Why manilagrass (Zoysia matrella) is the best choice forlinks-style golfing surfaces in East and Southeast Asia
Micah Woods, Ph.D.*

Botanizing by the sea, on hills,
and on golf courses

ABSTRACT
I’ve been studying turfgrass performance in Eastand Southeast Asia since 1998. Over the past
fifteen years, I’ve had a chance to manage, observe, or investigate the growth and performanceof grasses at hundreds of locations in Asia. Manilagrass (Zoysia matrella) grows wild throughout
this region, especially in coastal areas, and is thestandard grass used on open, unshaded lawns inSoutheast Asia. I describe here where we can findmanilagrass in the wild and explain the advantages of this grass for use on golf courses, specifically related to the production and maintenance oflinks-style surfaces, while addressing some questions that are often raised about this grass.

G
olf course architects sometimes design acourse with the intention that it be maintained to

One finds manilagrass growing wild throughout
East and Southeast Asia, especially near the sea.
Figure 1 shows a sample of the environments inwhich manilagrass is found. I didn’t have to lookhard to find this grass, for it is ubiquitous in thispart of the world.
Manilagrass has excellent salinity tolerance andexcellent drought tolerance. It grows in the cracks
in seaside rocks and in sandy conditions, without any supplemental fertilizer, irrigation water, or
pesticides.
In frame f of Figure 1, manilagrass is shownon the fairways of Greg Norman designed Thana
City Golf & Country Club. How is that growing
in the wild, you might ask? Although now it ismaintained turf, the manilagrass was not planted
here. The course was originally planted to hybrid bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon x Cynodon
transvaalensis) in the 1990’s but was invaded bymanilagrass. That variety of manilagrass, calledya-nuannoi in Thai, has now almost completely replaced the bermudagrass that was planted on thecourse.

have certain playing characteristics. For the purpose of this discussion, I will consider links-stylesurfaces to be those on which the ball will bounce
and roll. I wrote a short article (Woods, 2013) about
achieving links-type playing surfaces with warm- Manilagrass on golf courses inseason grasses in Asia, and here I expand on it,
explaining in more detail just why it is that mani- Asia
lagrass is the best choice for producing links-style
There are many golf courses in central Thailand
surfaces.
that have now transitioned to manilagrass after
In the Golf Course Architecture article, I wrote that being planted, originally, and not so many years“if we want to achieve links-like conditions in the ago, to bermudagrass. The conversion process
tropics, we need to choose a species that won’t happened naturally, producing the type of maniladie.” The reason for this is simple: the grass that grass surfaces now found at Phoenix Golf & Coundoesn’t die in a particular environment is one that try Club in Pattaya (Figure 2). Again, as at Thana
can be maintained at a low mowing height with City, the manilagrass was not planted, but it overminimal inputs of water and fertilizer. This grass took and overwhelmed the bermudagrass that was
will maintain a slow growth rate, producing a rel- planted when this course, a Denis Griffiths design,
atively small amount of organic matter and con- was built.
sequently, low thatch accumulation. The playing
One can also find almost complete conversion
surface produced by such a grass will be firmer, that happened naturally, or was encouraged bywith more bounce and roll, than will a surface pro- the course’s management, at Bangkok’s Summit
duced by a grass that does not survive with low Windmill Golf Club (designed by Nick Faldo) andinputs.
Green Valley Country Club (Robert Trent Jones, Jr.
design). And at Thai Country Club (Denis Griffiths
design), which was planted to seashore paspalum* Chief Scientist, Asian Turfgrass Center,
http://www.asianturfgrass.com(Paspalum vaginatum) in the 1990’s, we find that
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Figure 1: Manilagrass (Zoysia matrella) growing wild at various locations in Asia: a) manilagrass growing on rocks at Ishigaki Island, Japan; b) beside the sea at Panglao Island, Philippines; c) atop one of
the Chocolate Hills at Bohol Island, Philippines; d) on the beach at Phetchaburi, Thailand; e) on a rustic
practice range at Ko Samui, Thailand; f) on the fairways during the Thailand Open at Thana City Golf
& Country Club near Bangkok

