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ㄽᩥ
Historical Inuences on Australian English: A Comparative analysis with
American English
Masako Masuda(Australian Embassy in Tokyo)㸯㸬Introduction㸯㸬Introduction
British English and American English constitute two sets of “standard English” today.
British English is followed in most of English-speaking member countries of the British
Commonwealth including Australia, and American English, or sometimes referred to as
North American English, is the norm in the United States and Canada.
This paper examines the differences between Australian English and American English
and studies the historical factors that have inuenced the development of Australian English
in comparison with the development of American English. Why has English in Australia stayedin the British English family while English in America took a diverging path to a different
standard? What historical factors contributed to these differences? Which factors werecommon to both languages and which were peculiar to one? These are questions this paper
seeks to explore.
Section 2 compares both Australian English and American English with British English,
and analyzes differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar, and vocabulary. In all four
aspects, Australian English is found to be much closer to British English than American
English is, despite the common origin of both languages. In Section 3, three key historicalfactors, namely, relationship with England, immigration, and new culture, are discussed.
Each of these factors had a strong impact on the different degree of divergence from British
English displayed by Australian English and American English. Section 4 then focuses on the
aspect of vocabulary, with a particular focus on Australian slangs. Five factors of influence
are identied, some of which are common to both Australian English and American English,
and others are peculiar to Australian English. These five factors are: contacts withindigenous people, discoveries on a new continent, characteristics of a penal colony, gold rush,and the First World War.
In Section 5, the concluding section of this paper, dynamic nature of languages isdiscussed. The relatively new and continuing trend of Americanization of Australian English
is identified as a key impetus behind today’s dynamism. The paper concludes with aperspective on potential convergence of these two languages.
㸰㸬Comparison
㸰㸬Comparison with British English
Comparison with British English, the origin of both languages, offers a useful tool todiscern the differences between Australian English and American English, in terms ofpronunciation, spelling, grammar, and vocabulary.

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Australian English does not differ signicantly from British English in pronunciation,spelling, or grammar. In terms of vocabulary, there is little difference in written language but
large differences exist in spoken language, especially in the use of slangs. Australian English
is filled with slangs that are peculiarly Australian. On the other hand, there are large
differences between American English and British English in all areas of pronunciation,spelling, grammar, and vocabulary.1ࠉࠉPronunciation
First, concerning pronunciation, Australian English is fundamentally same as British
English, with an exception of pronunciation of “A”. In Australian English, “A” is pronounced
not as [ei] but as [ai]. Examples include “today”, “stay”, and “mate”. It should be noted thatlittle difference in pronunciation is found among different regions within Australia.
Australia is surprisingly homogeneous linguistically despite its vastness.
In the case of American English, differences from British English exist not only inpronunciation but also in stress. In terms of pronunciation, the sound “R” is a case in point. It
is almost always clearly pronounced in American English but not necessarily so in British
English, as in the case of “here” and “girl”. Another example is the sound of “T”, which in thiscase is pronounced more prominently in British English than in American English, as in thecase of “better” and “water”. Pronunciation ofas in “cat” is much more prominent in

American English than in British English. As for stress, two examples can be cited. One
example is words of French origin such as “ballet”, “debris”, and “baton”. In American English,
the stress tends to be placed at the last syllabus but not necessarily so in British English.
Another example is words such as “address” and “princess” where the stress is placed at therst syllabus in American English but not in British English.
ࠉࠉSpelling
Second, concerning spelling, there is little difference between Australian English andBritish English. However, differences abound between American English and British English.
A few examples are as follows: “-our” in British English vs. “-or” in American English as in “colour”
vs. “color” and “labour” vs. “labor”; “-re” in British English vs. “-er” in American English as
in “centre” vs. “center” and “fibre” vs. “fiber”; “-ise” in British English vs. “ize” inAmerican English as in “organise” vs. “organize” and “capitalise” vs. “capitalize”; “-ce” inBritish English vs. “se” in American English as in “defence” vs. “defense” and “licence” vs.
“license”; “-ou-“ in British English vs. “-o-“ in American English as in “mould” vs. “mold” and“smoulder” vs. “smolder”; and “-ll-“in British English vs. “-l-“ in American English as in “counsellor”
vs. “counselor”.
ࠉࠉGrammarThird, concerning grammar, differences between Australian English and British English

