Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 80, No. 1, pp. 59–84, 2008.
doi:10.1351/pac200880010059© 2008 IUPAC
INTERNATIONAL UNION OF PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRYPHYSICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY DIVISION*

FURTHER CONVENTIONS FOR NMR SHIELDING AND
CHEMICAL SHIFTS(IUPAC Recommendations 2008)
Prepared for publication by
ROBIN K. HARRIS1,‡, EDWIN D. BECKER2, SONIA M. CABRAL DE MENEZES3,PIERRE GRANGER4, ROY E. HOFFMAN5, AND KURT W. ZILM6
1Department of Chemistry, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK; 2National
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-0520, USA; 3PETROBRAS/CENPES/QM, Av. Horacio
Macedo 950, Cidade Universitária, 21941-598, Rio de Janeiro, R.J., Brazil; 4Institute of Chemistry,

University Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, 1 rue Blaise Pascal, 67008 Strasbourg, Cedex, France;
5Department of Organic Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Safra Campus, Givat Ram,
Jerusalem 91904, Israel; 6Department of Chemistry, Yale University, P.O. Box 208107, New Haven,

CT 06520-8107, USA*Membership of the Physical and Biophysical Chemistry Division Committee during the final preparation of thisreport was as follows:
President: C. M. A. Brett (Portugal); Vice President: M. J. Rossi (Switzerland); Secretary: R. M. Lynden-Bell(UK); Past President: R. D. Weir (Canada); Titular Members: W. P. Baumeister (Germany); J. G. Frey (UK);
A. Goldbeter (Belgium); A. J. McQuillan (New Zealand); Z.-Q. Tian (China); K. Yamanouchi (Japan); Associate
Members: S. M. Cabral de Menezes (Brazil); J. Dymond (UK); B. D. Kay (USA); S.-J. Kim (Korea); C. Prestidge(Australia); A. Wilson (USA); National Representatives: M. T. Oivanen, (Finland); M. Chalaris (Greece);
A. Friedler (Israel); S. Stølen (Norway); S. Riazuddin (Pakistan); S. M. Aldoshin (Russia).
‡Corresponding author: E-mail: r.k.harris@durham.ac.uk

Republication or reproduction of this report or its storage and/or dissemination by electronic means is permitted without theneed for formal IUPAC permission on condition that an acknowledgment, with full reference to the source, along with use of the
copyright symbol ©, the name IUPAC, and the year of publication, are prominently visible. Publication of a translation intoanother language is subject to the additional condition of prior approval from the relevant IUPAC National Adhering
Organization.

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R. K. HARRIS et al.

60

Further conventions for NMR shielding
and chemical shifts(IUPAC Recommendations 2008)
Abstract: IUPAC has published a number of recommendations regarding the reporting of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data, especially chemical shifts.
The most recent publication [Pure Appl. Chem. 73, 1795 (2001)] recommended
that tetramethylsilane (TMS) serve as a universal reference for reporting the shiftsof all nuclides, but it deferred recommendations for several aspects of this subject.
This document first examines the extent to which the 1H shielding in TMS itself
is subject to change by variation in temperature, concentration, and solvent. On thebasis of recently published results, it has been established that the shielding of
TMS in solution [along with that of sodium-3-(trimethylsilyl)propanesulfonate,
DSS, often used as a reference for aqueous solutions] varies only slightly withtemperature but is subject to solvent perturbations of a few tenths of a part per million (ppm). Recommendations are given for reporting chemical shifts under mostroutine experimental conditions and for quantifying effects of temperature andsolvent variation, including the use of magnetic susceptibility corrections and of
magic-angle spinning (MAS).
This document provides the first IUPAC recommendations for referencing
and reporting chemical shifts in solids, based on high-resolution MAS studies.
Procedures are given for relating 13C NMR chemical shifts in solids to the scales
used for high-resolution studies in the liquid phase. The notation and terminology
used for describing chemical shift and shielding tensors in solids are reviewed insome detail, and recommendations are given for best practice.
Keywords: nuclear magnetic resonance; recommendations; chemical shifts; conventions; IUPAC Physical and Biophysical Chemistry Division; shielding tensors.
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.

INTRODUCTION
GENERAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL SHIFTSREFERENCINGTEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE 1H CHEMICAL SHIFT OF TETRAMETHYLSILANE
5. MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY CORRECTION: SHAPE FACTOR
6. SOLVENT EFFECTS ON THE 1H CHEMICAL SHIFT OF TETRAMETHYLSILANE
7. A STANDARD STATE FOR THE 1H TMS REFERENCE?
8. COMMENTS ON Ξ VALUES
9. REFERENCING IN SOLIDS
10. TERMINOLOGY FOR SHIELDING AND CHEMICAL SHIFT TENSORS
11. CONCLUDING REMARKSACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1: RECOMMENDED VALUES OF Ξ FOR VARIOUS NUCLIDESAPPENDIX 2: NMR TENSORS OTHER THAN SHIELDING© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84

Conventions for NMR chemical shifts

61

1. INTRODUCTION*
IUPAC has published a number of recommendations for handling data relating to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [1–4]. The most recent recommendations in 2001 [4] focused particularly on conventions for reporting chemical shifts. These recommendations included a minor redefinition of the chemical shift δ for a nuclide X:

δsample(X) = [νsample(X) – νreference(X)]/νreference(X)(1)

Equation 1 differs from previous definitions in deleting a factor of 106, for reasons explained in ref. [4].
Because the numerator is normally expressed in Hz whereas the denominator is given in MHz, this formulation leads to values readily expressed in ppm. The suffix “ppm” is interchangeable with “×10–6”
in equations, just as “%” is interchangeable with “×0.01”. The signs that can be attached to Larmor frequencies are ignored herein.
Also recommended [4] was a unified scale for reporting chemical shifts of any nuclide X (otherthan 1H) in any sample relative to a primary internal reference, viz. the proton resonance of tetramethylsilane (TMS)** in a dilute solution in CDCl3 (volume fraction ϕ < 1 %). To relate data on theunified scale to chemical shifts expressed relative to a secondary reference of the same nuclide X, aquantity Ξ (Greek capital Xi) was defined as the ratio of the secondary (isotope-specific) frequency,
ν obs(X), to that for 1H of TMS in CDCl3, ν obs
TMS, in the same magnetic field:
obsobsΞ = ν sample(X)/ν TMS

(2)

As pointed out in ref. [4], Ξ can conveniently be expressed as a percentage. The tables of Ξ, reported therein, for the secondary references of all nonradioactive (together with a few radioactive) but
NMR-active nuclides, are condensed to a convenient form for reference in Appendix 1.
The document [4] discussed the use of three techniques for referencing chemical shifts: (a) internal reference; (b) external reference; and (c) substitution method, with the field locked on an internal
deuterium resonance for both sample and reference measurements. Methods a and c were recommended, where feasible, because they avoid the magnetic susceptibility artifact introduced by methodb. An alternative substitution method, with no field-frequency lock (or an external lock) was not discussed there but will be covered in this document primarily because it is commonly used for solids.
The 2001 recommendations document set aside temporarily a number of more specialized (butnevertheless important) areas for later discussion. As a result, an IUPAC task group has now addressed
several matters, as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

temperature dependence of the 1H chemical shift of TMS
shape factor for making magnetic susceptibility corrections when an external reference must be
used and samples cannot be considered as infinite cylinders
solvent dependence of the 1H chemical shift of TMS
alternative scenarios for referencing (with relevant Ξ values) for certain nuclides, including 15N
aspects of MAS for both liquids and solids
procedures for chemical shift referencing in solid samples
terminology for reporting chemical shift/shielding tensors*Abbreviations used: TMS, tetramethylsilane; DSS, sodium-3-(trimethylsilyl)propanesulfonate — commonly called sodium2,2-dimethyl-2-silapentane-5-sulfonate, sodium salt; TSP, sodium-3-(trimethylsilyl)propionate; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide;
THF, tetrahydrofuran; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance; MAS, magic-angle spinning; ZAS, zero-angle spinning; PAS, principal
axis system; SA, shielding anisotropy; CSA, chemical shift anisotropy; cgs, centimeter gram second system of units.
**To be more precise, the dominant proton resonance line from 12C41H1228Si. Resonances at slightly different chemical shifts
can be observed from other isotopomers (usually as 13C and 29Si “satellites”).

