Proceedings from the CLIL Summer
Seminar Program in 2022 under the
auspices of the city of Seinäjoki

CLIL pedagogy in Finland and beyond

Edited by Shigeru Sasajima
Kana Seki
Nozomi Kitamura
Hinako Shibaok

Copyright © 2023 CLIL-ite

The proceedings from The CLIL Summer Seminar Program in 2022 under the
auspices of the city of Seinäjoki:
Issued by CLIL Institute for Teacher Education (CLIL-ite)
October 2023
Editorial committee
CLIL-ite editorial team: Shigeru Sasajima, Kana Seki, Nozomi Kitamura, &Hinako Shibaoka
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in, or
introduced into a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means(electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the priorpermission of the publisher of this publication.
Copyright © 2023 CLIL-iteTable of Contents

1. Foreword

Shigeru Sasajima

1

2. The CLIL Summer Seminar Program in 2022

5

3. Plenary speakers’ presentation slides

14

David Marsh (MED)
CLIL – A Signature Pedagogy
The Bilingual Advantage – The Impact of Language Learning on Mind &
Brain

15

Tarja Nikula (The University of Jyvä skylä )Disciplinary literacy orientation to CLIL: bridging research and practice

4. Guest Speakers’ Presentation Slides

37

65

Teijo Päkkilä (Seinä joki Lukio principal)
General Upper Secondary Education

66

Akiko Yamaguchi (Sushi stand manager)
How I immigrated to Finland

83

Akie Yada (The University of Jyvä skylä )Teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive classrooms:
Comparative analysis of Japan and Finland

91

Takumi Yada (The University of Jyvä skylä )Teachers' collective competence for multi-disciplinary education124

5. School information

153

6. Participants’ Articles

156

Masazumi Maruyama (Nagasaki University)
A Reflective Note on the J-CLIL Summer Program at Seinäjoki, Finland

158

Yoshihiro Nigo（Yamaguchi Gakugei University）
The Class Observation of PE CLIL in Finland186

坂本ひとみ （東洋学園⼤学）

フィンランドで開催された CLIL Seminar に参加して186

Kana Seki (Graduate School, Waseda University)
Finish Bilingual Education: A Report on the CLIL Summer Seminar in
Seinäjoki

201

Mayumi Takizawa (Toyo Gakuen University)
Reflections on the CLIL Seminar in 2022: What are Keys to Well-being of
Teachers and Students in Finland?

206[Nagasaki peace group]
Rimi Ushizu (Gakushu Atelier COR)My Reflections of the 2022 J-CLIL Summer Seminar CLIL Learned with
Students

216

Yuto Sueishi

Reflection

220

Nanaho Ikeda

Reflection

221

Riko Tanaka

Reflection

222

⽥中 和⼦

ＣＬＩＬセミナーに参加して223

⽜津 朔太郎僕を変えたフィンランドの旅

224

7. Photo series of J-CLIL Teacher Education Seminar 2023

227

1.

Foreword
Shigeru Sasajima

Seinä joki is located in the center of Finland. The landmark of the city is
Lakeuden Risti Church, which was designed by Alvar Aalto and built between
1957 to 1960. Aalto was a famous architect and designer, so I have seen his
architecture and designs in many places in Finland so far. His concept, I believe,
well symbolizes the characteristics of Finland, as you see the above photo of thechurch. In such a clean and tidy place, we spent one week studying CLIL in thelate August of 2022, when the COVID-19 pandemic was still spreading aroundthe world. As a coordinator of this seminar, I first would like to say ‘Kiitos!’ tothe people who were kindly committed to our activities, since I was reallysatisfied that the seminar was very successful.

Unfortunately, regarding the boarder control measures in that period of ourtravel, we were required to show a negative PCR test certificate upon returning001

to Japan. However, most people in Finland didn’t care so much about theprevention and care for the viruses, which was very different from the Japanesementality that the regulations were then still rather vague and many people had
to face with social peer pressure such as wearing a face mask and keeping aphysical or social distance. As the J-CLIL summer seminar hadn’t been held
since the 2019 summer in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, I felt satisfied to be able
to learn many things as well as CLIL knowledge and practices at this seminar.

Thanks to such situations and a lot of kind local people, students and teachers,
we all had good time studying at the city library, Marttilan Koulu, Seinä joen
Lyseo, and Seinä joen Lukio. The CLIL Summer Seminar Program in 2022 was a
success under the auspices of the city of Seinä joki. I hope this one-week inperson seminar will create a bigger sustainable relationship between teachersand students in Finland and Japan, as shown in the seminar theme, CLIL
pedagogy in Finland and beyond. I have often used the term ‘pedagogy’ basedon the definition that “Pedagogy is about learning, teaching and development,
influenced by the cultural, social and political values and principles we have forchildren in Scotland, and underpinned by a strong theoretical and practicalbase” (Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2005, p. 14). CLIL pedagogy means tome that CLIL approaches should focus on learning, teaching and development,
so I believe people, especially young people, who joined this travel in Finland
will be able to develop themselves under this experience.

002

In this CLIL seminar, we invited several guest speakers, Dr. David Marsh, Dr.
Tarja Nikula, Dr. Takumi Yada, Dr. Akie Yada, and Ms. Akiko Yamaguchi, who alllive and work in Finland. In addition, we were supported by nice local teachers,
Ms. Marika Ojala and Mr. Ken Wakaume as local coordinators. And, Dr. TeijoPä kkilä , Mr. Ville Hakala, and Mr. Mark Burke, who are also local secondary
school teachers in Seinä joki, gave good talks and helped us observe classrooms.
Thanks to their kind support, we communicated with lots of teachers, students,and local people at schools and in the city areas. We would like to be very
thankful to all these people. And I also would like to appreciate a variety ofgood seminar participants, who have created good sustainable community ofpractice (Wenger, 1998): Makoto Ikeda, Kazuko Kashiwagi, Hitomi Sakamoto,
Yoshihiro Nigo, Mayumi Takizawa, Takaharu Saito, Kana Seki, Rimi Ushizu,
Yusuke Tanaka, Nozomi Kitamura, Hinako Shibaoka, and Masazumi Maruyama.
All the participants are very much interested in CLIL pedagogy and Finland. In
addition to the proper participants, the seminar included some ad-hoc student
participants: Riri Kawatake, Riko Tanaka, Yuto Sueishi, Nanaho Ikeda, Nako
Tanaka, and Sakutaro Ushizu. They are all primary or secondary students from
Nagasaki. I am sure they have made a peace appeal from Nagasaki and had
fruitful education experiences in Finland. I do hope their activities will be a
special influence on CLIL implementation in the future.

Finally, I would like to express my thanks to Ms, Kana Seki, Ms. Nozomi
Kitamura, and Hinako Shibaoka for kindly editing the proceedings of this CLIL

003

Summer Seminar 2022. Please enjoy reading the articles that the participants
wrote and the seminar presentation slides, used in this seminar, which are all
good resources to understand what we discussed at the seminar.

Many thanks indeed

Shigeru Sasajima

ReferenceslLearning and Teaching Scotland. (2005). Lets talk about pedagogy.
https://education.gov.scot/media/13khv2ys/talkpedagogy.pdf

lWenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, andIdentity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511803932

004

2.

The CLIL Summer Seminar Program in 2022

005

The CLIL Summer Seminar Program in 2022
under the auspices of the city of Seinäjoki

CLIL pedagogy in Finland and beyond

Dates: 22nd to 26th August, 2022
Venue: Seinäjoki, Finland
Marttilan Koulu, Seinäjoen Lyseo, & Seinäjoen Lukio, etc.

006

CLIL pedagogy in Finland and beyond
Featured speakers

David Marsh (MED)
Tarja Nikula (The University of Jyväskylä)
Guest speakers

Takumi Yada (The University of Jyväskylä)
Akie Yada (The University of Jyväskylä)
Akiko Yamaguchi (Sushi shop manager)
Seminar participants
Makoto Ikeda (President of J-CLIL)
Kazuko Kashiwagi (Vice-president of J-CLIL)

Hitomi Sakamoto Yoshihiro Nigo
Mayumi Takizawa
Takaharu Saito
Kana Seki
Rimi Ushizu
Yusuke Tanaka
Nozomi Kitamura Hinako Shibaoka
Masazumi Maruyama
Seminar student participants
Riri Kawatake
Riko Tanaka
Nanaho Ikeda
Nako Tanaka

Yuto Sueishi
Sakutaro Ushizu

Seminar coordinators

Shigeru Sasajima

Marika Ojala

007

Ken Wakaume

The Seminar Schedule

Day 1

Monday, 22nd August

Venue: Library
Registration starts
Opening

11:30 –

12:30 –

Coffee & tea refreshment

Moderator: Shigeru Sasajimal Greetings from the city of Seinäjoki
Marika Ojala (Acting director of basic education, Seinäjoki)l Greetings from J-CLIL president
Makoto Ikeda (President of J-CLIL)
l Participants’ self-introductionl Peace appeal from Nagasakil Information for the seminar Ken Wakaume (CLIL coordinator, Seinäjoki)

Plenary talk 1
David Marsh

14:00 – 16:00 including discussion(MED)

CLIL – A Signature Pedagogy
Meta-research on the impact of language learning on mind andbrain is of immense importance for CLIL and bilingual education.
Generations Z and A students have experienced high exposure tointegrated technologies.

This influences how their minds

process and use information. This presentation explains how CLIL has emerged as a signaturepedagogy that complements these emerging mindsets and contributes to equipping theseyoung people with future-ready cognitive skills and competences.

The venue info

16:00 – 16:30

Classroom observation guidelines (grouping)008

Day 2

Tuesday, 23rd August

Venue: Marttilankoulu, primary school
Marttila is a primary school for 350 pupils. It is located in the center of Seinäjoki. The school building wasbuilt in 1930 and renovated between 1996-1998. The school yard was rebuilt in 2019, which offers various
sports opportunities for many communities. Marttila School offers basic education and special needs
education (Years 1-6). Additionally there is bilingual education (CLIL-classes for Years 1-6 in English andFinnish) and preparatory teaching for pupils of immigrant background. Marttila is a multicultural school.
Besides international pupils and staff there are various intercultural projects and visits throughout theschool year. The school emphasizes sustainability and active school days. The school is located next to
Aalto center, which has offered an opportunity to specialize as an Alvar Aalto school.

Classroom observations 1
Classroom observation guidelines (grouping)

Talk with some primary teachers
coffee & tea refreshment

City walking tour

14:30 –

009

8:30 – 13:00(school lunch served)

13:30 –

Day 3

Wednesday, 24th August

Venue: Seinäjoen Lyseo, lower secondary school
Seinäjoen lyseo is a junior high that gives basic education for 7th, 8th and 9th grade (pupils aged
13–16). There are about 500 pupils and 60 teachers in our school. The motto of our work is
Together we are more. In lyseo one group in every grade is specialized in music. These groups
give concerts and have many performances during the school year. Lyseo specializes also inbilingual education (Content and Language Integrated Learning) and one group in every grade istaught partly in English in some subjects.

Classroom observations 2

8:30 – 13:00

Classroom observation guidelines (grouping)(school lunch served)

Communication with local teachers
coffee & tea refreshment

Fieldwork

14:30 – 17:00

Hiking around the lake010

13:30 –

Day 4Thursday, 25th August

Venue: Seinäjoen Lukio upper secondary school
One of the biggest upper secondary schools in Finland providing general education for students from 15
to 19 years of age with separate evening classes for students of all ages. Enrollment over 800 students andteaching staff over 60. Graduation requirement: 75 credits minimum; 45 compulsory and 30 elective.
Graduation time: 2–4 years. Individual study programs: students plan their own schedules based on thesyllabus offering more than 1,000 courses during one academic year. Academic year: from early August till
early June, the academic year is divided into six weeks' periods of study.

Classroom observations 3
lunch box served

8:00 – 13:00

coffee & tea refreshment

Communication with local teachers 13:00 – 14:00
Plenary talk 2

14:30 – 16:30 including discussion

Tarja Nikula (The University of Jyväskylä)
Disciplinary literacy orientation to
CLIL: bridging research and practiceThis presentation offers an overview of recent CLIL research that hasemphasised disciplinary literacy perspectives to CLIL and CLIL classrooms as sites for socialisinglearners into subject-specific meaning making practices. This has challenged the taken-for
granted notions of language, showing how language constantly intertwines with other semiotic
means for the purposes of knowledge building. Theoretical models to depict such integrated
nature of content and language exist, yet we know rather little of how such models resonate
with teachers’ everyday realities. Therefore, this presentation outlines a need for research
agenda where researchers and teachers collaborate to enhance CLIL theory and develop
pedagogical practice.

Dinner 19:00 –Scandic Seinäjoki

011

30

Day 5

Friday, 26th August

Venue: Library
Guest presentations & participation reflective talks
9:00 – 15:00(lunch at the library cafe)

coffee & tea refreshment[Japanese people living in Finland]
Ken Wakaume (Seinäjoki CLIL coordinator)(Title and abstract are coming soon)
Akiko Yamaguchi (Sushi stand manager)
How I immigrated to Finland
I thought I wanted to live in Finland somehow when I had traveled for the first time in 2012. I madeup my mind to get a job there in 2017. I learned how to make sushi at school in Tsukiji, Tokyo. Aftercompleting the basic course, I sent my CV to more than 40 restaurants in Helsinki. I flew to Finland
since I got positive responses from 3 restaurants. But it appeared that all of them couldn't afford to
support my visa. In the end, however, I managed to get a work residence permit thanks to theother restaurant where I applied to by chance.

Akie Yada (The University of Jyväskylä)
Teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive classrooms: Comparative analysis of Japan and Finland
Inclusive education has become the center in global education policies since the Salamanca
Statement was published (UNESCO, 1994). Teachers need to have higher self-efficacy regarding
inclusive practices to implement inclusive education effectively (e.g., Forlin et al., 2010). This research
examines Japanese and Finnish teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive practices using survey data. The
results indicated that teachers’ higher self-efficacy had the positive relationships with their attitudes
towards inclusive education in both countries. However, the positive association between inclusive
education training and teachers’ self-efficacy was found only in Finland. The outcomes could be
utilised to develop teacher training programmes in both countries.

012

Takumi Yada (The University of Jyväskylä)
Teachers' collective competence for multi-disciplinary education
Schools are surrounded by complex environments wherein teachers are required for collective
endeavours to tackle various educational issues. This report aims to understand collective
competence when teachers tackle collective educational endeavours. This study investigatescollective competences through the attribute model: knowing, doing, and being. Through 12 Finnish
principals' interviews, the data were analysed using a hybrid thematic analysis. Consequently, threethemes were found in each knowing, doing, and being aspects: shared meaning (knowing),
knowledge sharing and creation (knowing), views of relationships (knowing), sharing accounts(doing), developing contexts (doing), group collaboration (doing), collective mindset (being), broad
participation (being), and shared goal-oriented beliefs (being).

[Finnish teachers’ presentations]
Marika Ojala (acting director of basic education, Seinäjoki)
Mark Burke (Seinäjoki Lyceo CLIL coordinator)
Ville Hakala (Seinäjoki Lukio coordinator for international relations)
Teijo Päkkilä (Seinäjoki Lukio principal)[Participants’ reflective talks]
Makoto Ikeda

Kazuko Kashiwagi

Hitomi Sakamoto

Yoshihiro Nigo

Mayumi Takizawa

Takaharu Saito

Kana Seki

Rimi Ushizu

Yusuke Tanaka

Nozomi Kitamura

Closing

Hinako Shibaoka

Masazumi Maruyama

Kazuko Kashiwagi

Accommodation: Scandic Seinäjoki

Kauppakatu 10, 60100 Seinäjoki, Finland

013

3.

Plenary speakers’ presentation slides
David Marsh (MED)
CLIL – A Signature Pedagogy
The Bilingual Advantage – The Impact of Language Learning on Mind &Brain

Tarja Nikula (The University of Jyvä skylä )Disciplinary literacy orientation to CLIL: bridging research and practice014

The Bilingual Advantage
The Impact of Language Learning on Mind & Brain
POSITION PAPER ON THE VALUE AND FUTURE OF LANGUAGE EDUCATION

EduCluster Finland
University of Jyväskylä Group
Finland015

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Citation: Marsh D., Díaz-Pérez, W., Frigols Martín, M.J., Langé, G., Pavón Vázquez, V., Trindade, C.
(2020) The Bilingual Advantage: The Impact of Language Learning on Mind & Brain.
Jyväskylä: EduCluster Finland, University of Jyväskylä Group.
Correspondence concerning this Position Paper should be addressed to:david.marsh@educluster.fi or dm@davidmarsh.education
ISBN 978-952-94-3995-9
First published: 2020
Publisher: EduCluster Finland, University of Jyväskylä Group, Finland

016

Overview

There is evidence that people who have more than one language have advantages over monolinguals.
This paper describes six ways in which advantage is realized through the impact of having more than one
language in the mind and brain. It also describes why successful language learning depends on educational
practices that combine opportunities to learn language as a subject, and to learn content through language.
The scientific evidence-base on languages, mind and brain has expanded in the last decade. This science
provides insights on the design of educational practices. One of these is to re-think the teaching of
languages as separate subjects. Another is to consider providing small-scale opportunities for young people
to learn through an additional language.
This paper provides a succinct summary of the key issues involved in understanding the scope of the casefor language education. It argues that knowledge of more than one language, even if partial, can provide
people with advantages not accessible to monolinguals.

How to Navigate this Paper

1. Learning in the 21st Century: what is essential now
Systems thinking as an essential competence

2. Language Learning for the 21st Century: what we now know
Effective language learning pathways

3. The Bilingual Advantage for Mind & Brain: what we should know

Six advantages for people who can think in more than one language

4. Education in the 21st Century: what we should do

The case for achieving advantage through bilingual education practices

Caveat:••••This position paper condenses complex theory and research to provide the reader with an accessible
summary. References of key research publications are collated in single form. Footnotes provide
further explanation of key terminology. The comprehensive research report is due for 2021.
This paper is an updated reformulation of a meta-analysis report originally produced for theEuropean Commission in 2009, Multilingualism and Creativity: Towards an Evidence-base, in The
Contribution of Multilingualism to Creativity.
The term bilingual is subject to differing definitions. In this paper the term bilingual is used to refer
to an individual who frequently uses two or more languages or language varieties with greater or lesser
fluency.
The multi-faceted nature of variables in research on education, mind and brain require constantvigilance in research interpretation. There is potential for research in this field to be subject tothe influence of social or political forces which can lead to undue influence on research design
and interpretation. Generalization of results needs to be managed with caution when considering
replicability of research findings from one context to another.

017

3

1. Learning in the 21st Century: what is essential now

One aim of education is to develop global
competences.1

The value in developing crystallized intelligenceremains high, but in the information-rich digitalage having competences in fluid intelligence has
become essential.

Global competences depend on cultivating
systems thinking.2

There is commonly not enough focus ondeveloping fluid intelligence in education, withmost attention given to teaching and testing of
crystallized intelligence.

Systems thinking relates to an ability to engage
fluid intelligence.3
Fluid intelligence is linked to creativity &innovation.4

Enabling education to be fit-for-purpose in
the present day requires focus on provision ofopportunities for developing both crystallized andfluid intelligences. This can lead to developmentof global competences and deep learning.7

Global competences also depend on crystallized
intelligence.5
Educational curricula have tended to value
the cultivation of knowledge-building and theevaluation of crystallized intelligence throughstandardized tests.6

11.

22.

33.

44.

4

Global Competences: knowledge and understandingof global issues, skills for analytical and criticalthinking, attitudes such as openness and respect
towards other people, and values appraising humandignity and cultural diversity (see OECD PISA).		
knowledge, skills, attitudes & values
Systems Thinking: seeing patterns and interdependency of how one thing is related to andinfluences another (see Donald Hebb).
‘neurons that fire together, wire together’Fluid intelligence: the capacity to think logically,
identify patterns and relationships, to be reactive andproactive in understanding features and processes
in new and emergent situations with and without
dependency on prior knowledge. Colloquially it canbe thought of as adaptive knowledge and skills (seeRaymond Cattell).
ability to reason speedily and abstractly
Creativity & Innovation: terms frequently understooddifferently within and across languages and cultures.

5
5.