+LVWRULFDO,Q㸛XHQFHVRQ$XVWUDOLDQ(QJOLVKare limited to details in spoken English. In Australian English, “She” can be used to replace“It” as in “She is a ne day today”, and “but” is often placed at the end of a sentence to mean“no doubt about it” as in “He is a good person, but”. Other examples include Australian usageof “different for”, “usedn’t to”, “irregardless”, and “youse” as plural of “you”.
In American English, grammatical differences from British English are more systemic andembedded in written language as well. Three examples are cited here. The first example
pertains to the past tense of verbs. In many cases, a past tense that ends with “-t” in British
English has changed to a past tense that ends with “-ed” in American English. “Learn”(“learnt” vs. “learned”), “lean” (“leant” vs. “leaned”), and “smell” (“smelt” vs. “smelled”)
represent examples of this difference. The second example is creation of new verbs in
American English. One way is usage of nouns as verbs as in the case of “to host” and “topressure”. Another is creation of verbs from adjectives or nouns. “Humidify” was born from“humid”, and “hospitalize” was born from “hospital”. The third example concerns the usage of“need” and “have” as an auxiliary verb. In an interrogative sentence that includes one of thesewords as an auxiliary verb, it is more common in British English to start the sentence with an
auxiliary verb. An example is a sentence such as “Need I go?” or “Have you any money?”which in American English would more likely be in the form of “Do I need to go?” or “Do you
have any money?”.
ࠉࠉVocabulary
Fourth, concerning vocabulary, while some differences exist between Australian English
and British English, the magnitude of the differences is quite small compared to thedifferences that lie between American English and British English. However, in spoken
language, Australian English differs signicantly from British English, as many slangs exist
that are peculiar to Australia. Chapter 4 discusses Australian slangs in greater detail. In
American English, differences from British English in standard vocabulary abound. Different
words are used to describe the same items. Examples include, with British English word
coming rst, “lift” vs. “elevator”, “lorry” vs. “truck”, and “mobile phone” vs. “cell phone”.
㸱㸬Historical㸱㸬
Historical Inuence
As discussed in Chapter 2, signicant differences exist between Australian English andAmerican English in terms of their “distance” from British English, despite such common
factors as the origin of the two languages and the two countries’ large physical distance fromEngland and heritage as an English colony. While Australian English has remained within
the realm of British English, American English has diverged considerably.
Different historical experiences of Australia and the United States had large inuences on
the different development of languages in these two countries. Appendix 1 illustrates in acomparative manner key events in Australian and US history between the arrival of Captain
Cooke and Endeavour in 1770 for Australia and settlement of Jamestown, Virginia in 1607

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for the United States, up to 1901 when Commonwealth of Australia was established.
Throughout this period, three factors exerted particularly important influences on thedevelopment of the languages: relationship with England, immigration, and new culture.
ࠉࠉRelationship with England
Australia’s continuing membership in the British Commonwealth exemplies the natureof its relationship with England. To this day, Australia’s formal head of state is Queen ofEngland, who appoints Australian Governor General to represent herself.
This friendly and strong tie after independence stems partly from the nature of Australiancolony. Since the arrival of the First Fleet and the first Governor Arthur Philip in 1788,
Australia was used as England’s penal colony. Half of the approximately 1,500 people thatcame with the Fist Fleet were convicts. Approximately 160,000 convicts were brought toAustralia between 1788 and 1868 when penal transportation was ended. 2 Whileimmigration of free people commenced in early 1790 and self-government was introduced in
the 1820s, a large part of the colony’s population consisted of convicts, ofcials of the English
government overlooking these convicts, and soldiers of the English military. Even in the
1830s, convicts accounted for approximately one-third of the total colonial population.3 As
such, for a considerable period of time, the convict system and its strict functioning according
to English rules played a central role in building the characters of the colony and shaping its
future. Under these circumstances, little incentive existed among Australian colonists to seek
divergence from England and English ways. Convicts, government ofcials, and free colonists
remained good English subjects and were granted independence in 1901 with establishmentof Commonwealth of Australia as a member of the British Commonwealth, continuing its
respect for the English rule. It is no surprise that little divergence from the English way took
place in Australia whether in its social system or in its language.
In contrast, the United States not only won its independence by war against England
but also fought the War of 1812 against England in its continuing conflict against its former
mother country. This spirit of independence and deance spread beyond the realm of politicalactivities and social system to that of the language. Development of a new language wasconsidered to form a natural component of building a new country. In Mencken’s words, it was“the temper of those times”4, where general hostility to all English authority culminated in
the revolutionary attitude in the language as well.
This new spirit was best captured by Noah Webster, a prominent lexicographer, who wascalled “Father of American Scholarship and Education”, in the following statement in 1789.
“A future separation of the American tongue from the English [was] necessary andunavoidable. Numerous local causes, such as a new country, new associations of people,
new combinations of ideas in arts and sciences, and some intercourse with tribes
wholly unknown in Europe, will introduce new words into the American tongue.”5