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Each of these subjects is considered in this document, along with related comments and relevant recommendations for future practice. Section 2 discusses general concepts, whereas Sections 3–8 relate
mostly to solutions. Sections 9 and 10 refer mostly to solids.
2. GENERAL ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL SHIFTSThe definition of chemical shift (symbol δ), as expressed in eq. 1, is based on observation, not theory;that is, δ describes a measured value for the nuclide. The value of δ obtained by applying eq. 1 to a particular nuclide in a given chemical compound can vary substantially, depending on the conditions used
for measuring the sample and reference frequencies. The basic requirement for a valid measurement isthat the resonance frequencies for sample and reference be obtained under precisely the same value ofthe magnetic induction, B0. In some experimental measurements, as described below, B0 (sample) ≠ B0
(reference) as a result of bulk (isotropic) magnetic susceptibility (BMS) effects, which give rise to demagnetizing fields [5]. In these circumstances, it is essential to apply a suitable correction, as describedin Section 5, and it is appropriate to designate a “corrected” or “true” chemical shift to distinguish itfrom the “apparent” or observed value obtained by rote application of eq. 1 when an external referencing procedure is employed.
At the theoretical level, the shielding σ that is the basis for the chemical shift is known to dependon complex intramolecular factors and, except for gases at very low pressure, on many intermolecularfactors as well. It is, therefore, important to record any experimental conditions (e.g., solvent, temperature, concentration, pressure) that are thought to be significant for the particular investigation and torecognize that the value of δ may vary as these parameters are changed. However, it is generally not desirable to speak of “correcting” a chemical shift that has been properly measured under a particular setof conditions or of converting that value to a “true” chemical shift (except as mentioned above for BMS
effects). Provided the measurements are made as described in the preceding paragraph, no measured
chemical shift is more “correct” than another.
Nevertheless, it is often highly desirable to compare chemical shifts (even for the same resonance)
obtained under different experimental conditions. To make such comparisons or to interpret variations
in observed shifts in terms of possible molecular mechanisms, it is important to know whether and how
the resonance frequency of a reference, especially that of the universal reference TMS, varies withchange in parameters such as temperature and solvent. Those subjects will be addressed in Sections
4–6.
3. REFERENCING
For internal referencing in isotropic liquids, the sample and reference compound are molecularly dispersed in a homogeneous liquid contained in a single sample tube (usually cylindrical), within which
B0 is constant (except for unavoidable gradients, which apply equally to sample and reference). Thus,
the measured values of νsample and νreference can be used directly in eq. 1 to provide a chemical shift,albeit one that may be highly dependent on intermolecular effects*.
For external referencing, the sample and reference substances are physically confined in separate
containers within the same magnet gap, often in coaxial cylindrical tubes. If the applied magnetic field
H0 is sufficiently homogeneous (as is normally true), both sample and reference experience the same
external field. However, the magnetic induction field (B0) within each substance depends on its bulk
volume magnetic susceptibility, κsample and κreference, which are normally not identical, and the effectof average shape factors α– sample and α– reference, which are normally very similar. Hence, the measured*Care must be taken when dealing with situations involving hydrogen bonding or with ionic interactions in aqueous solutions(including those involving DSS or TSP as references) and when measuring stability constants by means of NMR.

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Conventions for NMR chemical shifts

63frequencies must be adjusted to take into account the different magnitudes of B0 — a subject that will
be discussed in detail in Section 5.
Two quite different scenarios arise for chemical shifts measured by the substitution method. The
substitution method implies that the reference is substituted for the sample in the probe, so the measurements of νsample and νreference are made consecutively, not concurrently. If the magnetic field isthought to have adequate stability for the measurement being conducted, as in most experiments withsolid samples and occasionally with some high-resolution studies of liquid samples, the experimenter
might rely on this stability, without a field/frequency lock, to ensure that H0 remains the same for thetwo measurements. This then results in the same situation as in external referencing: in general,
B0(sample) ≠ B0(reference), and a correction is needed for the effect of BMS. (If the sample and reference are both very dilute solutions in the same solvent, then the susceptibility correction may, of course,be negligible.) One important restriction in using the substitution method without a lock is that the magnetic field must not be re-shimmed between the two measurements, since a small but unknown z0 component often accompanies higher-order field gradient shims.
The second substitution method uses a field/frequency lock based on a substance (usually involving the 2H signal of a deuterated solvent) contained within each of the two tubes being measured(containing sample of interest and reference, respectively). This internally locked substitution method
presents an entirely different situation. Here, the lock ensures that the instrument alters H0 in order tomaintain B0 within the tube at a constant magnitude. If the lock substance is identical for the sample
and reference measurements and is not influenced appreciably by different intermolecular interactionsin the two instances, then δsample(D) = δreference(D), B0 is constant, and the measured frequencies may
be used in eq. 1. However, if different lock substances are used, then a correction must be applied to account for the different chemical shifts of these two materials. This matter was discussed in some detailin the 2001 recommendations document [4]. With most recently installed spectrometers, the manufacturers have built such corrections into the software, but it is important for the experimenter to ascertain
whether that has been done and what values of the chemical shifts for the lock compounds have beenentered into the spectrometer’s look-up tables.
4. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF THE 1H CHEMICAL SHIFT OFTETRAMETHYLSILANE
Most NMR studies are carried out at a single temperature, often the ambient temperature of the probe.
In some instances, however, it is important to examine the variation of one or more chemical shifts
within a sample as the probe temperature is varied. Such chemical shifts are measured with respect to
TMS, and the implicit assumption is often made that the 1H chemical shift of TMS does not vary withtemperature. However, that assumption has no theoretical basis, since excitation of vibrational and rotational modes with increased temperature may alter the intramolecular shielding of TMS, and changes
in solvent effects may also influence the intermolecular shielding of TMS.
The only method that, at present, seems feasible for determining the temperature dependence ofthe chemical shift of TMS is to measure the 1H TMS resonance as a function of temperature relative toa substance that is believed to have a resonance frequency independent of temperature. This concept
was introduced by Jameson and Jameson in 1973 [6], when they measured the 1H resonance of neat
TMS relative to the resonance of 129Xe in xenon gas. An isolated Xe atom has no vibrational or rotational modes that can be excited, and collisional effects on the resonance frequency, which can be substantial in 129Xe, could in principle be negated by extrapolation to zero pressure. Those studies [6,7],
extended by Morin et al. in 1982 [8] to account for the magnetic susceptibility of TMS, reported a rather
significant temperature coefficient for the TMS chemical shift. However, these investigations sufferedfrom the shortcomings in sensitivity and reliability inherent in the use of the 90- and 100-MHz NMR
instruments of that period.
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In reviewing the literature, we determined that the existing data were inadequate to serve as thebasis for an IUPAC recommendation. Accordingly, members of our task group undertook new experimental observations, based on the Jameson and Jameson concept but using 3He gas at low pressure, together with modern 400-MHz NMR instrumentation [9]. 3He has higher NMR sensitivity than 129Xe
and is far less susceptible to interatomic interactions. In fact, its resonance frequency was found not tohave any significant pressure dependence from about 0.1 to 2.1 atmospheres (0.01 to 0.21 MPa). Thus,
we believe that 3He is an excellent temperature-independent standard.
In this investigation [9] the 1H chemical shift of TMS in dilute solution in CDCl3 (the primaryreference recommended in ref. [4]) was found to vary only slightly with temperature (with an averagetemperature coefficient of approximately –5 × 10–4 ppm/K) over a temperature range of more than
200 K (–75 to +130 °C). This is approximately a factor of six smaller than the temperature coefficientreported for neat TMS in 1982 [8].
Subsequently, Hoffman [10] repeated some measurements and extended the work to cover TMS
in a number of commonly used organic solvents (CDCl3, CD3OD, CD3CN, [2H6] DMSO, [2H6] acetone, and [2H8] THF). He also investigated aqueous solutions, using TMS and two more soluble derivatives, sodium-3-(trimethylsilyl)propanesulfonate (DSS) and TSP. Although the published results show
nonlinear behavior, particularly at low temperatures, overall the results can be approximated over wide
temperature ranges by average temperature coefficients for TMS in the range of 0 to –6 × 10–4 ppm/K.
These studies necessitated the use of external referencing, since the 3He gas and the solutions of
TMS were in separate compartments of coaxial sample tubes. The authors corrected for the temperature variation of volume magnetic susceptibility, an effect that was comparable in magnitude with theobserved changes in chemical shift and of opposite sign. Because of uncertainties in the magnitudes ofmagnetic susceptibilities and in temperature calibration, we believe that the resulting chemical shift data
must be used with caution. However, the totality of these results makes it clear that the chemical shiftof TMS (as well as that of DSS, the reference recommended for aqueous solutions [3]) has a very small
temperature dependence, usually amounting to only 0.01 ppm over a temperature range of about 20 K,
which is often smaller than other experimental uncertainties. Thus, the vast majority of NMR data referenced to TMS and DSS require no adjustment to account for differing temperatures of acquisition.
These findings permit us to make two recommendations, as follows:
Recommendation 1: The acquisition temperature should be stated (including an estimate of“ambient” probe temperature) when chemical shift data are reported, but for temperaturesin the region of 25 °C it is neither necessary nor desirable to adjust the observed chemical
shift data to any “standard” temperature.
Recommendation 2: In instances where it is desired to make comparisons of chemical
shifts measured with respect to the 1H resonance of TMS over a large temperature range between –20 to 80 °C (253 to 353 K), IUPAC recommends that a value of –5 × 10–4 ppm/K
for the temperature coefficient of the chemical shift of TMS be used, or that data from refs.
[9,10] be consulted for values at specific temperatures and for temperatures outside thisrange.
5. MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY CORRECTION: SHAPE FACTOR
The observed shift, δ obs, of a signal arising from a homogeneous liquid sample consists of two components: chemical shift δ (including the effects of intermolecular interactions), and BMS shift δκ [11].**In solids, liquid crystals, and other non-isotropic systems, a chemical shift anisotropy component also exists, as will be discussed
in Section 9.