6.
6

7.
7

018

Creativity relates to imaginative activity envisioning
a new system, a new way of doing things. Innovation
relates to realizing a new system, a new way of doing
things.
creativity generally precedes innovation
Crystallized Intelligence: ability to make deductions
in developing secondary relational abstractions bydrawing on primary relational abstractions - whata person has already learnt as prior knowledge (seeRaymond Cattell).
encyclopaedic knowledge and skills
Standardized Tests: questions, time allocated foranswering, scoring procedures, and interpretationsof right and wrong are generally managed in a single
consistent way.
standardized tests suit standardized minds
Deep Learning: combination of crystallized and fluid
intelligences which builds complex understanding andmeaning.
the locus of value creation

2. Language Learning for the 21st Century: what we now
knowlearn a language). It can lead to emotional andattitudinal problems explained by the affective
filter hypothesis.11

Successful language learning requires
opportunities for both language acquisitionand language learning. This is the basis of theacquisition-learning hypothesis.8

There are affective dimensions12 which can
reduce a person’s ability to learn a language. These
include low motivation, negative attitudes, poor
self-esteem, and anxiety. If one or more of these
are active, even if teaching is high quality, thefilter is said to rise and reduce the potential for
successful learning performance.

Acquisition is often sub-conscious where thelearner may not realize that it is happening.
We acquire language when we understand andengage with content. This is the basis of thecomprehension hypothesis.9
A widely discredited counter hypothesis is the
maximum exposure hypothesis.10 This suggeststhat exposure alone enables people to successfully
learn a language.

The affective filter can be lowered if the language
learner’s mind is diverted from learning about
abstracts of language towards using language tolearn meaningful content.

Learning words, rules and grammar in a language
lesson involves a conscious process. This often
fails to work because what is being learned is
detached from meaningful content. This typeof pedagogy is against the principles of innate
language learning ability (the natural way we

81.

92.

10
3.

114.

Successful language learning can be achieved
through a blend of opportunities for language
acquisition and language learning. This is achieved
through variant models of Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL).13

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: that a person
can learn language in two ways, through largely
subconscious language acquisition, and throughlargely conscious explicit language learning (seeStephen Krashen The Monitor Model; see Noam
Chomsky The Language Acquisition Device).
The Comprehension Hypothesis: that a person
learns language through acquisition when engaging
with and understanding content which is meaningful(see Stephen Krashen The Monitor Model; see Noam
Chomsky The Language Acquisition Device).
Maximum Exposure Hypothesis: originally linked
to political discussion in North America, it is used to
explain something that is intuitively sound but notsupported by evidence, namely that that the amountof time-on-task is a determiner for successful or
unsuccessful language learning (see Jim Cummins).
Affective Filter Hypothesis: affective filter is a
metaphor for an imaginary barrier that is said to blocklearning when it is up and enable successful learningwhen it is down. When a person learns language they

12
5.

13
6.

019

may understand the surface meaning of something,but if s/he has negative feelings or emotions
resulting from stress, low-self-esteem, anxiety, or
disengagement, their capacity to understand ishindered and learning is ultimately unsuccessful (seeStephen Krashen The Monitor Model; see Noam
Chomsky The Language Acquisition Device).
Affective Dimensions: feelings and emotional aspectsof learning and being a learner that can trigger theaffective filter and reduce the capacity to successfully
learn which include self-direction, lack of purpose,anxiety, lack of confidence, low self-esteem, andnegative thinking.
belief systems, emotions, and attitudes - all learning has
an emotional base (Plato)
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL):a dual-focused educational approach in which an
additional language is used for the learning andteaching of both content and language (see David
Marsh)
using language to learn, and learning to use language

5

CLIL enables learners to reduce negative affective
effects resulting from psychological distance.14

The possible benefits to mind and brain resulting
from being able to think in more than one
language is now a focus of research. The two
languages form a connected system which is
unique for thinking processes. This is one reason
for interest in translanguaging18 in languages
education.

By triggering a simultaneous process of acquisitionand learning, it can be possible to move towards
enacting a flow of learning.15
The Flow of Learning is a psychological statein which learners concentrate on a challenging
task that is within their Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD)16, the affective filters
are open, and the learning experience resultsin positive levels of personal satisfaction. An
outcome can be deep learning.
A person may learn a language over many years as
the object of study. This can result in that person
being able to show knowledge of the language intests, but not being able to think in the language
to any great extent. In this case any value resulting
from the time spent on language study may be intest results, and possibly career prospects, but notin terms of benefit to mind and brain.17

Since 2000 research on language, mind, and brain,
has seen exponential growth. During 2000-2020
advances in cognitive neuroscience have enabledresearchers to see the physical structure andactivities in the brain on an unprecedented scale.
This research is heavily focused on people whohave acquired and learnt two or more languages.
It is rarely on those people who have learnt alanguage solely as an object of study.

1.
14

174.

152.

3.
16

6

Benefits are reported even when a learner starts
to use an additional language for thinking andlearning. These benefits may be physiological,
neurological, and psychological. They are
significant in understanding the relationshipbetween fluid and crystallized intelligence.

Psychological Distance: as defined in Construal Level
Theory where there is distance between a person andsomething which may be in terms of time, physicalspace, interpersonal relations, and the gap between
something being actual or hypothetical (see Yaacov
Trope and Nira Liberman).
cognitive separation
Flow of Learning: a highly focused mental statethat people experience when they are engaged in an
activity with a high level of concentration which canlead to deep learning (see Mihály Csíkszentmihályi).
immersed, energized, involved, and enjoying a process
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): level ofpotential learning a person can achieve with sufficientscaffolding and support (see Lev Vygotsky).
also known as Zone of Potential Development

185.

020

Mind and Brain: whereas the brain is a physical organ,
the mind includes what happens within the brain suchas mental processes, thought and consciousness. It
is difficult to separate these when examining specificresearch data.
Translanguaging: The bilingual mind has two
languages which form a unitary linguistic system.
Translanguaging involves using this greater capacity
for thinking and action. In education it involves thesystematic use of two languages for learning content.
(see Cen Williams; see Ofelia García & Li Wei)

The implications for arguing that bilingual
education, even small-scale, is superior tomonolingual education are strong, persuasive, andincreasingly supported by science.

There is an increasingly extensive body ofknowledge which reveals that people who use
more than one language have enhanced cognitive
functioning when compared to monolinguals.
In addition, there is a greater potential for suchpeople to develop fluid intelligence and creativity.
The research reveals six significant advantage
clusters for people who can think, to a greater or
lesser extent, in more than one language.

021

7

3. The Bilingual Advantage for Mind & Brain: what weshould know
The Flexible Mind

Being able to look at the same thing – forexample, a problem or some other form ofchallenge – from different points of view is also
integral to developing global competences. Accessto information, and the need to navigate thisthrough critical thinking 19, gives a person ability
to look at things from different perspectives.

The flexible mind is about an extension of thecapacity to think.
Think of this in terms of the human body. A
person who is fit is more able to respond todifferent physical demands. This means that s/
he has some capacity for physical flexibility. Ina similar way, a flexible mind is one which canadapt itself to the thinking demands of different
situations. A flexible mind is an adaptable mind.

Cognitive flexibility, such as in being able toeffectively engage in divergent and convergent
thinking20 (thinking broadly across a range ofpossible ideas or in a very focused way), is clearly
an asset in developing global competences,and for navigating the complexities of life in
the Information Age. As global competences
are increasingly viewed as a pre-requisite forsuccessful adulthood the bilingual may haveadvantages not available to the monolingual.

Speaking more than one language is being
shown to bring cognitive benefits. These may be
associated with increased use of the brain. One
potential benefit is mental flexibility which canlead to enhanced creativity.

The Problem-solving Mind

The extent to which the bilingual mind is
adaptable is of great interest across researchdisciplines. Anecdotally a bilingual is said to be‘able to see the world through different typesof lens’. These hypothetical lenses enable thecapacity for choice. This capacity is linked tothe mind having the potential to be flexible inadapting to different situations in life. Enhanced
mental flexibility is key to the development of
fluid intelligence.

1.
19

20
2.

21
3.

8

Having more than one language is reported
as providing enhanced cognitive control. In
understanding cognitive control, it is necessary to
examine executive function.21
The bilingual mind operates with more than
one language. This means that it needs torely on neural architecture which differs from

Critical Thinking: intellectual process enabling aperson to objectively analyse and evaluate an issue
reviewing, evaluating, revising
Divergent and Convergent Thinking: generating
new ideas by exploring different potential solutions
represents divergent thinking. Convergent thinking
involves exploring potential solutions by following asequence of logical steps and rational thinking (see Joy
Paul Guilford).
using imagination, using logic
Executive Function: cognitive processes that
consciously control our thoughts, emotions, andbehaviours to achieve goals. These include inhibitory
control, attention control, cognitive flexibility
amongst others. Higher order executive functions
include reasoning and problem-solving which are apart of fluid intelligence (see Michael Posner, Joaquin
Fuster, Tim Shallice). A meta-analysis carried out
in 2018 found 54.3% research reporting bilingual
advantage on cognitive control tasks; 28.3% mixed
results; 17.4% evidence against its existence. (see vanden Noort, M. et al., 2019).
the brain’s CPU – managing functions basic for all
cognitive life022

able to ignore distracting and irrelevant stimuli
is a key skill when needing to process a large
amount of information at a given time. Separating
what is important information from what is not,distinguishing fact from fiction, is a problemsolving skill basic to systems thinking.

the monolingual mind which has only one
fundamental linguistic frame of reference. One
focus in research is to explore how bilingual‘executive function’ provides a cognitive asset,
which could enhance the potential for developing
fluid intelligence. A range of reports argue thatbilinguals have executive function capacity which
is superior in various ways to that of monolinguals.

Attention to task is important for problem-solving
and learning in general. It is said that attention
drives memory and learning. The bilingual mind
is already involved with giving attention to
separating the language processing frameworks
resulting from knowing more than one language.
This is especially the case in terms of handlingambiguity and different representations created bywords and avoiding undue distraction.

Executive function is fundamental to all cognitive
life. It includes attention, flexible thinking, selfcontrol, and management of working memory.
These help an individual to plan, monitor, andsuccessfully achieve goals in life.
Research on executive function processing
indicates a bilingual advantage in relation to
aspects of problem-solving, including abstract
thinking skills, creative hypothesis formulation,higher concept formation skills, and overall higher
mental flexibility. Such advantage may be linked tothe management of two or more active language
systems, and the experience of that management
over time.

Some studies have looked at problem-solving withrespect to bilingual and monolingual behaviour
when people are involved with multimedia
gaming. This links to development of types ofcompetence for navigating information andcommunications technology. It is one featureof digital literacy.22 These studies reveal thatbilinguals tend to have an advantage in problemsolving which is cognitively demanding, and also
when processing demands are high.

Being able to interpret information and solve
problems involves not only deciding what to giveattention to, but also what not to give attention
to. This is reportedly a feature of the enhanced
cognitive ability which bilinguals have and is linked
to the development of global competence. Being

1.
22

2.
23

Bilinguals may be better at handling highly
complex tasks and demanding thinking processes
through the ability to engage in conceptual
expansion.23 Conceptual expansion is closelyaligned to fluid intelligence and higher orderproblem-solving capacity. Put simply, it is reported
that knowing more than one language may help
the brain sharpen its ability to focus.

Digital Literacy: ability to use information andcommunication technologies to find, evaluate,
create, and communicate information, requiring
both cognitive and technical skills. American
Library Association (ALA).
Digital as an emergent language
Conceptual Expansion: expansion of a person’s
conceptual system which can lead to enhanced
creativity and the formulation of new ideas.
Thinking outside the box

Interest in cognitive processing demands has led
to suggestions that the bilingual mind may bebetter at multitasking than the monolingual mind.
This is partly attributed to research on attention
and inhibitory control. Multitasking can beconsidered as the simultaneous handling of morethan one task. It is linked to executive function
and may be a form of multicompetence.

023

9

The Metalinguistic Mind

purposes is a type of understanding which can becalled pragmatic skill.

Metalinguistics includes development ofmorphological awareness.24 This is theability to reflect on and build awareness oflanguage. It enables a person to understand
how language is used to achieve specific goals inlife, and how to achieve deeper understandingof language function in different situations.
Language awareness also gives the potential forenriched information processing which, in turn,can contribute to the development of global
competences.

Pragmatics25 involves the communication skills
we use with other people such as non-verbal
language, appropriacy of style, politeness, choiceof vocabulary, tone, and intonation. Pragmatic
skills involve understanding of how to use
language to achieve goals in communication and isa key component of metalinguistic awareness.
The metalinguistic mind also enables a person
to have specific types of ability in handlinginterpersonal dynamics in using language forcommunication. Essentially, it enables the
person to ‘go beyond words’ in interpreting
communication. It is closely linked to improved
reading skills through phonemic awareness(understanding sounds and symbols), and aheightened potential for empathy towards others
in interpersonal communication. In this context
it links to critical thinking.26 By being able todraw on two language systems to understand andarticulate thought and meaning, the bilingual may
find it easier to engage with cognitive flexibility27
than a monolingual.

By having more than one language a bilingual may
be able to develop metalinguistic skills in ways inwhich a monolingual cannot. The bilingual has thecapacity to develop critical awareness of language
and communication through more than one
system, whereas the monolingual only has one.
Understanding that words can have morethan one meaning; identifying ambiguity
in communication; translating words andinterpreting concepts; and seeing the sub-text
underlying how language is used to convey
meaning for both positive and possibly nefarious

1.
24

25
2.

10

263.

Morphological Awareness: recognition andunderstanding of how words are made up of usefulunits which enables deeper lexical skills within andacross languages and is a significant contributor tohelping people read and spell.
the building blocks of language
Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context leading
to understanding of the contexts in which people
communicate to help interpret the intended meaningof how they use language in certain ways (see J. L.
Austin; Paul Grice; Penelope Brown and Stephen
Levinson).
decoding what people really mean when they
communicate

274.

024

Critical Thinking: making judgements by analysing
what is factual objectively and rationally (see Socratic
questioning).
Challenging assumptions, rationally and independently
drawing conclusions
Cognitive Flexibility: higher order cognition
processes enabling a person to think about somethingfrom different perspectives, mentally adapt tocontext, and restructure knowledge (see Jean Piaget).
looking at life through different lenses

Research argues that the interaction of two or
more languages in the mind has the potential
to enrich both linguistic systems. Appropriate
development of bilingualism leads to an
experience which is additive, not subtractive.
Additive means that even if a bilingual, forexample a younger person, may unintentionallymix words and phrases in communication,
cognitively the L1 and L2 provide an extra capacity
which has been termed multicompetence.28
This results in a greater capacity for thinking andcommunication because there are two possibly
very different language systems being activatedat the same time. The fusion of both languages
forms a unitary linguistic competence, a single
language system to think and achieve goals in life.
One outcome may include having the potential
to fuel the emergence of new ideas throughconceptual expansion.

and learnt, and then integrated with previous
knowledge. The outcomes of such knowledge
constructions are always more than the sum ofwhat is initially perceived in the environment; they
are new concepts and forms of understanding
based on a fusion of what is already known
and what has been recently learnt. So,
learning involves not just adding information
to information already stored, but also theconstruction of new knowledge.
Research indicates the possibility of a bilingual
advantage through enhanced memory function.
The ability to retain, organise, store, andretrieve information is obviously a vital humancompetence. Any possibility for enhanced memory
function has considerable significance in relation
to learning and education in general.
There may be specific neuro-circuitry andmultisensory brain systems (changes in brainorganisation, inter-hemispheric transfer, andfunctional plasticity) which enable change to befound amongst bilinguals. What is clear is thatbilingualism and bilingual learning can have asignificant impact on brain structures.

The Learning Mind
Modern cognitive theories generally assume
that people learn through interaction with theirenvironment. This is a process where the person
uses their previous knowledge (crystallized
intelligence) to make sense of the environment
around them by engaging with constructive
processes.29

One example relates to what is termed crosslanguage interactivity.30 This is specific tobilinguals and not available to monolinguals.
It involves semantic and episodic memory.31

This involves new knowledge being constructed

28
1.
z
29
2.

30
3.

Multicompetence: the different languages people
know form a connected system, a unique resource forthinking and action, rather than each language being aseparate system (see Vivian Cook).
1+ 1= 3
Constructivism: knowledge constructed throughinteraction with other people (see Jerome Bruner,
John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky).
learning by construction, not by instruction
Cross-language Interactivity: potential for bilingual
advantage when two languages are co-activated

314.

025

during language processing and there is interaction
between two linguistic systems (see François
Grosjean).
the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Semantic and Episodic Memory: semantic =remembering general facts, factual and conceptual
knowledge of the world; episodic = memories of
events that the person has experienced in life (seeEndel Tulving).
November 1989: the time the Berlin wall came down, andthe time I fell in love with Greta

11

language learning is valued within educational
curricula.
The affective dimensions of learning may be one
reason why there is a reaction to limited exposure,especially if this results from an experience of
language acquisition, and not only language
learning. The role of emotion is a key determinerin language learning. Insights relating to theaffective filter involving emotional factors suchas motivation, attitudes, self-esteem, and anxiety
can enhance, hinder, or block successful language
learning.

Whereas episodic memory involves personal
memory of events and experiences, semantic
memory involves recalling general facts.
Working memory32 enables people to temporarily
retain information so that the brain can ‘think’.
Information that is retained becomes cognitive
load.33 This is the amount of memory resources
used at a specific time. A bilingual advantage
in maximizing the effectiveness of cognitive
load is reported in research, including superior
performance of depth and syntactic complexity inhypothesis formation.
One widely held but now theoretically unsounddefinition of a bilingual is of a person who speaks
two languages fluently. Such a definition leads tothe assumption that any advantage from knowing
a second language is only realised when a highdegree of fluency34 is achieved.

A bilingual advantage is reported in enhancementof interpersonal communication awareness andskills. For example, an ability to see that people
have differing, or even false beliefs, is said todevelop earlier in bilinguals than in monolinguals.

But it is now increasingly reported that change
in the brain can be found after relatively little
exposure to a second language and that impact
on the brain’s electrical activity may occur evenwith limited exposure to certain types of language
learning experience. This is particularly relevantwith respect to how language teaching andlearning is designed and implemented, and how

The impact of bilingualism on interpersonalcommunication is reported in terms ofunderstanding and responding to thecommunicative needs of others; contextual
sensitivity; interactional competence incommunication; and enhanced skills in
differentiating languages in contextuallysensitive ways. This suggests that bilingualism

1.
32

33
2.
34
3.

12

The Interpersonal Mind

Working Memory: a cognitive system a person
has enabling them to keep information temporarily
accessible while dealing with thinking processes,
distractions, or attention shifts (see Ellen Bialystock).
the RAM of the brain
Cognitive Load: the amount of working memory
resources used at a given time (see John Sweller).
the used capacity of the brain’s information processor
Fluency: Language fluency is an elusive term which
can be understood in different ways. There is opinion
that a person is fluent in a language when they have a
B2 (CEFR). But being competent in using a language

is more complex than simply setting a language
test standard. For example, a person may be highlyable (fluent) in using an additional language in somesituations, but quite unable to use it successfully inothers. A person may be able to use language to ahigh level in one domain (a social or other context
of interaction) such as in air transport or a religious
setting, but to a low level in another domain such as
in a hospital, or an interview on contemporary affairs.
Equally is the case that a person may be fluent inspeech, but not in writing.
not all or nothing, but more or less026

tends towards strengthening of multi-skills ininterpersonal interaction.

certain cognitive processes as a person becomesolder.

Interpersonal communication involves
communicating with one or more people.
In so doing it links directly to interculturalcommunication competences.35 Any bilingual
advantage could be related to enhanced
inhibitory control.36 This is a cognitive process
where a person can think beyond first impression
impulses with heightened mental flexibility whenchoosing an appropriate response in humancommunication.

Put simply, if the brain has more than one
linguistic processing system and is affected byorganic or functional deterioration through normal
ageing, or even possibly forms of dementia, therate of deterioration may be slowed down. Thus,
rates of loss of cognitive function may be reducedby the greater capacity afforded by the different
languages.
The implications of any offset of age-related
diminishment of cognitive function and processes
could be considerable. It is argued that bilinguals
have a cognitive reserve37 which helps protect
against degenerative aspects of ageing. Cognitive
reserve is considered to provide a generalprotective function, possibly due to enhanced
neural plasticity, compensatory use of alternative
brain regions, or enriched brain vasculature. In
these respects, bilingualism is seen as enabling
the brain to reduce the negative impact of
accumulated pathologies. If this is the case thenthe consequences may be considerable for not
only individuals and families, but also health caresystems, and ultimately societies.