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(Festuca spp.) swards that comprise the primary
species on the classic links courses of the British
Isles. Bermudagrass and seashore paspalum, however, must necessarily be maintained to produce afaster growth rate if they are to persist here. Thisrequires that additional fertilizer and more irrigation water be supplied to those grasses, resulting in
additional organic matter accumulation at the soil
surface. The long-term result of such maintenance,
which is necessary if these grasses are to produce
a consistent playing surface, is not only increased
maintenance cost, but also a softer, less links-likesurface.
Figure 2: A manilagrass (Zoysia matrella) fairway
at Phoenix Golf and Country Club in Pattaya,
Thailand. This course was originally planted to
bermudagrass.
the extensive rough is now almost entirely manilagrass.
The previously-mentioned courses have all seen
manilagrass take over the grass that was originally planted, but this is not a bad thing. The
finest courses in the region make use of manilagrass as the primary grass on fairways and rough(Figure 3): Singapore Island Country Club’s New
Course, site of the 2011 Asian Amateur Championship; Sentosa Golf Club, host of the Barclay’s
Singapore Open; and Banyan Golf Club in Thailand, winner of the Best New Course Asia-Pacificaward from Asian Golf Monthly in 2009.
GOLF Magazine’s Top 100 Courses in the World
lists three courses in Asia that have warm-season
grass on tees and fairways. All three of thesecourses (Figure 3), Hirono Golf Club, Tokyo Golf
Club, and Kawana Hotel Fuji Course, use manilagrass (called korai shiba in Japanese) for tees andfairways, and in the case of Kawana, this grass isused on the greens as well.
There is a reason that manilagrass is used onso many of the best courses. It is the grass that
doesn’t die in these conditions. That means it canbe maintained in any way the greenkeeper andclub wish to present the playing surfaces, without incurring excessively high maintenance costs.
Bermudagrass has long been noted as not performing well in East and Southeast Asia (Razmjoo et al.,
1994; Wiecko, 2000) because of the cloudy conditions so common in this part of the world. The
numerous courses planted to bermudagrass in the
1990s that have seen the playing surfaces convert
naturally to manilagrass are ample proof of that.
And seashore paspalum is also replaced by manilagrass under conditions of minimal maintenance(Xie et al., 2009).
This relates to links-style golfing surfaces in an
important way. Manilagrass does not die in thisclimate when it is mown regularly and provided
with some supplemental irrigation. It can be maintained to have a slow growth rate, which is oneof the defining characteristics of the fine fescue
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Climatic adaptation
The fact that manilagrass replaces bermudagrassand seashore paspalum in Asia gives some indication that the grass is well-adapted to this environment. That is no surprise; the ubiquity of manilagrass in East and Southeast Asia is what one expects, for the grass is native to this region. The climate in this part of the world, as it influences thegrowth of warm-season grasses, is distinguishedby relatively low amounts of photosynthetically
active radiation (Figure 4).1
As a general rule, manilagrass produces better turfgrass quality than does bermudagrass,seashore paspalum, or Japanese lawngrass (Zoysia
japonica) in a restricted light environment (Baldwin
and Liu, 2008; Wherley et al., 2011). Low clouds in
Asia can block more than 50% of the photosynthetically active radiation (Woods, 2012) and on average, when temperatures are close to an optimum
for warm-season grass growth, the photosynthetically active radiation is about 20% lower in Asia
(Figure 4) than it is in areas of similar temperature
in North America.2
Because manilagrass is native to these conditions and thrives in such a climate, it can be maintained as a links-style surface with a low mowing height at a slow growth rate throughout theyear. For bermudagrass and seashore paspalum,
because of their relatively poor performance during periods of low light, their growth must be stimulated at an artificially high rate during times ofadequate light.
1 The growth potential for warm-season (C ) grass is calcu4
lated on a daily basis using Equation 1
t−to 2

GP = e−0.5( var )(1)

where GP is the growth potential, on a scale of 0 to 1, e is2.71828, a mathematical constant and the base of the natural
logarithm, t is the average temperature for a location, in °C, to is
the optimum temperature for growth, set at, 31°C for C4 grass,and var is the variance to adjust the change in GP as temperature moves away from to ; these calculations have been madeusing a var of 7 for C4 grasses. The growth potential was developed by Dr. Wendy Gelernter and Dr. Larry Stowell of PACE
Turf (http://www.paceturf.org).
2 Additional information on this topic is available at http://climate.asianturfgrass.com.

