35

研究論文

Societal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan
Benneth O. I. Esiana(Aomori Public University)

1. Introduction
English language has become an indispensable medium of communication, auniversal language so to speak in our increasingly globalized world, particularly thebusiness world. (Crystal, 2003; Pandarangga, 2015; Runde, 2017; Nuttall, 2019). Highproficiency in English language has the potential to boost economic competitiveness byrendering a country or territory more appealing to investors globally. It is apparent
therefore that the economic benefits of an English-capable labour force provide
sufficient impetus against any perceived drawbacks (e.g., foreign influences, cultural
dilution) often associated with English language such that even the most wary of
governments may make relevant reforms, however reluctant, to cultivate English
assimilation and enhance proficiency. To improve English education in Japan, theMinistry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), thegovernment ministry responsible for policy development, has over the years madeseveral policy reforms to that aim (Glasgow and Paller, 2016).
These policy initiatives such as “The Strategic Plan to Cultivate Japanese withEnglish Abilities in 2003”, the “Global 30” Project in higher education to promote
English-medium learning in 2009, the implementation of “Foreign Language Activities”(Gaikokugo Katsudou) in elementary schools in 2011, the implementation of therevised national senior high school foreign language curriculum in 2013, and theEnglish Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalisation are some of the efforts
initiated by the government to enhance English language learning and teachingpractises. Other initiatives of note are The Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET
Programme) in 1987, and the 1994 implementation of the policy reform “Course of
Study” for senior high school. As the reception and implementation of these measures
on English Education have varied, so have their impacts and successes, particularly on
the subject of the active usage of English in practical settings.
The provenance of the disparity between policy initiatives and outcomes, andthe ensuing contradictions in interpretation, are well established and discussed in theliterature (Yoshida, 2003, 2012; Tada, 2016; Glasgow and Paller, 2016; Nuttall, 2019);
however briefly, Hagerman (2009) makes a compelling argument that the status quo

Benneth O. I. Esiana

36

on policy objectives and implementation arise from wariness of policy-makers
pertaining to the associated cultural influence of English language beyond the simple
attainment of proficiency such that the potential exist to undesirably alter the
traditional and cultural identities of Japanese society – a view also shared by
Hashimoto (2013) and Tan and Rubdy (2008). Furthermore, the 2003 policy initiative
titled “Strategic Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities” developed to
improve and/or promote English Language Teaching (ELT) also contained provisions
for promoting Japanese language education (JLE) and abilities which is somewhat
perplexing (MEXT, 2003). Be that as it may, whilst there has been appreciable progress
on English language teaching owing to the above-mentioned policy initiatives, someissues still remain despite mitigating policy provisions being in place.
A noticeable feature of English language in Japan is the lexical variation on
articulation (pronunciation of some or most English words), and to a lesser extent
spelling, that results from katakana, which has a seemingly perpetual presence inlanguage learning. Thus, one may begin to question whether some of these outstanding
issues such as the prevalence of katakana in English education are beyond themitigatory reach of policy tools. Studies on the linguistic elements (e.g., phonetics,
phonology) of katakana in relation to its effects on articulation and spelling in English
are well known, and much like the issues surrounding policy initiatives andimplementation have saturated the literature (Sherard, 1986; Smith, 1997; Martin,
2004; Daulton, 2008; Lauer, 2017; Lee, 2018). Therefore, the present study discusses
broadly the societal elements that are unwittingly contributing to this phenomenon(katakana enunciation) and the channels through which they are sustained. Using
data from the study survey, the paper first discusses the general sentiment, to English
language, and public awareness of basic elements of ELT policies. It goes on to
examine the relationship between English education background and enunciation,
culminating in discussions about societal elements in the prevalence of katakana in
English language acquisition.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
A total of 133 individuals (113 native Japanese speakers and 20 native ornear-native English speakers) participated in the study. All participants are resident
across Japan. Of all those surveyed, 57% are 19 years of age or younger, 26% arebetween the ages of 20 – 30, 5% (31 – 40), 7% (41 – 50), 4% (51 – 60), and 1% (61 years
and older). Over 60% of the participants are students in higher education, 19% are ineducation-related occupation, and a further 17% are company employees. 89.3% of the
113 Japanese participants are studying or had studied English in Japan, while 10.7%