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Conventions for NMR chemical shifts

The latter is typically 3 ppm but usually varies by less than 1 ppm between solvents. The BMS shift is
identical for all signals in a homogeneous sample (independent of the nuclide observed if expressed asa ratio, rather than as a frequency).
In this case, no susceptibility measurement or correction is required if the chemical shift is reported relative to an internal reference [4]. However, the BMS shift needs to be taken into account whencomparing samples that are physically separated, such as in external referencing, as described in
Section 3. The BMS shift depends on the shape factor and magnetic susceptibility, as quantified in eq. 3(in SI electromagnetic units):*()δ = δ obs + δκ = δ obs + 1 − α (κ − κ ref )3(3)

where α– is the effective average shape factor, κ is the dimensionless volume magnetic susceptibility ofthe sample, and κref is the susceptibility of the reference liquid or solution. Knowledge of theoreticalshape factors and experimental magnetic susceptibilities is clearly necessary to carry out external referencing procedures. SI units and conventions for susceptibility and shape factor are used throughout
this document in line with IUPAC recommendations. However, most published tables of magnetic susceptibilities (e.g., [12,13]) are in cgs units. To convert from cgs units to SI, magnetic susceptibilities
must be multiplied by 4π and shape factors must be divided by 4π.
Table 1 lists the theoretical shape factors for some simple sample shapes. Whilst nearly all solution-state NMR experiments are conducted with cylindrical samples (generally of effectively infinite
length) oriented parallel to the applied magnetic field, there is particular significance in the shape factor for cylindrical samples with the cylinder axis at the magic angle, 54.736º, to B0 since this is 1/3, whichmeans that δκ, the correction for BMS, is zero.
Table 1 Theoretical shape factors for selected samples.
Shape in a vertical magnetic field

Shape factor

Infinite vertical cylinder0

Sphere, infinite cylinder at the magic angle, or any shapecylindrically symmetrical about the magic angle–13

Infinite horizontal cylinder–12

Infinite cylinder at angle θ to the field–12 (1 – cos2θ)This fact becomes clearer when δκ for an infinite cylinder is put into a form familiar to solid-state
NMR spectroscopists:δκ =κ  3 cos2 θ − 1

3 
2

(4)

where θ is the angle between the cylinder axis and the applied magnetic field B0. This situation holds
also for points along the central axis of any cylindrically symmetrical object aligned with the magic
angle. Moreover, for infinite cylinders inclined at the magic angle with respect to B0, even points awayfrom the central axis have a time-averaged shape factor of 1/3, during sample rotation, and hence the shifteffect of isotropic magnetic susceptibility averages to zero. Indeed, this is true for a cylindrical sample*Equation 3 assumes that the magnetic susceptibility is independent of magnetic field. This is true of most diamagnetic andparamagnetic systems but not for ferromagnetic and superconductive materials. In any case, the BMS shift is usually much larger
than the chemical shift for ferromagnetic and superconductive materials, so chemical shifts cannot be measured reliably.

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tube of finite length and for any shape cylindrically symmetrical about the magic angle. However, spinning at the magic angle is necessary to eliminate off-axis and end effects. The required spin rates are
discussed in [14]. Then, chemical shift measurements made at the magic angle by replacement requireno (isotropic) BMS corrections, a feature which is of particular significance for solids (see Section 9)
but is also valid for solutions. MAS measurements, therefore, provide a superior method of external referencing. The idea of external referencing for both 1H and 13C using TMS, volume fraction 1 %, in
deuterochloroform in conjunction with the recommended Ξ values is thus a straightforward proposition
for MAS NMR studies.
For all but the simplest shapes, the calculation and measurement of shape factors are complex issues that are beyond the scope of these recommendations. However, Hoffman [15] recently applied thebasic theory to determine the shape factor for typical NMR sample tubes, using the geometry and receiver coil configuration of a superconducting magnet. For a 5-mm NMR sample tube with liquid
20 mm above and 20 mm below the center of the receiver coil, the effective average shape factor, expressed in SI units, is approximately 0.007, as indicated in Fig. 1, which is adapted from ref. [15]. The
factor (–13 – α– ) thus differs by only 2 % from the theoretical value of 1/3. For many purposes, this difference is negligible, but it may be significant when the BMS must be determined in order to compare
chemical shifts in solvents of considerably different magnetic susceptibility. Moreover, the shape factor may be considerably larger for sample volumes or instrument parameters (including size and location of receiver coil) that differ from the parameters used to derive Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Shape factors for a 5-mm NMR tube whose bottom is at various depths (14, 16, 18, and 20 mm) below thereceiver-coil center. This figure is adapted from ref. [15] and depends on a number of parameters assumed there toaccount for instrument geometry and receiver coil sensitivity.

The volume susceptibility of most solvents, in SI units, lies in the range –4.91 ppm for nitromethane to –14.53 ppm for di-iodomethane, where ppm indicates “× 10–6” [12]. For common NMR solvents at room temperature (RT), it ranges from –5.66 ppm for [2H6] acetone to –9.15 ppm for [2H]
chloroform [15,16]. Estimates for magnetic susceptibility at other temperatures can usually be made byassuming a constant molar susceptibility and applying corrections for solvent density.
Most tabulated values of bulk isotropic magnetic susceptibility have been measured using a magnetic susceptibility balance [17]. In addition, various NMR methods have been proposed for measuring
magnetic susceptibility, some depending on the use of the geometry of an iron-core magnet in which
the sample tube axis is at 90° to the magnetic field axis [18,19]. Others employ a spherical sample
holder inside a cylindrical sample tube [19,20] or rely on gross distortion of line-shape when the bottom of the sample tube is close to the receiver coil [16].
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67

A more promising modern NMR method for measuring susceptibility makes use of measurements from coaxial cylindrical sample tubes spun (a) about at an axis oriented parallel to the magnetic
field axis and (b) at the magic angle. The true chemical shift (δ in eq. 3) can be measured directly by
MAS because the BMS shift is zero. Small errors in the magic angle lead to large changes in resonancefrequency, but the magic angle can be set accurately, as discussed in Section 9, to yield a precision in δof 0.0004 ppm. Since δ obs, vertical depends only on differences in susceptibilities, the measurement isnormally repeated with a sample of accurately known susceptibility, such as water. The differences ∆δ,along with the known susceptibility κ0, are then used in eq. 5 to determine κ:κ=∆δ obs,vertical − ∆δ magic
1 −α
3

+κ0

(5)

In Section 6, we shall apply this technique to investigate the effect of solvent variation on the
TMS chemical shift. Two recommendations follow from the discussion in this section:
Recommendation 3: In situations where it is necessary to use an external reference or tocompare chemical shifts of samples in separate tubes oriented parallel to B0, the BMS shift,symbol δκ, should be quantified and subtracted from the observed shift, symbol δ obs, toyield the chemical shift, symbol δ. The BMS shift may be calculated from eq. 3, with α– approximated as indicated in the text.
Recommendation 4: In line with general IUPAC recommendations, SI units and conventions should be used for average shape factor, symbol α– , and volume magnetic susceptibility, symbol κ. Because cgs units have been widely used in tabulations of susceptibility data,
the convention should always be explicitly stated. The diamagnetic susceptibilities of common NMR solvents are small (of the order of 10–6) and are conveniently quoted in ppm.
6. SOLVENT EFFECTS ON THE 1H CHEMICAL SHIFT OF TETRAMETHYLSILANE
The proton chemical shift of TMS in any solvent is by definition (eq. 1) exactly zero when TMS is used
as an internal reference or as a reference in the substitution method with an internally locked field.
However, the magnetic shielding of the protons in TMS, measured relative to some “absolute” reference, such as a bare proton or low-pressure monatomic gas, depends not only on intramolecular electron currents but also on perturbations from the solvent environment.
In some instances, where solvent effects on the chemical shift of a sample are significant in theinterpretation of data, it may be important to take into account the change in shielding of TMS with solvent variation. Clearly, such changes can be measured only with samples that are physically separated
from each other, thus requiring either correction for magnetic susceptibility or measurements at precisely the magic angle. Table 2 provides results for TMS in 10 solvents (as well as for neat TMS andfor DSS in D2O), where corrections for magnetic susceptibility have been made using eq. 3. The lastcolumn provides data obtained by MAS for nine of the samples, where no correction is required. The
agreement is excellent.
Although the results in Table 2 should not be regarded as having the quantitative reliability of critically evaluated data from several independent studies and are subject to correction in the future, theyillustrate quite well the magnitude of change in shielding of the protons in TMS with change of solvent.
As a nonpolar molecule, with approximately tetrahedral geometry, TMS is expected to interact with solvent molecules only rather weakly. Nevertheless, the results in Table 2 show that the 1H resonance of
TMS in a variety of non-aromatic solvents varies over a range of more than 0.2 ppm at RT (25 °C). For
aromatic solvents, the variation is appreciably larger, as expected because of well-known ring current
effects.
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Table 2 Change of the 1H chemical shift in TMS with variation of solvent.
Solvent

δobs/ppma

κ/ppmb

δ/ppmcδ MAS/ppmd[2H] Chloroform[2H6] Acetone[2H3] Acetonitrile[2H6] DMSO
[2H4] Methanol[2H8] THF
[2H6] Benzene
Nitro [2H5] benzene[2H8] Toluene
TMS (neat liquid)
D2O (saturated solution)
DSS in D2O (10 mmol/dm3)i

0.00
0.97
0.83
0.54
0.72
0.31
–0.01
–0.03
0.05
0.58g
0.01
0.03

–9.153–5.700–6.597–7.730–6.606–7.914
–7.82
–7.28
–7.72
–6.90
–8.840–8.840

0.00
–0.16
–0.01
0.07
–0.11
–0.10
–0.45
–0.64
–0.42
–0.15
–0.09
–0.07

0.000
–0.160–0.011
0.062–0.106e–0.109ff
f–0.124h–0.071h–0.056haApparent 1H chemical shift of TMS in various solvents in coaxial tubes spun parallel to B , relative0

to TMS in CDCl3 as an external reference; based on experimental data from refs. [10,16] except
where noted.
bVolume magnetic susceptibility, where “ppm” is equivalent to “×10–6”, from various publishedsources but presented here in SI units [12,13,15,16].
cδ from eq. 3, using a shape factor of 0.007.
d 1H chemical shift of TMS in various solvents relative to TMS in CDCl in coaxial tubes spun at the3magic angle; from ref. [21] except where noted.
eMeasured using nondeuterated methanol as the solvent.
fNot determined.
gUnpublished result supplied by R. Hoffman.
hUnpublished data supplied by F. Ziarelli and A. Thevand, University of Aix-Marseille.
iIncluded for comparison of Ξ and Ξ DSS; see Section 8.

