engan hlut skorta‘Then shall her no thing lack’‘Then she shall lack nothing’Ávalt er ek sé fagrar konur, ﬂá minnir mik ﬂessarrar konu
‘Always COMP I see beautiful women, then reminds me ofthis woman’‘Whenever I see beautiful women, then I remember thiswoman’
Tók konungi at orna undir feldinum‘Began to-king to warm undir cloak-the’‘The king began to get warm under the cloak’
Líka›i y›r vel Finnskattrinn, er ﬁórólfr sendi y›r?
‘Liked to-you well Lapp-tribute-the COMP ﬁórólfr sent
to-you?’‘Were you pleased with the Lapp-tribute that ﬁórólfr sent
you?’

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the accusatives hana and mik and the datives konungi and y›r are thefirst noun phrases in sentences whose word-order is not obviously
marked. Even in líka›i y›r vel Finnskattrinn, where the second nounphrase is nominative, the difficulty of showing that dat. y›r has been
fronted makes it hard to cast it in the role of object, and that in turnraises doubts about whether Finnskattrinn can be subject. In semantic
terms, hana, mik, konungi and y›r represent ‘experiencers’ (the people experiencing the events denoted by the verbs), a sense regularly
conveyed by the nominative in modern English and certain other
European languages (cf. I lack, I remember, I get warm, I am pleased)— seemingly reflecting a common tendency to make the experiencer
subject rather than the thing experienced. Certainly, natural English
translations of Old Norse sentences like the above will tend to bringout the subjecthood of the first noun phrase.
Also regularly construed without nominatives are the passives ofverbs whose direct object is in the genitive or dative, e.g.:ﬁess var leitat vi› jarl‘Of-that was sought of earl’‘That was asked of the earl’Mƒnnum var borgit flestum‘To-men was saved most’‘Most people were saved’
In the active, leita ‘seek’ ‘ask’ has a nominative subject and genitive
object, bjarga ‘save’ a nominative subject and dative object. Whenpassivised such verbs lose their nominative subject in the normal way(3.6.4), but the object does not become the new nominative subject. It
remains in its original case. However, since in unmarked word-order(cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1) it precedes the verb phrase in the passive sentence,
there is some justification for treating it as subject. It certainly becomes
the theme of the sentence — ‘what it is about’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 1).
Only partially analogous are passives of verbs construed in the activewith a nominative subject, a dative indirect object and a further argument in the genitive or dative. To active:

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ﬁeir ljá jarli lífs
‘They grant [to-]earl [of-]life’‘They spare the earl’s life’ﬁeir hétu honum bana‘They promised [to-]him [with-]death’‘They threatened him with death’correspond passive:
Engum er alls lét‘To-none is [of-]all granted’‘No one is granted everything’
Honum var heitit bana‘To-him was promised [with-]death’‘He was threatened with death’In the passive versions the nominative subject is lost as before, but itis the indirect object (engum, honum) which moves into subject position rather than gen. alls or dat. bana. Although genitive and dativearguments of this type have been termed ‘direct objects’ (e.g. 3.1.5,
sentences 11, 12, 16, 18, 19 and above in this section), their failure
here to move into subject position suggests they retain something of
the original syntactic and semantic role that caused them to be expressed by the genitive or dative in the first place. Just as, for example,
the dative with which kasta is construed can be viewed either as direct
object or instrumental phrase — ‘[to] throw something’ or ‘[to] throw
with something’ (cf. 3.1.5, sentence 20) — so ljá + dat. + gen. may betaken as ‘[to] grant someone something’ or ‘[to] give to someone
possession of something’, and heita + dat. + dat. as ‘[to] promise someone something’ or ‘[to] threaten someone with something’.
Nominativeless passive constructions are relatively easy to spot, and— where relevant — the student will normally be able to render the,or the first, genitive or dative noun phrase as the subject when translating, as above. More difficult is to recognise the accusative, genitive
or dative that precedes other noun phrases in an active sentence notbecause it is fronted, but because the verb is thus construed. The student

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should try to be alert to verbs that do not have a nominative subject(relatively few) and make an effort to learn them as a special category.
It is important this be done. Subject and object can otherwise easily be
confused. (See further the ‘postscript’ pp. 262–3.)

3.9.3 Impersonal constructions — Exercise
1. What do you understand by the term ‘impersonal’?
2. Give Old Norse examples (a) of a verb always construed without asubject, and (b) of a construction in which a potential subject isleft unexpressed.
3. How would you translate examples (a) and (b) in your answers to
the previous question into English?
4. In what circumstances do Old Norse passive constructions lack a
subject?
5. The first noun phrase in an Old Norse sentence is often in theaccusative, genitive or dative case. What are the different possibilities of interpretation in such examples?
6. How are the main verbs in the following sentences construed?
(a) Lí›r fram haustinu ok tekr at vetra‘The autumn passes and winter comes on’(b) ﬁess er enn ekki hefnt‘That is not yet avenged’(c) Ekki sá skipit fyrir laufinu‘The ship could not be seen for the foliage’(d) Draum dreym›i mik í fyrri nátt
‘I dreamt a dream the night before last’(e) Engum mun bóta synjat‘No one will be refused compensation’

3.9.4 Accusative and infinitive
In English we may say: I saw her open it, he asked the boys to sing.
What follows saw and asked is sometimes described as a non-finite
clause object: we have a clause or sentence which is the equivalent ofan object (cf. I saw the letter, he asked a favour), and it contains an

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infinitive (open, sing) but no finite verb. This analysis, however, leaves
out of account the fact that in a sense her is both the object of saw andthe subject of open, and the boys both the object of asked and subjectof sing (cf. (I saw that) she opened it, (he asked the boys that) theyshould sing). The term mostly used to describe the Old Norse counterparts of such English constructions is ‘accusative and infinitive’. While
hardly achieving descriptive adequacy, this designation has the meritof emphasising accusative case, which marks direct object status, andsuggesting a connection between the accusative and the following infinitive. Above all, it is a more precise term than non-finite clauseobject, which can cover a variety of constructions.
Old Norse accusatives and infinitives occur regularly after verbs ofsaying, thinking, and experiencing. E.g.:
Magnús ba› hann fara sem honum líka›i‘Magnus bade him go as to-him pleased’‘Magnús said he could go as he pleased’
Vér ætlum hana litla hrí› svá hafa verit kalla›a‘We think her little while thus have been called’‘We think she has been called that only a short while’
Opt hefi ek heyrt y›r ﬂat mæla‘Often have I heard you that say’
‘I have often heard you say that’In cases where the accusative object/subject of the infinitive is identical with the subject of the finite verb, the former is not expressed asa separate word; instead it is denoted by the -sk suffix (3.6.5.3), which
can be considered to have reflexive function. Thus in:
Hon sag›isk vera dóttir ﬁorkels‘She said-sk be daughter of-ﬁorkell’‘She said she was ﬁorkell’s daughter’
the -sk can be interpreted literally as ‘herself’. Observe that the subject complement dóttir is nominative. This is the rule where the accusative of an acc. + inf. construction is to be found in the -sk suffix.

