Conservation
Nursery Manual
4th Edition

Conservation Nursery Manual
Prepared by Carl Elliott, Evan Hayduk, Jaal Mann, Brianna Morningred
and Drissia Ras
The Evergreen State College
The Sustainability in Prisons Project’s mission is to bring science and nature into
prisons. We conduct ecological research and conserve biodiversity by forging
collaborations with scientists, inmates, prison staff, graduate students, and community
partners. Equally important, we help reduce the environmental, economic, and humancosts of prisons by inspiring and informing sustainable practices.

Partnership
The SPP is a fruitful partnership with many collaborators. Each partner plays a valuablerole in SPP’s science and sustainability programs. The founding partners are
Washington Department of Corrections (WDOC) and The Evergreen State College.
Most SPP programs involve additional partners such as:-Center for Natural Lands Management
U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Base Lewis-McChord
Washington Departments of Fish and Wildlife and Natural Resources
U.S. Department of Fish and Wildlife
Oregon Zoo, Point Defiance Zoo and Aquarium, Northwest Trek, and Woodland
Park Zoo
Community colleges, food banks, animal shelters, farms, beekeepers, and othercommunity organizations within a prison’s vicinity

SPP Programs
At its beginning we never imagined the vast array of programs that would be started
with our DOC partners. Here are a few of the sustainable programs we are thrilled to bea part of:
Native plant production
Food waste composting
Recycling
Sustainable purchasing
Butterfly rearing

Dog training
Firewood processing &distribution
Frog rearing

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A Story of Success
You are an integral part of the Sustainability in Prisons Project whether you are a staff
member or an inmate technician. Though it may be hard to see sometimes, this is thetruth: we could not do what we dream to do without you. With the help of staff members
and inmate technicians, an incredible start to a successful restoration of endangered
prairie ecosystems has been made possible. The work of SPP has supported thesuccessful reintroduction of endangered Oregon spotted frogs and Taylor’s checkerspot
butterflies, and the restoration of native habitat with almost one million rare prairie plants
produced to date. We are able to grow three times as many plants as we would be able
to grow without your help. You are a HUGE part of what we do, and we are thrilled thatyou’re part of the team.
Each of you will have many opportunities to grow and learn throughout your term with
SPP and we hope you’ll take advantage of them. As an inmate technician you will havea chance every day to learn about botany and how to successfully grow stubborn plant
species, and you’ll also have a chance to see where you fit in with this whole“sustainability” thing. A sustainable future involves everyone everywhere, and you are
an important part of that future. We hope that through your work with SPP you’ll not only
gain a sense of what sustainability means but also where you can work toward a moresustainable future. This is also true for staff members. We hope that you’ll take fulladvantage of the opportunity for hands-on experiences growing plants and learning
about sustainable practices with us.
This manual aims to guide decisions in the cultivation of native prairie plants and assist
with the daily nursery work: from filling trays, sowing seeds, and watering, to identifying
the seedlings or nursery weeds. In order to improve this manual in the future, please let
us know if there is any other information that you’d like to see added. Happy growing!

2

Seed Treatments
The seeds of many native plant species, some deciduous or evergreen trees andshrubs, and most herbaceous perennials and herbs are incapable of germinating
immediately after they are harvested. They will not germinate without pretreatments such as: stratification, smoke water, and scarification. These
treatments simulate the natural conditions that a seed must undergo before
germination is possible.
Some seeds need a treatment period because:- They have an under-developed embryo; they require a further period tocomplete the development of immature parts.
- They have built-in dormancy mechanisms (like mechanical barrier to wateror physiological "block") that prevent them from germinating (sprouting)until conditions signal that their environment is favorable to growth.
Depending on the species, seeds will not break dormancy:- Under too wet or too dry growing conditions.
- Under imminent winter conditions or high temperatures.

Seeds treatment methods:--

Dry storage: For seeds that require time for further development, dry
storage will sometimes suffice.
Stratification: First wetting seeds and allowing them to imbibe (absorb)
water, then providing a period of cold, warmth, or a combination of thetwo. This process can remove mechanical moisture barriers or
physiological blocks within the seed. Also, complex combinations of cold
and warm stratification can complete the maturation of underdeveloped
seed embryos.
Scarification: Eliminating or breaking of the seed coat through chemical,
thermal, or mechanical methods.
Smoke-water treatment: Soaking seeds in water containing captured
chemicals from the incomplete combustion of plant materials. Smokewater treatment promotes the germination, vigor and establishment of anumber of plant species.

These methods are explained in detail further in this section.

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Stratification
In most species of wild plants, the mother plant invests the seed with ahormone(s) to delay germination. These hormones make the embryo dormant
until environmental conditions and seed enzymes permit the hormone to bebroken down inside the embryo. The enzyme required is present in the embryo
but it is inactive until activated by temperature and moisture. This temperatureand moisture period is called stratification. After stratification, the seed is ready togerminate if the germination temperatures are suitable. In this way plants have
evolved a chemical mechanism to germinate at the most opportune time forseedling survival.

Types of Stratification
Depending on what the seeds may normally experience in nature and the form
(morphology) and function (physiology) of the seed there are four primaryprocesses to break seed dormancy.
1) Warm-wet. Temperatures above 12°C and moist seed. This process iscommon in desert regions where available water is a limiting factor forplant survival.
2) Cold-wet. Temperatures around 3°C and moist seed. The duration ishighly variable by species and geography: at least 2 weeks but sometimes
as much as 10 weeks. This stratification is common in temperate climatesand is the most common stratification technique used in the conservation
nursery.
3) Warm-cold-warm-wet. A combination of warm and cool treatments ending
with a warm treatment to germinate. Where summer temperatures arehigh and summer moisture is common, this is a method to breakdormancy. Frequently encountered in plants from the Eastern andSouthern U.S. and wetter climates in Asia.
4) Warm-cold-warm wet-and dry. A combination of warm-cold in moist
medium followed by a period in which the medium and seeds are allowed
to dry for one-to-a-few months, repeating this cycle for the necessary
number of treatments and ending with a warm treatment to germinate.
This is rarely encountered but sometimes found in plants from tropicalhigh elevations or plants with a complex combination of dormancy
mechanisms.

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Seeds that respond to one series of treatments have simple physiologicaldormancy caused by plant hormone processes. Plants that require repeatedtreatments or combinations of treatments may have a combination ofphysiological dormancy and a morphological dormancy usually caused by having
a naturally underdeveloped embryo in the seed.
Let Nature do the Work
Our default position for stratification is nature's way: we often sow the seed inautumn and leave out in the weather for natural cold-moist stratification. Though
we also run tests to measure the actual days in stratification needed by aspecies, “in pot” cold-moist stratification has proven very effective for many
species that germinate over a wide time frame. Planting the seeds in the fall for
germination the following spring can often satisfy a seed's requirement for coldmoist stratification. Also, some species will have a natural variation in the
duration of cold-moist stratification necessary to break dormancy. Sowing “inplace” in the pot and allowing for seasonal variation in temperatures often results
in a greater germination rate than stratification in a refrigerator for a set time
length. Additionally, we hold some trays of seeds for more than one year to see if
combinations of dormancy “breaking” mechanisms may be useful to germinate
some species.
Manipulative Stratification
Manipulative stratification is an old and simple practice of stimulating seed togerminate by placing layers of a moist media and seed and then submitting theseed to a period of temperatures that simulate a natural stratification time. The
seeds are soaked in mesh bags then wrapped with wet absorbent pads. The
seed and pad are stored in sealed containers such as polyethylene bags. The
bags are simply stored at room temperature to provide the moist warm treatment.
They can be placed in the refrigerator if a moist cold treatment is required at 24°C for the required length of time for the species. Each species has a slightvariation in stratification time; see the protocol in the individual species
descriptions for stratification durations.

5Stratification Procedure General
Labeling
It is very important that all labeling is in replicate. The inner mesh bag and theouter plastic bag all get the important information. Label both the outside of theplastic bags and plastic label with a waterproof pen. Include the stratification
starting date, when they are due to be removed from stratification, species, lot
number, and grams of seed. Do not make large bags of seed even if the lot
number is same, break out the seed into amounts a crew can sow in one day(approx.. 80 trays).
Soaking or Imbibing
Cold moist stratification requires the seed to be imbibed or soaked in water. The
time in the imbibe process varies for species. In general Asteraceae family takes
the least amount of time 4-8 hours. Most species seed imbibes approximately 12hours. Liliaceae (bulb seed) and Aquilegia can take up to 36 hours to imbibe.
Some seeds have a phenolic chemical inhibition to germination. These require
soaking and regular changing of water during the imbibe process, as a rulechange water every two hours or when the water turns brown. Remove in 6 to 36
hours and rinse.
Stratify
Record in the stratification log when you placed the seeds into stratification andwhen to remove them. Wrap in absorbent pads and place into sealed plasticbags with identifying information from the plant label written on masking tape on
the bags. Seeds of different species or lots may go in the same plastic bag iflabeled in full on the outside.
Place the sealed containers into the proper cold or warm stratification
environment. The seed should be monitored every two weeks to prevent
molding. Record all monitoring activities in the stratification log. If seeds start tomold, rinse them with cold water and air out bunched-up seed.

6Cold Stratification Protocol DetailAccount and Weigh Seed
1. What you will need:a. All seed lots to be stratified that day
b. A netted poly bag for each lot
c. Twist ties, 5in labels, hole punch, permanent marker, scissors
2. Remove appropriate species and seed lots(collection) from bin – For eachspecies and seed lot, please keep an accurate accounting of the following
on labels and in Record Sheet:a. CODON; lot number; year collected, location collected/grown out;
weight of seed, date in stratification, date out of stratification
3. Weigh amount of seed as listed on the Production Schedule for eachspecies and individual seed collection. If a large amount of seed from a lotor collection is to be stratified calculate how much seed a facility can sow
in a day – use 80 trays as standard even though SCCC can sow morethan that.
4. Place each collection or amount of seed to be sown in a day in a netted
poly bag (all except seed smaller than 0.5mm); label with plastic 5in labelwith a (punch hole) and secure twice with twist ties
5. Test secure bags in a tub of water to ensure no leakage of seed
6. Record above information on the Seed Stratification Record Sheet, on thelabel on the netted poly bag.
Imbibe Seed
1. Set up the bubbler to provide air circulation and moving water if you havea lot of seed, if you have a small amount you can use a plastic tote andchange the water every two hours
a. Materials: water trough, clamps, re-circulating pump, extension
cord 10 gal tub filled with water, a saw horse or other 3 ft high prop,
misc. stones about fist sizeb. Arrange a trough with the clamps and configure at a~ 4° slope fromsawhorse to water filled tub, reduce water loss due to drips byadjusting trough and tub
c. Install water pump and attaché hose to the top of the trough; plug in
2. Arrange seed bags for full emersion and secure with stones as needed
3. For a small amount of seed skip the bubbler process and use a small totefilled with water and change the water every two hours or so.

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Record the following on the stratification log
a. Seed Treatment if any and time placed in imbibe treatmentb. Inform Nursery manager, assistant or Plug Production Technician
of time the seed was immersed
4. Seed Removal (6 to 24 hours discuss with nursery manager regarding theappropriate amount of time for the species)
a. Remove seed and set over a tub to drip dry 3-4 hours
b. Set up for refrigerated cold stratification
Cold Stratification
1. Wrap each sample separately in absorbent cloth, making sure the seedbag is completely covered, this may take 2-4 cloths if the seed lot is large
2. place in plastic bags, keep plastic label and add additional label to theoutside of the bag on blue tape
3. Include on the blue tape label: genus, species, CODON, year and locationcollected, dry weight, and VERY IMPORTANT date put into stratificationand target removal date
4. Place in appropriate bin (tracked by target date or facility) in refrigerator
5. Record the following: Date into stratification, days in stratification

Sowing Stratified Seed
From April through July, 99% of the seed you will sow has spent some time incold-moist stratification prior to sowing. During this time it is kept in mesh bags,
wrapped in “chuck rags”, also known as “diapers”, and placed in a refrigerator.
The amount of time each set of seed spends in the refrigerator varies by species
and year.
While it is in cold stratification make sure to check the seed frequently for sprouts
and mold. You don’t want the seed to become over-moist, nor do you want it to
dry out. If the seeds begin to sprout they must become a priority for sowing
to maintain viability. If your seeds should sprout while in the refrigerator notify
your SPP staff member immediately.
Stratified seed can be moist enough that it is difficult to sow and thus a partial
drying can make the process easier. Once you are ready to dry and sow the cold
stratified seed, there are some key things to remember:
1) Only bring out the seed needed for that day of sowing.
2) Consider the known work time to bring out the correct amount of seed.
Spreading wet seeds on coarse paper towels works best for partial drying.

83) When you are drying the seed, be aware of:a. Excessive sunlightb. High temperatures
c. Wind4) You can dry the seed either indoors or outdoors, but be extremely careful
about the above factors; over-drying the seeds will reduce their viability.
Drying Process:1) Take seeds out of the fridge, lightly shake them up inside of the bag, andthen remove the seeds from the bag and set out in a single layer on
cookie sheet(s).
2) Pat seeds dry with coarse paper towels.
a. This does not always work, especially for smaller seeds.
b. Don’t use soft paper towels as they have a higher tendency to stickto the seeds.
3) If patting dry is not effective, leave the seeds on the cookie sheet in asingle layer to air dry.
a. Cover the seed with a towel or paper to slow the drying process.
B. BE COMPLETELY AWARE OF THE ABOVE-LISTEDENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (SUNLIGHT EXPOSURE,TEMPERATURE, WIND).
4) DO NOT leave seeds out drying for more than 2 hours.
a. Check on them after 1 hour to observe their progress; do not letthem fully dry out!
5) After the day’s sowing is complete, any left over seed must be
remoistened.
a. To remoisten and store this seed:i. Place back in mesh bag
ii. Remoisten the chuck ragiii. Wrap the mesh bag in the chuck rag and place back in thefridgeiv. CLEARLY LABEL ANY SEED THAT HAS BEEN
PREVIOUSLY DRIED WITH OLD AND NEW
INFORMATION.

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Seed Scarification
The protective coating that surrounds the seeds of many plants can prevent
water and gasses from entering the seed, thus stopping or delaying germination.
Species with hard seed coats can last for tens to hundreds of years without
germinating; in natural settings, it may take years of extreme temperatures, both
high and low, or a rare fire event to weaken seed coats sufficiently to allow
germination.
Any process of breaking, scratching, or altering the seed coat through chemicalor thermal methods to make it permeable to water and gases is known as
scarification. Scarification emulates the natural processes that weaken the seed
coat, but speeds up and controls the process, removing some of the naturalvariability in germination rates and leading to the permeability of seed coats. It isa standard technique in horticulture to facilitate the controlled and uniform
germination of seed lots. Scarified seeds should be planted as soon as possible
after treatment as they do not store well.
The term scarification is most often used to refer to mechanical scarification. In
this case the seed coats are filed with a metal rasp, rubbed with sandpaper,
nicked with a knife, or cracked gently with a hammer—all action intended to
weaken the seed coat. We have found vigorous rubbing with course grit (40 or50) sandpaper to be effective for scarifying large lots of seeds. When using thistechnique, examine the seeds with a hand lens before and after applying theabrasion. Rub the seed between the sandpaper for 3 minutes and examine theseed again. Repeat as necessary. Some species take 10 minutes while others
may need 30 or more. After the abrasion, the seed coats should be visibly
scraped or nicked with the seed coats missing from some areas. You will also
see some damaged seeds, an unfortunate byproduct of effective abrasion.
Another scarification method involves the use of hot water for brief periods.
Many species' seeds respond to fire scarification to achieve germination. The
active element is the fire’s high temperature, shattering the seed coat or making
the coat crack along its natural fissures. Sometimes the heat opens up a naturalplug (seed lens) at one end of the seed allowing water to enter the seed.

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Smoke Water Treatment
Smoke water is a solution containing unstable chemicals which result from low
temperature burning of any plant material. Our smoke water was made in a common
residential smoker that had a combustion chamber and a second chamber to cool thesmoke. The second chamber kept the air temperature less than 130°C most of the time.
This created a thick smoke of partially combusted plant material. The smoke wasvacuumed through a vessel of water for 1 hour, allowing the water to trap chemicals
from the smoke.

Why smoke water?
Certain species of plants have shown to increase germination rates and increased vigor
when treated with smoke water prior to sowing. This is particular true for plants in the
Orobanchaceae family, of which Castilleja hispida and Castilleja levisecta are members.
These Castilleja species are annual or perennial herbs and all are parasitic on the rootsof other plants – either holoparasitic or hemiparasitic (fully or partly parasitic). All
species in the genus Castilleja are hemiparasitic on the roots of another host plant.
Smoke water may increase germination and root vigor in Castilleja. Castilleja’s roots
respond to plant growth regulating chemicals such as strigol, which are regularly
produced by the roots of host plants. Strigol and butenolides, the active ingredient insmoke water, have a similar chemical structure to those host root-produced chemicals.
Thus, smoke water may act as a root stimulant for plants in the genus Castilleja.

Smoke water procedure
1) Place seed to be treated in a plastic 1 L container.
2) Prepare smoke water:a. Fill 100 ml container with de-ionized water. DE-IONIZED WATER IS NOTPOTABLE, DO NOT DRINK.
b. Pipette 1ml of smoke water out of container and add to the de-ionizedwater: this makes a 100:1 water to smoke water solution.
3) Mix smoke water solution with seed, using only enough solution to coat the seed,no more.
4) Let the seed stand for 24 hours.
5) Rinse and proceed to stratification protocol. Or, dry seeds by laying them in a
tray, trying to get them evenly distributed in a single layer for quick drying and set
up for stratification at a later date. Make sure to put them in a sealed container
and clearly label the seed, lot number, and date that they were treated withsmoke water.

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Sowing Procedure
Soil Mixes
A beneficial potting soil supports a balance of moisture, nutrient retention, andpore (air) spaces within the soil. We use a pre-mixed soil blend for our potting
soil that achieves that balance. The primary ingredient (50%) is decomposed
Douglas-fir bark. This has large particle size, which encourages drainage. It is
combined with small particles, which retain moisture. For additional moisture andnutrient retention, 30% of the soil mix is peat moss. To ensure long-termdrainage and increase pore space, 20% volcanic pumice makes up theremaining bulk of the soil mix. Agricultural lime to raise the pH and a slow releasefertilizer with micro-nutrients are added for long-term nutrient balance.
Preparing the soil
Fill a 9 cubic foot wheelbarrow nearly full, about 8 cubic feet of soil.
Measure 16 dry oz. of Apex 22-6-12 NPK Plus slow-release fertilizer in two
scoops of 8 dry oz.; add each scoop to the soil in the wheelbarrow andthoroughly mix the load in between scoops.
Be sure to mix all the way down to the bottom of the wheelbarrow to evenly
incorporate the fertilizer.

Filling Trays
Trays can be made in advance of sowing and stockpiled for a week. Check on
stockpiled trays to make sure the soil does not dry out excessively.
Materials:
 Plug Containers Prepared soil
 Metal tray covers Wooden soil tampers
 Film canisters
 Chopsticks, or spoons (optional)
Before filling any trays, check the moisture content of soil: it should feel as wet asa wrung out sponge. Moisten if necessary by mixing or with a watering can orstockpile inside to dry out.

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Once soil is ready to go into trays, set up a station at a strong worktable. Locate
the appropriate plug container size (c4, c7 or c10), and tray cover. (Appropriate
plug container information is located within species information.)
If plug container is a tray with cells, place tray cover firmly over tray and fill with
soil.
Lift tray and drop on table repeatedly to settle soil; top off and repeat. Once thesoil in the tubes does not compact further when dropped, use the soil tamper tocompact soil until the soil is about 0.5 inches below the top of the cells.
If the cones (cells) are uneven heights, tamp down cells that are still too high with
an empty film canister.
Make sure to remove any large amounts of dirt that have fallen in between thecells (leaving dirt between the cells increase the presence of weeds). Chopsticks
or the thin handle of a spoon work well for this purpose.
Stack and move full trays to greenhouse/sowing area.

Sowing Seed
The sowing protocols will list different techniques specific to each species. Use
the protocol to guide you with the following:The number of trays to sow
The number of seeds to sow in each cell
Cultural methods specific to the species: some seeds are sown on thesurface, some are covered with soil and others get soil and gravel (thesedepend on the seeds’ size and density).

Use sowing tray with a bent spoon/scoopula or dial-a-seeder to deliver theappropriate number of seeds per cell. Work slowly and carefully to deliver theappropriate amount of seed per cell; speed up once practice makes perfect.
Cover (if necessary)
Check protocol book for type of soil to use, and how much, to cover the sown
seeds: it may be different for each species. As a general rule, cover seed twice
the thickness of the seed; tiny seed is never covered, medium seed around 2mm
cover soil and large seed 4mm of cover soil. These are general rules; consult thesection of the manual describing each species and outlining the production
protocol.

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Place the metal tray cover over the cells, and use the sifter to gently cover thecells with the material. Check the corners and edges of the tray to ensure evencoverage—when filling trays the middle cells often fill faster than the corners andedges. For species that require gravel or rock covering, very little gravel or rockis necessary; a light dusting of 1-2mm keeps the seeds from floating away whenirrigated.
Check the depth of the cover soil by looking at what has accumulated on themetal tray cover.
When done DO NOT sweep the soil on the metal tray cover into the cells: thatwill put too much soil on top of the seeds.
Be careful when moving the trays, as you might lose seeds with abrupt
movement.
Surface Sown or Sown into Gravel
A few species require surface sowing or sowing into gravel. These seeds needlight to germinate or they are very small (> 2000 seeds/gram). Prepare the trays
before sowing with a light 1-2mm dusting of grit; you should still be able to see
the soil between the particles of grit when done. After sowing, water the seed inlightly so the seeds fall between the grit and the seed is not washed away fromexcessive water puddling.

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Watering & Irrigation
Plant Moisture Check-up
The farmers’ shadow is the best manure; this means all plants will do better if you checkon them daily, especially to check on the moisture of the potting soil. Most plants inmost conditions do not need to be watered every day, but they all need to be checked.
When thinking about watering, consider:--

Decide when to water by how the plant looks AND by looking at what ishappening in the soil. Before and after watering, pick up the cells and test if they
are wet by their weight. Also take a few plants out of their cells and pots to
examine the soil visually. These tests should be done before watering to note
how dry the soil is and after watering to see how deeply the water entered into
the soil.
Look over the watering pattern and note poor plant growth; no observation istrivial.
Watering should follow a pattern: active irrigation until the soil is saturated or justover saturation, followed by a rest period of a set number of days when the soil isallowed to dry. Alternating wet and dry allows active root growth; roots need bothwater and air for vigorous growth and to fight off disease.

Over Watering
Over watering is just as common as under watering. Symptoms of over watering do nothappen overnight; they are the result of days or weeks of too much water in the soil.
Symptoms of over watering are:-Decreased plant vigor
Yellow-brown to opaque/darkened lower leaves
Wilting from stem rot

All of these symptoms can look just like symptoms of under watering, so care andobservation are necessary to know which condition you are dealing with.

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Spot Watering
Even the most well designed automatic watering system has areas that do not receive
enough water. Also, different sizes of cells and pots dry out at different rates. Varying
pot positions can have an effect as well: the corners and edges dry faster than thecenters of the beds and tables. These factors create areas in a hoop house that will be
dry while the rest of the house is wet. Running irrigation will only make matters worse.
Spot watering by hand is the only way to remedy the situation. Spot watering means
FULLY SOAKING those dry the pots or cells. Spot water can only be done by hand and
it is one of the most effective ways to achieve uniform growth and increase successrates.

Hand Watering
Applying water should be like a persistent, gentle rain, NOT a West Texas flash-flood.
Use a fine water breaker (fine screen watering head) and go over the dry cells two or
three times. To hand water, follow these steps:--

Turn on the water away from the trays or pots
Let any air bleed from the hose
Always point the watering head up to create an arc of water over the plants
Never shoot water straight down into a tray or pot; this creates a flood, damaging
seeds and plants
Move smoothly and steadily over the watering area; do not let the water puddle.
Water the corners and edges more than the centers of beds or tables, and goover the area to be watered two or three times
Repeated watering is necessary to re-wet dry cells or pots; water follows waterand thus dry pots tend to leak water over the top or down the edges, rather thanabsorbing it. By slowly and repeatedly re-wetting the potting soil, more water will
be held in the soil and less will run down and out of the pot.
Irrigate until water is dripping from the lower drainage holes in the pots AND the
pot is heavy
After irrigation sample a number of pots to see how deeply the water penetrated;
re-irrigate if necessary

16How Often Do the Plants Need Water?
There are a number of factors that regulate how often the plants need to be watered.
Weather
Obviously dry, hot days are going to dry out the cells or pots faster than wet, cool days.
On warm sunny days the cells will need to be checked 2 times a day to see if there areareas that need to be spot watered. Wind can also dry the soil surface and the deeper
soil very quickly. Check the soil moisture level frequently during windy periods.
The plants’ age
Germinating seeds need more frequent, light watering until their first true leaves comeout. Check on germinating seeds 2-3x per day; spot watering is often necessary.
Established plants, after their first 4 leaves or so, can often dry out between watering;check on them every other day or so.
Larger plants with roots that fill the pots need more water and fertilizer; often these older
plants can be very hard to re-wet after the soil has dried out. More frequent watering will
be necessary.
The plant species
The type of plant or species and its root growth form sometimes dictate the amount ofwater a plant needs. It is okay for prairie plant cells to dry out a bit between watering
when the plants are actively growing and the roots have not yet filled the cells. Once theroots have filed the pots, more water more frequently will be necessary.
Plants with tap roots need less water – some examples are Armeria maritima, all
Lomatium species, and Balsamorhiza deltoidea.
Plants with numerous, dense roots need more water – some examples are Viola
adunca and plants from the daisy family: Eriophyllum lanatum, Solidago (goldenrod)
species, and Symphyotrichum (aster) species
Plants that go summer dormant (July and August) often require less water during thesummer. However, care must be taken as some species, such as Castilleja (paintbrush)species, cannot go bone dry. Other species, such as Dodecatheon (shooting-star)species and Delphinium (larkspur) species, can go fully dry in summer and we do notwater them during this time.