Societal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan37

are studying or had studied overseas. Similarly, 74% obtained their English education
at school (formal education), while 26% had done so by self-study (books, online,
friends, family, private lessons). All, but five of the 113 non-native speakers, havestudied English continually for at least four years. Two of the five participants havestudied English for three years, one for 2.5 years, and the other two for two years.
2.2 Procedure
A survey questionnaire method was used for data acquisition. The
questionnaire design incorporated the various forms of closed-ended, as relevant, andopen-ended question formats, employing a summated rating scale for responses(Stockemer, 2019). The questions were designed to afford the investigator the means toassess, as well as to gain insights on the general perceptions and views of government
ELT policies held by members of the society. Cross examination of the dataset was
carried out to explore any interactions between learning source or background andarticulation, and in turn used to make inferences on English output (usage). The
survey questionnaire was drafted in English language, and contained a total of 43questions, from which 21 were selected for use in the study (see appendix). The
questionnaire was then administered electronically online to all 133 participants. Data
analysis was completed using the computational features of the survey platform
provider on Google Sheets (Google Inc.) and Microsoft Excel software datavisualization and analytical tool (Microsoft Corp.). During data computation, specificdata (responses) from native speakers were excluded from the pool, where appropriate,
for more accurate data representation. The findings are presented graphically infigures (chart and graphs).
3. Result and Discussion
3.1 English Language and General Sentiment
Public sentiment to English language has changed over the years, as reception
drifted across optimism and pessimism, with the prevailing political wind. A notableinstance was the suppression of English language during WWII as it symbolised theenemy, and deemed an affront to the war efforts. As Japan emerged from the war,
public interest in English began to rise. English language has since maintained a
relatively positive reception as demonstrated by the results of the survey where an
overwhelming 79% agrees with the need to learn English while only 2.3% disagreed
with the notion; 16.5% were unsure. The historical association of English-proficientlabour force with development afforded through global competitiveness allows English
language to remain relevant and attractive to study. Subsequent inquiry pertaining tointerests in studying the English language showed varied, but largely positive reasons38

Benneth O. I. Esiana

as drivers for studying English, with the most entry in the multi-select option question
being “for future prospect” (Figure 1). Of the 26 responses received for the option“because I have/had to”, less than half (11 individuals) made the selection the sole
input. The greater proportion of inputs registered for the range of positive drivers (Forwork; I like English; Future prospect; Make foreign friends), coupled with thedemographic distribution of the study participants (82.5%, 30 years and younger),indicates that the present positive reception to English language in Japan is unlikely
to change in the foreseeable future. It also highlights the consideration of English as
an instrument for personal growth and development rather than simply a tool forfurthering the collective objective of national economic prosperity as it is presented by
the government (Hagerman, 2009; Nuttall, 2019).

Figure 1. Drivers for studying English language (see appendix, question 3.12).
3.2 ELT Policy and Public Opinion on the Introduction of English in Schools
English language education in Japan has come a long way. Attempts at reforms
to the foreign language education policy has continued to see increased activity,
particularly in recent years (Tada, 2016; Glasgow and Paller, 2016; Nuttall, 2019). The
speed of reforms and/or introduction of policies sometimes may even appear to outpace
implementation. In any case, educators play an undisputed role in policy
implementation – their domain being the interface between policy content and delivery
to recipients (learners). Like educators, learners are also impacted in one form or
another by changes triggered by policy reforms. For instance, sweeping changes inlearning structure may result in either learner-passion or learner-anxiety, the latterwith the potential to cause apathy. Data from this study exploring public view andawareness (PVA) of basic policy stipulations show that PVA is more or less inagreement with government policy in terms of the timing of introduction of English
language in schools. However, this varied on the question of language of instruction,
the extent of which is contingent on the specific objectives, interpretations, and target
level of education (elementary school; junior high school; senior high school; higher
education) of the individual policy initiatives.

Societal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan

39

Figure 2. (A) Public opinion on the timing of introduction of English language inschools; (B) Public opinion on the language of instruction in English classes (seeappendix, question 3.21 and 3.22).
There is a general consensus on the timing of introduction of English in schools
as well as the language of instruction. The former largely inline with policy guidelines(“Gaikokugo Katsudou” mandatory “Foreign Language Activities” in elementary
schools), and the latter in quasi-conflict (Figure 2a and b). Just over 68% agreed with
the introduction of English in elementary school against the 21% that preferred
introduction in junior high school (Figure 2a). Furthermore, the vast majority (78%)
supports the use of both English and Japanese language for instruction in English
classes, whereas only 16.5% support the use of English language only (Figure 2b).
Public view and awareness may be considered to be in agreement with these policy
directives when policy interpretation is given primacy over policy impact potential. In
other words, the interpretative variations afforded by policy wording throughexpressions such as “in principle, should be conducted in English”, “consideration

