Transport and Climate Change Global Status Report 2018
Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport (SLoCaT)

SLoCaT Secretariat Team
Karl Peet, Sudhir Gota, Cornie Huizenga, Nikola Medimorec, Angela Enriquez, Alice Yiu, Bente Verheul, Holger
Dalkmann, Maruxa Cardama.
Citation:
SLoCaT (2018). Transport and Climate Change Global Status Report 2018. Available at: http://slocat.net/tcc-gsr

Website: http://slocat.net/
Disclaimer
This report has been produced by the Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport (SLoCaT) and the views expressedin this report are not necessarily the views and the consensus of members of SLoCaT. The data and information provided
in this report have been prepared from available sources and references to the origin of the data are provided where
possible. SLocaT cannot be held liable for the accuracy, completeness and correctness of the data and information. The
maps in this report do not imply any opinion whatsoever concerning the legal status of any region, country, territory, cityor area or of its authorities, and is without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitationof international frontiers or boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.

The Transport and Climate Change Global Status Report 2018 (TCC-GSR) has been developed with the support of the German
Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation.

A significant share of the research for this report was conducted on a voluntary basis.

Acknowledgments
Strategy Team
Barry Howe (Alstom), Harvey Scorcia (CAF), Bernhard Ensink (ECF), Andre Eckermann (GIZ and MobiliseYourCity Partnership), Daniel
Bongardt (GIZ), Jacob Teter (IEA), Wei-Shiuen Ng (ITF), Nicholas Wagner (IRENA), Ahmed Al Qabany (IsDB), Ramón Cruz (ITDP),
Rana Adib (REN21), Philip Turner (UITP), José Holguin-Veras (VREF), Bronwen Thornton (Walk21), Maria Cordeiro (World Bank),
Carlos Dora and Thiago Hérick de Sa (WHO), Alyssa Fischer (WRI).
Section Authors and Contributors
Juan Carlos Muñoz (BRT Centre of Excellence); Diletta Giuliani (CBI); Carlosfelipe Pardo (Despacio); Richard Clarke and Sheila
Watson (GFEI); Laura Merrill (GSI); Tyrrell Duncan (Independent); Bernhard Ensink (ECF); Sacha Scheffer (IEA); Jacob Mason (ITDP);
Phil Sayeg (Policy Appraisal Services Pty Ltd); Rana Adib, Flávia Guerra and Hannah Murdock (REN21); Cornie Huizenga, Angela
Enriquez, Sudhir Gota, Nikola Medimorec, Karl Peet and Alice Yiu (SLoCaT); Daniel Sauter (Urban Mobility Research); Adam Cohen
and Susan Shaheen (UC Berkeley); Andrea Braschi and Carole Escolan Zeno (UIC); Philip Turner (UITP); Marie Venner (Venner
Consulting); Todd Litman (VTPI); Maria Cordeiro (WB); Thiago Herick de Sá and Regina Guthold (WHO).
Feedback Team Members
Mark Wenzel (California EPA); Sonia Yeh (Chalmers); Jakob Baum, Urda Eichhorst, Mathias Merforth, Christian Mettke and Friedel
Sehlleier (GIZ); Yann Briand (IDDRI); Pierpaolo Cazzola, Marine Gorner, Sacha Scheffer and Jacob Teter (IEA); Nicholas Wagner
and Gayathri Prakash (IRENA); Susanna Zammataro (IRF); Wei-Shiuen Ng (ITF); Markus Delfs (MobilseYourCity Partnership); Jan
Brooke (Navigating a Changing Climate); Aage Jorgensen (NDF); Sharon Feigon (SUMC); Andrew Murphy (Transport & Environment);
Lew Fulton (UC Davis); Tristan Smith (UCL Energy Institute); Valentin Foltescu (UN Environment); Bronwen Thornton and Martin
Wedderburn (Walk21); Dario Hidalgo (WRI).
Senior Advisor
Tyrrell Duncan (Independent Consultant)Special Advisor
Rana Adib (REN21)
Lead Consultant
Aileen Carrigan (Bespoke Transit Solutions)
Editing, Design and Layout
Lisa M. Ross (Editor)
Rayce Tugano, Billy Villareal, Rai O’Yek, Armie Decena, Ronald Eugenio, Mike Cortes (Design Muscle)
Cover Photos
Nikola Medimorec
Ryoji Iwata
Peer Reviewers and Other Contributors
Alexander Jung (Agora Verkehrswende); Barry Howe (Alstom); Bert Witkamp (AVERE); Emilie Prattico (Business for Social
Responsibility); Bernhard Ensink (ECF); Zoltán Szabó (EERL); Jakob Baum; Dennis Knese, Mathias Merforth, Christian Mettke, Martin
Schaefer, Friedel Sehlleier, and Tali Trigg (GIZ); Cristiano Façanha (ICCT); Yann Briand (IDDRI); Sacha Scheffer (IEA); Laetitia Dablanc(IFSTTAR); Gayathri Prakash and Nicholas Wagner (IRENA); Cristian Gonzalez and Susanna Zammataro (IRF); Clarisse Linke andJacob Mason (ITDP); Markus Delfs (MobilseYourCity Partnership); Jan Brooke (Navigating a Changing Climate); Aage Jorgensen(NDF); Holly Parker (Noa); Caley Johnson (NREL); Flávia Guerra and Hannah Murdock (REN21); Hutch Hutchinson (Rocky Mountain
Institute); Ellen Partridge and Kevin Karner (Shared Use Mobility Center); Holger Dalkmann (Sustain 2030); Andrew Murphy (T&E);
Philippe Stefanos (UIC); Bert Fabian (UN Environment); Herrie Schalekamp (University of Cape Town); Edna Ohiambo (University of
Nairobi); Kara Kockelman (University of Texas); Marie Venner (Venner Consulting); Roger Behrens (VREF CoE - Cape Town); Todd
Litman (VTPI); Bronwen Thornton (Walk21); Patricia Ferrini (WHO); Maria Cordeiro (World Bank); Ben Welle (WRI); Fernando Rangel
Villasana (WWF); Stefan Bakker (Independent); Tyrrell Duncan (Independent); David Leipziger (Independent); Margarita Parra(Independent); Xumei Chen (Independent).

Foreword
A recently-released special report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change underscores the urgency of reducing
emissions significantly and rapidly to achieve the 1.5 degree Celsius scenario (1.5DS) called for in the Paris Agreement, to avoid
potentially catastrophic climate impacts by mid-century. The transport sector contributes roughly one quarter of global energy
related GHG emissions and one sixth of total emissions and is the fastest growing emissions sector. Without rapid and ambitious
mitigation action, transport emissions could more than double by 2050; thus, it is evident that any path to a 1.5DS must include low
carbon transport as a central element.
This inaugural edition of the Transport and Climate Change Global Status Report (TCC-GSR) is intended to help ensure that low-carbon
transport is a central strategy in climate action at global, regional, national, and sub-national levels. The report describes recent
trends in transport demand emissions, illustrates recent policy targets and measures across a number of transport sub-sectors, andsets a baseline from which to demonstrate the potential of transport to make a proportional contribution to the 1.5DS. The TCC-GSR
is intended primarily as a resource for policy-makers to raise ambition on climate mitigation and adaptation in sustainable transportplans and programs by countries, cities, states and provinces, and private sector companies; thus, the report provides a central
repository on transport and climate change data which can help to support policy-makers in setting transport planning targets. In
addition, the report offers trends analyses supported by peer examples to help increase coherence among low carbon transport
policies for actors at different levels of government.
The TCC-GSR opens with a Key Findings section, which synthesizes report outputs and offers a set of broad trends observedin the past year. Part I of the report consists of a Global Overview comparing current trends in transport and climate change
across three dimensions: passenger and freight transport, international aviation and shipping, and global regions with respect totransport demand, transport emissions, and low-carbon transport policy measures. Part II describes recent trends in transportdemand and transport emissions and illustrates potential Paris Agreement-compliant mitigation pathways. Part III of describes
frameworks for transport and climate change planning through the UNFCCC mitigation and adaptation planning processes, alongwith low carbon transport policy targets and measures across eight major policy areas, which are illustrated by recent examples
from a range of global regions including extensive case studies from the Global South. Part IV describes avenues to scale up andaccelerate implementation of low-carbon transport measures, which include financing strategies to achieve transformationalchange in the transport sector and ongoing stakeholder efforts to support such a transformation at global, regional, national andsub-national levels.
While the TCC-GSR offers a snapshot of recent progress on transport and climate change, it is not intended to make policy
recommendations, nor does it advocate the use of any particular low carbon transport measure, mode, or technology. Data are
drawn from the most recent publicly-available source to populate a set of key indicators, which are to be refined and expanded in the
future. As available data are not consistently robust for each of the eight policy areas, the report maintains indicators to highlight
existing gaps with the goal to support future data collection efforts. Mode shift and emission reduction impacts for implemented
measures in each of the eight policy areas are quantified where possible, data sets are currently limited for most of this policy areas.
The eight policy areas described in Part III provide an illustrative subset of transport sub-sectors to complement summaries in the
Global Overview, which are to be expanded in future iterations of the TCC-GSR. Future editions of the report are envisioned to haveincreasing emphasis on quantifying the results of policy targets and measures relative to the baselines established in the current
report, and to assess these trends relative to the transport sector emission gap. To accomplish this, the TCC-GSR will seek toestablish in-country networks to help compile more current and comprehensive transport data.
This report has been made possible through the generous support of the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the William and Flora
Hewlett Foundation. In addition, the creation of this report has relied upon the largely volunteer efforts of more than 100 individual
contributors as special advisors, section authors, strategy team and feedback team members, peer reviewers, among other roles, as
gratefully noted in the Acknowledgments section.
Amy Kenyon
SLoCaT Board Chair

