日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course
for non‑English majors
Jean‑Pierre Chretien

Abstract
Writing activities, in an integrated skills, communicative EFL course for non‑English
majors, offer strong support for the development of overall communicative skill. While
writing can seem difficult to teach,suggestions for working with writing in less troublesome
ways are realizable by viewing writing differently whereby both process and product are
equally valuable in creating artifacts of learning that can be studied and changed.
Key words: artifacts, collaboration, feedback, scaffolding, writing

Introduction
This article focuses on the writing of students in a communicative EFL course for first‑year
dentistry students at a university in Tokyo. It describes the writing of 24 students in an
integrated skills course for non‑English majors.The article includes qualitative analysis of thestudentsʼessays that is relevant to teachers, offers suggestions for working with writing insimilar communicative courses for non‑English majors and demonstrating how writing supports the development of overall communication skill.
Two questions are considered :1) What outcomes can be expected from a diverse group of students who are not majoringin English?
2) How can writing support the development of communication skills in a communicative
EFL course?

Second Language Writing
In EFL courses, where communicative approaches are used, writing seems to have a lesser
presence, even when such courses are described as integrated due in part to how second
language writing instruction has evolved.By the late 1970ʼ
s,and into the 1990ʼ
s,L2 instruction
moved toward an emphasis on the processes of language acquisition, representing a major
pedagogical paradigm shift that caused rifts among linguists and disagreements on the meritsof contrasting pedagogy.

日本大学歯学部

英語

Nihon University School of Dentistry
1‑8‑13 Kanda‑Surugadai, Chiyoda‑ku, Tokyo 101‑8310, Japan〒 101‑8310 東京都千代田区神田駿河台１‑８‑13(受理：2010年９月 30日)

63

日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

Current approaches divide language skills strands into separate focus classes or they integrate by combining reading & writing or speaking & listening.Many teachers prefer “speaking& listening”because this combination is perceived as easier than reading & writing since thelatter requires specialized knowledge and writing, it is believed, demands a great deal ofcorrection time. These approaches may have contributed to the lessening of the presence ofwriting in communicative EFL courses.
Yet another approach to integration of language skills represents a realization by some EFL
educators that separating the language skills, at least in some learning situations, seems
unnatural and less productive.These educators hold an appreciation for the value of including
writing in an integrated course.They understand that writing is a skill that is known to raise
student awareness of audience considerations (Leki 1993), to help learners develop analyticaland critical reading & writing skills (Nystrand & Brandt 1989),and to foster reflective thinking
by explaining and defending ideas (Higgins, Flower & Petragla 1992). Writing “is a powerfulmeans of discovery and learning (Wiemelt 2001).
New technology,notably text messaging and email,has brought writing back into daily lifeand business,thus it deserves a greater presence in communicative EFL language courses as adimension of communicative competence. Widdowson (1990)in defining “communicative competence”warned that the instructional approach should “avoid treating the different skills andabilities that constitute competence in isolation of each other.”
Perpignan (2009) pointed out the need to create curriculum that recognizes the studentsʼ
position as EFL learners as well as their need to make improvements in English that are more
realistic than asking them to write perfect native‑like English. Turner (1995) suggested that
activities that provide optimal challenge cause students to stretch the limits of their capacities,
expanding their cognitive understandings and abilities, whereas Dornyei (2001b) writes of the
motivational conditions that create a pleasant and supportive atmosphere and a cohesive
learner group with appropriate norms and a sense of a goal orientation.
Storch (2005)reiterated the value of “
scaffolding”(Vygotsky 1986),where the more able,byproviding novice with the appropriate level of assistance to stretch beyond the current leveltowards potential level of development. Other important notions to consider about writing
include the opportunity for co‑construction of knowledge in small groups and pairs, which
provides learners with more chances to communicate in the L2. In small groups opportunities
abound for negotiation of meaning, increased autonomy, self‑regulation and more intrinsic
motivation (van Lier 2001).

64

Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course

This article describes student writing as the creation of “artifacts”that are importantbecause they are concrete proof of a studentʼ
s current status in terms of effort and outcome.
They reveal “
the insight and transformation of the studentʼs ideas”Lyons & La Boskey(2002).
The various communicative activities that help prepare the students to write also allow for asmooth blending of varied student levels and experience with English.

