An Introduction to
Plastic Recycling

Plastic Waste Management InstituteINTRODUCTION
The year 2015 turned out to be an historic turning point for the global environment. First and foremost, it marked
the adoption of the Paris Agreement that set long-term goals and obligated all countries to submit and update their
reduction targets for greenhouse gas emissions every five years. It also marked a consensus achieved on the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development centered about new and comprehensive Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
for the entire world.
The marine litter problem including drifting plastic and micro-plastics is coming to be recognized throughout theworld as a threat on a global scale. The G7 Summit 2015 held in Schloss Elmau, Germany saw the world’s sevenlargest advanced economies agree upon a “G7 Action Plan to Combat Marine Litter,” and a commitment to combat
this marine litter problem was reaffirmed at the G7 Toyama Environment Ministers’ Meeting 2016 in Japan and G7
Bologna Environment Ministers’ Meeting 2017 in Italy. Then, at the G7 Charlevoix Summit 2018 in Canada, theleaders of Canada and various EU countries approved a “G7 Ocean Plastics Charter” that included numerical targets.
Japan declined to approve this charter together with the United States, but based on the “4th Fundamental Plan for
Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society” as decided by the Japanese cabinet in June 2018, the government
formulated a “Resource Circulation Strategy for Plastics” in May 2019 to comprehensively support the recycling ofplastics as a resource.
Furthermore, given the recognition that the need to take appropriate countermeasures to the problem of marine litteris not just the responsibility of advanced countries but also of all countries including Asian countries, the Group of
Twenty agreed upon an “Action Plan on Marine Litter” at the 2017 G20 Hamburg Summit in Germany, G20 leaders at
the G20 Osaka Summit held in June 2019 declared agreement on “Osaka Blue Ocean Vision” that aims to reduce
additional pollution by marine plastic litter to zero by 2050.
Turning now to domestic plastic waste, Japan exported approximately 1,400 kt of plastic waste as a resource in2016, but this figure dropped to approximately 750 kt in 2020 due to embargoes imposed by China, where themajority of the plastic waste was going, and by Thailand, Vietnam, and other countries. Additionally, since dirty
plastic garbage has been a target of regulation under the Basel Convention since January 2021, it is now necessary toconclude an agreement with the destination country when exporting plastic waste of this type.
In addition, the “Act on Promotion of Resource Circulation for Plastics” went into effect in April 2022. This law
aims to comprehensively fortify the resource circulation system for plastics used in all sorts of products and topromote the 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) + Renewable initiative among all stakeholders in relation to the entire
plastic lifecycle from product design to plastic waste processing.
In this way, the conditions surrounding plastic waste are becoming increasingly severe every year, and to control
discharge, there is the view that the use of one-way containers, packaging, and products must be decreased. At thesame time, some one-way containers, packaging, and products have become indispensable for hygiene reasons in the“new lifestyle” brought on by the spread of viral infections, so the role of one-way plastic is coming to bereconsidered in the case of many plastic items. When talking about plastic, it is important to take up not only its
negative aspects but to sufficiently consider its positive aspects as well.
To achieve a sustainable society and pass on a rich environment to the next generation, studies must be performed
with regard to plastics too from the viewpoint of exhaustive resource cycling over an entire lifecycle including
efficient energy recovery from waste material. At the same time, a wide range of issues must be dealt with including
resource/waste restrictions, countermeasures to marine litter, and policies to combat global warming while taking into
account economic issues and technical possibilities.
Plastics mainly originate in finite resources such as petroleum. It is precisely because they are finite that the reuse ofplastic waste as a resource, if made possible, can contribute to the finding of solutions in terms of both resource
securing and waste processing. In fact, progress has been made over many years in the development of recycling
technologies for post-use plastic, and techniques such as mechanical recycling and feedstock recycling for reusing
plastic waste as raw material in plastic products and as chemical raw material, respectively, have been established andhave found widespread use. In addition, plastics not suitable for mechanical and feedstock recycling are being
effectively used through energy recovery. For 2017, all of the above measures brought Japan’s effective plastic
utilization rate up to 86%. This high value can be ranked as top-class even by world standards reflecting Japan’s highregard for recycling.
In this publication we consider the question of waste from a number of angles and present the very latest data onprocessing of waste plastic and its use as a raw material. Environmental and waste issues are composed of a great
number of factors, which makes a scientific, multifaceted approach essential to their solution. The reader, we hope,
will find that “An Introduction to Plastic Recycling” throws light on waste problems and in particular on the issue ofplastic waste.

June 2022
Plastic Waste Management InstituteC O N T E N T S
Waste emissions● Industrial waste emissions level off・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 2● Decrease in domestic waste emissions bottom out・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・ 3● State of global domestic waste emissions・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 4

Processing and recycling of plastic waste● Effective use of plastic waste increases steadily・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 5● Flowchart of plastic products, plastic waste and resource recovery 2021・・ 6● Recovery systems supporting mechanical recycling・ ・・・・・・・・・・・ 8● Breakdown of plastic waste・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 9

Information about plastics

An Introduction to Plastic Recycling● Manufacture of plastics from petroleum・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 10● Breakdown of plastic production by resin type and use・・・・・・・・・ 11● Plastics as the foundation of industry and modern lifestyles・ ・・・・ 12● Main characteristics and uses of plastics ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 14

Methods of Plastic Recycling● Three forms of recycling・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 16● Mechanical recycling・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 17● Mechanical recycling process・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 18● Monomerization・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 19● Blast furnace feedstock recycling/Coke oven chemical feedstock recycling・・ 20● Gasification・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 21● Liquefaction・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 22■ Reference：Large scale feedstock recycling facilities (under theContainers and Packaging Recycling Law) (2021)・ ・・・・・・・・・・ 22● Thermal recycling (Energy Recovery)・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 23● Current state of waste power generation (domestic waste)・ ・・・・・ 24● High calories provide a valuable energy resource・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・ 25● Waste incineration and pollutants・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 26■ Reference：Marine plastic debris and marine plastic litter・ ・・・・・ 27Life Cycle Assessment● What is life cycle assessment・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 28● Rethinking recycling with LCA・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 29

Legislation and arrangement
for the creation of a recycling-oriented society● Basic law and recycling laws・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 30● Containers and Packaging Recycling Law and identification marks・・ 31● Home Appliance Recycling Law and End-of-Life Vehicles Recycling Law・・ 32■ Reference ：ABOUT PWMI (Business Overview)・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 33

1Waste emissions● Industrial waste emissions level off■ Emissions and recycling of industrial waste（million tons）
450

Recycled

ReducedLandﬁll

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

FY 2003

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Source : Ministry of the Environment, Emissions and Processing of Industrial Waste FY 2019

■ Content of emissions
Plastics 2.0％

■ State of processing

Metal 1.8％

Wood 2.1％

Landﬁll disposal
2.4％

Waste oil 0.8％

Glass, concrete andceramic 2.2％

Other industrial waste 3.0％

Slag 3.6％
Reduced
44.9％

Soot and dust
4.2％
Demolition
15.3％

Animal excrement
20.9％◆ Approximately 2% disposed of by landfill
Industrial waste is waste emitted as a result of business activities atconstruction sites, livestock farms, factories, and other businessrelated establishments. Japan produces a little less than 400 mil1ion
tons of industrial waste per year, and a breakdown reveals a little morethan 40% of the total to be sludge, followed by animal excrement anddemolition waste. These three categories account for around 80% of
the total. In contrast, waste plastics account for very little.
Urban infrastructure industries (i.e. electricity, gas, heating andwater utilities), construction produce and agriculture/forestry almost
70% of the total. Kanto region produces 26%, Chubu region produces
16%, Kinki and Kyushu region produce 14%, respectively.
We can see from the State of processing graph that the total
increased by 7.12 million tons, and the breakdown reveals the amountof recycling increased by 4.56 million tons, the amount of reducing
increased by 2.53 million tons and the amount of waste disposed of in
landfill increased 0.03 million tons, respectively. Although thetendency for the amount of landfill disposal to decrease and that for
the amount of recycling to increase continued up to FY 2008, thisdecrease in the amount of landfill disposal has since weakened while
the amount of recycling has leveled off.
The final disposal remaining capacity for industrial waste is a little
more than 150 million m³, and 16.8 years across the entire nation,
especially 6.1 years in the Tokyo metropolitan area, so the landfill
situation is particular1y severe.
(Source :Ministry of the Environment, Emissions and Processing ofIndustrial Waste, 1 April 2020)

Miscellaneous industries
7.1％

Food 2.4％
Chemical and allied
products 2.6％
Ceramic, stone and clay
products 2.6％

Electricity,gas, heat
and water
26.2％

Iron and steel 6.7％

By industry
Pulp, paper andpaper products
8.7％

Construction
20.7％

million tons

Recycled
52.7％

Sludge44.3％

By type

Mining 2.0％

Total
386

Agriculture
and forestry
21.1％

Source : Ministry of the Environment, Emissions and Processing ofIndustrial Waste FY 20192

Waste emissions● Decrease in domestic waste emissions bottom out■ Emissions of domestic waste（g/person per day）

(million tons)
60

55

1,200

←

Domestic waste
Emissions/person/day

1,100
→

50

1,000

45

900

0

800
FY2003 04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

＊I n c a l c u l a t i n g a m o u n t o fdischarge per person, the foreign
population in Japan was added
to the total population from
FY2012.

20

Source : Ministry of the Environment, Emissions and Processing of Domestic Waste FY 2020

■ C omposition of garbage discharged at
garbage stations (percentage wet weight)◆ Majority disposed of by incineration
The amount of domestic waste discharged in Japan in FY 2020
was 41,670 kt (kt = thousand tons), which is about 13,000 kt lessthan the peak value reached in FY 2000. This value equates to 901 gof discharged waste per person, which represents a drop of about
20% over the same period. Although the amount of domestic waste
has been steadily decreasing since FY 2000, there are troubling signs
that this trend is beginning to bottom out. Breaking down domestic
waste reveals 30,020 kt (included 1,640kt of garbage from groupcollections) of everyday garbage, 11,650 kt of business garbage, withhousehold garbage making up 70 % of all domestic waste.
On examining the composition of garbage, a FY2021 of survey
conducted by the Ministry of the Environment found that paper andkitchen waste made up 34% and 28%, respectively, followed byplastics at 15 % , wood/bamboo/grass, and metal, glass and fiber, at
6-4 % in terms of percentage wet weight. Since kitchen waste makes
up about 30% of garbage, it can be assumed that water makes upmuch of the weight of this type of waste.
The total amount of domestic waste processed in FY 2020 came to
40,080 kt, but as shown by the State of Processing graph, most of
this waste (80%) was processed by incineration. In addition, final
disposal was 3,640 kt (370 kt direct + 3,270 kt after intermediate
treatment), which means that about 79g of waste per person per day
ended up as landfill. There are 1,602 final disposal sites (landfills) inJapan with a remaining capacity of 100 million m3, which equates toa national average of 22.4 remaining years*. In addition, the numberof remaining years for landfill disposal in the Tokyo metropolitan
area and Kinki region became 28.2 (2.0 years more than the previousyear) and 19.1 (0.3 years more than the previous year), respectively.
There are also 290 municipalities (cities, towns, and villages) withno landfills of their own, and around 17 % of municipalities in Japanconsign final disposal of domestic waste to private landfills.
Domestic waste carried outside prefectural and city governments towhich local governments belong for the purpose of final disposal
came to about 240 kt (6.5 % of the total amount of final disposal),
most of which was from the Kanto and Chubu regions. To secure
final disposal sites and extend the number of remaining years oflandfill, it is therefore important the three Rs (reduce, reuse, recycle)
in order to reduce the quantity of landfill disposal.
* In June 2018, the Japanese cabinet approved a “Waste Treatment
Facility Development Plan”(FY 2018–2022) that, with, regard to thenumber of remaining years of final disposal sites for domestic waste,
will “aim to appropriately dispose of waste still remaining after
garbage recycling and reduction without hindering the preservationof the living environment by promoting the preparation of final
disposal sites for domestic waste through the establishment or
upgrading of final disposal sites, volume reduction of landfill waste,etc.” so as to maintain the FY2017 level (20 remaining years).

Moisture 0.9％
Fibers 3.5％

Miscellaneous thing
3.8％

Metal 4.5％
Glass 5.1％
Paper and paper
products

Wood, bamboo,
grass 6.0％

Average 33.8％
of 8
nationwide
citiesPlastics 14.8％

Kitchenwaste
27.9％
Survey target : For each of 8 cities (Tohoku: 1, Kanto: 4, Chubu: 1, Kansai: 1,
Kyushu: 1), household garbage was discharged in 3 types of
districts having the following characteristics. District A:
relatively old residential district of detached houses; District B:
recently developed residential district of detached houses;
District C: apartments.
Survey period : July 2021 - Janualy 2022

Source : M inistry of the Environment，Use, discharge fact-finding ofwaste containers and packaging discharged (FY 2021)■ State of processing
Direct recycling
4.8％

Direct to landﬁll 0.9％

Intermediate
processing(recycling etc.)
14.8％

Total
40,080 kt
Direct incineration
79.5％

Source : Ministry of the Environment, Emissions and Processingof Domestic Waste (FY 2020)3

Waste emissions● State of global domestic waste emissions■ Annual waste emissions per person in
major countries
Japan■ Projected Waste Generation by Region（million tons/year）
800

2010
2015
2018

Korea

700

2016
2030
2050

600
Spain
500
UK
400
Italy
300
France200
Germany
100
USA
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0

900

（kg/person・year）
Source：OECD.Stat

Middle East Sub-Saharan Latin America North
and North Africa Africa and Caribbean America

South
Asia

Europe and East Asia
Central Asia and Paciﬁc

Source : The World Bank，What a Waste 2.0 2018

◆ Garbage discharge in major OECD member
countries around the world

double (660,000 kt) and for Sub-Saharan Africa to triple(510,000 kt) their waste discharge putting them in second
place and third place, respectively. To put this in perspective,
South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are expected toexperience explosive population growth, vigorous economic
development, and rapid economic growth in the coming
years. In contrast, Europe and Central Asia (490,000 kt) andNorth America (400,000 kt) with many advanced economies
are expected to experience very moderate growth of 1.3 – 1.4
times (The World Bank: What a Waste 2.0 2018).
Along with economic development and economic growth,even developing countries can be expected to quickly enteran era of mass production, mass consumption, and massdischarge of waste. There is also concern that movement ofpeople to cities and rapid urbanization will occur in a very
short period of time. Most of these countries are weak interms of the infrastructure, information, education, andfunding required for waste processing, so finding a means ofprocessing such a huge volume of generated waste is
becoming a major issue. Failure to do so may create a variety
of problems on a global scale such as the pollution of soil, air,oceans, and rivers, global warming, destruction of nature andecosystems, and depletion of finite resources.
Today, this ever-growing problem of waste is not
something that can be solved by one country, one region, or
one individual. Collaboration on a global scale is needed
more than ever to appropriately manage waste, control thegeneration of waste, and promote the reuse and recycling ofwaste.

