無形文化遺産におけるジェンダーに基づく役割分担のダイナミクス －日本の山・鉾・屋台行事を事例として
The Dynamics of Gender Roles in Intangible Cultural Heritage:
A Case study of Japanese Yama Hoko Yatai Float Festivals

ヤンセ・ヘルガ
JANSE Helga
1．Introduction

scope of the study is limited to these 36 festivals andGender and intangible cultural heritage are linked.

these are approached both in-depth as well as on a

Gender roles often play a part in traditional practices,collective level in order to attain a multifaceted picture ofwhile traditional practices affect gender codes andthe gender situation within the festivals.

expectations. Both gender and intangible cultural heritage

The interaction between gender and ICH is(ICH) are dynamic constructs, constantly being created,

approached by using a combination of methods: a survey

reiterated and renegotiated, and they are both factors inamong the preservation associations connected to thethe construction of the other. This research examines thefestivals, interviews with a selection of preservation

dynamics of gender roles in ICH through case studies of a

associations following the survey, and analysis of thespecific type of festival – the Yama Hoko Yatai float

official descriptions of the festivals within the national

festivals – found in various regions throughout Japan.

and international safeguarding systems. The survey and

These festivals are an interesting arena to study thethe interviews are used to examine the on-site situation, as

dynamics between intangible cultural heritage and gender

perceived by the local stakeholders and practitioners,

since while the festivals are and have traditionally been

while the analysis of the official descriptions of themale events, some festivals have seen changes to allow

festivals is used to examine how gender is handled andfor female participation in roles that were earlier only

described in the safeguarding systems.

available to men.
(1) Research design and methodologyAsurveywasconducted

among

the

preservation associations connected to the 36 festivals.

Chapter 1 starts with an introduction of the research topic

The purpose of the survey was to map the current genderand outlines the research design of the study. In thissituation in the respective festivals. The questionnairechapter, the author outlines the theoretical framework andwhich was sent out inquired about the preservation

methodology and briefly introduces the festivals that areassociations’ membership structure, gender roles andthe focal point of the study – the Yama Hoko Yatai float

restrictions in the festivals, as well as changes that havefestivals.

occurred in these roles and restrictions. The results of the
The Yama Hoko Yatai float festivals are major

survey raised further questions concerning the details of

local events, and while there are differences between thethe changes and of how they had happened and of theindividual festivals, all of them center around a

local circumstances.

procession of large floats. The festivals are traditionally

In order to examine the situation in depth,organized and managed by the local residents of theinterviews were conducted with a number of selectedconcerned float neighbourhoods. Nowadays, the festival

preservation associations. Upon analysis of the results ofcommunities also have an official organizational structure

the survey described above, a number of festivals wherein the form of preservation associations (hozonkai). On achanges in the gender rules had occurred were selected,

national level, the National Association for theand the respective preservation associations were

Preservation of Float Festivals represents the preservation

contacted for interviews. Interviews were conducted withassociations of 36 Yama Hoko Yatai float festivals. Thea total of seven preservation associations. The aim of the

学位論文梗概集 2019

interviews was to grasp the circumstances of the ‘genderincluding the 2003 convention. As such, the goals of thesituation’ within the individual festivals. The interview

study are to map the current gender roles and changes thatquestions were mainly focused on the details of thehas occurred in them, identify factors/triggers of change,

different gender roles and gender rules, the changes thatexamine whether the occurred changes have affected thehad occurred in these roles and rules – what had changed,

sense of value and/or meaning of the festival, andwhy it had changed, and how it happened – and on

examine whether the occurred changes have been

whether the changes had become naturalized and whether

naturalized or not.

the changes had affected the perceived value or meaningof the festival.