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments								

ivForewordv

List of Abbreviations							

xKey Findings								

xivA. Transport and Climate Change Findings					

1B. Transport and Climate Change Trends and Developments				4

Dashboard I: Key Findings						

7Part I: Global Overview							

9A. Passenger and Freight Transport Trends					

101. Passenger Transport							

102. Freight Transport								

11B. Transport and Climate Change Trends in Global Regions				13

1. Africa									

132. Asia									

143. Europe									

154. Latin America and the Caribbean						

165. North America								

166. Oceania								

18C. International Aviation and Shipping Trends					

191. International Aviation							

192. International Shipping							

19Dashboard II: Global Overview						

22Part II. Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways			24

A. Transport Demand							

241. Drivers of Transport Demand						

242. Passenger Transport Demand Trends						

263. Freight Transport Demand Trends						

304. Transport Infrastructure Supply						

30B. Transport Emissions and Other Impacts					

331. Economy-Wide CO2 Emissions						

332. Transport CO2 Emissions Trends						

343. Disaggregating Transport CO2 Emissions					

364. Transport Energy Intensity							

375. Carbon Intensity of Transport Fuels						

386. Other Climate-Related Transport Impacts					

38C. Transport CO2 Emission Mitigation Targets and Potential				41

1. Transport Business-as-Usual Projections					

412. Paris Agreement-Compatible Transport Emissions Pathways			42

3. Transport Sector Mitigation Potential						

43Part III. Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change			48

A. Frameworks and Mechanisms for Tracking Low Carbon Transport Measures		49

1. Nationally Determined Contributions						

50TABLE OF CONTENTS

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

2. Long-term Low-emission Development Strategies							 513. National Adaptation Plans and National Adaptation Programmes of Action				51

4. Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions							

52B. Policy Landscape on Transport and Climate Change						

531. Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management					

542. Urban Public Transport									

613. Passenger and Freight Railways								

664. Walking and Cycling									

725. New Mobility Services									

806. Fuel Economy										

867. Electric Mobility										

928. Renewable Energy in Transport									 98Dashboard III: Market Developments and Policy Landscape						

106Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action				108

A. Financing for Transport and Climate Change							

1091. Current Transport Investments and Projected Future Investment Needs				109

2. Current Sources of Transport Finance								

1113. Official Development Assistance for Transport							

1134. Multilateral Development Bank Investments in Sustainable Transport				113

5. Climate Finance for Sustainable Transport							

115B. Stakeholders Mobilizing for Action on Transport and Climate Change				117

Reference Tables										

123Endnotes											

127FIGURES
1: Share of Transport GHG Emission by Mode (left 2014, right 2015)					

12: Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework								

33: Motorized Passenger Transport Demand (2000 and 2015)						

104: Freight Transport Demand (2000 and 2015)							

115: Regional Share and International Aviation and Shipping Shares of Transport CO2 Emissions (2000 to 2016)		

13

6: Transport Demand Drivers and Impacts (2000 to 2017)						

257: Status of Passenger Mobility (2000 and 2015)							

278: Motorized Passenger Transport Mode Share in OECD and non-OECD Countries (2015)				

28

9: Growth of Passenger Activity for Motorized Transport Modes (2000 to 2015)				

28

10: Paved Road Infrastructure Growth (2000 to 2015)							

3111: Transport Infrastructure Increase (2000 to 2017)							

3212: ASIF (Activity x Mode Share x Fuel Intensity x Fuel Mix) Formula 					

3313: Fossil CO2 Emissions by Sector (1970 to 2016)							

3314: Decoupling Transport Emissions and GDP Growth (1995 to 2016)					

3415: Transport CO2 Emissions Share of OECD and non-OECD Countries (2000 to 2016)				

35

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

16: Average Annual Growth Rates of Transport CO2 Emissions (1990 to 2016)						

3517: Transport CO2 Emissions Share by Mode (2000 and 2015)						

3618: Passenger and Freight Modal Shares for Activity, Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions (2015)			

37

19: Transport Energy Intensity for World, OECD and Non-OECD Countries (2014)				

38

20: Total Transport Energy Consumption by Fuel Source (2000 and 2015)				

39

21: Transport Business-as-Usual CO2 Emissions Projections (2000 to 2050)					

4222: Countries with 2050 Transport Low Carbon Estimates						

4423: Projected Transport CO2 Emissions: Business as Usual and Low Carbon Pathways (2010 to 2050)			

44

24: Transport Mitigation Potential across Sub-sectors (2020 to 2050)				

45

25: Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework								

4626: Typology of Transport Mitigation Strategies							

4627: Number of NDCs Highlighting Transport Modes and Sub-Sectors					

5028: Share of Avoid, Shift and Improve Transport Measures in NDCs						

5029: Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans by Region and for Countries in Europe				55

30: Singapore Economic vs. Transport Growth (1991 to 2014)				

56

31: Overview of Major TDM Measures by Region				

58

32: London Trip Mode Share							

6033: Evolution of BRT Systems						

6434: Electrification of Railway for Global and Selected Countries (1990 to 2015)					

6735: Development of HSR Worldwide				69

36: Energy Intensity of High-Speed Rail by Geographic Area (kJ/passenger-km)				

70

37: Railway CO2 Emissions for Passenger and Freight Transport					

7138: Walking and Cycling for Transport by Income Group						

7439: Modal Share of Walking in Different Cities Globally						

7440: Modal Share of Cycling for Transport			75

41: External Costs and Benefits of Transport in 2015							

7642: Comparison of Cycling and Walking to Other Modes							

7743: Urban Density and Modal Split Share					

7844: Growth of Bikesharing								

8345: Global Carsharing Members and Vehicles Trends

84

46: Year of Implementation of Vehicle Fuel Economy Labeling Programs for a Selection of Countries

87

47: CO2 Emissions Performance and Standards for Light Duty Vehicles (2000-2015)

88

48: Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy and Vehicle Sales by Country (2005 to 2015)89

49: Electric Vehicle Stock (battery and plug-in electric hybrids)

92

50: Countries and Regions with Fossil Fuel Vehicle Phase-out Plans

94

51: Share of Renewable Energy in Transport in 2015

98

52: Biofuel Blend Mandates

100

53: Countries, States and Provinces with Electric Vehicle and Renewable Energy Targets

101

54: Biofuel Production from 2004 to 2017

103

55: Proportion of Public and Private Investment in Transport, 2010 estimate

109

56: Countries Implementing Fossil Fuel Subsidy Reform in 2015-2016

112

57: Investments by MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport Towards the Goal of Rio+20 Commitment

114

58: Climate Finance Projects and Investment Volume by Year115

59: Climate Finance Instruments for Transport from 1992 to 2017 by Region

116

60: Growth of Transport Green Bonds

116

BOXES, TABLES, AND REFERENCE TABLES

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

BOXES
1: The Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework for Sustainable Transport Measures						

462: Adaptation Policy Measures in the Transport Sector							

513: Urban Transport Indices									

624: Definitions of New Mobility Services								

805: Calculating Projected Transport Investment Needs							

1106: Fossil Fuel Subsidies									

1127: Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action (MPGCA) Transport Initiatives				118

8: Other Initiatives on Transport and Climate Change

120

TABLES
1: Transportation Demand Management Strategies							

542: Top 10 Cities with the Most Expensive Parking							

573: Overview of Key Indicators for TDM								

594: Overview of Top Cities in Urban Mobility Indices							

575: Overview of Key Indicators for Urban Public Transport							

656: Overview of Key Indicators for Railways								

707: Top 10 Bicycle-Friendly Cities in 2017								

738: Overview of Key Indicators for Walking and Cycling							

779: Overview of Key Indicators for New Mobility Services							

8510: Overview of Key Indicators for Fuel Economy							

9011: Overview of Key Indicators for Electric Mobility							

9712: Overview of Key Indicators for Renewable Energy in Transport							

9913: IEA pathways for energy sector development to 2060						

110REFERENCE TABLES
1: Transport Targets Expressed in Nationally Determined Contributions					

1232: Investment Requirements for NDC Measures							

1233: Transport References in Long-Term Strategies							

1244: Transport Adaptation Measures in Submitted NAPs							

1245: NAPA Transport Measures									

1256: MDB Sustainable Transport Investment by Region (2012 to 2016)					

1257: MDB Total Climate Finance and Transport Mitigation Finance Commitments (2011 to 2017)			

126

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS°C		
1.5DS		
2DS		
4DS		
6DS		
A-S-I		
ADB		
AfD		
AR4		
AR5		
ASEAN		AV		B2DS		BAU		BC		BRT 		CAF 		CBI 		
CDM 		
CFI 		
CH4		
CHF 		
CNG 		
CO		
CO2		
COP		
CORSIA		
CTF 		CTR		
E-bike		
EBRD 		ECF 		EDGAR 		EEA 		
EERL		eGSE		EIB 		EPA 		ETS		EU		EUR 		EV 		EVI 		

Degree Celsius
1.5°C scenario
2°C scenario
4°C scenario
6°C scenario
Avoid-Shift-Improve
Asian Development Bank
Agence française de développement (French development agency)
Fourth Assessment Report of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Fifth Assessment Report of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Autonomous vehicle
Beyond 2°C Scenario
Business-as-usual
Black carbon
Bus rapid transit
Development Bank of Latin America
Climate Bonds Initiative
Clean Development Mechanism
Climate finance instruments
MethaneSwiss Franc
Compressed natural gas
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Conference of Parties
Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation
Clean Technology Fund
Commute trip reduction
Electric bike
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
European Cyclists’ Federation
Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research
European Environmental Agency
Ethanol Europe Renewables Ltd.
Electric ground support equipment
European Investment Bank
Environmental Protection Agency
Emissions trading scheme
European Union
Euro
Electric vehicle
Electric Vehicle Initiative