+LVWRULFDO,Q㸛XHQFHVRQ$XVWUDOLDQ(QJOLVK

His belief was put in a concrete form when he published “An American Dictionary of
the English Language” in 1828. This dictionary set the foundation of American spelling,
proposing a new set of spelling which reects the pronunciation more closely compared to
British English.
In the political arena, Thomas Jefferson shared Webster’s belief. In a letter from
Monticello in 1813, he wrote, “the new circumstances under which we are placed call for new
words, new phrases, and for the transfer of old words to new objects. An American dialect will
therefore be formed.”㻢
ࠉࠉImmigration
Australia and the United States both represent new countries built on new continents
which had been thinly populated by native people prior to settlement by European people.
The growth of both countries has been achieved through immigration. However, thecharacteristics of immigration in each country showed considerable differences whichinuenced the languages.
In Australia, no European settlement had been present prior to English settlement.
Furthermore, immigration from countries other than England remained limited during thefollowing years. Available data show that non-English immigrants composed 7.2% of theoverall population in 1861, half of whom were Chinese laborers brought in for gold elds.
Not only was the non-English immigration small in numbers, they either formed separate
enclaves or quickly assimilated so that the English language remained relatively unaffectedby languages of different ethnic groups. For example, the Germans lived in “German villages”
centered on the Lutheran Church, and the Chinese were mostly gold eld laborers who lived
near gold elds and had little contact with other Australians. Other ethnic groups including
the Scandinavians and Italians quickly assimilated into the Australian society and adopted
Australian English. In other words, Australian tendency to expect assimilation rather than
accept differences effectively limited impacts of other languages on Australian English.
In the United States, English settlement on the continent’s east coast developed side byside with settlements by other European countries, namely France near the Canadian border,
Spain in Texas and the West, and Holland in New York. After independence, large inuxesof immigration of non-English people continued. The significant sizes of non-English
population, integration of non-English settlements into the newly established country, andinteraction between English and non-English ethnic groups resulted in integration ofnumerous non-English words into the English language. For example, during the colonial
times, words like “prairie”, “portages”, and “rapids” came from French. During the 19th century,
words such as “ranch”, “tornado”, and “bonanza” were introduced from Spanish after
the Mexican war and the gold rush in the 1840s, and German words such as “pretzel”,“delicatessen”, and “kindergarten” became part of American English after the 1850s. The
trend has continued, followed by borrowings from African American Vernacular English