Drawing from the resulting information andconclusions from these investigations, the study addresses

It is also relevant to understand the wider

and discusses a number of overarching questions

context. To that end, the official descriptions of theconcerning the underlying mechanisms of the changes

festivals within the contexts of the relevant national as

and of the gender roles being upheld. In the festivals

well as international safeguarding systems were also

where the gender roles/restrictions have changed – isanalyzed. The Yama Hoko Yatai float festivals are

there a pattern to how they have changed? What dorecognized in two heritage safeguarding systems – thegender roles mean for the continuation of the practice?

national legislative system and UNESCO’s 2003

Why have some festivals changed and not others? These

Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible

questions are addressed in the discussions in the final

Cultural Heritage. The 36 festivals examined in the study

Chapter.

are all protected by Japanese heritage legislation as‘Important Intangible Folk Cultural Properties’. 33 of

2．Backgroundthese 36 festivals are also inscribed on UNESCO’s

Chapter 2 introduces the Yama Hoko Yatai festivals more

Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ofthoroughly and paints a background of the festivals. The

Humanity pertaining to the 2003 Convention. This means

origin of the festivals – stemming from the goryō-ethat, as part of those designation and inscription processes,(service to appease restless spirits) events held in Kyoto –the festivals have been handled and described within

as well as the basics of the festivals – the procession of

those respective contexts. The official descriptions of thelarge floats – and their various roles are outlined. Part 2 offestivals within these two systems were analyzed in order

Chapter 2 examines related research on gender within

to examine how gender is approached in the descriptions

Japanese festivals. Especially noteworthy is Wakita’sof the festivals within those respective contexts.

research(2) Aim and goals

indicating

that

women

were

probably

participating in the Kyoto Gion festival – and riding on

Within the cultural heritage field, gender is often treated

top of the floats – in the early days (Wakita, Haruko: Chūsei

as a ‘niche topic’ (Wilson, Ross J.: The tyranny of the normal andKyōto to Gion Matsuri: Ekijin to Toshi no Seikatsu, Yoshikawa

the importance of being liminal, in Gender and Heritage: Performance,

Kobunkan. 2016), and Brumann’s study on Kyoto containing

Place and Politics, edited by Wera Grahn and Ross J. Wilson, 3-14,

an interesting description of the discussions surrounding

Routledge, p.3, 2018). Nevertheless, gender is an importantthe participation of female musicians (Brumann, Christoph:

factor to acknowledge in the critical examination of

Tradition, Democracy and the Townscape of Kyoto: Claiming a Right toheritage. As Smith (2008) has argued, heritage is

the Past, Routledge, 2012).

gendered (Smith, Laurajane: Heritage, gender and identity, in The

relating to the social significance of festival participation

Ashgate Research Companion to Heritage and Identity, edited by Brianand touches upon the topic of nyonin kinsei (customary

Graham and Peter Howard, 159-178, Ashgate, 2008.).

female exclusion) and the idea of female impurity andRegarding the aim of the study, the researchPart 2 also examines studies

blood pollution.

sets out to provide valuable information and knowledge

Chapter 3 outlines the wider scholarly debate

about the interaction between gender and ICH which willon gender within the field of ICH. A particular focus is

be useful for state parties and other stakeholders whenplaced on the handling of and the discussions concerning

revising policy, legislation and other instruments,

gender within the framework of the 2003 convention. The
Summaries of Academic Theses 2019

author points to how the topic of gender has been

UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural

receiving increased attention in recent years. However,

Heritage of Humanity. The results of this analysis showed

the contentious question of how to handle gender equality

a noticeable difference in visibility between women andand how to handle potentially discriminatory practices

men among the inscribed elements.

has yet to be solved. The author outlines a timeline for thechanges pertaining to gender that have occurred within
the framework of the convention and raises examples of
discussions that have taken place.
Part 2 of Chapter 3 outlines the gender equality

4．Survey and interviews(1) Survey with the preservation associations
Chapter 6 presents a survey conducted by the author
among the preservation associations connected to the 36

legislation in Japan and touches upon policy changes thatfestivals.

