Inheritance of Intangible Cultural Heritage Kunqu Opera:

Extraction of Inherited Factors as Intangible Cultural Heritage and Changing Factors for Social Change
無形文化遺産崑曲の継承に関する研究：
無形文化遺産として継承される要素と社会的環境によって変化する要素の抽出
ZHAO Run趙潤1. Introductionof ICH is connected with the inheritance of some values,(1) Research Backgroundand these values may be capable of being demonstrated

In order to protect intangible cultural heritage (ICH), inby some indicators. In this research, some noticeable key

2003, the Convention for the Safeguarding of thefactors will be extracted from an ICH to explore their

Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003 ICHC) was adopted
at the UNESCO General Assembly. Nevertheless, unlike
Japan, France, China, etc, many countries have notestablished a national or suitable ICH protection system.
Academic discussions about ICH chiefly focus on its
legislation, policies, community participation, heritage
tourism, etc. However, the discipline of ICH studies isstill in its early stages. ICH researches are mainly limited
to folklore, anthropology, ethnology, and so on, to focus
on analyzing the research object itself. Researches fromthe perspective of cultural heritage studies and focusing
on the inheritance of ICH are hard to find. And the related
methodology is still underdeveloped.
As mentioned in 2003 ICHC, ICH can provide bearers
with “a sense of identity and continuity” (UNESCO 2003,Article 2). And in 2003 ICHC complementary document
Operational Directives, ICH is considered to play a“particular role in transmitting values” (UNESCO 2022,VI.1.3). It is reasonable to state that there is somethinginherited within ICH to ensure the sense of identity andcontinuity as well as some values. Actually, in Japan’s
practices of recognizing the Important Intangible Cultural
Properties, except for individual recognition, conditionsof designation are set by authorities for collective andgroup recognition, and bearers concerned should follow
them as a way to keep the value. Interestingly, as a
response to this practice intentionally or unintentionally,
UNESCO also encourages States Parties to “fosterscientific studies and research methodologies” todemonstrate ICH’s “value with clear evidence, including
appropriate indicators if possible” (UNESCO 2022, VI.
para 175). Therefore, it is presumable that the inheritanceinheritance and change. Among them, if there are still

学位論文梗概集 2022

some almost unchanged factors even in different times,
spaces, and groups of dissimilar professionalism, thenthese factors can be considered as inherited factors as“indicators” to demonstrate the inheritance and value ofICH.
The 2003 ICHC emphasizes the importance ofcommunities, but dismisses the concept of authenticity.
This situation was heavily criticized by Deacon andSmeets (2013) as the instrument could not ensuresufficient

community

involvement

inheritage

identification and management, while “communities
themselves are often reluctant to abandon the notion ofauthenticity”. What’s more, critical comments from
Kirshenblatt‐Gimblett (2004) also pointed out thatinternational heritage policies developed by UNESCO act
as a metacultural intervention and tend to confuse
intangibility and evanescence with disappearance so thatthey “attempt to slow the rate of change.” In other words,
even though ICH is considered “constantly recreated”(UNESCO 2003, Article 2), it is still possible to keep
something authentic within ICH, as the thoughts ofcommunities mentioned by Deacon and Smeets, without
trying to “slow the rate of change” deliberately. The pointis that even though some parts of ICH are changed ‐ or as
expressed in this research that changing factors areexistent ‐ there are still some parts inherited within ICH ‐namely, inherited factors are still existent ‐ and probably
functioning as ICH authenticity. In a word, inherited
factors and ICH authenticity may be connected with eachother. Actually, the 2003 ICHC does not refuse to admit
the existence of nature within ICH (UNESCO 2022,

102.a & 171.c), and the nature may be linked to thechanging factors, then inherited factors are proved

authenticity of ICH. Since the nature of ICH is important

existent in Kunqu Opera. Furthermore, the inheritance ofto the inheritance of ICH, and probably could beKunqu Opera can be demonstrated. ICH could haveconsidered as inherited factors in this research. Ifnature. And authenticity may be possible for ICH.