7. A STANDARD STATE FOR THE 1H TMS REFERENCE?
The 2001 recommendations document [4] pointed out the desirability in principle of having a physicochemical standard state for TMS, in which relevant parameters such as concentration, temperature, andpressure are specified. A study reported in that document showed that the chemical shift of TMS in
CDCl3 was constant below a volume fraction ϕ ≈ 1 %; hence, a precise “standard” concentration wasconsidered unnecessary for most purposes. We now know (Section 4) that the temperature variation is
also small, usually amounting to only 0.01 ppm over a temperature range of about 20 °C, and thus requiring no adjustment for the vast majority of NMR data referenced to TMS. The effect of pressure has
not been studied in detail, but the TMS chemical shift data in ref. [10] did not display any large variation at the highest temperatures, where vapor pressures were sometimes in the tens of atmospheres. For
practical applications, virtually all measurements are made at ambient pressure of approximately 1 bar(ca. 1 atm), or with air removed to leave the sample under its own vapor pressure.
Removal of oxygen from a sample is not expected to affect chemical shifts determined by the internal reference or locked substitution method or with MAS. However, external referencing or the unlocked substitution method introduces a susceptibility artifact that is dependent on the concentration ofdissolved paramagnetic oxygen — for example, a change in δκ (see eq. 3) of about 0.07 ppm is expected
for water saturated with air (volume fraction 21 % oxygen). This leads to a recommendation:
Recommendation 5: For samples subject to ambient atmospheric pressure, the pressureneed not be more precisely specified, but any substantial variation from 1 bar (ca. 1 atm)should be stated. In conformity with earlier IUPAC recommendations [1,2], information© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84

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should be supplied if a sample has been treated to remove oxygen. Particular care should
be taken to give adequate details if external referencing is used.
With the accumulation of reasonably reliable data for change of the resonance frequency of TMS
with temperature, concentration, solvent, and pressure, as described in this document and the 2001 recommendations [4], it is becoming feasible to consider a standard state for referencing chemical shifts.
With ever-improving measurement techniques, there may be specific applications where an agreed standard state will be desirable. However, for the vast majority of NMR studies, there seems to be insufficient value to warrant the complexity of converting chemical shift data to such a “standard state.”
IUPAC believes that the recommendations given in this document and in refs. [3,4] are sufficient inmost applications to promote consistency with minimal effort by investigators. However, there are instances where comparisons between results carried out under different conditions are to be made, andthe following recommendation is for those cases.
Recommendation 6: When it is essential to compare data obtained at different temperatures
or pressures or with different solvents, chemical shifts should be referenced to the proton
signal of TMS as its concentration tends to zero in CDCl3 at 25 °C under a standard atmosphere (0.1 MPa = 1 bar). Full details of any conversion process should be given (e.g.,source and application of magnetic susceptibility data, effect of dissolved oxygen, sourceof temperature conversions), along with an estimate of additional uncertainties introducedin the conversion.
Perhaps the ultimate standard state would be the bare proton, which is used as the basis of absolute shielding calculations. Connection to the experimental regime might best be obtained via a nuclide such as 3He in the neutral helium atom, for which shielding computations should be accurate. In
fact, the 2001 recommendations [4] mentioned the desirability of using 3He in the gaseous state at very
low pressure as a universal reference, rather than TMS, but discarded it as not practicable. Since thattime, measurements have been reported relating the NMR frequency of 3He to TMS in CDCl3 [9,10].
Also, ab initio calculations are reported to give an accurate value of 59.93677 ppm for the absoluteshielding of 3He (ref. [22], p. 154). These results suggest that refinements in accuracy of the experimental data and perhaps further improvements in theory might provide a seamless connection between
the bare proton and shielding in TMS.
8. COMMENTS ON  VALUESIn 2001, IUPAC recommended that new data for all nuclides other than 1H be reported as Xi (Ξ) values, as defined in eq. 2, relative to the 1H resonance of TMS in CDCl3 with the same magnetic induction B0 [4]. For NMR of proteins and nucleic acids in aqueous solutions, IUPAC and the International
Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB) [3] recommended reporting Ξ relative to the
1H resonance of DSS as an internal reference, with the use of DSS clearly designated as Ξ DSS. Neat
liquid TMS has also been used as a reference for solid-state NMR, particularly because of its larger 13C
signal. As indicated in Section 9, its use as the basis for Ξ can be designated by Ξ neat TMS. We affirm
the recommendation [4] to use TMS in CDCl3 as the basis of the Ξ system but recognize that TMS has
been and may continue to be used under other circumstances. It is important that any deviant uses beclearly identified to avoid confusion. This leads to a recommendation:
Recommendation 7: Ξ always represents the ratio of the resonance frequency of a nuclide
other than 1H to the 1H frequency of TMS (or DSS for aqueous solutions) but of no othercompound. Ξ with no qualification (as in ref. [4]) represents the ratio where the denomina© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84

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tor is the 1H resonance frequency of TMS in CDCl3 at a volume fraction of 1 % or less.
Any other conditions, including the use of a dilute aqueous solution of DSS, should beclearly delineated by a superscript or other unambiguous notation.

The two frequencies forming the Ξ ratio must be measured in the same magnetic field B0. Thus,
all comments in Section 2 regarding the factors involved in referencing methods — internal, external,
unlocked substitution, and locked substitution — apply when a value of Ξ is determined. When Ξ ismeasured in CDCl3 with TMS as an internal reference or with the locked substitution method (or inaqueous solution with DSS as internal reference), the two frequencies are clearly determined in thesame B0. When the frequency of nuclide X is measured with the magnetic field locked on another solvent, the value of B0 is altered. Many spectrometers now have software that corrects the reported frequency to a constant field. For those that do not, ref. [4] describes in some detail just how the correction should be made. With the unlocked substitution method and normal high-resolution geometry(sample tube axis parallel to H0), a correction is required also for magnetic susceptibility unless the resonance frequency of X is measured in CDCl3 at low concentration. With MAS, no correction is needed.
The values of δ for TMS and DSS shown in Table 2 may be used when needed to relate values ofΞ referred to DSS or neat liquid TMS. It should be noted that the 1H chemical shifts of DSS and TMSin the same solvent (D2O or DMSO) were shown to differ by about 0.02 ppm [3], but DSS in water isdisplaced from TMS in CDCl3 by 0.07 ppm (see Table 2). Further useful relations for 13C chemical
shifts and values of Ξ are given in Section 9.
The IUPAC recommendations 2001 [4] included tables of Ξ values, one for each magnetic nuclide, which are intended to facilitate comparison with data obtained using secondary (homonuclear)references. Data from the tables have been widely disseminated in magnetic resonance journals and inother ways. Appendix 1 provides a single table of Ξ values reproduced directly from Tables 1, 2, and 4of ref. [4], with one change — the value of Ξ for 3He. Except for the rare earths, where only approximate values of Ξ were available, IUPAC recommended that the values of Ξ in the 2001 document [4]“are not subject to future change arising from remeasurement even where this results in increasing accuracy for the reference compound in question.” This recommendation echoed a similar recommendation by IUPAC/IUBMB [3]. The immutability of these Ξ values has sometimes been questioned, since
it might appear that newer, more accurate, results should be incorporated, as is the case with most scientific data. However, the principal purpose for the tables is to provide a consistent set of numbers thatcan be used to provide a link between data for various nuclides referred to the universal TMS reference
and results already in the literature where each nuclide is referenced separately. In general, the valuesof Ξ that are given here are of sufficient accuracy relative to previously published data to permit valid
comparisons. To allow changes to be made from time to time in these values would result in inconsistent and confusing comparisons.
The Ξ value for 3He in Appendix 1 represents the sole exception to this policy. After publicationof the 2001 recommendations [4], it was discovered that an error in data processing had resulted in avalue that was incorrect by 6 ppm — a very large discrepancy for a nuclide with a sharp resonance andan expected range of chemical shifts that is relatively small. In view of the potential future importanceof 3He as a fundamental standard, as discussed in Section 7, we concluded after careful considerationand consultation that this error should be corrected. Fortunately, it appears that no results have been
published using the erroneous value of Ξ (with the exception of ref. [10]), largely because 3He has been
little studied.
For conciseness, Tables 1–3 in the 2001 document [4] list a value of Ξ for only one substance foreach magnetic nuclide. However, it was recognized that a number of alternative compounds have been
widely used as references. Several of these, including DSS as a reference for aqueous solutions, werenoted in the 2001 document [4]. The most appropriate Ξ value for 15N has been the subject of some discussion. Nitromethane was given in the tables on the basis of its historically wide use for 14N, but liq© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84