The Setting
135 students are enrolled in the first year communication course at a dentistry school locatedin central Tokyo. M ost of the students are 19 years of age and come from all over Japan
bringing with them a variety of experiences in English language instruction experience. First
year students are divided into four groups, which meet once a week for 100 minutes (actuallyscheduled as two 50 minute classes),working with two teachers,who exchange classes halfway
continuing on the same theme but in a different activity.
The activities are organized around meaningful topics arranged in cycles lasting 3 weeks
with each cycle divided into 6 activity segments to provide practice opportunities in all of thelanguage skills strands.See Chretien & Mitchell 2009,for an overview of the integrated skills
communicative course design.

Analysis of 24 Case studies
24 students were selected from 135 described in Table 1 in order to construct a manageable
representative profile that could portray the writing outcomes of all the students in three
general characterizations: “high,”“
middle,”and “low.”
The 24 comprise 3 pairs of students from each class; one male and one female in each pair,
representing the characterizations selected because they completed the required essays in thefirst semester and had good class attendance.Students who fit these criteria were matched with
their first semester score,an evaluation that calculates the value of attendance and all written
artifacts (notebooks, essays, web‑log contributions, visual presentation aid and end‑of‑semester essay examination). See Appendix 1 for more detail on the 24 cases.

Total students
Gender: maleTable 1 : Profile of 135 students
A‑1
A‑2
B‑1
34
34
33
24
25
21
10
9
12

femaleSemester score average
Semester high score
Semester low score

67.5
83
55

65

64.5
81
57

64.5
83
53

B‑2
34
19
15

Totals
135
89
46

68.5
83
56

66.25
82.5
55.25

日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

The first semester examination essay was matched with the most recent,or 4th,essay.The
two essays differ in the nature of the preparation and the situation (time & location)in which
the writing took place.The 4th essay is part of the most recent topic cycle on sports,preparedin class,informed by class discussions,activities and readings from the booklets and the classwebsite,then (expected to be)extended,polished and proofread out of class ready to be shared
the following week.In contrast,the essay examination was prepared entirely out‑of‑class over
several weeks in the summer. The students used what they had learned and practiced toconstruct an original piece during a fixed amount of time (60 minutes)in a test‑taking setting.
Two teacher‑relevant quantitative analyses were used to compare the writing of the 24
cases:
1) Word & sentence counts; straightforward and offering a good view of the extent of a
studentʼ
s productive vocabulary as well as knowledge of basic sentence structure andlayout.
2) T‑units; useful in perceiving sophistication in studentsʼwriting. A “T‑unit,”(minimal
terminable unit)contains one independent clause and its dependent parts; the “shortest
units into which a piece of discourse can be cut…one main clause plus whatever subordinate clauses happen to be attached to or embedded within it.”(Hunt 1996).
I also considered the topic choices in the exam essay since the choice may have influenced
the outcome.For example,Sports was the most recent topic discussed while the majoritychose
Communications presumably because it is close to their lives and was discussed in a pro/con
style in many of the activities and readings.Table 2 outlines the topics chosen during the exam
essay.
Table 2 : Topic choices in the examination essay, September 2010
Topic
Social change
Communications
Entertainment & M edia
SportsTotals

A‑１
2
23
1
8
34

A‑２
1
26
1
6
34

B‑１
5
23
0
5
33

B‑２
0
24
0
10
34

Totals
8
96
2
29
135

How can “high writers”extend their writing?
Students described as “high”have higher word counts and sentences that are more sophisticated as measured bythe ratio of T‑units to #of sentences.Theyare not necessarilycompletely
fluent speakers of English but presumably have had more experience writing in English in highschool.There is a difference between the outcome of the 4th essay and the exam essay in that66

Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course

the ratio of independent clauses increased in the exam essay. This may indicate that thestudents placed a premium on the essay test over the topic essays. Table 3 compares topic
choices and counts of words,sentences and T‑units in the 4th essay and the exam essay of thewriters in the high group.