In intercultural contexts this can lead to enhanced
communicative sensitivity and having a greater
perceptive understanding of people. This
includes understanding the world from different
perspectives, nurturing empathy, and being awareof the communication signalling processes ofother people.

The Ageing Mind
Research focuses on the implications of abilingual advantage in relation to age-related
neurodegeneration. It is argued that changes
in the executive function and working memory
resulting from knowledge of more than one
language may slow down the rate of decline of

1.
35

2.
36

3.
37

Intercultural Communication Competences:
understanding and responding to differences inassumptions, values, perspectives, and strategies inhuman communication.
situational adaptability
Inhibitory Control: conscious or unconscious
constraint of potentially inappropriate andsuboptimal actions, especially impulses or desires.
an executive function also called response inhibition
Cognitive Reserve: a person’s capacity to help
the brain cope with the negative impact of brain
dysfunction or damage.
the warehouse within the mind and brain

027

13

4. Education in the 21st Century: what we now know

sometimes profound research outcomes.

In some educational systems there is disjuncture
between what a child needs to learn for future life
and what is provided through schooling.

What the evidence reveals is that the bilingual
mind has cognitive and other strengths which
are particularly appropriate for developing
21st century skills. Evidence of the impact ofbilingualism on societies is reported elsewhere
as added value in relation to economics, social
cohesion, security, and inclusion.

To align education with contemporary realities ashift in curricular structures (what is to be learnt)
and pedagogies (how teaching and learning
happens) is required. This would enable intended
learning outcomes to include the developmentof crystallized intelligence (encyclopaedic
knowledge) and fluid intelligence (adaptive
knowledge and skills).

Bilingual learning can have a profound effecton brain structures, and especially the corpus
callosum. There may be specific neuro-circuitry
and multisensory brain processes (changes inbrain organisation, inter-hemispheric transfer,and functional plasticity) which enable certain
types of change to be found in bilingual but not inmonolingual minds.

Simultaneously developing crystallized and fluid
intelligence helps enable a person to develop
systems thinking. Systems thinking involves being
skilled in filtering through knowledge to see
patterns and the interrelatedness of phenomena.

Changes in the brain’s electrical activity may
occur much earlier than previously thought evenwith limited exposure to language learning. The
neuronal structures are likely to influence change
if the language learning environment is basedon good pedagogy. This suggests that even low
levels of ability in a second language can lead to,for example, metalinguistic advantages during theearly stages of second language acquisition.

In education this requires moving from valuingsurface learning (e.g. short-term memorizationof knowledge for tests) to deep learning (e.g.
long-term memorization of higher order adaptive
knowledge and skills).
A major shift in formal and operational curricula(what should be taught, for what purpose, andhow) is required in three interrelated ways.

Successful language learning requires a blendof language learning and language acquisition
through high-impact dialogic teaching andlearning activities which are meaningful, relevant,and engaging. This blend can be seen in theapplication of Content and Language Integrated
Learning (CLIL). CLIL involves use of bilingual
methodologies which are essential for any form ofsuccessful bilingual education programme.

First, the school curriculum should beinternationalized so that local and global
knowledge intended learning outcomes are
combined. Second, intended learning outcomesshould include the development of global
competences. Third, high-impact teaching
methods should be aligned to realize these
intended learning outcomes.
In the case of language teaching there is an everwidening chasm between good and poor practice.
There are many reasons for this including theundue influence of certain commercial interests,
and professional inertia. Poor teaching practice
may also be due to misplaced conventional
wisdom (we teach the way we learnt at school),and language educators unaware of relevant and14

In the present day there are profound argumentsfor providing education in more than one
language. These are not only anchored in
ideas generated by philosophers over at
least two thousand years, but now driven byadvances in science, especially on mind andbrain. As monolingual education appears to028

We can stay with the status quo which isfrequently out-dated, or have decision-making
guided by evidence and insight, and make adifference to the lives of the young people in our
schools, colleges, and universities.

be conspicuously outdated, lack of attention
to cultivating global competences and systems
thinking through the reported bilingual advantage
is increasingly unjustifiable.
There are two educational scenarios prevalent
in the world today. Thanks to the insights offorward-thinking educators and researchers,
complemented now by evidence from theneurosciences, we have the know-how, andultimately the choice.

Outdated Education Scenario

Leading-edge Education Scenario

Educational systems operate througha monolingual paradigm

Educational systems operate througha multilingual paradigm

Limited international focus in curricula

Embedded international focus in curricula

Subject teaching separated and fragmented

Subject teaching separated and partly integrated

Language teaching based on grammar-based instruction

Language teaching based on integration with relevant
content

Learning goals not aligned to global competences

Learning goals aligned to global competences

Learning activities not aligned to fluid intelligence

Learning activities aligned to fluid intelligence

School ethos not enabling systems thinking, creativity andinnovation

School ethos enabling systems thinking, creativity andinnovation

Dominant use of standardized tests which measure
crystallized intelligence

Tests measure both crystallized and fluid intelligence

Schools encourage students to value short-term surface
learning (learning for the test) and not long-term deeplearning (building complex understand and meaning)

Schools encourage students to value long-term deeplearning (building complex understand and meaning) andnot only short-term surface learning (learning for the test)

029

15

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Garbin, G., Sanjuan, A., Forn, C., Bustamante, J.,
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ISBN 978-952-94-3995-9

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Disciplinary literacy orientation to CLIL: bridging
research and practiceTarja Nikula
Centre for Applied Language Studies
tarja.nikula@jyu.fi

037

Outline
I

Defining CLIL & its changing research emphases

II

How to conceptualise content & language interdependency?

III

A look at teachers’ practices

IV

How to make the role of language more visible: an example fromwritten language

V

Introducing a project-in-progressJYU SINCE 1863.

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What is CLIL?
 “An educational approach where curricular content is taught through the medium of a foreign
language, typically to students participating in some form of mainstream education at the primary,secondary, or tertiary level” (Dalton-Puffer 2011:183)
 in content classrooms, in language classrooms?

+ How extensive?
content-driven

language-driven

My research: content classrooms, secondary schools
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What do we mean by ’language’?

conceptions of language on the move

Language as an
abstract system

Set of resources formeaning-making

Language as concrete
practices

Set of rules and skills

Norms, correctness

Appropriateness,
contextual

In what sense are CLIL teachers language teachers?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

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What do we mean by ’content’?

from content-based to skills-based thinking

Content independentof language

Accumulating andpossessing knowledge

Content constuctued
through language

Applying knowledge tooperate in the worrld

Can content and language be separated?
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND

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Changing research orientations towards CLIL
How is subjectspecifc language
learnt?

How is thelanguage learnt?

What is the roleof language inlearning content?

How does FL
affect content
learning?

Llinares et al. 2012

Nikula et al. 2016042

Coyle & Meyer 2021

6

ContentLanguage

CLIL pedagogy

disciplinary
lliteracy
Pictogram author: Sergio Palao. Origin: ARASAAC
http://www.arasaac.org. License: CC (BY-NC-SA). Owner:
Government of Aragon (Spain)JYU SINCE 1863.

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Subject-specific meaning making

Disciplinary
literacy

Knowledge construction and display

Multisemiotic resources  Expertise building Moje (2008: 99) disciplinary literacy is ”a matter of learning the different knowledge and waysof knowing, doing, believing, and communicating that are privileged to [subject] areas”
 Fang (2012: 20) ”Being literate in a discipline means both deep knowledge of disciplinary
content and keen understanding of disciplinary ways of making meaning” (see also Shanahan& Shanahan 2008)
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Disciplinary literacies => multisemiotic meaning-making
resources

MULTILITERACIES

e.g. Cope & Kalantzis 2000
JYU SINCE 1863.

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9How to conceptualisecontent and language
interdependency?

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Pluriliteracies model by the Graz group (Meyer et al. 2015)
C
O
N
C
E
P
T
U
A
L
I
S
I
N
G
C
O
N
T
I
N
U
U
M

DOING
ORGANISING
EXPLAININGARGUINGDOING
ORGANISING
EXPLAININGARGUING

ExpertIntermediate

DOING
ORGANISING
EXPLAININGARGUING

NoviceC O M M U N I C A T I N GC O N T I N U U M

047“progression on the knowledge
pathway must be accompanied by aprogression in leaners’ subjectspecific literacies” (Meyer et al.
2015: 49)https://pluriliteracies.ecml.at/Cognitive Discourse Functions (Dalton-Puffer 2013)
CDF categories

Examples of realisation

CLASSIFYClassify, compare, contrast, match, categorise, subsume

DEFINE

Define, identify, characterise

DESCRIBE

Describe, label, identify, name, specify

EVALUATE

Evaluate, judge, argue, justify, take a stance, critique

EXPLAIN

Explain, reason, express cause/effect, draw conclusions

EXPLORE

Explore, hypothesise, speculate, predict, guess, estimate

REPORT

Report, inform, recount, narrate, present, summarise

Which CDFs are typical foreach school subject?

Are CDFs explicitly
taught?

Bridge between communicative
intentions, thinking processes, andhow those are realised throughlanguage

Does the use of CDFs playa role in assessment?

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’Semantic waves’ from Legitimation Code Theory (Maton
2013, 2016)
Abstract, context-independent knowledge, theoretical’Unpacking’ by
explanations andconcrete examples’Repacking’ by connecting backto the decontextualised andtheoretical knowledge

concrete action

Concrete, context-dependent knowledge

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Example from 7th grade CLIL physics lesson

moment is defined as the, when you’re turning
something it’s the distance from the centre
point multiplied by the force of turningand then there is a distance s fromthe centre point of turning, so
moment equals force times distanceso for instance, let’s think about when you’re
fastening a knot or bolt you will, you will beusing some some kind of forceJYU SINCE 1863.

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A look at teachers’
practicesJYU SINCE 1863.

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Chemistry lesson/vaporization

Teacher steering learners towards field-appropriate
expression(homework on key terms - vaporization)Tnext one, Matti?
LM1
something that changes quickly from a solid or a liquid into vapourT
yes usually we call it, in chemistry, chemicals that are liquidthey evaporate

Explanation + description of a key
term
Academic and everyday language
intertwined

BiologyT
DNA is very, big molecule which you have in your cells in the nucleus
LF5 okayT
it has a, so called double helix structure, the same structure as this zipper
LM2 it divides
Tyeah it divides like thisLM1 and it spins around each otherTyeah and it spins aroundJYU SINCE 1863.

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Instructions for history essay writingT[…]T

I’m hoping you can start understanding how all these things are related
manufacturing textiles, industrialization, social effects, these inventions
how they all work together all these details
it’s just that you don’t drown in details, that you can see details work
together and, which ones are significant and how they’re significant
What teacher points out relates to the key CDFs inhistory: Explaining and Evaluating
But will students know how to express those?

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Physics

T explaining a key concept
Knowledge building is multimodal:
language + visuals + gestures

Kääntä (2021: 207)JYU SINCE 1863.

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How to make language more
visible, not for the sake oflanguage in itself but for its rolein content learning, in building
and displaying knowledge?

CLIL classroom practices are full of
instances that have to do with socialising
students into disciplinary literacies - but
how consciously?

To guide and support learners because they “do not
intuitively gain control of specialised meanings acrossdisciplines” (Macnaught et al 2013: 53)

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<I don’t know what I should do
to make better<I don’t assess language, I only
assess content

from CLIL teacher interviews

from CLIL student inteviews

 Both types of comments can be addressed by focus on language and its
role in knowledge building
Next, an example, based on written language, from Macnaught et al.
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Power words, power grammar and power composition
 Contribute to semantic density (condensation of meaning), which has a central role in subject-specificmeaning making (Maton 2013)
 Power words:– e.g. democracy, imperialism, nationalism; reaction chamber, electrical discharge, amino acids

 Power grammar: e.g. nominalization whereby processes are packed into ’things’ blood vessels increase their diameter  vasodilation
 functioning cells create new tissue  phagocyte migration– Packed complex entities can ne combined with each other Immigration growth results in increased property costs.
 Power composition: each discipline drawing distinctively on a range of genres– “Power composition basically means organising writing as a rhetorical sandwich in which you tellreaders what you are going to write, write it and then tell them what you’ve written” (Maton 2013: 3232)
JYU SINCE 1863.
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21– Relates to organizing knowlegde057

Analysis of low and high scoring student exam responses(Macnaught et al. 2013: 52-53)

Nominalisations

Test prompt: Describe the process and role of mitosis

Mitosis is when the two parent cells cometogether, their DNA replicates and all thesecells then replicate again which go onto
forming two diploid cells. The 23 pairs ofchromosomes combine to make all up. All
chromosomes contain the same genetic
material that helps generate the body. The
mitosis replicates the chromosomes which
create enzymes.

Mitosis is one of the two forms of cell divisionthat occurs in our body, the other being
Meiosis. Mitosis is the process in which a cell
divides into two cells identical to the originalcell. Mitosis begins with DNA Replication. This
is when the cells chromosomes replicate andsplit. The cell then divides into two cells eachwith 46 chromosomes; otherwise known as
diploid cells. Mitosis is used for many
processes in our body involving growth andrepair.

definitions
Text structure: from more general to more specfic andback to more general (cf. semantic waves)22058

Elements of subject-specific meaning making?

Typical discourse
functions (CDFs)
Specialconcepts andterminology

Ways oforganizing
knowlegde into
texts

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Bridging theory and practice?
While theories about content & language
integration and disciplinary literacies exist, lessis known of how these models resonate with
CLIL teachers’ everyday realities

We need to approach research and practice as interrelated and mutually informative:
Theory informing teachers’ work

Teachers speaking back to theory

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Work-in-progress: Knowledge building practices in CLIL
- insights from researcher-teacher collaboration
 Research project in collaboration with Leila Kääntä (expert in multimodal conversation analysis)– pilot phase with a CLIL lower secondary school, 2022-2023– external funding applied– teacher-researcher workshops and classroom interactions as data
– teachers analysing and reflecting on their own subject-specific knowledge building practices

 Aims– refining theory– developing pedagogical practice– producing research publications and resources for in-service teacher training

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Thank you!
Kiitos!
ありがとう

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REFERENCES

 Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. 2000. Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures. Routledge.
 Coyle, D. & O. Meyer 2021. Beyond CLIL. Pluriliteracies Teaching for Deeper Learning. Cambridge University
Press.
 Dalton-Puffer, C. 2011. Content-and-language integrated learning: from practice to principles? Annual Review
of Applied Linguistics, 31, 82-204.
 Dalton-Puffer, C. 2013. A construct of cognitive discourse functions for conceptualising content-language
integration in CLIL and multilingual education. European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1, 216-253.
 Fang, Z. 2012. Language correlates of disciplinary literacy. Topics in Language Disorders, 32,19-34.
 Kääntä, L. 2021. Multimodal perspective into teachers’ definitional practices: comparing subject-specificlanguage in physics and history lessons. In S. Kunitz, N. Markee & O. Sert (eds.) Classroom-based Conversation
Analytic Research: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives on Pedagogy. Springer, pp. 198-223.
 Llinares, A., T. Morton & R. Whittaker. 2012. The Roles of Language in CLIL. Cambridge University Press.
 Maton, K. 2013. Making semantic waves: A key to cumulative knowledge-building. Linguistics and Education,
24(1), 8-22.
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 Maton, K. 2016. Legitimation Code Theory: Building Knowledge about Knowledge-Building. In S. Hood & S.
Shay (Eds) Knowledge-Building. Educational Studies in Legitimation Code Theory. Routledge, pp. 1-23.
 Macnaught, L., Maton, K., Martin, J. R. & Matruglio, E. 2013. Jointly constructing semantic waves: Implications
for teacher training. Linguistics and Education 24, 50–63.
 Meyer, O., Coyle, C., Halbach, A., Schuck, K., & Ting, T. 2015. A pluriliteracies approach to content and language
integrated learning – mapping learner progressions in knowledge construction and meaning-making.
Language, Culture and Curriculum, 28(1), 41-57.
 Moje, E. B. 2008. Foregrounding the disciplines in secondary literacy teaching and learning: A call for change.
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 52(2), 96-107.
 Nikula, T. E. Dafouz, P. Moore, & U. Smit (eds.) 2016. Conceptualising Integration in CLIL and Multilingual
Education. Bristol: Multilingual Matters
 Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. 2008. Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content area
literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40–61.

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4.

Guest Speakers’ Presentation Slides

Teijo Päkkilä (Seinä joki Lukio principal)
General Upper Secondary Education

Akiko Yamaguchi (Sushi stand manager)
How I immigrated to Finland

Akie Yada (The University of Jyvä skylä )Teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive classrooms: Comparative analysis ofJapan and Finland

Takumi Yada (The University of Jyvä skylä )Teachers’ collective competence for multi-disciplinary education

065

GENERAL UPPER SECONDARYEDUCATION
066

Teijo Päkkilä,
Seinäjoen lukio

FINNISHEDUCATIONSYSTEM
067

ACADEMIC UPPER SECONDARYEDUCATION
 Non-graded, compulsory education
 For16 to19-year-olds
 Compulsory and elective courses Five or six periods annually Most commonly the last days of the period
dedicated to assessment
 Graduation after 3 three years of studying

068

CURRICULAo National curriculum vs regional/school curriculumo The latest became effective autumn 2019o Not very prescriptiveo Not heavily competence-based unlike the basic
education curriculumo Hot topics at the moment: well-being, versatileassessment (guidance for learning), cross-curricularlearning, digitalisation, participation at all levels,transversal skills
069

SCHOOLS PROFILING THEMSELVES Our profile: extensive selection of courses
in all subjects, for example inmathematics
 second-language acquisition
 bilingual education
 cross-curricular studies
 internationalisation
 drama education
070

SCHOOL TRADITIONSAdventtivesper
Puurojuhla
Potkiaiset
Penkkarit
Wanhojen tanssit
Lakkiaiset

071

072

073

074

075

076

MATRICULATIONEXAMINATION The only national standardised test National final exam based on thenational curriculum Independent agency run by the National
Agency for Education
 Compulsory and elective subjects: 5
minimum Duration 6 hours
 Digitalised exams in all subjects
077

ACCESS TO FURTHER EDUCATIONo Grades from the matriculation exams and from theschoolo 50 percent of places in a university or university of
applied sciences given based on the matricualtion
exam gradeso Entrance exams late in the spring or early summer
o Having a gap year becoming more common

078

BILINGUAL EDUCATION PATH
- Based on Finnish core curriculum- Matriculation exam
- Cambridge AS and A Level exams- Mainly compulsory study units- Entrance tests- International cooperation

079

STUDY UNITS- First year: English, Maths, Biology, Healtheducation, Geography, religious Education,
Philosophy, Business studies, Psychology,
Social studies, Visual arts
- Second year: English, Religious Education,
Philosophy, Business studies, Social studies,
Visual arts
- Third year: English and exams

080

PEDAGOGICAL SOLUTIONS- study material- language of instruction- exams- struggling students- ensuring good-quality learning outcomes- flexibility- projects

081

THANK YOU!

082

How I immigrated to Finland083

26.8.2022 Akiko Yamaguchi

My Profile• Name: Akiko Yamaguchi• Occupation: Sushi shop Manager, Agent[FI↔︎JP]• Residence: Pasila, Helsinki• Academic history: Bachelor of Arts in Japan
I officially moved to Finland October in 2019.

