63

研究ノート

Exploring the Goals of EMI Programs in Japanese Universities:
An investigation on websites
AZEGAMI, Erika(Waseda University)

1. Introduction
The present paper aims to explore what the English-Medium Instruction (hereafterEMI) programs’ goals are in the Japanese context. The internationalization of higher
education has been common in many countries due to the advent of globalization. As
part of their internationalization effort, universities around the world are introducing
EMI programs. Japan is no exception to this trend, and the number of universities
implementing such programs is increasing. (MEXT, 2020)
The motivation of implementing EMI programs is contextual (Macaro et al., 2018)
and its purposes and goals are elusive and vary within each country and university.
Within the Japanese context, there are two main purposes for implementing EMI
programs/courses in today's globalized era. 1) To develop well-skilled human resources
such as "global human resource" ("gurōbaru jinzai") who have language (namely
English) competence to drive the national economy, and 2) to attract people fromoverseas (Brown, 2016; Morizumi, 2015). Yet, there is no universally acceptedinterpretation of EMI programs in Japan as well (Brown, 2018; Chapple, 2014; Toh,
2016)
Then, what are EMI programs in Japan? What are its goals, and what role are they
expected to play in the present Japanese society? Is it an elite education, an institutefor training proficient English speakers, or developing global citizens/leaders? By
investigating the goals stated in the websites of the EMI programs, this paper will
explore what EMI programs are in Japan.
The following section introduces literature on the definitions of EMI programs andoverviews the history of EMI education in Japan. The method and findings from theweb pages are shown in the third and fourth sections. The next section discusses therole of EMI programs, and the implication will be demonstrated in the final section.
2. Definitions and history of EMI in Japan
2.1 Definitions
As mentioned earlier, the understanding of EMI is not universal, and the term EMI
is not consistently defined. The use of English for teaching content subjects has been a

AZEGAMI, Erika

64

global trend and has been labeled in various ways; EMI, ICLHE, CLIL, CBI, EME(EMEMUS). The present paper will refer to the term EMI and see how it has beendeveloped in the Japanese context.
The two prominent definitions of EMI have been described as follows.
The use of the English language to teach academic subjects in countries orjurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not
English.
(Dearden, 2014, p.4)
(T)he use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English
itself) in countries or jurisdictions where the first language of the majority of the
population is not English(Macaro, 2018, p.35)
The two definitions describe English being used for a purpose other than teaching thelanguage itself and being implemented at places other than the Inner Circle. In
addition, the two definitions deliberately do not mention the goal of EMI, whereas, forexample, CLIL aims to improve both language and contents (Dearden, 2015; Macaro,2018).
Based on these definitions, Bradford & Brown (2017) have added the last sentence toindicate the explicit or implicit aim of EMI in Japan, such as to equip students withskills needed in the international environment, including English proficiency.
EMI entails the use of the English language to teach academic subjects in countries
or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not
English. It may or may not include the implicit aim of increasing students’ English
language abilities.”(Bradford & Brown , 2017, p.330)
On the other hand, the following definition states more in detail the actual condition of
the EMI and motivations for being introduced in the Expanding Circle (including
Japan).
English medium instruction (is) conducted in the context, where English is used asa lingua franca for content-learning/teaching among students and lecturers fromdifferent linguacultural back-grounds albeit not exclusively so. … EMI is used

Exploring the Goals of EMI Programs in Japanese Universities:
An investigation on websites