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Figure 3: Manilagrass (Zoysia matrella) is the primary species on many of the top courses in Asia: a)on tees, fairways, and rough at Singapore Island Country Club’s New Course (Frank Pennink design,redesign by Peter Thomson and Michael Wolveridge); b) on fairways and rough at Banyan Golf Club
(Pirapon Namatra design); c) on tees and fairways at Hirono Golf Club (C.H. Alison design); d) on tees
and fairways at Tokyo Golf Club (Komei Ohtani design, renovation work by Gil Hanse); e) on tees,
fairways, and greens at Kawana Hotel Fuji Course (C.H. Alison and Kinya Fujita design)

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Figure 4: Climate conditions for a number of Asian cities are plotted along with other locations forcomparison. When the average temperature is above 24°C, warm-season grasses have the potential
to grow at close to maximum rate. The climate in East and Southeast Asia, extending from regionswith short summers to tropical regions, is characterized by a daily light integral (DLI), a measure ofphotosynthetically active radiation, at or below 40 mol m −2 d −1 .

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Commonname

Scientific
nameManilagrass
Japanese lawngrass
Mascarenegrass

Zoysia matrella
Zoysia japonica
Zoysia pacifica

Leaf
width
1 to 3 mm
2 to 5 mm
1 mm

Table 1: The three primary species from the genus
Zoysia used on golf courses in Asia.

Questions about manilagrass
There are three species of grass from the genus
Zoysia that are in common use as turfgrass (Tathble 1).3 These species can form interspecific hy- Figure 5: The manilagrass tee of the par 3 17 holebrids so there are intermediate types ranging from at Bangkok’s Muang Kaew Golf Club. There are
the extremely fine-bladed Z. pacifica to the coarsest- more than 70,000 annual rounds on this course.
bladed Z. japonica. In general, manilagrass hasa fine leaf blade and is more suitable for linksis negatively correlated with turfgrass quality
style conditions, while Z. japonica has a coarser leaf
as a playing surface for golf. Slower growing
blade and better cold tolerance and is better forgrasses provide a better playing surface andrough or for northern regions with cold winters.
have a lower maintenance cost than do fasterZ. pacifica is sometimes used on putting greens ingrowing grasses.
Southeast Asia, but for links-style fairways I prefer
the growth habit of manilagrass.