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uid ammonia is often cited as a reference for 15N, particularly in literature related to biochemical applications, and was recommended by IUPAC/IUPAB for use in such applications [3]. For convenient
reference, Appendix 1 includes Ξ values for several alternatives from ref. [3].
Recommendation 8: The values of Ξ in Appendix 1 may be regarded as IUPAC recommended, but it should be clearly stated which compound is being cited.
Although not related to Ξ values, this is an appropriate place to point out that we have learned (M.
Jaszunski, private communication) that a typographical error in the IUPAC “Green Book”, 2nd edition[23], for the value of the magnetic moment of 207Pb resulted in incorrect values for several derived
quantities in Table 1 of the 2001 document [4]*. The correct value of the magnetic moment is given in
the third edition of the “Green Book” [26].
9. REFERENCING IN SOLIDS
Chemical shift referencing in high-resolution MAS NMR experiments on solids is complicated by several factors not encountered in solution-state NMR. At present, no strategy is in general use for providing an internal lock of any sort in MAS NMR of solids, and referencing is usually done using thesubstitution method without a lock. In the absence of a field/frequency lock, the precision of any shiftmeasurement relies upon the inherent stability of the static magnetic field. This is usually not an important consideration for solids, as linewidths are significantly larger than for solutions and many modern superconducting magnets have drift rates measured in Hz per week or per month at 1H frequencies.
However, the highest field solenoids often have significant drift rates, being built closer to the limit ofcurrent technology. In this instance, field stabilization has been achieved by a calibrated linear ramp ofcorrection current to the RT compensation coil [27] or alternatively by use of a separate external lockprobe [28].
Referencing by the unlocked substitution method in solid-state MAS experiments typically involves removal of the NMR probe from the magnet to change samples. When field stability is not thelimiting factor, the repositioning of the probe accurately into the magnet can be a significant experimental source of referencing error. Each different experimental situation needs to be characterized withrespect to the repeatability of resonance measurements, with values of ±0.03 to ±0.01 ppm being readily achieved [27]. An important consideration here is the setting of the RT shims. Without an internal
lock, the current settings should not be changed between samples, otherwise z0 imperfections will affect the subsequent shift measurements. Fortunately, in the typical MAS situation no adjustment of the
RT shims is required for different samples.
As discussed in Section 5, shift referencing for solution-state experiments using substitution by
an external standard is complicated by the demagnetizing fields [5] associated with the normal sample
geometry and with differing isotropic magnetic susceptibilities. These artifacts can be corrected as indicated in Section 5. For solids, the situation is somewhat simpler as far as the effect of isotropic magnetic susceptibility is concerned. For the central axis of cylindrical samples inclined at the magic angle,
such as in typical solid-state rotors, the (isotropic) BMS effect is actually zero, so that replacement samples of standard substances may be used for referencing to give correct chemical shifts. For off-center
positions in cylindrical samples of infinite length, the average of the demagnetizing field over a rotor
period is also zero [29,30].
*The value of the maximum observable component of the magnetic moment of 207Pb was given in the “Green Book” as +0.582
583(9) instead of the correct value of +0.592 583(9) [24], i.e., a difference in the second decimal place. The correct values for
207Pb, to replace those in Table 1 of ref. [4], are: magnetic moment, µ/µ = 1.026 38; magnetogyric ratio, γ /107 rad s–1 T–1 =N
5.676 25; relative receptivities Dp = 2.11 × 103; DC = 12.4. Jaszuński, Jackowski, and coworkers [25] recently presented ananalysis of the precise values of magnetic moments for a number of bare nuclei.

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For a finite length of cylindrical sample (such as in a typical MAS rotor) or for other geometries,
the shape factors for the demagnetizing fields are more complex, as mentioned in Section 5; yet they
can still be shown to vanish under the averaging of MAS [14]. Since demagnetizing fields are small for
typical diamagnetic susceptibilities, the net field at any particular point can be thought of as the sum of
the individual fields from other portions of the sample. In the simplest model, one can then mentally divide the sample into a collection of spheres, each producing its own dipolar demagnetizing field. The
net field seen by a nucleus in one sphere due to all others will be the sum of these dipolar fields. Since
the field from each dipole averages to zero under MAS, the net field from the entire sample is also zero
regardless of the complexity of the sample shape.
As long as the probe is repositioned accurately, an external reference sample is in theory then justas good as having one contained in the same rotor. MAS NMR measurements for liquid samples in thisregard are superior to measurements with internal reference compounds as the latter can incur sizeable
and often unpredictable solvent shifts (see Section 6).
However, there are complications for solids which arise from anisotropy in magnetic susceptibility [31,32]. Demagnetizing fields from anisotropic BMS do not average to zero under MAS. Moreover,such fields are dependent upon the size, shape, and relative orientations of the particles comprising thesample. Fortunately for questions of chemical shift referencing, in most situations experimental experience shows that these effects are more likely to produce a relatively symmetrical broadening of theobserved resonances rather than to cause any resonance shifts. For microcrystalline samples, the extent
of any possible shift will depend on particle sizes, crystal habit, and sample shape and at present is alargely unexplored issue.
The accuracy of the MAS will typically also not be of concern, as it will have already been set todeal with the much larger anisotropy of chemical shifts. In 13C MAS experiments, it is common practice to set the magic angle accurately enough to remove the last few Hz of broadening from the line
shape of a standard sample such as glycine or hexamethylbenzene. For the sake of discussion, assume
a 150 ppm chemical shift anisotropy (axial symmetry), and an operating frequency for 13C of 125 MHz.
A residual broadening ∆δ of 0.04 ppm or 5 Hz implies an angle mis-set ∆θ of only 0.0108°. The demagnetizing field term corresponding to the shift anisotropy is simply κ /3, which (with a typical |κ | of
<4 ppm) results in an insignificant broadening of ~0.0011 ppm, and a shift in peak position of less thanhalf this amount. To produce an error of 0.01 ppm, the angle would need to be mis-set by at least 0.10°,
a huge value by the standards of most solid-state NMR laboratories.
Since many MAS arrangements are not convenient for liquid samples, additional secondary narrow line references have been developed for solid-state measurements. For example, the recent study
by Morcombe and Zilm [27] provided accurate data (±2 Hz, or 0.01 ppm) on 13C chemical shifts forseveral potential reference compounds in both solid and solution states, under MAS and with the conventional geometry for high-resolution NMR — spinning parallel to B0, i.e., zero-angle spinning(ZAS). Adamantane is a suitable compound because its 13C resonances are particularly narrow, and,being a plastic crystal, it has an isotropic magnetic susceptibility. The 13C shift scale based on the highfrequency (methylene) carbon signal for this standard has been found [27] to be related to the IUPACrecommended scale, the DSS scale, and to neat external TMS according toneat TMS
solid adamantane% TMS in CDCl3
0.5 % DSS in D2O+ (6)δ 1MAS= δ MAS− 0.71 ppm = δ M− 2.72 ppm = δ MAS
AS
37.77 ppm

These relations refer to 13C in the indicated substances and states, with all samples subject toMAS. Thus, –0.71 ppm is the solvent effect on the 13C resonance of TMS in CDCl3 relative to neat
TMS, and 2.01 ppm is the chemical shift for 13C of DSS in D2O relative to neat TMS.
IUPAC recommends that the chemical shifts of all nuclides be referred to the 1H resonance of
TMS in CDCl3, ϕ ≤ 1 %, as the primary internal reference. However, as discussed in Sections 7 and 8,
a low volume fraction of TMS in other solvents or of DSS in water may be a useful internal reference.
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With MAS, susceptibility artifacts are suppressed, so that external referencing to neat TMS and referencing by the unlocked substitution method are also feasible. Presentation of results as Ξ values is particularly useful with widespread use of heteronuclear correlation methods. Referencing of 13C chemical shifts to 1H shifts in MAS experiments can be done using Ξ values, reported here as 100 × the ratioof the 13C to 1H resonance frequencies for the methyl groups in the indicated samples:Ξ (13C for vol. fract. 0.1 % TMS in CDCl3) = 25.145 020 %(7)

Ξ (13C for neat liquid TMS) = 25.145 004 %(8)

Ξ (13C for 10 mmol/dm3 DSS in D2O) = 25.144 953 %(9)

The notation for Ξ conforms to Recommendation 7. Equation 7 gives the IUPAC-recommended
value relative to the 1H resonance frequency of TMS in CDCl3 [4]. Equation 8 gives the value relative
to the 1H frequency of neat TMS, reported by Morcombe and Zilm as the average of eight MAS measurements [27]. Equation 9 is the value recommended by IUPAC/IUBMB relative to the 1H frequency
of DSS [3]. The value in eq. 9 differs very slightly from that reported by Morcombe and Zilm [26],25.144 9548 %, which was based on a DSS sample of much higher concentration. Each of the values
given in eqs. 7–9 represents the frequency ratio in a single homogeneous sample, so it is irrelevant
whether the measurement is made under MAS or ZAS conditions.
Equation 10 lists the Ξ values (relative to TMS in CDCl3) for the two adamantane 13C signals
under MAS conditions [27]:Ξ [13C for adamantane (s)] = 25.145 970 % and 25.145 743 %(10)

for the methylene and methine resonances, respectively. These values are computed from data in [26],using measurements made with MAS to eliminate susceptibility artifacts.
In all of the above, operation at RT has been assumed. Accurate measurements at extreme excursions of temperature are complicated by the effect of probe components on the magnetic field experienced by the sample. These demagnetizing fields are the dominant sources of field inhomogeneity [33],so changes in probe temperature can easily produce large shifts in the average field as well as affect the
MAS line shape. Accurate referencing in this case requires knowledge of the temperature dependenceof the chemical shift of the reference compound (see Section 4) as well as how the net field shifts as theprobe temperature changes.
Recommendation 9: With MAS, sample replacement methods suffice to determine chemical shift measurements on solids. For 13C, eq. 6 provides relationships that can be used tointerconvert data measured under MAS for solids relative to several references — neat
TMS; the high-frequency signal for adamantane; the IUPAC standard TMS in CDCl3, volume fraction 1 %; and DSS in water.
Recommendation 10: For reporting chemical shifts in solids, IUPAC endorses the unified
chemical shift scale established for solutions. Equations 7–10 provide relationships that
may be useful in converting 13C results to the virtually equivalent recommended scales
based on the proton resonance of TMS in CDCl3 and the proton resonance of DSS in aqueous solution.
Clearly, relationships for other nuclides remain to be determined.