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

F-gases		
FAME 		gCO2/kWh

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Fluorinated gases
Faster Adoption and Manufacture of (Hybrid and) Electric Vehicles

Grams of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour
GCAS 		Global Climate Action Summit
GCF		
Green Climate Fund
GDP 		
Gross domestic product
GEF 		
Global Environment Facility
GFEI 		Global Fuel Economy Initiative
GGFAP 		Global Green Freight Action Plan
GHG 		
Greenhouse gases
GIZ 		
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German development agency)
GPAQ 		Global physical activity questionnaireGPS 		
Global positioning system
GSE		
Ground support equipment
Gt		 Gigatonnes
HDV 		
Heavy-duty vehicle
HLPF 		United Nations High Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development
HOV		
High occupancy vehicle
HSR 		
High-speed rail
HVO 		
Hydrotreated vegetable oil
IADB 		Inter-American Development BankICAO 		International Civil Aviation Organization
ICCT 		International Council on Clean Transportation
ICE 		
Internal combustion engines
ICT 		
Information and communications technology
IEA		
International Energy Agency
IKI		
International Climate Initiative
IMF 		
International Monetary FundIMO 		
International Maritime Organization
INDC 		Intended Nationally Determined Contributions
IPCC 		Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IRENA 		International Renewable Energy Agency
IRF 		
International Road Federation
IsDB		
Islamic Development Bank
ITDP 		Institute for Transportation and Development Policy
ITF 		
International Transport ForumITS 		
Intelligent transport system
JCM		Joint Crediting Mechanism
JI 		
Joint Implementationkm		 Kilometer
kWh		
Kilowatt hour
L		 Liter
LC2RTI		
Low Carbon Road and Road Transport Initiative

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

LCV		LDC 		LDV 		
LEDS GPLEZ		
LNG 		LRT 		
LT-LEDS 		
MaaS		MDB 		
MOU 		MPGCA 		MRT 		Mt		N2O		NACTO 		NAMA 		NAP		NAPA 		NDC 		
NDF 		NEDC 		NEV 		NGV 		
Nm3/h		NMVOC		NOx		NUA 		NUMP		ODA 		
OECD 		OHD 		OICA 		P2X		PIARC		PM2.5 		PPI 		PPMC 		PPP 		
RFP 		
RTR 		
RTS 		SAV 		

Light commercial vehicles
Least developed countries
Light-duty vehicles
Low Emissions Development Strategies Global Partnership
Low emissions zone
Liquefied natural gas
Light-rail transit
Long-term low-emission development strategy
Mobility as a service
Multilateral development bank
Memorandum of understanding
Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action
Mass rapid transit
Million tonnes
Nitrous oxide
National Association of City Transportation Officials
Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
National adaptation plan
National Adaptation Programme of Action
Nationally Determined Contributions
Nordic Development Fund
New European Driving Cycle
New energy vehicles
Natural gas vehicles
Normal Meter Cubed per Hour
Non-methane volatile organic compounds
Nitrogen oxides
New Urban Agenda
National urban mobility policy
Official development assistance
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Off-hour deliveries
Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d’Automobiles
Power-to-X
World Road Association
Particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometers
Private participation in infrastructure
Paris Process on Mobility and Climate
Public-private partnership
Requests for proposals
Rapid transit to resident
Reference technology scenario
Shared automated vehicle

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONSSDG 		SGD		
SLoCaT		
SMP 		SOV 		
SOx 		
SO2 		SuM4All		
SUMC		
SUMP 		SUV 		
TCC-GSR
TDA 		
TDM 		
TEN-T 		TNC 		TOD 		TUMI 		U.S.		UCL		UEMI 		UIC 		UITP 		ULEZ 		UN 		UNCRD		UNCTAD
UNDP 		UNESCAP
UNFCCCUN-HABITAT
USD		
V2G		
VKT 		VNR 		VOC		VTPI		WB		WBCSD 		WCA 		
WHO 		WRI 		ZEV 		

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Sustainable Development Goal
Singapore Dollar
Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon Transport
Shared mobility principles
Single-occupancy vehicle
Sulfur oxides
Sulfur dioxide
Sustainable Mobility for All
Shared-Use Mobility Center
Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan
Sports utility vehicle
Transport and Climate Change Global Status Report
Transport Decarbonisation AllianceTransport demand management
Trans-European transport network
Transportation network company
Transit-oriented development
Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative
United States
University College London
Urban Electric Mobility Initiative
International Union of Railways
International Association of Public Transport
Ultra-low emission zone
United Nations
United Nations Centre for Regional Development
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
United States Dollar
Vehicle-to-grid
Vehicle kilometer traveled
Voluntary national review
Volatile organic compounds
Victoria Transport Policy InstituteWorld BankWorld Business Council on Sustainable Development
World Cycling AllianceWorld Health Organization
World Resources InstituteZero emission vehicle

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Key Findings

Photo credit: iStock / olaser

Key Findings

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

A. Transport and Climate Change Findings
Considering the implementation of the Paris Agreement on
climate change, transport must inevitably play its part if
global targets are to be met. This report highlights five corequestions on transport emissions trends, emissions drivers,
mitigation potential, policy responses, and transport’s
contribution toward the beyond 2°C scenario (B2DS) target.

America, where transport per capita is a lot higher thanin the other regions.5•

Regional shares of global emissions are rising in Asia,
Northern Africa, and Latin America and the Caribbean;falling in Europe and North America and remaining
roughly level in Oceania.6•

Passenger and freight transport emissions increased
by 36% and 75%, respectively, between 2000 and 2015.
Freight emissions are now growing much faster thanpassenger transport emissions, and the freight emission
share in total transport CO2 emissions increased from
35% in 2000 to 41% in 2015.7•

Road transport is the largest contributor to global
CO2 emissions from transport, accounting for threequarters of transport emissions in 2015. Passenger
cars, two-and-three wheelers and mini buses
contribute about 75% of passenger transport CO2
emissions, while public transport (bus and railways)
generates about 7% of the passenger transport CO2
emissions despite covering a fifth of passenger
transport globally.8•

Railways account for about 8% of passenger transport
activity, and 28% of surface freight transport activity,
while producing about 3% of global transport CO2
emissions.9•

International aviation emissions increased by 47% from2000 to 2016 and reached 523 million tonnes (Mt) CO2
in 2016; international shipping emissions grew by 33%
and reached 656 Mt CO2 in the same year.10 Together,international aviation and shipping produce moretransport CO2 emissions per year than any country in
the world except the United States.

Transport emissions are increasing in various
regions and sub-sectors.
•

Transport sector carbon dioxide (CO2) direct emissions
increased 29% (from 5.8 Gt to 7.5 gigatonnes (Gt))
between 2000 and 2016, at which point transport
produced about 23% of global energy-related CO2
emissions, and (as of 2014) 14% of global greenhousegas (GHG) emissions.1•

Transport is the third-largest source of CO2 emissions
after the power sector and other industrial combustion.2•

Transport CO2 emissions in non-Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (nonOECD) member countries increased from 1.5 Gt in
2000 to 2.9 Gt in 2016, which equals a share of 27% to41%, respectively. The share of emissions from OECD
countries3 decreased from 58% to 43%, and the totaltransport CO2 emissions decreased by 50 million tonnes
CO2 from 2.99 Gt in 2000 to 2.94 Gt in 2016.4•

Growth in absolute transport CO2 emissions between
2000 and 2016 was highest in Asia (92%), Africa (84%)
and Latin America (49%), driven by growth in passenger
and freight transport activity in these regions, thoughstarting from lower baselines than Europe and North

Figure1: Share of Transport
Sector GHG Emissions by Mode (2015)11
Figure1: Avoid-Shift-Improve
Framework
Share of Transport on
Economy-wide Emissions

14%

Rail

3%

Two-and-Three
Wheelers

4%

Buses and
Minibuses

5%

Shipping

11%

Aviation

11%

Trucks21%

Light Duty
Vehicles

45%

1

2

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Key Findings

Growth in transport activity and demand is driving
an increase in transport emissions.
••

From 2000 to 2017, the global population increased byabout 1.4 billion people to a total of 7.5 billion people,
with 82% of that increase concentrated in middle
and low-income countries. China and India alone
contributed about 30% of the population increase from2000 to 2017.12 Population growth has a direct impact
on transport demand, and an indirect impact on otherdemand drivers (i.e. per-capita income, urbanization).13
From 2000 to 2016, GDP growth among regions washighest in Asia (106%) and Africa (98%).14 Since 2008,
global GDP and transport emissions have grown atannual rates of 2.7% and 1.1%, respectively, showing
potential to decouple transport CO2 emissions fromincome in both developed and developing countries.15

is possible, but it requires unprecedented changes andfar-reaching transitions in all sectors. CO2 emissions
would need to be reduced by at least 45% from 2010
levels by 2030 and reach net-zero by around 2050,
which would also require existing CO2 to be removed
from the atmosphere.19•

Available evidence suggests that transport CO2
emissions would need to be restricted to about 2 to 3
Gt in 2050 (1.5°C scenario (1.5DS), B2DS), or about 70
to 80% below 2015 levels to meet the targets set in the
Paris Agreement.20•

A 1.5DS pathway for the transport sector is possibleusing a mix of stringent policy actions to reduce theneed for transport trips, encourage shifts toward
more efficient transport modes, and improve vehicle
efficiency through low-carbon technologies. 21•

The mitigation potential of transport requires
emission reductions in all regions, sub-sectors andmodes. Mitigation from passenger and freight show
similar potential, 22 while the road sector offers thelargest magnitude of mitigation potential. The main
sources of emission savings in both OECD and nonOECD country groupings are scaling up the use ofelectric vehicles, implementation of ‘Avoid’ and‘Shift’ policies (see definitions below), improved
vehicle efficiency, and use of biofuels.
Mitigation effects in emerging and developing
countries require significantly less investment thanachieving such effects in industrialized countries.