Divot recovery
Establishment time

I’ve heard a concern that divot recovery, especially
One of the frequent objections to the use of manila- on tees, may be a problem. In response to that, I
grass is the time it takes to establish. “I agree that also like to make three points.
it is a fine grass, but it just grows too slowly, and
1. In Japan, approximately 1,800 golf courses
would not be feasible for my project,” is something
have manilagrass tees. On these golf courses,that I have heard on more than one occasion. In rewhich will be open year-round, the manilasponse to that, I like to make three points.
grass is dormant because of cold weather from
November to April. The grass on the tees only
1. In planting of manilagrass stolons on sand at
grows for about half the year, while divots are
the Asian Turfgrass Center research facility,taken from the tees all year, but divots are not
we achieved full coverage four months after
a major problem. If this can be done in Japan,
planting. Manilagrass planted by stolons, andon courses doing 40,000+ rounds of golf per
supplied with adequate water and nutrients,
year, with 20,000+ rounds on dormant maniusually achieves full coverage in SE Asia inlagrass tees, don’t we expect that manilagrass
three to four months.
tees on courses in Southeast Asia with a 12month growing season (Figure 5) will be able
2. There are alternative methods of planting
to recover from divots?
manilagrass, such as sodding, or plugging,or planting on soil (which will speed the
2. Manilagrass is known to overgrow and evengrow-in process considerably, see this video
tually dominate the sward in Southeast Asia
for a look at the method: http://youtu.be/when it is mixed with bermudagrass or mixed
frUkAmBSKyg). It is also known that manilawith seashore paspalum. If manilagrass overgrass can replace bermudagrass or seashore
grows those grasses, then it must be growing
paspalum in this climate if the two grasses
fast enough, at least averaged over the course
become mixed. Therefore, planting bermudaof 12 months, to be able to recover from divgrass or seashore paspalum at a low rate as aots.
nurse crop along with the desired manilagrass
is a possible, although not ideal, option.
3. Research at the University of Arkansas into
3. Although speed of grow-in is desirable forpractical reasons, the growth rate of the grass
3 Data on these grasses are from Clayton, W.D., Vorontsova,
M.S., Harman, K.T. and Williamson, H. (2006 onwards). GrassBase - The Online World Grass Flora. http://www.kew.org/
data/grasses-db.html. Note that Z. pacifica was formerly
called Zoysia tenuifolia.

M ANILAGRASS , O CTOBER 2013

divot resistance (Trappe et al., 2011a) anddivot recovery (Trappe et al., 2011b) determined that manilagrass is more resistant todivots than bermudagrass, that divots frombermudagrass on average were almost 2x
larger than divots from manilagrass, and thatsome cultivars of manilagrass have equal or

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faster divot recovery times than do some
types of hybrid bermudagrass. What we
can expect with manilagrass tees in Southeast
Asia are small divots to begin with combinedwith a recovery time very similar to that of hybrid bermudagrass.

Availability and use
I have also heard concern that it would be difficult
to use manilagrass in Southeast Asia because there
is a lack of availability of the grass or some uncertainty about how it may perform here. To that concern, I like to remind people that manilagrass is the
predominant grass used on golf course tees andfairways in Asia. Almost 2,000 courses in Japanuse manilagrass and hundreds more in Southeast
Asia do too. One need only visit a few of the turfgrass sites in Asia where manilagrass is grown to
see that it thrives and with the right maintenancecan produce an extraordinarily links-like turf.
I’ve been to or seen the grass from manilagrass nurseries in Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, China, Vietnam, Japan, and Korea, andI know that many other countries produce thisgrass. The quality of this grass is excellent, as Figure 3 shows. The best courses in Asia use manilagrass. There are also manilagrass varieties that one
can purchase from Australia or the United States.
These varieties, of course, were developed frommanilagrass plants collected in Asia.

Figure 6: Marked on this map are locations I’ve
visited to study turfgrass in Asia; locations specifically mentioned in this report are highlighted in
red.

Color
There are sometimes objections to the use of manilagrass in that it is too yellow and does not havea green enough color. To that, I can only respond,that I am more concerned about the quality of theplaying surface than I am about the color of thegrass. One can see from the variety of colors seenin Figures 1 and 3 that manilagrass can be maintained to have almost any shade of green that one
wants.
If one wants to have the best playing surface,then manilagrass must be considered.

My Travels and Research in Asia
My first visit to Asia was in 1998, when I beganwork as the assistant superintendent at Shanghai
Links Golf and Country Club. I would later become the superintendent there, and work in Japanas a superintendent, before attending graduate
school at Cornell University. I am now the Chief
Scientist of the Asian Turfgrass Center, and I travel
frequently and broadly through East, South, andSoutheast Asia, studying the grasses everywhere I
go. Figure 6 shows the places I’ve been in that partof Asia, where I travel to conduct research, advise,and teach about turfgrass management.
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Figure 7: At the Asian Turfgrass Center researchfacility, in experiments conducted near Bangkok
from 2006 to 2009, manilagrass overtook bermudagrass at a rate of about 1 m yr−1 ; here manilagrass(foreground) has grown into Tifway 419 bermudagrass (background) more than 2 m in less than
2 yr .