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Fertilizer Injector
We will use a fertilizer injector called the Fertigator a couple of times a month in thesummer to supply nutrients to larger and actively growing plants. When to apply fertilizer
will be communicated in e-mails or visits from SPP.
When using the Fertigator:-

Do not move the setting on the machine.
Make sure all parts are clean before and after using the machine.
Wash down all parts and the bucket, then run pure water in the bucket andthrough the feed line for 5 min, before beginning and after application.
Use 10 oz of fertilizer per 5 gal bucket of water.

Automatic Watering
See the Netafim guide for general ideas about how the system works. The reality is thatthe corners, edges and ends of the houses do not get enough water and dry out faster,so spot watering will always be required. Staff and SPP support staff will set the water
timer. The setting will be recorded in the watering log. Please do not change the setting
without recording it in the watering log.

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Why are These Prairie Plants so Picky?
On the prairies the majority of the plants go dormant in the summer; which means thateven the small plants lose their leaves, store nutrients in their roots and from all outward
appearances look dead. By cultivating them in the nursery, we are asking them toactively grow in the summer; this goes counter their natural seasonal pattern of growth.
So we have to be more careful when watering the plants. This means going over all thesteps in watering, understanding the irrigation system, knowing the plants and recording
all activities in the water log so we can all track any changes. This will allow us to adapt
our techniques to ensure the health of all the plants.

A few species that need more irrigation and hand watering, left to right:
Microseris laciniata, Erigeron speciosus, Symphyotrichum eatonii and Gaillardia
aristada Photos by Rod Gilbert

A few species that have distinct summer dormant periods wherewatering can be decreased but not eliminated, left to right:
Balsamorhiza deltoidea, Lomatium triternatum, Castilleja hispida,
Silene scouleri and Castilleja levisecta. Photos by Rod Gilbert

19

Record Keeping
Record keeping is essential to documenting progress and accounting for the
projected goals of the program. It also allows for the nursery programs to adapt
protocols for better results by learning from mistakes and successes; without arecord, it is near impossible to learn from trial and error.

Plant Labels and Tray Labels
To keep track of the species and seed lots, note on the label maker the following
for each species and seed lot number: species code, the date sown, seed lot
number, source of seed and any seed treatment.

Data Sheets
The following pages include samples of data sheets that technicians willcomplete daily and with the close assistance of SPP coordinators. There is alegend or explanation of all the columns in the sheets included before the sheets.
Designate one person on the crew to update them every day.
The data sheets include:-

Sowing Log – covers the first activities with each seed lot, from sowing
date through germination
Growth Tracking – covers plant establishment, active growth, and final
inventory for delivery
Germination Data Sheet – used when the majority of the cells havegerminated but before the trays are consolidated; it provides atemplate to sample 5 replicates of each lot number for germination rate
and filled cell rate. It is best to do this two to three times before
consolidating the trays—this will give sufficient data to analyze
germination rate and filled cell rate for each species.

Nursery Records
Use the nursery daily observation sheets to a record of the work you as a crew
have performed. Include the following on the sheet at a minimum but additional
information is helpful for the nursery coordinator.
-

Sowing methods – alterations from protocols or seed conditions
Daily activities – watering log, weather, weed observations
Plant growth observations including plant color and changes, insect
and disease observations

20

21

In grams write down the amount of seed used to accomplish the sowing for that lot # for that day

Date Sown

Seed Weight
Used (g)This column will include the actual number of trays, and the projected goal of amount of trays to sow shownin parentheses. At the end of the day, record the number of trays sown of each species and lot number.
Record the projected number in (): this is the number of trays calculated by the SPP staff that was the goal
for the amount of seed provided. By recording both actual amount of trays sown and projected, SPP staff
and nursery technicians can adapt sowing techniques to better meet sowing projections.

Record the date when the first germinants appear in the trays. The appearance of the first seedlings will varyfrom species to species. Refer to the plant descriptions in the manual or the plant ID cards for information onwhen to expect germination. Monitor weekly so that you don't miss the first few.

Each species has a unique number of seeds per cell. The number of seeds sown varies by the difficulty of
producing the seed, the number of plants needed, and past germination rate for the species. The number ofseeds per cell may change year to year depending upon any of the above factors.

After a number of the cells have observable germinants, this count is the number of individual cells that havea living plant in a tray. We sample 5 trays of each sowing lot to estimate a range and average for the whole
sowing lot.

Trays Sown
(Projected)

Date First
Germination

Seeds per Cell

Filled Cells per
Tray

Lot #

Species

Sowing Sheet
List the CODON for the species. The CODON was developed by the US Forest Service as a unique
identifier for native plant species. The CODON is the first two letters of the genus name and the first two
letter of the species name; for example, Armeria maritima is ARMA. Occasionally, two plants will have thesame CODON, as in Castilleja levisecta and Camassia leichtlinii ; if this is the case one plant gets a third
letter: CALE for the former and CALEI for the latter.
Regional seed collection involves numerous batches of wild-collected and farm-raised seed. We frequently
collect a small amount of seed from a number of sites, and each of these gets a unique lot number. Tracking
the lot number is very important to ensure we know the generic make up of seed from seed farms and for reintroduction to the wild; the seed produced at a farm gets another unique lot #. LOT NUMBERS ARE THE
MOST IMPORTANT INFORMATION ON THE TAG. LOT NUMBERS SHOULD BE KEPT TOGETHER.
PLEASE TAKE ALL CARE TO NEVER MIX UP LOT NUMBERS BY GROUPING LOT #s WITH THE SAMECOLORED LABEL.
Record at the end of the day all flats sown on that day for each codon and lot number. Tracking daily
accomplishments is also a great positive affirmation.

Explanation of Data Sheets: Sowing,Tracking and Germination Sheets

22

Establish Date

Date Filled Cells

A month or so after establishment, for most species we consolidate the established plants and dump out or
separate those cells that do not have germinants. After consolidation provide a count of the total number ofplants for each sowing lot.
Plants will grow at different rates. This date is recorded when a significant number of the plant's roots havereached the bottom of the cell and have filled the cylinder. Often this means the plants have completed mostof the active growing they can do in the cell. We can alter the sowing date in future years if we know theplants have been held in the cone-tainers for too long.

A seed may germinate but not thrive and grow to be an established plant. The date of establishment tells us
how long or what cultural methods it takes for a seed to become a plant. A good measure of plantestablishment is counting the number of true leaves: when they have two true leaves or two sets of true
leaves, the plants are established and watering can be reduced to promote deep root growth.

# of Plants
Established

Number of trays of established plants from each sowing lot as counted in the first week of September. We
may need to estimate plants that have not been consolidated, those sown after July 15th.

Sept. InventoryGerm. Total per
Tray

After a number of the cells have observable germinants, this count is the total of ALL the living plants in a
tray (including multiple plants in a single cell). We sample 5 trays of each sowing lot to estimate a range andaverage for the whole sowing lot.
Date of Last
Many of the species grown in the conservation nursery germinate over a long period--as much as 5 months.
By noting the difference between the first and last significant germination, we can adapt the sowing
Significant
protocols to improve overall germination and plant growth.
Germination
Please record any important information, bad smelling seed, lots of chaff, seed hard to sow etc.
Notes
Recording the seeds sown per cell, the number of filled cells per tray, and the total germinates per tray for each sowing lot
allows us to track the germination percentage and alter the sowing rate for each species from year to year. This is very important
information to make the conservation nursery run more effectively and efficiently.
Growth Tracking Sheets
repeat the information from above
Species
repeat the information from aboveLot #repeat the information from above
Date Sown
Number of trays of established plants from each sowing lot as counted in the second week of July. Do not
July Inventory
count plants sown June 1 - July 15.

Explanation of Data Sheets: Sowing,Tracking and Germination Sheets

23

Insect andDisease Issues

Record all incidents of disease, insects, and weeds. Record the method of control, and frequency andduration of all measures taken--this is true for all physical, mechanical, and chemical controls. Use multiplelines on the data sheet as necessary.
Note any unique cultural techniques used to grow the lot, any characteristics that made that lot stand out
from others, or any relevant information that was not previously noted. Useful conclusions or
Notes
recommendations for next year can be abbreviated here.
Germination SheetThis is a means to achieve an estimation of the germination rate and filled cell rate of all seed lots. We
usually cannot sample a whole population or all the trays sown from a seed lot. Instead we take arepresentative sample: usually 3 to 5 trays is enough. ONE VERY IMPORTANT NOTE: WHEN SELECTING
THE 3-5 SAMPLE FLATS CHOOSE RANDOMLY. TURN YOUR BACK AND PICK A RANDOM NUMBER,Why?
COUNT TO THAT FLAT, AND SAMPLE THERE. DO NOT PRE-SELECT THE BEST OR WORST FLATS.
Germination sampling is vital because it allows us to adapt the number of seeds per cell and the total
number of trays sown for future years.
repeat the information from above
Date Sown
repeat the information from above
CODON
repeat the information from aboveLot #repeat the information from above
Seeds per Cell
note the number of the replicate 1-5
Rep. #
Total Germinants Count ALL the seedlings in one tray; this is one replicate. Repeat for 4 more trays
Filled Cells/Tray Count the total of filled cells: cells that contain a living plant of the species we want (not a weed)Note odd observations or problems with the sowing, such as too dense or sparse germination
Comments

Explanation of Data Sheets: Sowing,Tracking and Germination Sheets24

Species

Lot #

Trays
Date Sown Seed Weight Sown
(projected) Used (g)(proj.)
Date First
Germ

Seeds Filled Cells Indiv. Germ Date last
per Cell per Tray
total per Tray sig. Germ

Demonstration Sowing Log 2013‐2014

Notes

25

SpeciesLot #Date Sown July Inventory Sept Inventory Establish(projected) (# Trays)(# Trays)Date# of Trays Date Filled Insect Disease
Established Cell
IssuesDemonstration Growth Tracking 2013-2014

Notes

LOCATION:DATE:TECHNICIAN:

Date
Sown

CODON

Germination Data Sheet

Sds
Lot # per
Cell

Rep. Total#
Germinants

26

FilledCells/Tray

Comments

WCCW Conservation Nursery Daily Observation Sheet Date: 11/30/13
 Crew Members: Bri M., Carl E.
 Weather: Foggy and cloudy in the morning, the sun came out after lunch. It’s
cold today but not freezing
 Tasks Accomplished: Today we sowed BADE, we sowed 35 trays. We covered
the sown trays with floating row once we watered them. We also filled sometrays for tomorrow’s sowing.

 Did you water today? No, the cells were still very moist—except the trays wesowed today, we did water those When did you last water? We last watered about one and a half weeks ago on
11/18

 Notes/Questions for SPP Nursery Coordinator
Some examples of questions you may have:
We noticed that there’s a lot of stuff besides seed in the seed packets—what is it?
We haven’t watered in a long time—is that ok?
Why are we sowing so much of this plant, where does it get planted out?
**No question is too small or insignificant—don’t be afraid to ask any question herethat comes to your mind**27

Transplanting Protocols
Transplanting, also called picking out or replanting, is the technique of moving plantsfrom one soil-location to another. Our most frequent need for transplanting comes when
there are many seedlings competing for water and nutrients in the same cell.
Different species react differently to transplanting. The main goal is to avoid
transplanting shock: the stress or the damage of being in a new environment, andrecovering from any damage to roots or foliage incurred during the transplanting
process. After transplant, the plants need a period of acclimatization (adaptation to the
new environment). This means that the plants will require more attention and check-in
on water and nutrient needs until they have recovered.
Follow these steps to minimize the root disturbance, protect from the weather
conditions, and care for the seedlings during and immediately after transplanting.
1) Create a shade house with shade cloth over the hoop house. Set up a meshtable under the shade cloth: use a 2 ‘x 2’ piece of plywood to work on. Have asource of water ready to water-in transplants, and a damp rag or piece of burlap
handy to cover exposed roots of plants as needed.
2) Consolidate all the cells into four groups:
1. Large enough and crowded enough to prick out (i.e., more than 5 plants percell)
2. Plants too small to prick out
3. Plants not crowded enough to prick out
4. Plants not germinated.
3) Check soil moisture. Cells to transplant should be a little on the dry side; partiallydry soil makes it easier to separate the plants.
4) Make a number of racks of cells filled less-than-to-the- top and set by thetransplant area.
5) Before beginning, create labels for all the trays you are expecting to transplantinto. This will keep track of the different species and lot numbers and make sure
you never forget to label.
6) Invert cells with the plants to extract entire plug of soil and roots.

287) Lightly drop plug of soil and plants on the plywood; this will loosen the soil aroundthe roots.
8) Tease the plants apart by handling the cotyledons (first leaves) or the oldest
leaves; try not to handle the roots. Repeat lightly dropping the clumps of plants
until the roots of the various seedlings separate.
9) Hold a single seedling by cotyledons or oldest leaves and move it to a new cell.
10) Move quickly as ROOTS SHOULD NOT BE ALLOWED TO DRY OUT. Dryingout can easily happen in any weather, as roots are not made to be exposed toair. If you interrupt work for any reason, USE A DAMP CLOTH OR RAG TO
COVER ALL EXPOSED ROOTS.
11) Use a dibble to make a hole in the new soil. Try not to bunch the roots in thehole; instead, lay them flat out on one side and move soil to them horizontally tocover the roots completely.
12) Bury the seedlings to the same level as in the original cell, or a little higher. Do
not bury them too deeply, as this may rot the stem and kill the plant.
13) Re-check to make sure all trays are labeled before moving them to a shaded
spot in the hoop house.
14) Water-in as soon as possible and keep in the shade for 24 hours before moving
them to their permanent spot.
15) Check frequently on fresh transplants to monitor soil moisture and check forsigns of stress. Take action as needed!

29Plant Identification
Most everyone thinks they can identify a plant and generally they are correct. We can all
pick out the leaves, stems, flowers and seeds; Voilà tout, that is a plant. However, thatis not all there is to a plant. In the conservation nursery we cultivate over 65 species per
year and even more species of weeds can appear in the nursery or flow in from thesurrounding landscape. Identifying the qualities and characteristics of plants in moredetail can provide you with the skills to discover the diversity in plant life and thesimilarities among plants that allow humans to have a working knowledge of thisbiological life.
There can be a lot of information in a scientific plant name. People who classify plants
for a living (plant taxonomists) strive to give plants a name that will somehow describe
its characteristics. The attributes included in a plant name could be:
1. Plant form and structure (morphology)
2. Evolutionary history/relations to other plants (systematics)
3. Historical name or historical edible and medicinal use
4. Plant life cycle
5. Where is grows in the wild (plant biogeography)
6. Lastly, personal ego: some plants were named to recognize important planttaxonomists or those who coordinated large herbariums
Let us choose a common prairie species and a weed to examine how a plant name isuseful to describe the plant. In the plant description section of the manual, there are anumber of classifying names for plants provided for prairie plants and weeds. At the endof this section you will find an illustrated glossary that will aid you in identifying the terms
used in the following examples.
1. Castilleja hispida, Harsh Indian paintbrush, Orobanchaceae Family
The scientific name is Castilleja hispida. The first name Castilleja is the classification of
the genus and all members of Castilleja have similar attributes of plant structure andform. Unfortunately, Castilleja does not describe an attribute of the genus; it is the last
name of Domingo Castilleja, a Spanish botanist that collected extensively in theAmericas. The second name, hispida, is the species name that separates this plantfrom other 200 species in the genus. Hispid is the botanical description of the stiff hairsthat stand up like bristles on the stems and leaves of the species.
Orobanchaceae is the plant family classification. The family name comes from the mostabundant single genera or related plants that can be grouped together in the family. All
genera (plural of genus) in the Orobanchaceae share some similar attributes. The
plants are full or partial parasites on other plants, they have significant storage roots,30

and leaves are reduced and often fully absent. The flowers are reduced but often have
showy leaf structures (bracts) surrounding the flower. The flowers are five (rarely four)
petaled, usually fused together in a tube with four stamens. The carpel holds numerous
seeds in a dry capsule that disperses the small seeds by wind.
The common name, harsh Indian paintbrush, is a good descriptor of the species, thoughhispid is more precise than harsh. Many people drop the first part of the name and callthe plant simply Indian paintbrush. Thus by using the common name the uniquecharacter of Castilleja hispida is often lost.
2. Wild Lettuce • Sow Thistles • Sonchus oleraceus. Asteraceae Family
This weed is common throughout cultivated lands in the Mediterranean. The ancient
Greek name for this plant was sonchus, referring to the hollow stem of the plants fromthis genus. Botanists are partial to Greek and Roman names for plants and many
common weeds retain the names used in antiquity. The species name refers to how the
young plant was commonly eaten as a salad. Oleraceus means a cultivated edible
plant. Thus this particular plant was once not considered a weed at all but was welcome
in cultivated areas for its choice young leaves.
The plant family is Asteraceae or aster. Asters are the most abundant genus in thisfamily therefore the family is named for that genus. Once the aster family was called thecomposite family because the flower heads are a composite of hundreds of small
flowers. See Symphyotrichum chilense spp. Hallii in the plant description section for agood illustrated diagram of an aster flower.
Scientific names can be intimidating at first but by frequent use become like a second
language. As with any new language it helps to see through the words and look into
what they really mean. SPP has provided a number of illustrated glossaries, plant
identification manuals and plant name dictionaries that can introduce you to the specificknowledge involved in the naming and classification of plants
Common names often seem easier to remember than scientific names, but they are notas precise. Not only can a common name refer to very different plants, conversely asingle species can have more than one common name. This can lead to confusion, andpotentially to serious problems if people confuse weedy or poisonous species withharmless species. Hopefully by becoming familiar with scientific plant names you will
begin to recognize their precision and usefulness to broadening your understanding of
the plant itself.

31

32

33

A

R
M

C

H

S

E

SC

Slide Photo from Ohio State Plant Physiology Lab

Definitions for Dicot Seed Parts
Hilum (H): Specialized cells forming an attachment with the maternal plant.
Apex (A): End of seed opposite the hilum or farthest away for the maternal attachment
Seed Coats (SC): Layers of cells forming the outer edge of the seed. The seed coatsalso have additional specialized cells surrounding the endosperm where plant growth
regulators are concentrated.
Micropyle and/or Lens (M): The folded channel in the seed coat where most of thewater enters the seed. An impermeable lens covers the micropyle in species with hard
seeds.
Endosperm (E): Cells designed to store starch and provide sugars to the developing
embryo.
Radicle (R): The root tip of the developing embryo.
Cotyledons (C): The pair of first leaves on a young shoot.
Suspensor and Basal Cell (S): Specialized cells to hold the developing embryo
against the seed coat wall.

34

General Strategies for Insect and Mite Management
The conservation nursery primarily grows plants to create habitat for rare andthreatened butterflies. Eventually some insect will either eat the nectar or leaves of theplants we grow. This potential for our plants as food greatly reduces the choices wehave to control insects in the nursery. Many modern insecticides function systemically inthe plant and can remain in the plant for over a year. Obviously, these systemic
insecticides cannot be used. A number of biological insecticides we have used in thepast, we have chosen to discontinue.
The conservation nursery has adopted the precautionary principle when it comes topesticide application. If there is any possible pathway for an insecticide to affect any
butterfly now or if the insecticide effects could persist we choose not to use it. Becauseof this principle we rely heavily on the first stages of Integrated Pest Management tocontrol pest and diseases. The first step is diligent cultural control. Many of the
protocols are detailed for a reason; these methods of nursery cultivation reduce or
eliminate the need for further measures. This is particularly true when it comes to thetiming of sowing and cultivation and effective yet precise water use to reduce insect anddisease problems.
The second step is monitoring plant growth. We provide a number of workshops on
insect monitoring and cultural controls through the growing season. Below is an outlineof general monitoring techniques. We will extensively use sticky traps and sticky tape as
monitoring and mass trapping techniques. These mechanical methods of control, which
may include manual removal, will be important to control insect populations.
The third step is the introduction of beneficial insects to the nursery. We plan on trialing
beneficial nematodes for the control of fungus gnats and predatory mites to control
thrips and two-spotted spider mites. The last step will be the use of
insecticides/miticides. We will only use two products in the conservation nurseries. One,horticultural soap and two, horticultural oil will be used to control aphids, whiteflies, miteeggs and powdery mildew. These products have a residual effect of less than 2 weeks
and function in a mechanical means by either drying out or smothering the target insect.
Thus insects are less apt to develop pesticide resistance to these substances.

Cultural Controls are Essential
Pests are generally brought into the greenhouse on new plant material or come into thehoop houses from the doors and sides. Many are able to survive short periods of time
between harvest or plant removal and production of the next crop. Cultural controls are
the primary defense against insect infestations.

35

The following cultural practices will help to prevent pest infestations:
1. Inspect new plants thoroughly to prevent the accidental introduction of pests into
the greenhouse.
2. Keep doors, screens and ventilators in good repair.
3. Use clean or sterile soils or ground media. Clean or sterilize tools, flats and otherequipment.
4. Maintain a clean, closely mowed area around the greenhouse to reduce invasion
by pests that develop in weeds outdoors.
5. Eliminate pools of standing water on floors. Algal and moss growth in theseareas can be sources of fungus gnat and shore fly problems.
6. Dispose of trash, boards and old plant debris in the area.
7. Remove all plants and any plant debris; clean the greenhouse thoroughly after
each production cycle.
8. If possible, allow the greenhouse to freeze in winter to eliminate tender insects
like whiteflies.
9. Avoid overwatering and promote good ventilation to minimize wet areas
conducive to fly breeding.
10. Avoid wearing yellow clothing which is attractive to many insect pests.
11. Maintain a weed-free greenhouse at all times.
12. Eliminate infestations by discarding or removing heavily infested plants.

Monitoring
Early detection and diagnosis of pest infestations will allow you to make pest control
decisions before the problem gets out of hand. It is good practice to make weekly
inspections of plants in all sections of the greenhouse. When monitoring, select plants
so that they represent the different species in the greenhouse. Pay particular attention
to plants near ventilators, doors and fans. At least 1% of the plants need to be
examined on each monitoring visit in the greenhouse.
Insect monitoring devices should be used in the greenhouse. Yellow sticky cards (PTInsect Monitoring & Trapping System, Whitmire, St. Louis, MO) are highly attractive towinged aphids, leafminer adults, whiteflies, leafhoppers, fungus gnats thrips (blue cards
can also be used with thrips), various flies and other insects. These can be used to alert36

you to the presence of a pest and identify hot spots in the greenhouse. One to threecards per 1000 square feet in the greenhouse is recommended. Cards should bechanged weekly. Typically, these sticky cards are suspended vertically just above thetops of the plants. They can be attached to sticks or hung on string. If you cannot
identify a trapped insect, contact your county Extension agent for assistance.
Mass trapping products such as sticky tapes are also available for management ofthrips, whiteflies, leafminers and fungus gnats. While sticky cards are primarily used justto alert you to insect infestations, mass trapping tools are used to reduce and manage
insect infestations. Mass trapping relies on using enough surface area of the attractive
sticky tapes to capture and reduce pest numbers. Care should be taken to keep
monitoring and trapping products dry and free of debris. This will maintain effectivenessof the traps.
Biological Control Agents
Natural enemies are commercially available for control of some greenhouse pests.
Levels of pest control obtained with beneficial organisms will vary greatly depending ona number of factors, including:

species of pest involved



species of natural enemy used

timing of release of natural enemy relative to pest buildup and crop development

number of beneficial insects released

greenhouse temperature and range of fluctuation

time of yearcondition of the beneficial insects at release

pesticide usage before and after release of beneficial insects

Biological control generally requires more time than pesticides to bring a pest population
under control. Natural enemies require time to disperse from release sites and to searchfor prey or hosts. Appropriate natural enemies should be released as soon as the pest
is detected in the greenhouse.
Natural enemies do not provide sufficiently rapid control of pests that are alreadycausing serious losses, and they will not generally eradicate an infestation. In someinstances, using an insecticidal soap or other non-residual insecticide is recommended
to reduce the infestation before releasing the natural enemies. Knowledge of pest

37

biology and monitoring of pest populations are critical to determining when to makereleases.
Greenhouse managers should avoid unnecessary insecticide/miticide applications
before and after release of natural enemies. If insecticide/miticide treatments are
required, limit treatments to pest “hot spots” to avoid treating the entire greenhouse.
Use a selective, short residual pesticide if possible. For example, Bacillius thuringiensis(Bt) products can be used to control caterpillars without harm to natural enemies in thegreenhouse.
Beneficial Organisms Commercially Available for Greenhouse Pest Management
Beneficial organism

Pest controlled

Parasitic wasps, Encarsia formosa

Whiteflies

Parasitic wasps, Aphytis melinus

ScalesLeafminer parasite, Dacnusca sibiriica and Diglyphus isaea

Serpentine leafminers,
fungus gnats

Predatory mites, Amblyseius californicus, Phytoseiulus
longipes and Phytoseiulus persimilis

Spider mites

Predatory mites, Amblyseius cucumeris and Amblyseius
mckenziei

ThripsLady beetles, Hippodamia convergens and Cryptolaemus
montrouzeri

Various soft-bodied
insects and eggs

Green lacewings, Chrysoperla carnea

Various soft-bodied
insects and eggs

38

Pesticide Management
Greenhouse operators need to maximize the effectiveness of insecticides and miticides.
To provide adequate control, a pesticide must be applied at the proper rate, when thepest is present. Sufficient coverage and pressure are needed to penetrate dense foliage
and reach the target pest. This is especially important for sucking insects that infest thelower surface of leaves. Older, lower leaves can be removed to open the canopy ofsome crops to increase spray coverage. Insecticide or miticide applications must
sometimes be repeated frequently to maintain a pest at acceptable levels.
Timing of pesticide applications is important. Some pests are vulnerable to pesticides
only at certain stages in their life cycle. For whitefly management, begin control
measures early. If control action is delayed until an abundance of adult whiteflies can beseen, then numerous eggs and immature stages, which are more difficult to control, areusually present.
With a limited number of pesticides available for greenhouse use, it is always a concernthat pests may develop resistance to pesticides. Managers should rotate among
different pesticides for successive applications when controlling specific pests.
Rotations must include pesticides belonging to different chemical classes that use
different modes of action to control the pests. This will prevent, or at least delay, thedevelopment of resistance to a particular pesticide.
To aid pesticide applications, plants that are frequently infested by the same pest andcan be legally sprayed with the same material should be grouped together. This will
reduce the potential for misapplications to unlabeled crops. Additionally, moving
infested material through the greenhouse can spread an infestation to other areas.

