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Dust : A Case Study on Contronymy
Fu Jian Liang(Kwansei Gakuin University)

1.

Introduction
Although many words are polysemous in natural language, it is common toemploy different lexical items to describe different senses, in particular those senses
which are so different that they even contradict or are opposite to each other. For
instance, the English verb remove describes an act “to take something away fromsomething,” whereas its antonym, attach describes another act “to add something tosomething,” which is opposite to “to take something away from something” in the
direction of movements. However, there are extreme examples in which one single
word is so polysemous that it can signify two different senses that are opposite to orcontradict each other. The unique linguistic phenomenon can be observed in examples(1) and (2): out in (1) means “visible” while out in (2) means “invisible.” The similar
phenomenon can be seen in examples (3) and (4) as well, off in (3) being “notoperational” and off in (4) being “operational.”(1) Stars are out tonight.
(2) The lights in that house are always out.
(Retrieved on May 22nd, 2020 from https://eow.alc.co.jp/)(3) He turned the lights off.
(4) When the window broke the alarm went off.
(Karaman, 2008, p. 173)
This research aims to explore the phenomenon as mentioned earlier, termed“contronymy” in this study, from various perspectives through a case study of the verb

dust, which is a notable example of contronymy. Following the Introduction, Part Two
provides a summary of related previous studies on contronymy up to the present withour comments. A thorough analysis of the contronym dust is conducted from adiachronic perspective in Part Three, and then from semantic and syntactic
perspectives in Part Four with a particular emphasis placed on the relationshipbetween the semantic and syntactic features of the contronym. When the opposite
senses of a contronym are used in the same syntactic construction, we propose a

Fu Jian Liang

9contextual viewpoint in Part Five in order to avoid potential misunderstanding orvagueness. Finally, the paper draws a tentative conclusion in Part Six based on theanalyses in the previous parts.
2.

Literature Review
According to Karaman (2008, p. 173), Carl Abel is presumably the first to realizethat “lexical items can be subject to opposite senses at the micro-level 1” while studying
Egyptian hieroglyphics and named it “Gegensinn.2” Since then, many scholars haveresearched “Gegensinn” in different languages from various aspects, yet there remainsome unsolved issues such as lack of a widely accepted term of the linguistic
phenomenon. Based on some of the representative studies in the field, a long list ofterms proposed for sense opposition begins with “auto-antonym” (Zhou, 2018),“contronym,” “contranym,” “antagonym,” and “antilogy” (Karaman, 2008, p. 174).
Researchers continue the list with more synonymous terms of sense contradiction,such as “amphibolous word,” “enantiodromic word,” “enantiodrome,” “enantiodronymy,”“fence-sitter,”“Janusword,”“opposonym,”“pseudo-opposite,”“self-antonym,”“self-contradicting word” (Karaman, 2008, p. 174), “pseudo-contronym,” “charactonym,”“ambivalent word” (Zhang, 2013, p. 17), “Janus-faced word” (Eijiro on the Web),“enantiosemy,” “enantionymy,” and “autoantonym” (Wikipedia). In this study, in order
to avoid possible confusion and misunderstanding, we adopt the terms “contronym” toindicate a lexical item that has at least two senses that contradict each other and“contronymy” to refer to the linguistic fact or phenomenon that a lexeme has twosenses that are opposite to each other.3
2.1 Polysemy
The English word bank can mean both “an organization that provides various
financial services” and “the side of a river.” 4 According to the Online Etymology
Dictionary, the former sense of bank was originally “from either Old Italian banca or
Middle French banque (itself from the Italian word), both meaning ‘table’” while thelatter sense originated from “a Scandinavian source such as Old Norse banki, Old
Danish banke meaning ‘sandbank.’” 5 In this study, we classify bank as homonymy
since etymologically the two senses are of different origins, and the corresponding
lexical items for these two senses happen to be the same in spelling and pronunciation.
Unlike homonyms, the multiple senses of a polysemy “share conceptually related
meanings” (Hopper & Traugott, 2003, p. 77), such as can in the following sentences (5)and (6). Can in (5), meaning “mental ability,” and can in (6), meaning “physical ability,”share a common semantic core of a person’s ability to do something. We take theposition that contronyms are not an example of homonymy, but an extreme example ofDust : A Case Study on Contronymy