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Ishigaki Island in Japan: http://youtu.be/
O1TdPO8LCdk• Video about sunlight in Asia, turfgrass performance, and manilagrass: http://youtu.be/
KVfmFIVFkVs• Article on The R&A’s course managementsite gives an easy-to-read explanation of
turfgrass species that are commonly usedin Asia:
http://golfcoursemanagement.
randa.org/en/My-view/2012/12/
Grass-selection-in-Asia.aspx

Figure 8: A manilagrass lawn receiving minimal
maintenance and showing links-style characteristics, Bataan, Philippines• Information about zoysia on the Asian
Turfgrass Center blog: http://www.blog.
asianturfgrass.com/zoysia/

References
In addition to careful observation of the grasses
on old and new maintained turfgrass sites and in
the wild throughout Asia, I have grown and managed nearly all the warm-season grasses used as
turfgrasses in Asia (Figure 7). I was surprised at
the consistent performance of manilagrass at the
research facility and I have been surprised at the
many golf courses at which I have seen manilagrass invade and overtake the bermudagrass or
seashore paspalum.
Although manilagrass, bermudagrass, andseashore paspalum can all be maintained to
produce a links-style surface, it is much easier todo so, in the typical climate of East and Southeast
Asia, with manilagrass. The fact that the grass
grows so well means that it can be starved offertilizer and water and mown close - in short,
one can do practically anything to this grass tocreate a firmer and faster playing surface, without
damaging the long-term sustainability of thesward. If we withhold fertilizer from bermudagrass, or water from seashore paspalum, or mow
either of those species too short, the turf quality
suffers and additional work and forced growth
is required to bring back a sufficient turf density.
With manilagrass, the less we do, the more of alinks-style surface we will have (Figure 8).

More information, photos, andvideos• Photogallerywithmany
descriptive photos of manilagrass in Asia:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/
asianturfgrass/sets/72157621693718591/

Christian Baldwin and Haibo Liu. Altered light
spectral qualities impact on warm-season turfgrass growth and development. USGA Turfgrass and Environmental Research Online, 7(9):1–
12, 2008.
K. Razmjoo, T. Imada, and S. Kaneko. Warmseason turfgrass species quality and disease resistance in Japan. Journal of the Sports Turf Research Institute, 70:133–138, 1994.
Jon M. Trappe, Douglas E. Karcher, Michael D.
Richardson, and Aaron J. Patton. Divot resistance varies among bermudagrass and zoysiagrass cultivars. Crop Science, 51(4):1793–1799,
2011a.
Jon M. Trappe, Douglas E. Karcher, Michael D.
Richardson, and Aaron J. Patton. Bermudagrass and zoysiagrass cultivar selection: Part 2,
divot recovery. Applied Turfgrass Science, Online:
doi:10.1094/ATS–2011–0630–02–RS, 2011b.
B.G. Wherley, P. Skulkaew, A. Chandra, A.D.
Genovesi, and M.C. Engelke. Low-input performance of zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.) cultivars
maintained under dense tree shade. HortScience,47(7):1033–1037, 2011.
Greg Wiecko. Asian golf growth taxes bermudagrass’s flexibility. Golf Course Management, 68(2):69–72, February 2000.
Micah S. Woods. How much do clouds affectphotosynthetic irradiance? Measures of lightat Thailand, Hong Kong, Vietnam, and Japan.
Technical report, Asian Turfgrass Center, 2012.

Micah S. Woods. Achieving the warm season links.
Golf Course Architecture, (31):49–51, January 2013.
• Video showing how a ball bounces and rolls
across a manilagrass fairway in Thailand:
Xin-Ming Xie, You-Zhi Jian, and Xiao-Na Wen.
http://youtu.be/1eSkEozL8WUSpatial and temporal dynamics of the weed
community in a seashore paspalum turf. Weed
• Video of the natural growing environment for
Science, 57:248–255, 2009.
manilagrass from a narrated beach walk at
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