The volume of discharge of domestic waste by member
countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD) came to 700 million t annually as of2018. In particular, the volume of domestic waste discharged
by the United States came to 270 million t, which equates to
811 kg of discharged garbage per person, a figure far greaterthan that of other countries (OECD member countries
average: 538 kg). Japan’s small volume of garbage
discharged per person per year (336 kg) stands out among
these figures (source: OECD.Stat).

◆ Increase of waste on a global scale
The amount of discharged waste is increasing on a global
scale. This trend has become only stronger on entering the
21st century. According to a World Bank report, the amountof globally discharged waste, which stood at 1,300,000 kt in2012 increasing to 2,000,000 kt in 2016, is forecast to
increase to 3,400,000 kt by 2050 at a speed exceeding the
population growth rate (doubling).
Examining this discharge of waste on a regional basis, wehave, for 2016 in descending order, East Asia and Oceania(470,000 kt), Europe and Central Asia (390,000 kt), South
Asia (330,000 kt), and North America (290,000 kt). However,for 2050, while East Asia and Oceania (710,000 kt) will
maintain their top position, the forecast is for South Asia to4

Processing and recycling of plastic waste● Effective use of plastic waste increases steadily■ Production and emission of plastics[10kt (kt: thousand tons)]
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400

Resin production

04

03

02

00

20

01

99

98

95

19

97

0

96

200
05

06

20

07

08

Domestic resin productconsumption

09

10

20

11

12

13

14

Industrial plastic waste

15

20

16

18

17

Source：Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)（10 kt）

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Total waste
plastic emissions 1,006 1,005 994
Eﬀective utilization

21

Domestic plastic waste■ Trends in quantity and rate of effective utilization of plastic waste
Year

20

19

998

912

945

952 929

940

926

879

860 863 861

850 822 824

213

214

200

217

212 204

203

199

173

174 177 188

186 173 177

28

29

25

32

42

36

38

30

34

30

29

27

368

457

449

494

456

465

496 502

535

534

498

492 506 507

513 509 511

582

688

692

733

689

723

744 744

767

768

701

695 710 720

726 710 717

58

69

69

73

75

77

78

80

82

83

80

81

85

Mechanicalrecycling
Feedstock
recycling
Thermalrecycling

185

204

29

Total

Eﬀective
utilization（%）

27

82

26

84

27

86

29

87

Source：Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)◆ 2021 Highlights① F or 2021,despite the ongoing effects of the
COVID-19 pandemic, an economic recovery
began to take hold. At 10,450 kt, resin production
nearly returned to its 2019 pre-pandemic figure,and at 9,000 kt, domestic plastics products
consumption increased from the previous year.
② Total plastic waste discharge was about 8,240 kt.
③ Effectively used plastic waste increased by 70 kt
from the previous year to 7,170 kt and theeffective plastic utilization rate rose by about one
point over the previous year to 87%.

■ Breakdown of total plastic waste by ﬁeld and resin type (824 ten thousand tons)
Others 51
Production and processing
waste 65
6.2%
7.9%
Agriculture, forestry
and ﬁshery 12
1.4%
Transportation
16
1.9%
Containers
Buildingandmaterials 59
packaging
7.1%
Post-use
401
products
Household
48.7%
92.1%
articles, etc. 73
8.9%Electric andmachinery 148
17.9%［by ﬁeld］

Others173
21.0%
Polyvinylchloride
70
8.5%
Polystyrene(including SAS,ABS)
101
12.2%

Polyethylene
279
33.8%

Polypropylene
201
24.4%

［by resin type］
unit:10kt (ten thousand tons)

Source：Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)

5

● Flowchart of plastic products, plastic waste and resource  
Discharge

Resin production, resin processing, and marketing of products［unit; 10kt (ten thousand tons)］Resinproduction
1,045

Resin export
391

Domestic
plastic
products
consumption
900

Domestic
plastic
input
887

Use

Post-use
products
discharge
759

Resin import
237
Product export
91

Total
plastic
waste
discharge
824

Product import212
Liquid resin, etc.
86
Resin processing
waste
59
Resin production
waste
6

Production
andprocessing
waste
65

●●●

Reclaimed
products
33●●●

Non-use

Production
andprocessing
wastedischarge
65

Resin production does not include the quantity shown for resin production waste.
The quantity shown this year for reclaimed products (33 ten thousand tons) is based on thatthe previous year (173 ten thousand tons) excluding exported portion (136 ten thousand tons)
from PET bottles (5 ten thousand tons).
The ﬁgure for post-use products discharge is computed by a PWMI estimation system based
areas and diﬀerent resin types (from 1976) and product lifetimes for diﬀerent demand areas
created by PWMI at 2017).

※ Some ﬁgures may not exactly match due to rounding.
※ “Domestic waste”includes plastic waste mixed in with PET bottles and styrene foam trays on self-collectionin processing residue on Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association routes, and in general※ “Industrial waste”includes plastic waste traded as unused“production/processing loss”with value.

◆ Effective utilization of plastic waste was 87%

Product export, and exported plastic parts from assembled
products increased, so domestic plastic input increased to8,870 kt (+490 kt; 6%).
On the other hand, total plastic waste about the same at
8,240 kt (+20 kt; ±0%). On breaking down total plastic waste
discharge, domestic (general) plastic waste increased to 4,190
kt (+100 kt, +2%), and Industrial waste, on the other hand,decreased to 4,050 kt (-80 kt, -2%).
In terms of disposal and recovery methods, mechanicalrecycling increased to 1,770 kt (+40 kt; +2%), feedstock
recycling*¹ increased to 290 kt (+20 kt; +7%), and energy

In 2021, a recovery trend could be seen in production
activity despite the ongoing effects of behavioral restrictions
associated with the COVID-19 pandemic, and due to a
growing demand for plastic products, resin production for2021 increased from the previous year to 10, 450 kt (+820 kt
relative to 2020; +8%).
In addition, resin export, and resin import, increased to3,910 kt (+180 kt; +5%), 2,370 kt (+180 kt; +8%),
respectively. As a result, domestic plastics products
consumption increased to 9,000 kt (+580 kt; +7%).
6

Processing and recycling of plastic waste

  recovery 2021
Disposal and recovery

Landﬁlling
15
Industrial waste
Mechanicalrecycling
107
Liquefaction, gasiﬁcation (chemicalmaterial use), blast furnace2
Industrial
waste
405

of mechanical recycling fromand the amount used for ﬁber
on usage for diﬀerent demand(100-years discharge model
routes and business-related routes,
business-related waste.

Mechanicalrecycling
Feedstock
recycling

Liquefaction,
gasiﬁcation,
blast furnace
29 (4%)

Densiﬁed-refuse
derived fuel/cement
material and fuel195 (24%)

Utilized
plastic waste
717 (87%)

Incineration withpower generation
252 (31%)
Incineration
with heatutilization facility
50 (6%)

Gasiﬁcasion (fuel use)
12
Densiﬁed-refuse derived fuel/cement material and fuel169
Incineration withpower generation
40
Incineration withheat utilization facility
31
Incineration without power
generation or heat utilization facility
15

Mechanicalrecycling
177 (21%)

Gasiﬁcasion(fuel use)
13 (2%)

UnusedDomestic
waste
419

Gasiﬁcasion (fuel use)
2
Densiﬁed-refuse derived fuel/cement material and fuel26
Incineration withpower generation
212
Incineration with heatutilization facility
19
Incineration without power
generation or heat utilization facility
48

Sum of waste

Thermal recycling(Energy recovery)

Domestic waste
Mechanicalrecycling70
Liquefaction, gasiﬁcation (chemicalmaterial use), blast furnace28

Incineration without
power generation orheat utilization facility
63 (8%)

Non-utilized
plastic waste
107 (13%)

Landﬁlling
45 (5%)

Landﬁlling30

Source : Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)

and other regulations. The percentage contributions to theeffective plastic utilization rate by mechanical recycling,
feedstock recycling, and energy recovery were 21%, 4%, and62%, respectively, resulting in a one-point up from theprevious year to 87%.

recovery*² increased in total to 5,110 kt (+20 kt; ±0%).
As a result, effective plastic utilization decreased to 7,170
kt (+70 kt; +1%) from the previous year. At the same time,
simple incineration and unused plastic waste by landfilling
together decreased slightly to 1,070 kt (-50 kt; -5.0%).
Additionally, in the breakdown of mechanical recycling, theexport of scrap plastic came to 560 kt (-180 kt; -24%) while
the export of recycled material came to 750 kt (+130 kt;+21%). A growing trend can therefore be seen in theprocessing of scrap plastic and its export as recycled material
due to the effects of amendments to the Basel Convention＊1. feedstock recycling = blast/coke furnaces + gasification + liquefaction＊2. e nergy recovery = densified-refuse derived fuel and cement
material/fuel + incineration with power generation + incineration
with heat utilization facility

7

● Recovery systems supporting mechanical recycling■ Breakdown of mechanical recycling (177 ten thousand tons ／ page 7)
Polystyrene*
13(7.3%)

Production andprocessing waste
38(21.7%)

Polyvinyl chloride
20(11.4%)

Sources of Post-use products
139
waste
(78.3%)

Others15(8.5%)PET resin
designatedPET bottles
53
Breakdown (29.7%)of waste byresin type

Polyethylene
36(20.1%)(containing 70 ten thousand
tons of post-use products
from domestic waste)

Polypropylene
41(23.0%)＊ Includes SAS, ABS resin■ Breakdown of post-use products for mechanical recycling (139 ten thousand tons)
PET bottles

50

26

Wrapping ﬁlm
16Home electric-appliance housings etc.
14

Pallets, containers and the like
7

Expanded polystyrene packing material etc.
5Non-pet bottles
4

PET bottle caps

4

Automobile parts
3

Agricultural plastics

3

Pipes, etc.
2Electric-wire covering material
1

Expanded polystyrene trays
Others

5

0

10

20

30

40

50

（ten thousand tons）

Source : Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)◆ Easily usable industrial plastic waste
The quantity of plastic waste used in mechanical recycling(i.e. the production of new plastic products using plastic
waste as a raw material) was 1,770 kt (kt = thousand tons) in
2021. Of this amount, 700 kt was accounted for by domestic
plastic waste (17% of domestic plastic waste). In contrast,
about 1.5 times this amount of industrial plastic waste (1,070
kt or 26% of the total) was mechanically recycled. This isbecause a large proportion of industrial plastic waste issuitable for mechanical recycling due to its quality andcomparative stability of supply.
A breakdown of the waste used for mechanical recycling
reveals in recycling of used products to 1,390 kt and the loss

in production and processing to 380 kt respectively. This isdue to the continued smooth transition to recycling containers
and packing, household appliance and cars in 2021. The
success of the various recycling laws can be seen in
breakdown of the 1,390 kt of used products: 500 kt of PET
bottles, 260 kt of wrapping film, 160 kt of home electricappliance housings, etc. The efficient operation of therecycling systems of each industrial area and associatedgroups is striking.

8Processing and recycling of plastic waste● Breakdown of plastic waste

Packs and cups

Bottles and tubes

Shape

Use and ContentsSoftdrinksBeveragebottles

Type of Resin

Juice, cola, drinking water, tea, alcoholic beverages

Lactic acid
Yogurt, milk
beverage

Polystyrene, PET, polyethylene

Food and condimentbottles

Tempura and salad oil, soy sauce, sauce mirin (sweet sakeused as seasoning)

PET, polyethylene, polypropylene

Condiment tubes

Mayonnaise, ketchup, dressings, wasabi and mustard paste

Composite materials

Bottles and tubes for daily
necessities

Toiletries, gardening supplies, car supplies, liquid detergent,fabric softener, toothpaste, cosmetics, hair shampoo, hairconditioner, bleach and body shampoo

PET, composite materials,
polyethylene, polypropylene

Food packs(EPS and non-EPS packs)

Margarine, tofu, nattou (fermented soybeans), fruit, vegetables,
processed foods, prepared foods, packed lunches

Food cups(EPS and non-EPS packs)

Miso (soybean paste), tamago-dofu (steamed egg custard), miso
soup, yogurt, ramen, yakisoba (fried noodle), jelly, custard
pudding, deserts food cups

Trays andblister packs

Polystyrene

NonEPS

Polystyrene, polypropylene, PETEPSPolystyrene

NonEPS

Polystyrene, polypropylene, PET,
polyethylene, composite materials

EPS

Polystyrene

NonEPS

Polystyrene, polypropylene, PET

EPS and non-EPS trays

Meat, fish, sashimi (slices of raw fish), sliced ham, vegetables,
processed foods

Blister packs

Drugs (tablets), processed meat and fish products, roast ham,bacon, curry roux, household tools, toothbrushes, cosmetics

Polyethylene, polypropylene, PET,
polystyrene, PVC resin

Rice, gardening bags, fish, fruit, confectionery, frozen foods,
ramen, vacuum-packed foods, pickles, food boiled in soy, miso,
bread, dried fish, cleaning

Polyethylene, polypropylene, PET, composite
materials

Egg boxes

PET, polystyrene

Large, medium and plain
bags
Bags

EPS

Polystyrene, PET, polypropylene,
polyethylene, composite materials

Cup and pack lids

Carrier bags

Polyethylene

Rubbish bags

Polyethylene

Small bags
Protection Boxes
Wrapping,
Caps
Others andand packaging and andfixing cases labelling film stoppers

PET

Quail's eggs, ginger, pickles, condiments, ramen stock,wagashi (Japanese confectionery), candy, wafers, chocolate

Polypropylene, polyethylene, composite
materials, PET

Beverages, foods, daily necessities, other plastic bottles

Polypropylene, polyethylene
Polyvinyl chloride resin, PVC resin,polyethylene

Wrapping film
Packaging film

Tofu, curry roux, plastic food decorations, wagashi, chees,
frozen foods, cod roe, sausages, frozen noodles

Polypropylene, polyethylene, composite
materials

LabelsBottles, caps

Polystyrene, polyethylene, PET, polypropylene

Detergent boxes lids, foods, underwear, powder compacts,
lotion cases, dehumidifiers, deodorizers

Polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene,
PVC resin

Urethane sponge, foam products, nets, air caps

Polystyrene, polyethylene

Baskets, handles, multi-packs, sieves, replanting pots

Polyethylene, PET, polypropylene, PVC resin,polystyrene

Note : The types of resin indicated in the table are those mainly used.