39

Insecticides/Fungicides
Before applying any herbicide, insecticide, or fungicide you must first read the productlabel. The label will provide very important information such as how much of thechemical should be applied, which plants it can be applied to, protective equipment
required for the person applying, what to do in case of a spill or accidental exposure,and other crucial information. The product label is available in several places- it is on filewith the Department of Corrections staff, covered by SPP staff during training, andprovided in this manual. Please always read the label before using these chemicals.
Improper use can be dangerous for your health, the plants, and the environment.

Horticultural Summer Oil
Unlike many gardening products that show promise in laboratory experiments but failunder real-world conditions, horticultural oils have been extensively tested in the lab,greenhouse, nursery, and field on a variety of insect pests found on many species of
herbaceous and woody plants. Though not effective on all garden pests, horticulturaloils can successfully combat common nuisances including aphids, scale, whiteflies(insects), and mites (arachnids). All are controlled by relatively low concentrations of oil(usually 1-2%) that generally are not toxic to the leaves of plants.
Horticultural oil application immediately creates a physical barrier to respiration by theinsect by clogging the spiracles or breathing pores, along the sides of adult and larvae
abdomens. Similarly, oils applied to egg masses inhibit oxygen uptake and decrease
hatching success. Though contact mortality is considered to be the primary mode ofaction, horticultural oils also interact with cell membranes, interfering with their function
and possibly creating toxins.
Early formulations of horticultural oils tended to contain impurities that caused damage
to the foliage of many plant species. Modern formulations are highly purified and bear
little resemblance to those first toxic mixtures of kerosene and other volatile chemicals,
and professionals who routinely apply oils report little damage to plant material.
Horticultural oils are easy to apply and are relatively safe even for new growth, provided
mixing and application directions are carefully followed.
It’s worth exploring the circumstances under which plants might be damaged byhorticultural oils. While horticultural oils are intended to remain on leaf surfaces to havetheir pesticidal effects, they often end up inside the leaves as well. Using a variety ofimaging techniques, researchers have been able to visualize movement of oils throughthe stomata and across the cuticle. Once inside, oils are able to move throughout
treated leaves and into adjacent, untreated tissues. In some cases, this foliar uptake

40

can result in phytotoxicity, manifesting itself as chlorotic or yellowing leaves, whichmight then develop brown stippling, necrotic leaf tips and margins, and/or a watersoaked appearance before eventually dying. Happily, horticultural oils do not cause
phytotoxicity to the vast majority of landscape plants. However, very few native
perennial plants have been tested for phytotoxicity caused by horticultural oils.
The Conservation Nursery will continue to use horticultural oils on a limited basis for thecontrol of mites, aphids and thrips as well as a secondary method to control powdery
mildew.

Horticultural Soap
Horticultural soap is defined as any potassium fatty acid soap used to control plantpests. Insecticidal soap is typically sprayed on plants as a foliar (leaf) application.
Insecticidal soap only works when in direct contact with pests. The fatty acids in thesoap disrupt the structure and permeability of the insect’s cell membranes, allowing thecell contents to leak from the damaged cells, quickly killing the insect.
Insecticidal soap works best on soft-bodied insects such as aphids, mealybugs, spider
mites, thrips, and whiteflies and is 40-50% effective against these pests. Manybeneficial pollinators and adult forms of predatory insects such as lady beetle adults,
bumble bees, and syrphid flies are relatively unaffected, though few studies have been
done on soap’s effects on larvae.
Soaps have low mammalian toxicity. However, they can be mildly irritating to the skin oreyes. Insecticidal soaps may cause phytotoxicity (toxic to the plant) symptoms, such as
yellow or brown spotting on the leaves, burned tips, or leaf scorch on certain plants. In
general, some vegetable crops and certain ornamentals are sensitive to burn caused bysoaps. Multiple applications in a short time interval and water conditioning agents canaggravate phytotoxicity. When uncertain, spot treat a small portion of the plants, andwait at least 24 hours to see if any symptoms develop before treating an entire group ofplants. Plants under drought stress, young transplants, unrooted cuttings, and plants
with soft young growth are more likely to develop symptoms and should not be treatedwith soap.
The concentration of the spray is more important than the amount of soap applied.
Usually insecticidal soaps are used as a 2% solution. Soap sprays, alone or in
combination with horticultural oils or botanical oils, are also valuable in the managementof certain plant diseases, most notably powdery mildew. Repeated applications may benecessary to adequately control high populations of pests or diseases. Always read thelabel for specific instructions before applying.

41

If insecticides seem necessary, use the safest
products.

Aphids✦ Use nonchemical pest control methods firstto manage aphid populations. However, if you
feel insecticides are necessary, choose less toxic
products.
✦ Insecticidal oils and soaps are the safest products.
When properly used, these materials solve most
pest problems.
✦ Oils and soaps work by smothering aphids, so
apply these products thoroughly. Don’t apply themto drought-stressed plants or when it is very hot.
A few plants are sensitive to these products.
✦ Apply insecticidal soaps, soap-pyrethrum mixtures,or neem oils on vegetables or small bushes suchas roses.
✦ Narrow range horticultural oils—such as supremeor superior oils—are appropriate for larger trees.
✦ Oils and soaps don’t kill aphids hidden withincurled leaves. Prune these out. Systemic
insecticides can kill hidden aphids, but they aremuch more toxic and might kill honey bees andparasites on flowering plants.

Almost every plant has one or more
aphid species that occasionally feed on it, but
low to moderate numbers of aphids usuallyaren’t damaging to gardens or landscapetrees. Although aphids can curl leaves and produce
sticky honeydew, they rarely kill plants and you usually
can wash them off with water. When aphid numbers
get high, natural enemies frequently feed on them,eliminating the need for pesticides. When pesticides arenecessary, use less toxic products such as insecticidal
soaps and oils.

Aphids are common in your garden because:✦ Aphids like lush new growth. Don’t over fertilize.
Use organic or slow-release products.
✦ Aphids build up on flowering plums, roses, tulip
trees, crape myrtles, apples, and many vegetables.
Expect aphids when you grow these plants.
✦ Ants protect aphids from beneficial insects. Keepants off plants to help natural enemies do their job.

See Pest Notes: Aphidsat www.ipm.ucdavis.edu for more details.

To reduce aphids:✦ Prune out infested leaves and stems.
✦ Knock aphid populations off plants by shaking theplant or spraying it with a strong stream of water.
✦ Protect seedlings with covers or aluminum foil
mulches.
✦ Wait for hot weather; most aphids are heatintolerant and will be gone by mid-June.

Green peach aphid colony.

Protect aphids’ natural enemies:

A healthy aphid is flanked by mummified
aphids killed by parasitic wasps.

Minimize the use of pesticides that pollute ourwaterways. Use nonchemical alternatives or lesstoxic pesticide products whenever possible. Read
product labels carefully and follow instructions
on proper use, storage, and disposal.

✦ Lady beetles, both adults and larvae;✦ Lacewings;✦ Syrphid fly larvae;✦ Soldier beetles; and✦ Parasitic mini-wasps that turn aphids into crusty
mummies.

For more information about managing pests, contact your
University of California Cooperative Extension officelisted under the county government pages of your phone bookor visit the UC IPM Web site at www.ipm.ucdavis.edu.

Beneficial insects such as lady beetles and lacewings
will come into your garden naturally when aphids areabundant. Protect these good bugs by avoiding the useof insecticides that can be toxic to a broad variety of
insects.

What you use in your landscapeaffects our rivers and oceans!

University of California
Statewide Integrated Pest
Management Program

Statewide IPM Program

42

University of California
Cooperative Extension

June 2011

Thrips are difficult to control. Combine
methods in an IPM program:

Thrips✦ Find out what species you have and research thebest approach; see Pest Notes: Thrips at www.ipm.
ucdavis.edu.
✦ Conserve parasites and predators by avoiding
persistent pesticides.
✦ Avoid overwatering or applying nitrogen fertilizer,
which can increase thrips populations.
✦ Prune off declining, injured, or infested plant parts.
✦ Apply row covers or cages over small plants to
exclude thrips.
✦ Cover soil with reflective mulch, which repels
flying thrips if foliage covers less than about halfof the soil surface.

When thrips feed, they distort or scarleaves, flowers, or fruit. Healthy woody plants
usually tolerate thrips, although damage can become
unattractive. Herbaceous ornamentals and developing
fruits and vegetables can suffer more serious injuries. Usean integrated program combining good cultural care, pest
exclusion, planting thrips-resistant species, and protecting
natural enemies by using least-toxic insecticides.

Thrips are tiny, slender insects with hairs on
their wing margins.

Pesticides.

✦ They are less than ⁄ inch long, and their color
varies depending on the species and life stage.
✦ Thrips hatch from eggs and develop throughtwo feeding larval (nymphal) stages and two
nonfeeding stages (prepupa and pupa) before
developing into adults.
✦ Certain thrips are beneficial predators of some
insects and mites.
✦ Most pest thrips feed while hidden, often in buds
and shoot tips or beneath sepals; you’ll often
observe the damage before seeing the thrips.
✦ Greenhouse thrips and western flower thrips are
two common pest species in landscapes.
1
20

Pesticides won’t restore the appearance of injured
tissue. Plants remain damaged until injured tissue drops oris pruned off and new growth appears.Thrips are difficult tocontrol with pesticides. Often pesticides won’t be effective
unless you wait until the next season and spray new growth.
Horticultural oils, insecticidal soaps, and pyrethrins
can provide temporary control, especially for greenhousethrips. Spinosad may be more effective. Pesticides alone
rarely provide good control, so combine spraying withother methods.
See Pest Notes: Thripsat www.ipm.ucdavis.edu for more details.

Damage often isn’t apparent until tissue
grows and expands. Look for:Wire or plastic hoops arched overyoung plants and covered with mesh
can exclude insects.

✦ Scabby, silvery to dark brown discoloration on
fruit, leaves, or petals.
✦ Dark specks of excrement on fruit or leaves.
✦ Distorted, curled, galled, or dead shoot tips andleaves.

Adult thrips

Minimize the use of pesticides that pollute ourwaterways. Use nonchemical alternatives or lesstoxic pesticide products whenever possible. Read
product labels carefully and follow instructions
on proper use, storage, and disposal.

Check for thrips before you treat!
Be certain that pest thrips are present andcausing damage before taking control action. Harshweather, inadequate plant care, pathogens, and otherinvertebrates can cause similar-looking damage. Shakefoliage or flowers over white paper to see if thisdislodges any thrips. Hang bright yellow sticky traps todetect flying thrips.

For more information about managing pests, contact your
University of California Cooperative Extension officelisted under the county government pages of your phone bookor visit the UC IPM Web site at www.ipm.ucdavis.edu.

What you use in your landscapeaffects our rivers and oceans!

University of California
Statewide Integrated Pest
Management Program

Statewide IPM Program

43

University of California
Cooperative Extension

January 2011

Use hand removal and traps to reduce
whiteflies.

Whiteflies✦ Prune out isolated infested leaves when you firstdetect them.
✦ Hose adults off or use a hand held vacuum.
✦ Install ready-to-use, sticky-coated yellow traps or
make your own. Use one trap for every mediumsize vegetable plant.
✦ Promptly destroy infested annuals when flowering
or fruiting ends.

Whiteflies are tiny, sap-sucking insects
that damage leaves of many plants. Adults
are white and sometimes have darker markings ontheir wings. Nymphs, which cause most of the damage,are oval, legless, and don’t move. Many species occur
in California landscapes, and natural enemies keep
most under good control. Prevent whitefly problems
by using reflective mulches, avoiding dust, choosing
less susceptible plants, and eliminating pesticides thatkill whitefly natural enemies. When management isrequired, consider using insecticidal soaps, sticky traps,
and removing infested plants.

Pesticides.
Even the most toxic insecticides are only partiallyeffective. If you decide to treat, choose productsthat are least harmful to natural enemies—such as
insecticidal soaps and oils including neem oil—andcombine their use with the other practices listed above.
Good coverage, including the undersides of leaves, isessential. Repeat applications might be required.Avoid
using even these pesticides if many natural enemies
are present.

Signs of a whitefly infestation can include:✦ Tiny nymphs on the undersides of leaves.
✦ Sticky honeydew on leaves, fruit, or beneath plants
or a covering of black, sooty mold.
✦ Yellowing, silvering, or drying leaves that havewhitefly nymphs on them.
✦ Deposits of white wax with some whiteflies.

See Pest Notes: Whitefliesat www.ipm.ucdavis.edu for more details.

Protect natural enemies such as lacewings,
lady beetles, and mini-wasps.
✦ Avoid using pesticides such as pyrethroids,organophosphates, carbaryl, or foliar sprays of
imidacloprid.
✦ Prevent dusty conditions.
✦ Keep ants, which protect whiteflies from natural
enemies, out of plants.
✦ Recognize signs of parasitization such as circularholes in nymphs (see back) or a change in color.

Sweetpotato whitefly
and nymphs.

Examine empty
nymphal cases
for signs ofparasitization.The
T-shaped holein the nymph(above) indicatesa healthy adultwhitefly emerged
whereas an adultparasite emerged
from the roundhole (below).

Minimize the use of pesticides that pollute ourwaterways. Use nonchemical alternatives or lesstoxic pesticide products whenever possible. Read
product labels carefully and follow instructions
on proper use, storage, and disposal.

Install a reflective mulch in your vegetablegarden to protect young plants.
✦ Use aluminum-coated construction paper orreflective plastic mulch products.
✦ Lay the product on bare soil, bury its edges withsoil, and insert seedlings or seeds into holes thatyou make in the mulch.
✦ Plastic mulches require drip irrigation underneaththem; paper mulches can be sprinkle or furrow
irrigated.
✦ Mulches repel whiteflies and othersmall flying insects such as aphids
while plants are small. Remove
mulches when plants get large
University of California
and temperatures get hot.
Statewide Integrated Pest

For more information about managing pests, contact your
University of California Cooperative Extension officelisted under the county government pages of your phone bookor visit the UC IPM Web site at www.ipm.ucdavis.edu.

What you use in your landscapeaffects our rivers and oceans!

Management Program

Statewide IPM Program

44

University of California
Cooperative Extension

January 2011

Fungus Gnats
Identification
Fungus gnat larvae (Bradysia spp.) are white and legless, about 1/4 inch longwhen mature, and have a shiny black head. The adult is mosquito-like in body
shape, about 1/8 inch long, with long legs, a clear pair of wings, and longantennae. Fungus gnats are weak fliers and are frequently observed resting on
the media in the pot or running over the foliage or other surfaces.

DamageFungus gnats are attracted to damp locations where fungi are apt to flourish.
Fungi are a major part of their diet. Studies have shown that fungus gnats
develop more rapidly and have greater survival on fungal diets. In the absence ofa fungal food source, however, fungus gnats are capable of feeding on healthy
plant tissue. They are also general feeders and can injure a number of flower
crops grown in the greenhouse.
Fungus gnat larvae are observed feeding on roots, fungi and decaying matter,
often injuring bulbs, seedlings and plants with succulent stems and roots. The
burrowing of larvae in plant tissue promotes decay. Fungus gnat adults andlarvae can spread spores of fungal pathogens, such as Pythium species, among
plants. Adult flies become a nuisance when present in large numbers. Larvae
present in infested plants or soil can lead to prolonged emergence of adults.

Life Cycle of Fungus gnat
The life cycle of fungus gnats is shown in Figure 1. A female fungus gnat may lay
up to 300 whitish eggs in clusters of 20 to 30 or more on the surface or in thecrevices of moist soil or potting media rich in organic matter. Eggs hatch in about
six days. Larvae feed for 12-14 days before changing into a pupa, which isformed inside a silken pupal chamber in the soil. The pupal stage may last 5-6
days and adults live up to 10 days. The life cycle from egg to adult requires
approximately 4 weeks depending on temperature; development time decreases
as temperatures increase, as is true of most insects.

45

Figure 1. Life cycle of the fungus gnat

Management Strategies
1) Fungus gnat populations may be partially suppressed by sanitation
2)

3)
4)

5)
6)

7)

practices that reduce breeding areas.
Eliminate standing pools of water on solid benches, on walks, and underbenches. This may be accomplished by proper grading and drainage in
the greenhouse and by improving watering practices to prevent runoff.
Potting media should be pasteurized before use if possible.
Moist potting soil high in organic matter that has been left outdoors forlong periods may contain fungus gnat larvae. Fungus gnats may also be
introduced into the greenhouse in the media of infested plants purchasedfrom other greenhouses.
Keep areas below benches free of spilled potting mix, weeds and otherdebris in which fungus gnats and shore flies might breed.
Eliminate algae as best you can. Several algicides are currently registered
for algae control in the greenhouse. Read and follow directions on theseproducts.
Thoroughly inspect all incoming plant material and make early treatments.

46

Detection and Monitoring
As with any pest, fungus gnat control programs are built on prevention andmonitoring. To prevent infestations, establish a weekly scouting/monitoringroutine for the duration of the crop.
To monitor for larvae, place raw potato chunks with peel removed on the soil
surface. Larvae are attracted to the potato chunks, under which they move andcongregate. Check the potato chunks daily for larvae. Potato disks cut one inch
in diameter and 1/2 to 1 inch thick work well. In addition, choose plants on eachbench and inspect the soil surface and around the base of the plant including thestem just below the soil line. Record the location and the level of infestation.
Badly infested containers of plants should be removed as they serve as a sourceof infestation.
Adult flies can be monitored with yellow sticky cards placed at the base of theplant at soil line. Weekly inspections of yellow sticky cards can detect the onsetof an infestation, and continued recording of the number of adults per card per
week can aid in evaluating the efficacy of control efforts.
Space 3" x 5" yellow sticky cards 1-4 per 1,000 sq. ft. throughout thegreenhouse. Place yellow cards in a horizontal position just above the soil
surface, or lay them on the top of the pots. For early detection, position cards
near doorways and vents or among new plants being placed in the house. If time
permits, check the cards twice weekly particularly when temperatures warm up in
the spring. Once fungus gnats begin appearing on sticky cards or larvae areseen under potato chunks then it is time to make treatment decisions.

Biological Control
Several biological control organisms are available for control of fungus gnats,including the microbial insecticide Gnatrol (containing the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis israelensis), a predaceous mite (Hypoaspis miles) and parasitic
nematodes Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae. These nematodes havebeen applied at a wide range of application rates and have produced variable
results.

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Treatments
Soil treatments (pot drenches and sprenches) at the first sign of insect activity
are best used to manage fungus gnats. A drench fully saturates the soil directly
without contact to the aboveground plant, while a sprench is sprayed on the stem
and base of the plant enough to wet at least the first inch of potting medium. Soil
treatments provide direct treatment targeted toward the larval stage. Make surematerial is applied to a depth of 1" or more. Materials are most effective when
they are retained in the media. Carefully read and follow all label directions.
Fungus gnats are common pests on plants such as geraniums, poinsettia,
begonias and bulbs, especially if soilless mixes high in peat moss or immaturecompost are used. Insecticides may not affect eggs or pupae, and repeatedapplications may be necessary.
The following is a partial list of options for managing fungus gnats. In theconservation nursery we will be trialing the first two. See label for information on
application methods and rates, and plant safety. The asterisk indicates the typeof product.
Hypoaspis miles (predatory mite), (*natural enemy)
A soil-dwelling predaceous mite that feeds on larvae. Introduce mites at planting
or just after.
Nemasys, Scanmask, (Steinernema feltiae, parasitic nematodes), (*natural
enemy)For fungus gnat larvae. Best control is achieved with the first application made atplanting or shortly thereafter. Two or three subsequent applications at weeklyintervals may keep fungus gnat numbers low throughout a 10 - 12 week crop. .
Follow label instructions.

48

Weed Identification
Annuals—Annual weeds are plants that develop from seeds, mature, produce seeds,
and die in one growing season. Summer annual plants germinate from seeds in thespring, grow through the summer, produce seeds, and die in the fall. Examples are
crabgrass, foxtail, fall panicum, pigweed, and lambsquarters. Winter annual plants
germinate from seeds in the fall, overwinter, mature, produce seeds, and die in thespring or early summer. Examples are chickweed, henbit, cheat, and shepherd's purse.
The majority of the weeds that are found in our nurseries are winter annuals. These cangerminate in fall through early spring. The very successful shotweed or Cardamine spp.
germinates year-round, especially in cooler areas along the coast.
Biennials—Biennial weeds complete their life cycle over a two-year period (twogrowing seasons). They frequently develop from seed and form a rosette (a low-growing
cluster of leaves) during the first year. During the second growing season, the stems
elongate, flowers and seeds develop, and the plant then dies. Biennial weeds include
poison hemlock, Queen Anne's lace (wild carrot), common mullein, and musk (ornodding) thistle. Biennial weeds can usually be controlled using the same methods
effective on annual weeds, but they are easier to control during the first year of growth.
Perennials—Perennial weeds live for three or more seasons and reproduce by seed
and/or vegetative parts. They are often more persistent than annuals or biennials.
Johnsongrass, quackgrass, Canada thistle, brush, shrubs, and trees are perennial
weeds.
Simple perennial weeds ordinarily reproduce only by seed, but vegetative reproduction
can occur if roots or crowns are cut by tillage implements. Cut pieces may send out
feeding roots and stems to become new plants. Dandelion, curly dock, and plantain are
examples of simple perennials.
Bulbous perennial weeds, such as wild garlic, reproduce by bulbs and bulblets, aswell as by seeds. Both aerial bulblets and seeds may be produced in the flower heads.
Secondary bulbs may develop below the ground.
Creeping perennial weeds spread by lateral extension of the stems (stolons) along thesoil surface, by stems (rhizomes) beneath the soil, by roots, or by seeds. Mouse ear
chickweed, knotgrass, and pennywort spread by creeping stems along the soil surface.
Quackgrass, johnsongrass, and hedge bindweed spread by rhizomes. Sowthistle andred sorrel spread by creeping roots.

49

Poa annua • annual bluegrass Poaceae Grass Family
Grasses are a common weed problem in gardens, especially those near open fields—
the same is true with greenhouses. There are a lot of grass species that you’ll
encounter in the cells, but this is one of the most common.

Poa annua can grow as an annual plant,
however in the Pacific Northwest it often acts asa biennial or short lived perennial. It grows insmall clumps when in the ground. When it
invades greenhouse plant cells its roots can takeover the entire cell relatively quickly. Left alone
they can grow to be 4-6 inches tall, even within
the individual cells.

All photos courtesy of Oregon State University
The flowers are in a wispy inflorescence with white flowers displayed in a terminal (endof the stem) panicle (spiraling) bloom. The leaves are prow-shaped like the ends ofcanoes. This species, as with most grasses, is a heavy seed producer. They can
produce around 100 seeds within 8 weeks. They are also easily spread and hard to rid
from the green house. For this reason, grasses should be a top priority for weeding.

50

Cardamine oligosperma and Cardamine hirsuta • bittercress,
shotweed
Brassicaceae Broccoli Family
Bittercress is particularly problematic in container nurseries as it favors conditions thatare consistently moist. They are easy to miss while weeding because the cotyledon
leaves start very small and look very much like many prairie plants.
The seeds readily stick to the walls of cells or to any little bit of gravel on thegreenhouse floor, and they germinate quickly. Before they
bloom, bittercress plants look like miniature clovers. Many
seedlings occur in the same area and can form dense mats,but at an early enough stage they are tiny individual sprouts.

Bittercress Seedlings, photo Oregon State University

Extrememoss andbittercress
invasion of a
Lomatium
utriculatum
tray, photoby RodGilbertThe flowers occur in bunches at the end of the stems and each flower has 4 petals in across shape. As if bittercress were not bad enough by itself, it also is a refuge for aphidsthat proliferate underneath the leaves in late winter and early spring. They grow andgerminate year-round in a nursery situation in the Pacific Northwest. Germination ispractically abundant in spring and fall. The best way to manage them is to reduce theamount the parent flowers setting seed, keep the greenhouses clean of debris andsanitize the cone-tainers between plantings.