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(“jazz”), Italian (“pizza”), and Yiddish (“schlep”).
In addition to such “loan words”, spread of English among those immigrants alsoinuenced the pronunciation of the language. As the government considered English as a tool
to bring together different ethnic groups and promote their Americanization process,immigrants were immediately faced with the need to adopt English. This brought about anabundance of pronunciation influenced by different mother tongues. Interaction of thosepeople who speak English with different accents and pronunciation encouraged gradualformation of new “standard” pronunciation, thereby contributing to the transition ofAmerican English pronunciation away from that of British English.
ࠉNewࠉ
New Culture
Under strong inuences of England, Australia has fundamentally inherited English
culture and social customs including the political system, education system, and sports.
Therefore, the language within these spheres has remained unchanged, and AustralianEnglish has inherited most words that describe these institutions.
In the United States, on the other hand, a new political system, a new education system,and new sports were born. Accordingly, new vocabulary to describe the new culture also
developed. In politics, words such as “pork-barrel”, “steam-roller”, and “caucus” represent
certain aspects that are characteristic of the American political scene. A new American school
system consists of “kindergarten”, a word of German origin, “elementary school”, “middle
school” and “high school”, rather than either the public school system of “primary school” and“secondary school” or the private school system of “pre-preschool”, “prep school” and “publicschool” in England. In sports, baseball is the best example of American born sports. Manywords that describe the rules and actions of the game such as “to steal the base”, “to slam thepill”, “double-play” represent new usage.
㸲㸬Vocabulary㸲㸬
Vocabulary of Australian English
Overall, Australian English stands quite similar to British English, especially whencompared to the large differences that lie between American English and British English.
However, as discussed in Section 2, Australian vocabulary represents one aspect where
signicant differences from British English do exist. Origins of these differences can be traced
to five historical factors, namely, contacts with indigenous people, discoveries on a newcontinent, characteristics of a penal colony, gold rush, and the First World War.㻣
ࠉࠉContacts with indigenous people
First, contacts with the indigenous people led to integration of words from indigenous
languages into Australian English vocabulary. Australia’s indigenous population consists of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the former from mainland Australia andTasmania, and the latter from the islands between the tip of Queensland and Papua New
Guinea. At the start of the European settlement in 1788, an estimated indigenous population of

+LVWRULFDO,Q㸛XHQFHVRQ$XVWUDOLDQ(QJOLVK

between 300,000 and 750,000 existed, speaking estimated 250 languages including about 700
dialects.㻤
Contacts with the indigenous people, especially the Aborigines on the continent withwhom the settlers had more frequent encounters, introduced the settlers to a new set of
vocabulary. As settlers attempted to understand the Aborigine languages, it was the words
that pertained to tangible and visible items such as fauna and ora, landscape, and ceremonythat proved identiable. Words that describe the intangible and the invisible such as feelingsand concepts either failed to make clear sense or raised little interest in settlers’ minds. Thus,
borrowings from Aborigine languages are almost exclusively nouns. Some examples are“kangaroo”, “wallaby”, “dingo”, “boomerang”, and “womerah”.
Borrowings from indigenous languages are not unique to Australian English. In fact,
American English is also lled with borrowings from the Native American languages. Similar
to Australia’s indigenous population, America’s indigenous population also consisted ofnumerous tribes with numerous languages, and similar to Australia’s settlers, settlers in
America focused on words that describe the tangible and the visible. Examples include“hickory”, “moccasin”, “squash”, “totem”, and “raccoon”.
ࠉࠉDiscoveries on a new continent
Second, discoveries on a new continent led to the need to describe the newly found items orexperiences with the existing inventory of British English. Australia’s huge undeveloped
continent presented settlers with landscape and climate which were completely different fromEngland and Europe, full of unseen fauna and flora that had no English name. As settlers
sought for the right words to describe the new environment to convey to those back in
England, they were forced to use imagination.㻥 It was only natural that their efforts resulted
in attaching new meanings to the original English words and changing their usage.
Thus, “creek”, a small watercourse flowing into sea in England, has come to mean astream or a small river in Australia. Similarly, “paddock” has expanded from a small
enclosure for livestock in England to a large eld in Australia. Moore lists many examples offauna and ora named for resemblance to European fauna and ora, such as “ash” which isused in Australia to eucalyptus trees that produce timber resembling the European ash.
Early settlers in the United States faced similar experiences. Like Australia, America wasa large undeveloped continent with features quite different from England. Interestingly, somewords like “creek” cited above have gone through the same transformation of meaning in the
United States as in Australia. Other examples include “corn” as general grains which meant
wheat in British English and maize in American English as well as “robin” which describes a
type of small bird with reddish breast in England but a type of large bird with reddish breastin the United States.