084

Current Experience085

photo: Torkel DesignHow I met Finland086

Nordic themed events in Tokyo087

Volunteer activity in Finland088

Sushi changed my life089

I became a Dumpling chef090

Teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive classrooms:
Comparative analysis of Japan and Finland
Akie Yada, Postdoctoral Researcher
CoE, InterLearn
University of Jyväskylä, Finland
akyada@jyu.fi
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1Agenda• Education system in Japan• Inclusive education in Japan• Education system in Finland• Inclusive education in Finland• Research on Japanese and Finnish teachers’
perspectives in implementing inclusive
education

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JapanEducation system andsituation in inclusive education

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3

Education system in Japan
Age

GraduateschoolUniversity

Specialize
training
collegeSpecialize
training college
College ofTechnology Specialize
training
college

Juniorcollege

Highereducation

18

Upper secondary school

Secondaryeducation

15

Compulsory

12

Lower secondary school
Primary
education

Primary school

6

Kindergarten
3

Nursery

Daycare center

Early
childhoodeducation

0094

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Education system in Japann 9-year education is compulsory• Public and private• Public schools are free of charge except school lunch andmaterials (e.g., textbooks)• 6-year primary and 3 year lower secondary education• A classroom teacher is responsible for most subjects inprimary level• Subject teachers teach each subject in secondary level• Maximum class size : 1st grade: 35; other: 40• Detailed national core curriculum095

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6Inclusive education in Japann Inclusive education is mainly focusing on includingchildren with disabilities• Fewer immigrants than other countries: 2 % (Austria 20%;
Finland 7.3%)

n Special educational support is offered based on a
medical model• Statement(s) by professionals outside the school (e.g., doctors
or psychologists) are required• Bureaucratic and time consumingn Number of students in special schools and specialclasses are still increasing annually096

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8Inclusive education in Japan
250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,0000
1995
2000
Special schools

2005
2010
2015
2017
Special classes
Using resourse rooms

Numbers of students in special needs education service (MEXT, 2017)097

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9Inclusive education in Japann There are several barriers to implement inclusive
education in Japan
SegregatedEducation

Policies

Teachers’
expertise

Gap

Practices

Too much workload for teachers

Large class size
098

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10Finland
Education system andsituation in inclusive education

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Education system in Finland

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12Education system in Finland
n 10-year education is compulsory (including preprimary education)• Almost all schools are public• All levels of school (pre-primary to higher education) are free ofcharge• School lunch and materials (e.g., textbooks) are free of charge incompulsory education• A classroom teacher is responsible for most subjects in primarylevel and subject teachers teach each subject in secondary level• Average class size : 19.6 pupils (primary); 19 pupils (lower
secondary)• Concise national core curriculum and high autonomy formunicipalities and even for schools
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13Inclusive education in Finland
n Special educational support is offered based on a socialmodel• Statement(s) by professionals are not required except tier 3• Prompt support is possible and seen as importantn Part-time special education• Special education teacher(s) are placed in every school• Special education teachers offer individual or small groupteaching (2-4 hours per week), assessment of students, coteaching with classroom teachers, consultation to teachers andparents
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15Inclusive education in Finland
nThree tier support

Segregated

8.1%

SPECIAL SUPPORTProvision of special-needs education
à Extensive assessment& individual plan

INTENSIFIED SUPPORT

Part-time SE

Somehow
included

Including part-time special education, individual
guidance and cooperation between home and schoolà Pedagogical assessment & learning plan

35.5
%
64.5
%

22%

10.6
%

GENERAL SUPPORT
Including remedial teaching, part-time special education and guidance

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Japanese and Finnish
teachers’ perspectives in
implementing inclusive
education
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Introduction• Inclusive education
has become themainstream in
education policies
across the world(UNISCO, 1994).
• Inclusive education:
educating students withdiverse educational
needs in mainstream
schools105

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Introduction• The ways of applying into the policies and implementing
into practices vary by country (Savolainen et al., 2012).
• Comparative analysis enable us…
Ø understand how the meaning of inclusive education may be
influenced by social, political, economical and cultural
backgrounds
Ø create new approaches to develop inclusive education

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Teachers' attitudes towards inclusive
education• WHAT is important to become an effective
inclusion teachers??
• The previous studies showed that …
Øteachers need to havepositive attitudes towards
inclusive education (e.g.,
Avramidis & Norwich, 2002).

Welcome!

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Teachers’ Self-Efficacy (TSE)§ TSE :
Ø teachers’ beliefs about their capability topromote learning of students (Klassen, Tze,
Betts, & Gordon, 2011).
I am confident in instructing my students

I am able tocalm astudent
who isdisruptive

I can collaborate with other professionals and families

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Aim and scope of the research
Teachers' selfefficacy for inclusive
practices

Attitudes towards
inclusive education

Teachers' behavior(Teachers' practices increating inclusive
environment forchildren)

Demographic variables• Gender• Teaching career• Experience in teaching students withdisabilities• Experience of interactions with persons withdisabilities• Amount of inclusive education training
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Method

110

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25Participants• Study 1 & 2
359 Japanese and 872 Finnish in-service
teachers in primary and secondary level.

GenderAge (Mean, SD)Japan

FinlandFemale 53.5%

Female 73.9%

Male 43.7%

Male 20.4%

42.41 (11.82)

44.46 (9.07)

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Measures• Sentiments Attitudes and Concerns about Inclusive
Education Revised (SACIE-R) scale (Forlin, Earle,
Loreman, & Sharma, 2011).
Ø It measures participants’ attitudes towards inclusive
education .
Ø 13 items.
Ø It consists of three sub-scales.
Sentiments: general attitudes towards having social
contacts with people with disabilities
Attitudes: acceptance of students with difficulties inmainstream classes
Concerns: attitudes towards teaching students withdisabilities in their classrooms
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Measures• Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practices (TEIP)
scale (Sharma, Loreman, & Forlin, 2012).
Ø It measures participants’ level of self-efficacy toconduct inclusive practices.
Ø 18 items.
Ø It consists of three sub-scales.
Efficacy in instruction
Efficacy in collaboration
Efficacy in managing behaviour
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Findings andDiscussion

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Findings: Study 1• On the average, teachers’ self-efficacy isrelatively low in Japan compared to othercountries.

Compared with Savolinen et.al. (2012)
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Findings: Study 1• The efficacy in collaboration and in managing
behavior are the powerful predictors of
attitudes.

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Findings: Study 2§ Cross-cultural validity for used scales wasshown.

Pictures ®CC BY-SA-NC
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Findings: Study 2
Inclusive education training has
positive effect on efficacy andattitude only in Finland

Finnish teachers with longer
career have negative attitudes
toward inclusive education

Teacher with higher self-efficacy
has more positive attitude toward
inclusive education
Teachers with longer career havehigher self-efficacy in Japan, but not
inExperience
Finland (novice
teachers
alreadyin teaching
students
havehighhadefficacyin Finland)
withSEN
positive
effect on118

both efficacy and attitude
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Seinäjoki36Discussion• Cross-cultural validity for each of the two
scales was shown.
• Self-efficacy is a factor that lead teachers’
attitudes toward positive direction.
• Experience in teaching students withdisabilities increased their efficacy andattitudes.
ØMore practical training might be needed.
119

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Seinäjoki37Discussion• Teachers with longer career have higher selfefficacy in Japan, but such relationship was
not found in Finland (novice teachers alreadyhave high efficacy in Finland).
ØFinnish pre-service training might be working well.

• Teachers with longer career have morenegative attitudes towards inclusive
education in Finland.
ØThe concept of inclusive education might be newfor elder teachers and they might not get enoughtraining for it.
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38Discussion• Amount of inclusive education training had
positive relationship with self-efficacy andattitudes only in Finland.
ØFurther work is required to explore how theinclusive education training is organized andworks in Finland.

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References•

Avramidis, E., & Norwich, B. (2002). Teachers' attitudes towards integration inclusion: A review of theliterature. European Journal of Special Needs Education,17(2), 129-147.

••

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Forlin, C., Earle, C., Loreman, T., & Sharma, U. (2011). The Sentiments, Attitudes, and Concerns about
Inclusive Education Revised (SACIE-R) scale for measuring pre-service teachers’ perceptions about
inclusion. Exceptionality Education International, 21(3), 50–65.

•

Klassen, R. M., Tze, V. M. C., Betts, S. M., & Gordon, K. A. (2011). Teacher efficacy research 1998-2009:
Signs of progress or unfulfilled promise? Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 21–43.

•

Teaching Across Borders. (2019). An overview of Japanese School Systems. Retrieved from:https://teachingacrossborders.ning.com/blog/totaru-rikoru•

MEXT. (2017). Tokubetsushienkyoikushiryo [Statistics of special needs education]. Retrieved from:http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/tokubetu/material/1406456.htm•

Ministry of Education and Culture. (2019). Finnish education systém. Retrieved from:https://minedu.fi/en/education-system#ecec•

Savolainen, H., Engelbrecht, P., Nel, M., & Malinen, O. (2012). Understanding teachers‘ attitudes and selfefficacy in inclusive education: Implications for pre-service and in-service teacher education. European
Journal of Special Needs Education, 27(1), 51-68.

•

Sharma, U., Loreman, T., & Forlin, C. (2012). Measuring teacher efficacy to implement inclusive practices.
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 12(1), 12–21.
UNESCO (1994), The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education,
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0009/000984/098427eo.pdf
Yada, A., Tolvanen, A., & Savolainen, H. (2018). Teachers' attitudes and self-efficacy on implementing
inclusive education in Japan and Finland: A comparative study using multi-group structural equation
modelling. Teaching and Teacher education, 75, 343-355.

•••

Yada, A. & Savolainen, H. (2017). “Japanese in-service Teachers ’ attitudes towards inclusive education and122
self-efficacy for inclusive practices.” Teaching and Teacher
Education, 64, 222–29.
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Thank you for your listening!
•

Akie YADA: Email: ado.eika@gmail.com•

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-6793•

ResearchGate: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Akie_Yada•

Google Scholar: https://scholar.google.fi/citations?user=5nCam4AAAAJ&hl=fi
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CLIL Summer Seminar Program 2022:

Teachers' collective competence formulti-disciplinary education
Takumi Yada
Finnish Institute for Educational Research, University of Jyväskylä,
Finland124

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Takumi Yada (Postdoctoral researcher, Ph.D., Finnish Institute for Educational Research)
Educational
leadership

Shared leadership

Statistics (Mplus, R)

Collective teacher
efficacy

Qualitative analysis

Prosociality

Social network analysis

2007

Aoyama Gakuin Univ. Education (MA) (竹内敏晴、ポンティ、今井重孝、佐伯胖)

2007

Nihon Unisys ltd., system analyst, project manager (built banking systems)

2013

University of Jyväskylä Int. MA Educational leadership program

2015

University of Jyväskylä, Faculty of Education, doctoral course

2020

University of Jyväskylä, Ph.D.

2020.11

University of Eastern Finland, Project researcher

2021.2

University of Jyväskylä, Post doctoral researcher

2021.5-Finnish Institute for Educational Research, Post doctoral researcher
125

Innovative
ILE
Learning
Environments
Finnish InstituteFor Educational
Research

is a research and education group that focuses on theadvancement of children’s and young people’s 21st Century Skills.
The field includes especially user-driven design and study oflearning technologies and spaces for enhancement of learning andwellbeing, analyses of innovative teaching and learning practices,
technology-enhanced learning, and evaluation and comparison of
ICT use in education. When applicable, the research can also be
directed to other phases of human life for the study of citizen’s
knowledge society capabilities.

Team members

Marja Kankaanranta

Kati Clements

Kristof Fennyvesi

Tiina Mäkelä

Pieta Sikström“Assessment oftransversal skills in formal andinformal learning environments”

Saana Mehtälä

Mikko Muilu

Mimmu Alanko

Matias Mäki-Kuutti“Co-designinglearning
environments withteachers andlearners”

Takumi Yada

126

https://www.jyu.fi/it/ile

What do you think is the difference
between team and group?

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Introduction: Theoretical side
Recently, the leadership paradigm changes from top-down leadership (Yukl,
1999). Focus moved from a man to distributed and shared leadership that
requires a group of people to collectively perform the leadership tasks, which
may enhance the effectiveness of organizations (e.g., Spillane, 2006).

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Introduction: Practical side
Schools are surrounded by the situation that are getting more
complexing and difficult (Vangrieken et al., 2015)

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h
c
Tea gapeag
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Introduction: Practical side
Moreover, schools are confronted with an increasing pressure towards
collaboration to achieve school goals with a wide variety of people
involved in their educational endeavor (Vangrieken et al., 2015)
Caregivers

Teachers
Students
Secretaries

Psychologists
Educational
leaders

Company
ICT specialists

Special educationteachers
Social workers
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Current educational reform: Daycare school
Current educational change happening from the grassroot level
DaycareAge 0-5

DaycareAge 0-3Pre
6

Comprehensive schoolAge 7-15

Daycare schoolPre-school

Pri. grd 1-2,3,4

Age 4,5

7-9Comprehensive schoolAge 10-15

Upper secondary education
Age 16-18

Upper secondary education
Age 16-18

Various kinds of staff need to collaborate with each other.
131

132

School will be morethan a place wherestudents justVarious kinds of staff
need to collaborate
with each other.

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Since the situation is getting more
complex and it is difficult to tackle on solving
problems alone these days, schools are required tocollectively hold competences.

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What is collective competence?
“a group’s ability to work together towards a common
goal and results in the creation of a collective outcome, an
outcome that could not be accomplished by one member
alone due to its complexity”(Ruuska & Teigland, 2009, p. 324).
→ Although the current educational settings require
schools to have collective competence, little has been
explored about it in educational leadership settings.
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One hints about collective competence:
Prosociality (Grant, 2007; Bolino & Grant, 2013)
Prosocial
Motivation

Prosocial
Behavior

Prosocial
Impact“I feel that my workmakes a positive
difference in otherpeople’s lives”“I want to help
others.”She is helping
the other(s).

→ Prosociality happens may happen when you exert collective competence.
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What is competence?

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Attribute models
andRelational models

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Attribute models: competences as attributes that should beobtained, such as knowing-doing-being, which has been widelyadopted to leadership studies (Snook, Nohria, & Khurana, 2012).

Knowing(knowledge)

Doing(skills,
behavior)

Being(mind,
attitude,value)

Competencee.g., Embedded competence model by Matsushita (2016)
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Relational models: competences have aspects thatorganize resources depending the contexts in order to meet ademand. Competences are discussed regarding self, cognitive
tools, and others (Rychen & Salganik, 2003).
Self

Actingautonomously

Using tools
interactively

Cognitive
tools

Interacting insocially
heterogeneousgroupsOtherse.g., Key competencies in three broad categories by OECE DeSeCo(Rychen & Salganik,
2003)
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Research question
1. What theoretical elements of collective competence
emerge when the attribute and relational competencemodels are interlaced?
2. In terms of school principals’ perspective, how are theelements of collective competence manifested?

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Method: Participants and procedure
After theoretical interlacing, qualitative interviews were held in
Finland during 2016-18.
Sample--12 principals in elementary (2),secondary (2), and comprehensive (8)schoolssnow-ball sampling

Mean age-

52.00 years (SD = 9.05)

Career as principal-

12.67 years (SD = 4.70)

Gender-7 female & 5 male principals

Academic degree-

1 Ph.D. and 11 master’s degree

Duration of interview -35-84 minutes (M = 53.25)-> The interview data were analyzed by thematic analysis (Patton,2002) with using Atlas.ti.
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Results
Theoretical interlacing found collective competencies in
educational leadership settings below.

Collective competence (Boreham, 2004)

Leadership content model (Snook et al., 2012)
Knowing

Doing

Being

Collective
Sensemaking(Self)
Collective
Knowledge(Cognitive tool)

Relationship(Others)
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Results
Theoretical interlacing found collective competencies in
educational leadership settings below.

Collective competence (Boreham, 2004)

Leadership content model (Snook et al., 2012)
Knowing
Collective
Sensemaking(Self)
Collective
Knowledge(Cognitive tool)

Relationship(Others)

Doing

Being

■Shared meaning■Sharing accounts■Collective Mindset

•
•

•
•

•
•

Prospective visionCollective experience

Conversational
Symbolic accounts■Knowledge sharing
and creation■Developing
contexts•••

Sharing
Creation

Making ”Ba”
(place)■Views of relationships■Collaboration

•
•

•
•

Network
Intersubjectivity

Discussion
Upholdingautonomy andsynergy creation

Goal setting
Flexibility■Broad participation••

Various stakeholders
Participative attitude■Shared goal-oriented
belief•••Shared direction
Shared commitment
Trust

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Results The interview data illustrated the elements.
Knowing
Collective
Sensemaking(Self)

Collective
Knowledge(Cognitive
tool)

Relationship(Others)

Doing

Being

“we discussed the certain
problem quite
extensively.
Then, all of
Sharedsudden,it came clear,meaningokay, this is what we'regonna do” (P5)“nobody knows what
happens […] That's
somethingSharingthat we had tohave communicationaccounts anddialogue a lot, so that we
also create new level ofunderstanding” (P6).

“we can’t manage alone”(P1)“working
togetherCollective
producingmindset
something thathas never been done
before” (P5)“getting together andsharing your ideas andskillsKnowledge
give you more thanyou giveout” (P8)sharingandInformal & formal social
places: developmental
training (P4), faculty meeting(P10, 11),Developing
co-teaching (P2),contexts
small chatting
during breaks(P1, 4, 8), social event (P2),
web-platforms (P7)teachers, teacher assistants,
school secretaries, janitors,
all of them are important
persons forBroadthe wholeparticipation
community(P6)

The teams have a lot of
autonomy. They get to work
to the issues, make thedecisions, they carry the
responsibilities from A to Z,
Collaboration
so they really do a big
function” (Principal 5)“The most important
thing is how tounderstand the meaningof the team's main work
Sharedand maintargetsgoaland how
they valuethat theyareoriented
beliefworking and developing
certain areas in this school,
understand, take, andJYU.(P7)
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commit it.”creation”good team player” (P6)“(Moving the school)
was very tough.
Everybody was tired, but
Viewsofeverybodyknew
everybodyis tired. “ (P5)relationships

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22

Discussion
1. The main contribution of this study is that it waspossible to understand collective competences in
educational leadership from the viewpoints of theattribute and relational competence models, whichcorresponds to some implications by previous studies(e.g., Matsushita, 2016; Tsoukas & Vladimirou, 2001).

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Discussion
2. The findings suggest that collective competences could be rooted
in prosocial school culture.

Collective competence (Boreham, 2004)

Leadership content model (Snook et al., 2012)
Knowing
Collective
Sensemaking(Self)
Collective
Knowledge(Cognitive tool)

Relationship(Others)

Doing

Being

■Shared meaning■Sharing accounts■Collective Mindset

•
•

•
•

•
•

Prospective visionCollective experience

Conversational
Symbolic accounts■Knowledge sharing
and creation■Developing
contexts•••

Sharing
Creation

Making ”Ba”
(place)■Views of relationships■Collaboration

•
•

•
•

Network
Intersubjectivity

Discussion
Upholdingautonomy andsynergy creation

Goal setting
Flexibility■Broad participation••

Various stakeholders
Participative attitude■Shared goal-oriented
belief•••Shared direction
Shared commitment
Trust

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Limitation and future implication
1. Negative aspects have not discussed• Contrived collegiality (Datnow, 2011; Hargreaves, 1994)• Collaboration overload (Cross, 2013; Grant, 2008)
2. The participants were limited• Only principals, only in Finland
3. One method was adopted• Qualitative approach
4. Prosocial atmosphere in school culture was found• Further research is needed
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149

150

27

References

Barnett, R. (2007). A will to learn: Being a student in an age of uncertainty. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.
Boreham, N. (2004). A theory of collective competence: Challenging the neo-liberal individualisation of
performance at work. British Journal of Educational Studies, 52(1), 5‒17.
Cross, R., & Gray, P. (2013). Where Has the Time Gone? Addressing Collaboration Overload in a Networked Economy. California
Management Review, 56(1), 50‒66.
Datnow, A. (2011). Collaboration and contrived collegiality: Revisiting Hargreaves in the age of accountability. Journal of Educational
Change, 12(2), 147‒158.
Fadel, C., Bialik, M., & Trilling, B. (2015). Four-dimensional education: The competencies learners need to succeed. Boston, MA:
Center for Curriculum Redesign.
Grant, A. M. (2008). Does intrinsic motivation fuel the prosocial fire? Motivational synergy in predicting persistence, performance,and productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 48‒58.
Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changing teachers, changing times: Teachersʼ work and culture in the postmodern age. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Matsushita, K. (2016). A new framework for competencies: 3-3-1 model. Kyoto University Researches in Higher Education, 22, 139‒
149.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan (MEXT) (2015), Oneʼs nature and ability to be nurtured.
Retrieved July 18, 2019, from http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/siryo/attach/1364316.htm,
National Research Council. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st Century.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Ruuska, I., & Teigland, R. (2009). Ensuring project success through collective competence and creative conflict in public ‒ private
partnerships ‒ A case study of Bygga Villa , a Swedish triple helix e-government initiative. International Journal of ProjectManagement, 27(4), 323‒334.
Rychen, D. S., & Salganik, L. H. (Eds.). (2003). Key competencies for a successful life and a well-functioning society. Göttingen,Germany: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.
Snook, S., Nohria, N., & Khurana, R. (Eds.). (2012). The handbook for teaching leadership: knowing, doing, and being. London:
SAGE Publications.
Spillane, J. (2006). Distributed Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Tsoukas, H., & Vladimirou, E. (2001). What is organizational knowledge? Journal of Management Studies, 38(7), 973‒993.
Vangrieken, K., Dochy, F., Raes, E., & Kyndt, E. (2015). Teacher collaboration: A systematic review. Educational Research Review,
15, 17‒40.
Yukl, G. (1999). An evaluation of conceptual weaknesses in transformational and charismatic leadership theories. The Leadership
151
Quarterly, 10(2), 285‒305.
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Thank you for you attention!
Kiitos paljon mielenkiinnostanne!
ご静聴ありがとうございました！

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5.