51

Cirsium arvense • Canada thistle
Asteraceae Aster Family

There are many species of thistle but the mostcommon present in nursery production is the
Canada thistle. Canada thistle foliage is coveredin small sharp bristles and is a pale, glossy
green. The seedlings have rounded spoonshaped seed leaves (cotyledons) that stand out
because of their glossy sheen. They are easy toidentify and eradicate as young seedlings.

Photos courtesy of Oregon State University from PNW Weed Management Handbook

The flowers are light pink and about ½ inch long and wide. They reproduce by creating
seeds that are spread by the wind. They also have an extensive root system—thismeans that although they are easy to identify care must be taken to remove all roots
when weeding. In addition, seeds can remain viable for a long time. Frequent weedingof surrounding nursery and grounds areas can reduce the amount of seed present in
the cells.

52

Stellaria media • common chickweed
Valerianaceae Valerian Family
This is another common weed in greenhouses that looks similar to Bittercress. It forms
small mats and even grows on top of itself. The foliage is glabrous (without hairs) andhas ovate leaves alternating down along the stem.
The flowers are terminal (on the end of the stem) and areorganized in clusters. The petals are white, 5-merous (5petals), and each petal is bi-lobed, giving the impression of 10
petals instead of 5.
Chickweed blooms in spring and is easily
disguised within the taller plants in thegreenhouse. It reproduces with both seeds and new stems rooting at
the inter-nodes. One plant can produce several generations of
seedlings during one season. Keeping an eye out for it during all
weeding is important to avoid a complete takeover.

Senecio vulgaris • common groundsel
Asteraceae Aster Family
The Groundsel is in the Asteraceae family along with the weeds ox-eye daisy anddandelion. They grow upright, are branched, and can grow up to 2ft
tall—but in the greenhouse you will rarely see them that big. They cancompete with seedlings for nutrients and light.
The flower heads, which are tubular, consist of multiple individual disk
flowers that create a composite head—common to the Aster family.
The species can have multiple generations in one year, sometimes
blooming when only a few inches high. It is important to weed themout of the cells early in their life cycle to reduce seed numbers. The
plants frequently germinate and grow on the floor at the corners andedges of the greenhouse. Frequent weeding of all nursery areas isessential.
Groundsel is one of the most common weeds of empty lots, clear-cuts and human built
environments. The seed needs light to germinate and can blow in from surrounding
areas. The source of seed around farms and nurseries is practically limitless.
All photos courtesy of OSU from PNW Weed Management Handbook

53

Hypochaeris radicata • hairy cat’s ear
Asteraceae Aster Family
Hairy cat’s ear is the most common weed on Pacific Northwest prairies as well as
being common in lawns and gardens. Many people call the plant dandelion as theflowers look similar to that plant. However the flowers of H. radicata are atop branchedstems primarily blooming in late spring and summer, well after true dandelion. The plantcan bloom all through the summer on very little water from rainfall, making it a persistentand adaptable weed.
In a nursery, the plant makes a quick-growing rosette of leaves. This wide andrapid growth blocks out light for the nursery plants. Hairy cat’s ear is hard to remove
once established in the plant cells, so frequent and thorough weeding is essential. The
seed can easily migrate from surrounding lawns and gardens, and good general weed
control is necessary to reduce the plant’s establishment.

Foliage and branched flower stems of hairy cat’s ear, photos from University of Massachusetts
Extension54Lactuca spp. • wild lettuce and Sonchus spp • sow thistles
Asteraceae Aster Family
These weeds are native to the Mediterranean and can easily be confused as their habitof growth is similar. All are weeds of empty lots and agricultural fields. Believe it or notthese spiky invasive plants are in the sunflower family. All grow with a big taproot andhave milky sap in the stem. They can grow to be between 1 and 5 feet tall.

Lactuca serriola

Sonchus oleraceus

The newly germinated plants (above) as well as the adult plants (below) resemble
dandelions but are frequently prickly with hairs. The flowers are small, yellow and bloomin early spring. Like many resistant weed species, these have long-lived seeds that canblow in from surrounding areas making eradication difficult. Diligent and careful weeding
can help keep their numbers under control.
A number of species of Lactuca are native to North America and were extensively eaten
by First Peoples for their nutritional content. Unfortunately, none of these natives haveappeared as weeds in our nurseries.

Lactuca serriola

Sonchus oleraceus, all photos fromOSU Extension

55

Epilobium cilatum • northern willowherb
Onagraceae Evening Primrose Family
Epilobium ciliatum is one of the most difficult weeds
to control in container crops, and is among the top
five weed species in Pacific Northwest nurseries.
Epilobium ciliatum gets its name from the Greek
word epi which means upon, and lobos, whichmeans pod. This is characteristic of the flower of theplant that surmounts the pod-like ovary. Ciliatum,
also Greek in origin, means fringed with hairs and ischaracteristic of the pubescence that lines the stem
and inflorescence.
The seeds of northern willowherb develop in long, hairy (pubescent) capsules about 3
cm in length. The seeds are attached to a tuft of hair, which aids in wind dispersal. Seeddissemination occurs from June to September. Wind dispersal mandates excellent
sanitation for controlling this weed. Eliminate any plants growing in non-crop areas inand around the nursery.
The container environment provides an ideal site for
germination. Seeds can germinate in low light
conditions, making them well adapted to germination
under the canopy of container crops. Seeds cangerminate over a range of temperatures from 40 to 86 F,
although germination is more rapid in warmer
conditions. This allows germination to occur virtually
year round in container nurseries.
E. ciliatum produces a rosette as an over wintering
structure. It may also produce turions, a type ofhibernation bud in the fall. It is common to see theseover-wintering structures in gravel container yards
during the winter. As soon as weather warms in thespring, these rosettes bolt quickly into a tall stem with aflush of lush green to purple foliage. Remove theseplants during the slow winter months before they bolt
and produce more seed.

All photos from Oregon State University PNW Weed Management Handbook

56

Taraxacum officinale • true dandelion
Asteraceae Aster Family
True dandelions are found in many landscapes, yards and greenhouses. The true
dandelion can be identified by the smooth leaves on top and short hairs on theunderside of the leaves along the stem.

The stem, which often has a purple hue, is hollow. The leaves are lobed to a degree
that they look “toothed like a lion”, and they grow in a rosette from a strong, persistenttaproot. The flowers are terminal atop the singular stems, yellow in color, and consist of
thousands of ray flowers bunched together. The many seeds produced on the flower
heads are spread easily by the wind. Dandelions are sometimes found in the plantcontainers but more commonly they are around the greenhouse borders, encouraging
the seeds to spread into the plant cells.
All photos from Oregon State University PNW Weed Management Handbook

57

Marchantia polymorpha • liverwort • Phylum Marchantiophyta

This weed is probably the one you will see most often. It
grows fast, spreads easily, and is EVERYWHERE. It is flatand grows in dense, dark green mats that look like octopus
tentacles. Liverwort is nearly impossible to keep out of all
greenhouse plants, so the weeding needs to be diligent to
reduce spreading, and it is relatively easy to weed.
Understanding its reproduction will reduce re-establishment.
Each plant has both male(sperm producing) andfemale (egg producing)
reproductive parts. The
female (left) tendrils arebrush-shaped and themale parts (right) areumbrella-shaped.
Sexual reproduction occurs in liverworts but it is not the mostsuccessful form of reproduction. Marchantia polymorpha also
produces cups that hold gemmae. These hold enough genetic
information to produce another gametophyte. A gametophyte is
the most obvious life-cycle stage that is seen in a nursery for all
liverworts (non-vascular bryophyte land plants).
Gemma cups

Asexual reproduction by gemmae is the most successful formof reproduction for liverworts. The gammae can be disbursed
over a meter by splashing water and if kept moist canlive in cracks and crevices for over a year. The
picture at the left shows parts of a liverwort: the leafy
thallus, small gemma cups and in the lover portion of
the picture you can see round gemmae that havebeen disbursed by irrigation. Look around the floor of
the nursery and you will find many gemmae in the wet
corners and edges.

58

The Liverwort Lifecycle. Liverworts have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, with the
sporophyte dependent on the gametophyte. Cells in a typical liverwort plant eachcontain only a single set of genetic information (haploid) for the majority of its life cycle.
This contrasts sharply with the pattern exhibited by nearly all animals and by most otherplants. In the more familiar seed plants, the haploid generation is represented only by
the tiny pollen and the ovule, while the diploid generation is the familiar tree or otherplant. The mature sporophyte lives its whole life in the archegonial head and the sporesare very short lived, often only a few days. By Mariana Ruiz Villarreal

59

Control of Liverworts and Mosses in Greenhouses
Summary of research results from Sven Svenson, Oregon State University,
North Willamette Research and Extension Center, Aurora, Oregon
1. Do not overwater. If the nursery crop will tolerate the drying, allow the surface of thegrowing medium to dry between irrigation cycles. If possible, switch to subirrigation
systems.
2. Do not apply excess nitrogen or phosphorus fertilizers. Fertilizer concentrations thatare above the "required" amount for your crops are often optimal for liverwort growth.
3. Surface applications of slow-release iron sulfate and/or copper sulfate help prevent
liverwort infestations. Fertilizers applied to the surface of the growing substrate (as aliquid, granular or slow-release product) support more liverwort growth than if thefertilizer is incorporated into the growing substrate before potting (unless the surfaceapplied slow-release fertilizer contains adequate amounts of iron, zinc manganese andcopper). Zinc sulfate or zinc chloride fertilizers can help control liverworts, but theamount applied to kill the liverwort is often toxic to nursery crops.
4. Liverworts generally die if the crop's canopy will provide sufficient shade to thesurface of the growing medium.
5. In the Pacific Northwest, liverwort infestations are more likely to start in early fall
through late spring. The heat and dry air of summer will help reduce liverwort growthand establishment. In greenhouses or structures that maintain high humidity, or under
production systems with frequent overhead irrigation applications, liverworts are a
problem year-round.
6. Surface mulches that dry rapidly will reduce liverwort establishment. The most usefulmulches we have tested are: gravel; hazelnut shells (not crushed too small); oyster
shells; filter-fabric weed barriers (often treated with copper hydroxide). In commercial
nurseries, consumers have stated that they dislike the appearance of the hazelnut
shells, oyster shells and weed "discs," and their purchase and application reduces
nursery crop profitability.
7. A combination of reduced irrigation frequency, reduced nitrogen and phosphorus
application, and a surface-preventative fertilizer (slow-release iron sulfate) has provided
nearly 80% control of liverwort infestations. Several nurseries have nearly eliminatedtheir liverwort weeds by changing irrigation practices and "spot-treating" wet areas(walkways, under benches, driveways, etc.) within the production area. Use of
subirrigation greatly reduces the establishment of liverworts.

60

8. Useful pesticides for liverwort control do not currently have a label for this use. Thesechemicals are usually labeled for use as fungicides, and usually contain the heavy
metals manganese and/or zinc. The effective fungicides often have REI's (re-entry
intervals) of 48-hours, which restricts their usefulness in any ornamental plant
production system.
9. Chemicals that do currently have a "label" for use on mosses (and sometimes
liverworts) are usually phytotoxic to crops if applied to the foliage. Examples: DeMoss;
GreenShield; Physan. These work with some satisfaction for walkways, under benches,etc., but most growers have not been able to use "over-the-top" foliar sprays withoutsome level of damage to the crops. Similar damage risks have been observed bygrowers spraying vinegar for liverwort and moss control.
10. Available preemergent herbicides do provide some control of liverwort, but common
nursery irrigation and fertilization practices often reduce the effectiveness of theherbicides. Reducing irrigation application frequency, and reducing fertilization, in
combination with the use of preemergent herbicides does provide moderate control ofliverwort infestations.
A grower in Washington found a fungus growing on his liverworts, effectively"controlling" the liverwort infestation. This potential biocontrol agent has resisted
laboratory culture (to date).
Many nurseries and greenhouse growers use recycling irrigation systems, systems that
include chlorination, bromine injections, and/or ozonation. We have always been able togrow liverworts from water samples collected after treatment (suggesting that thegemmae, spores or liverwort fragments are resistant to typical commercial-sanitation
procedures used by our ornamentals industries). No studies have been done, but the
hypothesis has been proposed that air-borne spores can be wind-translocated over very
long distances (so growers will "never" be completely rid of the liverwort pressure).

61

Apocynum androsaemifolium • spreading dogbane • APAN
Apocynaceae Dogbane Family
Plant Description
Spreading dogbane is a perennial herb (blooming
every year) that grows up to 1 m tall. The manybranched stems have a milky juice when they arebroken. The surface of the stems varies fromglabrous (smooth) to having white wooly hairs. It
has a bushy stature with opposite, oval leaves.
The flowers are usually terminal (at the ends ofthe stems). They are light pink with dark pink
towards the center with five petals—they have a
bit of a bell shape to them.

Photo by: Ben Legler

Ecological Importance and Distribution
APAN is found widely throughout Washington,preferring dry soil in open areas (like prairies)
ranging from low to high elevations. The lateblooming time, July and August, makes the plant avaluable nectar source on the prairie. This plant
was used by First Peoples medicinally to slow thepulse and practically by making a very strong
thread.

Growth and Reproduction
The flowers bloom between June and July.
During that time the ovary, situated above thebase of the petals, is pollinated and creates
slender seed pods. These can be anywhere
between 7-20 cm long. The very small seed isborne on the wind through delicate hairs at theend of the seed (pappus). The seed is carefully
hand cleaned as no easy mechanical method
has been identified. The seed requires cold-

62

APAN seed with pappus
Photo by JK Marlow

moist stratification for approximately 70 days. To date we have observed that APAN has
erratic germination and we hope to gather more information on successful germinationin future sowings.

Seed Dimensions
Measurement Range: L: 1.2 – 2.1 mm, W: 0.2 – 0.5 mm, D: 0.1 – 0.3 mm
Shape: Narrow at hilum end and opposite apex. Seed somewhat flattened.
Color: Hilum white against brown seed body.
Surface: Longitudinally ribbed with small glossy globules. Seed shiny (lustrous).
Latitudinal cross section: ellipticalLongitudinal cross section: elliptical

Photo by Lisa Hintz

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 5827
- Seed per cell: 5- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: 70 days

63

Aquilegia formosa • Western columbine • AQFO
Ranunculaceae Buttercup Family
Plant Description
Perennial herb. Flowers are in two parts; the sepals(outer flower parts) are five bright red, long tubes
drawn back into red spurs with nectar at the back tip.
Inner flower parts or the petals have short yellow lobes
sticking out from the outer parts (sepals). Nectar lures
and feeds hummingbirds and butterflies. Stamens
holding pollen and stigmas, receiving pollen, extend
beyond upper lobes of petals in a tight cluster ready tobrush against nectar seekers as they feed. The plant
blooms from April to June. Leaves are delicate lobed
leaflets in groups of 3. Grows up to 3 feet tall.

Sepals red and petals yellow in AQFO; Photo by Rainyside Gardeners

Ecological Importance and Distribution
There are several kinds of columbines in manydifferent colors found across the northern hemisphere.
The color of the flower is often an indicator of the
primary pollinators. Yellow and pale cream flowers areoften visited by moths, blue to white by bumblebees
and red toyellow arepollinated byhummingbirds and butterflies. Two species ofcolumbines with different pollinators can growright near each other with little natural genetic
crossing. The western columbine has moderate
sized red spurs filled with nectar favored byboth hummingbirds and butterflies. The plant isfound along stream banks, seeps, moist places,
chaparral, oak woodland, and mixed-evergreen
Photo by Marnie Bonesteel
or coniferous forest, below 3300 m.

64

Growth and Reproduction
The western columbine grows slowly andgerminates at notoriously low rates, <20% per
year; additionally, the seed does not remain
viable for a long period of time in storage. This
makes the increase of AQFO plant material andseeds for restoration a slow process.
Seed Dimensions
Average Measurement: 2.5 x 1.4 x 1.2 mm

Photo by USDA

Measurement Range: L: 2.5 - 2.75 mm, W: 1.2 - 1.5, D: 1 - 1.5 mm
Shape: Seeds tapering at hilum end, broadening at opposite side.
Color: Hilum is white, seed is black.
Surface: At least one distinct ridge runs from the hilum to the opposite side. End
opposite hilum is sometimes puckered or having concave pits. Seed is glossy and lightly
textured with very small bumps.
Latitudinal cross section: ellipticalLongitudinal cross section: obovate

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 557- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: >120 days, perhaps
AQFO seedlings four weeks aftersowing Photo by Jaal Mann

65

Armeria maritima • thrift or sea pink • ARMA
Plumbaginaceae Plumbago Family
Plant Description
Armeria maritima is a slow growing evergreen perennial that grows 6-12 inches tall. It
has grass-like, dark green leaves and often forms dense mounded tufts. Small, pink towhite flowers are found atop stocks inclusters. This species is commonly
found in areas along the coast withslightly saline soil. The sub-species
most common on South Puget
lowland prairies is ssp. californica.
This variant is found along the West
Coast of North America from lower
British Columbia to northern
California. In the sub-species, flowers
are often pale pink to white withextended coverings (inflorescencesheath) giving the whole flower head
(inflorescence) a pale papery look.

Ecological ImportanceArmeria maritima Photo by Eric HuntThrift is well known for attracting
hummingbirds, bees, moths andbutterflies. Its ability to grow in salty
conditions gives it an advantage overother species that are unable to growwhere salt levels are high. The ability ofthe plant to concentrate salts and heavy
metals in the dying (senescing) leaves isgenetic and specific to maritime
populations of the species. There issome scientific and practical interest in
identifying and isolating this genetic characteristic to use in other plants to increase theirsalt and heavy metal tolerance.

66

Growth and Reproduction
Thrift maintains a small rosette of leaves throughout the winter. The woody rootstock islong lived and can grow in small rock crevices with little fine soil. The flowers areproduced over a long period through spring. Pollination occurs primarily by bumblebees.
Seed is held in dense, firm clusters through the summer and dispersed through thewinter. The seed is an achene (hard fruit) with a short papery pappus (hairs orcoverings attached to the end of the seed), when cleaning the seed removal of the
pappus often results in damaged seed. Seed protocols call for retaining the pappus of
the seed.

ARMA with brown achene
covering the seed. The paperlike wings are the pappus.
Seed Measurement Range:
L 4.3 – 5.5 mm, W 1 – 1.5 mm,
D 1.1 – 1.4 mm
Photo by Lisa Hintz

Cold-stratification duration is variable in the collections from the South Puget lowland
prairies. Wild collections often require a brief period of stratification of 15 days; however,some seed from first generation cultivated plants require no cold-stratification.
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 465- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Sowing Advice: Press winged seeds into soil before
covering- Stratification: 0-15 days

67

Balsamorhiza deltoidea • deltoid balsamroot • BADE
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
This is a perennial (blooming every year) herb with a large taproot—a taproot looks likea carrot as opposed to having many tiny fibrous roots. The leaves grow all from thebase, triangular in shape and sparsely hairy. When in bloom the flowers are large andyellow, with sunflower-like heads. This species differs from similar members of thebalsamroot genus by having bright green stems as opposed to grey ones andtriangular leaves.

Photos by Ben Legler

Ecological and Distribution ImportanceThis species blooms from March through July and thus is an important early source ofnectar for pollinators and the Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly in the springtime. The plantis also vital to the prairie ecosystem as its large taproot makes it resistant to drought
conditions—even in times with less rain it can survive to support those who depend on
it. It is native to the Pacific coast states and frequently found in prairies and other open
bluffs and cliffs at low elevations. This species prefers deeper soils on the prairies.

Distribution of B. deltoidea in WA State

Photo by Rod Gilbert

68Growth and Reproduction
On the prairie, the plants can take up to 5 years to begin producing seed but are
extremely long lived, up to 20 or more years. The biggest limitation to increasing
populations of deltoid balsamroot is generating enough healthy viable seed. The large
seed requires abundant nutrients and water to mature and become viable. Once
mature, the large seed is a favorite of seed-eating insects and birds. The seeds aresmooth, around 7-8 mm long, 3 mm wide, and without a pappus. They are black, brownor tan and have some longitudinal ribbing.
They have a long, slow germination andestablishment phase often lasting twelve
months or even two years in the nursery.
B. deltoidea will remain a species we areworking to increase for years to come.

Photo by Tim Ennis

Seed Description
Measurement Range: L: 6.5 – 8.2 mm, W: 1.6 – 4.5 mm, D: 1.6 – 2 mm
Shape: Seed shapes have lots of variation. Some squared off, and some three sided.
Most seeds narrower at hilum than at opposite apex, but not always. Hilum wrinkled.
Seeds have circular, white protrusion at apex opposite hilum.
Color: Seeds black, brown, or tan, withwhite or tan hilum.
Surface: Seeds have some longitudinal
ribbing, and are smooth and matte.

Sowing Information
Seeds per gram: 138
Seeds per cell: 3
Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: cold-moist 90 days,
over winter in pots

69

Native Prairie Bulb Species
Brodiaea coronaria
Harvest Brodiea • BRCO
Herbaceous perennial to 30 cm highoriginating from belowground bulb. Allbase leaves, withering before plants
produce flowers.
Flowers: Flowers 5-13 cm long, bluepurple to rose. Fruits: Capsules with black
seeds.
Seeds per Gram: 672
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: cold-moist 70 days

Dichelostemma congestum
Northern Saitas • DICO
Originates from scaly bulb. Leaves 2-3,
flattened but keeled on the lower side, 310 mm broad, 5-10 cm long, not witheringby flowering; stem 20-100 cm tall.
Flowers bluish-purple, the 3-5 bracts 1-2
cm long
Seed per Gram: 672
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: cold-moist 120 days

Triteleia hyacinthina
White Triteleia/Fool’s Onion • TRHY
General: Perennial from a scaly, deepseated bulb. Leaves 1-2, flat but
keeled/winged beneath, 3-10 mm broad
and up to 40 cm long, not withered byflowering.
Flowers: Clusters of many-flowers, petals
slender, 1-4 cm long; white to light blue,
with prominent bluish-green mid-vein;
Fruits: Capsule 3-celled, with a slendersupporting stalk (stipe) nearly as long.
Seeds per Gram: 637
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: cold-moist 70 days

70

Camassia leichtlinii
Large Camas • CALEI
General: Perennial from a deep-seatedbulb, the scape or stalk up to 1 m tall.
Leaves several, all at the base, up to 60
cm long and mostly 7-20 mm broad.
Flowers: Inflorescence or bloom 10-20
cm long at flowering, longer in fruit;flowers light to deep blue-violet.
Fruit: Capsule 3-celled, 15-25 mm longSeeds per Gram: 104
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: cold-moist 60 days

Toxicoscordion venenosum
Meadow Death Camas • TOVE
General: Glabrous or smooth perennial
herbs from an onion-like bulb, the simple
stem 20-50 cm tall. Leaves mostly fromthe base, linear, keeled/winged, 10-30 cm
long and 3-6 mm broad.
Bloom up to 15 cm long, the flowers all
perfect (have both male and female
parts); each flower white to creamcolored, bell-shaped; Fruit: Capsule 8-15mm long.
Seeds per Gram: 354
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: N/APrairie Bulb Sowing
Information- Seeds per flat: 200- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: overwinter one
to three years in a flat

71

Native Prairie Bulb Species

Erythronium oregonum
Giant White Fawn Lily • EROR
General: Perennial herb from a deeply
planted bulb; flowering stems to 30 cm tall.
Leaves from the base, usually paired;lance shaped; strongly mottled with brown.
Flowers: Showy white blooms with 6
petals, up to 5 cm long; 1-3 flowers at stem
tips.
Fruits: Erect capsules 3-5 cm long.
Distinguishing Characteristics: The mottled
leaves and low-elevation habitat separate
this species from E. montanum, which also
has white flowers; our other Erythronium
species have pink or yellow flowers.
Seeds per Gram: 189
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: N/A

Fritillaria affinis
Chocolate Lily • FRAF
General: Perennial herb from a small,
scaly bulb and numerous rice-sized offset
bulblets, the unbranched,glabrous/smooth stem 15-100 cm tall.
Leaves: Leaves in 1-2 whorls of 3-5 andscattered upward, lance shaped, 5-15 cm
long and 3-25 mm broad.
Flowers: Flowers usually 2-5 in a bunch,broadly bell-shaped, hanging down,strongly mottled, purplish to greenish or
yellowish;
Fruits: Capsule 2 cm long, broadly
winged.
Seeds per Gram: 454
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: N/A72

Lilium columbianum
Columbian Lily • LICO
General: Herbaceous perennial from alarge, ovoid bulb, the sturdy, unbranchedstem 60-120 cm tall.
Leaves: Leaves from whorled to nearly all
scattered, smooth and lance shaped 4-10
cm long and up to 3 cm broad.
Flowers: Flowers 2-20 in a leafy branchingcluster, with strongly recurved pedals;
yellow-orange to reddish-orange, freely
spotted with purple or deep red.
Fruits: Capsule cylindric, 3-4 cm long.
Seeds per Gram: N/A
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: N/A

Trillium parviflorum
Small-Flowered Trillium • TRPA
General: Oak woodland perennial 17-30
cm tall. Leaves attached to the single
stem in a whorl of 3, the blade green withlight mottling, oval shaped, 6.5-16 cm
long and 5-8 cm wide, not glossy, the tip
blunt.
Flowers: Flowers solitary and at the endof the single stem; petals erect,
concealing the stamens and ovary, white,
linearFruits: Capsule sub-globose (not quite
spherical), maroon, 4-8 mm long.
Seeds per Gram: N/A
Soil Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: sow moist, no dry storage,
two winter season cold-moist stratification
Prairie Bulb Sowing
Information- Seeds per flat: 200- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: overwinter one
to three years in a flat73

Campanula rotundifolia • blue bellflower • CARO
Campanulaceae Bellflower Family
Plant Description
A perennial herb with a branched system of horizontal
storage roots (rhizomes) arising from a taproot, thestems 10-80 cm tall, usually smooth (glabrous). The
leaves at the base make a substantial rosette. The
shapes of the leaves are distinctly different from stem
leaves and equally variable across the geographic
range. The Puget prairie types have egg-shaped(obovate) to round (orbicular) leaves with small teeth at
the edges. The stem (cauline) leaves alternate, fairly
numerous, broadly linear, 1.5-8 cm long. Flowers in a lax
raceme, erect or nodding on long stems (pedicels); petal
lobes 5, 4-12 mm long, entire; whole flower (corolla) bellshaped, blue, 1.5-3 cm long. Fruit is formed in a threechambered capsule 3-8 mm long.
Photo by Ben Legler

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Campanula rotundifolia is found across the Northern Hemisphere from high elevations
to coastal bluffs. The plant seems very adaptable as long as
spring temperatures are moderate. In hotter climates, theplant is found in higher elevations or adapts by storingenergy in its taproot and going dormant in the summer
months. The plant stores carbohydrate reserves in the roots
and rhizomes. This food storage is utilized by fossorialrodents. The roots are both collected and stored or eaten inplace. The rhizomes often survive the grazing causing small
plants to arise around the original mother plant in futureyears.