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

ࠉ

ࠉCharacteristics of a penal colony
Third, Australia’s unique heritage as a penal colony has left a peculiarly Australian markon its language, particularly spoken language and slangs. That is the inuence of the ashlanguage spoken by convicts. As discussed in the previous section, approximately 160,000
convicts were transported to Australia between 1788 and 1868 and formed a signicant partof the colonial population. These convicts came largely from lower classes in large cities inEngland. English was poorly spoken by these convicts, and the main characteristics of theirspeech were those of Cockney from South-East England. Thus, “English” imported to the newcolony was not wholly represented by the standard British English. It had another strong
component in the “ash language of the convicts”.
While accents and pronunciation of the ash language appear to have disappeared during
the course of history, vocabulary originating from that language remains. The verb “plant”
meaning ‘to hide, conceal (especially stolen goods and horses)’ is now used in a general usage
without inference to stealing, as in “to plant Christmas presents”. Another example is theverb “muster” which used to mean ‘the assembling of convicts’. Its meaning has extended to‘the assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and counting’ as well as ‘the gathering of
the livestock for counting and branding’. “Swag” which used to mean ‘a thief’s plunder orbooty’ now means ‘rolled up bedding, belongings and other items carried by a drifter’. Somewords have shown a more drastic change in the meaning. “Public servants” used to mean
‘convicts’. Today, it means ‘government ofcials’.
ࠉࠉGold Rush
Fourth, gold rush, or yellow fever as it was commonly called in Australia, led to a largeinux of immigrants in search of gold, who brought with them new words. After gold wasrst discovered in 1850, the population in Australia increased by 700,000 in the next decade.
Many of these immigrants were gold searchers from the United States, where the gold rush
had started earlier in California in 1849. The impact this sudden boom in gold mining had on
Australian English was an increase of mining-related words, including some borrowings fromwords born from gold rush in California. In a sense, this proved to be the beginning of theprocess of Americanization of Australian English, a new inuence on Australian English
which continues today.
Similar to the case of words passed down from the flash language, many of these newwords introduced during gold rush have lost their mining-specific features over time. An
exception is the word “digger”, which originated from digging deep holes in search of gold andcontinues to mean ‘a miner on Australian gold fields’. “Fossick” meant ‘to search for gold on
the surface, sometimes in an unsystematic way’ and ‘to steal gold from other diggers,
especially from an unattended claim.’ It now means ‘to rummage or search around, especiallyfor a possible prot’. Only the rst meaning has survived without reference to gold or mining.
Another word “mullock” comes from ‘waste material from a mine’. Today it means ‘a mess or

+LVWRULFDO,Q㸛XHQFHVRQ$XVWUDOLDQ(QJOLVKnonsense’ as in “a load of mullock”.
ࠉࠉThe First World War
Fifth, intense experiences of Australian soldiers ghting in Europe during the First World
War produced many “military slang”. The long distance from home, extremely close living
conditions, and the extraordinary circumstances combined to unite the troops in common
purposes and shared values, which led to emergence of new shared vocabulary. Among
different arms of the military, it was the Army that produced the bulk of military slang. There
were more soldiers in the Army, and they were the ones that engaged in the most ferocious
trench war.
Among the new vocabulary, perhaps the most iconic is “Anzac”. Originally an acronym for“Australian and New Zealand Army Corps”, it quickly transformed to a term that symbolizes
the virtues and valor of the members of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corp who
served in the brutal Gallipoli campaign. Observance of Anzac Day remains an importantannual event in Australia today. As Australian soldiers had to dig deep trenches in theghting, “digger”, which meant ‘a miner on Australian gold elds’ expanded its meaning toinclude ‘an Australian soldier’. The term “Aussie” was also produced for ‘an Australian soldier’,and is now used more generally for ‘an Australian’ or ‘Australian’ as in “Aussie beef”.
In those trenches, a soldier’s position was called “possie.” “Possie” is now used to mean‘position’ in general without the trench warfare relevance. Another interesting example is theword “furphy” which means ‘a lie or rumor’. This originated from the company name Furphy,
which was written on water-carts that came to military bases. It is thought that either
drivers of those carts brought rumors or stories exchanged by soldiers around the carts were
full of lies.
㸳㸬Conclusion
㸳㸬Conclusion
Each language has a dynamic life of its own and never remains static. Since its inception,a variety of factors such as environment, population, history, political and social structures,
communication tools exert inuences on the course of the language’s development. Those
factors themselves are intertwined with one another.
This paper has examined the dynamic life of Australian English as compared with anequally dynamic life of American English, with a focus on history’s inuence on its path. The
wide breath of this theme has made it difcult to conduct an in-depth analysis on each ofdifferent factors that exerted inuences on Australian English. As a result, this paper may
appear to veer towards a general survey at the sacrice of a close analysis on each different
point it raises. Nonetheless, the overall analysis presents a useful framework to study thehistorical development of Australian English.
Since the beginning of the European settlement in the 18th century, Australian English has
continued to absorb impacts of a range of Australian historical experiences. Some of these0$68'$0DVDNR

