A Corpus-Based Cognitive Semantic Analysis of the Polysemy of theJapanese Temperature Adjective Tsumetai
Haitao Wang (Unaffiliated)
Haihong Huang (Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University)
Yong Zhong (Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics)

Abstract
Meaning is grounded in human sensorimotor experiences, which include our experiences oftemperature phenomena. The study of temperature concepts provides a fundamental perspective to
explore cognitive mechanisms. Temperature term tsumetai (cold) constitutes a crucial concept in thebasic temperature domain. This study adopted a corpus-based descriptive approach to explore thesemantic structure of the polysemous Japanese temperature adjective tsumetai. First, 4,402 instancesof tsumetai were retrieved form the Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ).
Manual analysis and semantic annotation of each instance were performed based on elevendictionaries and sense-identifying criteria. Consequently, eight senses of tsumetai were identified.
Second, sense 1 : (of objects) having a relatively low temperature was identified as the prototype oftsumetai based on its frequency and earliest acquisition. Sense 1 is the most frequently occurring sensein the BCCWJ data (57.20%), indicating its predominance in the semantic network. Also, sense 1 isthe earliest acquired and used sense in the Sumihare component of the CHILDES corpus. Third,
semantic extension mechanism among each sense was analyzed by means of cognitive principles
including metaphor, metonymy, and specialization. The semantic extensions of tsumetai shift fromphysical tactile experience to emotional states and abstract characteristic evaluation. Within thesemantic extensions of tsumetai, temperature domain can be mapped to domains of color, emotion,manner, relationship, and atmosphere. Finally, a hypothesized semantic network of tsumetai wasconstructed to present the semantic relationships between the prototype and extended senses. New
senses and usage characteristics of each sense identified in this study may serve as a reference forJapanese language teaching and lexicography. The patterns of semantic extension identified can serve
as a reference for analyzing the polysemy of other temperature adjectives in Japanese or otherlanguages.
1 Introduction

Within the realm of Cognitive Linguistics, the embodiment thesis posits that our cognitive processes
are deeply grounded in our bodily experience and interactions with the physical, social and culturalenvironment we live in (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). It is claimed that meaning is grounded in our
sensorimotor experiences, and this embodied meaning is extended through imaginative mechanisms,
such as conceptual metaphor and metonymy, to shape the abstract conceptualization and reasoning(Johnson and Lakoff, 2002, p. 245). Temperature phenomena are universally experienced by humans.
Temperature experiences constitute a critical aspect of our sensorimotor experiences. Investigating
temperature concepts thus provides a fundamental and primal perspective for exploring cognitive
representation and enhancing our understanding of human cognitive mechanisms.
Japanese temperature adjectives have received considerable attention in linguistic literature sincethe 1960s. Until the 1980s, research on Japanese temperature adjectives has primarily devoted
attention to differentiating between tactile and non-tactile temperature adjectives through the lens ofsememes (e.g., Hattori, 1964; Kunihiro, 1967; Watanabe, 1970; Kageyama, 1980; Yamaguchi, 1982;

Hosogawa, 1985). From the 1990s, influenced by the rise of Cognitive Linguistics, studies began
focusing on the conceptual metaphors that explain the semantic extensions of these adjectives (e.g.,
Shindō, 1998; Tamura, 1999; You, 1999; Imai, 2011; Liu, 2021). More recently, researchers haveturned to corpora to investigate the usage of these adjectives (e.g., Zhang, 2010; Shindō, 2015; Wanget al., 2023).
The Japanese temperature adjective tsumetai (cold) is a crucial concept in the basic temperaturedomain. Previous cognitive studies on the semantic extensions of tsumetai have remained underresearched. Shindō (1998) limited the scope of the discussion to the meanings of temperature andinterpersonal emotions. Tamura (1999) primarily analyzed the synesthesia of tsumetai with dictionary
example sentences. You (1999) did not explore the semantic extensions among the various
metaphorical expressions of tsumetai. None of these studies has been able to thoroughly explore thesemantic relations among all meanings of tsumetai. In light of this, the present study employs a largescale corpus to investigate the meanings of tsumetai and explore the relationships among these
meanings.
2 Literature review