S/G

Table 3 : Comparison of 4th essay and exam essay of high group
4th Essay counts :Exam essay counts :Topic choices
Word/sentences/T ‑units word/sentences/T ‑units in exam essay

１‑F
２‑F

140
192

10
17

16
18

220
287

18
21

24
27

Communication
Communication

３‑M
４‑M
５‑M
６‑F

211
151
121
154

20
12
11
13

25
19
13
20

281
280
206
228

23
28
17
20

29
31
23
26

Communication
Communication
Entertainment

７‑M
15‑F

171
153

22
11

27
17

318
289

30
31

32
34

SportsCommunication
Communication

The quotations below offer a view of writing from the high writers during the first semester
examination looking at the types of openers, the basic structure and a few illustrative sentences. They are left as they are written.

Openers/My topic is “
New Communication tools”. I choose this topic because today human cannʼt livewell without communication tools./
Recently I play with friend of “mixi” community on everyweekend. I am taking part in“
TRENTEEUN Club.”//Today, communication tools has been developing. PC, cell phone and so on are indeispensablefor daily life.//Sporting events have good and bad points. Iʼm talking about those.//Today, there are many communication tools around us ; for example, mobile phones, SNS, andso on.//My topic is “
New communication tools”. I chose this topic because I was interested in a newcommunication tools developing rapidly and what kind of social network these makes//Today, a lot of people use social network, like Twitter, FAcebook or mixi./.
/The information of entertainment and media gives so big influence on us./

Structure
M any use order signified by “
first…. second….” and transitions such as “in the end,
moreover, for example, in fact, but even so, as I mentioned, It is said, in brief and in otherwords.”The words flow smoothlythrough the sentences of the 4 or 5 paragraphs which are well67

日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

defined.6 out of 8 wrote about Communication,1 each for Sports and Entertainment & Media.

Illustrative sentences/Information tools make many social network and get away country lines.//It is said that “Social Networking Service is very dangerous.”But if you know moderation andmanners one by one, so it is one of the most happy communication tools.//So, too much information makes our confusion. We shouldnʼ
t swallow all information, and wemust not be confused by information overload.//Second, sporting events raise nationalism of people. People hope that their countriesʼplayers
win. This is good, but if people have too strong nationalism, they sometimes become danger.//All people in SNS donʼt show you their real information.//First, we can use these tools to contact other people in real time. Even if I was where.
Especially, mobile phone can use talking and sending e‑mail.//In fact I can use mixi. I enjoy communicating my friends, getting a lot of information about
my favorite artists.//Mass media always makes use of celebrity to convey the information. When the information isgood to us, the celebrity can get fame from viewer. But same time they have a risky side what
we feel sad such as Mr. Manabu Oshio who is arrested./To encourage the high writers to extend,expose them to more authentic writing such as thearticles that appear in the topic booklets and on the website,but also direct them to find theirown models. Insist always on original writing and teach them how to document sources. Askthem to fine‑tune their proofreading skills,keeping track of mistakes (things theyknew but did
not do correctly)and errors (things they do not yet know)in the notebook.Make it easier forthem to read widely, with a collection of graded readers for example, in order to expand
vocabulary and idioms
M ost importantly ask them to teach others,for example pair up “high”writers with “lower
middle”writers and asked the pairs to share comments and ideas about their writing. Byteaching others the high writers will not only render an important service to the class community but also increase their awareness of the structures that work for them. Teaching others
also alleviates the tendencyof high writers to be competitive,replacing unconstructive competition with collaboration and creating a more conducive atmosphere for developing communication skill.

How can “middle writers”be supported to grow and change?
Students in the “
middle”are found in the average range of the semester score.Although theyattend class regularly they tend to perform inconsistently, especially with regard to out‑of
68

Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course‑class assignments.Their behavior can be described on a continuum that ranges from amusing
to reticent.They also tend to be active people but can seem fragmented as a result which showsin their writing where they do not devote enough time to detail nor proofreading even though
they possess solid basic writing skills.
The 4th essay writing of the“middles”did not differ much from the exam essay.In the exam
essay they chose topics that are easier and clearer to them. For example Communication isclose to them and was discussed in a pro/con debate. The scores of the 4 essays do not show
a steady increase but rather they dip and rise, much like the roller coasters they resemble inattitude and behavior.
Table 4 compares topic choices and counts of words,sentences and T‑units in the 4th essay
and the exam essay of the writers in the middle group.