such as discoveries on a new continent were experiences shared with the United States.
Others, such as the friendly relationship with England and the heritage as its penal colony,
were not. Different historical experiences have paved a way for the two languages’ divergent
development paths, especially during the early years. As shown in the preceding discussion,
Australian English has remained close to British English while American English has movedaway.
In later years, however, signs of convergence in the form of American influence onAustralian English have appeared, mostly in the area of vocabulary. This new trend whichrst appeared during Australia’s gold rush has continued to intensify in recent years, buoyed
by increased presence of the United States around the world and greater ease ofcommunication made possible by advancement of technology. Peters claims that “the fact that
American English has had so little impact on the essential system of Australian English (i.e.,
its grammar and phonology) shows how slight and temporary the ‘Americanisation’ is”.10
According to her, words and phrases taken from American English serve to “ll lexical gaps or
to extend [our] lexical resources”11.
To what extent these two languages may converge remains to be seen. As American
hegemony weakens and its influences around the world begin to wane, the tide ofAmericanization may subside. Further, efforts by the Australian government to limit
television air time of contents from the United States indicate that a conscious will exists inAustralia to keep Americanization at bay. However, the interaction of these two languages
will not disappear, and the host language will continue to accommodate inuences of theother language. ‘Americanization’ will not remain ‘temporary’ as suggested by Peters but willstay. Furthermore, there is no doubt that Australian English and American English will both
continue to evolve under separate and common historical inuences in future years to come.

+LVWRULFDO,Q㸛XHQFHVRQ$XVWUDOLDQ(QJOLVKAppendix 1
Comparative History of Australia and the United States: 1607 - 1901



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Footnotes
1

See Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah, International English (1982 and 1985), Edward

Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., Japanese translation (1986), Kenkyusha Ltd. for a thoroughdiscussion on this topic.
2

See Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government, Ancient Heritage,

Modern Society, Australia in Brief . http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/history.html
3

Takeda, Isami and Kenichi Mori, An Introduction to Australia (1998), University of Tokyo

Press, p. 8
4Mencken, H.L., The American Language – An Inquiry into the Development of English in

the United States (1921),New York, Bartleby.com, 2000, http://bartleby.com/185/7.html
5Ibid., http://bartleby.com/185/1.html

6Ibid., http://bartleby.com/185/1.html

7

See Bruce Moore, The Vocabulary of Australian English in Australian National Dictionary

for a more comprehensive discussion of this topic.
8

See Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government, A Diverse People,

Australia in Brief . http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/society.html
9Arimitsu, Yasue, Australian Identity – Struggle and Transformation in Australian
Literature (2003), University of Tokyo Press, p.12. Arimitsu describes this process as“translation”, using English as a tool to describe Australia’s natural environment as they
apply to Europe’s natural environment.
10Peters, Pam, “Australian English”, Americanisation and Australia (Bell, Philip, Roger

Bell, eds.) (1998). Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd, p.38.
11

Ibid., p.39

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Mencken, H.L. The American Language – An Inquiry into the Development of English in the
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Moore, Bruce (2008). Speaking Our Language – The Story of Australian English , Melbourne:
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Moore, Bruce. The Vocabulary of Australian English in Australian National Dictionary

Centre , http://www.anu.edu.au/ANDC/res/aus_words/vocab_aussie/index.php
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