65

widely in so called 'EFL' countries in a traditional term, where it is primarily
introduced to attract international students as well as home students who want tohave more exposure to globally used English as a lingua franca while residing intheir own home countries.
(Murata & Iino, 2018, p.404)
In fact, Brown’s (2015) nationwide survey shows that attracting international students
and domestic students is one of the key motivations for universities to introduce EMI
programs and prepare domestic students for post-graduation workplace needs. Also,
the Nikkei newspaper (Head office survey, 2019) reports that universities keen tointernationalize their campus and conduct courses in English see improvement of local
students' English proficiency as the most crucial task. The equipment of domestic
students and the attraction of international students could be understood as part of an
attempt to tackle the issues that Japanese society is currently facing. For instance, thedevelopment of a "global human resource” has been set up to respond to the request ofdeveloping students with global competitiveness from Japanese industries. On theother hand, attracting people from overseas is to compensate for the falling enrollment
numbers of local students through demographic change and to enhance theuniversity's competitiveness as a research institution for improving the university
world rankings (Hino, 2017,2019; Iino, 2019; Ishikawa, 2009; Takagi, 2016).
In this way, the interpretations of EMI are diverse, and the motivation for
implementing such programs is wide-ranging. Nevertheless, the definitions above
indicate that the EMI program is a place where English is being used for educational
purposes among people with different backgrounds. However, when we look back at
the EMI programs in the past, the purpose and motivation of implementing EMI
education were relatively determinate.
2.2 Overview of the history of EMI in Japan (from Meiji era to 21st century)
According to Brown (2018), the boom of EMI education in Japan could be divided
into four periods: Meiji, Post-war, 1980s~90s, and 21st century. By following his
division, the present paper briefly overviews the history of EMI education.
The Meiji period was the time for modernization and the westernization ofJapanese society. Foreign language education and foreign language medium
instruction were implemented to catch up with the educational practices of the West.
Students were sent overseas, and foreigners as specialists were invited as Oyatoi(Imura, 2003; Umetani, 2007). It was during this time that the first EMI program in
higher education was implemented in Kaisei School (the current Tokyo University) inAZEGAMI, Erika

66

1873 (Brown, 2018; Erikawa, 2018; Fujimoto-Adamson, 2006; Imura, 2003). Since
there were almost no resources (teachers and teaching materials) for teaching the
subjects in Japanese, all subjects were taught in English by the invited foreigners. The
goal of the EMI program focused on content learning that it aimed for domestic
students to acquire knowledge and technologies from the West. However, the return ofstudents from study abroad and the translation of textbooks had made EMI being
replacedtoJapanese-Medium

Instruction

(JMI)

in

1883

(Erikawa,

2018;

Fujimoto-Adamson, 2006; Imura, 2003; Okuno, 2007). Thus, because the content could
only be learned in English, EMI had been implemented in the Meiji period.
The next prominent movement regarding EMI education could be witnessed in the
post-war period (1945~1970s). EMI programs had been introduced as a receptacle forforeign residents and international students. For example, the international division(the current Faculty of Liberal Arts) of Sophia University (in 1949) and International
Christian University (in 1953) were founded for the needs of the western expatriate
community (Brown, 2018). Both EMI programs were again focused on content learningwhich aimed for children of expatriates to study at universities in English. Along with
this, short-term EMI programs in private universities had begun to accept
international students from partner universities (Horie, 2002). The short-term EMI
programs were content-driven, and they aimed for international students to study
Japan-related subjects (ibid.).
EMI education in the 1980s~90s was introduced for seeking internationalization of
the universities. The reform of the Kyōin Law (in 1982) and the Standards for
Establishment of Universities (Daigaku Secchi Kijun) (in 1990) had helped to expand
EMI programs slightly (Amano, 2014; Mulvey, 2018). In particular, EMI graduate
schools had been increased in this period. As an attempt to internationalize education,
the graduate schools were mainly designed for international students and returnees
who seek to earn a degree (Brown, 2018; Mulvey, 2018). There was also an attempt to
introduce EMI programs targeting domestic students, though it failed due to thedisapproval from the Japanese faculties concerning nationalistic and pragmatic issues(ibid.). In addition, although it only had a limited range of courses and in a small size,the ‘International Student 100,000 Plan’ in 1997 had fostered the establishment ofEMI education (ibid.). Similar to the previous period, the EMI education wascontent-driven, and the targets were mainly international undergraduate exchange
students or students who were familiar with taking courses in English.
From the 21st century, the EMI programs have expanded rapidly. Programs in bothundergraduate and graduate schools targeting domestic students have increased.
Variouspoliciesandprojects

regardingforeignlanguageeducationandinternationalization of the education have helped the expansion (e.g., Action Plan toExploring the Goals of EMI Programs in Japanese Universities:
An investigation on websites