should be given to use English in accordance with the students’ level of comprehension”,
not only permits English classes to be conducted in English and in Japanese, but alsoin Japanese only, which tallies with public opinion on the use of either, or bothlanguages in English classes (Hagerman, 2009; MEXT, 2003). Disregarding all otherdiluting effects to policy content, PVA is in conflict with the policy directive which
stipulates that English classes are to be conducted primarily in English language.
Nevertheless, it is the expectation of educators to have a good understanding of thepolicy content they expect to implement. In addition, the author argues that learners
may also benefit, particularly in the security of expectations in their own learning
and/or study, should they be provided with a working knowledge of the relevant
aspects of policy, even in the most rudimentary sense. That way, learners are better
prepared for study in an environment where their expectations are not betrayed.

40

Benneth O. I. Esiana

3.3 Preferred Language of Instruction at Different Levels of Education
The implication of public opinion on language of instruction was investigatedfurther in relation to various levels of education (elementary school to university). The
data suggest public preference for a measured, rather than a full-scale introduction ofEnglish language as the language of instruction in classrooms (Figure 3). There isgreater support for the use of Japanese language in elementary school (80:20), shifting
to 50:50 in junior high school, 40:60 and 20:80 in favour of English in high school andat university respectively. Specific questions within the survey discharged to teachersof English language about language of instruction show more preference for the use ofboth English and Japanese languages (42%), over English-only (31%) or Japanese-only(27%). In two other accompanying questions, 66% use Japanese language because it iseasier for everyone, while 50% say they are uncertain of the correct pronunciation.
However, the 31% of teachers that conduct their classes in English marks a significant
increase in numbers relative to that in the survey conducted by MEXT in fiscal year
(FY)2006, where only 1.1% of Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs) in public seniorhigh schools conducted their classes in English (Aspinall, 2013). In a show of progressfrom 2006, recent survey conducted by MEXT in FY2021 revealed that 73.4% ofteachers in junior high schools, and 46% of teachers in senior high schools conducted
their classes in English (MEXT, 2021). However, it should be noted that in junior highschools, 58.1% used English for more than 50% to less than 75% of the time, and 15.4%
for more than 75%, while in senior high schools 35.3% used English for more than 50%
to less than 75% of the time, and 10.7% for more than 75%.

Figure 3. Public opinion on the proportion of use of English to Japanese language
in English classes at various levels of education (see appendix, question 3.31).
As discussed in the preceding section, the vast majority (78%) supports the useof both English and Japanese language for instruction in English classes, whereas only
16.5% support the use of English language only (Figure 2b). This observation isSocietal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan41

considered to reflect a collective rather than an individual desire. However, when
specific conditions or choices are presented, the response changes, reflecting a more
personal desire. Although the majority had supported the use of both languages inEnglish education, 45% would prefer to study English without recourse to Japanese,while 34% remain against the notion. Furthermore, 68% would prefer to study in bothlanguages – with Japanese used occasionally for the explanation of difficult concepts(without katakana pronunciation). The influence of katakana on pronunciation and its
consideration as a problem in English language learning remains a point of contention.
38% agrees that katakana pronunciation is not and should not be considered a problem
while 42% disagrees with a caveat that native-like pronunciation should not be theprimary focus in learning and teaching English (Horie and Long, 2007).
3.4 English Education Background and Katakana Enunciation.
The prolonged exposure to English, as well as the use of English as thelanguage of instruction can enhance learning and communication, improving overall
learning experience. During language education, the language of instruction creates
additional learning opportunities within the learning environment in which learning
can be maximized on the part of the learner. For instance, if we assume active learning
to constitute the ordinary content of a given lesson taught to a group of learners alikein English or in Japanese, passive learning will be that tendency for learners, as
dependent on ability, to augment their learning to gain supplementary knowledge (e.g.,
vocabulary, expressions, intonation, enunciation etc.) over their peers from the
instructor’s use of the relevant language (English or Japanese) thereby improving
their own learning experiences. ELT policies have sort to create this opportunity inschools across the country with some degree of success, in that it has essentiallyestablished the concept as the status quo (MEXT, 2003; MEXT, 2011b).
Investigating the connections between language of instruction and form ofenunciation, the study revealed the variation, and the extent of this variation among
participants. According to the survey (Figure 4), only 14% studied English withEnglish as the only language of instruction. 37% were instructed in English andJapanese language, with good English pronunciation. A further 24% were instructed inJapanese language, also with good English pronunciation. However, 20% were
instructed in Japanese language only, with katakana pronunciation, and another 5%in both English and Japanese language, again with katakana pronunciation.
Collectively, 75% of the participants have studied English with good English
pronunciation (English only; Japanese – with good English pronunciation; English andJapanese – with good English pronunciation), while 25% were instructed withkatakana pronunciation (Japanese only – with katakana pronunciation; English andBenneth O. I. Esiana