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polysemy in English. A linguistic item having two or more contradictory meanings,
such as the verb dust, which can mean, “to remove dust from something” in (7) and “tocover something with powder” in (8), is called “contronym” in this research.6(5) I can read German. (mental ability)(6) I can swim a mile. (physical ability)(Hopper & Traugott, 2003, p. 77)(7) His desk was dusted clean, revealing reflections on the varnished wooden surface.
(8) Lightly dust bronzing powder on your forehead, cheeks and browbone, anywhere
the sun would hit.
(Retrieved on March 5th, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/ 7)
2.2 Reasons for the Occurrence of Contronyms
From a perspective of semantics, i.e. “the organization of meaning,” Dixon (2005,
p. 6) states that a word has a “reference to the world” and “determines its semantic
relation to other words.” No words can be isolated from the effect of their equivalent in
the physical world and their interaction with other words in the linguistic world. The
effect brings out semantic change of lexemes; consequently, it is the semantic change oflexemes that leads to polysemy and ultimately to contronymy, an extreme example ofpolysemy. Broadly speaking, “language change is one important reason for theoccurrence of contronymy in natural language” (Karaman, 2008, p. 175). Specificallyspeaking, the reasons for the occurrence of contronyms are summarized by Zhang(2013) as follows.
(9) The reasons for the occurrence of contronyms (summarized by Zhang 2013, pp.
18-19)
a. a coincidence of history
b. semantic elevation and degradationc. new meanings
d. different regions
e. different parts of speech
f. whole thinking pattern
Under the mechanisms of reanalysis and analogy (Hopper & Traugott, 2003) overtime, the reasons for the occurrence of contronyms are so complicated and diverse fromlanguage to language that it is nearly impossible to depict the whole process ofsemantic change with every detail. Thus, a case study on dust in this paper is toFu Jian Liang

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provide more details of the semantic change of a particular lexeme and supplement theholistic study on contronymy.
3.

Dust: From a Diachronic Perspective
The first known use of dust as a noun came into being before the 12th century,

meaning “fine particles of matter (as of earth)” in Merriam-Webster online, or more
specifically appeared around 825 in OED (Second Edition) with a definition as in (10)below. However, the first known use of dust as a verb came later than the noun use. In
Merriam-Webster online, dust first came to mean, “To make dusty” in 1530 and in OED
the verb use of dust first appeared around 1225. Despite a big difference in the time
between the two dictionaries, it is almost definite that the verb use of dust came into
being roughly between 1225 and 1530, later than its first noun use between 825 andthe 12th century as illustrated in Fig. 1 below.
(10) Earth or other solid matter in a minute and fine state of subdivision, so that theparticles are small and light enough to be easily raised and carried in a cloud by
the wind; any substance comminuted or pulverized; powder.
(OED, CD-ROM, Second Edition, 1989)
the first noun use

the first verb use

|

|

|

|

825

12th C

1225

1530

Fig. 1The First Noun and Verb Uses of Dust

3.1 The Origin of Dust
We posit that the lexeme dust has followed a similar path of semantic change as
those lexical items that are etymologically relevant to dust. The primary notion of dustis “vapor 8” from German Dunst, “mist, vapor” (Online Etymology Dictionary). We
claim that semantically related or synonymous words tend to evolve similarly overtime, although not entirely in the same manner. OED shows that the first use of vapor
as a verb came into being around 1412-20, which is proximately contemporary with thefirst use of vapor as a noun around 1374 9. Mist, according to OED, recorded its firstuses as a noun and as a verb both in about 1000. Without further elaboration of time
when the first uses of dust as a noun and as a verb appeared, it is difficult to determine
which word, dust, mist, or vapor, first established a semantic expansion model (11) as
follows. It is hypothesized that the change in parts of speech is one of the triggers forthe semantic expansion or change of a lexeme.

Dust : A Case Study on Contronymy

9(11) [Noun] > [Verb]
3.2 The Primary Senses of Dust
As a result of semantic expansion and change over time, the verbs mist and vapor
have more senses than ever, respectively, three senses and seven senses 10 in OED(Second Edition). A closer inspection of these senses shows their primary senses can begrouped as in (12) and (13). In (12), the primary senses of the verb mist are of Become
Type and Cover Type. In addition to Become Type and Cover Type, the primary sensesof the verb vapor further include Move Type and Remove Type as in (13). In this study,
Become Type senses illustrate change in the form of something, Cover Type senses
movement towards something, and Remove Type senses movement away fromsomething. The verb dust, of the same origin as mist and vapor, features its primarysenses in a similar way as in the following (14). Remove Type and Cover Type in (14),which contradict each other in the direction that dust or powder moves,11 are deemed
etymologically relevant to Remove Type in (13) and Cover Type in (12) respectively.
(12) The primary senses of the verb mist
a. Become Type: “To be or become misty” “appear in the form of a mist”
b. Cover Type: “To cover or obscure with or as with mist”(OED, CD-ROM, Second Edition, 1989)(13) The primary senses of the verb vapor
a. Move Type: “To rise or ascend, to be emitted or diffused, in the form of vapour”
b. Remove Type: “To pass away, to be dissipated, in the form of vapour”
c. Become Type: “To convert into vapour”
d. Cover Type: To make dim or obscure with vapour.
(OED, CD-ROM, Second Edition, 1989)(14) The primary senses of the verb dust 12
a. Move Type: “to rise as dust”
b. Remove Type: “To free from dust; to wipe or brush off the dust from.”c. Become Type: “To reduce to dust, or to small particles like dust”
d. Cover Type: To sprinkle with dust or powder.
(OED, CD-ROM, Second Edition, 1989)
4.