CARO in North America, theplant is common to highelevations and latitudes

74

Growth and Reproduction
Blooming usually occurs in spring but canalso have a second bloom period in
September and October. The perennial
plant seems to be long lived, even withfrequent grazing of roots and shoots byfossorial rodents, such as pocket gophersand voles. This sweet bellflower is aprolific bearer of very small seeds,~15,000 per gram. From year to year
there is rarely a shortage of seeds. We
can sow this late in fall for spring germination
with “natural” stratification. These plants
sometimes get quite root bound in the cells, so
an alternate time for sowing could be June after
a cold stratification period in the refrigerator.

Photo by Rod Gilbert

Seed Description
Measurement Range: L: 1 - 1.1 mm, W: 0.3 - 0.5
mm, D: 0.2 - 0.3 mm
Shape: seeds tapering slightly at hilum end andopposite apex.
Color: hilum and opposite end are dark brown. The
rest of the seed is light brown.
Surface: seeds longitudinally striate and glossy.
Photo by Lisa Hintz

Latitudinal cross section: elliptical
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 15,000- Seeds per cell: 6- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: cold-moist 90
days- Germinates: cool <15°C
temperatures

Longitudinal cross section: elliptical75

Carex inops • long-stolon sedge • CAIN
Cyperaceae Sedge Family
Plant Description
Long-stolon sedge is a loosely caespitose (growing in bunches) perennial grass. It is arelatively short-growing plant, especially compared to many tall Carex. Culms or stems
are 10-50 cm long. Leaves are slender, stiff, and wiry. Old, dead leaves are persistent(they don’t break off or decompose easily), often
forming fibrous tufts or bunches at the stem base.
Inflorescences—which are the “flowers” of grasses
where reproductive parts are located—are terminal(at the top of the stem/culm) spikes. Male spikes
may be located above female spikes. The fruit is ahairy seed ranging from 1.6 to 2.5 mm long. Seedheads bear 5 to 15 fruits each.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
CAIN is found in sporadic pockets acrossWashington. It prefers relatively flat, dry soil habitats
like those of prairies and coastal beach habitats.
Carex inops is often the first native plant to green up
in the winter or after fires. Therefore, many animals,from rodents to deer, depend on CAIN as a grazing
resource throughout its long growing season. The
species is a defining component of the Puget lowland
prairie.

Growth and Reproduction
CAIN is a perennial blooming every year. When it begins
growing, it’s hard to distinguish from grasses, but once thespikes form they are easier to quickly spot. Male and female
reproductive parts are located on different spikes, the male
spikes are a little smaller and usually located above the female
spikes.

76

Seed Dimensions
Range: L: 2.5 – 4.5 mm, W: 1.2 – 2 mm, D: 1 – 1.9 mm
Shape: Seeds narrow at hilum and opposite apex, rounded in middle. Opposite apex
usually sharply pointed. Seed sometimes has bits of husk still attached. Hilum circular.
Color: Tan with some darker brown or black spotting. Hilum usually brown.
Surface: Some concave patches, entire seed covered in fine hair, and matte.

Latitudinal cross section: ellipticalLongitudinal cross section: elliptical

Photo by Lisa Hintz

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 481- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: N/A

77

Castilleja hispida • harsh Indian paintbrush • CAHI
Orobanchaceae Broomrape Family
Plant Description
The plant is a perennial herb or forb with upright, unbranched stems to 50 cm. The leaves are covered inrough, coarse hairs (hispid) making it easy to
distinguish the foliage from other members of thegenus. The upper leaves divide into one or twolateral lobes below the flower clusters. The flowers
are alternately arranged at the end of the stems withlarge showy modified leaves (bracts). These bracts
can be orange-red to yellow or numerous shades in
between. The flowers themselves are held within thebracts forming a tube 2-4 cm long. The prominent
seed capsules are held above plant well after
ripening.
Photo by Rod Gilbert

Distribution
Castilleja hispida is the most common Indian
paintbrush species on both sides of British Columbia,
Washington and Oregon Cascades, its range extends
into mountainous areas of Alberta, Idaho, far Northern
California and Nevada, and Western Montana. Being
intolerant of shade, the plant is found on prairies,
meadows, forest clearings and rocky out-crops.

Ecological Importance
All Castilleja species are hemi-parasitic; the second-year plants cannot survive
without a host plant. The most common host species for CAHI on south Puget
prairies are Festuca roemeri and Eriophyllum lanatum. Castilleja hispida is an
important larval host for the Taylor’s checkerspot (Euphydryas editha taylori)
butterfly, a federally listed endangered species. An interesting and potentially
important relationship between Castilleja hispida, Taylor’s checkerspot
butterflies, and gophers has been witnessed. Some paintbrush specimens at theArtillery Impact Area (AIA) have been found fresh and green well after the78

majority of the population has senesced on Joint Base Lewis-McChord (JBLM)
prairies. Currently, the only remaining population of Taylor’s checkerspot
butterflies on JBLM is also found on the AIA. It is hypothesized that these
persistent blooming paintbrush specimens may be atop gopher or mole mounds,
which create enough of a microclimate to lengthen flowering time. This factor,
along with other reasons such as frequent fires from artillery exercises may help
to explain the long-term persistence of Taylor’s checkerspot butterflies on the
JBLM prairies.

Growth and Reproduction
The plant emerges from a woody base in late winter and makes rapid growth in
the cool moist spring. Blooming and pollination occurs from late April throughJuly if there is adequate moisture. Brushfoot butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds
visit the flowers and contribute to pollination. Seeds are held in capsules andripen from June to September. The capsules are slow to open and can be easily
harvested in summer.
Seed is dispersed in the fall, germination occurs after a 30 to 120 day range ofcold moist stratification. The small seed, 9,000 per gram, is sown on the surfaceof gravel. The germination and establishment process is enhanced by alternating
day/night temperatures and cooler temperatures (10°/4°C) as well as butenolide
compounds from smoke and incomplete combustion.

Seed measurement range:
L: 1.1 – 2 mm, W: 0.6 – 1.2 mm,
D: 0.6 – 1.1mm

CAHI seed coat and hulled seed
(middle) Photo by Lisa Hintz

79

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 9000
- Seeds per cell: 7- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: cold-moist 90
days, overwintered in trays

80Castilleja levisecta • golden Indian paintbrush • CALE
Orobanchaceae Broomrape Family
Plant Description
Each stalk has several unbranched stems 10-50 cm tall.
Leaves: sticky and softly hairy (viscid-villous), the lower onessmooth-edged, lance-shaped, the upper ones more ovalshaped, with 1-3 pairs of short, lateral lobes on the upper 1/3 ofthe blade.
Flowers: blooms are straight and upright, the flowers are
hidden by the overlapping leaf bracts; bracts about the width of
the upper leaves, oblong, with 1-3 pairs of short, lateral lobes
near the top. The petals are golden yellow tubes set inside thegolden leaf bracts, thus hidden; it has 4 stamens and bears
capsule-like fruit/seeds.

Photo by Rod Gilbert

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Historically, golden paintbrush was found as far north as the Puget Trough ofWashington and British Columbia, and as far south as the Willamette Valley of Oregon.
Many populations have been destroyed by the conversion of its native prairie habitat toagricultural, residential, and commercial
uses. The decline of golden paintbrush isalso correlated with fire suppression. Fire
disturbance is an integral component of theprairie ecosystem, maintaining grassland by
preventing the successional encroachmentof dense grass layers, woody shrubs andtrees. As a direct consequence of theseland-use changes, golden paintbrush has
not been seen in Oregon for over 40 years
and is now federally listed as endangered across its
WA counties with historicalwhole range. Most populations are found on the
populations of CALE
islands in the north Puget Sound – Georgia Straitarchipelago.
Both federal and private players are vital in the conservation of the nine remaining
populations in Washington and two remaining populations in British Columbia. These
efforts are essential for the continued survival of golden paintbrush. In the absence ofactive management, fairly vigorous populations of Castilleja levisecta have rapidly81declined to extinction within a few decades. Alarmingly, these declines did not result
from overt habitat destruction, but from the 'invisible' threats associated with low
population numbers, fire-suppression and weed invasion. Presently, no site contains
enough golden paintbrush individuals to be immune to drastic, irreversible declines.
Therefore, steps to increase population sizes and establish new populations arenecessary to ensure long-term survival of golden paintbrush.
CALE has been found to play a vital role as a food source for a threatened butterfly
species throughout its range. In 2010, a collaborative effort among US Fish and Wildlife,
Joint Base Lewis-McChord, and the Washington Department of Corrections lead to thebuilding of a Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly(TCB) rearing facility at Mission Creek
Corrections Center for Women. Graduate
students and inmate technicians conducteda series of experiments to test the plantpreference for adult egg-laying (oviposition)and larval feeding. Castilleja levisecta was
the preferred host plant for egg laying andto rear the larva of the TCB. This amazing
result provides a unique opportunity tocoordinate the recovery of an endangered
TCB laying eggs on a CALE plant, yellow eggs canbutterfly with the recovery of an
be seen at the base of the calyx tube. Photo by an
endangered plant.
inmate technician at MCCCW.

Growth and Reproduction
CALE, like all Castilleja species, is a hemi-parasitic plant that has specialized roots(haustoria) that attach to a suitable host. Though CALE can actively photosynthesize,
after the second year of growth it receives most of its primary nutrients for growth fromthe host. The most common host plants are Roemer’s fescue (Festuca roemeri) andOregon sunshine (Eriophyllum lanatum). The aboveground growth of CALE commencesin late winter, though root and haustoria growth have been active through the rainyseason (beginning in October). The plant sends up blooms May through June; thelength of bloom period is very dependent upon available soil moisture. C. levisecta
persists longer and is more abundant on deeper and more moisture retentive soils on
WA prairies. The seed is set on the mother plant through July and can persist on theplant for over a season unless harvested.
Castilleja seed is enclosed in a netted capsule that has an equal mass as the seed.
Some seed cleaning techniques remove a number of seeds from the surrounding
capsule but not always. Thus seed counts per gram can vary significantly depending on
the seed cleaning process: ~9,000 seeds per gram for seeds in the capsule to ~17,00082seeds per gram for seeds out of the capsule. Both of these numbers translate into verysmall seed. This seed is sown into gravel with no covering; watering in the seed settles
it into the gravel. Castilleja levisecta seed requires 60 days cold-moist stratification. Thisis achieved by sowing the seed in early winter to stratify in the pots and germinate fromMarch through May. This is a long germination period, up to 120 days after stratificationis complete.

CALE seed removed from capsule, left photo and capsuled CALE seed, right photo.
Photos by Lisa Hintz

Seed Dimensions
Measurement range: L: 1.1 – 1.5 mm, W: 0.5 - 0.9 mm, D: 0.4 - 0.9 mm
Shape: Seed is narrow at the hilum, widening at opposite end to create a cone-likeshape.
Color: Embryo surrounded by distinct honeycombed seed coat that is light tan andtransparent. Inside, a golden-brown, rice-shaped embryo is visible.
Surface: Seed is shiny and deeply honeycombed in texture.
Sowing Information
Seeds per gram: 9000
Seeds per cell: 5
Cover: into gravel
Stratification: 60 days(~over winter)83

Cerastium arvense • field chickweed • CEAR
Caryophyllaceae Pink Family
Plant Description
Field chickweed is a clumped, tap-rooted
perennial that can form large mats with shortcreeping rhizomes. Flowering shoots canreach 25-30 cm above narrow, rounded(oblong) leaves, with small white flowers that
contain both male and female parts. Flowers
can be singular, or in a small cluster. They
have 5 petals, which are notched, so appear to
be 10 petals.
Notched white petals and coarse hairs on theleaves of CEAR
Photo by Ben Legler

Ecological ImportanceThis species, like many others thatgrow in the prairies, is extremely
drought tolerant. However, it cannot
tolerate growing in the shade, andrequires an open area to flourish.
The early-flowering nature of thisspecies makes it an important
nectar source for some species.
The plant is found throughout theNorthern Hemisphere in meadowsand rocky prairies.

Distribution of CEAR in WA State84

Growth and Reproduction
The sub-species of field chickweed found in Washington State is ssp. strictum. This
plant has a deep tap root with short root stems (rhizomes). The leaves are thin, greaterthan 3 times longer than wide with coarse long hairs (hirsute). The common garden fieldchickweed sold at nurseries is a different sub-species with softer, grey leaves and astrong running habit. In the native plant, dry seeds are held in capsules well above thefoliage in summer and are easily harvested and cleaned.
The seed of CEAR is quite small, with almost 6000 seeds per gram.

Cute little knobby seed of CEAR;
Seed Measurement Range: L: 0.75 – 1 mm, W: 0.8 – 1 mm, D: 0.4 – 0.6 mm
Photo by Lisa Hintz

Fun Facts
Field Chickweed is well known within the Iroquois tribe for treatment of injuries resulting
from miscarriage. The name chickweed is thought to come from the chickens and small
birds that eat the seeds of the species. Young plant growth can be eaten raw or as
cooked greens.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 6000
- Seeds per cell: 4- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: none85

Cirsium brevistylum • clustered thistle • CIBR
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
Clustered thistle is a robust, tap-rooted perennial, one
to three meters tall, the stem succulent, thick below andtapering towards the top. Leaves are green and only
lightly loose-white-woolly below, weakly spiny, coarsely
toothed along the margins. Heads clustered at theends of branches and the main stem, often surpassedby the leaves; flower head (involucre) 2-4 cm. high,strongly spider-webby, its bracts (dangerous barbs
below the flower head) slender and tapering, all but the
inner with short spines; flowers all tubular, the tube very
slender, dull purplish-red, 12-18 mm. long, the flower
lobes 2-4 mm. long; the many flowers are held in adense, bristly receptacle.
Photo by Ben Legler

Ecological Importance and Distribution

Distribution of CIBR endemic to Western North
America86

Crisium brevistylum is a thistle
endemic to the Northwestern UnitedStates and British Columbia. Alongwith two other native Cirsium species,
C. remotifolium and C. edule, CIBR
plants are becoming rare and often
replaced by Eurpean weed thistles
such as scotch or bull thistle. Typically,
the plant is found in moist areas, along
creeks, slow moving water and coastal
marshes from low elevations to about
1500 m. The mid-summer blooms
provide a good bridge nectar source
between the abundant spring flowers
and the later asters in summer.

Growth and Reproduction
CIBR behaves like many other thistles in reproduction. Lots ofseed is produced and it germinates readily with nostratification. The seed is large, ~400 per gram, so soil andcover to twice the thickness of the seed is necessary tomaintain adequate moisture for germination.

CIBR achene, pappus
and flower tubes, photoby Ben Legler

Ecologists have numerous hypotheses as to how thesethistles have not spread and become weedy like theEuropean thistles. The methods of reproduction and increase
are similar and their ecological habitats on prairies are alike.
There are a number of possible causes as to the demise of
the native thistles; 1) herbivory by insects may be morecommon; 2) native thistles may not adapt well to grazing bycows or sheep; 3) native thistles may also have been moreabundant in the presence of prescribed fire and have reducedwith the spread of Douglas-fir forest.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 581- Seeds per cell: 3- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: none

Photo by Ben Legler

87Danthonia spicata • poverty grass • DASPPoaceae Grass Family
Plant Description
Poverty grass is found on shallow prairie soils
throughout North America. The grass is a crowded
tuft of leaves at ground level. The leaves often
become curly and persist as they dry out. Plants inshady and moist areas may not have curly leaves.
The flower head (inflorescence) is a narrow panicleof up to 18 spikelets. The
spikelets have twisted, hairy
awns. There are also someunopening, self-fertile(cleistogamous) florets next tothe leaves, and in the panicles. There is a long-lasting soil seedbank, with the seeds persisting for decades before being stimulated
to germinate by the removal of competing vegetation by disturbance.
Neat hairy nodes of DASP,
photos by missouriplants.org

Ecological Importance

Being a common component of Western Washington prairie sites where the soil isshallow or excessively drained, Danthonia can provide important habitat where othergrasses perform poorly. The winter growth habit
coupled with abundant and persistent foliage
through the year allows the plant to provide
shelter to larval and diapause stages of insects.
This is important in both summers to protect
insects from heat as well as in winter to protect
them from frost. The early vegetative growth in
winter provides food sources to birds and small
mammals. Though not overly showy, grasses
perform these vital and often overlooked
ecological services for habitat enhancement.

88

Growth and Reproduction
DASP is a cool season grass, putting on most of its
growth November through April. Danthonia produce seed
early on the prairies, often blooming in May and ripening
seed by the end of June. Seed is easily gathered by handor by farm implement. Care must be taken when sowing
to ensure full seeds are sown, not just empty lemmas.
This is a common problem when sowing all grasses. Taketime to look at the seed and parts of a grass flower undera hand lens, so for each species of
Photo by Carl
Sowing Information
grass you are capable of identifying
Elliott- Seeds per gram: 971
and sowing the actual seed. DASP
- Seeds per cell; 4germinates well after a 30 day cold stratification period, no- Cover: soil and gravel
special consideration, cover with soil and gravel and keep
- Stratification: 30 days
moist.

Parts of a typical grass plant. (a) Complete plant. (b) Many-flowered spikelet. (c)Generalized spikelet. (d) One-flowered spikelet. (e) Spikelet at flowering. (f) Floret infruit. (g) Floret in flower. (h) A fruit. (i) A flower. (After P. D. Strausbaugh and E. L. Core,
Flora of West Virginia, West Va. Univ. Bull., ser. 52, no. 12–2, pt. 1, p. 67, 1952)89

Delphinium nuttallii and D. menziesii • Nuttall’s and Menzie’s
larkspurs • DENU and DEME
Ranunculaceae Buttercup Family
Plant Description
These Delphiniums grow single stems 3060 cm tall for DENU and rarely up to 30 cm
for DEME. The leaves of each plant arealso slightly differentiated. DENU are long,
evenly distributed up the stems, the blades
usually >5 cm broad, 3 lobes eachdissected into narrowly lance-like or linear
segments. DEME leaves are
DENU above two images, DEME
divided into five distinct lobes
below two images; note smaller
rarely >5 cm broad. One
height of DEMU with slightly larger
would think from the previous
individual flowers with petals that
description the flowers ofcurve back. Photos by Rod Gilbert
DENU would be larger thanDEME, like the stems and leaves. However
the opposite is true. DENU flowers are <12mm, DEME >12 mm, DENU spurs (thehook on the back of the flowers) <12 mm
and DEME spurs often >12 mm. With these
distinctions made however I will let C. Leo
Hitchcock have the last say from ‘Vascular
Plants of the Pacific Northwest Vol. 2’: “the species are little more than geographic
segments of a series of taxa that are linked by near continuous variation”. This isbotanist speak for ‘kinda look all the same to me’.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Of these two native perennials, DENU
is currently on the endangered species
watch list for Washington State. They
occur chiefly on the west side of the
Cascades in gravelly outwash prairies,
along the Columbia Gorge, and basaltic
cliffs at low elevations. DEME has a broader
DENU range left and DEME range right90

range that extends into high elevations and in the pine woodlands of eastern
Washington. DENU is found on top of mounded prairie and DEME is found more often
on Garry oak edges. Both species bloom from May to June and are an important sourceof nectar for pollinators.

Growth and Reproduction
Both species have a number of reproductive and growth habits in common. The seeds
require a long cold-moist stratification period, over 120 to 180 days. Often the plants do
not germinate in the tubes until the second year because they have not had a longenough natural stratification time. If the seeds germinate in the spring, the plants growonly cotyledons (seed leaves). The leaves die back in June leaving a small 2-5mm
globe (a caudex) in the ground. The next year results in a slightly larger plant, 2-5 true
leaves and a doubling in size of the caudex but again the plant goes dormant in June.
After the two growing seasons the small clusters of globes that make up the caudex areplanted out in the field in summer or fall. This is a pattern of cultivation the conservation
nursery uses for all bulb production also.
Seed Dimensions (similar for both species)
Measurement Range: L: 1.25 – 2.1 mm, W: 1 – 2 mm, D: 0.5 – 1.2 mm
Shape: Usually broader at hilum end, bud seeds variable. Seeds in baggy seed coatthat sometimes makes seeds appear winged around the edges.
Color: Inner seed dark brown to black, seed coat white and transparent.
Surface: Seed coat finely longitudinally striate and glossy.
Latitudinal cross section: obovate

Longitudinal cross section: semi circular

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1200-1300- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: cold-moist, 120
to 180 days

DENU seeds. Photo by
Lisa Hintz

91

Dodecatheon pulchellum and D. hendersonii • shooting stars• DOPU and DOHE
Primulaceae Primrose Family
Plant Description
Dodecatheon hendersonii has a basal rosette of leaves, each leaf being broadly eggshaped to nearly round and plump, 25-50 mm long, tapering rapidly to petiole (leafattachment to the stem). Leaves lay prostrate to spreading slightly upward at the tips.
Dodecatheon pulchellum has a greater number of upright spreading leaves. Leaves
oval to egg-shaped, often with somefine teeth, 5-25 cm long, narrowing
gradually to petiole.
The flowers of both species cluster
atop the stem, DOHE usually withthe greater number of flowers perstem. Flower color and hue can behighly variable within either species;
DOPU has a larger white band at thebase of the petals and DOHE has awhite band edged with purple-black.
DOHE left, DOPU right. Photos by Rod Gilbert
The tube or point of the flower isyellow with purple edges with DOPU and almost all purple-black with DOHE. DOHE
may go summer dormant a month or so earlier than DOPU in most habitats.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
These two species may look outwardly similar in flower form but they seem to separate
themselves across slightly different habitats in the prairies.
Dodecatheon hendersonii is the most common shooting star on prairies on the cooler,western coastal areas of North
America from California to British
Columbia. The species grows between
mounds on mima prairies and in otherareas of poor soil that are frequently
DOHE Distribution
very moist in winter and bone dry in
DOPU Distribution

summer. Oddly, the plant goes dormant in late spring and norootstock is persistent. The plant survives the summer fromtightly clustered bulblets underground.

92

Dodecatheon pulchellum is a highly variable species across a wide distribution,
primarily in the inter-mountain West. It prefers rocky soil also but proliferates in seeps,
springs and along slow moving water courses. In the prairies, DOPU prefers moister
soils than DOHE and is found along the slow moving seasonal streams or deeper soil.
DOPU goes summer dormant later and persists from very short rootstocks.

Growth and Reproduction
Due to the ephemeral nature of both these species, they are quite challenging topropagate in a nursery. When cultivating them allow the plants to go fully summer
dormant. DOHE may completely dry out in summer, even quite small plants that havenot developed true leaves form bulblets that emerge the next early spring. For DOPU
keeping the plant slightly moist and not allowing it to fully dry out seems to be a more
effective method of cultivation. However, with both of these species caring for the young
seedlings requires patience and we have not fully developed protocols for either. Theyboth germinate well from a fall sowing with DOHE requiring less time in cold-moist
stratification before germinating.
Seed Dimensions
Length: 1 – 1.3 mm, Width: 0.5 – 1 mm, Depth: 0.4 -1 mm
Seeds generally cubic in shape, but very irregularly angularand sometimes pitted. Hilum is very difficult to identify. It
may be a small scratch-like scar appearing white in color.
Seeds brown, somewhat glossy, and has a net-veined
pattern of ridges.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1053
- Seeds per cell: 3- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: cold-moist stratification,
DOPU 30 to 60 days, DOHE 15 to 30 days

93

DOPU Seeds. Photo by Lisa Hintz

94

Drymocallis glandulosa • Greene’s drymocallis • DYGL
Rosaceae Rose Family
Plant Description
Drymocallis glandulosa is highly variable in form andthere are many subspecies which intergrade and are
not clearly defined. The plant is generally erect but it
may be small and tuft-like, measuring just a few
centimeters high, or tall and slender, approaching ameter in height. It may or may not have rhizomes. It is
usually coated in hairs, many of which are glandular,
giving the plant a sticky texture. The leaves are eachdivided into several leaflets, with one long terminal
leaflet and a few smaller ones widely spaced on eachside. The flower head (inflorescence) is a cyme of 2 to
30 flowers which are variable in color and size. Each
usually has five petals up to a centimeter long, which
may be white to pale yellow to gold.
Photo by Ben Legler

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Drymocallis glandulosa is abundant from mountain meadows to coastal marshes. The
plant diversity of local wet prairie meadows has been decreasing due to livestock overgrazing, draining of fields and the increase ofaggressive grasses used for forage. DRGL
could be an important component of wet
prairie restoration. These prairies, if restored,
could provide a greater diversity of blooming
species and longer blooming periods insummer to compliment the drier upland
habitats. Numerous pollinating insects use theflower as a nectar source. Building up stock for
wet prairies from the few remaining plants indamaged habitats is a challenge for regional
restoration ecologists. Our nursery restoration
will involve developing cultivation protocols and building up plant material over a longtime span.