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Where the accusative appears as a separate word denoting an entity
different from the subject of the finite verb, a subject complement willagree with it by also appearing in the accusative — cf. acc. f. sg. kalla›ain the second example above agreeing with hana, and:
Hann sag›i Sigmund vera óbœttan
‘He said Sigmundr be unatoned’‘He said Sigmundr was unatoned [i.e. his death was uncompensated]’
where acc. m. sg. óbœttan agrees with Sigmund.
In the case of the verb ﬂyk(k)ja ‘seem’ ‘think’ we normally find a‘nominative and infinitive’ construction. There are two variants ofthis. Occasionally the subject of the infinitive is ‘raised’ (i.e. moved
into the higher sentence) and becomes the subject of ﬂyk(k)ja (a), butmore commonly ﬂyk(k)ja appears in the default 3rd sg. form, withdative experiencer — denoting the person to whom the matter of theinfinitive sentence ‘seems’ — as its most likely subject (see 3.9.3)
and a nominative as the subject of the infinitive (b).
(a)

Eiríki konungi . . . ﬂóttu ﬂeir mjƒk hafa spottat sik‘To-Eiríkr king seemed they much have mocked self’‘King Eiríkr thought they had mocked him greatly’(b)ﬁá ﬂótti mér ﬂeir sœkja at ƒllum megin‘Then seemed to-me they come against on-all sides’‘Then it seemed to me they attacked on all sides’

In (a) nom. ﬂeir is the subject of ﬂóttu as can be seen from the 3rd pl.
verb-form. In (b), on the other hand, where ﬂótti is 3rd sg., ﬂeir can
only be the subject of inf. sœkja. When the subject of the infinitive is
3rd sg., as it often is, the two constructions are difficult to distinguish. In:ﬁótti honum hon vel hafa gert
‘Seemed to-him she well have done’‘He thought she had acted well’
hon can according to traditional analysis be the overt subject either

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of ﬂótti or of gert. In some modern approaches dat. honum, the firstnoun phrase, would be deemed the subject of ﬂótti, as also mér in (b)above.
Subject raising is the norm with ﬂyk(k)ja where the subject of thefollowing infinitive denotes the same person as the experiencer (theperson to whom the matter of the infinitive sentence ‘seems’). In, forexample:ﬁú ﬂykkisk of fá drepit hafa mína hir›menn óbœtta
‘You seem-sk too few killed have my retainers unatoned’‘You think you have killed too few of my retainers without
paying compensation’a putative *ﬂykkir ﬂér ﬂú of fá drepit hafa . . . is restructured in such a
way that ﬂú, the subject of drepit, becomes the subject of the finite
sentence and the dative experiencer is converted into an -sk suffix.
This is not unlike what happens with the hon sag›isk vera . . . type of
construction above, though there there is no subject raising and the -sk
suffix takes the place of an accusative rather than a dative. If we render-sk in the above example as ‘to yourself’, and translate fairly literally‘you seem to yourself to have killed too few . . . ’ we get something of
the flavour of the original.
Concerning ﬂyk(k)ja, it should finally be noted that the 3rd singularpresent indicative is often ﬂyk(k)i rather than ﬂyk(k)ir (see 3.6.9.1
point (15)).
Sometimes in accusative and infinitive constructions a past infinitive is encountered (see 3.6.6). In prose this is only likely to involvethe forms mundu, skyldu, vildu, and occurs chiefly when the finite
verb is past tense. E.g.:
Hann lézk heldr mundu at sinni gefa upp ríkit‘He said-sk rather would for time give up earldom-the’‘He said he would rather give up the earldom for the time
being’ﬁór›r kva› beggja ﬂeira rá› ﬂetta vera skyldu‘ﬁór›r said of-both their decision this be should’‘ﬁór›r said this should be their joint decision’Morphology and syntax

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It is difficult to get the literal sense of mundu and skyldu across since
English ‘would’ and ‘should’ are finite forms. Semi-literal renderings
may be helpful here, using the infinitive marker to to direct attention
to the past infinitive.
‘He said himself rather to would give up the earldom . . . ’‘ﬁór›r said this their joint decision to should be’

3.9.4 Accusative and infinitive — Exercise
1. Why are Old Norse accusative and infinitive constructions socalled?
2. What happens to the accusative in an accusative and infinitive construction when it denotes the same entity as the subject of the finiteverb?
3. Describe the different kinds of nominative and infinitive construction in which the verb ﬂyk(k)ja is found.
4. In what type of construction do past infinitives occur in Old Norse?

3.9.5 Omissions
Certain elements are regularly omitted from Old Norse sentences. Somecan be readily understood from the context and will cause the learnerno difficulty. A subject that is already established, for example, is usually omitted in Old Norse just as in English. Thus, in:Karl hljóp á annat skip ok ba› ﬂá taka til ára‘Karl jumped onto another ship and bade them take to oars’‘Karl jumped onto another ship and told them to start rowing’
the subject of ba› is not expressed — any more than in the English
renderings — because it refers to the same person as the subject of theprevious sentence, Karl.

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3.9.5.1 Objects
Slightly more problematic for the learner, because characteristic of
Old Norse but not of English, is the omission of the object where
already established. E.g.:(a)Njáll tók fésjó›inn ok seldi Gunnari‘Njáll took money-bag-the and gave to-Gunnarr’‘Njáll took the bag of money and gave it to Gunnarr’(b)

Konungr greip til sver›s ok brá‘King grasped at sword and drew’‘The king grabbed hold of the sword and drew it’

Here ‘it’, referring in (a) to the bag of money, in (b) to the sword, islacking in Old Norse. This is because there is identity of referencewith a preceding noun, fésjó›inn in (a), sver›s in (b). Observe that
object omission is not dependent on case equivalence. In (a) the missing
noun phrase would have had accusative case, just as fésjó›inn, but in(b) it would have been dative, while sver›s, the noun establishing thereference in (b), is genitive, governed by the preposition til (3.7.2).
Indirect objects, too, may be omitted, as in:Konungr lét skíra Hákon ok kenna rétta trú‘King let baptise Hákon and teach true faith’‘The king had Hákon baptised and taught the true faith’
Note that the idiomatic English rendering obscures the omission; insertion of ‘him’ between ‘taught’ and ‘the’ would give a different sense— that it was the king himself who taught Hákon the true faith.

3.9.5.2 vera
The verb vera is often omitted, especially the infinitive (a) in connection with auxiliary verbs and (b) in accusative and infinitive constructions. The student should pay particular attention to this phenomenon
since it can often cause misunderstanding.

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Consider the following examples:ﬁú munt ﬂá ekki hér vel kominn‘You will then not here well come’‘You will not then be welcome here’
ﬁat mæltu sumir, at leitat skyldi um sættir
‘That said some, that sought should about settlement’‘Some said that an attempt should be made to reach a settlement’ﬁorfinnr kva› ﬂat ósannligt, at . . .
‘ﬁorfinnr said that unjust that . . .’‘ﬁorfinnr said it was unjust that . . .’Tƒl›u sumir várkunn, at hann vildi eigi mi›la ríkit‘Said some cause that he wanted not divide earldom-the’‘Some said there was understandable cause for his unwillingness to divide the earldom’
In the first example the copula (vera, the verb ‘be’) is the missing linkneeded to connect subject ﬂú and the subject complement vel kominn(cf. ﬂú ert vel kominn ‘you are welcome’). In the second vera is required
to complete the passive construction leitat skyldi vera ‘should besought’. The third and fourth examples illustrate accusative and infinitive
constructions from which the infinitive is omitted. In the third the
copula is what is wanted to connect ﬂat and its complement ósannligt(cf. ﬂat er ósannligt — subject + copula + subject complement), so theconstruction is to be understood as ﬁorfinnr kva› ﬂat ósannligt vera,
at . . . The fourth example too requires vera to be understood sincevárkunn can only be the object of tƒl›u in an accusative and infinitive
construction (i.e. tƒl›u sumir várkunn vera at . . . is perfectly acceptable, but *tƒl›u sumir várkunn without the ellipsis of vera is not).
Because all four contexts so clearly demand vera, it is readily understood or supplied by the reader familiar with Old Norse. The beginner
will have to proceed more slowly and analytically: faced by a sentencethat seems to lack an infinitive, and in doubt about the meaning, s/heshould always try supplying vera. In most cases this will provide thesolution.