The Japanese temperature adjective tsumetai has been an important aspect of research on temperatureterms in linguistic literature. From the 1960s to the 1980s, studies primarily focused on the differencesin literal temperature meanings between tsumetai and samui (chilly/cold). Hattori (1964) definedtsumetai as referring to a non-unpleasant cold sensation felt on a specific part of the skin, while samuirefers to a discomforting cold felt by the body or a substantial part of it, potentially extending to thedeeper tissues. Kunihiro (1967) noted that tsumetai and samui differ in terms of their sensory impact
on the body: samui is associated with a sensation that encompasses the entire body, while tsumetai ischaracterized by a sensation localized to specific parts of the body, such as the fingertips or the skin's
surface. Watanabe (1970) noted that samui typically involves a sensation without direct contact,
whereas tsumetai includes a tactile sensation upon contact.
Moving beyond these dichotomies of partial versus total or tactile versus non-tactile sensations,
Kageyama (1980) suggested that tsumetai pertains to the temperature of an external object, contrastingwith samui, which describes an internal bodily sensation. Building on this, Hosogawa (1985) expanded
the distinction by emphasizing that while tsumetai still pertains to localized, external sensations, samui
encompasses a broader, environmental perception, capturing how cold is experienced in relation tosurrounding conditions rather than purely internally. Interestingly, Yamaguchi (1982) examinedhistorical texts and observed that during the Chūko (A.D. 784 to 1184) period of Japanese history,
tsumetai and samui were used interchangeably, existing almost synonymously with overlapping
semantic fields.
Since the 1990s, researchers have adopted a Cognitive Linguistics approach to explore thefigurative meanings and semantic extensions of tsumetai. Shindō (1998) examined temperature
expressions as metaphorically extended concepts rooted in bodily experiences. Concerning the context
of conveying affection and hostility, She analyzed how tsumetai is used to symbolize the exchange ofthese emotions, conceptualizing them as fluids that can be poured or flow between individuals. Thisapproach illustrates how temperature expressions, deeply rooted in bodily experiences, extend tometaphorically convey complex emotional interactions. Tamura (1999) extracted instances fromdictionaries and analyzed the semantic mapping of temperature adjectives. The research indicates thattsumetai not only refers to a physical sensation of coldness but can also extend to visual andpsychological sensation through physiological metonymy. You (1999) conducted a comparative
analysis of metaphorical expressions in Chinese and Japanese temperature adjectives using dictionary
examples. The study found that tsumetai can express aspects such as emotion, state, money, attitude,
facial expression, speech style, visual, attribute, and personality.
In recent years, researchers have turned to corpora to investigate the usage of tsumetai. Zhang(2010) employed the Chinese-Japanese Translation Corpus to study the collocation patterns of
tsumetai, discovering that it frequently collocates with nouns related to emotion, attitude, and behavior.
The study found that since tsumetai generally relates to a tactile sensation, such as touching cold
objects, the associated nouns often carry negative connotations, depicting a lack of emotional warmthor detachment in various contexts. Meanwhile, Shindō (2015) employed the Balanced Corpus ofContemporary Written Japanese (BCCWJ) explore the semantic features and usage patterns of theJapanese temperature adjectives. The research found that tsumetai can be used in both comfortableand uncomfortable contexts, unlike samui which is typically associated with discomfort. Additionally,
tsumetai frequently appears in attributive usage, modifying nouns directly, and can also be employedmetaphorically in casual conversation to criticize a person's demeanor as lacking warmth or kindness.
In previous studies, the focus before the 1990s was primarily on the difference in literal meanings
between tsumetai and samui. Cognitive studies on the semantic extensions of tsumetai from the 1990s
have remained under-researched. Specifically, Shindō (1998) focused the discussion primarily on themeanings of temperature and interpersonal emotions. Tamura (1999) concentrated on analyzing thesynesthesia associated with tsumetai using examples from dictionaries. You (1999) did not investigate
the semantic extensions within the metaphorical uses of tsumetai. Recent corpus-based studies havebeen limited in their scope. For instance, Zhang (2010) limited the investigation to nouns modified
attributively by tsumetai. Shindō (2015) focused primarily on comparing the differences between
tsumetai and samui in the corpus, neglecting to explore the metaphorical usage of tsumetai in detail.
None of these studies has thoroughly explored the semantic relations among all meanings of tsumetai.
In light of this, the present study employs a large-scale corpus to investigate the meanings of tsumetai
and explore the relationships among these meanings.
3 Methodology