■ Composition of plastic garbage (percentage)

Recent advances in the development of high-function
containers and packaging materials have led to the use oflaminated film (multi-laminates) in many products. Laminatedfilm is achieved by layering a wide variety of film-shaped
resins each with different properties, which enables theadvantages or disadvantages of individual films to be
exploited or compensated for, respectively. For example, alayer that blocks the passage of moisture or oxygen, a layerthat cuts off ultraviolet rays, and a layer with heat-resistantproperties can be skillfully combined to create a film thathinders the deterioration or decay of the package content. On
the other hand, to sufficiently manifest desired functions inlaminated film, the constituent film-shaped resins must be
closely affixed to each other, which make laminated film
unsuitable for mechanical recycling. It can therefore be said
that feedstock recycling or energy recovery should bepromoted for the recycling of multi-laminates.

Breakdown of plastics in the composition of garbage discharged
at garbage stations (percentage wet weight) on page 3

PET bottles(14%)
Packaging except
PET bottles,
expanded polystyrene
packing materials
and trays (69%)

Others(14％)
Expanded polystyrene
packing materials
and trays (3%)

Source : Ministry of the Environment, Use discharge fact-finding ofwaste containers and packaging discharged(FY2021)

9

Information about plastics● Manufacture of plastics from petroleum■ Crude oil use and production by product type (2020)＊GL＝(Giga liters＝109 liters)＊＊kt＝thousand tons

Petroleum products
Gasoline
44.14 GL
（30％）

Naphtha13.38 GL
（9％）

Crude oil

Kerosene（distillation）
145.23 GL

13.25 GL（9％）

Gas oil
34.21 GL
（24％）

Fuel oil25.81 GL
（18％）

Basic petrochemical
products
Ethylene

5,940 kt

Propylene

5,000 kt

Butane/Butylene 2,600 kt
Aromatic series

9,890 kt

OthersPlastics
Polyethylene
2,250 kt
Polypropylene
2,250 kt
PVC resin
1,630 kt
Polystyrene
1,060 kt
Other thermoplastic resins 1,450 kt
Thermosetting resins 820 kt
Other resins
190 ktTotal of plastic raw（ materials
is 9,640 kt ）Imported naphtha
26.37 GLfor basic petrochemical（Total of naphtha）
products is 39.74 GL

Chemical raw materials
other than plastics(The discrepancy with the quantity of resin produced as shown on p.6 is due to data being aggregated over different months.)(Source : Japan Petrochemical Industry Association, Present State of the Chemical Industry 2021)◆ Plastics are made from naphtha.

◆ Plastics account for just several % of total petroleum consumption

Plastics are mainly highly polymerized compounds
consisting of carbon and hydrogen, made from substancessuch as petroleum and natural gas. In Japan, naphtha (crude
gasoline) produced by refining crude oil is used as the raw
material for making plastics. Naphtha produced by distilling
crude oil is first heated and cracked to extract substances witha simpler structure (i.e. compounds with low molecularweight) such as ethylene and propylene. The molecules
obtained are then chemically coupled (polymerized) to form
substances with new properties, such as polyethylene andpolypropylene, which are called synthetic resins andpolymers. As the newly formed polyethylene and other such
substances are difficult to handle in powder or lump form,
they are first melted, additives added to make them easier toprocess, and they are formed into pellets. (It is from this stage
that they are normally called plastics.) They are then shippedto the molding plant to be manufactured into plastic products.

Japan presently uses less than 150 GL (Giga liters) of
crude oil per year. Most crude oil is refined into gasoline,
kerosene, gas oil, and fuel oil; less than 10% is turned into
naphtha. In 2020, 13.38 GL of naphtha was produced from145.23 GL of crude oil. Combined with imported naphtha(26.37 GL), 39.74 GL of naphtha was used as the raw
material for basic petrochemical products such as ethylene,
propylene, butane/ butylene, etc. In 2020, the amount ofplastic materials produced came to 9,640 kt, which isapproximately 3% (weight percent) of the combined value ofthe amount of imported crude oil and the amount of imported
naphtha after conversion to crude oil. The amount of crude
oil used in plastics is around 3% of the total amount – most
crude oil is burned and consumed as thermal energy.
Turning crude oil and naphtha into weight-based values requires
weight conversions on the basis of density. Here, densities of0.85 g/cm 3 and 0.70 g/cm 3 are used for crude oil and naphtha,
respectively.

10

Information about plastics● Breakdown of plastic production by resin type and use■ Breakdown of production by resin type

Breakdown of“Others”(Thermosetting resins)
・Epoxy resins
・Unsaturated polyester resins
・Melamine resins
・Alkyd resins

1.2％
1.1％
0.7％
0.6％

・Urea resins

0.5％

Reinforced products
1.2％

Other resins（1.9%）

Urethane foam（1.7%）
Phenol resins（2.8%）

Board 1.7％

Foam
product
4.3％
Building
materials
4.5％

Others
（4.0%）Polypropylene（23.6%）
Others（12.1%）Breakdown of“Others”(Thermoplastic resins)
・Polycarbonate

2.7％

・Polyamides

2.2％

・Polyvinyl alcohol

1.9％・Methacrylate resins

1.3％

・Polyacetal

1.2％

・Polybutylene-terephthalate 1.1％
・Petroleum resins

1.0％

・Polyphenylene sulﬁde

0.4％

・Fluorocarbon resins

0.3％

Thermosetting
resins
（8.6%）

Production
in 2021

PET resins（3.4%）
Polystyrene(including SAN, ABS)
（11.5%）

Thermoplastic resins（89.6%）

Others（12.1%）

Thermosetting
resins
（8.6%）

Note ; The large difference between resin production(10,450 kt) and production by use (5,680 kt) in
the graphs is because production by use wascalculated according to the following parameters(1) only primary products directly molded and processed
were included(2) o nly products made by business establishments
with50 or more works were included
Polypropylene(3) secondary（23.6%） processed products, plants, adhesives,
wiring and cables, synthetic fibers and urethanefoam, etc. were excluded.

Polystyrene(including SAN, ABS)
（11.5%）

resinsPolyethylene◆ HalfThermoplasticof （89.6%）
productionispolyethylene and polypropylene

Synthetic leather 1.0％

Board 1.7％

Foam
products
4.3％
Building
materials
4.5％

Source : Tabulated by the Japan Plastics Industry Federation frommonthly reports issued by the Research and Statistics
Department, Minister’s Secretariat, Ministry of Economy,（10,450 kt）
Trade and Industry

Production
in 2021

PET resins（3.4%）

Equipmandmachinery
11.8％■ Breakdown of production by use
Reinforced products
1.2％

Other resins（1.9%）

Others
（4.0%）Polyethylene（23.4%）
・Low density
14.1％
・High density
7.7％
・Ethylene-vinylacetate
copolymer
1.6％

Source : Tabulated by the Japan Plastics Industry Federationfrom monthly reports issued by the Research andStatistics Department, Minister’s Secretariat,
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry
Urethane foam（1.7%）

Pipes and joints
7.2％（10,450 kt）

PVC resins（15.6%）

Phenol resins（2.8%）

Daily necessities
and sundries
5.3％

Daily necessities
and sundries
5.3％
Pipes and joints
7.2％

Others4.9％

Production
in 2021

Film and sheet
43.2％（5,680 kt）

Equipment
andmachinery parts
11.8％（23.4%）

Different plastics have・Low
different
characteristics
and aredensity
14.1％
High density
7.7％
accordingly put to different・
uses.
・Ethylene-vinylacetate
copolymer
PVC resins
A largeproportion of production
is of1.6％polyethylene and（15.6%）
polypropylene, and these two combined account for aroundhalf of total output. This is because around 40% of plastic
consumption is for bags, packaging such as cling film, andsheeting for construction and building materials, which
polyethylene and polypropylene are ideally suited for.

Containers
15.0％

molding methods used here include injection, extrusion,
blowing, vacuum, and inflation.
●Thermosetting plastics
Thermosetting plastics undergo relatively weak molecularmotion but once softened by heat and treated they undergo achemical reaction which causes them to form a highmolecular weight 3D matrix structure. This means that once
they have set they cannot be softened again by heat. Uses
include food containers, circuit boards for electricalequipment, shafts for golf clubs and tennis rackets, and fiberreinforced plastic boats. The molding methods used here
include compression, injection, and transfer.

◆ Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics
Plastics are divided into two main types according to how
they behave when heated : thermoplastic plastics andthermosetting plastics.
●Thermoplastic plastics
Thermoplastic plastics undergo strong molecular motion
when heated, which causes them to soften. They harden whencooled, and repeated heating and cooling allows them to bemolded into a variety of different shapes. Uses include
containers and packaging material (film, sheet, bottles), daily
necessities, household appliances and automobiles. The
11

● Plastics as the foundation of industry and modern lifestyles◆ Advantages of plastics
・Light and robust
Plastics can be used to make light yet strong products,
unlike metal and ceramics.
・Resistant to rust and corrosion
Most plastics are resistant to acid, alkalis and oil anddo not rust or corrode.
・Transparent and freely colorable
Some types of plastics are highly transparent and canbe easily colored, making it possible to create bright,
attractive products.
・Mass producible
Many types of plastics that can be molded andprocessed by a variety of methods, so products with

1. Household appliances : LCD televisions

complex shapes can be efficiently mass-produced,

Liquid crystal display (LCD) televisions with
their vivid and detailed high picture quality
wide angle screens are made up of a numberof plastics layered together: polarizing film,
phase contrast film and a diffuser panel for the
backlight. Plastics are also used in electricalcomponents, circuits and housings.

helping to bring down costs.
・Excellent electrical and electronic properties
Their outstanding insulation properties and dimensional
stability allows plastics to be used in components andelectrical and electronic products.
・High heat-insulation efficiency
Plastics conduct heat poorly, and foam is a particularly
good heat-insulating material.
・Hygienic with a strong gas barrier
Plastics are clean and impermeable to oxygen and water,
effectively protecting foods from contamination by
microorganisms.

◆ Drawbacks of plastics
・Susceptible to heat
Some types of plastics deform when placed near aflame or heat source.

Photo : Japan Polyethylene Corporation

・Susceptible to scratchers and dirt

2. Automobiles: Gasoline tanks

Plastics have a soft surface compared to metal andFour different resins are applied in six layers
to prevent fuel from permeating through thetank, which can be molded in a single stage
into a complex shape that frees up spaceinside the car. Plastic tanks are lighter andalso compatible with biofuels, which are
expected to come into widespread use. They
meet the US safety standards for use over 15
years or 150,000 miles (286,000km).

glass and are easily scratched. They are also susceptible
to static electricity and stains are highly visible.
・Vulnerable to petroleum benzine and thinnerSome plastics melt or discolor if exposed to petroleum
benzine, thinner or alcohol.

12

Information about plastics

3. Food containers and packaging:pouches, refillable packs, cups
There is a food container for every need,from heat sterilization to frozen storage. Plastic
containers are light and can be formed into
retort pouches, sealed and re-sealable
containers, or lined with aluminum or a barrier
resin to keep out oxygen and UV radiation andextend the shelf life of food.

Photo: Vinyl Environment Council

5. Construction materials:
PVC sash
Energy loss through windows can be reducedby 1/3 by using PVC sashes and low emissivity
double glazing, as compared to aluminum sashes
and normal glass windows. They can also prevent
condensation and are widely used in Europe as away to save energy. Japan is expected to adopt
them for the same reason.