67

Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities in 2003, Global 30 Project in 2008, The
Project for Promotion of Global Human Resource Development in 2012 [later became
as Go Global Japan], and Top Global University Japan in 2014 (Brown, 2018; Burgess
et al., 2010; Butler and Iino, 2005; Hashimoto, 2018; MEXT, 2003; 2017; Mulvey, 2018).
Thanks to these policies and subsidy projects, the number of universities
implementing EMI at the undergraduate level has reached 305, which indicates that
almost half of the universities (41.0%) are conducting classes in EMI. Also, the numberof universities granting a B.A. in EMI has increased from 38 in 2016 to 42 in 2018
(MEXT, 2020).
As the EMI programs have expanded in Japan and are being opened to students fromvarious backgrounds, the objectives of the EMI program have now become elusive, as
mentioned earlier.
Then, what could be achieved in EMI programs in current Japan? What are thegoals of EMI programs being described by universities themselves? The present paper
has tried to grasp the trends of program goals among EMI programs in Japanese
universities by investigating the websites.
3. The website investigation of the EMI programs
The website investigation explored what goals are described and how they aredescribed on the websites. The websites were investigated because it is the face of theuniversity, which is a place where ideologies and thoughts are symbolized andrepresented. The subjects of the website investigation were web pages of EMI
programs, which allow students to earn a degree by providing almost all courses inEnglish, which Shimauchi (2016) defines as “English-medium Degree Program(EMDP)”. Furthermore, the investigation focused on programs that are open to both
domestic students and international students. According to the MEXT’s research,
there are 65 EMDPs (38 universities) as of 2016 (MEXT, 2019). However, information
about EMI programs could not be found from some of the listed universities' websites.
As a result, 47 faculties (24 universities) have been investigated.
Pages that explain or indicate learning outcomes/goals and appealing points havebeen investigated. In particular, pages of mission statements, diploma/curriculum
policies, and pages for prospective students have been browsed. Pages in Japanese
have been mainly browsed, but when the information could not be found, pages inEnglish have been browsed as well.
Pauwel’s framework was used in the present study. This framework is a multimodal
framework that analyses websites as social and cultural data sources. Among the six
phases that he stated for examining websites, phase 3, "In-depth Analysis of Content

AZEGAMI, Erika

68

and Formal Choices" (Pauwels, 2012, p. 253), has been used. This phase is used toanalyze what is said on the websites by looking at forms and contents (ibid.). Thus, thepresent study focused on analyzing statements, opinions, and descriptions related to
the goals of EMI programs.
Content analysis has been used to examine the descriptions. Common keywords andthemes have been identified by thematic coding.
4. Goals of the EMI programs in Japan
By browsing and analyzing the pages mentioned above, the descriptions of goals arebriefly clustered into three types as follows.
・Skill・Motivation
・Certificate

4.1 Skill
Skill includes things that students are required or expected to acquire throughstudying at the EMI program. For example, critical thinking, foreign language
competence, communication skills, interdisciplinary knowledge, deep knowledge
particular to each major, and problem-solving skills were commonly demonstrated as
major goals. All of the programs have shown some skills as one of the goals thatstudents could acquire by studying at their EMI program. （words and phrases areunderlined by the author.）「英語および日本語に関する統合的な教育を通して、思考力、コミュニケーション能力、
プレゼンテーション能力など、国際社会で活躍できるレベルの高度な言語能力を修得する。
」(Uni_16)“Through integrated education in English and Japanese, students will acquire
advanced language skills, such as the ability to think, communicate, and makepresentations, that will enable them to play an active role in international society.”(Uni_16) (translated by the author)「世界の広範な事象に関する幅広い知識と深い理解、物事の本質を見抜く洞察力や思考力、
これらの上に築かれたグローバルな視野とともに、英語をはじめとする外国語の卓越したコミュニケーション能力を涵養します。
」(Uni_12-1)“(It) cultivates an extensive knowledge and deep understanding of a wide range ofworld events, and the ability to gain an insight into the essence. In addition, global