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Finite forms of vera are also sometimes omitted. As with the above,
the prerequisite seems to be that the verb should be recoverable fromthe context. Consider:
Fimm menn hƒf›u bana af li›i Helga, en sárir allir a›rir‘Five men had death from force of-Helgi, but wounded all others’‘Five of Helgi’s men were killed, and all the others were
wounded’
The finite verb of the first sentence is hƒf›u, but that will not fit thecontext of the second. What we have in sárir allir a›rir is a fronted
subject complement (sárir) followed by the subject (allir a›rir), andthe copula is needed to connect them. The second sentence is thus tobe understood: en sárir váru allir a›rir.
3.9.5.3 Verbs of motion
The infinitives of verbs of motion are often omitted when modified byan adverb or preposition phrase indicating destination. E.g.:
Sámr sag›isk vilja heim aptr
‘Sámr said-sk want home again’‘Sámr said he wanted to go back home’Ætla›i hann yfir á Nes‘Intended he over to Nes’
‘He intended to go across to Caithness’
Because of the clear directional sense indicated by adverb or prepositionphrase, such constructions are unlikely to cause the learner great problems.
3.9.5 Omissions — Exercise
1. In what circumstances may the object be omitted in Old Norse?
Give examples.
2. In what kinds of construction is vera commonly omitted? Give
examples.
3. What is understood in the sentence: nú b‡sk hann út til Íslands‘now he gets ready to go to Iceland’?

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3.9.6 Points of nominal syntax
Important aspects of nominal syntax not dealt with elsewhere are (1)certain idiomatic uses of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives;(2) what are often loosely termed ‘the genitive and dative of respect’.
3.9.6.1 Idiomatic uses of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives
Sometimes in Old Norse personal names are accompanied appositionally by a 3rd person pronoun of the same gender and number. Insteadof ﬂar sitr Selsbani ‘there sits Selsbani’, we find ﬂar sitr hann Selsbani‘there sits he [i.e. that fellow] Selsbani’, instead of hann var fa›ir
Eiríks hins sigrsæla ok Óláfs ‘he was the father of Eiríkr the victorious and Óláfr’, hann var fa›ir ﬂeira Eiríks hins sigrsæla ok Óláfs ‘hewas the father of-them [i.e. of the pair] Eiríkr the victorious and Óláfr’.
More commonly a 3rd plural or 1st or 2nd dual or plural pronoun isfound together with a single name. E.g.:
Báru ﬂeir Rƒgnvaldr eld at bœnum
‘Carried they Rƒgnvaldr fire to house-the’‘Rƒgnvaldr and the others set fire to the house’
Vit Arnvi›r munum fara
‘We-two Arnvi›r will go’‘Arnvi›r and I will go’
Here, as will be seen from the idiomatic translations, the pronouns are
only partly in apposition to the personal names since they also containa reference to one or more other people known from the context. The
dual pronouns denote one additional person, the 1st and 2nd plural morethan one. Thus vér Arnvi›r would mean ‘Arnvi›r and we (others)’, ﬂit
Arnvi›r ‘Arnvi›r and you [sg.]’, ﬂér Arnvi›r ‘Arnvi›r and you (others)’.
Since there is no dual 3rd person pronoun, ﬂeir Rƒgnvaldr can mean‘Rƒgnvaldr and he’ as well as ‘Rƒgnvaldr and the others’, dependingon the context. Where men and women or a man and a woman are
involved, the 3rd person neuter plural is used (cf. 3.2.1):
ﬁau dróttning tala jafnan‘They queen talk constantly’‘The queen and he talk constantly’

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From the context of this particular example we know that only thequeen and a single male are involved; in another context ﬂau dróttning
could mean ‘the queen and the others (including at least one male)’.
This usage is not confined to personal pronouns, but can also befound with possessive adjectives. E.g.:
Hverja ætlan hefir ﬂú á um deilu ykkra Óláfs digra?
‘What view have you on about quarrel your-two Óláfr’s stout?’‘What is your view of Óláfr the stout’s and your quarrel?’
Here the dual 2nd person possessive ykkra carries the same ‘inclusive’ sense as the personal pronouns in the previous examples. Thereis however a significant syntactic difference between ykkra Óláfs digra
and, say, vit Arnvi›r. The pronoun vit stands in the same case as Arnvi›r(nom.), whereas ykkra takes its case (and gender and number) fromdeilu (acc. f. sg.) while Óláfs digra is in the genitive. The difference is
occasioned by the fact that vit and Arnvi›r form a joint subject, a pairing of two noun phrases, whereas ykkra and Óláfs, though both modify
deilu, represent different word classes: adjective and noun. The possessive signals its modifier role by case, gender and number agreement, but the noun cannot — instead it goes into the genitive (the‘possessive’ case, see 3.1.5, sentence 13). The close relationship between possessive adjectives and genitives is shown by the 3rd person
pronouns (non-reflexive), whose genitive forms, hans, hennar, ﬂess,
ﬂeira, double up as possessives (3.3.8.5 point (6)).
It should be observed that the juxtaposition of possessive adjectives
and genitive noun phrases is also common in more unambiguous casesof apposition. E.g.:
Er ﬂat vili várr búandanna‘Is that will our of-farmers-the’‘That is the will of us farmers’
Two further points of nominal syntax involving possessives and pronouns require discussion.
In partitive constructions (3.2.6, sentence 20, 3.4.2, sentence 9) wherea pronoun is the head word denoting the part, and the modifier denoting the whole would be expected to be a personal pronoun, the latter isusually replaced by the corresponding possessive adjective, which
agrees in case, gender and number with the head word. E.g.:

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Skal hverr y›varr fara í fri›i fyrir mér‘Shall each your go in peace before me’‘Each of you shall go in peace as far as I am concerned’ﬁá skal sá okkarr kjósa bœn af ƒ›rum, er sannara hefir‘Then shall that-one our-two choose favour of other COMP
truer has’
‘Then the one of us (two) who is right shall choose a favourof the other’Instead of nom. m. sg. hverr ‘each’ + gen. y›var ‘of you’ and nom. m.
sg. sá ‘that one’ + gen. okkar ‘of us two’, we find nom. m. sg. hverry›varr ‘each your’ and nom. m. sg. sá okkarr ‘that one our-two’.
Students should take careful note of this construction since experiencehas shown it can cause much confusion.
Contemptuous reference is a further case in which a possessive adjective is used where on the basis of English one might expect a personalpronoun. This can occur in both direct and indirect speech. Thus wefind not only fóli ﬂinn ‘fool your [i.e. you fool!]’, but also:
Hann ba› ﬂegja bikkjuna hans
‘He bade be-silent bitch-the his’‘He told the dog to shut up’
where ‘the dog’ is used insultingly of a man.