Photo : Hosokawa Yoko Co., medical packaging division

4. Infusion solution bag (containers
for nutrient fluid and dialysis)
Plastic containers have good heat resistancemaking them suitable for heat sterilization, arelight and flexible so they drain without theneed for venting, and can be used in a closed
system (to prevent hospital infections). Somedrugs are supplied in a double-bag kit, which
prevents errors in drug administration bymaking them easy to mix.
13

● Main characteristics and uses of plastics
JIS abbr.
PE

Polyethylene

Generic plastics

70−90

Good

Good

Good

90−110

Good

Good

Good

70−90

Some products
somewhat vulnerable

Some products
somewhat vulnerable

Good

PP

Polypropylene

100−140

Good

Good

Good

PVC

Polyvinyl chloride

60−80

Good

Good

Good

PS

Polystyrene(styrene resin)

Polystyrene

70−90

Good

Good

Taste of contents changes
if stored for a long time

Expandedpolystyrene

70−90

Good

Good

Taste of contents changes
if stored for a long timeSAN

AS resin80−100Good

Good

Repeated use renders
opaqueABS

ABS resin70−100Good

Good

Swells over long
periodGood

Good(except strong alkali)

Stretched ﬁlm
around 200

PET

Engineering plastics

Themoplastic resins

Low density
polyethylene
High density
polyethylene
EVA resin

EVAC

Thermosetting resinsStandard thermal Acid resistance Alkali resistance Alcohol resistanceresistance (℃)

Resin namePolyethylene terephthalate(PET resin)

Un-stretched ﬁlm
around 60
Heat-resistant bottlearound 85
Aseptic ﬁlling bottlearound 70

Good

PMMA

Methacrylic resin (acrylic resin)

70−90

Good

Good

Gives contents a slightforeign odor

PVAL

Polyvinyl alcohol

40−80Softens or dissolves

Softens or dissolves

Dissolves at a lowsaponiﬁcation point

PVDC

Polyvinylidene chloride

130−150

Good

Good

Good

PC

Polycarbonate

120−130

Good

Some products somewhat
vulnerable (e.g. detergents)

Good

PA

Polyamide (nylon)

80−140Some products
somewhat vulnerable

Good

Possible inﬁltration

POM

Acetal resin (polyacetal)

80−120Some products
somewhat vulnerable

Good

Good

PBT

Polybutylene terephthalate(PBT resin)60−140

Good

Good

Good

PTFE

Fluorocarbon resin

260

Good

Good

Good

PF

Phenol resin

150

Good

Good

Good

MF

Melamine resin110−130

Good

Good

Good

UF

Urea resin

90

Stable or very slightchangeVery slight change

Good

PUR

Polyurethane

90−130EP

Epoxy resin150−200

Good

Good

Good

UP

Unsaturated polyester resin130−150

Good

Good

Good

Somewhat vulnerable Somewhat vulnerable

Good

Standard thermal resistance (℃) is the heat resistance of each resin type in normal use. It does not apply to generic resins, engineering plastics or thermosetting
resins. (Generic resins are measured in terms of short term thermal resistance, and engineering plastics and thermosetting resins in terms of long-term resistance.)
The entries on this table have been arranged into standard grades to give a rough idea of their physical properties. Consult the manufacturer if you require particularphysical properties for product design.

14

Information about plastics

Resistance tocooking oil

Characteristics

Main uses

Good

Lighter than water (relative density ＜0.94), excellent electrical insulation, water resistance, chemical resistance and environmental Packaging (bags, cling, ﬁlm, food containers), agricultural ﬁlm,
wire covering, ﬁlm within milk carton
adaptability, but poor thermal resistance. Mechanically strong but soft, does not become brittle even a low temperatures.

Good

Slightly heavier than low-density polystyrene but still lighter than water (relative density ＞0.94). Excellent electrical insulation, water Containers and packaging (ﬁlm, bags, food containers), shampoo and conditioner bottles,
sundries (packets, washbowls, etc.), gasoline tanks, kerosene containers, containers, popes
resistance, and chemical resistance, higher thermal resistance and more rigid than low-density polystyrene. Whitish and opaque..

Good

Transparent and ﬂexible, with rubbery elasticity that gives it excellent resistance at low
Agricultural ﬁlm, stretch ﬁlm
temperatures. Some items have excellent adhesive properties. Poor thermal resistance.

Good

Low relative density (0.9-0.91). Relatively high thermal resistance. Automobile parts, household appliance parts, wrapping ﬁlm, food containers, caps, trays, containers,
Excellent mechanical strength.
pallets, clothing boxes, textiles, medical instruments, daily necessities, trash containers.

Good

Does not burn easily. Soft and hard varieties. Sinks in water (relative Over and underwater pipes, joints, guttering, corrugated sheeting, window sashes, ﬂooring,density of 1.4). excellent glossy surface shine, well suited to printing. wallpaper, synthetic leather, hoses, agricultural ﬁlm, wrapping ﬁlm, wire covering

Vulnerable to some fatty oils such as
Comes in a transparent, rigid general purpose (GＰ) grade and a milky white shock-resistant high impact
Oﬃce appliance and TV casing, CD cases, food containers.
terpene oil from citrus fruits and perilla oil grade (HI). Easily colored. Good electrical insulating properties. Dissolves in petroleum benzine and thinner.
Vulnerable to some fatty oils such as
Light and rigid. Good thermal insulting properties. Dissolves in petroleum
terpene oil from citrus fruits and perilla oil benzene thinner.

Packaging, ﬁsh boxes, food trays, cup noodle containers, tatami
mat padding

Good

Excellent transparency and thermal resistance.

Tableware, disposal lighters, electrical equipment (fan blades,
juicers), food storage, containers, toys, cosmetic containers.

Good

Excellent shock-resistance and glossy appearanceOﬃce appliances, automobile parts (interior and exterior), games, consoles, building
components (internal), electrical equipment (air conditioners, refrigerators).

Excellent transparency, rigid, excellent gas barrier properties.

Insulating material, functional optical ﬁlm, electromagnetic
tape, camera ﬁlm, wrapping ﬁlm

Excellent transparency, oil-resistant, excellent chemical resistance.

Containers for foodstuﬀs, food boiled in soy sauce, fruit, salad and cakes,
drinks cups, clear bottles, various kinds of transparent packaging (APET).

Transparent and rigid, excellent gas barrier.

Containers for drinks, soy sauce, alcohol, tea, and drinking water(PET bottles).

Good

Good

Colorless, transparent, glossy. Dissolves in petroleum benzine and Automobile headlight lenses, tableware, lighting boards, water
thinner.
tank plates, contact lenses.

Good

Water-soluble, ﬁlm-forming, adhesive, chemically resistant, excellent Vinylon fabric, ﬁlms, paper coating agents, adhesives, PVC
gas barrier.
suspension stabilizing agent, automobile safety glass.

Good

Colorless, transparent, good chemical resistance, excellent gas barrier.

Good

Colorless and transparent, highly resistant to acids but vulnerable DVDs and CDs, electronic part housings (e.g. mobile phones), automobile
to alkalis. Excellent resistance to shocks and heat.
headlight lenses, camera lenses and housings, transparent rooﬁng materials.

Good

Milky white, scratch-resistant resistant to low temperatures, good Automobile parts (air inlet pipes, radiator tanks, cooling fans,shock resistance.
etc.), food ﬁlm, ﬁshing line and monoﬁlament, gears, fasteners.

Good

White, opaque, excellent shock resistance and good abrasion Gears (DVD player, etc.), automobile parts (fuel pumps, etc.),
resistance.
fasteners and clips.

Good

White, opaque, good balance of electrical and other physicalElectrical parts, automobile parts.
properties.

Good

Milky while and thermally resistant, high chemical resistance with Frying pan coatings, insulating materials, bearings, gaskets, all kinds of packing
non-stick properties.
material, ﬁlters, semiconductor industry applications, wire coverings.

Good

Good electrical insulating properties, acid resistance, heat resistance Printed circuit boards, iron handles, distribution board breakers,
and water resistance. Does not burn easily.
pan and kettle handles and knobs, plywood adhesive.

Good

Good water resistance. Resembles ceramic. Hard surface.

Tableware, decorative laminate, plywood adhesive, paint.

Good

Resembles melamine resin, but cheaper and more diﬃcult to burn.

Buttons, caps, electrical products (wiring accessories), plywood
adhesive.

Good

A wide variety of physical properties can be obtained from the resin, from ﬂexible to rigid. Excellent Foam is mainly used for cushions, automobile seats and heat insulation. Non-foam variety isadhesive and scratch-resistant properties, foam also has many desirable physical properties.
used for industrial roll packaging belts, coatings, waterprooﬁng materials, spandex textiles.

Good

Excellent physical, chemical and electrical properties. Products Electrical products (IC sealant, printed circuit boards), paints,
reinforced with carbon ﬁber are particularly strong.
adhesives, all kinds of laminates.

Good

Good electrical insulating properties, heat resistance and chemical resistance. Baths, corrugated sheeting, cooling towers, ﬁshing boat, buttons,
Products reinforced with glass and carbon ﬁber are particularly strong
helmets, ﬁshing rods, coatings, septic tanks.

Cling ﬁlm, ham and sausage casing, ﬁlm coating.

Source: The Japan Plastics Industry Federation，“ Hello Plastics ! ”(Partly revised by PWMI)

15

Methods of plastic recycling● Three forms of recycling
Category (in Japan)
Material recycling

Method of recycling
Recycling to make・Plastic raw materials
・Plastic products

ISO 15270
Mechanical recycling

Monomerization
Chemical recycling

Blast furnace reducing agent
Coke oven chemical
feedstock recycling

Feedstock recycling

Gasiﬁcation Chemical feedstock
Liquefaction
Fuel
Thermal recycling

Cement kiln
Waste power generation
RPF(＊1), RDF(＊2)

Energy Recovery＊1. Refuse Paper & Plastic Fuel (high-calorie solid fuel made from waste paper & plastic)＊2. Refuse Derived Fuel (solid fuel made from burnable waste, plastic waste, etc.)◆ The true goal of recyclingnote1 : The methods of recycling currently recognized by theContainers and Packaging Recycling Law are material(mechanical) recycling, chemical (feedstock) recycling(monomerization, liquefaction, use as a blast furnace
reducing agent, coke oven chemical feedstock recycling
and conversion to chemical feedstock by gasification)and energy recovery (thermal recycling) (liquefaction
and gasification). Under the amendment in 2006, RDF
and other forms of energy recovery were added as
supplementary methods, albeit with some limitations.
note2 : In classes specified by JIS Z0130 established in 2015
t o i n c o rp o ra t e e n v i ro n m e n t a l c o n s i d e ra ti o n s i n

Many years of technological development now allow plastic
waste to be recycled by a number of methods. They can begrouped into three main categories（note 1, 2）.
(1) Mechanical recycling(2) Feedstock recycling (monomerization, blast furnace
reducing agent, coke oven chemical f eedstock
recycling, gasification, liquefaction, etc.)(3) Thermal recycling (cement kiln, waste power generation,
RPF, RDF)
Recycling technology has advanced tremendously and its
use is spreading, but recycling is not an end in itself. As theFundamental Law for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle
Society enacted in 2000 made explicit, the purpose ofrecycling is to curb consumption of finite natural resources
such as oil and minimize the burden on the environment
through the cyclical use of resources. This means it isnecessary to carefully consider whether the method used
reduces inputs of new resources or limits the burden on theenvironment when promoting recycling.
It is important to select the recycling method for plastics
that imposes the least social cost as well as limiting
environmental impact given the situation of the plastic waste
to be recycled.

packaging applications, feedstock recycling is included
in mechanical recycling.
JIS Z 0130 List of classes
Category(in Japan)
Material recycling
Chemical recycling
Thermal recycling＊1 Revising ISO18604＊2 Matching to ISO18605

16

JIS Z 0130
(targeting packaging)
Material recycling(JIS Z 0130-4＊1)
Energy Recovery(JIS Z 0130-5＊2)

Methods of plastic recycling● Mechanical recycling
Main recycled products made fromindustrial plastic waste

③
④

①

⑥
⑤
⑦

②

⑨
⑧
⑪
⑲

⑩

⑫
⑱
⑮
⑰

⑯

◆ Used for containers, building materials,
sheeting, automobile engine compartments,…

① Railway signs② Boundary marking piles③ Pallet④ Two-rail fence (imitation wood)⑤G eo-step (Stairs for slope inspection/
management)⑥ Manhole urb material for partitioning (imitation⑦Cwood)⑧ House cock box⑨ Springboard⑩ Step ramp
⑪ Central reservation block⑫ Parking block⑬ Clothes hangers⑭ Kite-string spools⑮ Plant pots
⑯S
 tationery (Name tag case, Ballpoint pens,
Paper knives, Rulers)⑰ Duckboard⑱ Washbowls⑲ Bath chair⑬⑭

containers, benches, fences, playground equipment, andconstruction sheeting in areas related to package transport,
construction, homes, parks, roads, railroads, and agriculture,
forestry, and fisheries. More recently, it has also come to be
used for units and parts in a variety of fields requiring highperformance and high functionality such as parts forautomobile engine compartments, units for rainwater storageand infiltration systems, and parts for produce cultivation
systems.
Recycled products have a number of attractive
characteristics: they are durable, light, easy to process andeasy to cut and join, just like wood. We can expect greater
adoption of recycled products with these features being usedin place of other materials, such as steel, concrete and wood.
Furthermore, in conformance with the Containers andPackaging Recycling Law, domestic plastic waste discharged
from households, stores, and offices has also become a targetof mechanical recycling thanks to improvements in sorting,quality control, compounding, and manufacturing/processing
techniques for plastic waste as raw material. Centered about
PET bottles, this type of waste is being turned into bottles,
packaging materials, stationary, daily necessities, etc.

Mechanical recycling is a way of making new products outof unmodified plastic waste. It was developed in the 1970s,
and is now used by several hundred manufactures around
Japan.
Mechanically recycled waste has until now consisted
largely of industrial plastic waste. Industrial plastic waste
generated in the manufacture, processing and distribution ofplastic products is well suited for use as the raw material formechanical recycling thanks to clear separation of different
types of resins, a low level of dirt and impurities andavailability in large quantities.
Up until now, recycled products that have used industrial
plastic waste as raw material have had a few weak points
such as degraded physical properties and unstable quality, butthese problems have been overcome by enhancements inquality-control procedures, compounding techniques, andmanufacturing/processing techniques for plastic waste usedas raw material. Today, industrial plastic waste is being used
for a wide range of articles and facility components such as

A Radiator support opening cover
B Front bumper extension mounting

Parts for automobile engine compartments
Photo ; ISONO Co., Ltd.

Units for rainwater storage and infiltration systems
Photo ; Joto Lyprone Co., Ltd.

17

Parts for produce cultivation systems
Photo ; Sunpoly Co., Ltd.

● Mechanical recycling process■ From the collection of PET bottles to recycling into new products
Sorted collection (municipality)

Recycling (Business Entities)■ Recycling process

Dispose garbage by sorting
according to procedures instructedby the local government.

1

Bottle to bottle recycling■ PVC bottle removal■ Coloring bottle removal■ Hand sorting

Please make sure touncap closures and remove
labels as much as possible.