The present study employs a corpus-based descriptive approach to investigate the polysemy of theJapanese temperature adjective tsumetai. The approach was adopted through the following three steps:
Step 1: Collecting corpus data. The BCCWJ, compiled by the National Institute for Japanese
Language and Linguistics (NINJAL), comprises 104.3 million words and is the only balanced corpus
currently available for Japanese. We input tsumetai with lexeme retrieval of short unit words in
BCCWJ. As a result, 4,402 instances of tsumetai were returned and downloaded into a spreadsheet in
the form of a concordance. After excluding 472 instances where tsumetai was not used as an adjective,the dataset for subsequent analysis was finalized to include 3,930 instances of tsumetai.
Step 2: Identifying the senses and prototype. Manual analysis and annotation were performed oneach instance of tsumetai to identify its various senses. During this process, eleven dictionaries,
including Nihongo Tagigo Gakushū Jiten Keiyōshi-fukushi Hen (A Learner’s Dictionary of Multi-sense Japanese Words: Adjectives and Adverbs), Gendai keiyōshi yōhō Jiten (Japanese adjectives
usage dictionary), and Nihon Kokugo Daijiten (Shogakukan's Japanese Dictionary), were consulted.
Furthermore, this study employed the criterion proposed by Seto (2007, p. 49) for identifying distinct
senses: If there is a metaphorical, metonymic, or synecdochic extension (involving generalization andspecialization) between two senses, they are considered distinct; otherwise, they are merged into thesame sense. With regard to the prototype, this study employed frequency and acquisition as criteria todetermine prototypicality.
Step 3: Determining semantic extension mechanisms and semantic network. For the semantic
extension mechanisms, This paper employs general cognitive principles including metaphor,metonymy, and specialization, to interpret the relationships between the senses of tsumetai. According
to Momiyama (2021, pp. 99-100, 105), metaphor is defined as a figure of speech that represents anobject or concept by resorting to another object or concept based on their similarity. Metonymy isdefined as a figure of speech that refers to an entity or concept by using a form representing a different
entity or concept, based on their spatiotemporal contiguity or conceptual relevance. Additionally,
Geeraerts (2010, p. 26) defines specialization as the process whereby the range of application of a newmeaning is a subset of the range of the original meaning. Finally, after confirming the semantic
relationships among different senses, a hypothesized semantic network is constructed to capture thesemantic structure of tsumetai.
4 Results and discussion

Upon completing Step 2 of the corpus-based descriptive approach, eight senses of tsumetai wereidentified, as detailed in Table 1. The sense “(of objects) having a relatively low temperature” wasidentified as the prototype. This section is divided into two parts. Section 4.1 elaborates on theidentification of the prototype. Section 4.2 details the senses and analyzes the semantic extensions forthe eight senses of tsumetai.
Table 1: Senses of tsumetai
Senses1 (of objects) having a relatively low temperature
2 chilly; the air temperature is very low
3 feeling or producing an uncomfortable sensation of low body temperature
4 (of color) producing a cold sensation to the visual
5 lacking ardor, friendliness, or affection
6 calm, unexcited, free from emotions
7 (of relationship) aloof, distant
8 (of atmosphere) quiet, subdued, not lively
4.1 Prototype of tsumetai

The first concern in polysemy research is identifying the prototypical sense. Based on the criteria of
frequency and acquisition, we identified sense 1: (of objects) having a relatively low temperature, as
the prototype of tsumetai. The reasoning behind this identification is detailed as follows:First, Sense 1 is the most frequently occurring sense of tsumetai in the BCCWJ, accounting for57.20% of the instances, thereby determining it as the prototypical sense. Schmid (2000, p. 39)
proposed the “From-Corpus-to-Cognition Principle”, according to which frequency in text instantiates
entrenchment in the cognitive system. In our study, among the 3,930 retrieved instances of tsumetai
from the BCCWJ, Sense 1 is the most frequent, indicating its predominance in the semantic networkwith a frequency of 57.20%.
Second, sense 1 is further identified as the prototype from a vocabulary-acquisition perspective.
Seto (2007) proposed that the prototype is the one which is acquired the earliest in a child’sdevelopment. We analyzed utterances of tsumetai in the data for Sumihare, in the CHILDES corpus(cf. Noji, 1973-77; MacWhinnery, 2000). The following instance is the initial utterance of tsumetai
by Sumihare.
(1) Sumihare:*MOT: Tsumetai-deshoo.
cold-COP.POL‘It's cold, isn’t it?’
*MOT: Pai

shimashoone.