School information

Marttilankoulu, primary school

Marttila is a primary school for 350 pupils. It is located in the center of Seinä joki.
The school building was built in 1930 and renovated between 1996-1998. The
school yard was rebuilt in 2019, which offers various sports opportunities formany communities. Marttila School offers basic education and special needs
education (Years 1-6). Additionally there is bilingual education (CLIL-classes forYears 1-6 in English and Finnish) and preparatory teaching for pupils of
immigrant background. Marttila is a multicultural school. Besides international
pupils and staff there are various intercultural projects and visits throughout theschool year. The school emphasizes sustainability and active school days. The
school is located next to Aalto center, which has offered an opportunity to
specialize as an Alvar Aalto school.

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Enjoin Lyseo, lower secondary school

Seinä joen lyseo is a junior high that gives basic education for 7th, 8th and 9th
grade (pupils aged 13–16). There are about 500 pupils and 60 teachers in our
school. The motto of our work is Together we are more. In lyseo one group in
every grade is specialized in music. These groups give concerts and have many
performances during the school year. Lyseo specializes also in bilingual education(Content and Language Integrated Learning) and one group in every grade istaught partly in English in some subjects.

154Seinäjoen Lukio upper secondary school

One of the biggest upper secondary schools in Finland providing general
education for students from 15 to 19 years of age with separate evening classes
for students of all ages. Enrollment over 800 students and teaching staff over 60.
Graduation requirement: 75 credits minimum; 45 compulsory and 30 elective.
Graduation time: 2–4 years. Individual study programs: students plan their own
schedules based on the syllabus offering more than 1,000 courses during one
academic year. Academic year: from early August till early June, the academic
year is divided into six weeks' periods of study.

- https://arviotsuomi.fi/kielikoulu/etela-pohjanmaa/seinajoen-lukio/

155

6.

Participants’ Articles

Masazumi Maruyama (Nagasaki University)

A Reflective Note on the J-CLIL Summer Program at Seinäjoki, Finland

坂本ひとみ （東洋学園⼤学）

フィンランドで開催された CLIL Seminar に参加してYoshihiro Nigo（⼭⼝学芸⼤学）

The Class Observation of PE CLIL in Finland

Kana Seki (Graduate School, Waseda University)

Finish Bilingual Education: A Report on the CLIL Summer Seminar in
Seinäjoki

Mayumi Takizawa (Toyo Gakuen University)

Reflections on the CLIL Seminar in 2022: What are Keys to Well-being of
Teachers and Students in Finland?

156

[Nagasaki peace group]

Rimi Ushizu (Gakushu Atelier COR)My Reflections of the 2022 J-CLIL Summer Seminar CLIL Learned with
Students

Nanaho Ikeda
Yuto Sueishi
Riko Tanaka
Nako Tanaka

157

A Reflective Note on J-CLIL Summer Program at Seinäjoki, Finland

Masazumi Maruyama (Nagasaki University)

1. Introduction
During my one-year sabbatical leave in Jyvä skylä , Finland, I had an opportunity to visit
several schools in Seinä joki in Finland, as part of the J-CLIL Summer Program. In this article,
a quick reflection on the Finnish education as observed in the summer program will be
made, consisting of the following. First, a brief description of what I observed in each of thethree schools as to English pedagogy in general and CLIL in particular is presented. Second,a reflection is made in terms of (a) learning English in every subject and school life; (b)phenomena-based pedagogy and CLIL; (c) English as a lingua-franca (ELF) andtranslanguaging in Finland; and (d) others including trust in school, relaxed atmosphere,teacher and student evaluation, life-work balance, and no cramming but homework.

2. Outline of Schools Visited and Classes Observed
During the summer program, I visited three schools at different levels each day. Here isa brief description of what I observed in each school.

2.1. Marttila Primary School
The primary school visited was Marttila. It provides bilingual education to 350 pupils.
My observations were primarily in the 5th grade classroom for Science, Ethics/Religion,

158

English, and Music.
English was not only taught in the English subject class but also used or learned inother subjects. In the science class, the teacher gave instructions mostly in English. The
materials used were in both Finnish and English. The topic for the day was berries andmushrooms, which are often picked by Finns. It is important to identify which are edible
and which are not while picking them. The task was to learn the names of the berries andmushrooms in both Finnish and English. The instructions were given mostly in English, anda task sheet with pictures of berries and mushrooms along with their descriptions in Finnish
was handed out. Students were allowed to look up information from textbooks and theirsmartphones with caution to the reliability of information sources. The information was
also available on the board (see Figure 1). In the Ethics/Religion class, the "Circle of Friends"
provided by the British Council was used (see Figure 2; see also British Council). The
students played several games in English, and in the music class, they sang an English song
together.
The emphasis in the English subject class was on learning English as a language. The
class started with an activity to identify the past tense and learn its various forms (seeFigure 3). It is often argued or presumed that English grammar is not taught or touched
upon in English education in the countries where English is fluently spoken such as Finland
and Netherlands, while it has been pointed out that Japanese English education emphasizes
grammar too much without spending much time communicating in English. Apart from thelessons, a lot of information was written in English on the classroom board. For example,
the weekly lesson timetable was written in English (see Figure 4).

159

Figure 1 Mushrooms: Pictures and Finnish Names1

Figure 2 Berries and Mushrooms in Finnish and English

1

The photos shown on this paper were not necessarily taken by the author. Some of them were taken by otherparticipants of the program.

160

Figure 3 Ethics/Religion Class Material “Circle of Friends”

Figure 4 Identifying Past Tense Forms

161

Figure 5 Timetable in English in a Classroom Board

There was a student who had immigrated from Uganda, who struggled with Finnish
sentences written on a task sheet but understood English instructions. In English subject
class, the student was learning Finnish through English, while the "Finnish" students studied
English based on their Finnish language knowledge.
The school had some lessons divided by gender, such as math and Finnish, to create
small groups of students in the classrooms (see Figure 4). Grouping or pairing in lesson
activities was also mostly based on gender. This seemed odd, especially in early education,
as separating girls and boys could unnecessarily lead to the creation of genderconsciousness as a hidden curriculum. According to the homeroom teacher, this genderdivision was due to the intention of the parents.

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2.2.

Lyseo Lower Secondary School

The most relevant class to CLIL in the lower secondary school was a science class inEnglish. The class were co-taught by two teachers, a Finnish science teacher and an Englishspeaking science teacher. (both spoke English). The instructions were given in English. The
class was held outside the classroom in a nearby park. An App. of smartphones was used
where several questions were given by the teachers and the students answered. The class
topic was to identify a certain category of plants such as mosses. A group of students tried
to answer each question provided by the app. at a certain location while exploring the plants
throughout the park.

Figure 6 Science Class Fieldwork

Figure 7 Science Teacher under a Bird Umbrella

163

2.3.

Seinäjoen Lukio Upper Secondary School

An Irish instructor taught an economics class entirely in English, covering concepts suchas recession and opportunity cost (see Figure 8). The class utilized some YouTube videos
for learning. After watching the videos, a couple of questions were provided for students toanswer (see Figure 9). In the latter part of the lesson, the teacher held a small session where
Japanese observers were asked questions about Japanese corporations.

Figure 8 Photo A of Economics Lesson

Figure 9 Photo B of Economics Lesson

3. Reflective Thoughts
In what follows, several reflective thoughts based on the summer program arepresented in the order of (a) Learning English in the Non-English Subject Classes; (b)Phenomena-Based Pedagogy and CLIL; (c) English as a Lingua-Franca and Translanguaging
in Finland; and (d) Other Reflections on Finnish Education and School (trust, relaxedatmosphere, teacher and student evaluation, life-work balance, and no cramming but

164homework).

3.1. Learning English in the Non-English Subject Classes
My preliminary observation of English education in Finland, as observed in the summer
program, is that English language learning should not be confined solely to English classes.
The above-mentioned English class, for instance, exemplifies how students were taught
about the past tense and its forms, with a significant emphasis on linguistic aspects. Contrary
to the popular belief that grammatical instruction is overlooked in Finland, it was, in fact,prioritized. In other words, it is believed that the linguistic features of the English language
can be tackled in the English subject, given that students are exposed to English in nonEnglish subject classes and other mediums, such as the class notice board.
This was unexpected as English education in Japan is frequently criticized foroveremphasizing grammar. In light of the success of English education in non-English classes
in Finland and other countries, it is unreasonable to assume that teaching English to
students is solely the responsibility of English teachers in Japan. Students will struggle toacquire proficiency in English if they are not exposed to the language in all subjects,
including math, social studies, and other subjects, if not all the time (of course, this implies
that teachers should not be given the opportunity to teach English as a second language;
but rather, they should be given the chance to learn English as a second language).
Considering this, implementing this cross-curricular approach in Japan might provechallenging in junior high school and beyond, as they have a dedicated curriculum. However,it could be put in place more easily and earlier in elementary schools, where classroom
teachers are generally responsible for all subjects. Of course, this is only possible if this idea165

is emphasized in their research classes, teacher training programs, and ultimately, in theteacher education curriculum. Exposure to English in non-English subjects in elementary
schools would also be effective and necessary, given that elementary students are in theearly stages of English language acquisition.

3.2.

Phenomena-Based Pedagogy and CLIL

My second observation is that in Finnish education, more emphasis is being placed on"Phenomena-based Pedagogy," which involves basing its principles on constructivist
learning theory, "learning in life" rather than "learning academic subjects," and thus crossing
traditional subject/academic boundaries (i.e., interdisciplinary). Instead of abstract concepts,
which traditional pedagogy tend to emphasize, it focuses on more concrete and specificphenomena, actual or real-world phenomena such as climate change or spread of disease.
The approach promotes the development of “21st century skills or competencies” such as
critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity.
For instance, at an elementary level, instead of simple calculation drills, mathematicalelements can be integrated into Physical Education (PE) classes, where students engage inactivities like running and stopping to collect cards that contain addition or subtraction
problems. Based on the answer, the students run to a specific direction. Another example
would be that students search for certain figures such as squares, cubes, triangles, andcircles in real life environment including their schools and houses (i.e., outside classroom)—
door as square, clock as circle etc.2 This approach is taught as a course in teacher education

2

This was what I saw in another school in Finland as a learning activity of 1st graders.

166classes at universities.
Of what was observed during the program, the lower secondary school science lesson
was probably the most relevant case in point. The class was not only taught in English, butalso in real-world as a real phenomenon. Not just simply learning botanical categories asthings to memorize in a classroom, these botanical categories were sort of actively learned
at a real field. I distinctly remember when I was learning the same botanical concepts or
categories at a junior school decades ago. It was mere memorizing or cognitive—I
memorized the terms such as mosses and algae and names of several specific species of
each, without actually seeing them. Surely, I still cannot identify them in real life world,
although I still remember botanical categories and specific species but only by name.
The learning in the observed science class contained and integrated a lot of learning
elements. It was like a game to play in a way to gain points by answering each question in
the app. It was collaborative learning in that the search for certain botanical species was ateam activity. It was concrete and specific rather than abstract. And of course, it was active
learning.

3.3. English as a Lingua-Franca and Translanguaging in Finland
In this section, Finland and English is first described, followed by English as a LinguaFranca (ELF) and Translanguaging.

3.3.1. Finland and English
Most individuals in Finland are proficient in English. Given Finland's small population of167

5.5 million, it is not surprising that English plays a significant role as a lingua franca incommunicating with non-Finnish speakers. Furthermore, the amount of information
available in English is much greater than in Finnish, and English education in Finland plays
a significant role in this regard.
It is worth noting that Finns acquire English despite the vast linguistic distance between
Finnish and English. Finnish is part of the Uralic language family, while other European
languages belong to the Indo-European language family, including English. Consequently,
learning English requires a considerable amount of time for Finnish speakers. In fact, the
US State Department's Foreign Service Institute report on the time required for native
English speakers to learn a foreign language3 lists Finnish in Category 4, "Languages withsignificant linguistic and/or cultural differences from English; 44 weeks)" (Japanese is listed
in Category 5 "Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers"; 88
weeks) 4. Despite this assessment, the majority of Finland's population is proficient inEnglish.
The Japanese language is also deemed difficult to learn due to its considerable linguistic
distance, which justifies the slow progress in English acquisition. The high rate of English
proficiency in Finland challenges such excuses and raises expectations that English
education in Japan can be improved, and the rate of English proficiency in the Japanese
population can be increased if Finland's English education serves as a reference. In this3

The factors considered are, for example:(a) The degree of linguistic distance between English and the target language.
(b) The availability of learning resources and materials.
(c) The cultural and political context of the target language.
4
Both Finnish and Japanese are more difficult than other languages in the same category.

168

context, it may be one of the reasons for Japan's increased interest in English education in
Finland.

3.3.2. English as a Lingua-Franca (ELF)
As previously observed, although English teaching materials related to the United
Kingdom, such as those provided by the British Council, are used in Finland, the prevailing
approach to teaching English is through the English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) model, rather
than the model of teaching English as a native language.
The model of English as Lingua a Franca is a model developed from the theory of World
Englishes (Kachru, 1992). It is based on the growing realization that, given that 78% of the
English used in the world is between non-native speakers of English (Neeley, 2012), it is
not necessary to imitate English of native speakers in pronunciation, grammar, andvocabulary. Seidlhofer (2011) defines ELF as "any use of English among speakers of different
first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice, and often the
only option" (p. 7).

3.3.3. Translanguaging
Another similar and significant perspective is translanguaging (Garcı́a & Li, 2014).
Translanguaging is an educational approach that encourages children to use both theirnative and second language simultaneously during the learning process, in order to enhancetheir understanding and acquire language more effectively.

169

3.3.3.1. Translanguaging in Finland
In Finland, the education system has increasingly adopted a multilingual approach,where students are encouraged to use all their languages as a resource for learning(European Commission, 2018; UNESCO, 2019). Translanguaging practices are now
common in Finnish schools, where students can use their first language (L1) and otherlanguages alongside the language of instruction, usually Finnish or Swedish.
Translanguaging is considered one of the reasons for the success of the Finnish
education system, as it helps children acquire fluency in both languages and understandcultural differences, allowing for interactions with people from different cultures. Studies
have shown that translanguaging has helped students in many aspects. Finnish teachers arealso encouraged to use translanguaging as a pedagogical tool, where they make use of thestudents' diverse linguistic repertoires to support their learning (Finnish National Agency
for Education, 2019). Translanguaging can take various forms, such as translational
mediation, code-switching, or code-mixing.

3.3.3.2. Background of Translanguaging
Translanguaging emerged as a critical response to conventional English language
teaching methods that imitate English native speaker norms. In these methods, language isregarded as a unified entity or a code. However, bilingual individuals do not simply switchfrom language A to language B; rather, they mix the two languages. Despite the fact thatsocieties and individuals may accept the coexistence of multiple languages, they generally
oppose language mixing, perceiving it as a contamination of their language (Li, 2018).
In the translanguaging perspective, on the other hand, there are no distinct languages,

170

but rather all language resources, such as English, Japanese, and Finnish, are viewed as asingle system or repertoire. Garcı́a & Li (2014) define translanguaging as "an approach tothe use of language, bilingualism, and the education of bilinguals that regards the language
practices of bilinguals not as two independent language systems, but as one linguistic
repertoire with features that have been socially constructed as belonging to two separate
languages" (p. 2). It is also characterized as "fluid and dynamic practices that go beyond theboundaries between named languages, language varieties, and language and other semiotic
systems" (Li, 2018, p. 9).

3.3.3.3. Two Concepts of Translanguaging: Trans and Languaging
Translanguaging is a term that comprises two concepts: "trans" and "languaging." Thesuffix "-ing" implies that it emphasizes the dynamic nature of language use. It is sometimes
referred to as "doing languages" (Auer, 2019). In the translanguaging view, language is nota fixed entity but rather an ongoing languaging practice. Therefore, language is seen as apolitical, historical, and cultural-social secondary-construction. The concept of languaging
does not view language as an acquisition but as an adaptation of the body and brain throughparticipation in languaging activities in one's environment.
The other important aspect of translanguaging is the prefix "trans." Li (2018) argues
that "trans" in translanguaging has two meanings. Firstly, it means transcending theboundaries of a named language, such as Japanese or English. This entails a mixing of
languages that traditional views of language vehemently reject and is an act of languagetranscendence.
The second meaning of "trans" in translanguaging refers to the inclusion of non-linguistic171

elements in communication as semiotic resources. Translanguaging views communication
as a holistic and inclusive process that encompasses all semiotic resources, including
language modes, and employs all modes, such as voice, written, visual modes, etc. (i.e.,
multimodality, Kress, 2010). In other words, communication involves the integration of all
resources that can generate meaning, including gestures, paralinguistics, objects, images,
smells, and so on, besides language.
Li (2018) highlights the tendency to overemphasize language in communication,
separating its role from other modes and resources, as "Lingua Bias." The translanguaging
approach challenges this bias and advocates for a more comprehensive approach tocommunication. In this approach, all available semiotic resources (repertoire) are fully
utilized, and language is just one of them, along with nonverbal symbols, icons, images, andother resources. Semiotic resources work collaboratively with various modes to constructmeaning, and are embedded in the social and physical environment, working in conjunction
with participants, objects, bodies, and scenes to create meaning. Thus, treating language as
an autonomous, self-contained system, independent of other semiotic resources anddisconnected from the environment, distorts meaning-making practices (Canagarajah,2013).

3.3.3.4. (Re) negotiation of Meaning and Locality
It is important to highlight that meaning does not solely derive from the grammaticalsystem or norms, but from the process of meaning negotiation between the interlocutors
in the given context. Thus, meaning is open to a variety of interpretations, and the task ofsemantic interpretation is not limited to any one party. It is often believed that words have172

pre-determined meanings (as we commonly refer to in a dictionary), and that meaningfulutterances are produced by arranging words in accordance with certain rules. However, themeaning and grammar of words are not static, and they are constantly open to renegotiation
and reconstruction when placed in a new communicative context. In communication,
language can be considered a "mobile resource" whose meaning is subject to negotiation
by both parties and may not always have a fixed or predetermined significance (Canagarajah,2013).

3.4. Other Reflections on Finnish Education and School
In what follows, reflections are made in (a) trust between teachers, teacher-children, (b)relaxed atmosphere of schools and teachers, (c) teacher and student evaluation, (d) lifework balance, and (e) no cramming but homework.