95

Growth and Reproduction

Photo by Steve Hurst

Drymocallis and Potentilla species (Drymocallis
glandulosa is synonymous with Potentilla glandulosa)germinate erratically over a long time period andpatience is required in the germination and seedlingphase. The seed is moderately small, 2800 seeds pergram, and the seed is covered with soil and gravel. A
large number of seeds per cell are sown to make up
for the poor germination. Seed is sown in earlysummer after a cold-stratification of 30 days.

Drawing from USDA NRCS. Wetland flora: Field office illustrated guide to plant species. USDA Natural
Resources Conservation Service

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 2800
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 30 days
- Germinates: temperatures below
15°C

96

Drymocallis gracilis •slender cinquefoil • DRGR
Rosaceae Rose Family
Plant Description
A perennial that grows to a height of 1-2 feet, slender cinquefoil has large oval,
palm shaped (palmate) leaves divided into 5-9 leaflets. Flowers are few to manyin a loose cluster on ascending stalks (cyme).
Palmate (like a palm of your hand)and compound (joined just at thebase) leaves of DRGR with downy,silver undersides to the leaves as
seen in the reversed leaf on theright.
Photo by Robert H. Mohlenbrock.

A cyme flower stalk alternates
branching up the stem and is not
symmetrical (even) but the flowers
tend to create an arching umbrella
shape cluster.
Photo by BA Wilson

Ecological Importance and Distribution
The distribution of this species is wide, from meadows toopen forests and roadsides, from low to alpine
elevations. Slender cinquefoil blooms in late spring or
early summer, and is found throughout Washington andthe rest of the western United States.
An extensive study at Oregon State University (McIver
and Erickson, in press) examined the interaction andpollination of slender cinquefoil with sulfur cinquefoil
Drymocallis gracilis- slender cinquefoil(Drymocallis recta), which is native to Eurasia and isin the state of Washington
now widespread since being introduced in North
97

America before 1900. The slender cinquefoil was found to flower first for about
five weeks, with the sulfur cinquefoil following for five weeks with two weeks ofoverlap in mid-June. The native cinquefoil attracted a more diverse set ofpollinators (93 species, 619 individuals) compared to the non-native species (74species, 543 individuals). Interestingly, only 2% of the native’s pollinators wereEuropean honeybees, with honeybees composing 16% of the pollinators in the
non-native. Aggressive exclusion of pollinators reduced seed number in thesulfur cinquefoil (non-native), but did not reduce seed quantity in the slendercinquefoil (native). However, nearly twice as many seeds germinated from thenon-native compared to the native species. This was attributed to less seed
predation and a much more prolonged germination sequence in the non-native,
lasting almost an entire year. The authors concluded that these two cinquefoils
use different adaptive strategies for survival, with the native using a ‘stresstolerant’ strategy and the non-native employing a ‘ruderal’ approach (growing on
waste ground).

Growth and Reproduction
DRGR is common on Puget lowland prairies even if many other native plant
populations have been reduced. Though common, the flowers provide animportant nectar source throughout spring. The nectar value of the plant makes it
a vital part of prairie restoration. The seed readily germinates after one month incold stratification, emerging in one week. Water the cells lightly but frequently tokeep the seeds from “floating” around the cells before germination.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 2000
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 30 days
- Germinates: temps <15°C

DRGR seed, Photo by Lisa Hint

98

Erigeron speciosus • showy fleabane • ERSP
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
The showy fleabane displays large yellow disk flowers surroundedby contrasting purple rays in late spring through early summer.
From the long-lived, woody, perennial rootstock grows a rosette ofrounded-lance shaped leaves at the base and numerous flower
stems are topped by a corymb-shaped cluster of flowers(inflorescence). The plant is found in gravelly and rocky soils inareas of moderate rainfall from Western Washington into the highelevations of the Rocky Mountains.
ERSP, Curtis’s Botanical Magazine
v.64: t.3606. 1837. showing
corymb branched flower heads

Ecological Importance
The showy flowers of these plants are not lost to native
pollinators on the prairies. The contrasting colors of theflowers make them a favorite of bees and wasps (order
Hymenoptera) and butterflies. The long bloom time from
May into July makes for abundant and valuable nectar andpollen resources. On Puget lowland prairies, ERSP iscommon on the deeper soil such as mound tops and deep
swales; this may be because those soils retain moisture
longer into the spring than soils that are shallower.

Growth and Reproduction
The plant emerges from a woody rootstock basein late winter, makes slow even growth thenexplodes with flowers in late spring. Blooming
and pollination occurs from late May through July
if there is adequate moisture. The flowers are
visited by brushfoot butterflies and bees, allcontribute to pollination. Seeds are held in theflower heads and like other members of the asterPhoto by Rod Gilbert99

family the seed is surrounded by a hard achene with an attached pappus. The seeds
ripen from June through August. Seed production is normally abundant and the amountof filled, viable seed is quite high.
Seed is dispersed in summer when the pappus carries the seed in the wind. The seed isquite small, ~5,000 per gram. Germination of ERSP is facilitated by a short cold-moist
stratification period followed by light exposure. Sowing of stratified seed should be on
the surface of gravel and the light seed should be kept moist until germination iscomplete 14 to 21 days later. In the nursery ERSP is a quick grower, filling the
propagation cells in 12 weeks. Frequent deep watering is vital once the propagation
cells are filled with roots.

Sowing Information
Seeds per gram: 5000
Seeds per cell: 5
Cover: into gravel
Stratification: 30 days
Requires light to germinate

100Eriophyllum lanatum • Oregon sunshine • ERLA
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
Oregon sunshine grows 10-100 cm tallfrom a woody rootstock. The leaves arelinear to oval, gray-green, covered withwooly (lanate) hairs. The leaf shaperesembles a feather (pinnately divided)
when mature but not divided (entire) when
young. Flowers are bright yellow, with 813 yellow ray flowers surrounding manyyellow disk flowers.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
The Fender’s blue butterfly, (Icaricia icarioides fenderi) and Puget blue butterfly (Icaricia
icarioides blackmorei) use Oregon sunshine as a primary nectar source. The plantrequires pollinators like the Fender’s blue for seed set.
Oregon sunshine is adapted to areas with dry, rocky orwell-draining sandy soil. In these areas, it has beenshown to be very drought tolerant, partially due to its
white wooly hairs that conserve water by reflecting heatand reducing air movement across the leaf surfaces.
This drought tolerance allows for the species to growfrom sea level to well over 10,000 feet across thewestern United States.
ERLA is one species that provides a root host to Castilleja hispida and C. levisecta. Its
rapid growth and efficient carbohydrate production supplies Castilleja plants withcarbohydrates and basic plant nutrients. Consequently, all new plantings of Castilleja
include some ERLA or Roemer’s fescue, another efficient host plant.

101

Fun Facts
Both the genus and species name relate to the other common name of this species,
wooly sunflower. The genus name, Eriophyllum, is from the Greek “erion” meaning wooland “phyllon” meaning leaf. The species name, lanatum, means “covered with longwooly hair”. The first known collection of this species was by Lewis and Clark along theClearwater River near Kamiah, Idaho on June 6, 1806. This species was used by the
Miwok tribe as a poultice bound to aching body parts. The Skagit people rubbed theleaves on skin to prevent chapping and the Chehalis used the dried flowers as a lovecharm.

Growth and Reproduction
Oregon sunshine spreads to form small clumps about 0.5 m wide by underground roots(rhizomes) and short woody stems. Bright yellow flowers appear in June and Julymaking a cheerful appearance in the summer sun. Pollination is from butterflies, syrphid
flies and many species of native bees.
Determining the length of cold stratification prior to sowing ERLA has been problematicfor nursery production. The length of time varies from 10 to 30 days depending upon theyear of collection and the area where the seed was collected. The plants establish andgrow rapidly, being ready to plant out within four months of sowing.

Sowing Information
Seeds per gram: 2710
Seeds per cell: 5
Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: >15 days
Germinates Best at temps below
15°C

ERLA seedlings two weeks aftersowing Photo by Carl Elliott

102

Festuca roemeri • Roemer’s fescue • FERO
Poaceae Grass Family
Plant Description
Roemer’s fescue is a bluish, gray-green tufted bunch grass that grows in British
Columbia (southeastern Vancouver Islandand the Gulf Islands), and west of the
Cascade Mountains in Washington, Oregon
and Northern California. These areas are
typically temperate, with maritime influence.
Roemer’s fescue grows from sea level toabout 750 m. The species is also found inthin-soiled windswept shorelines on theislands of the Puget Sound, the Strait ofJuan de Fuca and the Straits of Georgia.

Ecological ImportanceRoemer’s fescue is the most common native
grass found in the glacial outwash prairies andthose that have a history of anthropogenic
burning. Making sure the prairies have anabundant amount of FERO is a vital goal ofprairie restoration. The plant’s bunchgrass natureallows for the growth of all the other importantprairie species, including associated species:
common camas (Camassia quamash), fieldwoodrush (Luzula comosa), spike goldenrod(Solidago simplex), early blue violet (Viola
adunca) and prairie lupine (Lupinus lepidus) to
name a few. Additionally, the low growth of theleaves reduces competition for light and allows
for a diverse number of flowering species to exist
in the prairie plant community.

103

Roemer’s fescue in full flower
Photo by Rod Gilbert

Growth and Reproduction
As a bunch grass, Roemer’s fescue only reproduces from seed. The blooms
emerge from the evergreen foliage in late May through June and the flowers arewind pollinated. The seed ripens rapidly after pollination and is often ready toharvest in early July. The seed shatters or falls from its protective layer (palea
and lemma) very easily. The seed is harvested in the milky stage (when the seedis cut in half the starch is still milky and not yet solid, this stage can often last only
three or four days).The morning dew often holds the seed in the sheath during
cutting so harvest is done from dawn until around 10 am to minimize the loss ofseed.

Parts of a FERO flower L to R: Lemmaand palea on rachis, lemma and awn,
palea w/ seed, palea then lemma

A stem inflorescence of FERO.
Photos by Seeds of Change

Who is this Roemer guy anyway?
Roemer’s fescue is named for Swiss physician, professor of botany andentomologist Johann Jakob Roemer (1762-1819). Roemer was best known for
one of the greatest achievements in the history of Swiss entomology, the Genera
insectorum Linnaei et Frabricii. Roemer also published the 16th edition of Carlos
Linnaeus’ Systema Vegetabilium.
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1050
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- No stratification

104

Fragaria virginiana • Virginia strawberry • FRVIRosaceae Rose Family
Plant Description
Virginia strawberry grows profusely by runners(stoloniferous). The stems and leaf stems (petioles andpeduncles) are green/red and lightly hairy (pubescent).
The flower stems (scapes) are usually shorter than theleaves, thus the flowers are often mixed in with thefoliage. The leaves are three lobed (trifoliate), and eachleaflet is round to ellipse formed (obovate to ellipticobovate), and 2-7 cm long. The
leaflets are smooth and blue-green
on the upper surface, silky on thelower surface, with coarse, rounded
serrations along the edge of the leaf;
the teeth of the serrations at the verytip (terminal) are shorter than the
Photo by Ben Legler
adjacent teeth. Flowers are 5 oblong
petals surrounding numerous pistils upon a receptacle thatFRVI leaf, note small terminal
becomes the fruit. The seed is immersed in the fruit, which grows
tooth on center leaflet. By
Elizabeth Farnsworth.
up to 1 cm broad, is fleshy and red, having a good flavor because
Copyright © 2012 Elizabeth
it is a strawberry.
Farnsworth

Ecological Importance and Distribution
The May flowers of strawberries emerge timed toprovide nectar sources for butterflies, in particular
the Taylor’s checkerspot. The open flowers andlong blooming period provide abundant nectar andpollen resources to a wide number of otherpollinators. The rapid and vigorous vegetative
reproduction of the strawberry makes it animportant ecological component of prairies afterprescribed burns. The fruit is often set in large
quantities; however people rarely can compete withbirds and small mammals for the quality fruits. The
FRVI is the most common strawberry of North
America found across the continent.
Photo by Rod Gilbert

105

Distribution of FRVI across North America; the sub-species found on the prairies is Fragaria
virginiana ssp. platypetala represented in the map on the right.

Growth and Reproduction
Virginia strawberry makes fruit covered with numerous seeds; however, collection of the
fruits and seeds is difficult due to the number of birds that also find the fruit tasty. The
most common method of propagation both in the wild and in the nursery is by stolons or
runners. Each node along a runner is cut from the mother plant. The propagule consistsof a vegetative growing tip and small roots from below the crown. Each is planted sothat the growing point sits just above the soil. The plants are kept moist and shaded
until well rooted which takes one to three weeks.

FRVI Runners with propagules. Photo by U of Florida
106

Gaillardia aristata • blanket flower • GAAR
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
Blanket flower is a tap-rooted perennial, with large
showy yellow and reddish brown flowers. Leaves
are alternate, 8-15 cm long with coarsely-toothedand deeply divided margins. The species ismoderately long-lived, and re-seeds in abundanceonce established. Distributed throughout thenorthern part of North America and the Western
United States, it’s found in dry open spaces inprairies, mountain foothills and roadside clearings.

Ecological ImportanceBlanket flower is a nectar and food source, also providing resting spots andprotective cover, for many important pollinators and beneficial insects. Edward’s
fritillary (Speyeria edwards) butterflies rely on the species as a nectar source intheir adult stage. A moth species, (Schinia masoni), is camouflaged to
specifically mimic the yellow ray flowers andpurplish-brown disk flowers to aid in avoiding
predators. Throughout western North America,
the soft-winged flower beetle (Listrus senilis)
pollinates blanket flower. Blanket flower and its
associated beneficial insects are crucialcomponents of many northern grassland
ecosystems, breaking down organic matter,increasing soil fertility and improving soil waterholding capacity and water infiltration.

Blanket Flower with a sweat bee
pollinator. Photo by Carl Elliott107Growth and Reproduction
Blanket flower emerges late in the spring to put on rapid growth, blooming in earlysummer. Though tolerant of low water conditions, summer growth and abundance islimited by adequate moisture from late spring rainfall. Water availability is also reducedby competition with vigorous invasive grasses.
The primary limitation to reproduction for the blanket flower on Puget lowland prairies
seems to be seed fecundity (the amount of seed that is fertile per year). More researchis needed to address questions about nutrient and water limitations on seed set.
Additionally, limitations upon populations of pollinators through reduced nesting sites
and yearly fluctuations of nectar sources need to be studied.
Due to low proportions of fertile seed, germination rates vary from year to year. The
seed is large, 450 seed per gram, and easy to sow. The seed is enclosed in bristles
and a long pappus that easily floats to the surface after sowing. Cover well and re-coverwith a soil gravel mix if seeds are seen on the surface two weeks after sowing. Warm
temperatures (above 20°C) seem to befit GAAR both in germination and plantestablishment.

GAAR seeds with bristles and robust pappus oftencause the seed to float on top of the sowing medium.
Photo by Peter Dzuk

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram 450- Seeds per cell: 6- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 45 days
- Germinates best at temperatures
over 20°C

108

Heuchera chlorantha • tall alumroot • HECH
Saxifragaceae Saxifrage Family
Plant Description
Strong-growing perennial from a branched crown withshort rhizomes. Leaves only occur at the base; the leaf
blades are cordate (heart-shaped) to ovate (oval-shaped),
4-8 cm long and broad, with 5-9 rounded shallow lobes.
The flower stem is green with brownish, spreading hairs..
Flowers are on a spike-like panicle (similar to many
grasses) up to 15 cm long and with 7-9 mm long greenish
petals.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
HECH prefers gravelly prairies, rocky bluffs along the edgeof the maritime Northwest and partially wooded, rocky
hillsides. The plant is found as far north as the Queen
Charlotte Islands and is quite common along the coast of
British Columbia. The saxifrage family is one of the least
examined flower families for pollinators though bumble bees
seem common visitors to the flowers of HECH.

Growth and Reproduction
HECH blooms from May to August. The fruits are capsules that hold thousands of tiny
seeds. We have not calculated the seeds per gramfor this species. The plant has basal leaves andthus during most of its growth in the nursery, it willconsist of leaves close to the ground, until it
produces the scapes/stalks that will support theflowers. To date we have observed thatgermination is erratic and slow. We are hoping togather more information on successful germinationin the coming years.
Sowing Information- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: at least 90 days
109

Hieracium scouleri • Scouler’s hawkweed, hounds tongue
hawkweed • HISC
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
An upright, rosette growth form with norunners, the base leaves are oblong, 825 cm long, covered with soft to bristly
hairs; the few stem leaves decrease insize along on the upper stem. Flower
heads are 25-50 cm in an open,
branching cyme (see Drymocallis
gracilis for cyme branching patterns),
each flower occurring on a short stalk.
Cup floral heads are short, blackish at
the base (calyx), with glandular (stickygum)-tipped hairs, 15–20 yellow, rayflowers emerge from the calyx.
Synonym: Hieracium cynoglossoides

Photo by Rod Gilbert

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Hounds tongue hawkweed grows in prairies andmountain meadows across the inter-mountain west.
The plant reproduces from short undergroundrhizomes but does
not run above thesoil (stolons) likemany of the invasive
non-native
hawkweeds. In fact,
the plant rarely
produces much seed at all but the individual plants
can be long lived. The small ray flowers produce a
moderate amount of nectar in late spring.

110Growth and Reproduction
HISC is very slow to reproduce in the wild. The plant produces few seeds and often theseed is aborted due to low amounts of late spring rainfall. The maternal plant does
survive low moisture; however, the poor seed set makes increasing the plant in anursery condition a long process. The seed issmall but not tiny and remains clasped in thebract making it hard to clean and generateclean seed for sowing. Often we are sowing a
mix of chaff and seed. The seeds need light togerminate effectively and emerge from the soil
with greater vigor if cold-moist stratified for atleast 30 days.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 3704
- Seeds per cell: 4- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: cold-moist 30 days
- Germination: needs light to germinate

Large pappus hairs and small seedof HISC.
Photo by Cal photos U.C. Berkeley

111

Lithophragma parviflorum • smallflower prairie star or
Steilacoom flower • LIPA
Saxifragaceae Saxifrage Family
Plant Description
Lithophragma parviflorum is a perennial upright herb with anaked flowering stem. The leaves are located low on thestem, each cut into three lobes or divided into three lobed
leaflets. The stem bears up to 14 flowers (calyx), each in acup of red or green leafy structures surrounding the petals(sepals). The five petals are bright white, up to 1.6
centimeters long, and usually divided into three tooth-likelobes. The plant produces numerous underground storage
roots, both rhizomes (horizontal roots with sprouting
capabilities) and a clustered caudex (bunched storage
leaves).

Photo by Rod Gilbert

Ecological Importance and Distribution
It is native to much of western North America from British Columbia to California andeast to South Dakota and Nebraska, where it grows in several types of open habitat.
The plant can be found on coastal bluffs, prairies, shrub-steppe and rocky mountainoutcrops. Almost all open and well drained soils with ample
sunlight will be good habitat for this species. Though the plant
has a wide range, the open rocky habitat in the Puget lowland
region has been paved over for residential construction. The
plant has been extirpated (locally extinct) from Steilacoom, thetown that was once synonymouswith the flower.
Lithophragma parviflorum is pollinated by a number ofgeneralist insects and a rather drab moth, Greya politella,
which pollinates and feeds on only the most fragrant
Lithophragma in an area. This is a bit of a pollinationgamble for the plant as the moth larvae feed on thedeveloping seeds after the parents have fed on the nectar.
This has led ecologists to hypothesize that the high variation in fragrance amongindividual Lithophragma plants in a population may be caused by the plants’ attempts tohedge their bets against the predation by moth larvae.

112Growth and Reproduction
Lithophragma parviflorum is considered an ephemeral perennial (short-lived, but morethan one season) on the landscape. The species may be well adapted to winter rainfall
and well drained soils across its range. The leaves emerge quickly in late winter making
a rosette. The flower stems shoot up on long stalks in early spring with seeds quickly
forming, and the plants are fully dormant by late spring. This short annual appearance
makes them difficult to propagate in a nursery. We are experimenting with sowing times
and pot sizes to deliver these plants within 3 to 5 months of sowing them. The plants
can then go dormant in the field and emerge from the storage roots (caudex) the next
winter.
Seed Dimensions

Sowing Information

Average Measurement Range: Brown dust

‐ Seeds per gram: 30,000- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: into gravel- No stratification seems to benecessary113Lomatium nudicaule • barestem biscuitroot • LONU
Apiaceae Carrot Family
Plant Description
Barestem biscuitroot is a perennial herb arising from astout taproot. The plants reach a mature height of 20
to 45 cm. The leaves are divided into groups of threeleaflets (compound ternate to bi-ternate). The leaflets
are larger than the finely dissected leaflets common toother biscuitroots and very distinctive for the genus.
Each leaflet is 2 to 5 cm long and shaped like anelongated egg (ovoid to orbicular) in outline withcoarse teeth near the tip. The flower heads(inflorescence) are in umbrella shaped clusters(umbels). Each cluster is made up of 7 to 27 pale yellow ray flowers (flat, strap-shaped
petals), 8 to 10 cm long.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Barestem biscuitroot is found in western North America,
British Columbia, Idaho, Utah, Washington, Oregon,
Nevada and California. It is naturally found in dry, open tosparsely wooded places in lowlands to middle elevations. It
is often found growing in sagebrush, pinyon-juniper,
ponderosa pine, and mountain brush communities in theIntermountain West. Barestem biscuitroot may be adapted
to grow in sandy or glacial outwash soils in areas receiving
at least 35 cm or more mean annual precipitation, such as Western Washington
prairies. All the Lomatiums, and plants in the Apiaceae family, provide ample nectar andpollen to insects. They bloom over a long period and the floral structure (open wide
umbrella shapes) allows for efficient sharing of plant resources by numerous species of
insects. LONU has some of the largest seeds on the lomatiums and the seed was
extensively used and traded for food among the Native Americans.

Growth and Reproduction
Flowering occurs from April to June and seed is typically harvested in mid-July. A coldmoist stratification is necessary for germination, and 90% germination can be achieved114

by a 45-day stratification period followed by placement in cool germination
temperatures, 15˚C. The plants are slow to mature, and recommended growing time is12-16 months. Dormant roots are easily transplanted with high establishment success.
In the field, biscuitroot species can be broadcasted or drill seeded. Best results can beobtained from dormant fall seeding into a firm, weed-free seedbed. Seed should beplaced at a depth of 0.6 to 1.2 cm and packed to ensure good seed-to-soil contact. New
techniques are being investigated regarding the feasibility of growing biscuitroot species
in rooting beds at high densities prior to field establishment. This method would allow anursery to sacrifice a much smaller area in the first 1 to 2 years of plant development
before the plants produce seed.
Seed Dimensions- Average measurement: 10.7 x 4.9 x 0.9 mm- Measurement range: L: 9 – 12.5 mm, W: 4 – 5.75 mm,
D: 0.5 – 1.1 mm- Shape: Seeds widely winged. Hilum (point where seed
was attached to the plant) puckered.
- Color: Wings and ribs off-white to tan. Hilum is darker.
Outer seed face has light to dark brown center, with three
tan ribs that cross longitudinally (lengthwise) from hilum toopposite end. Inner seed face is bisected by one major rib, and then has darker brown
stripes mixed with tan stripes.
- Surface: Seeds smooth and not glossy.
- Latitudinal cross-section: elliptical- Longitudinal cross-section: elliptical

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 92- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: cold-moist 45 days
Photos by USDA

115

Lomatium triternatum • nineleaf biscuitroot • LOTR
Apiaceae Carrot Family
Plant Description
Nineleaf biscuitroot is an herbaceous forb in the
carrot family that grows from a large taproot.
Mature plants reach 70 cm tall. Leaves divide inmultiples of three (ternate-pinnately compound)with 9 to 21 leaflets or segments from leaf stems(petioles) up to 20 cm long. The leaf stems forma sheath around the main stem. Leaflets range
from 1 to 13 cm long and 1 to 1.5 cm wide. The
flower head (inflorescence) is umbrella shaped(umbelliferous) with 4 to 20 stems ending in bright yellow flowers.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Nineleaf biscuitroot is native to western North
America, occurring from northeastern California to
British Columbia and east to Alberta and Colorado.
This species is common on sunny valley bottoms,
open ridges and slopes of foothills and lower
mountains. It sometimes ranges into higher
elevations, in association with big sagebrush,pinyon-juniper and alpine plant communities atelevations from 1,300 to 2,900 m (4,200 to 9,500ft).
Nineleaf biscuitroot begins growth very early in the spring, often just following snowmelt,
providing crucial early forage for many wildlife and domestic animals. It is considered
one of the most valuable forage species of the genus due to its large stature and highproduction levels. Early flowering make this an important species for early spring
pollinators and other insects.
The roots of nineleaf and other biscuitroot species are edible and were used as animportant food source by Native Americans. Roots could be eaten raw, cooked as avegetable, or ground into flour for bread meal. An infusion of roots was taken for chest
troubles. The seeds were also used as condiment and spice.