•

From 2005 to 2015, passenger transport energy intensity
has reduced by 27%, while freight transport energy
intensity reduced by only 5% across all regions. All
modes of passenger transport show improvement interms of energy intensity reductions, with light-duty
vehicles (LDVs) showing the least progress. Energy
intensity of road freight vehicles has not shown
reductions due to vehicle attributes, payloads, and lackof policy frameworks.

•

Passenger transport activity has plateaued in the OECD,showing indications that motorized travel did reduce,
while passenger transport in non-OECD countries grewalmost threefold since 2000.

••

Public transport passenger activity (bus and railways)
has stabilized to 2000 levels in OECD countries, and has
not increased in the past decade despite supportive
policies and investments, whereas in non-OECD
countries, absolute public transport passenger activity
has doubled from 2000 levels, yet as it trails behindurban population growth it thus records a decline on a
per-capita basis.

Countries and cities are formulating initial plansto reduce transport emissions and to increase
resilience of transport systems.

•

Global freight activity grew from about 64 trillion tonnekilometer (km) in 2000 to about 108 trillion tonne-km in
2015.16 Maritime shipping is the main transport mode
for long-distance trade, accounting for around 70% of
global trade value.17 Surface freight activity (road andrail) increased 40% from 2000 to 2015.

•

Air passenger-km traveled increased 145% from 2000 to2015, with growth in non-OECD countries nearly 3 times
larger than the global average (425%), and 10 times
larger than in OECD countries (44%).18•

Key transport mitigation responses can be structuredby the Avoid-Shift-Improve (A-S-I) framework:• Avoid passenger trips and freight movement or
reduce travel distance by motorized modes oftransport through regional and urban development
policies, integrated transport and spatialplanning, logistics optimization and travel demand
management. (See Section III.B.1 Sustainable
Mobility Planning and Transport Demand
Management).
•

Shift passenger and freight travel to moreenvironmentally- and socially-sustainable modes,
such as public transport, walking and cycling (inthe case of passenger transport), and railways orinland waterways (in the case of freight transport).
(See Sections III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning
and Transport Demand Management, III.B.2 Urban
Public Transport, III.B.3 Railways, III.B.4 Walking
and Cycling, and III.B.5 New Mobility Services).

•

Improve the energy efficiency of transport modes
through low carbon fuel and vehicle technologies,

Transport has the potential to make a significant
contribution to Paris Agreement targets.
•

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C shows that
limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5°C

Key Findings

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

increased vehicle load factors, and better
managed transport networks, with non-petroleum,
low carbon fuels playing a more significant role,
particularly before 2030. (See Sections III.B.6
Fuel Economy, III.B.7 Electric Mobility, and III.B.8
Renewable Energy in Transport).

adaptation and mitigation plans can include morescience-based targets.
•

There are significant discrepancies in terms of levelsof implementation of low carbon transport measuresamong developed and developing regions, countries
and cities.

Figure 2: Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework

Key
Elements

Avoid

Shift

Improve

Definitions

Avoid and reduce the needfor motorized travel

Shift to more environmentallyfriendly modes

Improve energy efficiency oftransport modes

TCC-GSR
PolicyExamples•Transport
DemandManagement

Urban Public
Transport

Railways

Walking and
Cycling

An analysis of all submitted 166 Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) representing 193 countries showsthat 76% highlight transport as a mitigation source, but
only 8% of NDCs have established transport sector
emission mitigation targets.23 In addition, there are
20 NDCs with indirect targets (e.g. targeting public
transport mode share, renewable energy share, fuelconsumption reduction, fuel efficiency) among all
NDCs submitted, and in some cases NDCs do notreflect transport targets included in national plans (e.g.
Germany).24•

NDCs do not outline clear pathways to decarbonizing
transport. Most NDCs do not consider importantinterlinkages with other sectors (e.g. linkages between
electric mobility and renewable energy, or implicationsof electric mobility on energy supply and networks).25•

NDCs focus more on passenger transport than freight.
64% of the NDCs highlighting transport refer topassenger transport, and only 21% refer to freight.26•

Transport adaptation to climate change appears in 29
NDCs (16%), and only 10 NDCs (4%) identify specifictransport adaptation measures (e.g. infrastructure
resilience projects).27•

Adaptation plans, especially those in developing
countries, are often limited by a lack of reliable
information on future climate impacts and current
inventories of transport assets and services. With
more reliable and up-to-date inputs, transport sector

New Mobility
Services

Fuel
EconomyElectric
Mobility

Renewable
EnergyTransport plans and actions to date are insufficient
to make a proportional contribution to the wellbelow-2 degrees Celsius scenario.
•

Policy responses expressed within the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) framework fall short of what is needed
for the transport sector. Instruments such as NDCs
do not fully serve their purpose in structuring
action; transport adaptation is largely absent innational adaptation plans (NAPs) and National
Adaptation Programme of Actions (NAPAs);
and few long-term low-emission development
strategies (LTS) have been submitted to the UNFCCC
to date.

•On mitigation, the sector is falling behind on the2020-2030-2050 trajectory. The main shortfalls
include: lack of progress on key technologies; highshare of motorized private travel in OECD countries;
passenger travel in non-OECD countries, 28 risingurbanization and motorization in Africa and Asia;
projected continued growth in surface freight inall regions (with little change in market share ofroad and rail), with a projected trebling in the AsiaPacific region to account for two-thirds of surface
freight by 2050; 29 and a continued dominance of roadtransport and aviation emissions in the sector.

3

4

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

If the economy-wide 2030 targets are translated to thetransport sector, assuming the current transport sharein economy-wide emissions, the 2030 NDC transport
trajectory would be above the B2DS trajectory (emissiongap) by 16%.30•

The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report31 in 2007 estimatedthat the share of non-OECD countries in the totaltransport emissions will increase to 46% by 2030.
However, by 2015, the non-OECD share in transport
emissions had already increased to 48% (15 years
ahead of the forecast).32•

Key Findings

plans to electrify their bus fleets. By 2017, there
were around 375,000 electric buses38 in operation in
more than 300 cities, with more than 98% deployedin China.39•

In 2015, the renewable energy share in transport
was estimated at 3.1%, while renewable electricity
represented approximately 0.3% of energy use in
the sector.40•

Links between transport electrification and renewableenergy are still tenuous. While there are limited
examples of countries with explicit policy linkages
between EVs and renewable electricity,41 implicit
linkages exist in 43 countries that have targets (at thenational or sub-national level) for both EVs and forshares of renewable electricity.42 The CO2 savings of
EVs were in total 29.4 Mt in 2017, mostly contributed
to by e-bikes in China.43 As EV uptake continues,
more explicit policy linkages and utility support oftransportation electrification will be required toreduce emissions.44•

Several announcements related to alternative fuels
for long-distance freight, shipping, and aviation weremade in 2017. Prototypes of electric planes, ships,
and heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), as well as fuel-cellheavy duty trucks were released.45 While over 100,000
commercial flights have used sustainable aviation
fuels to date,46 challenges remain to decarbonizing
the aviation and shipping subsectors. Mitigation
potential in these sectors may depend on efficiency
improvements, along with replacement of fossil fuelswith advanced biofuels (including biodiesel andethanol produced from biomass feedstock and nonfood energy crops), synthetic fuels, and transport
electrification powered by renewable energy.

•

Micromobility services, such as shared bikes,
electric kick scooters and e-scooters, emerged inrecent years and had accelerated growth in 2017.
Bikesharing is constantly expanding since a decadeago, and new dynamics have been recorded throughthe introduction of dockless bikesharing systems.

•

The number of carsharing vehicles grew globally by
51% between 2014 (104,060) and 2016 (157,357).47 Asia
accounts for 58% of worldwide carsharing membership,and 43% of global fleets deployed.48•

Through 2017, autonomous vehicles (AVs) werebeing tested in 82 cities in 26 countries across theglobe.49 Public and private-sector investments in AVs
proliferated, with a path to rollout becoming clearer,
and the timeframe to rollout shortening.50•

Fuel cell driven trains, which are powered by carbonfree produced hydrogen, have been implemented,
and are designed to replace diesel trains on
non-electrified lines.51

In conclusion, mitigation commitments and actions in
the transport sector to date are insufficient to achievea B2DS target, highlighting the need to accelerateaction and potentially increasing the need for ambitious
adaptation efforts.

B. Transport and Climate Change Trends
and Developments
The following statements provide context for the recent
trends and developments in transport that helped shape theresponse of the transport sector to climate change.