throw.away do.POL
let’s‘Let's throw it away, shall we?’
*CHI:

Tsumetai.
cold‘It’s cold’[1;07.20]

In Example (1), the mother comments on the low temperature of an object and suggests discarding it.
Sumihare then affirms the mother’s initial comment about the coldness of the object. This example
demonstrates that Sumihare first used tsumetai to describe the low temperature of an object at the ageof 1 year, 7 months, and 20 days, thereby supporting the identification of sense 1 as the prototype.
4.2 Senses and semantic extension of tsumetai

This section provides a detailed description of each sense presented in Table 1. It also analyzes thesemantic extensions among the eight senses of tsumetai by means of metaphor, metonymy, andspecialization. All examples are taken from the BCCWJ.
Sense 1: (of objects) having a relatively low temperature
As analyzed in Section 4.1, sense 1 is identified as the prototype of tsumetai. Sense 1 describes the
low temperature of external objects in the physical world.
(2) Jyuuni-gatsu-da

kara,

mizu-watsumetakatta.

december-COP
because water-TOP
cold-PAST‘Because it was December, the water was cold.’

In Example (2), tsumetai describes the low temperature of the water, indicating that it was cold to thetouch. Based on information gained from corpus data, sense 1 is frequently used to modify solids andliquids.
Sense 2: chilly; the air temperature is very low
Numerous previous studies (e.g., Hattori, 1964; Kunihiro, 1967; Watanabe, 1970; Kageyama, 1980;
Yamaguchi, 1982; Hosokawa, 1985; Shindō, 2015) have devoted attention to differentiating the literal
temperature meanings of tsumetai and samui. However, we found instances where tsumetai, similarly
to samui, describes the temperature of the surrounding space and is felt by the whole body of theperceiver.
(3) Aki-ga
autumn-NOM

rin-tobriskly

tsumetaku
cold

naru.
become‘Autumn becomes briskly cold.’
In Example (3), tsumetai describes the intense and sharp coldness of autumn, with rin-to emphasizing
the severity and briskness of the cold. A closer examination of the corpus data shows that tsumetai insense 2 commonly collocates with nouns related to time or space, such as asa (morning), yoru (night),
aki (autumn), and tokoro (place).
Concerning semantic extension, sense 1 describes the low temperature of objects, while sense 2
expresses the low temperature of the air surrounding the perceiver. The usage range of Sense 2 is asubset of Sense 1. Therefore, it can be conjectured that the semantic shift from sense 1 to sense 2 issemantic specialization (cf. Geeraerts, 2010, p. 26).
Sense 3: feeling or producing an uncomfortable sensation of low body temperature
In this sense, the adjective tsumetai describes an internal, lower-than-usual body heat of the perceiver.
(4) Hieshou-de,

tokunipoor.circulation-CAUS, especiallyashi-saki-ga

natsu

demo

toes-TOPsummer eventsumetai-desu.
cold-COP.POL‘I have poor circulation, and especially my toes are cold even in summer.’In Example (4), tsumetai describes the subjective sensation of coldness in the toes, experienced by anindividual with poor circulation, even during summer. In the corpus, this sense consistently modifies
and collocates with nouns referring to parts of the human body.
For semantic extension, sense 3 describes the low body temperature of the perceiver. The scopeof application for Sense 3 is encompassed within that of Sense 1, indicating that the semantic shift
from Sense 1 to Sense 3 represents a case of semantic specialization.
Sense 4: (of color) producing a cold sensation to the visual
In this sense, the adjective tsumetai describes a cold sensation suggested visually by colors or tones.

(5) Itsumo-no

kiniro-ga-katta

pinku-iro-de-wa-naku, ao

to

gin

usual-GEN

gold-tinted

pink-color-COP-NEG, blueand silver

to-oawaseta

you-natsumetai iro-da.