Products used

■ Crushing■ Wind separationcollection■ Cleaning

PET bottle

Sorted disposal (consumers)

Chemical regeneration(feedstock recycling)

Physical regeneration(Mechanical Recycling)

Raw materials of
PET bottles

PET bottles forbeverages

Food Trays

Adhesive label material

Mouse pad

Sheet

Sheets to prevent weed

Blister packs■ Separation of gravity

3 Press laterally

sorting (foreign materials removal)

recycled materials

compression (baling)

Textilesout the inside of
2 Rinsebottles

Sheet

Cascade Recycling※Labels are easily removed when thebottle has been pressed.

※removing the inside plugs and rings
left after opening containers is notnecessary if removal is diﬃcult.
Please dispose of as is. The white
piece at the bottle tip is also made of
PET resin.

Bibs

Working wears

Nonwoven calendar

recycled ﬂake
※Bottles cut into 8 x 8mm squarepiecesstorage

Draining garbage
bag

Suits

School Bag

Items conforming to the sorting standards

Sellotape standForming

4

Please dispose them on the PET
bottle collection day speciﬁedby the local government.

Floor matsbale

recycled pellet※The bale is what compressed andwrapped PET bottles※Granulated materials after recycled
ﬂake is melted

Meter Box

Detergent bottles
for the kitchen
Food pouch

Collection box

Source : Report 2018 of Council for PET Bottle Recycling (Partly omitted the figure by PWMI)◆ Re-melted to make products

sheet products.
Up until recently, recycled raw materials were not used for
PET bottles targeted for beverage use due to hygiene
concerns, odor-related problems, etc. These issues, however,were solved by chemical methods, and B to B (bottle to bottle)
business for making beverage-specific PET bottles from postuse PET bottles began in 2003 (see Monomerization(Feedstock Recycling) on p. 19). Additionally, B to B businessfor the same purpose based on a mechanical recycling method
has been in operation since 2011. This method removes
impurities from flakes and performs polymerization under avacuum and high temperature using the result as raw material
for beverage-specific PET bottles.
This business has been increasingly steadily on an annual
basis exceeding 80 kt of recycled raw material in FY2020(Source: The Council for PET Bottle Recycling, Annual
Report 2021).

Mechanical recycling of plastic waste is generally
performed as follows. After performing resin sorting andremoving impurities, the waste is pulverized and washed toform flakes or the flakes so obtained are melted and formed
into pellets by an extruder. These flakes or pellets are thenused as raw material for making products.
PET bottles from sorted household waste are collected,
compressed and packed by municipalities for transportation
to plants operated by recycling businesses. At the recycling
plant, the waste is sorted to remove impurities, and theremaining PET bottles then shredded and cleaned, foreign
bodies and non-resins are removed and the remainder turned
into flakes and pellets (made from flakes, thermallyprocessed by an extruder) for recycling. The recycledmaterials are then sent to textile and sheet-making plants,
where they are again melted down to make into textile and18

Methods of plastic recycling● Monomerization

〈Feedstock Recycling〉■ Process outline

PET resins〔ーOCー O ーCOOーCH2CH2Oー〕nInput ofused PET
bottle ﬂakes

BHET
HOーCH2CH2ーOOCー O ーCOOーCH2CH2ーOH

MethanolDMT

Ｈ2O

H3COOCー O ーCOOCH3
EG
HOーCH2CH2ーOH
TPA

DMT
separation
reﬁnement

TPA
production

EG
EG

BHET
BHET
reﬁnement(de-coloration/
distillation etc.)

Depolymerization

Solid-state polymerization

Ester
exchange

Liquid-state polymerization

Hopper

HOOCー O ーCOOH

Resin
for
PET
bottles

Reference : Teijin Ltd. and Aies Co., Ltd. pamphlet◆ From PET bottles to PET bottlesacid) to make PET resin, and Teijin Fiber Ltd. commenced
operation of a facility with the capacity to process around 62
kt (*kt = thousand tons) a year in 2003. The resin produced
was judged suitable for use in food containers by theJapanese Food Safety Commission in 2004, and B to B
production started in April with the approval of the Ministryof Health, Labor and Welfare.
Aies Co., Ltd. has also developed a technique for
manufacturing resin by breaking it down into high-purity
BHET (bisydroxyethyl-terephthalate) monomer using a new
method of de-polymerization using EG. It established a newcompany, PET Reveres Co., Ltd. in 2004 which can process
around 27.5 kt per year.
However, a shortage in raw materials due to a dramaticincrease in the export of waste PET bottles gave Teijin Fiberno alternative but to withdraw from B to B production. PET
Reverse, meanwhile, has had to undergo a restructuring, andtheir B to B business is being carried on by PET RefineTechnology Co., Ltd., a member of the Toyo Seikan Co. Ltd.
Group. Since then, JEPLAN,INC. has inherited this business.

While PET bottles can be recycled to make textiles andsheeting, they cannot be used to make PET drinks bottles.
This is because used PET bottles are unsuitable for use as raw
materials for soft drink, alcohol or soy sauce bottles forreasons of hygiene and smell. However, converting PET
bottles back to an earlier state of processing is a more
economic use of resources than making PET resin fromscratch out of petroleum and naphtha. A “bottle to bottle (B toB)” scheme to make recycled resin equivalent to newly maderesin suitable for drinks bottles started in 2003 on this basis.
The method chemically decomposes the used PET bottles
into their component monomers (de-polymerization), andthey are made into new PET bottles from this stage.
Teijin Ltd. already uses its own proprietary decomposition
method, combining ethylene glycol (EG) and methanol tobreak waste PET resin down into DMT (dimethyl
terephthalate) to turn it the raw material used to make textiles
and film. This technique was improved upon to break PET
bottles down further from DMT to PTA (purified terephtalic

19

● Blast furnace feedstock recycling■ Blast furnace feedstock recycling process

Exhaust gas
Plastic waste from households
and factories(various mixed plastic composites)

Absorption tower
Cleaning tower

Exhaust gas
incinerator
Pre-treatment(waste bag shredding, sorting out of
unsuitable waste, removal of impurities,
shredding, magnetic sorting)

Recoveredchlorine

Hydrogenchloride gas

Blast furnace gas(fuel gas)

Power generation

Dechlorination unit

Granulator
Plastics other than PVC

Dechlorinatedplastics

PVC sorter

Classiﬁer
TuyereBlast furnace facility(Source: JFE Steel Corporation.

Pamphlet)〈Feedstock Recycling〉◆ Plastics used as a reducing agent
At steel mills, iron ore, coke and auxiliary raw materials
are fed into a blast furnace and the iron ore melted to
produce pig iron. Coke is used as fuel to elevate thetemperature in the furnace, and also acts as a reducing agent
by removing the oxygen from iron oxide, one of the main
constituents of iron ore. As plastics are made frompetroleum and natural gas, their main constituents arecarbon and hydrogen. This means that it should be possible
to devise a means of using them instead of coke as a
reducing agent in the blast furnace process.
The process by which plastics are used as a reducing
agent is as follows. Plastic waste collected from factories
and households is cleansed of non-combustible matter andother impurities such as metals, then finely pulverized andpacked to reduce its volume.
Plastics that do not contain PVC are granulated, then fed
into the blast furnace with coke. Plastics that contain PVC
are fed into the blast furnace after first separating thehydrogen chloride at a high temperature of around 350°C in
the absence of oxygen, as the emission of hydrogen chloride
can damage a furnace. The hydrogen chloride thus extracted
is recovered as hydrochloric acid and put to other uses, suchas acid scrubbing lines for hot rolling at steel mills.
This dehydrochlorination method was developed by the
Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI), Japan PVC
Environmental Affairs Council, Vinyl Environmental
Council and JFE Steel Corporation (formerly NKK) at therequest of the New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization (NEDO). JFE Plastic Resource
Corporation (founded in November 2005) has been applying
this process in full-scale operations.

● Coke oven chemical feedstock recycling〈Feedstock Recycling〉■ Coke oven chemical feedstock recycling process
Chemicalfeedstock forplastics, etc.

Plastic waste from households(various plastic composites)

Hydrocarbon oil
40%

Coal

Chemicalconversion
plant

Pre-treatment(pre-grinding,removal of impurities)

PVC
removal system

Compactor(granulator)

Coke
20%

Blast
furnace(iron ore reducing
agent)

Coke oven

Coke oven gas
40%

Power
generation,etc.

％＝recycling rate

(Source : NIPPON STEEL CORPORATION Pamphlet)

20◆ Plastic waste reused in coke ovens
Coke is made by baking coal, and the process also
genera tes vola tile com pou nds w hich prod ucehydrocarbon oil and coke oven gas. However, coke,hydrocarbon oil and coke oven gas can also be produced
from plastic waste. NIPPON STEEL CORPORATION
has developed facilities at most of its steel mills to use
plastic waste as cokes, chemical feedstock and fuel, and
it is now in use in its Nagoya, Kimitsu, Muroran, Yawata
and Oita sites.
This system begins by crushing plastic waste obtained
from local governments and removing iron and otherimpurities and PVC. It then heats the plastics to 100°C
and forms it into granules, which are then mixed withcrushed and granulated coal at a ratio of 1–2% before
being fed to the carbonization chamber of the coke oven.
The carbonization chamber has combustion chambers
on both sides which heat the content indirectly. The
plastic waste does not combust inside the chamber due
to lack of oxygen, but it is instead cracked thermally at ahigh temperature to produce coke for use as the reducing
agent in coke ovens, hydrocarbon oil. This process
results in 40% hydrocarbon oil for use as chemical
feedstock, 20% coke for use as a blast-furnace reducing
agent, and 40% coke oven gas for generating power.

Methods of plastic recycling● Gasification〈Feedstock Recycling〉■ Gasification process
Plastic waste from households(various plastic composites)

Low-temperature
High-temperature
gasiﬁcation furnace gasiﬁcation furnace

Oxygen+Steam

ShredderGas scrubbing
facility

Oxygen+SteamSynthetic gas

RDF molder

Non-combustibles

Granulated blast
furnace slag

Eﬀective utilization

Examples of synthetic gas
・Hydrogen・Methanol
・Ammonia
・Acetic acid
・Other basic chemicals
・Fuel cells
・Fuel source for high-eﬃciency
power generation

Source : Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)◆ Plastic waste converted to gas for use asa raw material in the chemical industry

is neutralized by alkalis and removed from the synthetic gas.
This synthetic gas is used as a raw material in the chemicalindustry to produce chemicals such as hydrogen, methanol,ammonia and acetic acid.
The Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI) was
commissioned by New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization (NEDO) to conduct trials of thistechnology, which were performed with the cooperation of
Ebara Corporation and Ube Industries, Ltd. After verification
testing, this technology was put into actual operation by EUP
Co., Ltd., in 2001, but owing to the difficulty of acquiring
plastic waste as raw material, this venture was closed down in
May 2010.
However, Showa Denko K.K. began operation of a new
facility using this technology at its Kawasaki Plant in 2003.
In addition, the Thermoselect process (for using plastic
waste as clean fuel gas) operated by JFE KANKYO
Corporation since 2000 has been inherited by J&T Recycling
Corporation, which was established in 2019 through a merger
with Tokyo Waterfront Recycle Power Co., Ltd.
The same process was adopted in the form of a private
financial initiative (PFI) waste business by Mizushima
co-works Co., Ltd in 2005 and by ORIX Environmental
Resources Management Corporation in 2006.

Plastics are composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen andtherefore normally produce carbon dioxide and water when
combusted. The gasification process involves heating plastics
and adding a supply of oxygen and steam. The supply ofoxygen is limited, which means that much of the plastics turninto hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and water.
Sand heated to 600-800°C is circulated inside a first-stage
low-temperature gasification furnace. Plastics introduced into
the furnace break down on contract with the sand to formhydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, hydrogen and char. If theplastics contain chlorine, they produce hydrogen chloride. If
plastic products contain metal or glass, these are recovered as
noncombustible matter.
The gas from the low-temperature gasification furnace isreacted with steam at a temperature of 1,300-1,500°C in asecond-stage high-temperature gasification furnace toproduce a gas composed mainly of carbon monoxide andoxygen. At the furnace outlet, the gas is rapidly cooled to
200°C or below to prevent the formation of dioxins. The
granulated blast furnace slag also produced is used in civilengineering and construction materials.The gas then passes
through a gas scrubber and any remaining hydrogen chloride21

● Liquefaction■ Liquefaction
process〈Feedstock Recycling〉

Plastic waste from households(various plastic composites)

Exhaust gas
combustion(hydrochloric andcondensed and recovery)

Hydrogenchloride gas

Recoveredhydrochloric acidExhaust gas
Meltedplastics

Cooling(product oil recovery)

Pre-treatment(shredding, separation, sorting)

Deaeratingtank

Product

PyrolysistankGood quality
product oil

Powergeneration
Residue

Steam

Dehydrochlorination unit

Heating
furnace
Residue extractionand energy recovery

Residue

Waste
heat boiler

Water

Source : Plastic Waste Management Institute (PWMI)◆ Plastic waste converted back to oil
Since the raw material used to produce plastics is petroleum,it should be possible to return plastics to petroleum byreversing the production process. Development of plastic
waste liquefaction technology for this purpose began in thesecond half of the 1970s, and today, plastic-waste liquefaction
is essentially an established technology.
However, the process of returning plastic in a macromolecularstate to a low-molecular state is an endothermic reaction that
requires energy. It requires, In particular, extra energy forheating material up to temperatures of about 400°C (whichmeans that some of the generated oil must be consumed as fuelor that electric power must be purchased to perform suchheating). In addition, the process product in crude-oil form
must again be cracked and refined to obtain commercial
products, and facilities for this purpose are essential. At thesame time, there is always risk of ignition or explosion in theliquefaction process and countermeasures to that risk must be
taken. For the above reasons, many large-scale liquefaction
facilities could not achieve profitability and were forced towithdraw from the business before the second half of the
2000s. Sapporo Plastic Recycling Co., Ltd. had been working
to establish a liquefaction business with large-scale facilities,
but they withdrew from the business in 2010.
The research and development of plastic-waste liquefaction
technology has had some achievements, but many issues
remain, such as how to achieve a scale of business that iscommercially viable and how to reduce costs. At present, any
new ventures in the liquefaction business face difficult
conditions. The above problems and issues must be thoroughly
studied by any enterprise looking to adopt this technology.

