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論文

Toward the establishment of inclusive education in Japan,
with special reference to support for pupils with dyslexia
ONEYAMA, Akane(Justy Co,. Ltd)

1. Introduction
In 2007, MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology)
introduced the concept of Inclusive Education into the Japanese educational system.
As Japanese society is becoming more diverse nowadays, the number of Japanese
students who have learning difficulties is increasing. Teachers are being asked to caterto each pupil who needs learning support in mainstream classrooms. Many school
teachers have therefore tried to establish an inclusive environment by giving effective
support to each student in classrooms. However, this establishment does not seem tobe succeeding and teachers are facing a lot of problems. Some teachers are struggling
with the pedagogical question of whether such students should be included into
mainstream classrooms while others accept the goal but do not know how to support
them correctly.
For English teachers, the recent introduction of English classes into primaryschools has helped make teachers aware of pupils with learning difficulties, such as
pupils with dyslexia who have difficulty with reading and writing. Yet, they have notyet found effective ways to support such students in mainstream classrooms andEnglish teachers therefore face more problems today teaching all pupils effectively.
With inclusive education and English education introduced into primary schools, it is
now the time to consider what should be done for teachers to carry out inclusive
pedagogy, especially in the case of English classes. Therefore, this article examines
inclusive education with particular reference to the context of English education andpupils with dyslexia, to determine what barriers there are to establishing an inclusive
environment and supporting students with Special Educational Needs or Difficulty(SEND).
2 Terminology –Literature Review2.1 Inclusive Education
The concept of “Inclusive Education” was born in the 1970s in the United Kingdom
and has been developed since then. Mary Warnock suggested to offer education to all

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learners “under the same roof” or the same mainstream classrooms even if they havedifficulties. Her suggestion led to the birth of inclusive education under the influence ofsocial and political situations at that time in the UK. Ochiai and Shimada (2016)
mentioned that the principle of free market and the movement to aim welfare-state in
the UK were combined and after taking a long time, British society formed “Inclusive
Education”. This educational concept involves not only educational reality but alsosocial or political thinking. The term inclusion has spread internationally anddeveloped into the philosophy to include all students in general educational systems.
In fact, UNESCO (United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation)
announced the agenda “Education for All” in the Salamanca Statement in 1994, which
was mainly focused on the inclusion of pupils with SEND. This concept is interpreted
differently in each country.
Many countries have tried to achieve inclusion by identifying the pupils withdifficulties in the mainstream classrooms, labelling them SEND and giving support. In
the international trend about inclusive education, the concept of “equity” whose core
point is translated by UNESCO as “seeing individual differences not as problems to be
fixed, but as opportunities for democratizing and enriching learning” (UNESCO 2017)is regarded to be important for the inclusive pedagogy. Rather than excluding pupils
with SEND to special educational schools, this concept aims to teach all students ingeneral classrooms and to create the diversity in classrooms concerning difficulties andbackgrounds.
Some educators have questioned the necessity itself to include all students withlearning difficulties. To be sure, the amounts of students who need additional
educational services have increased nowadays. The target of inclusion became large,
but opponent opinion expressed that it is impossible to teach students under the
inclusive environment in the mainstream classroom. The diversity of students’difficulties is too great to support each learner in the same classroom. Hansen
mentioned the limits of inclusive practice and explained that the participation of
pupils with SEND in a mainstream classroom can be judged by teachers not to bebeneficial for specific pupils themselves (2011). The discussion over where the bestplaces for pupils with SEND to attend is ongoing and the process to seek the pedagogy
which is effective for all students cannot end.
In the Japanese educational system, inclusive education was introduced in 2007 inorder to achieve two political and social purposes. First, Japanese government has
tried to make Japan a cohesive society. In modern Japanese society where theToward the establishment of inclusive education in Japan,
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population is getting smaller, people are forced to live and work together, andeducation is required to teach living in society with others. Ochiai and Shimada (2016)claim that aiming for a cohesive society is an unavoidable matter under the shrinking
society in Japan. Inclusive education has been positioned as one of the important parts
to establish a cohesive society. Second, the ratification of Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) helped the introduction of inclusive education into
Japan. CRPD is the international convention from the United Nations in 2006
referring to “the prohibition of disability discrimination and the provision ofreasonable accommodation”. This convention requires the promotion of inclusive
educational system to ratify (Kondo et al, 2015). Japan finally ratified it in 2014 bychanging and creating new educational laws regarding disability discrimination as
those actions by government were expressed in the report from MEXT (MEXT 2012).
In this way, those two movements which are the domestic social problem andinternational demand concerning discrimination joined together and led to theintroduction of inclusive education in Japan.
MEXT defined inclusive education as the system that enables both students
without difficulty and ones with difficulties to study together with adequate support
and opportunity (MEXT 2012). For a practical way to include pupils with SEND in
Japan, MEXT created two basic principles, which are the establishment of “reasonableaccommodation” and the improvement of the basic environment for the whole schools.
“Reasonable accommodation” is referred to as the system which gives personal support
under a general educational system. In fact, MEXT aims to increase the number andthe quality of “resource rooms” located within some general schools, where thestudents who are placed in regular classrooms receive special education services(MEXT 2012). This Japanese support system is required not only to prepare forsharing the learning environment in the general classrooms but also to draw anddevelop the potential ability of pupils with SEND and lead them to commit to Japanesesociety (Kudo 2016). On the other hand, the principle of the improvement of the basic
environment was created based on the concept of Universal Design for Learning (UDL).
Originally, the term “universal” is not mentioned as “one-size-fits all”, but UDL in
general education is defined as “the dynamic process of teaching and learning” thatmakes it possible to meet the needs and interests of each learner (Hall et al, 2012). The
Japanese education system interpreted it as the necessity to improve the curriculum
and to prepare proper equipment for classrooms. Needless to say, this process needs
the budget from the government. The process to improve the basic classroom
environment demands the involvement of government rather than teachers alone. It
can be said that corporation between classroom teachers and government is essential