3.9.6.2 The genitive and dative of respect
The genitive and dative can be used in Old Norse to specify the applicability of the verb phrase. The basic sense of such constructions is‘with respect to’ ‘in respect of’ ‘as regards’, but idiomatic English
will usually require a different translation. E.g. (with the genitive or
dative phrases in bold):
ﬁegi ﬂú ﬂeira or›a‘Be-silent you of-those words’‘Keep quiet with those words’Points of syntax

247

Vesall ertu ﬂinnar skjaldborgar‘Wretched are-you of-your shield-fortification’‘You and your wretched wall of shields!’
Er Haraldr konungr var› ﬂessa tí›inda víss, ﬂá dró hann her
saman‘When Haraldr king became of-these tidings aware, then drew
he army together’‘When King Haraldr got news of these events, he gathered
together an army’¯ll váru bƒrn Svíakonungs vel viti borin‘All were children of-Swedes-king well with-wit endowed’‘All the children of the Swedish king were endowed with agood understanding’
Var› ﬂeim mart talat‘Became to-them much talked’‘There was much talk between them’
Vín er honum bæ›i drykkr ok matr
‘Wine is to him both drink and food’
Dative phrases of respect often have the force of possessives. Thisapplies notably where they complement preposition phrases denoting
body parts. E.g. (with dative and preposition phrase in bold):
Skar›i fell fyrir fœtr ﬁorkeli‘Skar›i fell before feet to-ﬁorkell’‘Skar›i fell in front of ﬁorkell’s feet’
Loki greip upp mikla stƒng ok rekr á kroppinn erninum‘Loki grasped up big pole and drives onto body-the to-eagle-the’‘Loki seized a big pole and drove it against the eagle’s body’ﬁá laust hann sver›it ór hƒndum honum‘Then struck he sword-the out-of hands to-him’‘Then he struck the sword out of his hands’248

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3.9.6 Points of nominal syntax — Exercise
Analyse the phrases printed in bold in the following sentences:(a) ﬁeir ﬁorfinnr dvƒl›usk í eyjunni um nóttina‘ﬁorfinnr and the others stayed on the island for the night’(b) Me› henni mun nú vera beggja ykkur hamingja‘With her lies the good fortune of you both now’(c) En ek hefi hér vitnismenn ﬂá, er handsal okkart jarls sá‘But I have witnesses here who saw the earl’s and my agreement’(d) Hverjum y›rum ﬂótti ﬂat rá›ligast?
‘Which of you thought it most advisable?’(e) Hrani sag›i henni hverra erinda Haraldr fór á fund Sigrí›ardróttningar‘Hrani told her for what purpose Haraldr had gone to see Queen Sigrí›r’(f) ﬁá lét Loki fallask í kné Ska›a‘Then Loki let himself drop onto Ska›i’s knees’

3.9.7 Points of verbal syntax
A few remarks on verbal syntax need to be added to the basics set out
at various points in section 3.6. These concern four areas: (1) the perfect and past perfect (3.6.2, 3.6.8, sentence 3); (2) the passive (3.6.4);(3) the ‘dative absolute’; (4) present participles expressing potentiality or obligation.
3.9.7.1 The perfect and past perfect
The perfect and past perfect of intransitive verbs of movement andchange are construed with vera as well as hafa. E.g.:
Hann haf›i komit út me› ﬁorkatli‘He had come out with ﬁorkell’‘He had come to Iceland with ﬁorkell’Ma›r er hér kominn úti fyrir durum‘Man is here come outside before doorway’‘A man has arrived here outside the door’Points of syntax

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Svá mun Hallger›i s‡nask, sem hann hafi eigi sjálfdau›r or›it‘So will to-Hallger›r seem, as he has not self-dead become’‘It will seem to Hallger›r as though he has not died a natural
death’ﬁá er myrkt var or›it, leitu›u ﬂeir sér til náttsta›ar‘Then COMP dark was become, searched they for-self for nightplace’‘When it had become dark, they looked for a place to spend
the night’
The choice of auxiliary depends on the sense. Where the focus is on
the action itself, hafa is used, where the state following the action isemphasised, we find vera (contrast English he has gone there a lot
recently and he is gone (= he is no longer present)). Thus the first example
above focuses on the travelling to Iceland rather than the being there,
the third on the dying rather than the being dead. In the second andfourth examples, in contrast, the emphasis is on the man’s being outside the door and the state of darkness in which the searching took place.
It will be observed that where vera is the auxiliary, the past participle inflects as an adjective, agreeing with the subject in case, genderand number (cf. 3.6.6). Thus ma›r and kominn are both nom. m. sg.
(ﬂá er myrkt var or›it has no subject, so the nom. n. sg. (or›it) is usedas the default form). With hafa as the auxiliary, on the other hand, thepast participle tends to adopt the neuter nom./acc. sg. form, and isthen often known as the supine (3.6.8, sentence 3). The reason for thisdifference lies in the auxiliaries themselves. Elements linked by vera,
whatever its function, stand in the same case, the one element modifying the other, whereas non-auxiliary hafa is construed with a nominative subject and accusative object (cf., e.g., hann haf›i tvá knƒrru ‘hehad two merchant ships’). In perfect constructions with hafa the past
participle does not normally modify anything; it combines with theauxiliary to form a single verb phrase. Thus in hann haf›i keypt tváknƒrru ‘he had bought two merchant ships’ haf›i keypt is the verb
phrase of which tvá knƒrru is the object. In origin, however, the perfect seems to have been a subject — verb — object — object complement construction (‘I have them bought’), which was gradually reanalysed as subject — verb phrase — object (‘I have bought them’).

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One of the chief reasons for assuming this development is that in early
Old Norse texts the past participle quite often agrees with an accusative object (never a genitive or dative, since hafa governed the accusative only). It seems, however, that at this relatively late stage in thehistory of the Old Norse perfect, participle-object agreement had ceased
to carry the original ‘I have them bought’ meaning. Agreement andnon-agreement give the appearance of being interchangeable — indeed,sometimes we find an inflected and an uninflected participle dependent on the same auxiliary, e.g. (with the participles in bold):
En jarlsmenn hƒf›u bar›a marga eyjarskeggja, en tekit Kúga
bónda ok settan í fjƒtra
‘But earl’s-men had beaten many islanders, but taken Kúgi
farmer and placed in shackles’‘But the earl’s men had beaten many islanders and taken the
farmer, Kúgi, and put him in shackles’
There is agreement here between bar›a and marga eyjarskeggja (acc.
m. pl.), and settan and Kúga bónda (acc. m. sg.), but not between
Kúga bónda (acc. m. sg.) and tekit (nom./acc. n. sg.). The function of
the participle is however the same in all three cases: each combineswith hƒf›u to form a verb phrase of which marga eyjarskeggja or
Kúga bónda are the objects. The student may thus consider inflectedparticiples in perfect constructions as ordinary supines and treat themin exactly the same way they would their uninflected counterparts (asin modern French).
Several other verbs combine with past participles to form periphrastic constructions, but of these only fá and geta are at all common.
Both have the basic sense ‘get’, and their use with past participles isparalleled in English (cf. he got it done). As in the hafa constructions,the participle may either agree with an accusative object or not; where
the object is genitive or dative, or there is no object, the nom./acc. n.
sg. form is always used. E.g. (with the periphrastic verb phrases inbold):
Abraham gat frelsta frændr sína
‘Abraham got saved kinsmen his’
‘Abraham was able to save his kinsmen’Points of syntax

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Ambáttirnar fengu dregit steininn‘Bondwomen-the got dragged stone-the’‘The bondwomen managed to drag the stone’
Sá fekk ﬂó borgit sér nau›uliga‘He got though saved self narrowly’‘He just about managed to save himself, though’In the first example frelsta agrees with frændr sína (acc. m. pl.), in thesecond and third examples the nom./acc. n. sg. form of the participle
is used, once where the object is acc. m. sg. (steininn), once where it isdat. reflexive.