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10. TERMINOLOGY FOR SHIELDING AND CHEMICAL SHIFT TENSORS
Thus far, this document has dealt only with situations in which the chemical shift and corresponding
shielding are effectively isotropic — as a result of rapid molecular tumbling in liquids or the use of
MAS in solids. In general, however, shielding and chemical shift must be regarded as anisotropic quantities described by second-rank tensors  and . In the most general case, nine elements are required torepresent such a tensor (a 3 × 3 matrix). In 3-dimensional Cartesian space, these may be specified (e.g.,
for the shielding tensor, ) by σij where i,j = x, y, or z.
The shielding tensor can be decomposed to a symmetric part and an antisymmetric part. The latter, which in some cases will be zero because of local symmetry around the nucleus in question, may
contribute to relaxation but does not give rise to an observable chemical shift, even in solids [34]. We
consider here only the symmetric part, where σij = σji. Then, only 6 different elements are necessary.
Transformation to a suitable set of axes X, Y, and Z (the principal axis system, PAS) will diagonalize
the matrix to give three principal components (σXX, σYY, σZZ). The remaining three variables determine
the orientation of the PAS in, say, a molecule- or crystal-fixed set of axes. These six variables can bepredicted by suitable quantum mechanical computations (though most programs usually calculate allnine components by default).
All six variables can be obtained experimentally, but many results come from experiments on
powdered samples (either from analysis of bandshapes of static samples or of spinning sideband manifolds, which generally yield only the principal components). Alternatives to the principal components
are often reported. The isotropic average

σiso = –13 (σXX + σYY + σZZ)

(11)

is invariably one of these, but there is divergence in the literature regarding the remaining two (seebelow). In order to avoid any problems arising from this situation, Recommendation 11 is essential.
Recommendation 11: The three principal components of the shielding or chemical shifttensors should always be listed explicitly (see also Recommendation 15).
Unfortunately, there are a number of different conventions in use regarding matters of notation inthis area, which are sometimes confused in the literature and are often inadequately defined. There are
two conventions for labeling the axes, which became established following the important textbooks ofHaeberlen [35] and Mehring [36], both appearing in 1976. In 1993, the “Maryland Group” [37] recommended additional terminology. Also, it is widely recognized that shielding (and other) tensors canbe expressed more fundamentally in a spherical, rather than a Cartesian representation. Finally, it has
been suggested that [38] for computational purposes an icosahedral representation may be convenient.
We summarize each of these five approaches, pointing out their interrelations, then provide a series ofrecommendations for future usage.
“Haeberlen notation”
This notation relates each of the three principal components to σiso as follows:

σ ZZ − σ iso ≥ σ XX − σ iso ≥ σYY − σ iso(12)

Thus, σZZ is the principal component farthest from the isotropic value, and σYY is closest to σiso, but
this means that the ordering of the components can be either σZZ ≥ σYY ≥ σXX, or σZZ ≤ σYY ≤ σXX, depending on the chemical system in question.
As mentioned above, for many purposes (especially in connection with theory), it is useful to express shielding tensor data using three other parameters as well as the principal components. One of© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84

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these is invariably the isotropic average, defined in eq. 11. The second parameter is generally referred
to as shielding anisotropy. Unfortunately, two definitions (eqs. 13 and 14), have grown up for shielding
anisotropy∆σ = σ ZZ −(1σ XX + σYY2)

ζ = σ ZZ − σ iso

(13)
(14)*

It is easily shown that the two definitions of anisotropy are closely related by∆σ = 23 ζ(15)

Clearly, one is redundant, but both are in common use, sometimes leading to misunderstandings whendata from different sources are compared.
Shielding anisotropy may be either positive (σZZ > σiso) or negative (σZZ < σiso) — or, of course,
zero (e.g., for cubic nuclear environments). In terms of the position of σYY, the changeover from positive anisotropy to negative occurs when this variable passes through –12 (σXX + σZZ), at which point therelationship in eq. 12 causes an interchange of subscripts XX and ZZ. This oddity makes for difficulties
in comparing tensor components or anisotropies for a series of related molecules and has sometimes led
to misunderstandings.
The third parameter is usually called shielding asymmetry** and is given the symbol η, definedasη = (σYY − σ XX ) /ζ ≡ 3 (σYY − σ XX ) / 2∆σ(16)

Thus, η is zero if the tensor is axial (σXX = σYY), which can occur for both positive and negative casesof anisotropy, and its maximum value is unity, when σYY = –12 (σXX + σZZ) = σiso. Note that η cannot be
negative. The Haeberlen convention for the tensor eigenvalues relates directly to the corresponding tensor eigenvectors, i.e., to the principal axes.
“Mehring notation”
This alternative notation uses numerical subscripts instead of letters and simply designates the components in order of increasing shielding as

σ11 ≤ σ22 ≤ σ33(17)

In this notation, the definition of isotropic shielding, σiso, is, clearly,

σ iso = 13 (σ11 + σ 22 + σ 33 )(18)

(analogous to eq. 11) but the relationships for anisotropy and asymmetry (analogous to eqs. 13, 14, and16) are more difficult to express than under the Haeberlen convention, since they depend on the posi-*Haeberlen [35] used the symbol δ rather than ζ for the latter quantity, but this is to be strongly discouraged since δ is in universal
use for chemical shifts relative to the signal for a reference compound.
**This name is not ideal since it also represents a type of anisotropy. A better word might be biaxiality. Also, the use of a ratio
for this parameter is not ideal, since a better match with spherical tensor notation would be achieved (see eq. 25) by, for example,
ηζ. However, we believe that introduction of a new parameter at this stage cannot be justified.

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tion of σ22 between σ11 and σ33.* Moreover, when relating components to molecular or crystallographic systems, a change of order may be necessary. These are reasons for preferring the Haeberlen
convention. However, the benefit of the Mehring convention is that components for a range of related
compounds are more readily compared, since there is no discontinuity when the middle component
passes through the average of the outer components. Of course, computer programs for generating principal components from spectral analysis may easily calculate values of anisotropy and asymmetry under
the Mehring labeling of components.
“Maryland notation”
The relevant literature on shielding tensors prior to 1993 is entirely couched in terms of principal components and anisotropy/asymmetry. However, in that year an ad hoc group of NMR spectroscopists held
discussions at a summer school in College Park, Maryland, USA and proposed [37] that theanisotropy/asymmetry convention be replaced by span (Ω ) and skew (κ)**, with the following definitions:Ω = σ33 – σ11(19)κ = 3(σiso – σ22)/Ω(20)

The components in this notation are always labeled in the Mehring order σ11 ≤ σ22 ≤ σ33. The span is
an easily envisaged unsigned quantity that describes the full range of the observed spectrum, and comparisons between related systems are straightforward. A variation in sign is imposed on the skew, whichis positive if σ22 > σiso and negative if σ22 < σiso. Thus, the skew carries the physical insight of a prolate (κ = +1) or oblate (κ = –1) ellipsoid representing axially symmetric shielding tensors. The situation with σ22 midway between σ11 and σ33 corresponds to κ = 0 (i.e., to η = 1 in the anisotropy/asymmetry convention). Whilst these parameters give a readily envisaged picture for shielding powder
patterns or spinning sideband manifold intensities, they are not readily related to theory, as discussed
below, and are not therefore suitable for describing the interaction tensor itself.
Recommendations on notation
Both the Mehring and Haeberlen notations have continued to be used widely in the literature, causing
occasional confusion, especially among new practitioners. However, each has its advantages, as has
been pointed out, and it is not feasible at present for IUPAC to recommend that one notation should be
used in all circumstances. Nevertheless, there are conventions that should be followed:
Recommendation 12: Haeberlen notation, with capital X, Y, Z subscript letters for the principal components of shielding tensors, should be used whenever relationships to molecularor crystal-fixed axes are discussed.
Recommendation 13: Given the wide use of both ∆σ and ζ, we recommend either symbol
as acceptable for reporting shielding anisotropy. η is the recommended symbol for shielding anisotropy (biaxiality). Definitions of these symbols should always be given.

*A few authors have incorrectly used definitions equivalent to eq. 16 in combination with labeling components always in the
Mehring order σ11 ≤ σ22 ≤ σ33. Whilst this consistently produced positive values for ∆σ, it allowed values of η between 0 and 3,
and the extreme values both correspond to axial symmetry. In the view of the Task Group, there is no merit in this notation andits use should be discouraged/discontinued.
**Note that the symbol κ is used herein for both magnetic susceptibility and skew.