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to establish the inclusive environment in the Japanese education system.
2.2 Dyslexia
When English teachers deal with inclusive education in Japan, dyslexia is one of
the learning difficulties that they have to face. Students with dyslexia are normallymentioned as those who have problems in reading and spelling because of neurologicalproblems, but it is also true that there are a lot of definitions and expressions of thisdifficulty depending on contexts. The International Dyslexia Association explains thatits difficulty involves poor spelling, decoding and reading comprehension, which can
influence their reading experience (IDA 2002) while British Dyslexia Association(BDA) refers to the Rose’s report in 2009 that its characteristic features are difficulties
in “phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed”(Rose 2009quoted in BDA). For example, pupils with dyslexia tend to make mistakes such as
writing 15 as 51 or b as d, cannot concentrate while reading, and have difficulty
writing answers even though s/he can answer orally (Sato 2012). These diagnostic
points are not the perfect tools to “cure” this difficulty. Rather than looking for the
remedy, it is better to think of coping with this phonological difficulty in an educationalsituation by finding the best supports, which fits each pupil with dyslexia. In order tocope with and get over this neurological difficulty through their entire life, it isnecessary to find their difficulty and start looking for an effective support from theirearly years. Wolff and Kutscher (2014) also claim the importance of early detection andaggressive treatment. Educators should be careful when pupils learn a language forthe first time. English teachers in Japan can face pupils with dyslexia in the generalclassroom, especially now because primary schools have introduced English education.
From the early stages of their life, teachers should try effective teaching methods forthem to make the most of their ability through English education in Japan.
So that pupils with dyslexia find the best way to cope with and overcome dyslexia,
some individual support for pupils with dyslexia is suggested to try in the classrooms.
First, multisensory and three-dimensional methods can be effective (Bell and McLean,
2016). For example, learners with dyslexia require saying the words repeatedly withpictures or cards or overlearning with memory cues in order to know the words byassociating the letters and sound. To make the repetition or the overlearning more
attractive for them, writing letters colourfully, using associated shapes or images canalso be adapted (Bell and McLean, 2016). Second, examinations should be held in quiet
places and students should be given extra time (Wolff and Kutscher 2014). It takes
more time for students with dyslexia to concentrate and to read. In addition, phonics isbelieved to be essential for learners with dyslexia. Generally, pupils with this difficultyToward the establishment of inclusive education in Japan,
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have trouble understanding rom letter formation and need greater support for phonics(Wolff and Kutscher, 2014). Murakami (2012) also explains from the point of children’sdevelopment of phonological recognition that it is reasonable to teach phonics before
introducing multisensory methods. A combination of three-dimensional methods andphonics is worth trying for classroom teachers.
In the general classroom, UDL should also be introduced to support their learning,
through such things as digital and computer technologies. Wolff and Kutscher
mentioned spelling and grammar checkers on laptops and Bell and McLean (2016)
recommend digital recorders, screen readers, digital notebooks, touch screen
technologies, and so on. Rather than trials to strengthen their reading ability itself,
methods to compensate their deficit by making the most use of other abilities anddevices, such as listening skills and audio equipment are suggested in learning
environments.
3 Analyse of Japanese situation regarding inclusive education
This section will analyse what kind of problems teachers, especially English
teachers, face in providing effective support to pupils with SEND in general classrooms
and discuss what prevents the full establishment of inclusive education in Japan andshould be done to achieve inclusive education in Japan.
3.1 Lack of understanding and knowledge
Although it has been more than 10 years since the concept of inclusive education
was introduced into Japan, many teachers do not have enough understanding topractice it and they do not know how to include pupils with difficulties into classrooms.
There are many disputes over the concept of inclusion, but the lack of understanding inJapan can hinder the implementation of inclusive pedagogy. In fact, Kudo (2016)
explains that starting and trying inclusive education itself is a big task for teachers.
Negative attitudes also can be seen among classroom teachers. Some teachers feel it asworkload to carry inclusive pedagogy (Forlin et al, 2015) and others say that they do
not want to take charge of classes with pupils with learning difficulties (Arimatsu2013). Needless to say, the implementation of inclusive pedagogy requires sufficient
skills and knowledge of each difficulty, which can be acquired through training andexperience. The trial for inclusive pedagogy can easily be a burden for busy Japaneseteachers.
Not only the understanding towards inclusive education but also the lack ofteacher’s knowledge about each difficulty can hinder the establishment of inclusive