S/G

Table 4 : Comparison of 4th essay and exam essay of middle group
4th Essay counts :Exam essay counts :Topic choices
Word/sentences/T ‑units word/sentences/T ‑units in exam essay

８‑F
10‑F
11‑M

230
105
83

31
10
9

36
13
12

279
287
232

23
25
17

31
29
22

Communication
Communication
Communication

14‑M
16‑M
17‑M
18‑F
20‑F

197
116
76
71
104

21
10
13
8
10

27
12
15
11
17

183
197
250
173
192

22
17
15
19
14

25
21
22
23
21

SportsCommunication
SportsSportsCommunication

The quotations below offer a view of writing from the middle during the first semester
examination looking at the types of openers, the basic structure and a few illustrative sentences. The sentences appear as written.

Openers/Recentry, our communication tools are changing.//Recently, World Cup 2010 was held on South Africa.//My topic is the good and bad points about new communication tools. I chose this topic becauseItʼs increasing many kind of communication tools, so Iʼm interested in new communication
tools.//Recently communication tools have been transformed day by day.//Today, most of sports are related with commercial organization and social communities such as
nations.//I think Japanes begins lose nationalism. We had very strong nationalism in wartime. But now
I envy Korean nationalism./69日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010/Today, as a E ‑mal of course, Twitter, FaceBook and so on of communication tools arechanging rapidly as possible.//Today, there are may methods of communication./

Structure
A few choose to put the topic question at the top of the page as if the essay is meant toanswer it instead of expound on it.M iddles can write clear paragraphs although it is not always
evident since in the rush to write they often omit spacing thus the 3 or 4 paragraphs are tightly
packed on the page. M any use “
firstly…, secondly…”to organize the ideas. The middles use
transitions that resemble speaking such as “
by the way, and so on, so, for example, on the other
hand, and, but.”4 of the 8 wrote on to a second page.3 began with “
recently,”3 with “today,”
while the other 2 used “I think”and “
My topic is..”Illustrative sentences/These things that we are able to do now werenʼ
t expected by people who couldnʼ
t know
informations in another place.//It is bad for ethical, but these problems will not disappread. The reason why they have asponsor in their back. They want to think control the result.//In this point, new communication tools frustrated. So It is very hard for us that we protects
ours information ourself.//And people who use the Internet may donʼt go out because the Internet can order many kindsof things which we must live the life so it is not essential people who use the Internet to go out.//But sometimes World Cup games cause tensions between the nations. After the 1970 World
Cup, Honduras and El Salador thought for 3 months.//If we can know which side will win, we donʼt fell tension and the game is not interesting in
the least//One is that we mustnʼ
t believe information with ease.The other is that my personal informationis always seen by someone, so it is important to protect my personal information.//After thinking two sides, I thought new communication tools are cuts both ways./
To support growth & change in “
middle”writers requires impressing on them the usefulnessof keeping a consistent and full notebook and asking them frequentlyabout what theyare doingin the notebooks. Teach them awareness of some useful writing conventions and about “T‑units.”Explore ways with them to acquire and extend vocabulary and idioms using amusing
methods such as music lyrics.Demand originality,steady countable growth & change in every
essay. Ask them to teach others.

70Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course

How can “low”writers gain confidence and skill?
Students deemed to be “low”resemble the “middles”in behavior and attitude and can be
described along a similar continuum of characteristics.Two kinds of“low”writers exist in thisclass: one lacks attendance, the other participates but lacks experience writing in any language.Each requires a different instructional approach but it is the latter kind that is the moreinteresting sub group for the teacher. The essays of low writers are short and plain with noparagraphing, made up of strings of stochastic phrases that resemble spoken language.
Table 5 compares topic choices and counts of words,sentences and T‑units in the 4th essay
and the exam essay of the writers in the low group.