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Recommendation 14: The use of anisotropy/asymmetry, rather than span/skew, is generally
recommended. Span/skew may be used to describe or compare powder patterns or spinningsideband amplitudes, but they are not suitable parameters to define shielding tensors.
Spherical tensor representation
As Haeberlen (ref. [35], page 10) and Grant [38] have pointed out, at a fundamental level tensors are
better represented in spherical fashion, such that a general second-order property  may be written as = σ(0) + σ(1) + σ(2)(21)

where the number in brackets refers to tensor rank, with σ(0) as the isotropic value, σ(1) as the generally ignored, anti-symmetric part (with three components), and σ(2) as a symmetric part (with six different components, but subject to a zero trace). Spherical tensors are intrinsically involved in considering the effects of tensor quantities on density matrix evolution and hence on spectra, so the use of thisrepresentation is inevitable for such work. However, they are not normally quoted for experimental results. It is worth noting that

σ 0(2) =

3
ζ
2

(22)

σ ±(22) = 1 (σ XX − σYY ) = 1 ηζ
2

(23)

2

The proportionalities in these equations indicate that shielding anisotropy and asymmetry can readily
be related to spherical tensor components, thus facilitating theoretical interpretation, whereas the relation between spherical tensor components and span/skew is more obscure (i.e., there are no simple proportionalities of the type given in eqs. 22 and 23).
Icosahedral representation
The comparison of shielding tensors, using a single scalar that represents their differences, requires
using different statistical weights for different shielding components in the commonly used representations since these contain different types of metrics (e.g., scalars, ratios, and angles). To eliminate thisproblem, Grant and coworkers have introduced the icosahedral representation [38]. In this representation, the six components are equally distributed on the unit sphere, i.e., the spatial distance among all
the components is the same, and therefore they can be treated with equal statistical weight when comparing shielding tensors. This is particularly important when the statistical propagation of errors is considered. While the icosahedral representation is especially valuable for comparing tensors, and hence asa working representation, it is less easy to envisage than the normally used parameters and its use has
not been widely taken up to date.
Shielding and chemical shifts
Confusion between shielding and chemical shift has been a problem in NMR for many years. Recently,
the exclusive use of symbols σ for the former and δ for the latter has greatly assisted in eliminating the
confusion.
Isotropic chemical shifts are defined [23] in such a way that their direction is in the opposite sensefrom that of shielding. This arises from the definition given in eq. 1, whereν sample (X) =γB 1 − σ sample, iso2 π 0 ( X )

and νreference(X) is similarly defined for the resonance of a reference compound.
© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84(24)

R. K. HARRIS et al.

78

Most research papers regard the chemical shift and the shielding of a given nucleus as separate
but related tensors, although this concept is not universally accepted.* If distinct tensors are accepted,
then anisotropies (and skews) for chemical shifts are logically opposite in sign for those of shielding
tensors (e.g., ∆δ ≡ –∆σ). The symbol ζ for anisotropy is, however, ambiguous unless a subscript (i.e.,
σ or δ) is used to distinguish shielding and shift. Asymmetry is unaffected, being the same for shielding and chemical shift. Span is unaffected, provided it is considered as a modulus, i.e., Ω = |σ33 – σ11|.
Subscripts can be used with skew symbols to indicate whether they are for shift (κδ ) or shielding (κσ ).
Recommendation 15: We fully endorse the use of the symbols σ and δ for shielding andchemical shift respectively and urge their exclusive use in NMR notation for these properties.
Whilst chemical shifts are defined and quoted as relative to a reference, theoreticians always compute, at least initially, absolute shielding values. Therefore, there is merit in retaining the symbols σiso,
σXX, etc. to refer only to absolute shielding.
Recommendation 16: When it is necessary to report shielding tensor components on a relative basis (to either σref or σiso) such data should always be explicitly indicated as σiso –σref, σXX – σiso, etc.
The term “shielding” has in recent years been modified in many papers to “chemical shielding”.
There are reasons for discouraging this terminology, given that it was not in use in the earliest years of
NMR. In the first place, it gives the wrong impression, since shielding is properly described as electronic or magnetic, rather than “chemical” (whereas “chemical shift” correctly expresses the eponymous phenomenon, which is experimentally rather than theoretically based). Secondly, anisotropy in“chemical” shielding becomes abbreviated as CSA, which is then confused with chemical shiftanisotropy, exacerbating the sign problem.
Recommendation 17: The term “shielding anisotropy” should be used, with attendant abbreviation SA, giving a distinction from CSA (which then refers unambiguously to chemical shift anisotropy).
In principle, conventions recommended for shielding tensors should be consistent with those ingeneral use for other tensor properties relevant to NMR. However, this is a problem, since such conventions vary significantly and it is outside the brief of this task group to make proposals for mattersother than shielding and chemical shift notation. Nonetheless, to provide a link between the various
common conventions, we mention in Appendix 2 some of the usages for the relevant tensors.
11. CONCLUDING REMARKS
These recommendations are intended to underline the importance of reporting chemical shifts in a consistent way in the literature. Seventeen specific recommendations are distributed through the document,
since it is important that they be read in the context of the relevant sections. As pointed out in several
instances, these recommendations extend and clarify recommendations made in ref. [4] and, where relevant, in ref. [3], which deals primarily with biopolymers. All the recommendations in the three documents are based on a practical approach for reporting observations in both solids and liquids that should*Arguments for treating chemical shift and shielding as separate tensors [39] and counter-arguments [40] have been given in theliterature.

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Conventions for NMR chemical shifts

79

encourage compliance with minimal effort. The distinction between chemical shift and shielding, inboth liquids and solids, is emphasized to encourage authors to make clear the relations between experimentally determined values and the underlying theoretical constructs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful for helpful comments from a number of people, including Profs. D. M. Grant, M. H.
Levitt, R. Dupree, K. Jackowski, M. Jaszunski, R. E. Wasylishen, and R. M. Lynden-Bell, and Drs. M.
J. Duer, J. J. Titman, P. Hodgkinson, J. C. Facelli, D. E. Shalev, and M. M. Veshtort. The expert reviewers have also been very helpful, and a number of changes have been made in response to their comments.
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8. F. G. Morin, M. S. Solum, J. D. Withers, D. M. Grant, D. K. Dalling. J. Magn. Reson. 48, 138(1982).
9. R. E. Hoffman, E. D. Becker. J. Magn. Reson. 176, 87 (2005).
10. R. E. Hoffman. Magn. Reson. Chem. 44, 606 (2006).
11. S. C.-K. Chu, Y. Xu, J. A. Balschi, C. S. Springer Jr. Magn. Reson. Med. 13, 239 (1990).
12. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 62nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton (1982).
13. Landolt-Bornstein Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik Chemie Astronomie Geophysik und
Technik, 6th ed., 2 Band, 10 Teil, Magnetic Properties II, Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1967).
14. T. M. Barbara. J. Magn. Reson. Ser. A 109, 265 (1994).
15. R. E. Hoffman. J. Magn. Reson. 178, 237 (2006).
16. R. E. Hoffman. J. Magn. Reson. 163, 325 (2003).
17. L. N. Mulay. In Techniques of Chemistry. Physical Methods of Chemistry, Part IV, A.
Weissberger, B. W. Rossiter (Eds.), Wiley-Interscience, New York (1972).
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19. J. R. Zimmerman, M. R. Foster. J. Phys. Chem. 61, 282 (1957).
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Magn. Reson. A 18, 56 (2003).
21. P. Granger, M. Bourdonneau, O. Assémat, M. Piotto. Conc. Magn. Reson. A 30, 184 (2007).
22. G. W. F. Drake. In Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics Handbook, American Institute ofPhysics, Woodbury, NY (1996).
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Blackwell Scientific, Oxford (1993).
24. P. Raghavan. At. Data Nucl. Data Tables 42, 189 (1989).
25. (a) A. Antusek, K. Jackowski, M. Jaszuński, W. Makulski, M. Wilczek. Chem. Phys. Lett. 411,
111 (2005); (b) W. Makulski, K. Jackowski, A. Antušek, M. Jaszuński. J. Phys. Chem. A 110,11462 (2006); (c) K. Jackowski, M. Jaszuński. Conc. Magn. Reson. A 30, 246 (2007).
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26. IUPAC Physical Chemistry Division. Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 3rded., prepared for publication by E. R. Cohen, T. Cvitaš, J. G. Frey, B. Holmström, K. Kuchitsu,
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42. J. A. S. Smith. J. Chem. Educ. 48, 39 (1971).
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APPENDIX 1: RECOMMENDED VALUES OF  FOR VARIOUS NUCLIDESa
Isotope
1H
2H
3H
3He
6Li
7Li
9Be
10B
11B
13Cd
14N
15N
17O
19F
21Ne

Frequency
ratio, Ξ /%Referencecompound

100.000 000
100.000 000b
15.350 609
106.663 974
76.178 976c
14.716 086
38.863 797
14.051 813
10.743 658
32.083 974
25.145 020
25.144 953b
7.226 317
10.136 767
10.132 912b
13.556 457
94.094 011
7.894 296

Me4Si
DSS methyl signal(CD3)4Si
Me4Si-t1
He
LiCl
LiCl
BeSO4
BF3.Et2O
BF3.Et2O
Me4Si
DSS methyl signal
MeNO2
MeNO2
NH3 (liquid)
D2O
CCl3F
Ne

Reference compound
conditionsa
CDCl3, ϕ = 1 %
D2O
neat
gas
D2O, 9.7 mol/kg
D2O, 9.7 mol/kg
D2O, 0.43 mol/kg
CDCl3, ϕ = 15 %CDCl3, ϕ = 15 %CDCl3, ϕ = 1 %D2Oneat/CDCl3eneat/CDCl3eexternal
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81