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education. Not all Japanese teachers in general classrooms have sufficient knowledge
about each difficulty itself and the skills needed to teach them. Dyslexia is an example
that the lack of teachers’ knowledge leads to the failure of effective support to studentwith dyslexia. Dyslexia is not widely known in Japan and confused with autism or
ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) (Murakami 2012). Japanese teachers
are not familiar with it, although dyslexia is one of the learning difficulties which is
the target of inclusive education. This might be because the appearance ratio ofdyslexia in the Japanese language is lower than that of an English speaker due to thepronunciation system (Murakami 2012). Moreover, according to Toyama et al (2017),
the lack of teacher training and research prevents teachers from finding solutions forthe difficulties, which pupils with dyslexia face. Teachers cannot get enoughinformation about dyslexia and face the problems giving appropriate individual
support in mainstream classrooms in order to implement the inclusive pedagogy.
The complex process to identify pupils with SEND in classroom is also a problem
for the implementation of inclusive pedagogy. In order to give learning support for eachpupil with SEND and to include them into general classrooms, it is essential to identify
what kind of difficulties they have and to find out the most effective method to teachunder the inclusive classroom environment. However, as the diversity of difficulties isgetting bigger it became difficult to put labels on each student. Some pupils havecomplex difficulties, which makes it difficult to put one label and identify the mosteffective support. As not all pupils with learning difficulties are necessarily “label-able”,
the action of labelling each student as SEND is getting problematic while without alabel, they will receive less attention and support from teachers than those who havelabels (Lauchlan and Boyle 2007). Teachers need knowledge about each difficulty, but
careful consideration is also required to look for the effective learning support in a
general classroom.
3.2 Incomplete environment and accommodation
In order to establish the inclusive education in Japan, there is a problem in theconstruction of a support system. MEXT encourages mainstream school teachers andschool principles to create a support system for pupils with difficulties by involving thewhole school and establishing a “school committee for pupils with SEND”. An ideal
structure of support system is that a Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCo)
arranges and covers the support by involving other teachers, rather than only ahomeroom teacher giving additional support to a pupil with SEND. SENCo is assigned
by a school principal and they plan teacher training within a school, help classroom
teachers make support plans and communicate with stakeholders in their community,Toward the establishment of inclusive education in Japan,
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such as doctors. Toyama et al (2017) also point out the importance of communication
among groups of teachers and parents. By sharing information and tasks regarding the
support for the pupils, teachers do not feel stressed and burden towards theimplementation of inclusive education. However, how well this system functions is
influenced by how deep principals understand the importance of special educational
needs (Otsuka 2009). Not all schools in Japan necessarily take positive attitudes
towards this cooperative work. Different schools have different focused and recognition
towards additional support though all schools want to back up pupils and their parents(Toyama et al, 2017). So that all teachers and schools can make advancement for theestablishment of inclusive education, each school should encourage communication
both inside and outside the school.
In addition, the lack of facilities can be seen though CRPD tried to promote theestablishment of reasonable accommodation which enables students with SEND toaccess to the individual learning support. For example, resource rooms are not placedin all schools and located outside the neighbourhood of regular classrooms (Nagano
and Weinberg 2012). Even if there are pupils who need individual support to study in a
general classroom, they might not be able to use resource rooms and get access to the
support. For the pupils with dyslexia, some schools have equipped resource rooms for
ADHD and Learning Disabilities (LD). LD usually contains dyslexia, but MEXT does
not define this difficulty now and resource rooms for LD do not specialise in the
support of dyslexia. There is a possibility that pupils cannot get the appropriate
support in these resource rooms.
This insufficient accommodation can be affected by the recognition of necessity.
Some schools commented that they do not provide the basic accommodation judging
from the educational needs of targeted pupils (Kudo 2016). It can be said if teachers do
not realise that students are struggling at dyslexia, schools may not prepare theenvironment to support them, and may not provide any equipment which supports
pupils who are struggling at reading and writing. The situation around inclusive
education varies school to school and what pupils require is also different. It is
important that all teachers always consider what pupils need and what teachers cando for them in order to establish the inclusive education. MEXT should also actively
encourage schools to equip and prepare the environment for students support.
3.3 Curriculum Design
Basic curriculum design by MEXT can be an obstacle for the establishment of
inclusive education. Originally, curricula in primary and secondary schools in Japan