■ Reference：Large scale feedstock recycling
facilities(under the Containers andPackaging Recycling Law)(2021)
Nippon Steel Corporation(Muroran) 30kt/y/cokeoven feedstock

In Japan, there are many facilities applying the feedstock
recycle technology. Figure shows that the facilities offeedstock recycle using the collected plastics under thecontainers and packaging recycling law. In 2021, there are 8
facilities of blast furnace feedstock recycling, coke ovenchemical feedstock recycling and gasification in Japan.

JFE Plastic Resource Corporation(Fukuyama) 32kt/y/blast furnace

Nippon Steel Corporation(Kimitsu) 80kt/y/cokeoven feedstock
JFE Plastic Resource
Corporation (Kawasaki)
26kt/y+8.9kt/y/blast
furnace and coke ovenfeedstock

Nippon Steel Corporation(Yawata) 50kt/y/cokeoven feedstockShowa Denko K.K.
(Kawasaki) 64kt/y/gasiﬁcation

Nippon Steel Corporation(Oita) 50kt/y/cokeoven feedstock
Nippon Steel Corporation (Nagoya)
50kt/y/coke oven feedstock

Note : The numeric shows treatment capacity (2021)

22

kt = thousand tons

Methods of plastic recycling● Thermal recycling (Energy recovery)◆ From waste plastic and landfill to thermal recycling■ Incinerator mechanisms

Waste plastics are currently collected and processed differently
by different municipalities, but the Ministry of the Environment isunifying the previously separate categories of waste into one(“burnable”), with an amendment to the Waste Disposal Law on
May 2005 which changes its basic policy to state that “first,
emission of waste plastic should be reduced, after which recycling
should be promoted; any remaining waste plastic should not go tolandfill as it is suitable for use in thermal recovery”.
In a similar move, the Tokyo municipal area, which had since
1973 been putting household waste plastics into landfill as nonburnable garbage, set a goal in 2008 of sending zero household
waste plastic to landfill and instead using it for incineration andthermal recycling by default.
As a result, data on the effective use of heat energy for FY
2020 as recorded by the Clean Association of TOKYO23 showedthat total generated power came to 1,250 million kWh, electricity
sold came to 750 million kWh, and supplied heat (fee-based)came to 351,000 gigajoule(GJ) , the income of electricity and heatsold came to 9.6 billion yen.

Stoker incinerator
Refuse crane

Exhaust gas

Refuse hopper

Refuse feeder
StokerDryingCombustion

Forceddraft fan

Postcombustion

Bottomash

Fluidized-bed incinerator* For convenience of statistics, these figures were tabulated from March 2020 toFebruary 2021. ** Includes sale amount of corresponding amount of electricity for
new energies (environmental value)

Exhaust gas

Refuse craneSandcirculation
elevator

Energy recovery techniques include incineration with heatutilization, incineration with power generation, cement material/
fuel, and refuse-derived solid fuel (RPF, RDF). Among these,
incineration with power generation has recently been attracting
attention again as an important source of energy.
Typical waste incineration systems in use today include stoker
incinerators, fluidized-bed incinerators, and gasification melting
furnaces. A stoker incinerator burns refuse while transporting it
along a stoker. It consists of a drying section for evaporating
moisture in the refuse, a combustion section for vigorously
burning the refuse, and a post-combustion section to fully burnthe refuse. A fluidized-bed incinerator, on the other hand, burns
refuse by adding it to heated sand that swirls about much likeboiling water by air forced in from below. A gasification melting
furnace, meanwhile, decomposes refuse into gas at hightemperatures and recovers the resulting pyrolysis gas and char for
use as fuel to drive a steam turbine and generate electricity. The
char is melted into slug at this time.
In any of the above systems, the heat and exhaust gas
generated by incinerating refuse can be used as new sources ofenergy. Refuse can also be effectively used as a raw material for
cement kilns thanks to its high calorific value and good
combustibility. The demand for refuse paper and plastic fuel(RPF)—a mixture of plastic waste and used paper—has also been
growing among pulp manufacturers as an alternative fuel to oil.

Refuse hopper

Refuse feeder

Incinerator
Air

Forced Sand
draft fan

Sand separator

Incombustibles

Gasiﬁcation melting furnace
Refuse craneFlammable gas
and charRefusehopperRefusefeederExhaustgas
Secondary
combustion fan

Gasiﬁcation
furnaceSand
circulation
elevator

Secondary
combustion
chamber
Combustion
melting furnace

Forceddraft fanSand

■ Power generation and feed mechanism

Molten slug

Produce steam by incineration withheat utilization

Sand separator
Slug
Incombustibles

Up and rite site

Water

Rotate turbine blades bysteam power

Produceelectricity bypower generator

Steam
Electric

Water
granulation tank

Steam Turbines

Exhaust heatof waste

Source：Clean Authority of TOKYO, Waste Report
23 2021 (portions of figure reconfigured by PWMI)

incinerators
Boiler23

Generator

Steam can also be used to supply heat via aheat exchanger
Used steam can be returned to water for reuse

● Current state of waste power generation (domestic waste)■ Change in total power generation capacity（MW）

Total generated power

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,512

1,590 1,604 1,615

1,740 1,754 1,770
1,673 1,700

1,981
1,907 1,934

2,089 2,069 2,078 2,079

1,000

500

0

FY2005

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

Source : Ministry of the Environment, Survey on Disposal of General Waste, FY 2020

■Number of waste incineration sites by power-generating eﬃciency
140

122

120

121

100

Number of sites

The use of waste as a source of energy is increasing steadily.
About 70% of all waste incineration facilities (1,056) in Japan are
now using residual heat in some form. For example, the hot waterand steam generated by boilers at these facilities can be supplied
to local health spas for general heating and for heating baths andswimming pools. Recently, however, the use of waste forgenerating electric power has been attracting attention, and as of
FY 2020, the number of waste incineration sites equipped withpower generating facilities came to 387 or about 37% of all waste
incineration sites in Japan. The total power generating capacity ofthese sites was 2,079 MW. In FY2020, total power generation was
10,153 GWh (+163 GWh from the previous year), which could
cover the power needs of about 2,380 thousand households(calculated on the basis of 4,258 kWh/year/household of energy
consumption (electricity) (FY2020 Annual Statistical Survey on
Household Carbon Dioxide Emissions (Preliminary Results),
Ministry of the Environment, Global Environment Bureau, Policy
Planning Division, Low-carbon Society Promotion Office)).
However, the efficiency of waste power generation is still lessthan satisfactory : there are only 54 sites with a power generation
efficiency of 20% or greater. Additionally, there are 253 smallscale sites with a power generating capacity less than 5,000 kW,
or 65% of all sites. This figure reflects the need for improving theefficiency of waste power generation by consolidating facilities,
upgrading equipment, deploying new incineration technology, etc.
Against this background, the Japanese cabinet approved a“Waste Treatment Facility Development Plan” (FY 2018–22) inJune 2016 with the aim of establishing waste treatment facilities
that incorporate measures to prevent global warming and promoteenergy creation. This would include, for example, the promotionof large-scale facilities to secure a sufficient level of energy
recovery. The plan states, in particular: “Based on the basic
principle of cyclic use and disposal of garbage as specified in the
Basic Act for the Promotion of the Recycling-Oriented Society
and taking into account recent advances in thermal recovery
technologies, thermal recovery from waste destined forincineration will be performed while securing a fixed thermal
recovery rate or better to contribute to energy savings and energy
creation in regional waste treatment systems.” In conjunction withthe above, the plan sets a specific target for improving the average
power generation efficiency of garbage incineration facilities
established in this period from 19% (FY2017 estimated value) to
21% (FY2022).
24

80
60

60
40
20
0

54

23

Under 5%5%-10％

10%-15％ 15%-20％ Above 20%

Power-Generating Eﬃciency (%)
Note ; For 380 (out of 387) power-generating sites responding to the survey.

■Number of waste incineration sites by power-generating capacity
120

133

100
Number of sites◆ Power generation capacity for more than 3 million households

89

80

73

60
40

31

20
0

31
11

Under
1,000

15

1,000- 2,000- 5,000- 10,000- 15,000- Above
2,000
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 20,000
Power-Generating Capacity (kW)Note ; For 383 (out of 387) power-generating sites responding to the survey.
Source : Ministry of the Environment, Survey on Disposal of General Waste, FY 2020

Methods of plastic recycling● High calories provide a valuable energy resource■ Calorie comparison
Material

Group

Fuel

Plastics

Waste(damp)

Unit

Coal for coke ovens
Imported fuel coal
Kerosene
Fuel oil A
LPG
Manufactured gas
PVC resins
Polystyrene
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
PET
Paper
Kitchen waste
TextilesWood, grass
Incineration waste
Waste plastic

MJ

kg
kg
Liter
Liter
kg
Nm3
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg
kg

kcal

28.94
25.97
36.49
38.90
50.06
41.21
24.1
40.2
44.0
46.0
23.0
13.2
3.9
16.3
6.6
10.0
36.2

Source

6,914
6,203
8,718
9,293
11,958
9,844
5,760
9,600
10,50011,000
5,500
3,160
930
3,900
1,570
2,390
8,650

Based on“Standard Caloriﬁc Value and Carbon
Emission Factor,”Agency for Natural Resources andEnergy, August 2018

“Ecological eﬃciency analysis on the processing ofplastic containers and packaging”Plastic Waste
Management Institute (PWMI), September 2006

Council for the best technology for plastic waste
processing (Eds), Processing and Disposal of Plastic
Waste, Nippo Co.,Ltd.1995“Ecological eﬃciency analysis on the processing of plastic containers andpackaging”, PWMI, September 2006

＊Note ; 1MJ=238.89kcal, 1kcal=4.18605kJ(MJ／㎏＊＊)

60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0

Waste plastic

Incineration waste

Wood, grass

Textiles

Kitchen waste

Paper

PET

Polyethylene

Polypropylene

Polystyrene

PVC resins

Manufactured gas

LPG

Fuel oil A

Kerosene

Imported fuel coal

Coal for coke ovens

0.0＊＊Note : MJ/liter for kerosene and fuel oil A; MJ/Nm3 for manufactured gas◆ Calorie on a par with coal and oil
The waste collected at waste incineration facilities consistsof a variety of materials. The graph above compares thecalories of combustible waste substances, and you can seethat plastic has twice the calories of paper waste and thatsome plastics with the highest calories, polyethylene,

polypropylene and polystyrene, are on a par with coal and oil.
Waste containing high calorie plastics is thus a valuable
energy resource, and it is expected to be used more
effectively in future.

25

● Waste incineration and pollutants■Changes in the type and amount of dioxins
emitted by waste processing facilities
Year

1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019

Domestic waste

Industrial waste

5000
1350
812
71
62
52
36
32
30
24
22
20

1505
695
535
75
73
60
34
27
19
19
15
17

■Control of exhaust from waste processing facilities(Clean Authority of TOKYO)

Total quantity incineration facilities incineration facilities

6505
2045
1347
146
135
112
70
59
49
43
37
37

Dust and soot countermeasures

Mercury countermeasures

Dioxins countermeasures

Hydrogen chlorides and sulfur
oxides countermeasures

Removes dust and soot by bag ﬁlter

Controls generation of dioxins by
incineration. Prevents resynthesis by
rapid cooling. Removes by bag ﬁlter.
Decomposes by catalytic reaction.

Adsorbs mercury by activated carbon.
Stabilizes by liquid chelate.

Remove by slaked lime blowing andreaction with sodium hydroxide.

Stack

Nitrogen oxides countermeasures
Decompose by reacting withammonia with a catalyst

Exhaustgas
Coolingtower

Bag ﬁlterGas
scrubber

Unit : g-TEQ/year■Dioxin concentration standards
Combustion chamber
New facilities Existing facilities
processing capacity

Activated carbon・Slaked lime

Sodium hydroxide

Catalyst
reaction
tower

Ammonia

Liquid chelate

Schematic of ﬁlter-type dust collector (cross section from a lateral view)

4 tons/hour or more 0.1ng-TEQ/m3N 1ng-TEQ／m3N
2-4tons/hour

1ng-TEQ/m3N 5ng-TEQ／m3N

Exhaust gas including
dust and sootUnder 2 tons/hour 5ng-TEQ/m3N 10ng-TEQ／m3N

Cylindrical ﬁlter cloth (bag ﬁlter)

Note：Dioxins concentration is converted to toxicity
equivalent (TEQ. m3N is at 0℃ and atmosphereof pressure.)
TEQ means the power of dioxin toxicity.
Source : Ministry of the Environment

Exhaust gas with dust andsoot removed

Dust and soot are transported by a sealed conveyor

Source：Clean Authority of TOKYO, Waste Report“GOMIREPO 23 2021”(Partly revised by PWMI)◆ Sharp decrease in dioxins
Incinerators used for burning municipal waste emit gases
containing pollutants, but under Japan’s strict standards,
efforts have been made to suppress these emissions by
upgrading incineration facilities and implementing newtechnologies. As a result, emission of pollutants has beenbrought well under the values specified by the relevant
regulations and standards.
(Dioxins) ; Standards to limit the emissions of dioxins
were introduced in 1997, and the Law Concerning Special
Measures against Dioxins was introduced in January 2000,
tightening controls on emissions from existing as well as new
facilities. This law lays down standards concerning thetolerable daily intake of dioxins, environmental standards andregulations concerning exhaust gas and water emissions.
Emission standards are provided for waste incinerators of a
total incineration capacity of at least 50kg/hour or a total
hearth area of at least 0.5m². In 2001, the Waste Management
Law was amended to require that waste be incinerated using

incinerators designed in accordance with the enforcement
regulations for the Waste Management Law and by a method
determined by the Minister of the Environment. According to
the Ministry of the Environment, estimated total dioxin
emissions from waste incineration facilities in 2019 was 37g(Domestic waste incineration facilities 20g, Domestic waste
incineration facilities 17g), which represents a fall to almost
1/176 th of the amount emitted in 1997.
(Particulate matter) : Emissions of particulate matter are
regulated in Japan by the Air Pollution Control Law. Somelocal governments also have their own stricter standards.
Methods of eliminating of pollutants include physicalcollection systems such as bag filters and electrical dust
collectors, effective against NOx, SOx, HCL, dust and soot;and chemical reaction systems using substances such as
ammonia, caustic soda and calcium hydroxide.