Conventions for NMR chemical shifts
IsotopeFrequency
ratio, Ξ /%ReferencecompoundReference compound
conditionsa

23Na
25Mg
27Al
29Si
31P

26.451 900
6.121 635
26.056 859
19.867 187
40.480 742
40.480 864b
7.676 000
9.797 909
8.155 725
4.666 373
5.802 018
2.561 305
6.730 029
24.291 747
5.637 534
5.639 037
9.970 309
26.302 948
5.652 496
24.789 218
3.237 778
23.727 074
8.936 051
26.515 473
28.403 693
6.256 803
24.001 354
30.496 704
3.488 31517.122 614
19.071 513
25.053 980
27.006 518
3.847 600
9.654 943
32.720 454
4.333 822
4.900 198
9.296 298
24.476 170
6.516 926
6.653 695
22.508 326
4.605 151
5.161 369

NaCl
MgCl2
Al(NO3)3
Me4Si
H3PO4
(MeO)3PO(NH4)2SO4
NaCl
NaCl
KCl
KCl
KCl
CaCl2
Sc(NO3)3
TiCl4
TiCl4
VOCl3
VOCl3
K2CrO4KMnO4Fe(CO)5
K3[Co(CN)6]
Ni(CO)4[Cu(MeCN)4][ClO4][Cu(MeCN)4][ClO4]
Zn(NO3)2
Ga(NO3)3
Ga(NO3)3
Me4Ge
NaAsF6
Me2Se
NaBr
NaBr
Kr
RbCl
RbCl
SrCl2
Y(NO3)3Zr(C5H5)2Cl2
K[NbCl6]
Na2MoO4
Na2MoO4
NH4TcO4
K4[Ru(CN)6]
K4[Ru(CN)6]

D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 11 mol/dm3
D2O, 1.1 mol/kg
CDCl3, ϕ = 1 %external
internal
D2O, satd.
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.06 mol/dm3
neat/C6D12eneat/C6D12eneat/C6D6eneat/C6D6e
D2O, satd.
D2O, 0.82 mol/kg
C6D6, ϕ = 80 %D2O, 0.56 mol/kg
neat/C6D6, ϕ = 80 %CH3CN, satd./C6D6e
CH3CN, satd./C6D6e
D2O, satd.
D2O, 1.1 mol/kg
D2O, 1.1 mol/kg
neat
CD3CN, 0.5 mol/dm3
neat/C6D6e
D2O, 0.01 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.01 mol/dm3
Gas
D2O, 0.01 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.01 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.5 mol/dm3
H2O/D2O
CH2Cl2, satd./C6D6e
CH3CN, satd./CD3CNe
D2O, 2 mol/dm3
D2O, 2 mol/dm3
H2O/D2O
D2O, 0.3 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.3 mol/dm3

33S
35Cl
37Cl
39K
40K
41K
43Ca
45Sc
47Ti
49Ti
50V
51V
53Cr
55Mn
57Fe
59Co
61Ni
63Cu
65Cu
67Zn
69Ga
71Ga
73Ge
75As
77Se
79Br
81Br
83Kr
85Rb
87Rb
87Sr
89Y
91Zr
93Nb
95Mo
97Mo
99Tc
99Ru
101Ru

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R. K. HARRIS et al.

82
IsotopeFrequency
ratio, Ξ /%

103Rh
105Pd
107Ag
109Ag
111Cd
113Cd
113In
115In
115Sn

3.186 447
4.576 100
4.047 819
4.653 533
21.215 480
22.193 175
21.865 755
21.912 629
32.718 749
35.632 259
37.290 632
23.930 577
12.959 217
26.169 742
31.549 769
20.007 486
27.810 186
8.243 921
13.116 142
9.934 457
11.112 928
13.194 300
14.125 641(4.007)(2.517)
11.989 600
4.166 387
22.524 600
22.751 600
2.282 331
7.765 400
(1.718)(1.871)21.496 784(1.729)17.910 822
6.611 583
57.123 200
57.683 838
20.920 599
16.069 288

117Sn
119Sn
121Sb
123Sb
123Te
125Te
127I
129Xe
131Xe
133Cs
135Ba
137Ba
138La
139La
177Hf
179Hf
181Ta
183W
185Re
187Re
187Os
189Os
191Ir
193Ir
195Pt
197Au
199Hg
201Hg
203Tl
205Tl
207Pb
209Bi

ReferencecompoundRh(acac)3
K2PdCl6
AgNO3
AgNO3
Me2Cd
Me2Cd
In(NO3)3
In(NO3)3
Me4Sn
Me4Sn
Me4Sn
KSbCl6
KSbCl6
Me2Te
Me2Te
KI
XeOF4
XeOF4
CsNO3
BaCl2
BaCl2
LaCl3
LaCl3
–
–
KTaCl6
Na2WO4
KReO4
KReO4
OsO4
OsO4
–
–
Na2PtCl6–
Me2Hgg
Me2HggTl(NO3)3Tl(NO3)3
Me4Pb
Bi(NO3)3

Reference compound
conditionsa
CDCl3, satd.
D2O, satd.
D2O, satd.
D2O, satd.
neat
neat
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3f
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3f
neat/C6D6eneat/C6D6eneat/C6D6e
CH3CN, satd./CD3CNe
CH3CN, satd./CD3CNeneat/C6D6eneat/C6D6e
D2O, 0.01 mol/dm3
neat
neat
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.5 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.5 mol/dm3
D2O/H2O
D2O, 0.01 mol/dm3
CH3CN, satd.
D2O, 1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
D2O, 0.1 mol/dm3
CCl4, 0.98 mol/dm3
CCl4, 0.98 mol/dm3
D2O, 1.2 mol/dm3
neat
neat
neat/C6D6e
HNO3/D2O/H2O

aFurther details are to be found in ref. [4].
bThis value, taken from ref. [3], represents Ξ DSS, rather than Ξ itself as defined in Section 8. The difference of approximately

0.07 ppm, as indicated in Table 2, should be taken into account when comparisons are made between values of Ξ and Ξ DSS.

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Conventions for NMR chemical shifts

83

cThis value is changed from that given in ref. [4], as described in the text. The revised value, taken from data given in reference[9], takes into account the very significant magnetic susceptibility correction for helium gas vs. the primary reference sample of
TMS in CDCl3.
dValues for Ξ for 13C solid-state NMR are given in Section 9, eqs. 7–10
eSmall amount of deuterated compound added to neat liquid or nondeuterated solvent to provide a lock signal.
fPlus 0.5 mol/dm3 DNO .
3
gThis compound is highly toxic (as may be some of the other references listed) and should not be used directly.

APPENDIX 2: NMR TENSORS OTHER THAN SHIELDING
A number of tensor quantities, in addition to shielding, affect NMR. Principal among these are dipolar
coupling, indirect J-coupling and quadrupolar coupling. For completeness, we mention below usages
for these tensors:(a)Simple dipolar coupling is axial (so that ηD = 0) and its isotropic average is zero. Therefore, apartfrom orientation information, such coupling between a pair of nuclei i and j is fully defined by
the dipolar coupling constant, D:()

D = µo / 4 π ( h / 2π ) γ i γ j /rij3 in frequency units*(25)

The Z axis is automatically given by the internuclear vector rij. The usual formulae then result in
DXX = DYY = D (≡ D⊥)(26)

DZZ = – 2D (≡ D//)

(27)

Thus, use of anisotropy notation gives∆D = –3D(b)

The dipolar tensor may become non-axial when there is molecular-level mobility, causing averaging.
Indirect coupling generally has a non-zero isotropic average and is not axially symmetric.
However, any asymmetry (ηJ) is almost always ignored (though this is rarely theoretically justifiable), and an anisotropy convention is generally adopted∆J = J// – J⊥

(c)

(28)

(29)

where the subscripts indicate components parallel and perpendicular to the assumed symmetryaxis.
Quadrupolar coupling is not, in general, axially symmetric but its isotropic average is zero. Most
references [42,43] choose the components such that |χZZ| ≥ |χYY| ≥ |χXX|**. Unfortunately, because the isotropic average is zero, this places the components in the algebraic order χZZ, χXX,
χYY (or the reverse), which is neither sensible nor consistent with shielding notation. Quadrupolarinteractions are generally expressed in terms of a “quadrupole coupling constant”, χ†, defined as
the largest componentχZZ ≡ χ = e2qZZQ/h(30)*Some authors [41] attribute a negative sign to this parameter.
**Frequently, it is the components of the electric field gradient, Vjj or eqjj, which are listed, rather than those of the coupling
constant. Note that it is normal for the components to be labeled XX, YY, and ZZ rather than 11, 22, and 33.
†An alternative symbol, C , is frequently used for this quantity, though χ is recommended by IUPAC [23].
Q© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84

R. K. HARRIS et al.

84

This quantity may be either positive or negative, since both qZZ and Q can be separately positiveor negative. Given the zero isotropic average, an anisotropy (= χ// – χ⊥ in an axial case) may be
simply defined by∆χ = 23 χ(31)though this parameter is seldom listed. However, the second parameter (i.e., the asymmetry ηQ,
which ranges from 0 to 1) takes the same form as for shielding (though with X and Y reversed)

ηQ = (χXX – χYY)/χZZ(32)© 2008 IUPAC, Pure and Applied Chemistry 80, 59–84