The

surveywasconducted

duringwere introduced in the 1990s. Part 2 also touches upon

autumn-winter 2018 and the response rate was 64%. Theinternational reports addressing the current situation

results of the survey revealed existing gender structures inconcerning gender equality in Japan.

the festivals, and some common patterns could be
identified. The results also showed that changes in the

3．Analysis of official descriptions(1) National safeguarding systemgender roles and gender restrictions have occurred inaround half of the festivals (from where a reply was

Chapter 4 presents an analysis of the festivals’ official

received), and that the most-cited trigger of change was adescriptions in the context of the national ICH

shortage of available participants. Gender awareness insafeguarding system, i.e. the national heritage legislation.

some form was also mentioned as a contributing reason in

The author examines whether and how gender was

three cases (it may also be noted all three festivals

addressed in the official descriptions of the festivals. The

underwent the changes in gender restrictions around theresults of the analysis show that gender roles weresame time).

generally not a clearly described aspect. Roughly half ofRegarding what roles were/had been madethe descriptions contained no mentions of gender. In

available to women, the results showed that women’s

approximately one third of the descriptions, gender wasparticipation was generally limited to the roles of hikite

indicated by the choice of words. In around one fourth of(the role of pulling the ropes of the float), hayashi

the descriptions, gender was clearly mentioned. Two of(musician) and dancer. At the same time, several of thethese descriptions (both designated in 1997) mentioned

replies reported that women were participating in roles

gender restrictions – both of them mentioning that women‘behind-the-scenes’ (urakata). Regarding the membership

had earlier been prohibited from participating, but thatstructure of the preservation associations, the results

women are now participating in large numbers.

showed that the organizations are generally male(2) International safeguarding systemdominated, and more than half of the preservation

Chapter 5 examines the festivals’ official description inassociations reported all-male membership tallies. Whilethe context of the international ICH safeguarding system,

there are significant differences between the different

i.e. the 2003 convention. In this context, there are three

festivals in gender structure and approach, the overall

relevant inscriptions – the two formerly individually

results show that the festivals are mainly male arenas, andinscribed elements ‘Yamahoko, the Float Ceremony ofthat women’s participation is generally conditioned andthe Kyoto Gion Festival’ and ‘Hitachi Furyumono’, asauxiliary.

well as the currently inscribed group element ‘Yama(2)

Interviews with a selection of preservation

Hoko Yatai, float festivals in Japan’, in which the two

associations

former are now included. The analysis found a difference

Chapter 7 presents the results of the interviews the author

in approach towards the topic of gender among these

conducted with representatives of seven different festivals

three cases. Also, in order to offer context to thefollowing the survey. The selection of festivals was based

inscription of the float festivals, Chapter 5 also presented

on the results of the survey, and only preservationan analysis of all elements inscribed by Japan on

associations that had reported a change in the gender roles

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or restrictions were considered for selection. The

5．Summary results and conclusions

interviews provided in-depth information about the

Chapter 8 summarizes the results obtained through the‘gender situation’ among the preservation associations

various investigations presented in the previous chaptersand their festivals – about existing gender roles andand discusses conclusions drawn from the overarching

restrictions, the rationale behind the restrictions, theresults. The chapter is divided into different sections. Thechanges that had occurred, why and how they had

first sections address the main themes of the study – theoccurred, attitudes towards female participation in thegender roles and restrictions of the festivals, the changes

festival communities, whether the restrictions were beingthat have occurred in these, and the handling andchallenged, whether the inscription on UNESCO’s

description of gender within the two safeguarding

Representative List had affected the practice, predictions

systems. As outlined in the introduction, the goals of theabout changes that might occur in the future, and more.

study are to map the current gender roles and changes thatSee findings in the individual case studies. Through thehave occurred in them, identify factors/triggers of change,interviews, it was possible to get a good picture of theidentify the direction of change, examine whether thegender conditions of the examined festivals. As such, theoccurred changes have been naturalized, and examineinterviews also served to deepen the understanding of thewhether the occurred changes have affected the sense of

survey results.

value and/or meaning of the festival.