3.9.7.2 The passive
The Old Norse periphrastic passive formed with vera may be dynamic
or static, just as its English counterpart with be. Dynamic passives
denote an action or event, static passives the state after an action or
event. Two typical examples illustrating the difference are:Var sá hƒggvinn fyrr, er sí›ar gekk
‘Was he cut-down earlier COMP later walked’‘He (of two) who walked behind was slain first’Hann nefndi mennina ﬂá, er vegnir váru
‘He named men-the those COMP slain were’‘He named the men who were slain’
The passive var sá hƒggvinn, er . . . is the equivalent of the past tense
active: ﬂeir hjoggu ﬂann, er . . . ‘they slew the one who . . . ’, whereas
er vegnir váru corresponds to the past perfect active er ﬂeir hƒf›uvegit ‘whom they had slain’, and could itself be expressed as a past
perfect: er vegnir hƒf›u verit ‘who had been slain’. Of itself, vera +pp. is ambiguous; it is the context that determines whether the construction is to be understood as dynamic or static, just as in English(cf., e.g., ambiguous the house was sold, which may be expanded into
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house was already sold). A further contrastive pair of Old Norse
examples illustrating present tense usage is:Fjórir hleifar brau›s eru honum fœr›ir hvern dag‘Four loaves of-bread are to-him brought each day’
‘Four loaves of bread are brought to him each day’Frá ﬂessu segir í flokki ﬂeim, er ortr er um ﬁormó›‘From this says in poem that COMP composed is about
ﬁormó›r’‘It tells of this in the poem that is composed about ﬁormó›r’
The passive eru honum fœr›ir is dynamic, the equivalent of active
ﬂeir fœra honum ‘they bring to him’, while ortr er is static, corresponding to active einnhverr hefir ort ‘someone has composed’.
Sometimes passives are formed with auxiliary ver›a rather than vera.
Such passives are always dynamic, and usually have one or more additional senses — commonly the notion of futurity and/or possibility.
E.g.:
Hversu megu synir hans, ﬂeir er getnir ver›a í útleg›, njóta
ﬂeira gjafa?
‘How may sons his, those COMP born are in exile, enjoy thosegifts?’‘How may his sons, those who will be born in exile, enjoy
those gifts?’
Var› engi uppreist í móti konungi gƒr í ﬂat sinn í ﬁrándheimi‘Was no uprising a(-)gainst king made on that occasion in
ﬁrándheimr’‘No rebellion was made against the king on that occasion in
ﬁrándheimr’
In the first example the talk is of sons who may be born in the future.
The interpretation of the second example is less certain: it need be no
more than a dynamic passive, but it could carry the additional sensethat an uprising against the king was not possible on that occasion

Points of syntax

253(because of his superior force). More firmly endowed with the notionof (im)possibility is:
Hallbjƒrn hleypr til bú›ar, en sveinarnir til skógar, er ﬂar var
nær, ok ver›a eigi fundnir‘Hallbjƒrn runs to booth, but boys-the to scrub, COMP there
was near, and are not found’‘Hallbjƒrn runs to the booth, but the boys run into the scrub
which was nearby and cannot be found’Occasionally in ver›a-passives the agent may be expressed by thedative, e.g.:
Honum var› litit upp til hlí›arinnar‘By-him was looked up to hillside-the’‘He looked up at the hillside’
Such constructions usually carry the implication that the action was achance one, a sense of ver›a being ‘[to] happen’ (cf. slíkt ver›r opt
ungum mƒnnum ‘such things often happen to young men’). A more
precise idiomatic rendering of the above would therefore be: ‘Hechanced to look up at the hillside’.

3.9.7.3 The ‘dative absolute’
The Old Norse ‘dative absolute’ construction consists of a noun phrase
in the dative accompanied by a present or past participle in agreement,
the two conveying what would otherwise be expressed by a dependent
temporal sentence. Commonly the construction takes the form of a
prepositional phrase introduced by at, but in more formal style the preposition may be dispensed with. E.g. (with the dative absolute in bold):Ok at li›num ﬂrimr nóttum fór hann at finna vísendamann‘And with passed three nights went he to find soothsayer’‘And when three nights had passed he went to find the soothsayer’254

Morphology and syntax
Vér skulum hér koma svá margir ﬂingmenn, sem nú eru til
nefndir, at uppverandi sólu
‘We shall here come as many assembly-members as now are
to appointed, with up-being sun’‘We are to come here, as many assembly members as are
now appointed for the purpose, when the sun is up’
ﬁessum ﬂrettán útgengnum váru a›rir ﬂrettán inn leiddir‘These thirteen out-gone were other thirteen in led’
‘When these thirteen had gone out, another thirteen were led in’Hƒfum vér ﬂar um talat herra Erlingi ok ƒ›rum gó›ummƒnnum hjáverƒndum‘Have we there about spoken lord Erlingr and other goodmen present-being’‘We have spoken about it in the presence of Lord Erlingr andother good men’The idiomatic English renderings make clear the equivalence between
dative absolutes and dependent temporal sentences. An alternative to‘in the presence of Lord Erlingr and other good men’ is ‘when Lord
Erlingr and other good men were present’. The construction with thepast participle corresponds to a finite perfect or past perfect, that withthe present to a finite present or past, depending on the context.

3.9.7.4 Present participles expressing potentiality or obligation
Present participles can appear in Old Norse as subject complementswith the sense of what is suitable, possible or necessary, and with apassive interpretation. In this function, geranda, for example, means‘do-able’ — ‘fit to be done’, ‘able to be done’ or ‘necessary to bedone’, according to the context. A few examples will suffice to makethe usage clear:

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255

Hann fór su›r me› landinu at leita, ef ﬂar væri byggjanda‘He went south along land-the to search if there might-be
settleable’‘He went south along the coast to see if it might be suitable
for settlement there’
Jarl kva› ﬂetta vera óﬂolanda‘Earl said this be intolerable’‘The earl said this was intolerable’
At kveldi er dagr lofandi‘At evening is day to-be-praised’‘The day should be praised when evening comes (and not
before)’
The clarity of the context will determine the degree of precision withwhich the participle can be translated into English.
Outside this construction, the Old Norse present participle tends tocorrespond to the English -ing form of the verb and will give the learner
little trouble: e.g. hlæjandi ‘laughing’, skínandi ‘shining’, sofandi‘sleeping’.

3.9.7 Points of verbal syntax — Exercise
1. When is hafa and when vera used to form perfect and past perfect
constructions?
2. To what in Old Norse does the term ‘supine’ refer?
3. What is the difference between an inflected past participle and an
inflected supine in Old Norse?
4. Give an example of a dynamic and a static passive in Old Norseand explain the difference.
5. What characterises ver›a-passives?
6. What is the Old Norse ‘dative absolute’? Give examples of theconstruction.
7. Explain the meaning of the present participle in: ﬂat ﬂótti ﬂóógeranda, at konungr vissi eigi ﬂetta.