26

Methods of plastic recycling■ Reference ; Marine debris and marine plastic litter

Litter covering river bank (Tokyo)
Photo: All Japan River Litter Network http://kawagomi.jp

Litter washed ashore (Nagasaki)
Photo: Japan Environmental Action Network (JEAN) http://www.jean.jp

The problem of marine debris and marine plastic litter inparticular is becoming a global problem. It has been taken up
frequently in recent years at United Nations meetings and G7
Environment Ministers' Meetings, and in Japan, it isrecognized as a problem that has to be dealt with as reflectedby the Basic Environment Plan and other policy measures.
Plastic has come to be used in many products that surroundus in daily life thanks to its superb functionality andproperties, and it would be no exaggeration to say that plastic
has become something that modern society cannot do
without. On the other hand, plastic has low degradability inthe natural environment, so once it is removed from the flowof resource recycling and released into the natural world, itscollection and processing becomes difficult. Regions aroundthe world have reported the washing ashore of plastic
products and resulting loss of scenery.
As of 2010, about 4,800 kt to 12,700 kt of plastic has
leaked into the ocean, originating for the most part from
China and Southeast Asia where rapid economic growth has
been taking place. It has been scientifically inferred thatmuch of this leakage comes particularly from rivers. There is
therefore a need in these regions for infrastructure projects
targeting waste processing and for greater public awareness.
In addition, research is progressing on the impact on
ecosystems of microplastics, which are small plastic pieces
less than five millimeters long formed from marine plastic

litter under the influence of ultraviolet rays, ocean currents,
etc. and of microbeads, which are extremely small microscale balls used in facial cleansers, abrasives, etc.
Movements toward solving the marine plastic litter
problem are taking off on a global basis. Following theagreement reached on a “G7 Action Plan to Combat Marine
Litter” at the Schloss Elmau Summit in 2015, the marine
plastic litter problem was discussed at many international
conferences and meetings such as the G7 2016 Ise-Shima
Summit and the 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference,
while the “G7 Ocean Plastics Charter” that included
numerical targets was approved by Canada and various EU
countries at the G7 2018 Charlevoix Summit. In addition,
G20 leaders at the 2019 G20 Osaka Summit declared thatmeasures for dealing with marine debris and marine plastic
litter and microplastics in particular should be taken by all
countries both nationally and internationally undercooperation with all stakeholders, that each country should
resolve to take appropriate and swift national actions tocontrol and significantly reduce leakage of debris into theoceans, and that the “Osaka Blue Ocean Vision” (that aims to
reduce additional pollution by marine plastic litter to zero by2050 through improved waste management and innovative
solutions while recognizing the important role of plastic insociety) should be shared as a global vision as anticipated byexisting actions already taken by some countries.

■ Configuration of artificial material washed ashore along Japan’s coast (Total from FY2015 to FY2017)
Items
Weight (kg)Volume (ℓ)
NumberPetbottle
244.1
4,414
4,622

Styrofoam

Plastic

146.3
4,105
322

861.8
7,495
2,015

Composition ratio (Weight ratio)
Plastic bag・
Wrapping paper
2％

Styrofoam
4％

Otherartifact
10%

Plastic
22%

Wood
21%

Glass
・China
103.3
248
607

Metal
84.3
509
843

Wood
814.1
2,832
724

Composition ratio (Volume ratio)

Pet bottle 6％

Fishing gear
29%

Food
container
30.5
219
1,012

Plastic bag・
Wrapping paper
1％

Fishing gear
28%
Foodcontainer
1％
Metal
2％

Glass・China
3％

Other
artifact
4%

Wood
12%

Glass
・China1％

Metal 2％Pet bottle
15％
Styrofoam
14％

Plastic
25%

Food container 1％

27

Other
artifact
401.7
1,345
863

Fishing Plastic bag・
Total
gear
Wrapping paper
1,122.2
75.3
3,883.6
7,967
446
29,5802,685
143
13,836

Survey target: 10 spots (total 21 points)
along the Japan's coast
Survey method: Survey a 50 m (meters)
stretch of beachMeasurement method: Volume figures takea 90 L (liters) garbage bag as standard
Survey target of size of artificial material:
Not less than 2.5cm (centimeters)
Source: Ministry of the Environment, FY 2017
Report on comprehensive Study on
Measures against Marine Debris
Washed Ashore (complied by PWMI)Life Cycle Assessment● What is life cycle assessment
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for scientifically,
quantitatively, and qualitatively assessing the overall environmental
burden of a product across all related processes (life cycle) from thegathering of resources to the manufacture of raw materials, processingof those materials, assembly of components, product use, and disposal.
LCA is performed in four stages: (1) establishment of goals andscope of survey (2) calculation of environment data (CO2, energy
consumption, etc.) at each step of the product’s life cycle, (3)environmental impact assessment (inventory analysis) for various items(resource reduction effect, etc.), and (4) measurement of impact on theenvironment. These four LCA stages can be used to consider policies
on reducing environmental load in a stepwise manner.
In addition to tangible products, LCA can also be applied to services,
systems, and other intangible items. Furthermore, the application of
LCA to even organizations has recently come to be studied.

■ Life cycle and environmental burden【Product life cycle】【Input】
EnergyVirgin resources
Recycled resource

Harvesting raw
materials
Transportation

Manufacturingof parts

Transportation

Manufacturingof products

Transportation【Output】
Air pollution
Water pollution
Sold waste
Other emissions
Recycled resources

Distribution
Consumption/use
Transportation

Disposal/recycling

Source：Diagram of the cycle and environmental burden from the Ministry of the Environment◆ History of LCA
LCA is said to have begun in 1969 with research conducted by a beverage company in the United States on techniques for assessing theenvironmental load of returnable bottles and beverage cans. In Japan, full-scale LCA activities began with the founding of the Life Cycle
Assessment Society of Japan in 1995, and the establishment of LCA techniques and the construction, expansion, and spread of LCA
databases were promoted by two LCA national projects overseen by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). Then, in 2004,
The Institute of Life Cycle Assessment, Japan was founded, and collaborative relationships in LCA from an academic viewpoint have since
been formed and strengthened as a result.

◆ LCA mechanism and approach
LCA is a technique for scientifically, quantitatively, and qualitatively assessing the overall environmental load of a product (or service,system, etc.) across all related processes (life cycle), from the gathering of resources for product manufacture all the way to productdisposal. Taking a plastic product for example, we consider that crude oil—the ultimate source of such a product—will be extracted fromthe Earth, transported to a port via a pipeline, and carried to Japan on a tanker. Then, once in Japan, this crude oil will be turned into avariety of petroleum products at oil-company rectification plants, and among these products, naphtha will be turned into polyethylene (PE),polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and other types of plastics through cracking and polymerization. Such plastics will serve as the raw
material for manufacturing the plastic product. Next, the manufactured plastic product will be transported to market, used by a consumer,
and disposed of as waste when it no longer serves its purpose. Finally, the disposed plastic product will be recycled, incinerated, or buried
in a landfill. This is the life cycle of a plastic product, which can be represented by the flow chart shown below.
Extraction of crude oil → (Transport) → Refining of oil → (Transport) → Manufacture of plastic raw material (pellets) →(Transport) → Manufacture of plastic product (processing of plastic raw material) → (Transport) → Use and disposal of plastic
product → (Transport) → Final disposal (recycling, incineration, or landfill)◆ LCA and LCI analysis
METI and New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) have constructed an LCA database and released
the results of this work. At the same time, diverse types of data have come to be provided by various organizations and research
institutions, and PWMI itself has released theresults of a number of inventory surveys related to ProductProduct namename :: LDPE
LDPE bags
bags manufactured
manufactured byby inﬂation
inﬂation
Name ofof public
public information
information sheet:sheet: Same
Same asas above
above
plastics. These various types of data can be used to Name
Data
Data properties
properties :: Weighted
Weighted average
average values
values based
based onon thethe results
results ofof membermember companies
companies ofof thethe Japan
Japan
Polyoleﬁn
perform life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis.
Polyoleﬁn Film
Film Industry
Industry Trade
Trade Association
Association
TargetTarget productproduct weightweight :: 12,760
12,760 tt

Unit
Unit :: resin
resin tt
SOx
NOx
Process
CO22
SOx
NOx
Process energy
energy Resource
Resource energy
energy CO
（MJ）
（MJ）
（MJ）
（MJ） （kg-CO（kg-CO22）） （kg）（kg） （kg）
（kg）
1,518
46,103
26,132LDPE
3.321
3.286 3.321
1,518 3.286
46,103
26,132
LDPE
3.015
3.118
1,326
46,194
22,324HDPE
3.118 3.015
1,326
46,194
22,324HDPE
1,483
45,81725,091PP
3.220
3.245 3.220
1,483 3.245
45,81725,091PP
1,920
45,62628,188PS
3.577
3.330 3.577
1,920 3.330
45,62628,188
PS
1,939
45,537
29,957EPS
3.627
3.441 3.627
1,939 3.441
45,537
29,957
EPS
2.432
2.174
1,449
21,273
24,790PVC
2.174 2.432
1,449
21,273
24,790PVC
1,578
34,772
28,120BPET
3.023
3.549 3.023
1,578 3.549
34,772
28,120BPET
4,073
49,37260,902PMMA
5.618
4.718 5.618
4,073 4.718
49,37260,902PMMA〈Unit〈Unit inin ﬁgureﬁgure :: t〉
t〉
LL/LDPE
LL/LDPE resin
resin
1.066
1.066

Product
Product :: bag
bag
1.000
1.000 Consumed
Consumed energy/resourcesenergy/resources Unit:
Unit: MJ/product
MJ/product tt
Film
Film
formation
Solid waste
waste
formation Solid
Secondary
Secondaryprocessing
processing
Recycled
Recycled materialmaterial
0.029
0.029

Note
Note :: The
The ﬁgures
ﬁgures give
give forfor resource
resource energy
energy areare thethe thermal
thermal values
values forfor thethefossilfossil resources
resources used
used asas raw
raw materials
materials(PWMI(PWMI :: LCILCI Data
Data Survey
Survey Report
Report on
on Petrochemical
Petrochemical Products,
Products, March
March 2009).
2009).

0.037
0.037

Resource
Resource energy
energy(originating(originating inin resin
resin raw
raw materialmaterial andand additives)
additives)
Process
energyProcess energy(originating(originating inin resin
resin raw
raw materialmaterial andand additives)
additives)
Manufacturing
Manufacturing processprocess
Process
Process energy
energy Recycling process
Recycling process(of(of thatthat process)process)
CommonCommon services
services
Total
Total

49,151
49,151
27,861
27,861
6,770
6,770
00
256
256
84,03984,039(PWMI(PWMI :: Inventory
Inventory Data
Data Survey
Survey Report
Report on
on Resin
Resin Processing,Processing, March
March 2020).
2020).

28

Life Cycle Assessment

For example, the amount of energy/resources used in the manufacturing of one ton of bags by inflation molding using LDPE can becalculated as follows.
(1) Resource energy (originating in resin raw material and additives) 46,103 MJ/t × 1.066 (basic unit) = 49,151 MJ/t
(2) Process energy (originating in resin raw material and additives) 26,132 MJ/t × 1.066 (basic unit) = 27,861 MJ/t
(3) Process energy (of that process) = 7,696 MJ/t
(1)＋(2)＋(3) = 84,709 MJ/t
In general, (1) represents the total amount of heat generated by LDPE resin (pellets), (2) the amount of process-related energy from thegathering of resin raw material (crude oil) to the refining of naphtha and manufacture of LDPE resin (pellets), and (3) the amount of energy
used for turning resin (LDPE) pellets into a product (manufacture of bags by inflation molding) at the bag-making company.

● Rethinking recycling with LCA◆ Evaluating recycling techniques
How, then, should recycling techniques for plastic products be compared and evaluated?
To evaluate recycling techniques, some type of criterion must first be created. For example, it is meaningless to compare the making ofbuckets by material recycling and the making of clothing by chemical recycling to determine which is the better recycling technique.
Buckets and clothing are prepared by different processes and are used in different ways, and are thus not easy to compare. In other words,
recycling techniques cannot be evaluated on the basis of the product resulting from the recycling process. On the other hand, recycling bysome technique can be compared with doing no recycling at all to determine which approach reduces environmental load. For example, if 1
t of CO2 emissions results from disposing waste without recycling, and if CO2 emissions can be reduced to 0.5 t and 0.3 t by recycling
technique A and recycling technique B, respectively, recycling technique B can be said to be the better approach.

◆ Using LCA to determine whether to recycle
LCA is a useful technique for calculating environmental load for the cases of recycling and no recycling. This means calculating
environmental load for individual processes from the disposal of a product as plastic waste to recycling, use of the recycled product, anddisposal of the product for a second time. We give the following example.