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were designed under the assumption that teachers teach many students at the sametime (Kudo 2016). In other words, pupils are taught the same content in the same way.
Although equity is regarded as one of the most important principles for inclusive
education, the original Japanese way of teaching is incompatible with the way to lookat individuals in classrooms. It is difficult for the Japanese educational system to meeteducational needs of each pupil without changing their framework (Kudo 2016). For
instance, pupils with dyslexia need extra time for their examinations and individual
support. However, English education in Japanese junior high school keeps competitive
nature and both teachers and other students have no room to consider dyslexia andtheir different, individual support, such as a multisensory approach. Teachers just givethe same exam and lean it heavily for the evaluation of students (Sato, 2012). The
Japanese way of teaching and competitive nature makes it difficult to pick the pupils
with dyslexia up and provide effective support.
4 Suggestions
With regarding to the analysis about the Japanese situation about inclusive
education, this section makes some suggestion for the full establishment of inclusive
education, such as about teachers’ recognition of inclusive education, the system forteacher education and the way of student evaluation.
4.1 Teachers’ recognition towards special educational needs
As the incompleteness of accommodation in schools is mentioned before, there is apossibility that Japanese schools do not equip necessary accommodation or give theappropriate support when teachers do not feel the necessity to prepare it. However,this attitude can hinder teachers from giving effective support and constructing
inclusive environment in the general classrooms. How much teachers can be aware ofhidden necessity of support by students influences how much they can find and pick up
the difficulties of pupils with SEND in classrooms. Teachers in general classrooms
themselves should be aware of each difficulty of students through various points ofviews (Kudo 2016). Classroom teachers can share the information of students whoneed support to be included into general classrooms and get advice from other teachers.
Specialists in the community, such as doctors or counsellors can give advice and reduce
the anxiety and stress of teachers. Although there are some schools which do not focus
on giving special support in general classrooms, it is important to prepare for anenvironment where each teacher can communicate and build the relationship withother teachers or other specialists in their community.