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3.9.8 Points of syntax affecting more than one type of phrase
Three matters require brief treatment: (1) adjectival and adverbial
complements; (2) agreement between subject, verb and subject complement; (3) -sk verb forms and ‘preposition adverbs’.

3.9.8.1 Adjectival and adverbial complements
Complements of vera ‘[to] be’ and ver›a ‘[to] become’ are sometimes adverbs in Old Norse. In the case of the pair vel ‘well’ and illa
‘badly’, English tends to use adjectives in corresponding phrases. E.g.:
ﬁat er vel‘It is good’ ‘It is right’
Konungr segir, at ﬂat var illa at Arnljótr haf›i eigi farit áhans fund‘King says that it was badly that Arnljótr had not gone on his
meeting’‘The king says that it was bad that Arnljótr had not gone tosee him’ﬁú skalt heita ﬂræll, ok svá vera
‘You shall be-called slave and so be’‘You shall be called a slave and be so’
Var› Eyjólfr ﬂá framarlega‘Became Eyjólfr then forward’‘Eyjólfr then came to be near the front’
In contradistinction to usage in the first two of the above sentences,
adjectives may stand in apposition to subjects, objects or prepositional
complements in Old Norse where English would employ an adverb oradverbial (cf. 3.5.4). This applies to comparatives and superlatives
where a sequence or order is denoted, to quantifiers such as einn ‘one’,allr ‘all’, hálfr ‘half’, and to the locational terms mi›r ‘middle’, ﬂverr‘transverse’. E.g.:

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Skulu› ﬂit brœ›r fyrstir fara
‘Shall you-two brothers [as the] first go’‘You two brothers shall go first’
ﬁrym drap hann fyrstan‘ﬁrymr killed he [as the] first’‘He killed ﬁrymr first’Hann var einn konungr yfir landi‘He was one king over country’‘He alone was king over the country’Hví ertu í bló›i einu allr?
‘Why are-you in blood one all?’‘Why are you completely covered in blood?’
Kom sú á hann mi›jan‘Came she onto him middle’‘It hit him in the middle (of his body)’(Cf. also 3.1.5, sentence 20.)

3.9.8.2 Agreement between subject, verb and subject complement
Although the verb in Old Norse normally agrees in number with the(nominative) subject of the sentence (3.1.1, 3.2, 3.6.1), there are exceptions to the rule. Where the verb precedes one or more of a sequenceof conjoined subjects, it will often appear in the same number as the
subject which is closest. E.g. (with the relevant agreement in bold):Var ﬂá Ulfr ok allir stafnbúarnir komnir at lyptingunni‘Was then Ulfr and all forecastle-men-the come to poopdeck-the’‘Then Ulfr and all the forecastle men had got to the poopdeck’258

Morphology and syntax
T‡ndisk fé allt ok meiri hlutr manna‘Lost-sk property all and greater part of-men’‘All the property was lost and most of the men’Konungr var allmjƒk drukkinn ok bæ›i ﬂau‘King was all-much drunk and both they’‘The king was very drunk and she as well’Observe that in the first sentence the past participle komnir agrees
with the plural subject allir stafnbúarnir (or, equally possible, bothsubjects together) rather than the singular subject Ulfr and the singularverb. (On the use of ﬂau in the last sentence, see 3.9.6.1.)
Even where it precedes a lone plural subject, a verb may appear in
the singular if several words intervene. E.g. (with the singular verb inbold):
Eptir ﬂat dreif at ﬂeim fóstbrœ›rum vinir ﬂeira ór Fir›afylki‘After that drifted to those foster-brothers friends their fromFir›afylki’‘After that their friends from Fir›afylki thronged to (join)
the foster-brothers’
In sentences of the type X is Y, the verb often agrees in number with Y,
the subject complement, especially when the subject is ﬂat ‘that’ ‘it’or ﬂetta ‘this’. E.g. (with the relevant agreement in bold):
Váru ﬂat lítil sár ok mƒrg‘Were that small wounds and many’‘The wounds were small and many’
Ekki munu ﬂetta fri›armenn vera
‘Not will this peace-men be’‘These will not be men of peace’
Slíkt eru konungsmenn, sem ﬂú ert‘Such are king’s men as you are’‘You are the sort of person to be a king’s man’

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259

Notice further the propensity of past participles in such constructions
to agree with the subject complement rather than the subject:
Var ﬂat mikill fjƒl›i or›inn‘Was it great multitude become’‘It had become a great number’
Sometimes, however, agreement is with the subject:ﬁat var ﬁorkell nefja, Karlshƒfu›, ok ﬁorsteinn ok Einarr
ﬂambarskelfir‘That was ﬁorkell nefja, Karlshƒfu›, and ﬁorsteinn and Einarr
ﬂambarskelfir’
ﬁat var sí›an kallat Kvernbítr‘It was thereafter called Kvernbítr [m.]’3.9.8.3 -sk verb forms and ‘preposition adverbs’
As pointed out in 3.6.5.3, the -sk form may have reflexive and reciprocal function. Often this is combined with use of a preposition, which,in an abstract sense, governs the reflexive or reciprocal to which the-sk form gives expression. Since, however, there is no overt prepositional
complement in such constructions, the preposition has the appearanceof an adverb (cf. 3.7.7). E.g. (with the -sk form and preposition given
in bold):
Kormakr litask um‘Kormakr looks-sk around’‘Kormakr looks around him’ﬁeir lƒg›usk allir ni›r fyrir kirkjunni ok bá›usk fyrir‘They laid-sk all down before church-the and prayed-sk for’
‘They all laid themselves down before the church and prayed
for themselves’260

Morphology and syntax
Ek hefi nú vel um búizk‘I have now well around prepared-sk’‘I have now protected myself all around’Áttusk ﬂeir vi› drykkju ok or›askipti‘Had-sk they with drinking and conversation’‘They had drinks and conversation with each other’
Horf›usk ﬂeir Gizurr at hƒf›unum‘Faced-sk they Gizurr towards with-heads-the’‘Gizurr and he faced towards each other with their heads’

Where the preposition is immediately followed by a noun phrase (ornoun phrases) as in the last two sentences, the student should beparticularly careful not to jump to the conclusion that the two belong
together. Neither *vi› drykkju ok or›askipti nor *at hƒf›unum is a
preposition phrase, drykkju ok or›askipti being the accusative direct
object of áttu, hƒf›unum a manner adverbial in the dative case.

3.9.8 Points of syntax affecting more than one type of phrase —Exercise
1. Old Norse sometimes employs adverbs as complements of vera‘[to] be’ and ver›a ‘[to] become’. Give examples and compareand contrast Old Norse usage with English in this respect.
2. In Old Norse an adjective standing in apposition to subject, object
or prepositional complement often corresponds to an adverb oradverbial in English. Give examples and compare and contrast Old
Norse usage with English in this respect.
3. In what circumstances may an Old Norse verb not agree in number
with a nominative subject?
4. Give a grammatical analysis of the sentence ﬂau rœddusk opt vi›‘they often talked together’.