inherited factors are proved existent within ICH, thenICH could be proved having nature. Thus, authenticity

2. Research Perspectives & Methodology

may be possible for ICH. Hopefully, this research could

Since Kunqu Opera is a comprehensive stage‐performing

contribute to current discussions of ICH authenticity.

art, related researches range from literature to music,(2) Research Objective

dance, and so on. Studies of how to protect this art mostly

The objective of this research is to make clear how theset their sights on the relationships between Kunqu Opera

factors extracted from ICH are inherited and changed

and a variety of stakeholders, on the methods to permeate

under the influence of time’s change (social change),

the recondite art to the public, and its connection to

spatial shifts, and bearers’ professionalism (socialculture industries. Their major desire is to push forward

expectations).

the integration of Kunqu Opera into modern society,Concretely, this research will extract several artistic

while the specific inheritance and changing situation offactors (spoken language, melody, literary form of lyrics,

Kunqu Opera remains unclear. On the other hand, apronunciation of lyrics, dance, stage set, and costumes) ofnumber of researchers begin to focus on Kunqu Opera’s

China’s Kunqu Opera to conduct comparative studies inchange (e.g. Ke, 2008; Liu, 2017; Zhang, 2018).

three songs for the objectives to explore the inheritanceIn this research, several artistic factors of Kunqu Operaand change of ICH in different times (before and after thefrom versions of different times, spaces, and groups ofestablishment of the PRC), spaces (Shanghai and Taiwan)

dissimilar professionalism will be analyzed from aand groups of varied professionalism (professional andperspective of cultural heritage studies to explore theamateur groups).

inheritance and nature of this art. In order to conduct(3) Research Object & Hypotheses

factor‐based comparative analysis of versions from varied

Certainly, there are numerous ICH in China. However, astimes, spaces, and groups of dissimilar professionalism,a performing art that has been long favoured byliterature study, site survey, and interviews were also

intellectuals since the 16th century till now, Kunqu Opera

carried out.

is more suitable to be chosen as an object in this research.
Firstly, materials about this art are abundant since the3. Framework of Analysis

16th century till now. Secondly, the standards ofIn chapter 2, some basic artistic factors of Kunqu Opera ‐evaluating Kunqu Opera are clearer. Thirdly, precious

spoken language, melody (formed in the Ming dynasty),

examples can be found to analyze Kunqu Opera’s

literary form of lyrics (formed in the Ming dynasty),

inheritance in different spaces with dissimilar social

pronunciation of lyrics (formed in the Qing dynasty),

conditions (Chinese mainland and Taiwan).

dance (movements of Zhezi Xi almost fixed in the Qing

About hypotheses, in this research, inherited factors

dynasty), stage set (freehand style formed at least in therefer to almost unchanged factors within ICH even time,

Ming dynasty), and costumes (formed in the Ming

space, and group’s professionalism change. In order todynasty) ‐ were introduced. Then the birth and evolution

prove their existence, some noticeable artistic factors willof Kunqu Opera in feudal times (the Ming and Qing

be extracted from Kunqu Opera to explore theirdynasties) and the Republic of China (1912‐1949) period,inheritance and change. If there are some almost

namely before the establishment of the PRC (1949‐ ),unchanged factors in versions of different times (beforewere stated. Kunqu Opera began to shrink in the middle

and after the establishment of the PRC), spaces (Shanghai

Qing dynasty and changed from a dramatist‐centeredand Taiwan), and groups of dissimilar professionalismsystem, which formed in the Ming dynasty for dramatists’(professional and amateur groups), even though someversatility, scholar‐officials’ active participation, andother factors changed heavily which are expressed ascomparatively tolerant social environment, to anSummaries of Academic Theses 2022

artist‐centered one in the late Qing dynasty for theart, amateur groups’ members, whose majority weretightening of political controlling and frequent wars as

intellectuals and rarely performed on stage, tended towell as artists’ survival strategies, which gave birth to thefocus on the singing part and study it. What’s more,

technique‐stressed Zhezi Xi. The declining of Kunqucompared to professional groups’ heavily financial

Opera still continued in the Republic of China period.

pressure, amateur ones were free of this stress.