S/G

Table 5 : Comparison of 4th essay and exam essay of low group
4th Essay counts :Exam essay counts :Topic choices
Word/sentences/T ‑units word/sentences/T ‑units in exam essay

９‑F
12‑F
13‑M

121
70
168

14
8
11

16

150

10
18

121
85

11
14
7

15
18
9

Communication
Social Change
Communication

19‑F
21‑M
22‑M
23‑F
24‑M

73
63
64
90
19

6
7
7
11
3

9
11
9
13
3

109
74
176
106
96

9
9
14
13
10

13
12
21
15
12

Communication
Communication
SportsCommunication
Communication

The quotations below offer a view of writing considered to be low in experience looking at
the types of openers, the basic structure and a few illustrative sentences, which appear here
unedited.

Openers/After 1990, the development of social networkl has transformed the speed of getting theinformation (the entire paragraph)//We can reveal information that we want to know but there is information overload.//Recently, communication tools reveals to change.//These days, sporting events are often held and professional games broadcast on TV./
/When the social network transformed, we can used slow communication tools.//The communication means that we use develops rapidly now.//Recently, the new communication tools diversifies variously.//Yang Japanese man is different from stereotype of Japanese masculinity./

Structure
In the essay examination low writers used paragraphing because it was pointed out and71日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

required.Other essays do not have paragraphing.There are no real openers and transitions used
are the basic ones “
however, for example, so, now and finally”For the most part the structureis guided by the choice of key words. About 3 paragraphs in length the writing sometimes iswobbly and uses space on the page awkwardly.

Illustrative sentences/It became to be able to reveal that have happened to people on the earth in real times.//It is conviniens that we know transform information in real time but our information canʼtsefty.//So, we have to improve in the present conditions. We have to rid frustrated in our life.//Also, watching the professional games gives us thrill or tensions and stimulates our eagerness
for sports and contributes to enrich the QOL.//But new communication tool is cuts both ways.//So, I want to use commuication tools safty and donʼt forget good points and bad points.//Second, there are photographs and various things are seen in real time and we need not to be
frustrated.//I think that agree manʼs feminization. Because There are employ womens.
Today womans very strong and cool./
What the less experienced writer most need is time and patient scaffolding,especially in theplanning stage.It may be more beneficial for them to work with the teacher in this stage rather
than with peers helping them keep pace, speed up the process of selecting manageable bits of
information which to write.Demand they keep a word count and create a sentence goal in each
essay writing. Subsequent essays should contain more key words, more sentences, more
examples. Eventually teach them how to combine short sentences into single, more sophisticated sentences and to question themselves about their writing progress.Low writers need not
spend time on re‑writes.Itʼs preferablytheyjust move on from topic to topic and tryto increase
the length and breadth of their writing. In the proofreading stage it is good for them to workwith a solid “
middle”person who can teach them the ropes as he knows them.They may findwriting from a visual helpful. They should never be compared to either “high”nor “middle”
writers but be rewarded each time for their effort steady growth and awareness of change intheir work. Encourage the building of a glossary containing new vocabulary and idioms thatthey can use build upon and attempt to use.

In what ways can writing support the development of communicative skill?
Characteristics specific to writing ; its recursive nature, a strong connection to reading,thecreation of artifacts that can be studied and its ability to motivate change, distinguish it as askill that supports the development of communication skill.Raimes (1991)described writing as72

Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course

something “that you visit several times; it remains even as you change and can be revised as
you change. It is designed to be shared, to launch new thoughts and to be discussed.”

Creating Artifacts
In specified segments of each topic cycle “writing clinics”are times where planning andediting take place as part of the writing process.Students work in pairs,brainstorming ideas,
constructing mind maps, doing free‑writing and seeking advice from “knowers,”who areteachers and peers alike (Richards & Rogers 2001).Pairing students during the planning stage
is a collaboration that helps to get the writing process started more easily and enjoyably.It isespecially helpful in focusing middle writers, while low writers, and others less sure of themselves, can join the teacher at a table to be assisted through the planning process.Building on
the outcome of collaborative planning and using key words from the topic articles,students areencouraged to write originally, with clear order and a sense of personal style thereby helping
to enlarge “schemata”or mental structures that store knowledge (Nunan 1990).
Notebooks in the form of B‑5 sized loose leaf binders help students to collect information andto respond to class proceedings through home assignments. The class website (see Mitchell2010)provides reading material on each topic and an opportunity for written communication.
Both serve as examples of artifact creation that is recusive and collaborative.
The notebooks,weblog commentary and essay writing are valuable for exchanging feedback
and extending communication as well as providing occasion to evaluate growth and change inthe development of overall communication skill.The evaluation of writing “includes more thanlinguistic features”wrote Cassanave (1994); “development in writing needs to capture a fuller
sense of increased fluency and increased confidence.It needs to be observable and discussable
in a way that characterizes studentsʼlinguistic development concretely,encompassing different
perspectives on writing and dimensions of growth and change in writing.”