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4.2 Teacher Education
Moreover, teacher education should be improved so that teachers can get sufficientknowledge and skills to include pupils with SEND in classrooms. MEXT have toincrease the number of in-service training courses which enable teachers to experience
inclusive schooling, and universities which offer the courses to teacher candidates needto improve programmes to be ready for the “new era of inclusion” (Forlin et al 2015). It
might seem that the range which teachers should learn and cover is huge and training
is time consuming. However, the goal of training should not be the acquisition of all
knowledge about inclusive education, but the acquisition of skills to pick up the
difficulties of each pupil to give individual support. Bell and McLean (2016) explain the
points of training courses about dyslexia that teachers have to cover many difficulties
even with an e-learning system, but the purpose of learning them is to be able to makereferrals to other specialists when they suspect a problem in one of their students.
Teacher education in Japan for inclusive education also should be one of theopportunities for teachers to know where to ask for advice about difficulties of students,
which can encourage the communication and collaborative work in the community.
4.3 New way of student evaluation and team-teaching
With regards to the support for pupils with dyslexia, the recent reform of English
education in Japan has clues for the establishment of inclusive education in thiscountry. The way to evaluate students and the method of team-teaching, which issuggested as the ideal pedagogy for English education in primary schools, can be theideal models to build the inclusive environment in Japanese education.
Traditionally, in Japanese secondary schools, the way of student evaluation has
been exam-oriented. However, after the reform starting in 2018, English classes inJapanese primary schools will use a “CAN-DO list”. The use of the “CAN-DO list” or its
criteria can encourage students to understand the practical usage of English andmakes it easier for teachers to identify what students cannot do or do not understandat each stage of the textbooks (Fujita 2017). With the “CAN-DO list”, teachers can findthat they have difficulties due to dyslexia and start supporting them more easily thanby taking the examinations which focus on only a student’s score. Of course, theintroduction of English education at the early stages of primary school must lead to theeffective support of dyslexia, and the “CAN-DO list” is also an effective tool to identify
an individual’s difficulty. For other learning difficulties, it might be an effective way forthe identification of a difficulty and to detect what they can do and cannot do, too.
Furthermore, team teaching can also be a clue for the implementation of inclusive

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pedagogy. In Japanese primary schools, English is not always taught by a homeroom
teacher alone, but with other teachers inside the school, ALT (Assistant Language
Teacher), specialists in the community, and sometimes parents of students, who have
English teaching skills. The success of English teaching is influenced by how toconstruct the system in whole schools (Komasa 2017). Of course, homeroom teachers
should take the initiative to make lesson plans and provide the guidelines about
lessons to other teachers (Matsuka 2017), but this systematic way of English lessons
looks similar to the ideal environment for inclusive education which MEXT suggested.
As English teachers ask people inside and outside schools, such as professionals of
universities in the community, one of the ideal methods for the construction ofinclusive environment in general classrooms is the collaboration work involving bothwhole school and its community. Therefore, in my opinion, the construction of teamteaching system for English lessons may help in the advancement towards theestablishment of an inclusive environment in primary schools. In other words, if
teachers can establish the atmosphere and environment for the team teaching, thisrelationship among teachers and with community can play a role for the collaboration
work for inclusive education. In this way, team teaching for English education inprimary schools can be a hint for the establishment of inclusive education in Japan.
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the lack of understanding about inclusive education in Japanese
education, insufficient knowledge about each difficulty and the pedagogy, inadequate
accommodation in schools, and today’s curriculum hinder the achievement of inclusive
education in Japan. In order to advance the establishment of inclusive education in
Japanese education, it is required to prepare the environment where the relationshipamong teachers and specialists in the community are built for the collaboration workfor the implement of inclusive pedagogy. Some teachers feel that such collaboration
work for inclusive education is a burden, but by using teacher training as theopportunity to know where to ask for advice, educators can work for the establishmentof inclusive education. Furthermore, the introduction of English education into
primary schools can function well for the inclusive education, especially from thepoints of relationship involving whole schools and its teaching methods. As English
education and inclusive education have the same goal to foster students who cansurvive the diverse and cohesive society, both English teachers and classroom teachers
who face pupils with SEND should work collaboratively to help pupils in classrooms.

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