However, except for spoken language, which varies

Consequently, amateurs were able to inherit traditionalheavily in different areas, other factors were inherited

melody, literary form of lyrics, and pronunciation ofwell.

lyrics more loyally than professional artists.

Chapter 3 demonstrated that after the establishment of

Chapter 6 compared several artistic factors of three

the PRC, the Theater Reform Campaign (1949‐1963) andsongs ‐ Gun Xiu Qiu (滚绣球), Shan Po Yang (山坡羊),

the Cultural Revolution (1966‐1976) were launched forand Tai Shi Yin ( 太 师 引 ) ‐ in versions from different

some political and social purposes. As a result, the former

times (before and after the establishment of the PRC),

freehand style and artist‐centered Kunqu Opera started tospaces (Shanghai and Taiwan) and groups of dissimilarchange into realistic and director‐centered one toprofessionalism (professional and amateur groups inemphasize motifs rather not techniques. Furthermore,

Shanghai). For melody, since all the versions observed

especially after 2001, for the impact of the market

traditional rules of melody by more than 50%, andeconomy and foreign cultures as well as modern lifestyle,versions after the establishment of PRC changed by lessthethan 10% than the version before, Kunqu Opera’s melody

modernizationofKunquOperaquickened.

Particularly, its dance and stage set changed largely.

was deemed almost unchanged. For literary form of lyrics,

Chapter 4 summarized the history of communication

since only one character was deleted in Taiwan’s version

between the Chinese mainland and Taiwan and theand the change was within acceptable scope, this factor

inheritance of Kunqu Opera in Shanghai and Taiwan. Notwas deemed unchanged. For traditional pronunciation,

later than the Qing dynasty, there were Kunqu Operasince all the versions observed traditional pronunciation

activities in Taiwan but troupes disappeared in the 1870s.

by more than 80%, this factor was deemed almost

Thanks to Kunqu Opera amateurs’ coming from theunchanged. For dance, since similarities of versions

mainland together with the Chinese Nationalist Party in

between Shanghai and Taiwan were all less than 40%,the 1940s, this art restarted on this island. Taiwan’s

this factor was considered as changed largely. For stage

audiences had an artistic taste in traditional Kunqu Opera,

set, it was concluded that, unlike Taiwan’s traditional

especially the style of the 1930s, and tended to appreciate

style, Shanghai had been developing a modern style. Forand learn this art from mainland’s artists after a long

costumes, its style based on the Ming dynasty almost kept

martial law, which lasted from 1949 to 1987 andthe same no matter the change of space.

suspended communication between the two sides. By
comparison, even though inheriting techniques from

4. Conclusion

famous artists in the Republic of China period,

Since Kunqu Opera’s melody, literary form of lyrics andShanghai’s troupe actively introduced some modern

pronunciation of lyrics were almost unchanged althoughchanges into their performances to survive newtime, space, and group’s professionalism changed. Theychallenges in new times. As a consequence, Kunqu Opera

are inherited factors of Kunqu Opera. In other words,

evolved into two directions: Shanghai’s modern style andinherited factors are proved existent in Kunqu Opera. ICH

Taiwan’s traditional style.

could have nature. And authenticity may be possible for

Chapter 5 summed up the inheritance of Kunqu Opera

ICH.

in professional and amateur groups in Shanghai. TheAbout reasons for the change of changing factors dance

professional and amateur groups worked together toand stage set, they are deemed not the core factors,

conduct the inheritance of Kunqu Opera in Shanghai at

namely the nature, of Kunqu Opera. And related records

least from the Qing dynasty till now. Unlike professionalin detail are limited to consult. What’s more, Shanghai’s

artists who had to handle both dance and singing of thisprofessional artists were impacted by the Theater Reform