116

Growth and Reproduction
Flowering takes place from late spring through midsummer with seed ripening in July and August. Wild
seed is easily hand collected. The seed detaches
readily from the stems, and shaking ripened
inflorescences over a bag or tarp can make very
clean, small collections. Minor screening to remove
sticks provides excellent purity. Seed viability inproper storage conditions remains high for 3 to 4
years. There are approximately 168 seeds per gram.
For greenhouse plant production, a cold/moist
stratification period is required. A 45-60-day
cold/moist stratification can achieve over 90%
germination. Best results are obtained when seed issown in late fall or early winter and left outside to stratify
naturally. Containerized plants should be grown for a
full season and overwintered before transplanting thefollowing spring. Transplants are very hardy, and if
weeds are controlled, 100% establishment can beaccomplished.

LOTR seedling, note finely
compound leaflets and leaf
stems wrapping around the mainstem. Photo by Jaal Mann

New techniques are being investigated regarding the feasibility of growing nineleaf
biscuitroot in rooting beds at high densities prior to field establishment. This method
would allow a nursery to sacrifice a much smaller area in the first 1 to 2 years of plantdevelopment before the plants produce seed.
Seed Dimensions- Average Measurement: 9.5 x 3.3 x 1 mm
- Measurement Range: L: 7.25 - 12.5 mm, W: 3 – 4
mm, D: 0.5 - 1.5 mm
Sowing Information

Photo by USFS

- Seeds per gram: 146- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: Soil and gravel to prevent seedfloating- Stratification: 45-60 days cold moist
t tifi ti
117

Lomatium utriculatum • spring gold • LOUT
Apiaceae Carrot Family
Plant Description
Lomatium utriculatum, or spring gold,
grows in upright clumps with mostly
basal leaves. Leaf blades are dissected
into very narrow, fern-like delicate
leaflets. The plant has the appearance ofa tiny carrot. Flowers are small andbright yellow, and clustered in open
umbrella shapes (umbels).
Photo from Swan Lake Nature Sanctuary

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Spring gold grows in meadows, woodlands,
and open rocky areas from California to British
Columbia. Lomatium utriculatum has beenfound to be a primary nectar source of Taylor’s
checkerspot (Euphydryas editha taylori) andmardon skipper (Polites mardon) butterflies incertain locations. In restoration efforts, plantingof important nectar source species, like spring
gold, near larval host plants such as harsh
Indian paintbrush (Castilleja hispida) is important because Taylor’s checkerspot
butterflies do not move a long distance when foraging for nectar or laying eggs.

Growth and Reproduction
Lomatium utriculatum is one of the first flowers to open on the Puget lowland
prairies. Its beautiful gold flowers herald spring and provide nectar to earlybutterflies and bees. It sets large amounts of seed on umbrella shaped seedheads, 20 cm high, that are easily spotted and collected amidst the grasses. The
white carrot-like root persists for many years in the ground making the plant along lived perennial.

118

All Lomatium seeds, no matter what species, easily “float” above the soil medium
when watered after sowing. Cover the sown seed lightly (1-2 mm of soil and 1-2
mm of gravel) to reduce floating seed. Go back a few days after sowing and recover with a 50/50% gravel/soil mix if many seeds are sitting on top of the soil.
Water well but do not flood the cells as this will cause more floating seeds. Seedgerminates readily after 45 days of cold-moist stratification. The seeds, seedlings
and roots are a favorite food of small birds and mammals. This can lead to a
reduced population of plants both in the nursery and on the prairies.
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 580- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 60 days
- Germinates best at
temperatures below 15°C

Photo by Jaal Mann

LOUT Seed Measurement Range:
L: 5.25 – 6.5 mm, W: 2.5 – 4 mm,
D: 0.25 – 0.6 mm

119

Luzula comosa • Pacific woodrush • LUCO
Juncaceae Rush Family
Plant Description
Luzula comosa has flat leaves (50-150 mm x 3-7 mm) that generally grow from the base(basal). The leaf covering (sheath) margins are fused or overlapping and generally have
two ear-like extensions at the leaf (blade)junction; blades are round and flat, with amargin of hairs. Flower clusters(inflorescence) are head-like or single flowers,
variously arranged, with small leaves below
the flower (bracts subtending inflorescence,
generally leaf-like). The Luzula comosa flower
is generally complete (both male and female),and the fruit is a capsule (loculicidal).

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Luzula comosa, a monocot, is a perennial herb that is
native to western states and provinces in North America.
It is common to meadows, open woods, and coniferous
forest, 50-3200 m in elevation. The woodrush is acommon and often overlooked member of the prairie
monocot community (grasses, rushes, sedges andmembers of the lily family). In prairies with harsh climaticconditions (more rain, cold or wind than average) the
woodrush can make up larger proportions of the plantcommunity and play an important role in creating habitat
and forage for many species.

Growth and Reproduction
Flowering occurs from April to July and fruiting happens throughout the spring andsummer. Seeds are usually collected by hand as they ripen over a long period of time.
There are ~2000 seeds per gram. Seeds are best sown in trays to spend at least 30
days in cold-moist winter conditions. Seeds become gelatinous in refrigerated
stratification and are difficult to handle.

120

Seed Dimensions
Seeds often have white appendages on one or both ends.
Seed size: 1–1.5 mm, cylindric, red-brown to brown; outer seed coat (appendage) 1/4–
1/2 seed-body length.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 2000
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 30 days

Photos by Rod Gilbert121

Micranthes integrifolia • whole-leaf saxifrage, swamp
saxifrage • MIIN
Saxifragaceae Saxifrage Family
Plant Description
This plant is a perennial, with long straight flower stems growing to be 10-30cm tall. The
plants are aggressively rhizomatous, meaning that they are singular stalks connectedunder the ground by roots. The narrow leaves emerge from the woody plant base in arosette pattern. The flower clusters (inflorescences) are dense but the nectar producing
part of the flower is very accessible to insects. The individual flowers have 5 white ovalshaped petals.

Photos by Ben Legler

Ecological ImportanceThis herb is found on the western side of the Cascades from British Columbia toOregon, in prairies, grassy mountain slopes, and vernally moist (spring moisture but dryin summer) areas. They have the ability to live at sea
level and up to subalpine climates. They are mostabundant on Puget lowland prairies in areas thathave been frequently managed with controlledburns. In the wild they offer a long blooming period
to support wildlife in many different habitats. The
open floral structure produces an abundance ofnectar over a very long period in spring.
Micranthes integrifolia distribution in WA

122

Growth and Reproduction
MIIN blooms from March to July. The seeds are narrow, pointed and golden brown incolor. The seed is the smallest we sow, it is practically like dust. Often it is sown into
small gravel in late winter. Germination usually occurs in March and April. This allows
for a long period of moist weather which the small seedling seems to need in order tobecome established. Once the seed has germinated care must be taken to not
overwater, but also not to allow the seedlings to dry out excessively. The seedlingwatering often needs to be checked at least twice a day. This type of special care iscommon with many of the small seeded species cultivated in the conservation nursery.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 40,090- Seeds per cell: 12- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: 60 days
- Germinates best at
temperatures below 15°C

Photo by Shaun Hubbard

123Microseris laciniata • cutleaf silverpuffs • MILA
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
Microseris laciniata is a perennial herb growing up to a meter tall with a branching stem.
The plentiful leaves are 10 to 50 cm long and variable in shape, with smooth, toothed,or lobed edges. The flower head is borne ona tall, erect or curving flower stem (peduncle).
The flower head may be 3 cm long when in
bud and wide when in bloom, bearing up to
100 or more long yellow ray florets (flowers
with petals).
A single seed is held in a dry, shrunken fruit(achene) with a gray or brown body a few
millimeters long. At the tip of the achene body
is a long collection of hairs (pappus) made upof 5 to over 20 scales, each of which may
exceed one centimeter in length.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Microseris laciniata is a flowering plant in the aster family known by the common namecutleaf silverpuffs. It is native to the western United States from Washington to northern
California and Nevada, where it grows in forest and grassland habitats.
Microseris laciniata has four distinct subspecies, separated geographically across therange (allopatric subspecies). The differencesamong them, for a botanist, are found mainly inthe tiny leaves that surround the flower head
(phyllaries) and the number or form of hairs at
the end of the seed (pappus). These subspecies
co-exist with the greatest diversity occurring in
the Klamath Mountains of northern California
and southern Oregon.

124Growth and Reproduction
Microseris makes a beautiful cluster sheath of leaves inearly spring. The leaves seem to spear out of the groundalmost overnight. The plant looks a lot like a dandelion or
hawk-weed but this species provides more floral resources
to insects. The species requires pollination from otherplants to produce seed (consistently self-sterile andoutcrossing), something neither dandelion or hawk-weed
require as they are self-fertile. Thus Microseris may offer
up more nectar or pollen to attract pollinators than the two
invasive look-alikes.
The plant sets
seed in May
through June andcan easily be mechanically harvested as all theseed ripens at once. There are approximately
924 seeds per gram. Seed cleaning requires
removal of the long pappus (see photo at left)
to facilitate manual and mechanical sowing.
Seed Dimensions- Average Measurement: 5.6 x 0.8 x 0.8 mm- Measurement Range: L: 4.75 – 7 mm, W: 0.5 – 0.9 mm, D: 0.5 – 0.9mm- Shape: Seed tubular with puckered hilum (detachment scar)- Additional Structures: Pappus fibers are attached in a circular pattern around the end.
Individual hairs exceptionally broad and 1/10 – 1/3 as long as
seed body.
- Color: Hilum white, seed body tan or light brown.
- Surface: Seed body has 10 – 15 grooves
running longitudinally from hilum
Sowing Information
to pappus. Hilum is glossy but- Seeds per gram: 968
seed body is smooth and matte.
- Seeds per cell: 4- Cover: into gravel (need light to- Latitudinal cross section: ellipticalgerminate)- Stratification: 90 days
- Longitudinal cross section: elliptical-

125

Packera macounii • Siskiyou Mtn. or Macoun’s groundsel •PAMA
Asteraceae Family
Plant Description
Macoun’s groundsel makes dense clumps or
rosettes close to the ground from a woodyrootstock. The leaves are linear-lanceolate(lance shaped) carried at the end of long
petioles (leaf stems). There are rarely teeth orwavy edges to the leaves. The leaves arecovered with short, dense, matted hairs(tomentose) giving the leaves a complete grey
cast, especially later in the season as theweather becomes drier.
The flowers are borne atop stems to 20 cm in June and July with the seed ripening soonafter. The aster-like seed is held in small flower heads with 5-10 seeds per head. A
short seed covering (achene) is topped with short hairs on the end of the seed (pappus,
like a dandelion).

Ecological SignificanceThis plant is common in southern Oregon and the WillametteValley, especially in rocky prairies and outcrops. Northward into
WA and BC the plant becomes rare and its habitat more
fragmented. This plant is listed with the State of Washington as
critically imperiled due to the reduction in native prairie acreage.
Though it was once found in a wider range, the only known
remaining population in south Puget lowland prairies is on Joint
Base Lewis-McChord. The plants we raise are from that small
source population.

Range of Packera macounii,
showing CA, OR, WA andBC from Wildflowers of the
Pacific Northwest

126

Growth and Reproduction
Packera macounii exhibits the growth and reproduction
habit common to many perennial members of the aster
plant family growing on the West Coast of the UnitedStates. Many bloom in late spring to early summer andripen seed in the hottest, driest part of the year. Summer
rain is uncommon in most lowland areas of western North
America. Thus, plants need to develop adaptations to set
seed under seasonally dry conditions. The leaves canpersist and provide nutrients to the developing seed bybeing small, linear and covered with grey hairs. This
reduces water loss and overheating during the summer.
Often the seed is quite small and ripens quickly after
pollination further reducing the plant’s need formoisture.
Photos by Keir Morse, Calphotos,
UC Berkeley

Packera grows in sites where there is little
competition from other vegetation. The seed is adapted to germinate in such conditions,requiring a broad spectrum of light to germinate. For propagation purposes the seed issown on the surface of the soil. Fresh seed needs no stratification but we areexperimenting to provide a more detailed protocol.

Seed Dimensions
Measurement Range: L: 4-6 mm W: 0.5-1 mm D: 0.5-0.7mm
Surface: elongate with longitudinal grooves, colored blackand tan, short pappus hairs

Photo by Lisa Hintz

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 2410
- Seeds per cell: 2- Cover soil: into gravel- Stratification: no stratification necessary
with fresh seed; no information available forstored seed127

Perideridia gairdneri • yampah • PEGA
Apiaceae Carrot Family
Plant Description
Perideridia gairdneri is a perennial herb
which may approach 1.5 m in maximum
height, its slender, erect stem growing fromcylindrical tubers measuring up to 8 cm long.
Leaves near the base of the plant haveblades up to 35 cm long which are divided
into many narrow, subdivided lobes. Leaves
higher on the plant are smaller and lessdivided. The flower cluster (inflorescence) is
a compound umbrella-shaped branch(umbel) of many spherical, small whiteflowers. These yield ribbed, rounded fruits,each a few millimeters long
Photo by Rod Gilbert

Ecological Importance andDistribution
Perideridia gairdneri is native to western North America
from southwestern Canada to California to New Mexico,
where it grows in many types of habitat. A number ofswallowtail butterflies use the plant as a larval hostthroughout its range. As a member of Apiaceae, or the
carrot family, this plant provides ample nectar to insects.
It often grows in deeper soils on Puget lowland prairies,
providing summer bloom and forage. The roots are eaten
extensively by Mazama pocket gophers. Yampah (P.
gairdneri) was an important food plant, even a staple
food, for Native American groups. The tuberous roots could be eaten like potatoes,
roasted, steamed, eaten fresh or dried, made into mush or pinole, used as flour andflavoring, and also used medicinally. The plant smells strongly of parsnips, including the
tuber, flowers, and fruit. The plant can be propagated by seed or by dividing the smaller
tubers.

128

Growth and Reproduction
The plant emerges from the soil in mid-spring. Flowering occurs from July into August if
the soil has adequate moisture and the plants are robust. Both population and seed set
by plants decrease in numbers in response to heavy competition from invasive grasses.
The plant can colonize quickly after fire or other disturbance. Thus fire is an importantregenerative tool for this species.
Hand collect seeds in August when seeds have turned brown and are easily stripped offof flowers into paper bags. Store seeds in sealed containers at 5º C. Seed will retain
viability for up to five years. Sow seeds in the fall and allow natural stratification, or sow
stored seeds in the spring after six to eight weeks of cold, moist stratification.
Seed Dimensions
Average Measurement: 2.3 x 1 x 1 mm
Measurement Range: L: 1.5 – 3 mm W:
0.8 – 1.1 mm D: 0.75 – 1.3 mm
Latitudinal cross section: ovate (eggshaped – pointed at tip)
Longitudinal cross section: elliptical (oval)
Shape: Seed schizoid (clusters split along
an axis into multiple seeds), flat on one
plane, and rounded on the opposite plane.
Lots of irregularity in shape.
Color: Various shades of green and brown.
Hilum (detachment scar) is usually white. Some seeds have pink from remnant flower
structure at tip.
Surface: Seeds have five ridges on outer seed face that run from hilum to tip
longitudinally (lengthwise). Inner seed face has one white rib that bisects (splits in two
parts) the seed face.
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1614
- Seeds per cell: 4- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: ~ 50-60 days, sow to over
winter in cells

129Plantago lanceolata • narrowleaf plantain • PLLA
Plantaginaceae Plantain Family
Plant Description
Narrowleaf plantain is a non-native perennial that forms rosettes and is acommon weed of pasture land, roadsides, and waste places. The basal leaves
are lance shaped and spreading, scarcely toothed with 3-5, distinct parallel veins.
Flower stalks end in an oblong floral structure (inflorescence) with many small
flowers, each surrounded by a modified leaf called a bract. Each flower can
produce two seeds.

PLLA foliage and flowers
Photos by Leo Michels and Kristain Peters

Ecological ImportanceThis species, native to the British Isles, is considered an invasive weed in North
America and is widespread throughout North and South America, as well as inAustralia. This species is grown in support of the reintroduction effort for the
Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly. This butterfly species uses narrowleaf plantain foroviposition, laying its eggs on the plant. Before this invasive plant species waspresent, Taylor’s checkerspot butterflies predominantly used Castilleja hispida or
C. levisecta for oviposition. The current patchy and degraded nature of the130remaining butterfly habitat has allowed for the growth of narrowleaf plantain andthe butterflies have responded by changing the plant onto which they lay theireggs.

Growth and Reproduction
The foliage of plantain emerges early in the year when most other herb plants
are still dormant. This allows for early butterfly larvae to find food as they comeout of diapause (a winter dormant life stage). Blooming occurs in late spring,
numerous flowers are produced per head and large amounts of seed are
produced. Seed is the primary form of reproduction and the plants are short lived.
The seed requires light to germinate and the species has been an importantmodel in the study of weedy or “ruderal” plant response to disturbance. It
commonly sprouts up along roadsides and “waste” ground where cars, livestockand human traffic disturb the soil and create bare ground. For propagation, theseed can be sown directly on top of the gravel cover layer and watered in tocreate soil contact. Germination is quick with no stratification needed.

Fun Facts
Strong arguments are made on both sides of the debate of planting a non-nativeplant species to support an endangered butterfly species. Some argue that a
non-native species should never be grown and planted out, especially in alreadyfragile habitat. However, others say that since the butterfly is in imminent dangerof going extinct, and the species itself has adapted to the change in vegetation inits habitat, that plans to recover the species
must adapt as well.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 900- Seeds per cell: 5- Sow: into gravel- Stratification: none necessary

PLLA seed, dimension in mm,
U of Missouri131Plectritis congesta • shortspur seablush, sea blush, rosy
plectritis • PLCO
Valerianaceae Valerian Family
Plant Description and Distribution

Photo by Rod Gilbert

An annual herb with a single stem growing 10-61 cm talland nearly hairless throughout. The leaves are arrangedin opposite pairs on the stem, entire, 1-6 cm long and0.25-2 cm wide; the lowermost leaves resemble a spatula(spatulate) or a rounded spoon (obovate). The upper
leaves lengthen, thin out and clasp the stem (sessile). The
flowers are in a dense, head-shaped cluster of small pinkor rarely white flowers. The fruit is of two forms(dimorphic): withor without lateralwings. It is foundat low elevationsin open,seasonally moist
slopes andmeadows, growing
in well-drainedsoils.
Distribution of Plectritis congesta in WA.
Map Courtesy of The Burke Museum of
Natural History and Culture

Ecological Importance
Rosy plectritis is recognized as an important nectar source for the Taylor’s checkerspot
butterfly (Euphydryas editha taylori). The plant has become very rare in the south Puget
lowland, and has been rescued from very few, small, remnant populations.
Conservation and restoration have increased that original population 10,000-fold acrossthe landscape. Increased seeding and prescribed burning have aided in the recovery ofthis species. Annual flowering plants in general were never abundant in Western
Washington but prairie ecosystems are an exception. Therefore, rosy plectritis remains
an important annual plant for habitat restoration purposes throughout the Puget lowland
prairies and into the Canadian islands of the Georgia Strait.

132

Growth and Reproduction
Growing an annual for seed production or restoration means there is a quick turnaroundfrom sowing to plant out. The plants fill their growing tubes in ten weeks and are thenready to plant in the seed beds to grow another ten weeks until blooming. The fruit is set
in June and July and often fails to fall from the stalks. The seeds are mechanically or
manually collected. The seed can be winged or wingless. The percentage of winglessseeds can vary from 1-46% depending on the
population. This characteristic of having two
types of seed (seed dimorphism) has allowed thespecies to be a model to study how theenvironment that the mother plant grows increates selection pressure for the genetic trait ofwinged or wingless seed in future generations.
Rosy plectritis seed germination increases
significantly (by 30% +/- .04) when the seed istreated with smoke infused water. This may be
one cause of the increase in germination on theprairies after a prescribed burn.
Winged/keeled seed of rosy plectritis.
Photo by Lisa Hintz

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1699
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 15 to 30 days
- Germinates best at temperatures below 15°C

133

Ranunculus occidentalis • western buttercup • RAOC
Ranunculaceae Buttercup Family
Plant Description
A common perennial, growing from 15-76 cm with upright, usually branchedhollow stems adorned with soft hairs. Basal leaves are 2.5-7.5 cm long, softly
hairy and oval to heart shaped. Small yellow flowers with 5-6 petals are up to 2.5
cm wide. Found in moist soils,
meadows, coastal bluffs and forestsfrom sea level to high elevations, it isoften confused with an invasive
buttercup species from Europe, R.
repens. However, that species isusually shorter, with leaves divided
into three lobes, and found more often
in waste places, roadside clearings
and fields at low elevation.

Western Buttercup with first blooms.
Photo by Rod Gilbert

Ecological ImportanceWestern buttercup is widespread throughout western North America, and has
many identified subspecies throughout its range. Western buttercup produces
early season, nectar rich blossoms for pollinating insects. It is recognized as amain nectar species for the Taylor’s checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas editha
taylori) in its Oregon range. South Puget lowland sites have a higher abundanceof western buttercup along with Oregon sunshine (Eriophyllum lanatum),
Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana), and Puget balsamroot (Balsamorhiza
deltoidea), making all important nectar sources. In contrast, R. occidentalis isless abundant in comparison with harsh Indian paintbrush (Castilleja hispida) as
a nectar species for the butterfly in forest clearings and meadows on the Olympic
Peninsula.

134

Small but distinct nectar producing scaleat the base of the RAOC flower petal
Photo by Rod Gilbert

Growth and Reproduction
New growth on the perennial plant begins from a fleshy rootstock in late winter.
Unlike other members of the plant genus, R. occidentalis does not produce
above-ground stems that spread out and root at the leaf nodes (stoloniferous
reproduction). Seed is its only method of reproduction. The large seed isgathered by small rodents or birds and winter nursery seed trays are sometimes
raided for their contents.
Western buttercup germinates well with a cold-moist stratification ranging from
14 to 32 days, with little sprouting of seed below 5°C. Cover seed with ~2 mm ofsoil and 1 mm of gravel. Germination
begins within 14 days but occurs over a
two month or more time span.

Fun Facts

Photo by Lisa Hintz
Seed Measurement Range:
L: 3 – 4 mm
W: 2 – 3 mm
D: 0.75 - 1.25 mm
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 413- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 30 days
- Germinates best at temps<15°C

The timing of flowering of western
buttercups was used as a seasonal
indicator for coming of summer salmon
runs among the Shasta tribe. This
species’ smooth, flat, and orbicular(disk- or ring-shaped) seeds were usedalone or mixed with other seeds tomake a pinole, sweetened flour,
considered a staple of the Mendocino
and Pomo tribes.

135

136

Ranunculus orthorhynchus • straight beaked buttercup •RAOR
Ranunculaceae Buttercup Family
Plant Description

Photo by J. William Thompson

Straight beaked buttercup is a perennial herb
sprouting from a fleshy, dense rootstock. The
stems sometimes exceed half a meter longand may be upright or snaking along the
ground (erect or decumbent). The stem may
be hairy to hairless in texture. Leaf blades areeach divided into several toothed leaflets andare borne on long leafstalks (petioles). The
flower has five to eight shiny yellow petals,
each 1 to 2 cm long with a tight cluster ofstamens and pistils at the center. The fruit issmall, dry, and does not open to release seed(achene), borne in a spherical cluster.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
This buttercup has become increasingly rare
in wet prairies and streamsides in Western
Washington though it is abundant in mountainmeadows and coastal marshes. The plant
diversity of wet prairie meadows has been
decreasing due to livestock over-grazing,draining of fields, and the increase ofaggressive grasses used for forage.
Ranunculus orthorynchus could be an
important component of wet prairie
restoration. These prairies, if restored, could
provide a greater diversity of blooming
species and longer blooming periods insummer to compliment the drier upland habitats. Building up stock for wet prairies fromthe few remaining plants in damaged habitats is a challenge for regional restoration
ecologists. Our nursery restoration will involve developing cultivation protocols andbuilding up plant material over a long timespan.

137

Growth and Reproduction
Ranunculus orthorhyncus produces numerous seeds, each enclosed in a dry, oneseeded fruit (achene or shell). The seed germinates at low temperatures after acold/wet stratification of 40 days. Ranunculus orthorhyncus seeds are large, 225 pergram, so it is sown with a cover of both soil and gravel. Rodents love to eat the seeds ifsown over winter but do not seem to bother spring sown seed. The plant grows quickly
in the cells becoming ready to plant out in 120 days from germination. All Ranunculus
species are susceptable to aphid infestations and should be monitored regularly.

ROAR with beaked achenes (seedcoverings). Photo by Rod Gilbert

RAOR flowers with ants collecting
the nectar from the base of thepistils, photo by Bud Kovalchik

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 225- Seeds per cell: 3- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 40 days
- Germinates best at temperatures
below 15°C

138

Sidalcea malviflora • prairie mallow • SIMA
Malvaceae Mallow Family
Plant Description
Sidalcea malviflora is an
herbaceous perennial that grows
from trailing and freely rooting
lateral roots (rhizomes), and canreach 60 cm tall. The flower has
five petals ranging in color fromlight pink to purple, sometimes
reddish or rosy colored. The leaves
are kidney shaped, and are 2 to 8
cm broad. The whole plant isuniformly covered in light hairs(pubescent). The petals (calyx
lobes) are not widened above thebase and are tapered evenly to the tip.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Sidalcea malviflora has been found in open meadows, along fence lines, alongroadsides, upon grassy hillsides, and in low mountainareas. The population in Washington is found in theThurston County area in open prairie land. In Oregon, it is
known to occur in rolling upland, wetland prairies,
wetlands, and deciduous and evergreen forests of theWillamette Valley. Sidalcea ssp. occur in prairie andmeadow environments that have been historicallymaintained by fire. Fire may be an important aspect ofmaintaining appropriate habitat. This species isendangered in Washington due the extremely small sizeof the one known population (one plant that has produced
some seedlings through self-pollination). The extremely
small size of the Washington population puts it at greatrisk. Conifer and non-native shrub encroachment are an
ongoing concern.