42

Japanese – with katakana pronunciation). Furthermore, during personal and/or
self-study, 81% responded to paying attention to the correct spelling and pronunciationof English words as presented in English, 6% responded to paying attention togrammar and natural expressions, while only 13% responded to paying attention tokatakana spelling and pronunciation.
Whilst learners may not be entirely free from the influences of the katakana
syllabic characters; however, given their English education background, that is, themajority have either studied English with good pronunciation during formal education(75%), and/or during their personal/self-study (81%), it is the expectation therefore
that the participants will possess good enunciation, however, the data does not mirror
the reality. Of all the participants surveyed, 75% are considered to have good exposure
to pronunciation (Figure 4), however, only 21% agrees with the statement that they do
not have any trouble with the articulation of English. Deductions from this observationsuggests that the loss in good pronunciation may be attributed to external factors
arising from the society, and indicates that one’s English education background does
not necessarily result in better articulation. Furthermore, investigations into possible
interactions between location of English education (Japan, overseas), mode of English
education (formal education, self-study etc.) and articulation show no discernible trend
in the study although it is possible that this is being confounded by socio-economic
factors and/or sample size.

Figure 4. Language of instruction and form of enunciation in English classes (seeappendix, question 3.41).

Societal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan43

3.5 Katakana Enunciation and Reticence in Verbal Communication in English:
Speakers' Perception and AwarenessAs discussed, although public sentiment remains positive and unlikely tochange, negative public perception of ‘strong’ katakana pronunciation in English isapparent, with nearly 60% in agreement. This leads to a general reticence to engage
verbally in English language (Horie and Long, 2007). However, results also indicatethat people are more tolerant to the prevalence of katakana pronunciation in otherpeople’s speeches than they are of their own, as long as comprehension is not toocompromised. 64% of the study participant do not mind katakana pronunciation usedby others in contrast to the 25% that do (Figure 5a). That value falls to 40% in relation
to oneself, that is, 40% do not mind the occurrence of katakana pronunciation in theirown communication (Figure 5b). Generally, one’s awareness, and the generally
negative public perception of katakana pronunciation is attributed for the observed
reluctance to engage ordinarily in verbal communication, consequently, nearly 60%
agrees that a wider acknowledgement of katakana pronunciation as one of many
accents in the English language will see a positive change in attitude to the use ofEnglish in oral communication.

Not
sure,
11%
Disagr
ee,
25%

Not
sure,
12%
Agree,
40%
Agree,
64%
Disagr
ee,
48%

A

B

Figure 5. (A) 64% of those surveyed do not mind katakana pronunciation used byothers; (B) 40% of those surveyed do not mind katakana pronunciation used byoneself (see appendix, question 3.52 and 3.53).
3.6 Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in English: A Societal Element
Language study may take place both actively and passively in diverse
environments such as schools, workplaces, and homes, each setting with varying
degrees of impact on proficiency and output. Thus, pressures from linguistic andnon-linguistic origins may influence language learning (Sherard, 1986; Lauer, 2017;

Benneth O. I. Esiana

44

Lee, 2018). Whilst policy tools can be relied upon in managing the influence of
katakana in English language learning in formal education, societal pathway(s)through which katakana influences English language learning may be morechallenging, if contentious to manage. On the one hand, in environments where thelearning contents are structured and supervised such as schools and other educational
institutions, within the coverage of policy instruments, learners are exposed toauthentic materials during their education, albeit for a limited period of time. On theother hand, learners have unlimited and unsupervised exposure to a range of contents
in the society, outside the time-limited learning environment and the bounds of policy
coverage and effect, which also happens to be where a significant portion of one’s timeis spent. The author states that the prolonged repeated exposure of learners to
predominantly katakana English content away from formal or informal language
learning environment such as classrooms far exceeds that in the learning environment
thus perpetuating an undue influence on articulation – with “duration of exposure”
perhaps a stronger agent than supposed. In both educational and societal pathways tothe prevalence of katakana, failings to segregate katakana words used to denote wordsof foreign origin in Japanese language, which for all intents and purposes form part of

Figure 6. (A) Model showing existing relationship (little to no distinction) between
the enunciation of imported foreign words in katakana, and ordinary English
words; (B) Proposed introduction of concept of awareness to distinguish between
the enunciation of imported foreign words (katakana) and English words duringcommunication.