3.4.1. Trust between Teachers, teacher-children
During our visit to Finnish schools, what was observed was a prevailing sense of trust,
not only between teachers and students but also among teachers themselves, and evenbetween principals and teachers. It can be said that Finnish society, in general, places a great
deal of trust in teachers, schools, and education. One aspect of this trust that particularly
stood out was the warmth and tenderness with which the children were regarded. This, inturn, reflects a deep trust in the potential of education and the children themselves.
These observations are supported by various surveys. Finland is well known for being
the top-performing country in the PISA test and continues to rank among the best in the173world in all areas of reading, mathematics, and science. The high level of trust between
Finnish teachers and students, as evidenced by the 2018 PISA test (OECD, 2019), is likely acontributing factor. Additionally, Finnish teachers report the greatest satisfaction withchildren's learning in the 2019 OECD survey, further demonstrating the strong foundationof trust between teachers and between principals and teachers in Finland.
Trust is one of the strengths of Finnish society. Finns have a high level of trust in
government, business, and each other. This helps to enhance the quality of life, economic
stability, and social cohesion in Finland. The trust that permeates Finnish society is also
reflected in various social indicators and is believed to be a contributing factor to Finland's
consistently high rankings. Finland is renowned for its high levels of trust, as evidenced by
its top rankings in international surveys such as the World Happiness Report, the World
Values Survey, and the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.
In the 2021 World Values Survey (World Values Survey Association, 2021), Finlandranked first in trust in the police, second in trust in the legal system, and third in trust in
the national government. In the 2022 Global Competitiveness Report published by theWorld Economic Forum (2022), Finland was ranked first for its trust in the quality of
government institutions. Similarly, in the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index published byTransparency International (2022), Finland ranked 6th out of 180 countries for its low
levels of government corruption, which can be attributed to the high levels of education andsocial trust in Finland. This trust is reflected in the fact that people in Finland are more
likely to report corruption and believe that the government will take appropriate action.
In the 2021 World Happiness Report (2021), Finland was also ranked first for its highlevels of trust in government, business, and people. This trust has been identified as a key

174

factor contributing to Finland's happiness, which has been ranked at the top for six
consecutive years. Additionally, a 2019 study by the World Bank (2019) found that Finland
is one of the best countries for doing business, and this is in part due to the trust that exists
between the government, companies, and citizens.
It is widely recognized that Finland has been ranked as the happiest country in theworld for six consecutive years in the World Happiness Report in 2022. This report cites
high levels of trust in government, business, and society as one of the contributing factors
to Finland's happiness. Furthermore, the 2020 World Values Survey (World Values Survey
Association, 2022) indicates that Finns possess a remarkably high degree of mutual trust in
government, business, and society. For instance, more than 80% of Finns believe that theirgovernment respects their opinions, and over 70% believe that businesses operate withintegrity.

3.4.2. Relaxed Atmosphere
Unlike its Japanese school Shokuin-shitsu (staff room), the staff room in the Finnish
schools seemed more like a break room, a place to talk with colleagues, drink coffee, rest,
and relax, than a place to work. In this sense, it may not be appropriate to see this place as
an equivalent to the Japanese school Shokuin-shitsu staff room. Generally speaking, Westernschools do not have staff rooms like Japanese school Shokuin-shitsu. In Japan, as suggestedby the division of duties and various types of "guidance" or Shido from the classroom(Shimahara & Sakai, 2018), everything in the school or related to children is considered to
be within the scope of a teacher's duties, reflecting the fact that the teaching profession is a
career-oriented rather than a professional or specialized profession, information is shared

175

(highly contextualized or as such, information becomes high context) and all matters in theschool are handled in a way that is consistent with the collaborative involvement of allteachers in the school.
The use of space consistent with the collaborative involvement of all teachers iscommonly seen in the form of open-space staff rooms with desks facing each other. Perhaps
it is because the Shokuin-shitsu staff room is positioned as a place of work, not only for staff
meetings but also for class preparation and administrative work, or perhaps it is because it
is difficult to create a relaxed atmosphere.
In contrast, schools in Europe and the United States are generally said to be a divisionof labor organization with various professional groups including teachers, and the staff room
does not exist as a workplace in the Japanese sense. Break rooms and conference rooms
take on the role of staff rooms as in Japan as needed.

3.4.3. Teacher and Student Evaluation
During the reception dinner, I had a conversation with one of the principals, whoconveyed the following message (as I understood it):If assessments toward teachers and students’ academic achievements are solely
based on scores, teachers may prioritize scores over the welfare of the child.

These words have made a profound impact on me and I believe they epitomize theessence of the Finnish education system. To me, they imply that in Finland, there is a176reluctance to emphasize competition or winning and losing in favor of equality. This is asalient feature that scholars have noted in the Nordic countries. Various cultural value
systems have been identified by researchers, including Hofstede's four primary culturaldimensions: Power Distance (PDI), Individualism-Collectivism (IND-COL), MasculinityFemininity (MAS-FEM), and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov,
2010). Among the three countries, Finland is characterized by Femininity values. The
Masculinity-Femininity dimension explains the extent to which a society values
assertiveness, competitiveness, and material success (masculinity) versus nurturing, caring
for others, and quality of life (femininity). While both Japan and the U.S. are categorized as
Masculinity, Finland is classified as Femininity (see Figure 10).

Figure 10 Hofstede Six Dimensions: Finland, Japan, & USA(Adapted from Hofstede Insights: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/)177

More recently, Wursten (2018) has identified seven mental images based on these
Hofstede’s dimensions, namely, Contest, Network, Machine, Solar, Pyramid, Family, andCraftsmanship. the Contest mental image highlights individualism, competition, and a focus
on winning, which is often linked to the United States. This cultural mental image promotes
high levels of competitiveness and individualism, with a strong emphasis on attaining
success and recognition. The emphasis is on winning and being the best, and individuals
are encouraged to stand out from the crowd and take risks to achieve their goals. This isvisible in various aspects of American society, ranging from business and sports to politics
and entertainment.
The mental image of Craftsmanship is linked to Japan, characterized by a focus on skill
and mastery, and the pursuit of excellence in one's craft. This mental image is alsocharacterized by a high degree of attention to detail, precision, and quality. In Japan, thismental image is visible in the country's traditional arts and crafts, such as pottery, calligraphy,
and woodworking, which are highly valued for their beauty, quality, and craftsmanship.
Additionally, the concept of "kaizen," which emphasizes continuous improvement andrefinement of one's skills and processes, is also closely linked to the mental image of
Craftsmanship in Japan.
Finally, Nordic countries, including Finland, are categorized under the Network mental
image, while the United States is associated with the Contest mental image, and Japan with
Craftsmanship (see Table 1). The Network mental image highlights the significance ofinterconnectedness, relationships, and collaboration. It is viewed as a web of interconnected
relationships where social harmony and consensus are important. In Nordic countries, thistranslates into a strong emphasis on teamwork, equality (as opposed to competition, as in178the Contest), and trust in various social domains such as schools, workplaces, politics andso on.

Table 1 Contest, Network, & Craftmanship
PDI

IND-COL

MAS-FEMUAICountries

Contest

-

+

+

-

Anglophones (UK, USA)

Network

-

+

-

-

Nordic Countries + Netherlands

Craftmanship

0

0

+

+

Japan

3.4.4. Life-Work Balance
I was impressed by the vice-principal's words, "When it comes to my identity, first I
would be the father of my daughter, then the husband, and finally myself as a teacher. Thiswas in response to a question about whether it is common for teachers to go home suddenly,
when a class that was scheduled to be observed on the day had been changed to anotherclass due to the teacher in charge suddenly returning home due to sickness of a family.
This was felt to be very different in the context of the busyness surrounding teachersin Japan. Unlike in Japan, where everything that occurs at school is often perceived as thedomain of school, teachers, and education, this shows that life-work balance (not work-lifebalance) is respected. The time spent at school is also much shorter than in Japan andleaving school at 15:00 to 16:00 is not uncommon.

179

3.4.5. No Cramming but Homework
Finnish schools are sometimes depicted as having no homework. In a 2015 American
documentary film, “Where to Invade Next,” directed by Michael Moore, Finland schools areshot as such in the conversation between Moore and Finnish teachers (Moore, 2015).
Although it might be true that Finnish schools do not assign much homework to students,
there exists homework there. One of the participants asked one of the Finnish teachers thisFinnish school myth as to homework, and he answered “Yes, we have homework.” In fact,
I did observe a teacher assign homework to the students during the school visit.

4. Final Remark
This article offers a reflection on various aspects of English education in Finland, whichwere observed during school visits in Seinä joki in the Summer 2022, as well as throughclassroom observations and informal interviews with teachers. Rather than focusing on
specific details, the author has attempted to include as many observations as possible,
resulting in a lack of consistency.
In the future, the author intends to conduct further in-depth research by incorporating
additional school visits, empirical studies, as well as interviews with educators andresearchers.
Finally, this research was partially funded by the following research grants: Grant-in-Aid
for Scientific Research (21K00762, 19K02720), Murata Science Foundation, Scandinavia
Nippon Sasakawa Foundation, and International Cultural Exchange Foundation. The author
would like to express sincere gratitude to them and to Nagasaki University, the author’s
workplace, for granting a sabbatical.

180

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Canagarajah, S. (2013). Translingual Practice: Global Englishes and Cosmopolitan Relations.
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Garcı́a, O. (2016). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. New York, NY:
Bloomsbury.
Garcı́a, O. & Li, W. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Finnish National Agency for Education. (2019). Multilingualism and Multiculturalism in
Finnish Education. Retrieved fromhttps://www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/multilingualism_and_multiculturalis
m_in_finnish_education_2019.pdf
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of
the mind. McGraw-Hill.
Kachru, B. B. (1992). Teaching world Englishes. In Braj B. Kachru (ed.), The Other Tongue:
English across Cultures. (pp.355-366). University of Illinois Press.
Kress, G. R. (2010). Multimodality: A social semiotic approach to contemporary181

communication. London: Routledge.
Moore, M. (2015). Where to Invade Next.
Li, W. (2018). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1),9-30.
Neeley, T. (2012). Global Business Speaks English: Why You Need a Language Strategy
Now. Harvard Business Review, 90(5), 116–124. Retrieved fromhttps://hbr.org/2012/05/global-business-speaks-english
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 results. PISA 2018 Results (Volume I): What Students Know and
Can Do. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/5f07c754-en
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Shimahara, N. K., & Sakai, A. (1995). Learning to Teach in Two Cultures: Japan and theUnited States (Garland Reference Library of Social Science; v. 870). New York, NY:
Garland Publishing.
Transparency International. (2022). Corruption Perceptions Index 2022. Retrieved fromhttps://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022/index/nzl
UNESCO. (2019). Finland: Ensuring Inclusive and Equitable Quality Education andPromoting Lifelong Learning Opportunities for All. Retrieved fromhttps://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000370731.locale=en
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Globalized World. Hofstede Insights.

183

The Class Observation of PE CLIL in Finland

Yoshihiro Nigo (Yamaguchi Gakugei University)

I had a chance to observe a lot of CLIL classes in Finland. Of all these, I would like to focus
on a PE CLIL class, which is closely related to my research topic. 18 students in the firstyear of junior high school participated in this 45-minutes class in the gymnasium. The PEteacher of this class could speak English fluently and seemed to give instructions to thestudents most of the time. The content of this class was to do warm-up exercises in
preparation for a hockey game. As a result of the class observation, I found some interesting
features as follows.
First of all, the students were seen to enjoy listening and speaking English, while they
were moving various parts of their bodies. Studying English only in the classroom
sometimes becomes boring, but it is likely that children are very happy to use English inthis authentic situation with their bodies. Second, the teacher was actively making use of
ICT, based on the scientific research about the effective way of warm-up exercises for hockey.
For example, she showed the related video in English, where the students could increase
their knowledge of the effective warm-up and improve their English skills at the same time.
I think this is CLIL with the help of ICT. Third, this PE CLIL class needed mathematical skills.
When the teacher gave English instructions like “running backwards, skipping, skipping and
8 shape,” the students were required to think and move exactly in the shape of 8. Thismeans that they need to calculate how to move and, if not successful, to communicate with184

other students in English. In terms of cognition and communication, I think this is also
important for CLIL.
Referring to the above example of PE CLIL in Finland, I hope to develop an effective wayof PE CLIL suitable for Japanese schools.

185フィンランドで開催された CLIL Seminar に参加して坂本ひとみ（東洋学園大学）

１．

フィンランドの小学校教員との交流

筆者は、親交のあったトルコの英語の先生のご紹介により、小学校レベルのエラスム
ス・プロジェクトのメンバーに加えていただき、参加国の教師と子どもたちが集まる 1
週間のミーティングに２度参加することができた。１度目が 2016 年のハンガリーで、２度目が 2017 年のポーランドである。このプロジェクトのテーマは、”Let’s create
more healthy Europe!”というものであり、参加国は、ハンガリー、ポーランド、トル
コ、ベルギー、フランス、イギリス、フィンランドであった。このテーマの発案者はポーランドの先生で、プロジェクトの趣旨に賛同する国々の先生方が参加を表明し、それぞれの生徒たちとともに、このテーマに沿って国際協働学習を 2 年間にわたって展開し、
リンガ・フランカとして英語を用いて交流をする。ここで行われている学習はまさにCLIL であった。このときに知り合ったフィンランドの先生 Mr. Markku Ahonen は、決して口数の多い人ではなかったが、フィンランドの教育についてとても印象的な言葉を私に語ってくれた。フィンランドにも日本の学習指導要領に相当するナショナル・コア・
カリキュラムがあるが、教師の autonomy が尊重されており、ナショナル・カリキュラムに沿っていれば、教師は授業を自分なりにアレンジする自由裁量が与えられている。それは、教師がみな修士以上の学位を持つ専門家としてリスペクトされているからであり、教師も、「目の前の子どもをもっともよく知っているのは教師である」という自負と自信にあふれているからだとのことであった。
このエラスムス・プロジェクトにおいて、各国の子どもたちはヘルシーなヨーロッパに186

するためのモットーを考えて、それを各月の目標にするカレンダー作りをして、互いに交換しあっていた。ほとんどの国が、カレンダーの数は参加国の数に合わせて作っており、私に分けてくれる余分なカレンダーがなかったのであるが、Markku だけは一つ余りがあり、私はそれをいただくことができた。フィンランド語の月の名前、子どもたちが描いた可愛い絵や写真とヘルシーなヨーロッパをめざすための目標が書かれている。それを見た私は、支援に入っている福島の小学校でも同じようなカレンダーを子どもたちに作ってもらい、フィンランドやトルコの子どもにプレゼントすることを思いついた。
この福島の小学校は単学級の小規模校であり、私と児童英語教育ゼミの学生たちが授業実習で伺うと、１，２，３年をまとめて一つの授業、4，5，6 年合同の授業をもう一つやらせていただいている。その上級生の授業で、異学年の子どもたちで１２のグループを編成し、そこにゼミ生が一人ずつついて、カレンダーの各月のページを作ることにした。この小学校はユネスコスクールなので、国際交流や環境教育に熱心であった。そこで、健康にいいメッセージのほかに、よりよい環境をめざすメッセージ、ふるさと福島のものを発信する絵や写真も入れて、カレンダー作りをした。ゼミ生たちが、月の英語
名や日にちの英語表現を、歌や体の動きを使いながら教え、各グループがアイデアをまとめるのをファシリテートした。各月のデザインを私のパソコンに取り込み、製本所にデータを送り、なかなかよい福島版カレンダーが出来上がり、フィンランドとトルコに送ることができた。

187

フィンランドの子どもたちが作ったカレンダーの 10 月のページ

福島の子どもたちが作ったカレンダーの 2 月のページ

笹島茂・山野有紀編著(2019)『学びをつなぐ小学校外国語教育の CLIL 実践』（三修社）には、筆者も授業案を一つ掲載していただいているが、この本の最初に笹島先生が188書かれた「フィンランドの小学校の CLIL 実践に学ぶ」の章がある。ここに、今回のセミ
ナーの眼目となることがまとめられている。フィンランドはヨーロッパの中でもいちは
やく CLIL を取り入れた国の一つであり、CLIL 的な要素がかなり浸透していること、「英語で授業をする」という無理強いをせずに CLIL の展開も柔軟であること、子ども一人ひとりの学びを優先し、言語学習と科目内容のバランスを各学習者に応じて考え、自律学
習を促すことがあげられている。
この本を大学での授業の指定テキストとしている私は、
このフィンランドの小学校 CLIL についての笹島先生の解説も繰り返し読んでいたので、ぜひとも自分の目で見てみたいという気持ちが強くあった。
また、私は児童英語教育ゼミの学生たちとともに、幸福度が高く、環境の取り組みも進んでいるデンマークを 2017 年に訪れて、幸福のカギが教育にあることをみなで確認することができていた。次の学年のゼミ生とは、デンマークに加えてフィンランドも訪れようと企画していたが、私の病気やコロナのせいで中断したままであり、私の中でフィンランドの教育視察という夢はふくらむ一方であった。
今回、このフィンランド CLIL セミナーが開催され、小学校、中学校、高校の授業を見学させていただけることとなり、感謝の気持ちいっぱいで参加させていただいた。

２．ルク・スオミ

LUKU-Suomi、 そして、bilingual education『フィンランドに学ぶ教育と学力』（中嶋編、2005）や『フィンランド 豊かさのメソッド』（堀内、2008）において、フィンランドが OECD の学力テスト PISA で好成績を上げている大きな理由の一つとしてあげられているのが、ルク・スオミ・プログラムである。
「ルク・スオミ」を直訳すれば「読解フィンランド」となる。
1990 年代後半には、フィンランドの学齢期にある子どもたちの母語力低下が指摘され、それは全国規模の学力テストにも表れていた。これを重く見た政府は、1997 年を「読解189元年」と位置づけ、母語力向上運動を繰り広げた。そのうち、学校教育において推進されたルク・スオミは以下の７つのプロジェクトで構成されていた。
① 読み書きのスキルを高め、文学に関する知識を増やすことを視野に入れながら、す
べての教科のカリキュラム開発を行うこと② 学校図書館を改善し、学校―公共図書館の連携を促進すること③ 基礎教育と特別支援教育間の連携を強化する試みとして、読み書きのスキルを高めること④ すべての教科を通じて、読解力、特に演繹的・批判的読解力を高めること⑤ さまざまなジャンルの文章を書くこと、すべての教科において書くことをベースにした学びを推進すること⑥ 男子生徒に対する改善をすること⑦ 才能児に対する特別教育を行うこと
こうした個々のプロジェクトへの参加は任意であったが、69 の地方自治体と６校の大学附属学校、新聞協会、雑誌協会、図書館協会、各図書館、学校図書館協会、書籍財団、出版社などが連携し、2001 年から 2004 年にかけてルク・スオミは実施された。
私の友人の Markku は、「僕はフィンランド語が専門の小学校教師だから、英語はあま
りうまくないのだけれどね」と前置きをしつつ、フィンランドの小学校ではいかに母語の教育が重視されているか、小学校 1 年ではそれが重要だから英語教育は 1 年生ではな
く、2 年生か 3 年生になってから入れるということを教えてくれていた。
今回、セイナヨキ市の基礎教育のディレクターである Ms. Marika Ojala がくださったハンドアウトにも、CLIL teaching, Languages English and Finnish と書かれていて、英語で教えられる内容はおよそ 40%から 80%ということである。笹島先生の解説にもあったとおり、all in English で CLIL をやるのではなく、子ども一人ひとりの能力や190

様子に合わせて、適宜、フィンランド語を入れながら、子どもたちの考える力を育成す
ることが重要であり、セイナヨキで 2008 年から始まった bilingual education も、全てを英語で教えるという無理強いはしていない。
セイナヨキの bilingual school path は、小学校就学前教育から始まり、Jouppi
Koivulehto という preschool に入ると、子どもたちへの指示に英語が一部使われている。この preschool と次の段階である小学校 Marttilan koulu の間には少し連携があるが、この小学校の bilingual education のラインにダイレクトにつながるというわけではない。
したがって、子どもたちはどこの preschool に行こうと、Marttilan の bilingual
education クラスに申し込むことができ、適性テストを受けて受かった子どもたちがそのラインに乗る。この子たちは、中学校としては、Seinajoen lyseo に１グループとして進むが、この段階で、bilingual education ラインから離脱することもできる。7 学年の終わりに、フィンランド語による試験があり、学力に遅れが出ていることがわかった
場合は、もう 1 年余計に学ぶことも保護者とともに検討される。このとき、クラスに人数的余裕があれば、新しい生徒がここで bilingual クラスに入ることもあるが、それもまた適性テストを受けて合格したらという条件がある。
この生徒たちは、高校としては、Seinajoki lukio のＥｎｇｅｅｓ line に申し込んで、bilingual education を継続することができる。ここは、ケンブリッジのテストセンターにもなっており、生徒たちはケンブリッジの AS または A level 試験を受けることになる。
最終日に Seinajoki lukio の校長、そして、副校長兼国際交流担当者が話してくれた講演を聞き、”internationalization”という言葉を何度か使われたので、セイナヨキ
がこのような bilingual education の path を 2008 年に開設したのは、EU がスタート
し、グローバル化が進展する 21 世紀を生きる子どもたちをよりよく育てるためだったのであろうと考えた。ルク・スオミを経た上で、フィンランド語、英語の双方を用いる