To mention some of the main results, theBased on the results of the study, the latterinterviews showed that there seems to be a limit to thesections discuss some overarching questions concerning(front stage) roles that women are allowed to participate

the underlying mechanisms of the changes and of thein, and women’s participation is typically restricted to thegender roles being upheld. In the festivals where theroles of hikite, hayashi, and dancer. By contrast, the role

gender roles/restrictions have changed – is there a patternof festival officer appeared to be a male domain. The

to how they have changed? What do gender roles meanauthor notes how female participation, where allowed, isfor the continuation of the practice? Why have someconditioned. Regarding the limitations, the author notes

festivals changed and not others? The author discusses thehow one limit seems to concern the proximity to the floats,

festivals as ’miniature societies’ where societal norms,

and another limit seems to concern age. Concerning whatvalues and structures in the greater society can be seen

triggered the change to allow female participation, areflected, as well as being reacted to, reshaped andshortage of people stands out as the most frequently citedreiterated. The author also discussed the question of how

reason, while another trigger of change seems to haveto address the topic of gender within the safeguarding

been a consciousness about gender equality.

systems.

Aside from providing information concerning(1)

Summary results concerning the main

the pre-determined research questions, the interviews also

research themes

offered additional information, and it was possible toBased on the results of the study, a clear pattern could be

identify some interesting and recurring themes, offering

identified concerning what roles were allowed for womeninsights into the underlying societal structure and theparticipants. There were mainly three (front stage) roles

rationale behind the gender-based restrictions. It alsoavailable to women: hikite (the role of pulling the ropes ofbecame clear that it is common that women are active inthe float), hayashi (musician), and dancer. In terms ofroles ‘behind the scenes’, such as preparing food, taking

gender-neutral roles, it seems that hikite and hayashi arecare of guests and relatives coming to visit for the festival,

the roles most likely to be performed by both women andserving tea, producing equipment etc. It also became clear

men. Other roles, including festival officer and ‘person inthat it is not uncommon with women participating in the

charge’, appeared to be male domains.

festivals in secret or unofficially in roles only available toConcerningthereasonforprohibiting

men, either before the role was opened up to women or inwomen/girls from participation, several factors could beroles that are still closed for women.

identified, such as religion, physical strength, the ‘burdenof responsibility’, and concerns regarding problems that
Summaries of Academic Theses 2019

might occur if mixing women and men.

whole

of

the

concerned

community

participates

In the results of the survey conducted among(Nomination file for ‘Yama, Hoko, Yatai, float festivals in Japan’ forthe festival preservation associations, approximately half

inscription on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Culturalof the received replies reported that changes had occurred

Heritage of Humanity, 2016).

in the gender roles or gender restrictions. Concerning

description, given the different stances towards female

what triggered the change to allow female participation, aparticipation displayed by the various festivals, does not

shortage of people stands out as the most frequently citedconvey the complexity of the situation.

The author notes how thatreason in both the survey as well as the interviews. The

Furthermore, by combining the results frommost cited cause of the of the shortage of people was

the different chapters, the author could discern thatshōshikōreika, a term referring to declining birth-rates

several instances of gender awareness coincide in time

combined with an ageing population. Another trigger ofwith a period of advances in gender equality in Japanesechange seems to have been a consciousness about gendersociety.
(2) Discussions and conclusions

equality.
Concerning the direction of change, according

Concerning why some festivals have changed while

to the results of the survey among the preservation

others have not, the author suggests and discusses a

associations, the most common direction of change was

hypothesis involving population density as a factor. In thistowards increased inclusion, i.e. allowing women andhypothesis, festivals in more urban areas are less prone togirls to participate more. Regarding whether the occurred

lift the gender restrictions than festivals in more ruralchanges have become naturalized or not, the results of theareas, due to the impact of shōshikōreika being easier tointerviews show that naturalization has happened in more

mitigate in urban areas by means of inviting people fromthan half of the examined festivals.