Assessment & Feedback
Growth & change, in this article, indicates two directions of movement in student writing.
Growth occurs in a relatively short period of time; it is small but noticeable and can beobserved in frequent periodical writing. Change takes longer; it is noticeable when essays
written at different times are compared.Change can be documented and shared with students.
With 135 students it is not the intention of the teachers, nor would it be a wise use of time,
to correct the essays for accuracy in grammar.Instead it is better to set criteria for evaluating
growth that, while subjective, is individualized : Does it look good? Is it complete? Is it
meaningful?Does it represent growth?Is it longer,broader than the previous essay?Does it flow
73

日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

and have a sense of order Is it original?
Awarding evaluative scores on the essays is a negotiation.The writer first rates himself thenasks a partner to rate him using a scale from 1 to 4 and adds a comment and some advice.The
ratings are descriptive and change with each topic For example a “4”which always indicatesexcellence may be expressed as “Wow!!!Or a “3”might say “I can understand you very well”
or “How did you do this?”While a “2”might simply say“Hmmmmmm….”,“Oh my!”or “Tryagain next time.”Only then collect the essays rating them using the same scale adding a shortcomment that picks up on a point in the essay proving to the writer that the essay was indeed
read and appreciated.When the essays are returned there are cries of“Wow!,“Oh mygod!,withslaps on the back and smiles when the essay was rated higher by the teacher.
The students are only asked to make their writing grow in length and breadth from theprevious essay.Greater sophistication,as measured by T units,the presence of dependent andindependent clauses,vocabulary,idioms,examples,transitions,summaries,clever openings andendings would represent change.
In the examination essay the criteria for success includes: a sense of order, appropriate
imbedding of 5 key words or phrases and “meaningfulness.”Meaningfulness is difficult tocalibrate but refers to Casanaveʼ
s (1994)definiton of improvement and to Zamel (1982)notionthat competency in composing does not necessarily correspond to linguistic competence but is
an explorative and generative process. Many of the exam essays are a reformulation ofprevious essay work,a reminder of the recursive nature of writing.All“grew”in their writing ;their essays that were longer,better organized and displayed a layer of attention and awarenessthat they may not have shown before.Cumulatively the progression of essay writing represents“change”as “knowledge telling and knowledge transformation”(Bereiter & Scardamalia 1987).

Obstacles, benefits & actions
Some obstacles and benefits of writing in a communicative EFL Course are listed below
followed by brief suggestions for actions to increase the presence of writing.
Obstacles

Benefits

Actions

Lack of instructional time

Artifacts for feedback

Collaboration at all stages

Inexperience of students

Recursive activity

Flexible notebooks

Correcting & rating

Raises awarenessEmphasis on “growth & change”

Suggestions
Redesign communicative EFL to be fully integrative of all skill strands.Change the point ofview concerning outcomes to be more flexible, tolerant, but firm. Use all aspects of the74

Writing in an integrated skills communicative EFL course

exploration of a topic to generate information that can be used in creating a written text.
Interviewing the students would reveal useful information about their current lives, thechallenges of being a first year university student in a strenuous program of study,about theirEnglish language learning background,and about their interests,goals,levels of confidence andcomfort working in a second language.
Collaborate at all stages of the writing process.Increase time for proofreading and sharing,where beneficial teach about T‑units and other notions of increased sophistication. Include avariety of activities to allow for a smooth blending of various student levels of experience inEnglish, create artifacts that become the determinant for a final grade producing concrete
evidence of a studentʼ
s commitment,effort,motivation,participation,growth and change,in not
only the class activities but in the overall process of developing communication skill.