Dust: From Semantic and Syntactic Perspectives

4.1 Dust of Remove Type
Despite their contradictory relation in the semantics of the verb dust, the senses
of Remove Type and Cover Type coexist in the present-day English. We believe thedifferent syntactic features of the verb are critical to the correct understanding of the

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verb in semantics. Dust of Remove Type follows the syntactic pattern of “dust + noun 1+ off + noun 2” as in (15), in which noun 1 refers what is removed, i.e. dust or dirt, andnoun 2 refers to what is cleaned, i.e. the target of the act of dusting. Example (16), a
standard example of dust of Remove Type, includes both arguments of the verb dust
and other examples are variants of the pattern (15), example (17) following the patternof “dust + noun 2 13” and (18) following the patter of “dust + off + noun 2.”(15) dust + noun 1 + off + noun 2(16)

She got up slowly, dusting the specks of dirt off her pants, and walked towards
the door.

(17) Removing dead leaves and flowers as well as wiping or dusting the leaves of yourplants will keep them happy and healthy and keep your indoor garden looking
gorgeous.
(Retrieved on March 5th, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/)(18) One copilot who flew with him recalled how Burlingame would carry a set ofsmall paint brushes to dust off the instruments.

(COCA)

4.2 Dust of Cover TypeOn the other hand, the verb dust of Cover Type syntactically includes twoarguments as in the pattern of “dust noun 2 with noun 1” in (19) below, andsemantically indicates that “noun 2 is covered with noun 1” as a result of the act of
dusting. Example (20) is a standard one with both arguments, and (21) is a variant
with only one argument in the pattern of “dust + noun 2.”(19) dust + noun 2 + with + noun 1(20) Lightly dust the work surface with flour and roll the dough out into a 35 cm
square.
(21) Mix the flour with salt and pepper, and lightly dust the John Dory fillets, shaking
off the excess flour.
(Retrieved on March 5th, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/)
4.3 Another Contronym: Skin
Another contronym skin is very similar to dust in semantic opposition as theprimary senses of skin can be of Remove Type and Cover Type shown in (22). However,both types of skin behave almost the same syntactically since both of them follow theDust : A Case Study on Contronymy

99

pattern of “skin + noun.” Examples (23) to (25) below all adopt the “skin + noun”
pattern syntactically despite their semantic differences, with (23) and (24) being
Remove Type and (25) being Cover Type. How to distinguish Remove Type from Cover
Type mainly depends on their respective contexts, which is to be discussed in PartFive.
(22) The primary senses of the verb skina. Cover Type: “To furnish or cover with skin”
b. Remove Type: “To strip or deprive of the skin”(OED, CD-ROM, Second Edition, 1989)(23) He skinned the large creature and tossed the large pieces of skin and fur in a pileto the side.
(Retrieved on May 31st, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/)(24)

In addition, hunting animals provides you with valuable leather that can be
fashioned into a trendy pouch to allow you to carry more items. Again, Dennis issome teacher... skin an animal and make a bag out of it, surely that would take atleast a week to learn?

(25)(COCA)

The wound was skinned, but the strength of his thigh was not restored.14(Retrieved on May 31st, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/)5.

Dust: From a Contextual Perspective
As variants of (15) and (19) above, examples (17) and (21), being opposite to eachother in meaning, adopt the same syntactic pattern of “dust + noun 2.” The syntactic
feature does not distinguish senses of Remove Type from those of Cover Type employedin this pattern. In such cases, the context plays a crucial role in telling the difference
between Remove Type and Cover Type. In (17) “removing… as well as” and “wiping or
dusting” in the context imply that “dusting,” differing from “removing” and resembling“wiping,” is thus of Remove Type. Similarly, from the context in (21), “dust the John
Dory fillets” is an abbreviated version of “dust the John Dory fillets with flour.”
Both uses of skin in (23) and (24) fall into Remove Type semantically and aresupported by “tossed the large pieces of skin” in (23) and “make a big bag out of it” in(24). The same analysis is correct in the Cover Type use of skin in (25). In addition to
the contronyms dust and skin, we can also analyze another contronym sanction, which
adopts the same pattern of “sanction + noun” despite its meaning opposition. Readers
can eliminate the possible misunderstanding with the help of “penalties” in (26) and“punished” in (27) in their respective contexts.
(26) As a result, more and more medical societies have begun to sanction members

Fu Jian Liang100

with penalties like suspension or revocation of their society membership.
(27) They had to be punished or sanctioned, so this is the sanction that the judge cameup with.
(Retrieved on March 8th, 2020, from https://www.lexico.com/)
6.