Technology is playing an increasing role in low
carbon transport plans and targets from countries,
states and provinces, cities, and companies.
••

Improvements in vehicle standards and fuel economy
are also significant for transport emission reductions.
The average fuel economy improved by 1.5% between
2005 and 2015,33 and fuel economy standards saved
9.7% of fuel consumption in road transport in 2015.34
Electric mobility (especially for passenger light-duty
vehicles (LDVs) and two-wheelers) is proliferating the
global market, helped in part by supporting policies,
lower costs and larger capacity of batteries. Afterthe electric car stock grew to 1 million in 2015, it
surpassed 2 million in 2016 and reached 3 million in
2017; however, electric cars still account for just 0.3%
of total passenger LDVs globally.35•

Electric bike (e-bike) sales outnumbered four-wheeled
electric vehicles (EVs) globally by a more than 30:1
ratio, and worldwide around 32 million e-bikes weresold in 2017, the majority in Europe and China.36 In
the Netherlands, one of three bikes sold in 2017 wasan e-bike.37•

In 2017, low carbon technologies played an increasingrole for electric buses, with rapid scaling up of
production and deployment. Cities in Europe, Latin
America, Africa and Asia announced and executedKey Findings

Transport is playing a more central role in global
processes on climate change and sustainable
development, but holistic solutions are stillneeded.
•••In 2015, the United Nations (UN) adopted the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development and established
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169
targets. Transport is linked to direct and indirect targetsof 8 SDGs. In the Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs)
submitted to the High-Level Political Forum (HLPF)
in 2017, nearly all countries (98%) reporting on theircontributions to the SDGs referenced transport, and
35% provided specific examples for transport actions.52
The New Urban Agenda (NUA) commits to the use ofsustainable and efficient transport infrastructure andservices where possible.53
In 2017, transport strengthened its position under the
Marrakech Partnership on Global Climate Action(MPGCA) through the launch of six new initiatives
on topics including walking, low-carbon fuels, andsustainable urban mobility, among others. There are
now 22 MPGCA Transport Initiatives that include bothpassenger and freight transport and touch on all majortransport sectors and modes.54
The Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) Initiative
brings together a diverse group of transport
stakeholders to act collectively to implement the SDGs
and transform the transport sector. In 2017 the Global
Mobility Report was released by SuM4All to assess theperformance of the transport sector regarding their fourmain objectives: universal access, efficiency, safety
and green mobility.

Political and corporate leadership on transportand climate change is growing in scope andintensity, within and outside of global agreements.
••

Some countries/sub-national entities are setting
deadlines to phase out internal combustion engines(ICEs), and targets to ramp up electric vehicles. In
some cases, these are more isolated announcements
without direct policy follow-up. In 2017, six countries(France, Ireland, The Netherlands, Slovenia, Sri Lanka
and United Kingdom) as well as the subnational entities
California and Scotland announced phase-out targets
for fossil fuel vehicles between 2030 and 2040, to join
Norway, which set a target on ban of sales for diesel
and petrol vehicles by 2025 in 2016.55
In 2017, 13 countries announced specific targets on
EV uptake, for a total of 60 countries to date.56 China
announced in 2017 that car makers will need to havea 10% share of new-energy vehicles’ sales by 2019 and
12% by 2020.57 Vehicle manufacturers are responding to

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

city/company plans by setting more ambitious internal
targets to phase out fossil fuel vehicles, and expand(hybrid and) electric models.
•

The Transport Decarbonisation Alliance (TDA) is
composed of entities committed to ambitious action
on transport and climate change, around public
commitments to decarbonize transport before or by
2050, and providing up-to-date public information
about relevant objectives, actions, progress andexperiences.58•

In April 2018, the International Maritime Organization(IMO) agreed to its first long-term emissions reduction
plan, with a target of reducing carbon emissions 50%
compared to 2008 by 2050 by optimizing operations andcapacity, increasing energy efficiency, and transitioning
the sector to low or zero-carbon fuels.59•

By 2017, 660 companies had pledged more than 1,000
commitments related to climate change. Transportrelated commitments under We Mean Business,
include below50 (sustainable fuels) and EV100 (electric
mobility); 38 companies have signed these transportcommitments to date.

•

In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) publishedthe Global Action Plan for Physical Activity, which aims
for a 15% reduction (vs. 2016) in physical inactivity inadults and adolescents by 2030, with a strong emphasis
on walking and cycling.60•

The Global Climate Action Summit (GCAS) in September
2018 concluded with new commitments and allianceson transport and climate change: 26 states and regions,major cities and businesses committed to 100% zero
emission vehicle targets; World Business Council on
Sustainable Development (WBCSD), CALSTART andcompanies created low-carbon freight initiatives, anda pledge for USD 4 billion was made by a group of 29
philanthropists.61

No major breakthroughs in financing for lowcarbon transport in 2017.
•

Current financial flows in the transport sector are
estimated to be between USD 1.4 and USD 2.1 trillion.62•

Transport represented 36% of private-sector investmentcommitments in developing countries (USD 44 billion)
in 2010.63•

The position of transport is gaining prominence in green
and other climate-themed bonds, building upon historic
trends in transport bond financing. With a multitude ofrail and urban metro deals, green bond allocations to
low carbon transport almost doubled in volume (fromUSD 13 billion to USD 24 billion) in 2017, accounting for
15% of total green bond issuances.64•

There were only 12 transport projects in 2017 supported
by climate-finance instruments (CFIs),65 down from a5

6

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

peak of 41 CFI-funded transport projects in 2012. The
12 projects received a total of USD 111 million for low
carbon transport in Africa, Asia and Latin America.66•

Transport is still largely marginalized in discussions
on carbon pricing, though countries such as India,
Indonesia, Mexico, and United Arab Emirates havemade recent progress. California updated its cap-andtrade scheme in July 2017, which indirectly includes thetransport sector, and China launched the world’s largest
carbon market by approving the national emissions
trading scheme (ETS) in December 2017.67•

Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) continue tobe a major external source of funding for low carbon
transport in the developing world. The eight MDBs
that comprise the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport provided in 2016 more than USD 20 billion of
new funding for more sustainable transport projects,
staying on target to meet the Rio+20 Commitment goalof providing more than USD 175 billion for transport indeveloping countries from 2012-2022.

••

Fuel subsidies still promote unsustainable forms oftransport, although progress was made in 2016 as
the G7 decided to end most fossil fuel subsidies by2025.68 Mexico ended oil subsidies in 2017, leading
to an increase in prices and more efficient use offuels.69 International aviation remains exempt fromkerosene taxation, which is partly driving the increasein emissions.70
Significant barriers remain to financing sustainable,
low-carbon transport, including a constrained
fundable project pipeline with project selection criteria
overlooking the co-benefits of low-carbon transport
projects, and therefore favoring other sectors. The
establishment of the Green Climate Fund in 2015 has
not yet led to an increase in transport adaptation andPhoto credit: Carlos Felipe Pardo

Key Findings

mitigation projects; only 3 of 76 projects to date focus
on transport.71•

Climate change is often not the main driver of transport
policy reforms, as decision-makers often prioritize
investments in transport infrastructure and services toaddress immediate externalities such as environmental
pollution, road safety, and congestion.72 Therefore,prioritizing
sustainabletransport
investments
addressing both climate and development agendas candraw resources from a broader set of stakeholders.73

Adaptation in the transport sector continues tolag behind mitigation action.
•

Transport infrastructure still lacks physical andorganizational resilience to address the implicationsof climate change.74 The transport sector will bechallenged by phenomena such as sea-level rise,temperature changes and increased rainfall, which
can increase rail buckling, cause damage to bridges
and ports, and speed pavement deterioration.75 Drought
and low water flow have impacts on inland waterway
transport.

•

The initial focus of climate change actions and financing
on mitigation is slowly shifting towards more adaptation
measures. The European Environment Agency (EEA)
reported that 25 of the 28 European Union member
states had adopted a national adaptation strategy bylate 2017, and 15 had developed a national plan.76•

The Global Center on Adaptation (formerly Global
Center of Excellence on Climate Adaptation), launchedformally at 23rd session of the Conference of Parties(COP 23) in November 2017, highlighted new momentum
for the need for climate adaptation.77 Infrastructure andtransport is one of the center’s focus areas.

Key Findings

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Dashboard I: Key Findings
Dashboard I outlines the most relevant transport demand indicators and how transport activity and emissions have developed
between 2000 and 2017, on a global basis and among OECD and non-OECD countries.
Years

World

OECD

Non-OECD

2000

6.12

1.16

4.96

Data Sources

Transport Demand
Population Size (billion people)

2017

2000
Urban Population (billion people)

GDP (Constant 2010 USD in trillion)

7.52

1.29

6.23

23%

12%

26%

2.83

0.88

1.95

4.08

1.05

3.03

44%

19%

55%

2000

49.25

38.18

11.07

2016

74.91

49.42

25.49

52%

29%

130%

2000

32.3

18.2

14.1

2015

56.3

18.3

38

74%

1%

169%

2000

64

8

6.4

2015

107.6

15.7

24.2

68%

96%

279%

2005

136

549

42

2015

173

591

85

27%

8%

99%

2000

4506

2990

1516

2016

5923

2943

2980

31%

-2%

97%

2000

0.74

2.59

0.31

2016

0.80

2.29

0.48

8%

-11%

59%

2005

4311

3095

1216

2015

5295

2987

2308

2017

United Nations, (2017).
2017 Revision of World
Population Prospects.
Available at: https://
esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/

World Bank, (2018).
GDP (constant 2010US$). Available at:https://data.worldbank.
org/indicator/NY.GDP.
MKTP.KD

Transport Activity

Passenger Travel Activity(trillion passenger-km)

Freight Travel Activity (trillion tonne-km)

Motorization Rate (per 1,000 People)

EA and WBCSD, (2004).
IEA/SMP Model
Documentation andReference Case
Projection. Available at:
http://www.libralato.co.
uk/docs/SMP%20model%20guidance%202004.p
df; IEA, (2016). Energy
Technology Perspectives 2016. Towards
Sustainable Urban
Energy Systems.
International Energy
Agency. Available at:
http://www.iea.org/etp2016/
SLoCaT calculations
based on OICA, (2015).
Motorization Rate 2015 worldwide. Available at:
http://www.oica.net/cat
egory/vehicles-in-use/

Transport Emissions

Transport CO2 Emissions excl.
international aviation and shipping (Mt CO2)

Transport CO2 Emissions per Capita(tonnes CO2)

Passenger Transport CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)
(Difference in values due to different methodology thanTransport CO2 Emissions by EDGAR above)

EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR
v4.3.2_FT2016.
European Commission,
Joint Research Centre(JRC)/PBL Netherlands
Environmental
Assessment Agency.
Available at:
http://edgar.jrc.ec.euro
pa.eu/overview.php?v=
CO2andGHG1970-2016
EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR
v4.3.2_FT2016.
European Commission,
Joint Research Centre(JRC)/PBL Netherlands
Environmental
Assessment Agency.
Available at:
http://edgar.jrc.ec.euro
pa.eu/overview.php?v=
CO2andGHG1970-2016;
United Nations, (2017).
2017 Revision of World
Population Prospects.
Available at:https://esa.un.org/unpd/
wpp/
IEA, (2016). Energy
Technology Perspectives 2016. Towards

7

8

Transport CO2 Emissions excl.
international
aviationand shipping (Mt CO2)
Passenger Travel
Activity(trillion passenger-km)

2000
2016
2015

18.2
2943
18.3

14.1
2980
38

31%
74%

-2%
1%

97%
169%

64

8

6.4

0.74
107.6

2.59
15.7

0.31
24.2

68%

96%

279%

0.80
136

2.29
549

0.48
42

32.3
5923
56.3

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018
2000

Freight Travel Activity (trillion tonne-km)

2000
2015

Transport CO2 Emissions per Capita(tonnes CO2)

2016
2005

Dashboard I: Key Findings (continued)
Motorization Rate (per 1,000 People)

2015

173

591

85

Years

World

OECD

Non-OECD

Passenger Transport CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)
(Differencein values
to different
methodology than
Population
Size due(billion
people)

2005
2000
2000
2015
2017

4311
6.12
4506
5295
7.52

3095
1.16
2990
2987
1.29

Transport CO2 Emissions excl.
international aviation and shipping (Mt CO2)
Freight Transport CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)
(Differencein values due(billion
to different
methodology than
Urban Population
people)

2016
2005
2000
2015
2017

International
Aviation
CO2inEmissions
GDP(Constant
2010 USD
trillion) (Mt CO2)

2000
2000
2015
2016
2000

23%
23%
5923
3120
2.83
3783
4.08
31%
21%
44%
64
49.25
107.6
74.91
0.74
68%
52%
136

-3%
12%
2943
1369
0.88
2017
1.05
-2%
47%
19%
8
38.18
15.7
49.42
2.59
96%
29%
549

1216
4.96
1516
2308
6.23
90%
26%

2980
1751
1.95
1766
3.03
97%
1%
55%
6.4
11.07
24.2
25.49
0.31
279%
130%
42

173
0.80
68%
32.3

591
2.29
96%
18.2

85
0.48
279%
14.1

56.3
8%

18.3
-11%

38
59%

74%

1%

169%

2005
2000
2015

4311
64
5295

3095
8
2987

1216
6.4
2308

2015

107.6
23%

15.7
-3%

24.2
90%

2005

1369
96%
2017
549
47%
591
8

1751
279%
1766
42
1%
85
6.4

DemandTransport Emissions

27%
8%

8%
-11%

99%
59%

(continued)

Transport CO2 Emissions by EDGAR above)

Transport CO2 Emissions by EDGAR above)

2005
Transport
COActivity
Emissions per Capita
2Shipping CO Emissions (Mt CO )Transport
International
22(tonnes CO2)

2015
2016
2000

Passenger Travel Activity(trillion passenger-km)

Passenger Transport CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)
(Difference in values due to different methodology thanTransport
CO2 Emissions
by EDGAR
above)
Freight Travel
Activity(trillion
tonne-km)

2015(Difference in values due to different methodology thanTransport CO2 Emissions by EDGAR above)

2015
2005

Motorization Rate (per 1,000 People)

2015
2000

3120
68%
3783
136
21%
173
64

International Aviation CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)

2015

27%
107.6

8%
15.7

99%
24.2

68%

96%

279%

2005

136

549

42

International Shipping CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)

2015
2000

173
4506
68%

591
2990
96%

85
1516
279%

Transport CO2 Emissions excl.
international aviation and shipping (Mt CO2)

2016

5923

2943

2980

31%

-2%

97%

2000

0.74

2.59

0.31

2016

0.80

2.29

0.48

8%

-11%

59%

2005

4311

3095

1216

2015

5295

2987

2308

23%

-3%

90%

Freight Transport CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)

Transport Emissions

Transport CO2 Emissions per Capita(tonnes CO2)

Passenger Transport CO2 Emissions (Mt CO2)
(Difference in values due to different methodology thanTransport CO2 Emissions by EDGAR above)

European Commission,
Joint
Research
EA
andWBCSD,Centre(2004).
(JRC)/PBLModel
Netherlands
IEA/SMP
Documentation
Environmental andReference
Case
Assessment
Agency.
Projection.
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http://edgar.jrc.ec.euro
uk/docs/SMP%20modelpa.eu/overview.php?v=%20guidance%202004.p
CO2andGHG1970-2016
df; IEA, (2016). Energy
Technology
PerspecEDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR
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2016. Towards
v4.3.2_FT2016.
Sustainable
Urban
European Commission,
EnergySystems.Centre
Joint ResearchInternational
Energy(JRC)/PBL Netherlands
Agency.
Available at:Environmental
http://www.iea.org/etp2
Assessment Agency.
016/
Available at:
http://edgar.jrc.ec.euro
SLoCaT
calculations
pa.eu/overview.php?v=
based
on OICA, (2015).
CO2andGHG1970-2016;
Motorization
Rate 2015 United Nations,(2017).at:worldwide.
Available
Data
Sources
2017
Revisionof World
http://www.oica.net/cat
Population Prospects.
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Available at:https://esa.un.org/unpd/
wpp/
EDGAR,(2017).
EDGAR
IEA, (2016).
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Joint
Research
CentreSustainable
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Revisionof World
Environmental
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https://at:Agency. Available
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EDGAR,(2017).
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World(2018).
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Research
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Joint ResearchCentre(JRC)/PBL
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Environmental
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EDGARat:worldwide.
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Executive Summary

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part I. Global
Overview

Photo credit: Matthew Nolan

9

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

A

Part I: Global Overview

1. Passenger Transport

ddressing climate change is one of the major global
challenges of our time. The transport sector is a major
contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; responsible for
23% of global energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.78
The rate of emissions from transport is increasing fasterthan from any other sector.79 This section provides a global
overview of the current trends within the transport sector,
with examples of policy measures to mitigate emissions, andapproaches to strengthen resilience to climate impacts from thevarious regions.

Transport Demand
Motorized passenger transport activity reached over 56
trillion passenger-km in 2015, due to increasing urbanization,
gross domestic product (GDP) growth and other factors.
Passenger transport in Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member countries stayedat the same level between 2000 and 2015, while it increased
by 169% in non-OECD countries. While the greatest rates ofincrease are seen in non-OECD countries, they are comingfrom a low baseline compared to OECD countries. The global
share of non-OECD84 passenger demand increased from 44%
in 2000, to 68% in 2015, with passenger activity in China nearlyquadrupling in the same period, from 2.6 to about 11 trillion
passenger-km.85 By modes, 40% of the global passenger
transport demand is served by LDVs, and a quarter by buses,
15% by air, 10% by two- and three-wheelers, and 9% by rail.
LDVs and aviation grew strongly in non-OECD countries,
while other passenger modes stayed relatively constant,
except for buses (Figure 3).

A. Passenger and Freight Transport Trends
Global passenger and freight transport, respectively,
accounted for about 59% and 41% of transport energy
consumption and transport emissions in 2015. However,policy measures to date for passenger and freight transport
have not been proportional to their relative impact. Light-duty
vehicles (LDVs)80 and air transport together account for 78% ofpassenger transport activity, and 93% of passenger transport
CO2 emissions. Road freight (light-commercial vehicles,
freight vans and heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs)) represent
21% of freight transport activity (in tonne-kilometer (km)) but
produce over half of transport CO2 emissions.81 Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs) transport measures
are highly skewed towards passenger transport, which
represent 64% of NDCs that highlight transport mitigation; incontrast, freight is relatively neglected, included in just 21%
of NDCs highlighting transport mitigation.82 To illustrate, by
2017 only five countries (Canada, China, India, Japan and theUnited States) had adopted fuel economy standards for HDV,
compared to LDV standards, which had been adopted in the
28 countries of the European Union and ten other countries.83

Global passenger demand increased significantly forpassenger rail (156%), two- and three-wheelers (150%)
and passenger aviation (145%), with demand for passenger
aviation in non-OECD countries leaping 425%. Passenger
transport demand grew more modestly for LDVs (45%)
and mini-buses (59%), with demand for each of these subsectors decreasing in OECD countries.87
Though not included in Figure 3, walking and cycling remain
the principal mode of transport in most developing cities,
particularly in Africa and Asia,88 with more than one-thirdof all passenger trips globally made on foot or by bicycle.89

Figure 3: Motorized Passenger Transport Demand in 2000 and 2015 86
100

Aviation

90
Passenger Transport by Modes (%)

10

Rail

80
70

Bus

60

2-3 Wheelers

50Light Duty Vehicles

40
30
20
10
0

World

OECD

2000

Non-OECD

World

OECD

2015

Non-OECD

In some cities combined walking and cycling mode share is
between 50% and 70%; while global level research has nothistorically split these modes, some research indicates thatthe vast majority of this mode share is by foot.90

Transport Emissions
In 2015, passenger transport accounted for 59% of total
global transport emissions. Passenger transport emissions
decreased by 2% between 2000 and 2015 in OECD countries,
while increasing by 143% in non-OECD countries. Global
passenger transport emissions increased by 36% from2000 to 2015. Transport emissions by passenger transport
reached 5.5 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2 in 2015. Global passenger
transport emission intensity reduced moderately
by 29% from 2000 to 2015, through a range of policy
measures (e.g. fuel economy standards, public transport
implementation, railway electrification when combined withrenewable power).