and-OBJ

combined

like

cold

color-COP‘It is not the usual gold-tinted pink color, but a cold color like one combined from blue and silver.’In Example (5), tsumetai describes the color that results from combining blue and silver. It
characterizes the color as “cold,” suggesting a visual impression that evokes a sense of coolness orchilliness, rather than warmth. This usage extends the concept of physical coldness to describe a visual
attribute, enhancing the description of the color with a sensory dimension. Thus, in the corpus, thissense consistently modifies and collocates with nouns that denote cold colors, such as gin (silver) andshiro (white).
With regard to semantic extension, the association between the two independent concepts of cold
colors and coldness may derived from experienced associations (cf. Marks, 1990; Sandford, 2011;
Hamilton, 2016). For instance, blue and white are commonly associated with coldness; blue evokes
the chill of ice, water, and glaciers, often imagined in shades of blue, while white is linked to the cold
through its representation of snow and frost in snow-covered landscapes. The common association ofthese two sensory experiences constitutes the spatiotemporal contiguity or conceptual relevance(Momiyama, 2021, p. 105) between sense 4 and sense 1. Thus, the semantic shift from sense 1 to sense
4 can be considered a metonymic extension from touch to sight.
Sense 5: lacking ardor, friendliness, or affection
In this sense, the adjective tsumetai is defined as unfriendly, unkind, or lacking ardor or affection
toward something or someone.
(6) Nanda
whataitsu?
tsumetai yatsu-da-na.
that.one cold
guy-COP-EXCL‘What’s with that guy? He’s a cold one, isn’t he?’In Example (6), tsumetai characterizes the person’s demeanor as emotionally distant or unfriendly,
indicating a lack of ardor or affection in their attitude or behavior. In the corpus, this sense frequently
modifies and collocates with nouns that describe people’s attitudes or behaviors, such as me (eyes),henji (reply), taido (attitude), and taiou (interaction). Moreover, it is often used in the construction:
hito ni/ni taishite tsumetai (being cold to someone).
As for semantic extension, the conceptual metaphor UNFRIENDLY IS ICY indicates that humandemeanor can take the coldness of ice as its source domain (Kovecses, 2010, p. 153). In this metaphor,
the qualities of ice—cold, hard, and unyielding—are applied to human interactions to express a lackof warmth or affection, characteristics often associated with friendliness. Consequently, sense 5 canbe analyzed as a metaphorical extension from sense 1.
Sense 6: calm, unexcited, free from emotions

In this sense, tsumetai characterizes a psychological state of calmness, devoid of excitement, anxiety,or excessive emotion.
(7) Higorokarareisei-na

koudou-ga

usually

fromcalm-GENaction-NOM can.take-INF

oki-tai-to
omoi-masu.
keep-want-COMP think-POL

Karada-wa
body-TOP

toreru-you
atsuku,hot,

sonae-teprepare-CONJ

shikashi atama-wa
but
head-TOPtsumetaku.
calm.
‘Usually, I want to be prepared to take calm actions. Keep the body hot, but the head cool’
In Example (7), tsumetai describes the state of the head. It metaphorically emphasizes the need formaintaining a cool, composed, and rational mindset in contrast to the body, which may be in a stateof action and energy. A closer examination of the corpus data reveals that tsumetai in sense 6
consistently modifies the psychological state of calmness in humans and collocates with nouns suchas atama (head) and ishiki (consciousness).
Concerning semantic extension, the conceptual metaphor EMOTION IS HEAT OF FIRE andCONTROLLING THE INTENSITY OF THE EMOTION IS CONTROLLING THE FIRE indicatesthat the emotion concepts can take the heat of fire as their source domain (Kovecses, 2010, p. 141).
Staying cool or calm represents self-control and rationality, akin to managing a fire's intensity. Thus,
sense 6 can be analyzed as a metaphorical extension from sense 1.
Sense 7: (of relationship) aloof, distantIn this sense, the adjective tsumetai characterizes relationships as aloof and distant.
(8) Nanjuu-nen-mo-no

aida,

Bei-Inseveral-decades-GEN
yoku
mi-temoduring, US-India
tsumetai mono-datta.

well

cold

look-evenkankei-wa

ikura

relation-TOP

how.muchthing-was.PAST‘For several decades, the US-India relationship, no matter how closely observed, was a cold
affair.’In Example (8), tsumetai describes the US-India relationship as ‘cold,’ implying that it was distant,formal, and lacking in close interaction and cooperation. In this context, tsumetai highlights theemotionally reserved and minimally engaged nature of the diplomatic ties between the two nations
over many years. In the corpus, this sense consistently modifies and collocates with the nouns kankei(relationship) and naka (relations).
For semantic extension, an aloof and distant relationship is typically characterized by bothindividuals being unfriendly or lacking affection towards each other. The association between humandemeanor and relationships constitutes the spatiotemporal contiguity or conceptual relevance. Thus,
the semantic shift from sense 5 to sense 7 can be considered a metonymic extension.