Recycling
Recycling

CO2

CO2

CO2

CO2

CObales2Form into
and transport
Form into bales
and transport

CO2
Recyclingplant
Recycling
plant

CO2
Manufacture
recycled pallet
Manufacture
recycled pallet

CO2
Use recycled
pallet
Use recycled
palletCO2
CO2

Waste disposal
Waste disposal

Each process results in the generation of CO2 emissions, so calculating the total of these amounts gives the environmental load forrecycling in terms of CO2. What then do we do for the case of “no recycling?” An easy mistake to make here would be to consider the caseof “no recycling” to consist only of the “waste disposal” step. If so, the amount of CO2 generated for this case would be extremely small
and the “no recycling” option would end up being the most “eco.” Is this really the case? In actuality, there is a huge error in thisassumption. Manufacturing a recycled product means that there is no need to manufacture a new product of the same kind. In other words,
disposing a product as waste without recycling means that a new product having the same function as that product made by material
recycling must be manufactured.
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
Recycling
Recycling

CO2

No recycling

CO2
CO2

No recycling

CO2

CObales2Form into
and transport
Form into bales
and transport
Plastic waste
disposal
Plastic waste
disposal
Gatherresources
for new productGather resources
for new product

CO2
Recyclingplant
Recycling
plant

CO2
Manufacture
recycled pallet
Manufacture
recycled
palletEquivalentCO2
Use recycled
pallet
Use recycled
palletCO2

CO2
Equivalent

CO2

CO2
Manufacture
plastics
Manufacture
plastics

CO2
Manufacture
new pallet
Manufacture
new pallet

UseCO
new2
palletUse new
palletCO2

Waste disposal
Waste disposal

CO2
CO2

Waste disposal
Waste disposal

That is to say, if choosing the “no recycling” option, the amount of CO2 generated must be calculated not only for the waste-disposal
process but also for the gathering of resources (crude oil) for manufacturing the new product, the refining of naphtha, the manufacturing ofresin raw material (pellets), the processing of those pellets, the manufacturing of the pallet, use of the pallet, and waste disposal of thepallet. The total amount of generated CO2 must be calculated in this way to determine which of “recycling” or “no recycling” is “eco.”29L egislation and arrangement
for the creation of a recycling-oriented society● Basic law and recycling laws
Put into force in January 2001
To ensure material recycling in society;to reduce consumption of natural resources;
to reduce environmental burden

Fundamental Law for Establishing a Sound
Material-Cycle Society (basic framework law)・Basic principles・Obligations of the national and local governments, businesses and citizens・Measures to be taken by the national government

Fundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society : Basis of other national plans

Proper waste management

Promotion of the 3Rs[Establishment of a general scheme]
Amended in March 2006

Put into force in April 2001

Law for Promotion of Eﬀective
Utilization of Resources

Wasted Management Law①Control of waste discharge①Use of recyclable resources②Appropriate waste processing (including recycling)②Structures and materials for simplifying recycling③Regulations on establishing waste processing facilities③Displays explaining sorted collection④Regulations governing waste processors④Promotion of eﬀective use of by-products⑤Setting of waste processing standards[Regulations in accordance with the characteristics of speciﬁc products]

Containers andPackaging
Recycling Law

Home Appliance
Recycling Law

Construction
Material
Recycling Law

Food
Recycling Law

End-of-Life
VehiclesRecycling Law

Act on Promotion of
Recycling of Small
Waste Electrical andElectronic Equipment

Put into force in April 2000 Put into force in April 2001 Put into force in May 2001 Put into force in May 2002 Put into force in January 2005 Put into force in April 2013
Amended in June 2006
Amended in June 2007
・Selected discharge of
waste by consumers
・Separate collection ofcontainers and packaging
by municipalities
・Recycling of containers
and packaging by
businesses that
manufacture and use them・Consumers bear collection
and recycling costs
・Retailers take back usedhome appliances fromconsumers
・Manufacturers recycle
used home applianceBusinesses that
manufacture, process andsell food products takecharge of recycling foodwaste

Green Purchasing Law

Construction contractors
take charge of:・Sorting dismantled
construction materials;
and・Recycling construction
Material waste

・Car owners bear recycling cost・Manufactures take backand recycle ﬂuorocarbons,
air bags and shredder dust
・Related businesses takeback and provide
end-of-life vehicles

Authorized business
operators, etc.
recycle small waste
electronics equipment,
etc.

The national government shall take the initiative inpromoting procurement of recycled products, etc.
Put into force in April 2001

Source : Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, Towards a 3R-Oriented, Sustainable Society/ Legislation and Trends 2021

◆ Clarification of the roles of central and local
government, businesses and consumers

consumers, and specifies the measures to be taken by central
government.
Building on the framework laid down by this fundamental
law, a number of individual recycling laws such as the Law
for Promotion of Effective Utilization of Resources, wereenacted, amended and strengthened. These laws provide theconcrete framework in each field for effectively promoting
the three Rs, i.e. reduction and reuse as well as recycling of
the waste generated by society.
In 2018, the Japanese cabinet approved the “4thFundamental Plan for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle
Society” based on reviews performed every five years. The
pillars of this plan are “Regional Circular and Ecological
Sphere,” “Resource Circulation Throughout the Entire
Lifecycle,” “Proper Waste Management and Environmental
Restoration,” “Disaster Waste Management Systems,” and“International Resource Circulation.”

The creation of a recycling-oriented society is the biggest
challenge facing Japan in the 21st century. A recyclingoriented society is defined by the Fundamental Law for
Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society as a society that
limits consumption of natural resources and minimizes theburden on the environment through ① curbing waste
emissions, ② recycling resources and ③ disposing of waste
appropriately.
Declaring 2000 as the start of the development of arecycling oriented society, the government enacted six
recycling-related laws based around the Fundamental Law
for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society. This basic
law lays down the basic principles for the formation of arecycling-oriented society, delineates the division of roles
among the government, municipalities, businesses and30

Legislation and arrangement for the creation of a recycling-oriented society● Containers and Packaging Recycling Law andidentification marks■Recycling flow through a designated corporation(plastic containers and packaging)

Materials are labeled using symbols defined under
JIS K 6899-1 2000 (ISO 1043-1 2001)

Flow of goods

plastic containers
and packaging

Flow of money
or contract

Example of mark forsingle material

Example of mark forcomposite material

PE

Bottles：PE, EVOH
Caps ：PP(1) Speciﬁed business(food manufacturer)
Product provision

Delivery ofcontainers(2) Pay recycling fee(obligatory)

General product labeling(1) Speciﬁed business(plastic container maker)

Consumer
Sorted discarding based on
identiﬁcation marks

PET drinks
Japan Containers andPackaging Recycling Association

Sorted collection of post-use
containers and packaging(5) Payment of Money to the Municipal
Government in order to the contribution
to rationalization of recycling

Cap, label

Bottle(9) Pay outsourcing fee

Cup noodles(4) Pickup contract(8) Competitive bidding(7) Recycling business(recycler)(6) Hand over bales collected at designated storage facilities(*Transport to plant is handled by recycler)

Source：“Container and Packaging Recycling FY2001”The
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry

Source: Website of Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association◆ Identification marks and material
labeling to assist sorted collection

Lid

Cup, outer film,
stock sachet(3) Municipality

may also contract out recycling work for a recycling fee to
the Japan Containers and Packaging Recycling Association.
● Role of municipalities:
Municipalities must establish sorted collection plans andtake the necessary measures to collect container andpackaging waste separately in their areas.
In order to assist sorted collection, containers andpackaging are also required by law to be labeled withidentification marks. Because of the wide variety of materials
from which plastic products are made, it is recommended thatsuch products also bear a “material mark” as well as an
identification mark.
As well as the identification and material marks specified
by the Containers and Packaging Recycling Law, the symbols
below are sometimes seen. They are the material
identification SPI codes used on containers in the USA.（＊）

The Law for Promotion of Sorted Collection and Recyclingof Containers and Packaging, known as the Containers andPackaging Recycling Law for short, aims to promote
recycling and reduce the amount of container and packaging
waste produced by households, which accounts for 60% of its
volume and 20-30% of its weight.
Under this law, consumers, municipalities and businesses
are each required to play their part in reducing emissions andrecycling waste. Changes from the amendment in 2006
include promotion of emission reductions, high quality sorted
collections (contributing funds to municipalities) and altering
the PET bottle category (to include containers such as noodle
broth bottles).
● Role of consumers:
Consumers must reduce their waste emissions throughmaking reasonable choices of containers and packaging andsort their container and packaging waste for collection.
● Role of businesses:
Businesses that manufacture or use products covered by
the law are required to recycle those products. Businesses

1

2

PETE

HDPE

3

4

V
LDPE
（PVC）

5

6

7

PP

PS

OTHER

(＊) Note that this display differs from the Japanese system and should
be used with that in mind.

31Legislation and arrangement for the creation of a recycling-oriented society● Home Appliance Recycling Law and End-of-Life Vehicles Recycling Law

Recycling
chargeRetailer

Recycling businesses

Designated take-back site

Designated take-back site

Sale

Sale

Transportation

Transportation

Municipality

recycler

Retailer(emitter)(emitter)

DesignatedRetailer
recycler

Consumer
Consumer

DesignatedMunicipality

Taking-back/drop-oﬀ

Taking-back/drop-oﬀ

Automakers, etc.

Recycling businesses

Final ownervehicleFinal ELV
owner

Fund management
corporation

Manufacture, etc. Designated body

RetailerFund management
Secondhand
corporation

ELV

Auto dealer etc.

Auto dealer etc.
CFCs

CFC recovery operator

CFCs

recoveryoperator
CFC CFC
recoverycharge

CFC recovery charge

Airbags

Airbags

Reusableparts, etc.
Dismantler

Dismantler

Airbag recovery charge

Airbag recovery charge

Shredder dust

Shredder dust

Collection
andTransportation
Collection
andTransportation◆ TVs (cathode-ray tube, liquid crystal and plasma),refrigerators/freezers, washing machines/clothes
dryers and air conditioners covered

ShredderMetals,etc.
ShredderReusableparts, etc.

Metals,
etc.

Parts and metals market

Manufacture,etc. Designated body
Recycling

Fund ﬂow

Recycling

New vehicle owner
Secondhand
vehicleNew vehicle
owner

Flow of ELV, etc.

Recycling
chargeTransportation

Automakers, etc.

Shipment

Flow of ELV, etc.

Transportation

Manufacture

Parts and metals market

Shipment■ Automobile recycling system

Fund ﬂow■ Home appliancerecycling system
Manufacture◆ CFCs, shredded waste and airbags covered
The End-of-life Vehicles Recycling Law requires that
manufacturers and others recover, recycle and appropriately
dispose of the CFCs in car air conditioners, shredder dust from
scrapped cars and airbags from end-of-life vehicles (ELVs).
● Manufactures and importers :Businesses must take back and recycle the CFCs, airbags
and shredder dust from ELVs. (CFCs must be broken down.)● Handling agents :Handling agents take ELVs back from vehicle owners andpass them on to CFC recovery operators and dismantles forrecycling.
● CFC recovery operators :CFC recovery operators are required to appropriately
recover CFCs and pass them on to automakers. (A recovery
charge may be made for this service.)● Dismantlers :Dismantlers must appropriately recycle and process ELVs
and pass on airbags to automakers. (A recovery charge may
be made for this service.)● Shredders :Shredders must appropriately recycle and process
dismantled vehicles (ELV shells) and pass on the shredder
dust to automakers.
● Owners :Owners must hand over used vehicles to handling agentsand pay a recycling fee.

The Law for Recycling of Specified Kinds of Home
Appliances, known as the Home Appliance Recycling Law
for short, covsers the recycling of home appliances(TVs,refrigerators, washing machines and air conditioners),
and since April 2009 it also covers LCD and plasma TVs
and clothes dryers. It imposes the following duties on
manufactures, importers, retailers, municipalities andconsumers.
● Manufactures and importers :Manufactures and importers are required to take back, if
requested, products that they manufactured or imported
and that are covered by the law, and to provide anappropriate location for this purpose. They must also
recycle the waste from these products.
● Retailers :Retailers must under certain conditions and if so requested
take back products covered by the law. These products arethen passed on to the manufacturer or importer (ordesignated recycler).
● Municipality :Municipalities must drop off collected products coveredby the law to the manufacturer or importer (or designatedrecycler) or recycle such products themselves.
● Consumers :Consumers must take waste products back to the retailer
and pay a charge for collection, transportation andrecycling.

32

■ ABOUT PWMI (Business Overview)
History :Originally founded in December 1971 as the Plastic Management Research Association, the Plastic
Waste Management Institute (PWMI) received its current name in July of the following year as
operations expanded. For the last 40 years or so, PWMI has endeavored to research and develop
technology for the optimal processing and effective use of plastic waste and to publicize its findings.
In addition, PWMI has changed into a general incorporated association as a result of Laws Related to
the Reform of the Public-Interest Corporations System (enacted in December 2008). As a result of thischange, PWMI’s objectives were newly established in April 2013 as “surveying and researching therecycling of plastic waste and contributing to a reduction in environmental load by the total recycling ofplastic, and helping plastic-related industries to expand their business soundly and contributing to thecreation of a society capable of sustainable growth.”

Business Content :(1) Survey and research the generation, recycling, and disposal of plastic waste and promote theappropriate use of plastic waste through various means including techniques for evaluating
environmental load(2) Support the education and study of the recycling of plastic and plastic waste and engage in related
public relations activities(3) Interface and collaborate with domestic and foreign institutions in the plastic and plastic-waste
industries

Activities :The three core activities of PWMI are summarized below.
(1) Provision of life cycle assessment (LCA) base data and LCA evaluation of recycling & recovery (R&R)
technologies
PWMI provides scientific and high-reliability data for widespread use by related industries andgeneral citizens for application to carbon footprint systems, etc. It also works to solve technicalissues so that the effective use of plastic waste can be evaluated by LCA.
(2) Preparation of the Flowchart of Plastic Products, Plastic Waste and Resource Recovery and ongoing
improvements to its accuracy
PWMI strives to obtain a clear understanding of the entire lifecycle of plastic from its production
stage to its disposal and R&R and to prepare and provide a highly accurate flowchart of this process.
(3) Support of environmental education
PWMI continues to hold instructor training courses and on-site classes and works to raise thelevel of consciousness in society regarding the usefulness of plastic. In addition to holding on-siteclasses on plastic R&R at primary and middle schools especially in Japan’s Kanto region, PWMI
will honor as much as possible requests for instructor training courses in line with new teachingguidelines and for lectures at universities specializing in environmental science.

33

Plastic Waste Management InstituteKayabacho Square Bldg. 9F
3-7-6 Nihonbashi-Kayabacho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-0025, Japan
Tel: +81-3-6810-9146～8
Fax: +81-3-5643-8447
Web site: https://www.pwmi.or.jp

2023.2(O)