Conclusion
The puzzle of contronymy has attracted many experts’ interests, yet some of it

remains unsolved. This paper has briefly reviewed the relevant previous studies,pointing out that contronymy is an extreme example of polysemy and is a result of thesemantic change of a lexeme in Part Two. We have explored contronymy via a casestudy of dust, with emphasis on the origin in Part Three, semantic and syntactic
features in Part Four, and contextual analysis in Part Five. The discussions indicatethat the origin of a contronym plays a significant role in clarifying the reasons for theoccurrence of contronyms. The discussions also suggest that the syntactic features of acontronym correspond to the semantic difference or opposition of the contronym, withleast possibility of miscommunication. In case the syntactic features of a contronym
mentioned earlier do not function, the possible misunderstanding of contronymy canalso be solved by the contexts.
Notes
1

In Karaman (2008, p. 189), “micro-level is the content-level of a linguistic item as
opposed to macro-level which is concerned with the relations between individual
words, such as lexical fields, associations, collocations, etc.”

2

In Karaman (2008, p. 173), “‘Gegensinn’ represents oppositeness of senses as part ofa lexeme’s polysemous character.”3

We adopt the same term “contronym” as in Karaman (2008), but limit it to a lexical
item that has two opposite senses. The relationship between two lexemes that
contradict in meaning is not discussed in this paper.

4

Refer to Oxford Learner’s Dictionary online for more details.
(https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/).

5

Refer to the Online Etymology Dictionary for further information.
(https://www.etymonline.com/)

6

In Karaman (2008, p. 175), “Contronymy is a form of polysemy that can be defined
as sense opposition at the micro-level. This occurs when a minimum of two senses ofa polysemous lexical item contradict each other.”

7

Lexico is a collaboration with Oxford Dictionary hosted by Dictionary.com offeringdefinitions, meanings, and grammar in both English and Spanish. It ischaracterized by a large number of example sentences. (https://www.lexico.com/)Dust : A Case Study on Contronymy

101

8

See Youth Progressive English-Japanese Dictionary (2004) for more information.

9

Vaporize, first appeared in 1634 or 1630s according to OED and the Online
Etymology Dictionary has a much shorter history than the verb vapor and has
become more common than the verb vapor in the present-day English.

10

The number of senses is OED-based (Second Edition, 1989).

11

Karaman (2008, pp. 178-85) outlines the types of sense opposition as follows: (1)incompatibility, (2) antonymy, (3) complementarity, (4) conversivity, and (5)reversivity. Karaman further elaborates that reversivity “involves movement in
opposite directions.” The contronym dust in this research is of reversivity type.

12

The primary senses of the verbs mist, vapor, and dust in (12), (13), and (14) are notchronologically ordered.

13

Details about the “dust + noun 2” construction are discussed in Part Five.

14

This use of the contronym skin, “cover with skin” is labeled as archaic in LEXICO.

References
Dixon, R. M. W (2005). A semantic approach to English grammar (2nd edition). Oxford:
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hopper, P. J. & Traugott, E. C. (2003). Grammaticalization (2nd edition). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Karaman, B. I. (2004). On contronymy, International Journal of Lexicography, 21(2).
173–192.
Zhang, S. (2013). A study of the treatment of contronymy in English learner’s
dictionaries. (Master’s thesis to Sichuan International Studies University)
Zhou, Y. (2018). From ‘deviate’ to ‘obedient’: A diachronic study on the semantic changeof the auto-antonym Guai in Chinese. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Linguistic

Conference at UGA, The Linguistics Society at UGA: Athens, GA. 87-96.
Data and Resources
COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English)(https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/)
Eijiro on the Web (https://www.alc.co.jp/)
LEXICO (https://www.lexico.com/)
Merriam-Webster (https://www.merriam-webster.com/)
Online Etymology Dictionary (https://www.etymonline.com/)
Oxford English Dictionary (2nd edition, 1989)
Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries online (https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/)
Youth Progressive English-Japanese Dictionary (2004)
Wikipedia (https://www.wikipedia.org/)