Societal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan45

the Japanese language, from English words as used ordinarily in English language
falsely impresses upon learners that such articulations, as rendered in Japanese
language, are always intelligible during communications in English (Figure 6a) (Smith,1997).
Furthermore, 58% of the study participants responded positively to thequestion in reference to the value and convenience of unsupervised contents, that is,
the inventory of English words, phrases and expressions in katakana that is available
online and through other channels (see appendix, question 3.61). Search inputs in
English alphabets will yield responses such as spelling and pronunciation in katakana
which the user then assimilates. The subscription to these resources, coupled with theindiscriminate use of such languages (words, expressions) during interactions inJapanese in the society by institutions such as the mass media (news, entertainment),
the government, the education system etc., only serves to increase exposure tokatakana English content, thereby reinforcing their use (Figure 6a). To mitigate this,the establishment of clarity on what words constitutes aspects of Japanese language
vocabulary and ordinary English language vocabulary is required across the entire
social spectrum (Figure 6b). For instance, the discouragement of the unnecessary useof foreign words in communications in Japanese for which an equivalent word exists inJapanese language. This may also serve to cultivate Japanese language ability ofnative speakers as is being sort by the government (MEXT, 2003). Furthermore,government survey in 2011 revealed that only 22.2% of high schools provided English
learning opportunities (authentic materials) in and out of the classroom using
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) materials such as the internet anddigital blackboards (MEXT, 2011b). Presently, this figure stands at over 95%, and now
also includes primary schools (小学校) and junior high schools (中学校), although, it isunclear whether the tool is available for use out of the classroom (MEXT, 2021).
Nevertheless, the potential exists to utilize ICT as a platform to narrow the gap in the
exposure time of learners to unsupervised content away from the classroom byproviding materials that foster relevant target activities and exercises such as
speaking and pronunciation.
4. Conclusion
As have been discussed, the proportion of individuals that are studying, or
have studied English in environments with good enunciation either during theirformal education or their personal study did not tally with those that reported thatthey have no troubles with their English articulation. This loss in articulation is
attributed to societal effects beyond the reach of ELT policy coverage. Over the years,
policy tools have proved useful in tackling issues with ELT; however, it is also true that

Benneth O. I. Esiana

46

the degree of policy impacts is being tempered in part by its own construction, and insome cases undermined by wider societal effects, as discussed. In any case, the author
argues that policy reforms alone should not be relied upon entirely to address theissues, and that it should be accompanied by relevant social campaigns designed to
introduce awareness that will bring about a more considered use of language.

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Appendix
List of selected survey questions by section and order of discussion.
Section 3.1
3.11. Do you think that Japanese people need to learn English?
3.12. Why are you studying/have you studied English? [Figure 1]
Section 3.2
3.21. What is the earliest grade/level in school you think English should be taught?
[Figure 2a]3.22. In what language(s) do you think English should be taught in Japan? [Figure
2b]
Section 3.3
3.31. What do you consider to be a good balance in the use of Japanese and English
during class in Elementary school, Junior high school, High school, and University?
[Figure 3]
3.32. In what language do you teach English?
3.33. I teach in Japanese because it is easier for everyone.
3.34. I teach in Japanese because I am not sure of the correct English pronunciation
myself.
3.35. Would you prefer to have learnt/studied English entirely in English language,
with no concessions to Japanese?
3.36. Would you prefer to have learnt/studied English in both English and in Japanese;with Japanese used occasionally for explaining grammar etc., without the use of
katakana pronunciation?
3.37. Katakana pronunciation is not, and should not be considered a problem inlearning and teaching English.
Section 3.4
3.41. What was the primary language of instruction during your entire English
education/learning (so far)? [Figure 4]
3.42. When I study English, I pay attention to…..
3.43. I do not have any trouble with my English pronunciation.
3.44. Where did you learn English?
3.45. What is the main channel through which you learnt English?

Societal Consideration in the Prevalence of Katakana Enunciation in
English Language Education in Japan

49

Section 3.5
3.51. Do you think that people (Japanese and foreign individuals) in general have anegative impression of strong katakana pronunciation?
3.52. I do not mind katakana pronunciation used by others as long as I can understandthem. [Figure 5a]3.53. I do not mind katakana pronunciation used by me as long as I can be understood.
[Figure 5b]3.54. Would your attitude to speaking English change if katakana pronunciation was
to become a generally recognised accent?
Section 3.6
3.61. Katakana is useful because there is a large inventory (online resources) of
English words in katakana; like a dictionary, I can find the meaning of English words
if I do a search.