Policy Measures
Major steps were taken in 2017 to begin to reduce
emissions from passenger transport across a rangeof sub-sectors and regions. Among ‘Avoid’ measures,
vehicle restriction measures were implemented in
China, Europe, and Latin America; eight cities (Antwerp,
Balingen, Barcelona, Gent, Grenoble, Lille, Overath andOslo) implemented low emission zones (LEZs) in 2017, andLondon announced the world’s first ultra-low emission
zone (ULEZ) to be put in place in 2019,91 bringing the global
total to 241 cities.
Among ‘Shift’ policy measures, public transport continued
to expand in many cities around the world. In 2016, bus
rapid transit (BRT) systems were launched in 11 cities, aswell as in Hanoi and Multan in 2017, bringing the total
number of global BRT systems to 169 covering a total
length of 5,017 km, 92 and new tram and light rail lines wereinaugurated in Aarhus, Abuja, and Samarkand in 2017 and2018. High-speed rail (HSR) activity grew further, as China
saw a nearly 10-fold increase in high-speed rail passenger
travel from 2010 to 2016, compared to the global average
growth of 180%. In 2017, China, France, Germany andSouth Korea opened new HSR lines, bringing the global
total to more than 36,000 km.93 Bikesharing systems saw
dramatic growth in Asia and North America (as well as
Europe), with nearly 450 bikeshare programs introduced
in 2017, exceeding the previous two years combined.94
Among ‘Improve’ measures, in 2017, more than 17 countries
and 16 cities or regions worldwide announced specificelectric vehicle (EV) uptake targets, bringing the total
to 61 countries and 51 cities to date. Following an initial
announcement by Norway in 2016 to phase out fossil fuelvehicles by 2025, six countries (France, Ireland, Netherlands,
Slovenia, Sri Lanka and United Kingdom) announced in 2017
similar phase-out targets between 2025 and 2040 (electric cars,

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018buses and two-wheelers are discussed in detail in Section
III.B.7 Electric Mobility).95 Railway electrification expanded
in India by 4,000 km in 2017, equivalent to 6% of their nationalrailroad network.96 By 2017, autonomous vehicles (AVs) had
been tested in 82 cities across 26 countries and preparations
for trials is being conducted in 22 cities.97 Yet, the impact of AVs
is still uncertain as it can even double energy use of cars.98

2. Freight Transport
Transport Demand
Global freight mobility increased from about 64 trillion tonnekm in 2000, to about 108 trillion tonne-km in 2015. The highest
per-capita demand growth was recorded in China (457%),
India (239%) and Mexico (115%). Among modes, from 2000
to 2015, the global freight road fleet (i.e. light commercial
vehicles, medium- and heavy-duty trucks) doubled from 93
to about 186 million, during the same period, the rail-freightmode share stagnated to 2000 levels.99 It is associated withan increase of freight transport by road freight from 12% of
total freight demand in 2000 to 22% in 2015 (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Freight Transport Demand in 2000 and 2015 100
100
90
Global Freigt by Modes (%)

Part I: Global Overview

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000

2015

Shipping

Road Freight

Rail

Aviation(0.2% and 0.1% for2000 and 2015,
respectively)

In 2014, the rail mode share in tonne-km of surface freight
reached 70% in Russia, and topped 35% in India and China,
but fell short of 15% in Brazil, Mexico, and the European
Union, and accounted for just 1% in countries that are
members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) countries.101 In 2015, urban freight accounted forabout 5% of surface freight activity, but generated about
50% of freight road vehicle kilometers.102

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Transport Emissions
In 2015, freight transport accounted for 41% of global
transport CO2 emissions (up from 35% in 2000). The highest
share of freight demand was in India (53%) and China (43%),
exceeding the global average of 40%, and freight transport
in many landlocked countries (e.g. Afghanistan, Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan) exceeded 50% of total surface transportdemand.103 While rail accounted for 10% of global freightactivity in 2015,104 it contributed just 4% of freight emissions
due to modal efficiencies, rail electrification and vehicle
improvements. Urban freight accounted for about 16% of
surface freight CO2 emissions in 2015.105

Policy Measures
Freight responses were less ambitious than passenger
responses in 2017 and were disproportionately low comparedto freight’s global emissions share.106 Among ‘Avoid’
measures, new LEZs in eight cities, and vehicle restrictions
helped to keep road freight emissions in check. Among

Part I: Global Overview‘Shift’ measures, regional freight corridors were launchedin Africa,107 and inter-regional corridors in Europe,108 withemissions benefits to be determined. Among ‘Improve’measures, five countries in Asia and North America haveheavy-duty vehicle (HDV) fuel economy standard programs.
Companies such as Deutsche Post DHL Group announced
long-term 2050 decarbonization plans, and introduced
such technology solutions as electric-drive trucks, electricscooters, and cargo bicycles.109 By November 2017, Deutsche
Post DHL Group had introduced 5,000 StreetScooters inservice, with an annual reduction of more than 16,000 tonnesof carbon emissions after 13.5 million kilometers driven.110
Electric heavy truck models were announced by Nikola andTesla in 2017.111 Amazon’s Prime Air service introduced adrone freight delivery pilot in the United Kingdom in 2016,112
and other autonomous freight delivery options are underdevelopment in Europe and elsewhere.113
More detail on policy measures are given in Section III.B,
which provides market trends, policy landscapes and key
indicators in eight different policy areas.

Part I: Global Overview

B. Transport and Climate Change Trends
in Global Regions
Transport demand among global regions is driven by a
combination of factors, including population growth andrising GDP. Population growth rates from 2000 to 2017 werehighest in Africa (54%), whose urban population nearly
doubled from 277 million to 504 million in the same period.
GDP growth was highest in Asia (106%) and Africa (98%)
in the period from 2000 to 2016.114 Rising GDP drove a twoto five-fold increase in private motorization in countries inAfrica and Asia that have recently reached middle-income
status (e.g. China, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Sri
Lanka and Vietnam).115 From 2000 to 2015, surface freightactivity nearly doubled in OECD countries, and nearly tripled
in non-OECD countries.
Transport activity in turn drives transport emissions, whichgrew by 31% from 2000 to 2016.116 Growth of absolute transport
emissions between 2000 and 2016 was highest in Asia (92%),
Africa (84%) and Latin America (49%), driven by growth inprosperity and in passenger and freight transport activity
in these regions. In 2011, Asia overtook North America as
the largest transport CO2 emitter. Regional shares of global
emissions rose in Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the
Caribbean, while falling in Europe and North America, andremaining at roughly the same level in Oceania (Figure 5).
Policy measures to address rising transport demand andemissions also varied among regions in 2017. Urban public
transport and transport demand management measures
were a primary focus in Asia (led by China), Europe, andLatin America; railway expansion and electrification combined with increasing use of renewable power – were
led by Asia and Europe; walking and cycling measures
were emphasized in Europe and Latin America. Electric

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

mobility grew rapidly in China, Europe (led by Norway) andNorth America; carsharing grew rapidly in Asia in 2016,
and bikesharing exploded in Asia and North America in
2017; and renewables in transport were seen in Europe andLatin America.
More detailed discussions of trends in transport demand,transport emissions and policy measures within each ofthese global regions are found in the following sections.

1. Africa
Africa’s contribution to global transport demand hashistorically been low, and remained so relative to otherregions in 2017, though rapid growth in demand was seen
in some African countries, and latent demand is likely to besignificant, especially in the face of rapid urbanization. In
2018, nine African cities (Accra, Addis Ababa, Cape Town,
Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Johannesburg, Lagos, andTshwane) have committed to cutting carbon emissions tozero by 2050, yet low-carbon transport policy measuresin Africa trail other regions (despite a few emerging BRT
systems and freight corridors). 13% of transport climate
finance instrument projects are in the region. By the end of
2017, only three regional low carbon transport studies had
been completed for Africa, and only six of 54 African countries
had completed low carbon estimates for transport.118

Transport DemandCountries in Northern Africa account for a large portionof transport activity, due in part to the relatively highmotorization rate of 85 vehicles per 1,000 people, compared
to 27 vehicles per 1,000 people in Sub-Saharan Africa in2015. Between 2005 and 2015 the motorization rate grew

Figure 5: Regional Share of Transport CO2 Emissions117
Growth between 2000 and 2016100

Africa 84%

Transport CO2 Emission Share (%)

90
80

Asia 92%70

Europe -4%60

Latin America and the Caribbean 50%

50

North America 3%

40

21%

30

Oceania

20

International Aviation 47%

10International Shipping 33%

02000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

13

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

by 50% in Northern Africa, which is twice the magnitude of
Sub-Saharan Africa’s motorization rate development (27%).
In 2015 the share of combined share of walking and cycling
trips was 49% in Nairobi, 45-70% in Dar es Salaam, and 34%
in Cape Town, with the clear majority (99%) of these being
walking trips.119

Transport Emissions
Compared with other regions, Africa experienced thesecond highest growth of absolute transport emissions(84%) between 2000 and 2016, driven primarily by increases
in passenger and freight transport activity. Transport
emissions in Sub-Saharan Africa increased 75% from 2000 to2016 to a level of 156 million tonnes (Mt) CO2, while transport
emissions in Northern Africa increased 95% during the same
period (though at a lower absolute level of 135 Mt in 2016).
Total transport CO2 emissions increased in major economies
of Africa between 2000 and 2016, including 161% in Algeria,
153% in Ghana, 123% in Kenya, 73% in Egypt, 40% in South
Africa and 19% in Nigeria.120 For example, in Algeria andSouth Africa, per capita emissions increased respectively by
100% and 13%, reaching levels of 1.0 and 0.89 tonnes CO2 percapita in 2016.121 Railway share in total transport emissions
exceeds 5% in South Africa.