191

CLIL によって批判的思考力や論理的に言語化する力の高いグローバル市民を育てることが必要と思われたのであろう。池田真先生がいつもおっしゃっている「CLIL はグローバル教育である」という方程式がここでも生きていると思われた。
そして、もう一つ、フィンランドが PISA で上位にランクインする理由は、最終日に若梅謙氏が“Homogenisation of educational performance”と指摘されたことにも表れているが、教育が底上げされていて、落ちこぼれの子どもがいない、均一化された状態であることが大きいであろう。クラスは少人数であるし、英語の授業などではさらにクラスを半分に割っている。クラスには co-teaching ということで 2 名の教師が入っていることも多く、1 人ひとりの子どもに目が行き届いている。
また、矢田匠先生の講演においては、teamwork の重要性が強調されていたが、Markku
からもグループワークを大事にしていることを何度も聞いており、最新のナショナル・
コア・カリキュラムにおいてもそれを一層重視しているため、彼の小学校も教室のレイ
アウトをそれにふさわしいものに新しく作り替えたとのことである。私立学校はほとん
どなく、裕福な家庭の子どもでも近くの公立学校に通って、多様な背景を持つ子どもたちと協力しながら学びを進めている。このような力もまさに 21 世紀のグローバル社会で必要とされる力であろう。
才能が突出しているがゆえに学校生活で悩みを抱える児童生徒は「ギフテッド」と呼ばれるが、このような子どもたちのための教育も、フィンランドはインクルーシブ型である。2022 年 9 月 27 日付けの日経新聞によると、「ギフテッド」の子どもたちへの支援策が日本でもようやく 2023 年度から本格化するとのことである。英才教育として、選抜された子どもを特別プログラムの教育機関に送る国も多い中、フィンランドは、そのよ
うな子どもをクラスから取り出すのではなく、普通教室におきながら、個の特性に応じた教育を提供するとのことである。才能教育に関する法律上の定義はないものの、多様192

性の尊重を念頭に、個別に高度な課題を与えるような対応が一般的だと書かれている。
『フィンランド 豊かさのメソッド』において堀内は、ユヴァスキュラ大学教育研究所の所長、ヨウニ・バリヤルビ氏の見解を引用して、近年のフィンランドの教育の成功のカギとして以下のことをあげている。(p.58-p.59)
・質の高い教師・偏差値編成や能力別クラスなどがない
・同じクラスでの特殊教育・学生のカウンセリングとサポート
・少人数制
・進学希望が強い
・平等な義務教育
・社会における教育の重要度が高い
・教師という職業の社会的地位が高い・安定した政治・経済格差が少ない
・地域差があまりない
経済格差が子どもたちの学力のギャップにつながっていることが明白となっている現在、経済格差の少ないフィンランド社会においては、子どもたちの学力も格差が広がらないのであろう。
つめこんだ知識を確認するテストが頻繁にある日本とは異なり、テストも塾もほとん
どないフィンランドでは、子どもたちが家では楽しく読書をし、学校ではグループワー
クが多くて、読んだ本について感想を述べあって、小さいころから思考力がきたえられているという。

upper secondary school を終えるときには、matriculation193

examination があるが、それは論述の力が求められる試験である。日本では、PISA の結果から「知識を活用する力」が弱いことが問題になったが、頭に入れた知識が正しいかどうかを確認するテストのための勉強ではなく、もっと考える力をつける学びこそが 21
世紀を生きる子どもたちには必要であることが認識され、それが 2017 年告示の学習指導要領にも表れている。

3. 今回のフィンランド研修で視察できた授業について

授業見学は、まず小学校から始まった。 9:10-9:55 は、5 年生の英語授業であったが、男子のみのクラスで、通常クラスを半分に割った少人数授業であった。子どもたち
は、動詞の過去形を英文の中から見つけて指摘し、電子黒板を使って、教師はその過去
形にアンダーラインを引いていった。子どもたちは、多くの子が手を上げて、熱心に授業に参加し、なかなかあててもらえないときも、静かに手を上げ続けている。この日の終わりに、私は「なぜ、男子、女子で英語クラスが分かれているのか？」と質問したが、体育が男女別になっていて、その流れでそのように分かれているだけで、「私もこの分け方はいいとは思わないのだけれど」と教師はこたえてくれた。
10:10-10:55 は 3 年生のアートの授業を見学。子どもたちは 4 人ずつ机をくっつけて座っており、先生は電子黒板に花の写真をいくつも映し出して、子どもたちはそれを観察して絵を描いていた。簡単な英語がクラスでは使われていた。11:10-11:30 は、昼食前の短い授業で、5 年生の Religion/Ethics という授業であるが、A Circle of Friendsという友だちの大事さを説いた British Council の英語教材を見せていた。道徳のような授業である。
給食をいただいたあとの 12:15-13:00 は、また 5 年生のクラスを見学。今度は音楽の授業で、先生は英語を使って授業をし、子どもたちは英語で Lion King を歌い、踊りも194

つけていた。
その後の先生方とのセッションで話していただいたことは、以下の通りである。セイナ
ヨキではフィンランド語がメインの学校か、bilingual education か選ぶことができ、
bilingual で教えられる資格を持っている教師たちがいる。 フィンランドのすべての市でこのようになっているわけではない。少なくとも 25%は英語で教えることが求められており、フィンランド語の授業はフィンランド語で行う。ドラマ・メソッドも用いる。
6 年生になると、ほとんどの科目は英語を使って教えられるが、公民や歴史の授業はフィンランド語の方がよい。移民や難民がふえてきて、彼らを受け入れることは重要であるが、難しい問題もある。自分たち教師は、未来のリーダーたちを育てているのだという誇りとやりがいを感じている。
翌、8 月 24 日は中学校の授業を見学させていただいた。中学 1 年の英語授業は明示的に文法を学ぶ授業であり、現在時制を使って疑問詞で始まる英語の疑問文を作る練習をしており、フィンランド語と英語をパラレルに提示しながら、生徒たちの理解をはかろうとしていたが、日本の生徒にとっても英語の疑問文を作ることは難しいのと同様、フィンランドのこのクラスの生徒たちもなかなか苦労していることが見て取れた。難しい
年ごろであり、私たち見学者がいる前で間違った英文を言いたくない、という様子も見られた。私は出すぎたことをしてしまい、子どもたちに”Do you like English?”と聞いてしまったところ、子どもたちからは”No!”という返事がかえってきた。先生はすぐに”Why no?”と生徒に質問を発した。子どもたちは、bilingual education program にのっていれば 6 年生になるころには、英語を聞いたり話したりするのはかなりうまくなっているのであるが、あらためて英語の疑問文を作るエクササイズについては、苦戦するのだということがわかった。
この日、見学させていただいた中学 2 年の biology の授業が今回のすべての授業見学

195

の中でもっとも素晴らしかった。
生物の進化がテーマで、授業は森の中で行われていた。
フィンランド人の生物の教師が作ったスマートフォンのゲーム的なアプリケーションを使いながら、生徒たちは森の地図を見ながら印のついた地点を回り、英語で書かれた説
明とタスクを読む。
一つ目のタスクは、
苔をみつけてその写真をアップすることであり、それをやったら次の地点へと移動していく。参加型、探求型のとてもよい CLIL 授業で、英語のネイティブスピーカーであるアイルランド人の教師が co-teacher として協力していた。
私も、エラスムス+の活動を熱心にやっているトルコ人の先生から、
gamification
について私がどれくらい研究しているか問われたことがあり、その分野には詳しくない
自分にとって、今やこのようにゲーム的な学び方も現代の子どもたちにとっては有効であることを目の当たりにしたのであった。
翌日は、高校の授業を見学させていただいた。最初は、英語の授業であったが、生徒たちはもう C1 レベルにあるそうで、そのレベルの Headway を教科書に使う予定だった
そうだが、学年始めで、まだ教科書がそろっていないということで Grammar to Go というテキストとプリント教材で時制の勉強をしていた。高校生に話しかけてみると、上手な英語で返してくれ、bilingual education program の最終的な英語力の目標が C1 であろうことも納得できた。授業でやっている文法の授業が易しすぎないかと尋ねたのであるが、すでに使えるようになっている英語について、体系的に文法をきちんとおさえていくことも意味があるとの返事であり、フィンランドの生徒たちはとても静かに熱心に授業を受けていて素晴らしいと思った。静かであるという国民性もあるであろうが、このようにきちんと授業を受ける姿勢は就学前教育でしっかりと作られているとのことであった。
次の Economics の授業は、教師がイギリス人であり、100%英語の授業であった。
recession, stagnation, inflation などの定義を生徒に発表させ、考えさせる質問がパ196

ワーポイントを使って教師から次々と出されたが、生徒たちは上手な英語で答えており、
bilingual education program の end-product はこういうクラスであろうと、感服させられた。
日本からの見学者がいるから、それも利用しようとイギリス人教師は思いつき、生徒たちが席を立って私たちのところに日本経済について質問をしに来てくれたのも、
interactive ないい活動であった。

４．おわりに

国家レベルで展開されたＬuku Ｓuomi (読解フィンランド)は、読む力のみでなく、書く力の育成にも力を入れたところが学力向上におおいに貢献したと評価されている。
が、このほかに、体育、図工、美術、音楽、家庭科、技術なども重視されており、子どもたちの運動を推進するために Marttilan 小学校のグラウンドもきれいに整備されたところであったし、学校中を見学したときには技術の工作の部屋で生徒たちが作業をしているところも見ることができた。エラスムスに参加したときにポーランドの先生が強調していたのは、”Learning by Doing”という教育理念であったが、子どもたちが体や手を動かして学ぶ時間もとても大切にされていると思った。
もっとも印象的だったのは、やはりどこの学校においても、先生たちが笑顔で楽しそ
うに誇りを持って教育にあたっている姿であった。教員用ラウンジもソファがたくさん置かれて、先生たちがくつろぎながら対話をするのにとてもよい環境であった。日本の教員の労働環境が過酷で、過労死寸前の状況に追い込まれていることは 2021 年 10 月 7日の朝日新聞社説に書かれているとおりである。月に 80 時間以上の残業をしている小学校教師は３０％、中学においては６０％にのぼり、世界の他国に比して、非常に悪い状況である。私自身も、小学校の先生方から、「休憩時間にトイレに行く余裕もない」という話もよく聞いているし、「もっと子どもと向き合う時間がほしい」との声もあちこち

197

から上がっている。2022 年 11 月 29 日付けの朝日新聞の「社会的評価 教員の実感乏しい？」と題された記事においては、日本社会全体を５層(上、中の上、中の下、下の上、下の下)に分けた場合に自分がどこに位置すると思うかを尋ねた質問で、「中の下」が 43%、
「中の上」が 37%で、両方で 8 割を占めたとのことであり、フィンランドの教師の社会的評価がもっと高いことと比較すると、日本の教員の状況がもっとよくなることが、子どもたちの教育改善にも寄与することになるであろうと考える。
アメリカの映画監督であるオリバー・ストーンが、「アメリカとフィンランドの子どもたちの学力は以前はほぼ同じだったのに、あるときからフィンランドの学力は急激に向上した。その秘密は何であるのか探りにフィンランドに行ってきた」という有名なドキュメンタリーのビデオがインターネットにあがっている。その中で、フィンランドの文部大臣にあたる女性が言っていることは「子どもには子どもらしく遊ぶ時間が大切」ということであり、教師たちが強調していることは、「子どもたちに考える力をつけることがもっとも大事」「どんな教科を教えるとしても、最終的な目標は子どもたちが幸福になる方法を教える」ということである。
ESL と Bilingual Education の違いについて調べてみると、ESL の方は、英語スキルを子どもたちに教えることに重きがあるが、Bilingual Education の方は２つの言語を用いながら、子どもたちに言語を教えるだけでなく、文化の多様性について深い理解を与えることをめざすということがあげられている。それは、一般的な語学教育の授業が合わない子どもにも適した要素があり、学校や人生でよりよく生きるためのスキルを英語学習者に提供できる可能性もあるとされている。笹島先生が書かれたフィンランドの教育についての Finnish Tips 18 においても「フィンランドのバイリンガル教育では、
英語による文化間理解が主要な活動となっている」「そのような文化を調べることにより、児童が多様性を受け入れ、世界には多文化と多彩な価値観があることなど、どの文198

化も平等に扱うことの大切さを理解できるようにする」とある。
山本雅代編著(2014)『バイリンガリズム入門』によると、バイリンガルの先にはバイ
カルチュラルになる可能性があり、バイカルチュラルな人の利点が、ある実験結果をあげて説明されている。それは、バイカルチュラルな人のグループとモノカルチュラルな人のグループを比較した実験で、レンガの絵を見せて、どれだけたくさんの使用方法が考えられるか 2 分間で書きださせたところ、バイカルチュラルなグループは、流暢さ、柔軟さ、創造性の 3 項目において、よりすぐれていたとのことである。
多様な子どもたちがともに学ぶフィンランドの学校では、各国からの移民の子どもたちも受け入れている。今回、私たちが訪問した学校においても、ウクライナからの避難
民の子どもたちが、ウクライナについてのプレゼンテーションをしている場面を目にした。幸福度も SDGs 達成度も世界一であるフィンランドの教育は、みながともに豊かに生きることをめざしているのであり、英語教育においても、子どもたちに英語スキルを教えることよりももっと高い目標が掲げられており、21 世紀のグローバル社会を生きていく子どもたちの well-being のための教育として重要な一翼を担うものになっているといえよう。

参考文献、ウェブサイト

岩竹美加子(2019) 『フィンランドの教育はなぜ世界一なのか』 新潮選書
金井景子(2010) 「フィンランド、声がつなぐ言語教育」 早稲田教育評論 第 24 巻第1号
笹島茂・山野有紀編著(2019)『学びをつなぐ小学校外国語教育の CLIL 実践』三修社
中嶋博編(2005) 『フィンランドに学ぶ教育と学力』 明石書店
田中治彦、奈須正裕、藤原孝章（２０２１）『SDGｓカリキュラムの創造』 学文社

199

堀内都喜子(2008)『フィンランド 豊かさのメソッド』 集英社新書山本雅代(2014)『バイリンガリズム入門』大修館書店

https://differencebetweenz.com/difference-between-esl-and-bilingual-education/(最終閲覧日 2022 年 11 月 30 日)
https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14455764(最終閲覧日 2022 年 11 月 30 日)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8cOsqYItCoI(最終閲覧日 2022 年 11 月 30 日)

200

Finish Bilingual Education: A Report on the CLIL Summer Seminar in
Seinäjoki

Kana Seki (Graduate School, Waseda University)

1. Introduction
In the summer of 2022, three years after the CLIL teacher seminar in the Netherlands
and as the COVID-19 pandemic began to subside slowly, I participated in a CLIL seminar in
Seinä joki, Finland, as part of my doctoral research project. In this report, I would like toshare what I’ve learned at the bilingual school in Seinä joki, Finland.

2. Finish Education and Bilingual School
According to the PISA academic achievement test conducted by the OECD in 2018
(OECD, 2018), Finnish education was the best in the major industrialised countries. I wanted
to visit Finnish schools and learn how they differ from those in Japan. While visiting abilingual primary and secondary school in Seinajoki, I found a common difference between
Japan and Finland in all school education. The high quality of each teacher and the richworking environment protect their well-being. In Japan, teaching has become a less popular
job for young people these days. The shortage of teachers has become a severe social
problem, and I felt that we need to learn a lot from the Finnish educational and teacher
training systems to improve this situation.

201

3. Classrooms in Finnish Bilingual Schools(1) Marttilankoulu: English class at the primary school
The classes at the elementary school we visited were comparatively small. The teachers
were all cheerful and taught each student in a warm but independent manner. There were
immigrant children in the class, and it was impressive to see children with different linguistic
backgrounds learning from each other through the language connection of English, which
made us realise the role of English as a Lingua Franca.

202

(2) Seinäjoen Lukio: Mathematics class at the upper secondary school

The upper secondary school classes we visited were small, international classesof less than 20 students, some with roots in Asian and European countries other thanFinland. The teacher had prepared slides with Russian translations for the Ukrainian
students, whose native language is not English. I was impressed to see the effective use oftranslanguaging in a classroom where diverse languages and cultures intermingle.

4. Oodi in Helsinki
What deeply impressed me during our visit to Helsinki, Finland, besides the visit
to the bilingual school, was the central library called Oodi. It opened in December 2018 and
was awarded the 2019 Public Library Award by the International Federation of Libraries(IFLA) the following year. It was built in front of the Parliament building as a gift to thepeople. As built as a symbol of democracy, where everyone can exercise their creativity, Oodi203

is a place where people from all walks of life spend rich moments during the holidays. I
would recommend this place to anyone visiting Helsinki. The time I spent at Oodi in Helsinki
before returning home after my research trip to Finland was a time of rest and creativity. I
hope that Tokyo will also have a wonderful space like Oodi.

5. Conclusion
When I leave Japan and look around the world, I realise that there is a rich history
and way of life that human beings have built in different cultures. In my research on applied
linguistics and education, visiting schools overseas, meeting local people, and talking withresearchers, teachers, and children gave me new perspectives and insights. I would be
happy if I could apply what I have learned from CLIL's overseas seminar to my researchand contribute to the development of language education in Japan.
I would like to thank Professor Sasajima and Mr. Wakaume, the local CLIL
coordinator, for planning and efforts over the past several years in implementing theoverseas program in Seinä joki, Finland. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to
the Finnish researchers and teachers I met there, the participants from Japan, and the204students of Nagasaki.

References
OECD (n.d.). Better Policies for Better Lives. PISA Test. Retrieved October 3, 2023, fromhttps://www.oecd.org/pisa/test/
Oodie(n.d.).Oodie

HelsinkiCentralLibrary.

https://oodihelsinki.fi/en/

205

Retrieved

October3,

2023,

Reflections on the CLIL Seminar in 2022: What are Keys to Well-beingof Teachers and Students in Finland?

Mayumi TAKIZAWA (Toyo Gakuen University)

This report begins with my impressions of Finland before this seminar, followed byan overview of the Finnish education system. Then, through reflecting on our observationof CLIL classes and communication with local teachers in Seinä joki, I would like to think
about what leads to well-being of teachers and students in this country and implications
for Japanese education, based on several keywords that left strong impressions on me.
Finally, as a follow-up to the seminar, I will introduce a small Finland-themed CLIL activity
conducted at an elementary school after my return to Japan.

“Well-being is a positive state experienced by individuals and societies. Similar to health, it
is a resource for daily life and is determined by social, economic and environmental
conditions” (WHO, 2021).

Finland – the Moomins’ homeland, PISA high-ranked and the happiest country in theworld
My first encounter with Finland was “the Moomins” books and their popular TV
animation series, which I loved to read and watch in my early childhood and I got to knowthat the author, Tove Jansson, was Finnish. Without even knowing where that country was,206

I felt as if the fantasy of strange creatures living together in the Moomin Valley actuallyexisted in a distant foreign forest.
It was not until many decades later, between 2000 and 2006, that Finland again cameto my attention. In those days, the country was consistently among the top countries in theOECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) for 15-year-olds’ ability to
use their reading, mathematics and science knowledge and skills to meet real-life challenges.
On the contrary, Japan's large drop in the rankings during the period (NIER, 2007) led towhat was called the “PISA shock” in Japan (15th, 10th, and 6th in 2006, respectively) andFinland's high ranking and quality of education drew even stronger attention in Japan. After
that, although Japan's ranking recovered in 2012, surpassing Finland among the top
countries (NIER, 2013), due to the rise of other Asian countries such as China, Singapore,
Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan, Finland ranked 7th in reading, 16th in mathematics,
and 6th in science in the latest 2018 assessment while Japan ranked 15th, 6th, and 5th,
respectively (OECD, 2018).
Meanwhile, in the latest ranking of child well-being, Finland is ranked 5th while Japanis in the 20th place (UNICEF Office of Research, 2020). Moreover, the World Happiness
Rankings have been reported annually since 2012 by the Sustainable Development
Solutions Network (SDSN) in collaboration with the United Nations and Finland has beenranked No. 1 for five consecutive years from 2018 to 2022 whereas Japan is ranked 54th
in 2022 (SDSN, 2022; Horiuchi, 2022). These results have made me wonder what kind of
education is actually provided in such a “happy” country of lush forests and beautiful lakes
in Northern Europe as well as the homeland of the Moomins’.