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261

3.9.9 Adverbial ok
Sometimes ok appears at the beginning of an independent sentencewith a sense equivalent to ﬂá ‘then’. In such cases a dependent temporalor conditional sentence almost always precedes (indeed, the ok or ﬂá
represents a recapitulation, in the form of an adverb, of the dependent
sentence, cf. 3.8, 3.9.1). E.g.:
Ok í annat sinn er ﬂeir raufa sey›inn, ﬂá er stund var li›in,ok var ekki so›it‘And for second time COMP they open cooking-pit-the, then
COMP short-while was passed, and was not cooked’‘And the second time they break open the cooking pit after ashort while had passed, then it was not cooked’
Ef ma›r andask í úteyjum, ok eru ﬂeir menn skyldir at fœralík til kirkju, er . . .
‘If man dies-sk in out-islands, and are those men bound to
take body to church, COMP . . .’If a man dies on some outlying island, then those men are
responsible for taking the body to a church, who . . .
The second example is from a law text, where this use of ok for ﬂá isvery common.

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A postscript on ‘impersonal’ constructions
The student may legitimately wonder why some verbs in Old Norseare construed without a nominative, and thus, apparently (cf. 3.9.3),
without a subject. It was explained in 3.9.3 that sometimes this isbecause the focus is on the object and the subject is of no interest in
the context. In, e.g.,
Hér hefr kristni sƒgu‘Here begins of-Christianity saga’‘Here begins the history of the Church (in Iceland)’the writer draws attention solely to the work and its commencement.
Who caused it to commence is of no relevance, and indeed theindividual(s) concerned would probably be hard to identify. There isa similarity here with some passive constructions in English. In, e.g.,
The church was built in the fourteenth century
the point of interest is the time at which the building work took place,not who carried it out, which, as in the ON example, may not be(generally) known.
What is missing in both the ON and the English sentence is of course
the agent — which is nevertheless there in the background, understoodalthough unspecified. But it has been argued by some that an agent
has also been omitted from those types of ON ‘impersonal’ (i.e. nonnominative) construction in which an animate instigator cannot be
conceived (e.g. daga ‘dawn’, skorta ‘lack’, dreyma ‘dream’; cf. further
3.9.3, pp. 230, 233–4). The verbs concerned tend to denote natural
events, the passing of time, (chance) occurrences, want, feelings, impressions, etc. What is suggested is that at the time such constructions
arose there was a belief in a mythological agency or agencies which
controlled the events by which people were affected. Thus in, e.g.,
Gaf ﬂeim vel byri
‘Gave to-them well winds’‘They got favourable winds’Points of syntax

263

Rak ﬂá ví›a um hafit‘Drove them widely across sea-the’‘They drifted far across the sea’
Ragnhildi dróttning dreym›i drauma stóra‘Ragnhildr queen [acc.] dreamt dreams big [acc.]’‘Queen Ragnhildr dreamt great dreams’
a recognised but (for whatever reason) unspecified power may havebeen conceived as directing the wind, driving boats across the sea,causing people to dream, and so on (cf. the further examples pp. 230,
233).
It is not claimed that speakers of Old Norse thought in these terms;
rather that they were using linguistic constructions inherited from anearlier age (many Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages
exhibit similar types of phrase). The interconnection between
nominative case and agent role suggested by this line of reasoning
can also be viewed as having a historical basis. In 3.1.2 it was stressedthat no morphological case is uniquely associated with a particularsyntactic function in Old Norse, and that is equally true of semanticroles. It is conceivable, however, that to begin with each case didhave a unique semantic role and syntactic function, and that in thispristine system nominative denoted the agent. Then, over the thousandsof years that followed, much restructuring took place, including
perhaps loss and amalgamation of several cases — leading to the Old
Norse system in which morphological case, syntactic function andsemantic role are far less obviously interconnected.
Regardless of the correctness or otherwise of these ideas, the student
may find them helpful in getting to grips with ‘impersonal’ constructions — a type alien to modern English. The closest equivalents
are constructions such as it is raining, where it simply fills what would
otherwise be an empty subject slot, or it seems to me, where theexperiencer does not become subject but is presented as the recipientof external stimuli. We may also note the archaic construction
methinks, comparable to ON ﬂyk(k)ir mér.

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References to linguistic terms explained in the
GrammarReferences (by page number) are to the place or places where the term is most clearly
explained and/or exemplified, usually the first occurrence. Items which form thesubject matter of a (sub-)section or (sub-)sections of the Grammar are not normally
included; these can be located using the list of contents (pp. vii–xi). Terms that areused only once or twice and are explained where they occur are also mostly omitted.

absolute superlative 93
accusative 22–7
accusative and infinitive 236–40
active 135–6
adverb of degree 128
adverb of intensification 129
adverb of manner 127
adverb of place 127
adverb of time 127
agent 31agreement 38, 77–8, 131–2
analogical levelling 42
anaphoric pronoun 27
antecedent 208
attributive 77
auxiliary verb 133

dual 62
experiencer 70, 234
front(ing) [vowels] 41–2
fronting [sentence elements] 226–7
genitive 22–7
genitive of type 35
imperative 135
independent sentence 200
indicative 134–5
indirect object 32–3, 35
infinitive 140, 147–8
instrumental(ity) 24
intonation 4

back vowel 42
comparative 79
complementiser 204
consonant cluster 13
copula 242
correlate 208–11
dative 22–7
dative absolute 253–4
definite article 56
dependent sentence 200–02
determiner 78–9
diphthong 9–10
direct object 32–3
discontinuity 220, 229

labial 39
lexical item 147
marked 226–7
matrix sentence 200
modal auxiliary 152
monophthongisation 102
morphology 22
mutation 39, 41
nominative 22–7
noun phrase 31–2
object 32–3
object complement 89

Linguistic terms
objective genitive 34, 90
oblique 72
paradigm 28
partitive 74
passive 135–6, 251–3
past infinitive 147–8, 239–40
past participle 147
periphrastic 133
positive 79
possessive adjective 83
possessive genitive 34
postposition 181
preaspiration 18–19
predicate 131
predicative 77
preposition phrase 181
present participle 147
principal parts 148–9
raised subject 238–9
reciprocal 146

reflexive 62
reflexive possessive 83
relative (pronoun) 201
relative sentence 208
rounded, rounding 39
subject 31
subject complement 32, 224–7
subjective genitive 34, 91
subjunctive 134–5
subordinate clause 200–02
superlative 79
supine 156
syntax 22
that-clause 202
unmarked 31–2
unvoiced 12
voiced 12
vowel gradation 141–2