Sense 8: (of atmosphere) quiet, subdued, not lively
In this sense, the adjective tsumetai describes an atmosphere as quiet and subdued, indicating a lackof liveliness.
(9) Hiruma-wa

danransupe-su toshite

kaihou-sareta

sono

daytime-TOP
gathering
basho-wa,
kensou kara

space
tooku,

asopen-PASS.PAST
thatshizuka de sabishiku tsumetakatta.

place-TOP

far,

quiet

noise

from

and lonely

cold-PAST‘During the day, that place, which was opened as a gathering space for enjoyable family time,：specialization
was far from：metaphor
the noise, and was quiet,：metonymy
lonely, and cold.’： prototype：the first extended sense：the second extended sense

In example (9), tsumetai describes the atmosphere of the place that was intended to be a gathering
space. It highlights how the place felt devoid of lively interaction typically associated with a gathering
图 1 「あつい」的语义网络

space, emphasizing its quietness, loneliness, and emotional chilliness. In the corpus, sense 8
consistently collocates with nouns such as fun'iki (atmosphere), seijaku (silence), and chinmoku(stillness).
With regard to semantic extension, it is easy to notice that an atmosphere that is quiet and subdued
results from people lacking ardor or affection toward the place. This causal connection between humanattitudes and behaviors, and the atmosphere of a place, constitutes the spatiotemporal contiguity orconceptual relevance. Thus, sense 8 is considered an extension of sense 5 through CAUSE FOR
EFFECT metonymy.
Based on the analysis above, a hypothesized semantic network of tsumetai can be constructed, aspresented in Figure 1, to summarize the semantic relationships between the prototype and extended
senses.

：metaphor： prototype

2

4

1

5

3

6
：metonymy：the first extended sense

78：specialization：the second extended sense

Figure 1: cognitive semantic network of tsumetai
图 1 「あつい」的语义网络The semantic extensions of tsumetai shift from physical tactile experience to emotional states andabstract characteristic evaluation. Within the semantic extensions of tsumetai, temperature domain canbe mapped to domains of color, emotion, manner, relationship, and atmosphere.
5 Conclusion

The present study adopted a corpus-based descriptive approach to investigate the polysemy of theJapanese temperature adjective tsumetai. First, after analyzing 3,930 instances of tsumetai btained
from the BCCWJ, eight senses of tsumetai have been identified. Second, sense 1 : (of objects) having
a relatively low temperature has been identified as the prototype of tsumetai based on its frequency
and earliest acquisition. Third, semantic extension mechanism among each sense has been analyzed
by means of cognitive principles including metaphor, metonymy, and specialization. Finally, ahypothesized semantic network of tsumetai has been constructed to present the semantic relationships
between the prototype and extended senses.
This study contributes to the current literature in the following ways. Firstly, senses 4,7 and 8
appear to be novel findings, as none of the dictionaries consulted by the researchers had definitions
for these three senses. These new senses and usage characteristics identified in Section 4.2 may help
to update existing dictionaries and contribute to Japanese language teaching. Secondly, this study
detailed how experiences of temperature are extended to emotional states and evaluations of abstract
characteristics. The patterns of semantic extension identified can serve as a reference for analyzing
the polysemy of other temperature adjectives in Japanese or other languages.
Finally, compared to the period before the mid-1990s, the study of polysemy has turned to morediverse data, using psychological experimentation and corpus data (Gries, 2019, p. 29). Moreover,combining corpus-based analysis with psychological experiments has proven to be fruitful (cf. Arppe
and Järvikivi, 2007; Divjak and Gries, 2008; Liu, 2013). In this sense, further research, such as corpusbased computational linguistic approach and psychological experimentation, should be conducted tocorroborate and complement the findings of this research.
Abbreviations

COP
POL

CopulaPolite form

NEG
OBJ

Negative
Object marker

TOP

Topic marker

INF

Infinitive

PAST
NOM

Past tense
Nominative case marker

CONJ
COMP

Conjunction
Complementizer

CAUS

Causative

EXCL

Exclamative

GEN

Genitive

PASS

Passive

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Data Sources

Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese: https://chunagon.ninjal.ac.jp/
CHILDES Japanese Noji Corpus: https://childes.talkbank.org/access/Japanese/Noji.html