Exploring the Goals of EMI Programs in Japanese Universities:
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69

perspectives and excellent communication skills in English and other foreign
languages are developed.” (Uni_12-1) (translated by the author)
4.2 Motivation
Motivation includes descriptions that indicate behavior, orientation, and awarenessthat the program requires students to obtain. Below are the extracts from the web
pages. (words and phrases are underlined by the author.)“Students are provided a world-class educational and research environment to study
mechanics engineering and foster the international awareness.” (Uni_1_2)「卒業生は、心身ともに健康であり、豊かな人間性を持つ。卒業生は、豊かな創造性と健全な倫理観を備えている。卒業生は、主体的・継続的に学習する能力を持つ。卒業生
は、異なった価値観や伝統や制度を持った異文化に関して深い認識を持つ。
」(Uni_6)“Graduates are healthy in body and mind and possess rich humanity. Graduates
possess a rich sense of creativity and sound ethics. Graduates have the ability tolearn independently and continuously. Graduates have a deep awareness ofdifferent cultures with different values, traditions, and systems.” (Uni_6)(translated by the author)
In many cases, these elements were mentioned in connection to the necessity oftackling global issues and challenges that people are currently facing (e.g.,international relations issues and environmental issues). In addition, along with theskills, motivations were demonstrated with the lines explaining how the program aims
to prepare an outstanding student (i.e., Global Human Recourse, Global Leader, Global
Researcher/Engineer), which would also be mentioned later.
4.3 Certificate
Certificate, as evident, includes English test scores such as TOEIC, TOEFL, andEiken. For example, Uni_24 explicated the target score of TOEIC 900 above, TOEFL
iBT100 above, Eiken level 1 as the goal for students to achieve by the end of the final
semester. On the other hand, Uni_23-1 provides a certificate for the completion of its
business course, which has been approved by the international business management
organization.
Some common features could be found from the above three clusters, such as (1)Foreign language competence, (2) Diversity, (3) Global Citizen/Global human resource,(4) World Society, International organization, Multinational business.

AZEGAMI, Erika

70

4.4 Foreign language competence
Among the four features, descriptions of foreign languages were most commonly
found in the web pages (n=28 faculties, 59.5%). This also overlaps with the findings
from Toh’s (2016) study that “Language skills development” was emphasized among
the seven universities he researched, where different components of English language
teaching and support were provided for preparing students to take lectures taught inEnglish. For the present website investigation, foreign languages were mentioned
together with keywords such as work (shigoto), business, advanced (kōdo na), and theworld (sekai). The connections of foreign languages and these keywords bring back oneof the goals stated in the Action Plan published in 2003, such as being able to use
English at work by the time of graduating from university.
「「英語で仕事ができる」人材を育成(する)。英語による「話す、聞く、書く、読む」コミュ
ニケーション能力を磨き、英語で情報を正確に得て、自分の考えを表現できる能力の育成を目指します。
」(Uni_16)"To develop human resources who can use English in their work. The program aims todevelop communication skills (speaking, listening, writing, and reading) in English
and to cultivate the ability to obtain information accurately and express one's
thoughts in English.” (Uni_16) (translated by the author)“Internationally Minded Students Acquire Global Skill and English Ability to Become
Versatile Business Leaders” (Uni_15)
4.5 Diversity
Feature related to diversity (n=21, 44.6%) was describing the diversified
environment that the universities offer. Most of the time, "diversification" wasmentioned for appealing the programs for prospective students who are seeking tostudy in an international environment. It reflects the universities' attempt todifferentiate their program from others.
“Diversity in the [EMI program] student body, comprised of over fifty nationalities,
including students educated at Japanese and international high schools in Japan,
as well as both degree students and exchange students from abroad, provides anideal environment for achieving the [program’s] educational mission.” (Uni_12-1)“Faculty diversity also contributes to the dynamic and exciting academic environmentof [the EMI program]” (Uni_19-1)

Exploring the Goals of EMI Programs in Japanese Universities:
An investigation on websites