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Select glossary of linguistic terms not explainedin the Grammar
apposition The relationship between two or more sentence elements withthe same syntactic function and identity or similarity of reference. E.g.
hann átti Ragnhildi, dóttur Hrólfs ‘he was married to Ragnhildr, thedaughter of Hrólfr’, where Ragnhildi and dóttur Hrólfs are in apposition.
assimilation The influence of one sound on another, so that they become
more alike or identical. E.g. lykill ‘key’ < *lykilr, with assimilation lr > ll.
beneficiary The entity to which something is given, said, etc. or for whichsomething is done, made, etc. E.g. ﬂeir veittu honum li› ‘they gave him
support’, where honum is the beneficiary.
complement A syntactic element that ‘completes’ another element. E.g. var
hann inn mesti hƒf›ingi ‘he was a very great ruler’, where hann is the
subject and inn mesti hƒf›ingi the subject complement; í ﬂenna tíma ‘atthis time’, where í is a preposition and noun phrase ﬂenna tíma the
prepositional complement.
complex Consisting of two or more separate elements. E.g. the preposition fyrir nor›an ‘north of’.
compound Consisting of two or more elements which are combined. E.g.
fjárskipti ‘division of property’ a compound noun made up of gen. fjár,from fé ‘property’ ‘money’, and skipti ‘division’.
covert Not expressed, understood. In, e.g., ﬂeim var engi kostr í brott at
fara ‘there was no possibility for them to go away’, the subject of fara
is not expressed, but is understood as identical with the ﬂeim of ﬂeim
var engi kostr.
declarative A sentence type used for statements, contrasting with interrogative, imperative, etc. E.g. Páll jarl fór til Orkneyja ‘Earl Páll went
to the Orkneys’ is a declarative sentence, whereas hvárt fór Páll jarl til
Orkneyja? ‘did Earl Páll go to the Orkneys?’ is interrogative and far›util Orkneyja! ‘go to the Orkneys!’ imperative.
goal The entity affected by the action expressed by a verb. In, e.g., ﬂeir
brenndu hann inni ‘they burnt him in his house’, hann ‘him’ is the goalof the action, the person burnt.
govern(ment) A syntactic linkage whereby one word requires a particular morphological form of another word. E.g. the ON verb hefna ‘avenge’
governs the genitive of the person or thing avenged (hann hefndi bró›ur
síns ‘he avenged his brother’); the preposition frá governs the dative(frá skipinu ‘from the ship’).

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267

head word The central word in a phrase. E.g. in ma›r gamall ‘an oldman’, the noun ma›r is the head word, on which the adjective gamall isdependent; we find ma›r gekk út ‘a man went out’, but not *gamall
gekk út ‘old went out’.
infinitive clause A clause (sentence) with one or more infinitives but nofinite verb — one of several types of non-finite clause. E.g. in dvel ﬂú
eigi at snúask til dróttins ‘do not wait to turn to the Lord’, at snúask til
dróttins is an infinitive clause whose covert (understood) subject is theﬂú of the finite dvel ﬂú eigi (see covert).
infix An affix (a word element that can only be used when joined to anotherform) added within a word (see p. 65).
inflexion A change to any part of a word (root, affix, ending) signalling
grammatical relations (case, gender, number, tense, mood, etc.), e.g.
hestr ‘horse’ (nom. sg.), hests (gen. sg.); hƒr› ‘hard’ (nom. f. sg., nom./acc. n. pl.), har›ir (nom. m. pl.); bít ‘bite’ (1st sg. pres. indic.), beit (1st/
3rd sg. past indic.).
intransitive A verb which cannot take a direct object, e.g. liggja ‘lie’ ‘besituated’.
modifier (modify) A word that is dependent on another word or phrase
and qualifies its meaning. In, e.g., sá inn gamli ma›r ‘the old man’, thewords sá inn gamli are all dependent on the head word ma›r: they qualify
the meaning of ma›r, introducing the attribute of age and making thephrase definite. In draumr Hálfdanar, the genitive Hálfdanar is dependent on draumr and qualifies its meaning, indicating whose the dreamwas (see head word).
overt Expressed, observable in the structure (see covert).
past perfect A verb construction found in Germanic (and some other)languages consisting of the past tense of have (hafa etc.) and a supine,
usually expressing a time prior to some past point of time. In, e.g., er
ﬂeir hƒf›u upp borit fƒngin, fóru ﬂeir á land ‘after they had carried up
the baggage, they went ashore’, the carrying precedes the going ashore,
which is itself in the past.
perfect As past perfect, but consisting of the present tense of have (hafaetc.) and a supine, and commonly expressing time viewed in relation to
the present. In, e.g., vér hƒfum fengit mikinn ska›a á mƒnnum várum‘we have suffered great losses to our men’, the losses are presented as
relevant to the situation in which the words are spoken.
phrase A sentence element consisting of one or more words, but usually
reducible to a single word. E.g. skrín ins helga Magnúss jarls ‘the shrineof St Magnús the earl’ is a noun phrase, reducible to ﬂat ‘it’; í ﬂann

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A New Introduction to Old Norsetíma ‘at that time’ is a preposition phrase functioning as an adverbial,
reducible to ﬂá ‘then’.
root The basic form of a word, to which nothing has been added. E.g.
tak-, root of the verb taka ‘take’, hei›-, root of the feminine noun hei›r‘moor’, ‘heath’, lang-, root of the adjective langr ‘long’.
semantics The study of meaning in language; sometimes simply used asa synonym for meaning.
sentence The largest unit of grammar or syntax, i.e. the largest unit overwhich a grammatical or syntactic rule can operate. A sentence will
always include one finite verb, and one only. Thus (finite verbs given
in bold) Go! or John kicked the ball into the net are each sentences,whereas Gosh! or Looking to the future are not. The utterance She
smiled because she was given a toy, but she often scowls contains
three sentences: the independent (3.8) she smiled and [but] she often
scowls and the dependent [because] she was given a toy. In traditional
grammatical parlance what is here termed ‘sentence’ is known as a‘clause’, ‘sentence’ being employed for broader and less clearly
defined concepts such as ‘a statement that can stand on its own’.
sentence element Used in the Grammar synonymously with phrase.
simplex Consisting of a single element — non-complex or non-compound.
E.g. á ‘on [etc.]’ is a simplex preposition as opposed to the complex
fyrir nor›an ‘north of’; konungr ‘king’ is a simplex noun as opposed tothe compound konungsma›r ‘king’s man’.
stress Prominence given to a particular syllable because of the degree ofarticulatory force used in producing it. In, e.g., Skotlandi ‘Scotland’(dat. n. sg.) there is primary stress on the first syllable, secondary stresson -land-, and little or no stress on the dative -i ending.
substantive An alternative term for ‘noun’ — the part of speech denoting
persons, places, concrete objects, concepts (e.g. Hrólfr, Ísland ‘Iceland’,hús ‘house’, gle›i ‘joy’). Formally substantives/nouns display certain
types of inflexion, in Old Norse number: konungr ‘king’, konungar‘kings’, case: konungr (nom.), konungi (dat.), and to a certain extent gender:
dropi (m. with -i ending) ‘drop’, gata (f. with -a ending) ‘path’.
Substantives/nouns also perform specific syntactic functions, appearing,e.g., as subject or object of a sentence or the complement of a preposition in a preposition phrase (examples under 3.1.5).
substantivised Used as a substantive/noun. The term is applied toadjectives that stand in place of a substantive/noun, e.g. gott ‘good [nom./acc. n. sg.]’, fáir ‘few [nom. m. pl.]’, hit ellra ‘the older [nom./acc. n.
sg.]’ (see 3.3, 3.3.6, sentences 19–22, 26).

Linguistic terms269

suffix An affix (see infix) coming after the form to which it is joined.
Examples of ON suffixes are the weak past tense markers -›, -d, -t (cf.
kasta-›-i ‘threw’, with root kasta-, past tense suffix -› and 3rd sg. ending-i), and the definite article -inn (cf. hest-r-inn ‘the horse’, with root
hest-, nom. sg. ending -r and suffixed nom. m. sg. def. art. -inn).
transitive Verb which can take a direct object, e.g. drepa ‘kill’, hefna‘avenge’.

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