Review class
An unexpected opportunity presented itself, following the essay exam that well illustrates
how the activity of writing supports communication skill building, when 13 students, who did
not garner enough points during the semester, were “invited”to a review class. Because of alack of attendance,topic essays and pages in notebooks,it could be presumed that they are theveryimage of the lazyand unmotivated student.That summation,however,would belie the factthat they are indeed enrolled in a strenuous dentistry program at a prestigious university.
Actually,with few exceptions,they resemble “middle writers”in being unfocused and “all overthe place”in their lives.
At the review class they asked many questions about their missing points and what theyought to do to recover.Unsure of themselves in writing as well as in English conversation,theyneed the encouragement of instant feedback, assurances that they are on a correct path andpermission to continue to the next step.So,in the review class,that is how we proceeded,withstudents running back and forth after each stage for checking.Some sketched their ideas on the
chalkboard, stronger students in the group willingly helped the weaker and all felt compelled
to ask about planning,grammar,spelling and vocabulary.One young man who ordinarily acts
aloof asked if he could change the tense of a key word. Several replied “naruhodo”(I see, ofcourse!)when paragraphing or combing two short thoughts into one sentence was pointed out.
By the end of the hour all 13 had successfully,in their own way,completed the task of writing
an essay. All understood the need to try harder to work together, to ask questions and tocommunicate their needs. It was clear that the interaction surrounding the making of a pieceof writing supported all forms of communication.
75日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010Conclusion
Writing is a powerful tool that assists students in becoming aware of their own language
learning and extends the learning experience for both students and teachers. Learning to
express oneself accurately and appropriately in writing does not require extensive instruction
nor does it need consume excessive time in a corrective mode.What is needed is for the teacher
to pursue the ever‑shifting L2 teaching paradigm shift a bit further,in order to appreciate bothprocess and product as valuable assets in developing communicative skill and to be mindful thatboth process and product are equal as learning tools. The product is to be considered, not afinished product but an artifact to be studied along with the process that created it.
References
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77

日本大学歯学部紀要 38，63‑78，2010

1
S/G

Appendix 1 : 24 case studies arranged by first semester score
2
3
4
5
6
7

8

１‑F
２‑F
３‑M
４‑M

Group
B‑２
A‑１
B‑１
B‑２

Att.
14
14
14
14

SemS
83
83
83
81

NB
３
３
５
４

Exam
20
20
19
19

Essays
14
14
11
13

4Ess.
４
４
４
３

５‑M
６‑F
７‑M
８‑F

A‑１
B‑１
A‑２
A‑２

14
14
13
14

80
75
72
71

３
５
５
５

20
19
18
19

13
11
13
10

３
４
４
４

９‑F
10‑F
11‑M
12‑F

A‑２
B‑１
A‑１
B‑１

14
14
14
13

71
69
68
68

５
４
３
３

19
19
19
18

10
10
8
6

４
３
２
２

13‑M
14‑M
15‑F
16‑M

B‑２
A‑２
A‑２
B‑１

14
14
14
13

68
67
65
65

３
３
４
２

17
17
17
20

11
7
11
8

４
２
３
３

17‑M
18‑F
19‑F

B‑２
A‑１
B‑２

14
14
14

65
65
64

２
５
３

19
18
18

8
6
7

３
２
２

20‑F
21‑M
22‑M
23‑F
24‑M

B‑２
A‑２
A‑１
A‑１
B‑１

14
13
14
14
14

61
61
60
60
60

２
３
２
２
３

19
17
19
17
17

9
9
6
8
6

３
３
３
３
２

S/G (col. 1)＝student # & genderGroup (col. 2)＝group designation (A‑1, B‑1, A‑2, B‑2)
Att. (col. 3)＝attendance (full attendance is 14)
SemS (col. 4)＝semester score (on 100%)
NB (col. 5)＝notebook (1 (low)to 5 (high)Exam (col. 6)＝essay examination (20 is highest score)
Essays (col. 7)＝4 essays (combined score 16)
4 Ess (col. 8)＝most recent essay; rating 1 (low)to 4 (high)78