4.6 Global

Citizen/Global

human

resource

and

World

Society,

71

Internationalorganization, Multinational business
The other two features, "Global citizen/Global human resource" (n=27, 57.4%) and"World Society, International organization, Multinational business" (n=23, 48.9%), arehighly connected to the foreign language. As a preferable career, working at
international organizations and multinational companies is mentioned, and students
are expected to work as either a global leader, global citizen, or global human resourceby making excellent use of acquired skills.
“Ultimately, [the EMI program] seeks to raise a generation of global citizens with astrong desire, profound ethical sensibility, and robust international competitivenessneeded to take on today’s worldwide challenges” (Uni_19-5)“In providing students with the breadth and depth of knowledge they will need to help
engage with the many and varied problems facing humanity at the local, regionaland global levels, we strive to ensure that each can become a valuable member ofthe global community.” (Uni_14-4)「高い外国語能力、卓越した専門的知見、異文化への繊細な感受性を身につけ、国際機関
や多国籍企業などで活躍できるグローバル社会の担い手の育成を行っています。」(Uni_12-1)“The program develops leaders of a global society who can play an active role ininternational organizations and multinational corporations by acquiring a highlevel of foreign language skills, outstanding expertise, and sensitivity to different
cultures.” (Uni_12-1) (translated by the author)“[The program is] successful for preparing students to international organizations,multinational companies.” (Uni_24)
5. Role of the EMI programs in JapanThe four features above show that EMI programs expect graduates to buck up theirmarket value by acquiring the required skill, motivation, and certificates to survive
the competitive labor market and actively engage in building mutual relationships
with people from diverse backgrounds.
There were various objectives and goals stated among universities by investigating
the websites. Based on the findings, the programs were content-driven as well as
language-driven, that the expectation in language improvement along with content
acquisition could be observed. This fact represents what Macaro et al. (2018) pointed

AZEGAMI, Erika

72

out that interpretation of EMI and its motivations and goals are elusive. Furthermore,
the elusiveness could be said as the continuum of content learning and language
proficiency (Richards & Pun, 2021). Depending on each universities’ motivations andgoals, the assessments in EMI programs could be based on English acquisition, content
learning, or both.
When we look back at the history and compare it with the current EMI education,although EMI education has always been a place where English has been used for
educational purposes, its goals and motivations for implementing such education havebecome more intertwined, as mentioned in the previous paragraph. As an example, bylooking back at the Meiji period, the goal was to make students learn content rather
than improve language proficiency. On the other hand, the current EMI programs
seem to cram too many objectives and goals into it.
As language education has been placed as one of the crucial national policies andplanning (Morizumi, 2015), EMI programs are being considered as a solution forvarious issues (e.g., declining competitiveness of the Japanese economy in the global
economy, declining of birthrate, lack of labor force). In other words, the role of EMI
programs could be considered as cure-all medicine to solve the issues that Japan isfacing. However, it is doubtful that EMI programs really have such an effect. As more
universities are implementing EMI programs/courses, it is important to consider themeaning of conducting EMI education in Japan.
6. Implication
The illustrious description on the web pages, to some extent, implicates how EMI
programs have been seen by the government. As Le Ha (2013) points out, theimplementation of EMI programs is widely believed to automatically internationalize
the campus environment, attract international students, and give local students
international experiences. In fact, these features have been commonly found on web
pages. It seems that the importance of conducting an EMI program is in the fact that it
is conducted in English and not so much in how practitioners (i.e., students) learn andovercome the difficulties at the program.
What Le Ha (2013) mentioned, to a certain extent, shows the implication of EMI
programs are done without sufficient consideration of acquisition planning such as
diploma policy, curriculum policy, and admission policy, which has brought EMI to bequestioned for its educational quality and outcome (Hamid et al. 2013; Toh, 2016). As
EMI programs are still in an incipient phase and the quality of its programs are still on
the way of progress in Japan (Aizawa & Rose, 2018; Brown, 2015; Toh, 2016), how andwhat have students learned and achieved under the EMI programs are needed to beinvestigated. Thus, the details of students' trajectory in EMI programs andExploring the Goals of EMI Programs in Japanese Universities:
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73

contributing factors to completing the programs are deemed required. For further
investigation, in order to contribute to further development of EMI programs, theempirical studies on what and how students learn and achieve in the EMI programs,
particularly in the EMDPs, by conducting longitudinal research would be preferable
for the next step.
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