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Campaign and the Cultural Revolution which stressedin the days to come, recording them and building

motifs rather than techniques for some social and politicalevaluation systems are important, if possible, for factor

purposes. Additionally, from feudal times, artists tried toanalysis and ICH protection.

classify characters on stage into several types and develop

About the methodological progress of comparative

corresponding performing ways for each of them, whichanalysis applied in this research, firstly, if there are notmeans they attached great importance to role‐portraying.

sufficient records of the research object, which mainly

As time goes by, artists’ understandings of roles tend torefer to directly written records here, then directlychange, which leads to a re‐portraying of roles withunwritten records, indirectly written records, andadditions of the spirit of times. Furthermore, as a

indirectly unwritten ones may be taken into consideration.

professional group, financial pressure makes it have toCertainly, interdisciplinary studies could benefit thechange to cater to modern audiences for commercial

analysisinterests. Thus, large changes happened to the dance andcross‐validation could make conclusions more persuasive.

stage set of Kunqu Opera. About implications of theAnd the methodological progress of ICH could alsochange, it may weaken artists’ pursuit of higher

realize in this process.

oftheserecords,

andmultidisciplinary

techniques and lead to the disappearance of Kunqu

Secondly, if it is not easy to find evaluation criteria

Opera’s traditional implicit and sedate style. The change

from some materials, especially from some directlyof Kunqu Opera means that it is unavoidable for an ICH

written records, then interviews with alive ICH bearers

to interact with its surroundings and adjust to theand recording their related practice and thoughts, theenvironment, but it is possible to change in its own way,

more the better, matter a lot. Particularly, to sort out

and that should be worked on particularly.

bearers’ consensus about the inherited parts of ICH could

About the inherited factors melody, literary form of

be helpful to make clear the evaluation criteria. And thelyrics, and pronunciation of lyrics, they are deemed thedevelopment of methodology about systematic interview

core factors, namely the nature, of Kunqu Opera, thusand analysis in order to understand the inheritance andcould not be changed largely. Besides clear historicalchange of ICH is also expected.

recordsofthesefactors,

theintentionallyorunintentionally consistent inheritance of them among

References

artists from varied times also brought about their almost1) UNESCO: Text of the Convention for the Safeguarding of theunchanged situations till now. It may be a result ofIntangible Cultural Heritage, 2003, https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention,seeking self‐identity for artists. All in all, inherited factors

Accessed August 28th of 2022

and changing factors work together to constitute the2) UNESCO: Operational Directives for the Implementation of theinheritance of Kunqu Opera. Kunqu Opera’s inheritance

Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage, 2022,

can not realize without either of them.

https://ich.unesco.org/en/directives, Accessed August 28th of 2022
3) Deacon, J. H., & R. Smeets: Authenticity, Value and Community

5. Discussion

Involvement in Heritage Management under the World Heritage andThere must be some neglected factors that have not been

Intangible Heritage Conventions, Heritage & Society 6(2), pp. 129‐143,

analyzed in this research, such as the vocalization and2013breathing method. The limitations of the methodology of4) Kirshenblatt‐Gimblett, B.: Intangible Heritage as Metacultural

this research lead to the failure of analyzing these factors:Production, Museum International 66(1‐4), pp. 163‐174, 2004

requirements of sufficient records and being easy to find5) Ke, F: The Transition and Development of Kunqu in Modern Times,evaluation criteria from some materials.

Doctoral Dissertation of Chinese National Academy of Arts, 2008

Even though the insufficiency of records and difficulty6) Liu, X.: A Study on the Evolution of Performance of Kun Opera,to find evaluation criteria for some factors make them

Doctoral Dissertation of Shanghai Theatre Academy, 2017

hard to be explored, technological and methodological7) Zhang, Y.: A Study on the New Plays and Adaptations of Kunqu Opera

progress in the future may make it possible. What’s more,(1949~2015), Doctoral Dissertation of Soochow University, 2018some new inherited and changing factors may take shape

Summaries of Academic Theses 2022