outside of the core neighborhoods to participate. The

In the interviews, the informants were asked

author further discussed how, in this hypothesis, there iswhether the change in gender restrictions had affected thean implied order of priority to different types of changes,

perceived value or meaning of the festivals, such as forwhere allowing boys and men from the ‘outside’ toexample the religious meaning weakening, or the sense ofparticipate is implicitly more easily acceptable thancommunity strengthening. From what could be gatheredallowing local women and girls to participate.

from the interviews, there were no accounts of that byConcerning what gender roles mean for theallowing female participation, the value of the festivals

continuation of the practice, the author concludes that,

had lessened. Contrarily, positive effects were mentioned

based on the results of the study, having genderin several interviews.

restrictions is not a crucial factor for the continuation ofConcerning the gender approach within thethe practice. In the interviews with the preservation

two safeguarding systems, the results of the analysis show

associations, there were no accounts of that by allowingthat in general, gender roles are not described as part offemale participation, the value of the festivals had

the cultural property within the national context of thelessened. There were however mentions of positive

designation information, at least not clearly, and roughly

effects in several interviews. The author discusses how

half on the descriptions contained no mentions of gender.

this would suggest that male-exclusive participation was

In the handling of the festivals within the context of the

not a crucial feature of these particular festivals.

2003 convention, a variety of gender approaches can be

Concerning the festivals where changes havediscerned. It may also be noted that the description of theoccurred in the gender restrictions, the author discusses agroup element ‘Yama Hoko Yatai, float festivals in Japan’detected pattern in the changes, namely that there seems

in the nomination file for inscription on UNESCO’s

to be a limit to the roles made available to women. While

Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ofwomen are increasingly being allowed to participate as

Humanity contains only general mentions of gender.

hikite and hayashi, the top positions have remained a

There are no mentions of gender restrictions and overall,male domain. Based on the results of the interviews, thethe description conveys an inclusive image where theauthor discusses frequently cited rationale for the

学位論文梗概集 2019

gender-based restrictions in participation. The author
concludes that while changes are happening in the
direction of increased female inclusion, the underlying
societal structure has remained intact. Women are being
allowed to participate to some extent, but not (yet) inways that threaten the positions of power currently heldby men.
6．Final notes
The research results provide valuable information to anunder-researched area and offer insights into under which
circumstances – and how – gender roles and restrictions
within ICH can change, and also provide indication of
how the festivals might change in the coming years. By
using a multi-step methodology to approach the festivals
both in-depth as well as on a collective level, the study
could produce new and important knowledge about the
dynamics of gender within traditional practices. Throughits collection of primary data, the study has also provided
valuable information concerning the gender structures
within the examined festivals. The study provides new
knowledge about how changes in the gender roles andgender restrictions of these festivals occur, which is ofinterest also in a wider research context. As such, theresults of this study offer insights into the role of genderin the practice of intangible cultural heritage.
参考文献
1) Wilson, Ross J.: The tyranny of the normal and the importance of being
liminal, in Gender and Heritage: Performance, Place and Politics, editedby Wera Grahn and Ross J. Wilson, 3-14. Routledge, 2018.
2) Smith, Laurajane: Heritage, gender and identity, in The Ashgate
Research Companion to Heritage and Identity, edited by Brian Grahamand Peter Howard, 159-178, Ashgate, 2008.
3) Wakita, Haruko: Chūsei Kyōto to Gion Matsuri: Ekijin to Toshi no
Seikatsu. Yoshikawa Kobunkan. 2016. First published in 1999 by
Chuokoron Shinsha.
4) Brumann, Christoph: Tradition, Democracy and the Townscape of
Kyoto: Claiming a Right to the Past, Routledge, 2012.
5) Nomination file for ‘Yama, Hoko, Yatai, float festivals in Japan’ forinscription on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity, 2016. Accessible through the UNESCO ICH
website. https://ich.unesco.org/en/lists.

Summaries of Academic Theses 2019