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The Finnish education system
Ministry of Education and Culture in Finland states in the beginning on its website,“Education is one of the cornerstones of the Finnish welfare society. We pride ourselves onan educational system that offers equal educational opportunities for all. Education all theway from pre-primary to higher education is free of charge in Finland. In addition, Finnish
teachers are highly educated and strongly committed to their work.” As seen, here areseveral keywords to show the essential features of Finnish education; “Finnish welfare
society”, “equal education opportunities”, “free of charge”, and “Finnish teachers are highly
educated”. The Finnish education system consists of 1) preschool education, 2) basic
education (primary education; grades 1-6, secondary education; grades 7-9), 3) upper
secondary education (either general upper secondary education and matriculation
examination, or vocational education and training), 4) higher education (universities anduniversities of applied sciences), and 5) furthermore, adult education is available at all levels(Figure 1). The Finnish National Agency for Education (FNAE) implemented a new nationalcore curriculum in accordance with the system in steps from 2016 to 2019 and education
providers have drawn up their own local curricula based on the national core curriculum(2014). In other words, school can emphasize different subjects and specialize according totheir own curriculum such as bilingual education, music, PE, or science classes (Ojala,2022).

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Figure 1 Japanese version (Finnish MOFA, et al., 2017)209

Bilingual education with CLIL pedagogy in Seinäjoki
Marika Ojala, acting director of basic education, explained an overview of bilingual
education with CLIL pedagogy in Seinä joki in the first session of the CLIL seminar program.
What impressed me most was that “an aptitude test is used to determine the successful
applicants. During the aptitude test, the language skills of each applicant are assessed” (Ojala,2022). It seemed that entering the bilingual education course is more competitive than I
thought and I supposed that it is more possible for high aptitude students to improve theirEnglish proficiency more effectively and successfully with CLIL pedagogy through the basic
and upper secondary education.
During our class observations, a relaxing and generous atmosphere in theirclassrooms first drew my attention; triangle-shaped desks to make groups easily, brightcolored curtains, plant pots, stuffed animals, and above all, a message board that said “We
Don’t Make Mistakes. We Do Variations.” (Figure 2). This word seemed to directly connect
to an important characteristic of Finish education system, which provides options forstudents (or even adults) to pursuit their future possibilities, change or even return theireducational course paths flexibly. Regarding the CLIL classes, science-integrated lessons tolearn about plants were most interesting to me. The topic was very Finish in fall and I could
observe a kind of spiraled lessons dealing with a basic vocabulary activity with pictures ofmushrooms and berries and an outdoor activity using a game software in a tablet computer
to learn about the evolution of plants by finding moss, fungi, berries, or flowers in a parknear the school (Figure 3).

210

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

On the other hand, to describe local teachers, three keywords “teachers’ self-efficacy,autonomy, and synergy creation”, which I learned from A.&T. Yada’s lectures, came to mind.
It is because that even though the Finish teachers found some difficulty teaching subjects
in a balanced way both in CLIL and in Finish for matriculation examination, they mentioned
several keys to success not only in their CLIL pedagogy but also in their teaching way andenvironment; teaching qualification with a master degree, academic freedom without
inspections and reporting, relatively high salary, a good relationship between teachers andstudents through discussions and scaffolding, and collaboration with co-working teachers.
Also, it would be possible to add other factors such as their ordinary using a comfortablebreak room (Figure 4), no overtime working, and long holidays (Horiuchi, 2022).

CLIL pedagogy in Finland and “beyond” in Japan
Now I have realized that what I saw with my own eye during the seminar were someactual keys to well-being of teachers and students, not only in their education system andclassroom environment but also in Finish people’s way of life itself that enable such a small
and cold country to survive happily and resiliently as a high welfare society. Of course, it is211not realistic to largely implement the Finish social and education system in Japan, but
regarding the differences as “alternatives” that can be applied to the conventional Japanese
education system might change at least the mindset of some Japanese education providers
or in-service teachers. Actually, the City of Fukuyama, Hiroshima Prefecture in Japan started
a Jena plan school, which is a kind of alternative schools originated from Germany andspread in the Netherlands, as the first public school in Japan this year (The City of Fukuyama
Board of Education, 2022).

A follow-up activity at an elementary school in Tokyo
After I came back to Japan in September, I did a small CLIL activity to introduce
Finland as a guest teacher at an elementary school in Tokyo. The 4Cs framework and theprocedure of the activity are as follows.
< 4Cs framework >Content: Finland and Finish schools
Communication: numbers (1-30), how to play mö lkky (stand pins, throw a ball, etc.)
What’s this? What color ~? How many points did you get?
Cognition (apply and create): addition (counting team scores), drawing pictures
Culture: to have interests in Finland and ask questions for Finish children< Procedure >1. An overview of Finland (geography, population, nature, foods, greetings in Finish)
2. School lives in Seinä joki (introduce classrooms, subjects, school lunch, etc.)
3. Mö lkky (watch a video and try the Finish popular sport in a very simple way)
(Figure 4)212

4. The Moomins’ stories in Finland and Japan (watch videos, visit the official websites
and draw pictures) (Figure 5)
5. Questions for Finish children (Figure 6)

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

I made a photo album of this activity with eleven questions from the Japanese children
and sent it to Mr. Ken Wakaume, Seinä joki CLIL coordinator and teacher, who had
coordinated and attended the CLIL seminar, and he kindly sent back his students’ answers
later. Here are some comments of the Japanese children; “The differences in school lives orfavorite sports were interesting”, “I knew that we enjoy playing the same video games.”, “I
was happy to know the Finish students answered my question.” As mentioned, this wasjust one small activity, but I hope that Japanese students as well as teachers will learn more
about schools overseas and realize that the students could expand their future possibilities
by having more options. To this end, I would like to help connect them to their overseas
peers, even if only in a small way.

References
Horiuchi, T. (2022). Finland – Shiawase-no methods (Methods for happiness). Shueisha-213

shinsho. Tokyo.
Ministry for Education and Culture in Finland (2016). Finnish education system.
Retrieved from https://okm.fi/en/education-system
National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER). (2007&2013). Summaries of PISA
2000-2018 results. Retrieved from https://www.nier.go.jp/kokusai/pisa/index.html
OECD. (2018). PISA 2018 results. Retrieved fromhttps://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm
Ojala. M. (2022). General education and bilingual education in Seinäjoki. (the CLIL Summer
Seminar Program 2022 handout)
Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN). (2022). World Happiness Report 2022.
Retrieved from https://worldhappiness.report/
The City of Fukuyama Board of Education. (2022). Opening ceremony of Tsuneishi Tomoni
Gakuen. Retrieved fromhttps://www.city.fukuyama.hiroshima.jp/site/kyoiku/270188.html
The Finnish National Agency for Education (2014). The national core curriculum. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.oph.fi/en/education-and-qualifications/national-core-curriculum-basiceducation#:~:text=The%20national%20core%20curriculum%20provides,needs%20an
d%20perspectives%20into%20consideration.
UNICEF Office of Research - Innocenti. (2022). Innocenti report card 16 Worlds ofinfluence - Understanding what shapes child wellbeing in rich countries.
Retrieved fromhttps://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/Report-Card-16-Worlds-of-Influence-child-214

wellbeing.pdf
Yada, A. (2022). Teachers’ self-efficacy in inclusive classrooms: Comparative analysis of Japanand Finland. (the CLIL Summer Seminar Program 2022 presentation slides).
Yada, T. (2022). Teachers’ collective competence for multi-disciplinary education. (the CLIL
Summer Seminar Program 2022 presentation slides)
World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). Promoting well-being (Glossary of Terms 2021).
Retrieved from https://www.who.int/activities/promoting-well-being

215

Nagasaki group

My Reflections of the 2022 J-CLIL Summer Seminar: CLIL Learned with
Students

Rimi Ushizu (Gakushu Atelier COR)

First of all, I would like to express my deep appreciation for the opportunity of theseminar with my students. It was a valuable experience for all of us. I participated in the
Finland seminar with six students of elementary, junior high, and high school ages. I run atutoring school in Nagasaki and run an alternative school in addition to it, we are working
with schools to prevent learning delays due to non-attendance.
I first discovered the CLIL learning method seven years ago. Learning CLIL in Tokyo andOsaka, as well as my first overseas seminar, were a series of moving experiences for me. To
try to learn CLIL is a necessity, the reason is that I find pleasure in thinking of creative ways
for my students to enjoy themselves, including relearning English. However, tutoring schools
are places to improve their test scores and focus on test-taking strategies. As" tutoring
schools" have a strong image of providing a complement to school, and the biggest problem
was whether the students could practice at first, rather than just learning the material forthe class. Even after practice, there were many failures, such as over-obsession with theimportance of understanding the content, or children who could not understand the class
if the level of English was too low. However, when comparing classes in which CLIL waspracticed with those in which it was not, English grades were much higher in the former.

216

Perhaps since students had moved away from repetition of vocabulary, their dislike ofEnglish decreased, and as a result of the change in their approach to independent study, thepercentage of students who were accepted into difficult schools also increased.
Although Finland has no place to supplement studies outside of school, how does acountry achieve the world's highest academic standards? How do Finnish teachers teachmulti-language to their students? How are measures taken to deal with out-of-school
children in Finnish schools?

Marttilankoulu elementary school
The science class I attended was about mushrooms. The colors and shapes wereidentified with pictures. Information of plants and whether mushrooms are poisonous or
not is very important for living with nature in Seinä joki. The school had a lot of taxidermyand other learning-related objects on display, and there were materials throughout theschool for visual learning. They were all things that were easy for the children to visualize.
It is difficult to make them interested in something. It is natural that everyone's interests
are different. However, the common and important things are found in life. Finnish students
learn through images, drawings, diagrams, and photos, and they actually go to the park to
see mushrooms. They are taught that these knowledge is necessary because they are in thechild's sphere of life, and they learn under this awareness from elementary school.

Seinajoen Lyseo lower secondary school
Classes are designed for students to think and practice by themselves. For example, in217both home economics and art, students think of materials and designs on their own. In
music, students play the same tune on the recorder. In music, instead of playing the same
piece on the recorder, students play together on different instruments. In technical home
economics, I was surprised to see students operating machines that they would not be able
to handle due to their age in Japan. In the physical education class, my students seemed tobe very tired, as there was almost an hour of basic physical training. I felt i was natural,considering how cold it was in Finland. It made a lot of sense to me that they need tostrengthen their lungs to survive the sub-zero winters, and that physical training should bedone well in the summer months.

Seinä joen lukio Seinä joki Upper Secondary School
In Japan, it is unthinkable for even high school students to use cell phones during class,however Finnish students used his or her own cell phone when studying. I mainly teachmathematics and chemistry in my own school. The scope of high school mathematics inJapan differs greatly from that in Finland. Finnish mathematics is only for those who areinterested in studying it deeply, much Japanese students. In contrast, their economics classes
were specialized compared to the same grades in Japan. In conclusion, I understood that
almost classes are related to life of Finland . The educational policy in Finland seems to be
to nurture children who can respond to their environment. The accumulation of this
responsiveness may lead to the development of children's independence, creativity, diversity,and the ability to think. Moreover, in Finland, the presence of immigrants is commonplace,so there is a social background that necessitates multilingual education.
In the staff room, I talked about the situation of non-attendance at school in Finland. In

218

Finland, there is a separate teacher in charge of non-attending students. In Japan, the goal
is to get children to go to school, while in Finland, the goal is to create an environment
where they can learn. The way of thinking about and dealing with children is also
fundamentally different. A system has been established in which teachers can focus onteaching and children can concentrate on learning.
We hope to apply this seminar in the future and expect to generate ideas from students
as we move forward with specific practices.

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Student reflection 1

Yuto Sueishi(The Junior High School Attached to the Faculty of Education, Nagasaki University)

I thought about the relationship between happiness and freedom by joining this activity.
Staff room of the Finnish school, had a space where documents were placed and a spacefor relaxing, but in Japan there is only the space for documents. In Japan, only universities
has a system which students could choose classes freely. In Japan, it is said that, it is notgood to miss school, but in Finland, children’s wouldn’t be punished because thepersonalities are respected. Japan has a totalitarian idea, and there is a consideration thatsuch actions lead to disorder of the whole, whereas Finland has an individualistic idea.
Japan has a totalitarian way of thinking, and there is a consideration that ones action
would lead to the disorder of the whole. On the other hand, Finland has a totalitarianism
way of thinking and every opinions are respected. From this point of view, I felt that Finland
has the right to choose, while Japan has a very narrow range of choices. I came to theconclusion that the inconvenience caused by the restriction of the range of choices which isrelated to studying or working, whatever you do, would lead to the unhappiness. This trip
to Finland was my first experience abroad, so there was a lot to harvest. I am appreciating
for this interesting experiences.

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Student reflection 2

Nanaho Ikeda (Nagayo Junior High School)

I went to Finland for learning the difference of school between Europe and Japan. I visitedelementary school, junior high school and high school in Seinajoki city. I met some students.
They escaped from the war between Ukraine and Russia. They studied in Seinajoki’s school.
I was surprised that the students stay normally at school. Their mother tongue isrespectively different. However, they studied mathematics by inexperienced English. Everyschool broadly used English in the class of science, mathematics and geography.
One day, I went shopping. I found many languages can be selected on the monitor of theself-service checkout in the shopping mall. It was quite natural that in the class, students
used many languages, and the common language was English.
I was thinking that English is just the subject to learn in the school. But, through myexperience in Finland, I realized that English is means for life. I was impressed that Finland
organized environment for escaped people from the war between Ukraine and Russia tolive and learn. I thought Japan also should use English broadly as same as Finland. I am
sure that the more we use English, the more we can do, for example, we can exchange theopinion with the different cultural people, and we can tell our own opinion in our own
words. I want to use English well for means of living, for peaceful life and for enjoying my
life.

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Student reflection 3

Riko Tanaka (Nagasaki Higashi Junior High School)

This is my first trip to foreign country. I had never ridden 13hours on a plane. It wasvery exciting for me.
When I arrived at Finland, I thought that Helsinki airport has stylish design. I havewatched Finish view on TV, but real view was so beautiful! Japan has good design airport,
but Finland has stylish design better than Japan. But Japanese city view is more beautiful
than Finish city view. Because Finland has trash can on the road, garbage was strewn
everywhere. Japan does not have trash can on the road, but garbage is not strewn anywhere.
I was glad to find Japanese good point.
I ate berry jam with yogurt on the second day. It was so delicious I ate it every morning
while I stayed in Finland. I thought that Japanese school has some problems. For example,
there aren’t lunch for vegan. There are meet, milk, and egg. Vegan does not eat them.
Japanese school does not think about things like this. And I felt that Finish school was freer
than Japanese school. In our school, we must wear our uniform. But they do not have towear their uniform. And we must not make up. When I told with Finish children, theysurprised that rule of Japanese school.
I cannot understand that we must not be free to go to school. My friend became student
council president to solve about these problems. But our teacher said Changing school’s
rule is impossible. Because it will lead to image degradation. In these days, Gender equality222

is valued. Our school has slacks for girl, but it does not have skirts for boy. I think why itdoes not make skirt for boy. So, I want to wear clothes what we like and Japanese school
imitate Finish school. I was nerves because I could not speak English well. Speaking
English was not easy, but it was very fun. I could get confidence.

Student reflection 4

ＣＬＩＬセミナーに参加して

⽥中 和⼦(⻑崎市⽴⼾⽯⼩学校)

私は、フィンランドに⾏って学んだことや、気づいたことが主に⼆つあります。
まず⼀つ⽬は、フィンランドでお世話になった⽅々がとても優しかったことです。
私はとても緊張感のある雰囲気で、⼤⼈の話にはついていけないのかなと思っていたけ
れど、皆さんがとても雰囲気をよくしてくださったり、私たちに親切に、優しく接してくださったのでとても楽しむことができました。
⼆つ⽬は、フィンランドという国についてよく知ることができたことです。フィンランドに⾏く前は、国の名前しか知りませんでした。フィンランドの⼩学校の⼦供達は折り鶴を知らなかったので、年下の⼦に折り鶴の折り⽅を教えると、喜んでいました。
フィンランドの⾷事を⾷べてみて、給⾷で出たカリカリしたパンをはじめて⾷べて、おいしいと感じました。また、セイナヨキで⾷べたハンバーガーはとてもおいしかったです。しかし、機内⾷で出てきた、ハンバーガーはおいしくないと感じました。おいし223いものも苦⼿なものもたくさん知ることができました。
街の雰囲気を感じたり、電⾞や船などに実際に乗ってみて、切符を確認されないと
ころや、⾃分でドアを開け閉めできるところなど、⽇本と違うところがたくさんありました。
このように、私はフィンランドに⾏って、学んだことや気づいたことが主に⼆つありました。ほかにも、⾃分で買い物をしてみて、⽇本とは違って現⾦をほとんど使わな
いこと、⾃動販売機がなかったことなど、いろいろなことを学びました。
フィンランドに着くまで、どんな国か知らず、とても緊張していましたが、⾏ってみると、とても素敵な街で、驚きました。フィンランドに⾏って、⾃分の視野がとっても広くなったと感じました。これからはこの経験を活かしていろいろなことに挑戦して頑張っていきたいです。

Student reflection 5

僕を変えたフィンランドの旅

⽜津 朔太郎(⻑崎市⽴⼾⽯⼩学校)

家族がそばにいてくれること。学校で、先⽣や友達と勉強したり遊んだりすること。
ケガや病気の時には病院へ⾏くこと。⾔葉が通じること。これは僕の⽇常です。しかし、世界には僕と違った⽇常の⼦どもたちがいることを、今回の旅で知ることができました。
2022 年の夏、僕はフィンランドの学校へ連れて⾏ってもらいました。ちょうどフィ224

ンランドの隣ではロシアとウクライナが戦争をしていて、⾏くと決めるのには少し勇気が必要でした。その理由は、僕の住む⻑崎は原爆が投下された場所で、学校でも戦争や核の恐ろしさについて勉強する時間が多いからです。ロシアは最⼤の核保有国だと勉強したので、テレビなどを⾒る度に⼼配でした。そして僕は⼈⾒知りで、英語も全然話すことができません。そんな時、ちょうど夏休みの課題図書で読んでいた途上国医療に⼈⽣をかけるジャパンハート『命を救う、⼼を救う』の本に「挑戦するか、それとも挑戦
せずにあきらめるか、そこには雲泥の差がある」という⽂を⾒つけて、挑戦を決めました。
セイナヨキの中学校で参加した体育の授業では、体操服に着替えない、筋トレがハー
ドすぎる、アイスホッケーの練習があるなど、⽇本の体育とは違うことばかりでした。
同じグループになった男の⼦たちが、英語で体育の説明をしてくれた時、話していることが分かったのは、うれしかったです。
そして先⽣には、いろんな仕事があることを知りました。僕の学校で⼀緒に過ごす先
⽣とは少し違う CLIL の先⽣のように研究をしている先⽣もいて、仕事は僕が⾒ているよりも広いと思いました。先⽣⽅は、僕に知らないことをたくさん教えてくれました。
世界中を⾒ている先⽣⽅のお話はスケールが⼤きくて、おもしろかったです。
⼩学校には、フィンランドの⼦ども以外にロシアやウクライナの⼦どもたちもいました。⽇本⼈だけの⼩学校に通っている僕には、他の国の⼦ども同⼠が同じ教室にいることや、2 つ以上の⾔葉が話されているのが不思議でした。スーパーのレジでは 4 種類く
らいの⾔葉が選べるようになっていて、⾔葉が違う⼈たちがいっしょに⽣活するためにある⼯夫だと勉強になりました。⾃分の国や隣の国で戦争が起きていることは、とても不安だろうと思いました。難⺠についても初めて考えました。けれど、⼩学⽣の僕は戦争を終わらせる⼒を持っていません。

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僕たちは平和の鶴を⽇本でたくさん折って、持っていきました。
「キートス」「ビューティフル」「ワンダフル」「サンキュー」と、みんなが笑ってくれました。僕はとても嬉しくて、⾔葉は違っても「ありがとう」や笑顔は、⼈を幸せにするものだと感じました。僕は、フィンランドで、『⼈を笑顔にすることは、⾃分を幸せにするということ』『⼈を助けることは、⾃分を助けることでもあるということ』を学びました。そして⾔葉が、その⼒になることも分かりました。僕はフィンランドへ⾏く前よりも、
積極的になったと思います。
いつかまた⾃分でフィンランドを訪ねてみたいです。
⽣きる国も⾔葉も違う⼈たちと過ごせた貴重な夏休みになりました。12 歳の僕の⼤きな覚悟と挑戦は、⾃分史上最⾼点です。CLIL の先⽣⽅、ありがとうございました。

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