139Growth and Reproduction
Sidalcea malviflora germination is enhanced if seeds are scarified prior to sowing. The
seed coat is hard and does not easily imbibe water. Two pieces of course sandpaper(40 to 50 grit) can be used to vigorously scrape 3g of seed at a time. After sanding,seed should be examined under a hand lens to ensure adequate scarification. Someseed will be damaged but most will just have visible scaring on the seed coat. Repeat
scarification if less than 60% of the seed is scarred. Additionally, cold/moist stratificationmust be applied to further overcome seed dormancy. Stratification can be as short as
30 days. This combinational germination strategy is rare or at least is yet to bediscovered among many species. That is because most researchers do not separately
examine stratification and scarification and compare those results with a combination of
the two techniques. Once the scarification and stratification requirements of the seed
are met, germination is rapid at cooler temperatures; <15°C.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 293- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover soil: soil and gravel- Scarify: Course sand paper- Stratification: 30 days or less140

Silene scouleri • Scouler’s campion • SISC
Caryophyllaceae Pink Family
Plant Description
Silene scouleri is a species of flowering plant in thepink family known by the common name Scouler’s
campion. There are at least three subspecies which
all vary in size, shape, habitat preference, anddistribution. Some individuals are difficult to assign toa subspecies. In general, the species is a perennial
herb producing one or more erect stems from awoody, branching base stem (caudex). The stem isusually unbranched, or simple.
Silene scouleri flowers have 5 deeply forked petals, 2
paler, petal-like appendages at the base of eachpetal, and a sticky, glandular-hairy, green-striped or
purple-striped 10-veined petal-ring (calyx) composedof fused leaflike structures enclosing the petals(sepals) (these are the puffed pouches behind theflowers in the picture at left). The flowers are followedby the production of elliptical or egg-shaped seed capsulesthat are the same length as the petal-ring (calyx, cup-likepart) or a bit longer. The leaves are green, opposite,covered with short, fine, flattened hairs, and broadly tonarrowly lance-shaped or sometimes linear in shape. The
stems are green, hairy, leafy, and erect to leaning. The
glandular hairy foliage is sticky and can trap small insects.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Silene scouleri is native to western North America from
British Columbia to California to Colorado. The name “catchfly” (Scouler’s catchfly is
one of its common names) comes from the sticky hairs on the surface of the leaves andcalyces that trap small insects trying to steal nectar without pollinating the flowers.
Silene scouleri is a very complex species that appears to be in the process of diverging
into at least three different subspecies. Differentiation among these three forms is
incomplete and plants that are a clear mixture among subspecies are frequently
encountered in areas away from the main population centers of the three subspecies. In

141northern Oregon and Idaho there appear to be populations connecting S. scouleri with
S. oregana. They have some of the characteristics of S. oregana but not all. They may
represent a more luxuriant form growing in taller vegetation, but their status needs
further study.

Growth and Reproduction
The perennial plant prefers a sunny situation in gritty loam. Established plants begin
growing when shoot dormancy is broken in late November to January. Most shoots
partially die back during summer droughts. Summer drought can kill both juvenile andmature plants as well as limit the amount of flowering and seed set. The mature shootsthat survive form flowering stems in June or early July, and flowers open in late August
or early September. Seeds ripen in September or October. Collection of seed is often
limited by summer drought or early fall rains that rot the seed capsules on the plant.
Seed Dimensions
Seeds brown or grayish brown, kidney-shaped (reniform), 1-1.5 mm, margins with small
protrusions (papillate), rugged (rugose) on sides.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 717- Seeds per cell: 6- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 60 days

SISC seeds, dimensions in mm.
Photo USDA
142

Sisyrinchium idahoense • Idaho blue-eyed grass • SIID
Iridaceae Iris Family
Plant Description:
The Idaho blue-eyed grass that we find here in Washington is a tufted perennial herb,with smooth (glabrous) leaves and stems that are simple, usually flattened and 1-2.5
mm wide and 15-45 cm tall. The leaves are mostly from the base of the plant (basal),
narrowly linear and up to 30 cm long. Their little flowers are light to deep bluish/violet
with a yellow center and dark violet lines creating a “striped” effect on the 6 petals.

Photos by Ben Legler

Ecological Importance and Distribution
The Idaho blue-eyed grass serves many
important ecological services. The plant inhabitsmoist pockets, such as seeps or steam beds
within drier sites. It provides nectar to solitary
bees of the family Megachilidae, which aremainly responsible for cross-pollination in natural
populations. In south Puget lowland prairies, theplants are limited to those areas that have
deeper stream-side (alluvial) soils or become
very moist in spring due to localized topography.

143

Sisyrinchium idahoense distribution in WA

Their habitat is seasonally wet areas and marshes, near sea level to mid-elevations in
the mountains. They are also common in roadside ditches, believe it or not!

Growth and Reproduction
This little field plant blooms between April and July. Its fruits are egg-shaped capsules
approximately 6 mm long, with black seeds. Numerous seeds are produced over a long
period in summer. The large seed, 626 per gram, is sown after 90 days cold-moist
stratification or winter conditions, followed by warm-moist stratification in summer. This
dual combination of stratification has rarely been documented for plants from Puget
lowland prairies. In order to find out more about this species’ requirements for
germination more comparisons and observations will need to be made in the nursery.

Fun Facts– The name “blue-eyed grass” is given because the flowers appear like beautiful blue“eyes” from the side of a grass-like stem.
– Historically, this herb was picked and used to alleviate certain stomach and digestion
issues.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 626- Seeds per cell: 6- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: check with coordinator

144

Solidago missouriensis • Missouri or prairie goldenrod •SOMI
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description

Photo by Rod GilbertThis native perennial plant is about 60-90 cm tall andunbranched, except for the flowering stalks near the growth tip(apex). Missouri goldenrod produces both flowering and nonflowering shoots. The central stem is light green to dark red,round, and hairless; the lower portion of this stem may becomeslightly woody with age. A panicle of yellow flower heads
develops at the tip of fertile shoots, spanning up to 15 cm longand 10 cm across. This panicle has flowering stalks that curve
down towards the ground (recurved). Each flower head is about
3 mm across; it consists of several yellow disk florets that are
surrounded by about 8-13 ray florets. The seed is surrounded bya hard shell (achene) with small hairs at one end (pappus).

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Missouri goldenrod blooms at mid-summer
making food available for important pollinatorson the prairies. The flowers appear in July andpersist in some years into August. This bloom
window is between the plethora of blooms inspring and the late summer season members of
the Asteraceae, like Hall’s or Eaton’s aster.
Solidago foliage is also a preferred plant of awide number of “pest” insects that go on to feed
the birds and small mammals of the prairies. In
Washington, this goldenrod is restricted to prairie soils and habitats on both sides of the
Cascades. However, the species has a very wide distribution in North America. This is
the most common goldenrod on the short grass and bunch grass prairies west of theMississippi River and east of the Continental Divide.

145

Growth and Reproduction
Missouri goldenrod reproduces vegetatively by offsets (short underground roots) andsexually by seeds; it often forms sizable vegetative colonies in which only the outershoots are fertile and produce flowers. The inner shoots of such colonies are infertileand usually smaller in size. Frequently, seed set
can be low in the larger colonies found in natural
habitats, younger plants or middle aged
populations produce more viable seed. SOMI
takes advantage of disturbance regimes on theprairies by being able to germinate on thesurface of bare soil. The small seeds require lightto germinate well. In the nursery, seed is sown
on a surface of gravel and kept moist for 14 days
until germination occurs.
Photo by Seeds of Success

SOMI is a good plant to use todescribe different types of flower
heads (inflorescences). Flower
heads are classified by the form
that the flowers take when
emerging from the stem. Many
members of the Asteraceae
Family have panicle
inflorescence forms (compound
branching leading up to theflowers) with the flowers
themselves composed in a heador receptacle.

Sowing Information- Seeds per Gram: 3715
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: into gravel- Cold-moist stratification: 15 days
- Requires light to germinate

146

Solidago simplex ssp. simplex var. simplex •Mt. Albert goldenrod • SOSI
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description

Photo by Rod Gilbert

SOSI is a smooth leaved(glabrous) perennial from a shortwoody base or lateral root(rhizome), 5-80 cm tall andsomewhat sticky to the touch(glutinous), at least in the flower
buds and stems (inflorescence andpeduncles). Basal leaves arerounded spears (oblanceolate) tospoon shaped (spatulate), toothedon the edges or nearly entire andblunt. The stem (cauline) leaves
are few, short and compact on most prairie specimens. The
flower heads are often on long stems (peduncles) with blunt;
ray flowers, normally 8, disk flowers 13, all yellow.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Solidago simplex, as a species, is a modelorganism for form and structure (morphological)
plasticity (the ability to change structure of leaves,stems and/or flowers) in different environments.
The species is found from central Mexico, NE toQuebec and NW to the Arctic Islands of theNorthwest Territories. There are three main
subspecies further divided into 12 varieties thathave unique characteristics that set them apartfrom one another. The two varieties that are found on Puget Sound prairies are
separated by the time of bloom; an April and a June bloom. At this time, they have notbeen officially separated by variety but both are also common on rocky clearings below
2000 m in the Cascades, the Yakima and Columbia River canyons and along thecoastal dunes.

147

Growth and Reproduction
Many members of the Asteraceae family have small
light seeds with attached pappus (the fuzz on thedandelion seed). This adaptation of the seed allows
the plants to colonize new areas rapidly. Theyfrequently move into areas that have had some sortof ecological disturbance: flood, landslide, fire,
volcanic eruption or, more commonly in our age,human disturbance. A unique characteristic of theseed of the Asteraceae colonizers is the need tohave light to germinate. The small seeds land on
bare soil with minimal competition and the waterimbibed seed responds to the sunlight and heat by
rapidly germinating. In the nursery, SOMI is sown on the surface of gravel after
undergoing a 90 day stratification period. Germination begins at 14 days and continues
for approximately a month.
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 3446
- Seeds per cell: 6- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: 90 days
- Requires sufficient light togerminate148Symphyotrichum chilense spp. hallii • Hall’s aster • SYHA
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
SYHA is a well-branched perennial 20 to 100 cm tall,
its size dependent on available moisture. The plant
emerges from woody under-ground stems(rhizomes) producing long, linear leaves that arealternately arranged up the stem. The flowers are at
the ends of divided stems and branches to makewide spreading plants. The blooming stems let loose
with a starry display of white to lilac flowers in Julyand August. On south Puget lowland prairies, theplant is found along seasonal streams that go dry
during the summer.

Hall’s aster in full bloom
Photo by Regina Johnson

Distribution and Ecological ImportanceHall’s aster is known to have only a few populations inOregon and Washington States. All known
populations are on State or Federal Lands. The rarityof the plant makes it a species appropriate forpropagation and increase. All asters provide
significant nectar resources during the mid-summer
months when little else is blooming on the prairies.

Growth and Reproduction
Many members of the Aster family reproduce vigorously by underground stems known
as rhizomes. Hall’s aster is no exception; the plant produces large clumps over many
years. SYHA is a good example to use to describe how the flowers of the Aster family
are often structured. All the flowers are held erect in a flattened receptacle. The outer149flowers, known as ray flowers, have long petals attached. The inner flowers (diskflowers) often have very shortened, united or fused petals that are almost non-distinct.
The full flower is made up of the yellow center (disk flowers), outer petals (ray flowers),
surrounding overlapping bracts on the outside (involucre) and the receptacle at thebase.

The most robust and fertile seeds are produced by the disk flowers. When the asterseed is threshed, it is commonly difficult to clean as the seed is mixed with heavy seed
coverings (achene) and the fluffy pappus (the fuzzy part like in a dandelion). Cleaning
seed for sowing requires a number of steps to remove the pappus or sometimes theachene and separate them from the seed. Additionally, cleaning can be tedious as theseed of Hall’s aster is very small with ~5,000 seeds per gram.
Many of the aster family germinate at higher rates when the sown seed is exposed tofull spectrum sunlight. The sunlight cues the seed that there is reduced plantcompetition and plenty of bare space to occupy. The need for sunlight and the small
seed makes sowing fairly easy. The seed is rather thickly sown at a rate of 7-10 seeds
per cell (or what looks like seed but is a mix of seed and chaff). The seed is directly
sown into a light covering of gravel over the potting soil. The seed is then lightly wateredin to create soil contact with the seed but the seed is not really covered with soil. If cold
stratified for 14 days prior to sowing, seed germinates readily in one week.

Sowing Information-Seeds per gram: 3000
- Seeds per cell: 7-10
- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: 15 days
-Requires sufficient light to germinate
150Symphyotrichum chilense • Pacific aster • SYCH
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
The 90-150 cm tall Pacific aster is a fibrous-rooted perennial
sprouting from a rhizome (underground stem) or branched base.
The lower leaves are rounded lances (oblanceolate) on shortstems (petiolate), and slightly hairy (pubescent). The older
leaves fall early while the leaves
around the stems get progressively
more linear and small. Flower heads
are many in an open inflorescence,with a few erect, pointed, linear bracts
below each flower head. Scales on
Photo by Ben Legler
the back of the receptacle (involucre)
are 5-7 mm high, the scales are
papery below and green above (see photo at right); disk
flowers numerous, yellow; ray flowers 15-40, blue or pinkish,
7-15 mm long. Seed hairs (pappus) have numerous bristles
with distinct veins.
Photo by Ben Legler

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Native aster species (including Symphyotrichum spp.) are good late-season pollinatorplants, providing a critical pollen source for bees that are active in the late fall, including
new bumble bee queens building up their energy reserves before winter dormancy.
They also serve as nectar sources and host plants forcheckerspot and crescent butterflies.

Distribution of SYCH endemic toWestern North America

Pacific aster grows in a variety of habitats including
grasslands, meadows, salt marshes, coastal dunes
and bluffs, coastal scrub, and open or disturbed areas.
It is adapted to fine to medium-textured soils, full sun
to partial shade, is relatively drought tolerant, and has
a high salinity tolerance. Pacific aster is distributed incoastal regions from southwest British Columbia to
Southern California at elevations below 500 m (1600
ft).

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Growth and Reproduction
Pacific aster does not enter seed dormancy, so untreated seed can be sown any time ofyear. Naturally it generally germinates in the spring when soils are moist andtemperatures reach 15˚C (60°F). The seed germinates readily if sown on the surface ofgravel and kept moist until germination occurs. There are 1,800 seeds per gram. Plants
are easily established from transplanted plugs in the fall. If seed is not available, plants
can be propagated from divisions of the rhizome or root crown in early spring, but thismethod is time consuming and generally not preferable if other methods are available.

Photo by Annie Young-Mathews, NRCS, 2010

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1,800- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: 15 days
- Requires sufficient light to germinate

152Symphyotrichum eatonii • Eaton’s aster • SYEA
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
Eaton’s aster rapidly spreads by rhizomes or underground roots. The branching
foliage reaches 100 cm at maturity under good growing conditions. The pale lilac
to white ray flowers surround cheery yellow disk flowers that fade to raspberry
pink after pollination. The flowers are actively visited by pollinating insects
throughout the growing season. Though uncommon on regional prairies, theplant is often found at higher elevations in the Cascades, Olympics andOkanogan highlands in Washington along seasonal streams and washes.

SYEA with crab spider (left). Photo by Rod Gilbert.
Sweat Bee (right). Photo by Kort Krame.

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Ecological Importance
All asters provide significant nectar resources during the late summer months when little
else is blooming on the prairies. Asters provide nectar and pollen for a bee genus often
overlooked for its ecological value. Sweat bees (genus Halictid) feed on nectar andpollen during the summer and may be seen with impressive pollen loads on their hindlegs as they return to their nest with food for their eggs and young (larvae). Founding
females dig branching burrows in bare soil, on flat surfaces to vertical banks. The
female provisions cells at the end of each branch of tunnels with pollen balls and nectar.
She lays her eggs in the ends of the provisioned tunnels and the developing larvae feedon the balls of pollen and nectar. Sweat bees usually overwinter as larvae or pupae inburrows in sandy, loose soil.

Growth and Reproduction
Though not as rare as SYHA across the American West, locally in Washington State it
is uncommon. The seeds are almost twice the size of SYHA but still quite small with
~3,000 seeds per gram. This makes the sowing techniques for both Symphyotrichum
eatonii and S. hallii essentially identical. Carefully sow the small seeds into gravel toallow for light to stimulate the developing seedlings.

Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 3000
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: into gravel- Stratification: 15 days
- Requires sufficient light to germinate

SYEA seed measurement range: L: 5-7 mm, W: 1-2.5 mm, D: 1.5 – 2 mm
Photo by Lisa Hintz

154

Viola adunca • early-blue violet • VIAD
Violaceae Violet Family
Plant Description
Viola adunca, or early-blue violet, isa compact perennial with short
slender underground roots(rhizomes). Leaves are alternate
and heart shaped to oval (ovate).
The flowers of this viola are blue todeep violet, but can often bewhitish at the base with a distinct
hook where the petals cometogether. Flowers have 5 petals,
and bloom from April to August.
Fruit are born in capsules withthree valves that force an explosive
splitting of the capsules, spreading theseeds.

Early-blue violet. Photo by Rod Gilbert

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Viola adunca is a wide spread species found across the cooler states and provinces ofNorth America and also in Northern Europe and Asia.
The plant is commonly found in coastal sand bluffs andwoods and other well drained soils throughout its
range. Another common name for the plant is the sandviolet.
Though common, in most habitats were VIAD is foundit provides an important nectar and larval food source
for local butterflies. In Puget lowland prairies, theMardon skipper (Polites mardon) butterfly depends on
Viola adunca as a spring-flowering nectar source. The
small orange butterfly is found on two South Sound prairies, and is listed as a state
endangered species and is a federal candidate species. Zerene fritillaries (Speyeria
zerene) also use Viola adunca, but as a larval host. Three subspecies of the zerene
fritillary are listed on the U.S. Endangered Species List, including the Oregon silverspot,
which is classified as threatened in California, Oregon and Washington.

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Studies have found that Viola adunca are poor competitors, and are easily displaced byinvasive species. Non-native grasses increase thatch density and vegetation height,
compete for resources and eliminate open space for germination, thus reducing Viola
adunca populations. Experiments also show that fire reduces plant competition andstimulates germination in Viola adunca. Fire could be used to increase Viola adunca
populations and provide more area for nectar and larval hosting for butterflies.

Growth and Reproduction
The plant emerges from a fleshy rootstock base in late fall and makes slow even growththrough the winter and early spring. Blooming and pollination occurs from late February
through June if there is adequate moisture. The flowers are visited by butterflies andbees, who all contribute to pollination. Seeds are held in capsules and ripen from June
to August. The tiny capsules point upward when the seed is ripe and explosively
disperse soon after; this makes Violaseed very difficult to harvest.
Seed is dispersed in the late springand early summer and germination
occurs after a 90 to 160 day range ofcold moist stratification. Viola adunca
germinates erratically as well as
slowly and patience is required tokeep the seed moist during this longprocess. The germination process isenhanced by cooler, alternating
day/night temperatures (10°/4°C).

Fun facts
Violet leaves contain more vitamin A than spinach, and a half-cup of leaves has more
vitamin C than four oranges! Now, don’t go out and start eating, Viola adunca is a very
important larval host and nectar source for threatened butterflies. Another reason to limit
consumption: its rhizomes, fruits and seeds are poisonous. Adunca means hooked, andother common names include the hooked-spur violet and the western dog violet.
Sowing Information- Seeds per gram: 1300
- Seeds per cell: 5- Cover: soil and gravel- Stratification: 90 days
- Germination: long, 90 to 160 days

156

Viola praemorsa • canary violet • VIPR
Violaceae Violet Family
Plant Description
Viola praemorsa is a perennial herb that grows up to 20 centimeters in maximum height.
The thick, fleshy leaf blades are lance-shaped to oval with pointed or rounded tips; thelower (basal) leaves are up to 8.5 centimeters
long and those higher on the stem are thesame or slightly longer. The leaf blades areoften coated densely in hairs and are borneon long stems (petioles). A solitary flower isborne on each long, upright stem. It has fiveyellow petals, the lowest three veined withbrownish purple, and the upper two often withbrownish purple coloring on the outersurfaces. The flowers of stream violet andtrailing yellow violet could easily be confusedfor V. praemorsa. However both these otherspecies lack the distinct ovoid, hairy leaves.

Ecological Importance and Distribution
Viola praemorsa is not as common on Puget
lowland prairies as V. adunca. This violet
seems to grow in oak savannah and edges ofoak woodlands. It occurs as part of a diverse
community of other native annual and perennial
wildflowers including common camas, spring
gold and Pacific sanicle. It is common in
deeper soils with little exposed bedrock andricher soils with oak leaf litter. The species
distribution seems to be confined to western
North America as opposed to V. adunca, which
is found across the Northern Hemisphere.

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Growth and Reproduction
This species has a dual reproduction strategy, producing two types of flowers. The
earlier, larger flowers bloom in April – May and require cross pollination while the later,inconspicuous self-pollinating flowers are produced late May-June. This violet does notreach flowering stage until at least its second year. It is probably pollinated by a variety
of insect species. In mid-summer, the fruits rupture explosively and disperse seeds up
to one meter from the parent plant. They may also be dispersed by insects (ants). This
makes collection in the field and on the seed farm difficult. The long range plan is to
produce seed of both V. adunca and V. praemorsa at nurseries in corrections centers.
This will facilitate daily collection of the seed pods.
Seed Dimensions
L: 2-2.5 mm, W: 1-2 mm, D: 1-2 mm

Sowing Information
Seeds per gram: 236
Seeds per cell: 5
Cover soil: soil and gravel
Stratification: N/A

Seed of Viola praemorsa, scalein mm. Photo from USDA.

158

Wyethia angustifolia • narrowleaf mules ears • WYAN
Asteraceae Aster Family
Plant Description
Wyethia angustifolia is a perennial sunflower-like plant that grows to a height of 1 ½ to 2
feet. Leaves grow in clumps close to the base, are lance-shaped, 20 inches long,tapering to a point and lightly covered with hairs. Flowers face upward, one per stem,
and are a deep yellow similar to sunflowers. There are 20-40 soft-haired, 1 in. long,leafy bracts that surround the flowers. The flower is a cup containing 8–21 ray flowers,
each 1/2–1 3/4 in. long, and many central disk flowers. This native flower blooms in latespring and early summer and can be found throughout south and western Washington
grasslands below 6500ft.

Notice the thick basal clumps ofleaves, all lace shaped ending inpoints. The flower heads are borne
singly on a stem.

WYAN Mature Plant Photo by JS Peterson

The flowers are very similar tosunflowers in both shape and color. The
inflorescence is the name for the wholeflower which is made up of rays (large
petals) and disk flowers (center). Eachinflorescence is made up of hundreds offlowers.

Photo by USDA

159

Ecological Importance and Distribution
An extensive study at Oregon State University examined the relationship between
Fender’s Blue Butterfly and prairie plants native to Washington and Oregon. The
ecologists found that Fender’s Blue Butterfly is dependent on native prairie plants, like
Wyethia angustifolia and equally the native prairie plants depend on the butterflies forpollination and protection. In prairies from British Columbia to California, WYAN isfound in moist seeps or at the edges of water
courses that have richer soil and moremoisture than upland dry prairies. These
pockets of moisture surrounded by dry prairie
provide vital habitat diversity to insects andlarger fauna.
The numerous First Peoples along theWestern Coast utilized the roots and stems
for food and medicinal purposes and theseed can be dried, crushed and used as athickener in soups.
WYAN U.S. Range; In Washington WYAN is most commonly found in the southern counties.

Growth and Reproduction
The highest germination success occurs when seeds are stratified. If stratifying, use
cool-moist stratification methods for 60 days to promote a high germination percentage.
Germination occurs over a 30 to 45 day period. Growth is slow in pots and most plants
will only put on 2-5 true leaves the first year but the root system is quite extensive and alarge storage roots form within 5 months. The plants often go dormant in the summer(senesce), and some thrip and aphid damage is common in late spring so monitor often.
Planting out in the field occurs in fall of the first year. Wyethia plants can take up to 3-5
years to begin blooming and are quite long lived; 30 years or more.
.
A WYAN open inflorescence exposing thedeveloping seed and the disk flowers. Eachseed is surrounded by an achene or coveringlike spiting the “shell” on the sunflower seed.
The top will develop into a pappus or cluster or
fuzzy hairs, similar to a dandelion. Photo by
Seeds of Success160

Seed Measurements of WYAN
Measurement Range: L: 7 – 8mm, W: 2 – 3mm, D: 1.9 - 2.5mm
Latitudinal Cross Section: circular
Longitudinal Cross Section: elliptical
Shape: Seed is long and narrow. Seed is narrow athilum and broadens at opposite apex.
Additional Structures: Pappus that is attached atapex opposite hilum. Pappus fibers are broad at thebase and are attached in a circular pattern. Pappus
is very brittle, and about ½ the length of the seedbody.
Color: Hilum white, seed body medium brown, andpappus is tan to off-white.

Mature seeds of WYAN; Photo by
Seeds of Success

Surface: Seed is matte with short bristles that are concentrated toward the pappus.
Seed has many longitudinal ridges.

Sowing Information
Seeds per gram: 86
Seeds per cell; 4
Cover: soil and gravel
Stratification: 60 days

161