Policy Measures
Africa trailed other regions in 2017 in mitigation measures,such as managing transport demand, implementing urban
rail systems, and establishing EV phase-in and internal
combustion engine (ICE) phase-out targets. Africa has
only 353 km of BRT, light-rail transit (LRT), and metro
across the continent, summing to only 1.5 km per million
urban residents (cities over 500,000 population).122 70% of
this was built since 2007. ‘Shift’ measures included BRT
systems emerging in several African cities in recent years,
including Dar es Salaam, Cape Town and Johannesburg,
as an option to increase capacity in urban public transport,with Dar es Salaam carrying 160,000 passengers daily
in 2017.123 In 2017, Kenya opened a 480 km-long rail line
connecting Nairobi to Mombasa. In 2016, Marrakech
became the first African city with a bikesharing system,
and in 2017, El Gouna, Egypt launched Africa’s first electricbike (e-bike) share system.124 In 2017 Mobike and UN
Environment announced plans for a dockless bikesharing
system in Nairobi, which was launched in May 2018.125
The Northern Corridor Master Plan was launched in2017 to improve logistics and ease cargo congestionin East Africa, by connecting the port of Mombasa in
Kenya, to landlocked Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and D.R.
Congo.126 Among ‘Improve’ measures, in 2017, South Africa
committed to having more than 2.9 million electric cars on
their roads by 2050 to meet their Paris Agreement goals.127
Mauritius and South Africa have also implemented various
tax and rebate schemes to encourage the purchase of low
emission vehicles.

Part I: Global Overview

2. Asia
Asia’s ability to meet Paris Agreement targets will depend
to a large extent on whether low carbon, sustainabletransport is rapidly and broadly implemented. Most
additional transport demand has been added in Asia, withabsolute transport emissions increasing rapidly since 2000,
and reaching 2.3 Gt CO2 in 2016. Yet, the Asian region (ledby China) also registered some of the strongest transportmitigation responses of any region, leading global growth insuch areas as HSR, urban public transport (especially metro
and BRT), fuel economy standards and (chiefly dockless)bikesharing. Every day, 50,000 vehicles are being registeredin India but nevertheless, the country has the potential toleapfrog to more sustainable transport systems.128 Asia istherefore poised to set the pace for sustainable transport
paradigms that can be replicated across both global Northand South.

Transport Demand
Asia’s population reached 4.48 billion in 2017, with highannual growth in urbanization (2%) and GDP (1.5%).
Transport demand in Asia grew significantly, with China’s
share of passenger transport activity increasing from 8% to
19% of the global total from 2000-2015. Railway passenger
mode share reached 12% in China, and 27% in India in 2014;
well above the world average of 8%.129 HSR activity rose
sharply in China since 2000, and expanded in other Asianmarkets including South Korea, which opened a 61-km HSR
service at the end of 2016.130 In 2016, China’s HSR network
carried 464 billion passenger-km over 25,000 km of railway.131
Passenger vehicle ownership ballooned more than 1300%
in China, and 300% in India since 2000, and in 2016, China
remained the largest vehicle market in Asia and second
largest in the world, with a total of 185 million vehicles.132
2014 railway freight mode share approached 40% in China,
well surpassing the world average of 28%.133 From 2000 to2015, surface freight activity increased six-fold in China
and four-fold in India, and per capita surface freight activity
increased more than 500% in China and more than 300% in
India in the same period,134 reaching a total of 9.53 and 2.28
trillion tonne-km in 2015, respectively.

Transport Emissions
Asia accounted for 2.3 Gt of transport CO2 emissions in 2016,
contributing 39% of the global total. Between 2000 and 2016,absolute transport emissions in Asia grew 92%, driven by
growth in passenger and freight transport activity in theregion. Per capita transport emissions in Asia grew at thefastest rate (61%) among all regions in the same period, withincreases of 312% in Vietnam, 193% in China, 184% in India,
and 52% in ASEAN countries, compared to a global averageof 31%. 2016 per capita transport emissions in Asia (0.5),
including China (0.6) and India (0.2), remained below the
global average of 0.8 tonnes per capita, and below Europe(1.5), Latin America (0.9) and North America (5.1).135

Part I: Global Overview

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Policy Measures

Transport Demand

Among ‘Avoid’ measures, transit-oriented development(TOD) is being promoted at new mass transit stations acrossGreater Kuala Lumpur,136 and in 2017, China launched apilot program to help seven major cities incorporate TOD
principles into transit and urban plans, helping to eliminate
the need for motorized trips.137

Per capita passenger transport activity in the European
Union increased slightly (7%), as passenger activity per unit
GDP decreased by 6% from 2000-2015. Motorization in Europe
increased by 17% from 2005 to 2015, though it remained
around half the world average of 27%, with an average of
500 vehicles per thousand residents in 2015.145 In 2010, public
transport mode share reached 27% in OECD European
countries, and 44% in non-OECD European countries; andin 2015 cycling activity in Europe led the world, with cycling
mode shares approaching 26% in Denmark and 27% in
the Netherlands.146 Freight transport activity per capita
increased 3%, while freight activity per GDP decreased 10%
in the same period. In 2014, Russia’s railway freight modeshare exceeded 70%, more than double the global averageof 33%.147

Policy measures across Asia to address rising transportdemand and emissions focused primarily on ‘Shift’ and‘Improve’ measures. There was significant investment intransport infrastructure aimed at shifting trips to public
transport, biking and walking. Asia is home to over half
the world’s km of metro, with 50% of the metro kms built
in the last 10 years. 70% of Asia’s metro growth occurredin China. In the same period, the region went fromhaving 5.4 km of rapid transit per million urban residents
to over 9 km per million urban residents, even as urban
populations grew substantially.138 China further expanded
its 25,000 km HSR network by opening two new lines(400 and 1300 km long) in 2017. Metro rail infrastructurein Asia also expanded sharply, led by Shanghai (adding
48.8 km to its network),139 while Seoul and Samarkand
launched light rail lines. Hanoi opened one of the world’s
three new BRT system corridors in 2017. Asia overtook
Europe in 2017 as the region with the largest number ofbikesharing services; China launched 123 new bikeshare
programs in 2017, bringing its total to nearly 600 systems,
led by private companies opening dockless bikesharing
systems.140 Among ‘Improve’ policy measures, railway
electrification rose in Asian countries, topping 80% in
Korea, 60% in Japan, and India, and reaching nearly
50% in China in 2015.141 Shenzhen became the first city
worldwide with a fully electric bus fleet at the end of
2017.142 In 2017, China implemented the first national zeroemission vehicle policy with a target of 5 liter (L)/100 km in
2020. India became the third country in Asia and the fifth
in the world with HDV fuel economy regulations, whichwere announced in 2017, and took effect in April of 2018(see Section III.B.6 Fuel Economy for other examples).143

3. EuropeWith level-to-negative population growth, and only slowly
increasing motorization rates, transport demand in Europe
is beginning to stabilize. Europe’s per capita transport
emissions remain higher than in most other regions,though still well below North America’s, and continue
to rise. Provisional data from 2016 indicated that GHG
emissions from transport (excluding maritime shipping)were higher than in 1990.144 Europe’s transport mitigation
responses are well developed, with a rich set of public
transport systems, walking/cycling infrastructure anddemand management policies, and transport adaptation
policies also taking shape.

Transport Emissions
Although GHG emissions from transport continue to increase,transport CO2 emissions per capita in Europe decreased 6%
from 2000-2016 to 1.08 tonnes CO2 per capita, with emissions
per GDP decreasing 20% to 0.38 tonnes per USD 10,000 in
2016; demonstrating the potential to decouple transport
emissions from economic growth. An outlier is Russia,
where per-capita emissions grew to 1.5 tonnes per capita(16% growth) between 2000 and 2016. Europe’s share of total
global transport emissions decreased by 30%, and reached
13% in 2016, exceeding the overall OECD decrease of 22%of transport emissions relative to non-OECD countries.
Nearly three-quarters of European Union transport CO2
emissions resulted from LDVs and HDVs, and slightly morethan a quarter of emissions were attributed to aviation andmaritime shipping.148

Policy Measures
Vehicle restriction measures included plans for the world’s
first ultra-low emissions zone (ULEZ) in London. European
cities continued to invest in expanding their public transport,
cycling and walking infrastructure. Europe account for only
9% of the world urban population but 28% of its rapid transit.
The ratio of rapid transit km to (million) urban residents is
the highest in the world at 33,000. From 2007-2017, the region
increased the km of rapid transit by 12%, even as urban
population grew by only 6%.149 In 2017, Dublin embarked
on a redesign of their urban bus network,150 while Aarhus,
Denmark opened its first modern light rail line (6.5 km).151
Madrid and Oslo announced plans to make all or part of theircity centers car free, and to instead prioritize space for public
transport, cycling and walking. Some European countries
and cities set aggressive targets to phase out diesel andpetrol engines, and European automakers responded bytargeting higher shares of electric and hybrid vehicles intheir fleets. European Union countries implemented more

15

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

than 2000 low emissions zones (LEZs) from 2002-2013
and implemented congestion pricing in five major cities
since 2007.
Large European cities recorded increase in cycling in recent
years, with bike mode shares increasing three- or four-foldbetween 1990 to 2015 and currently being at 3% for London
and Paris, 6% in Vienna, 8% in Sevilla, 13% in Berlin, 32%
in Amsterdam and 33% in Copenhagen.151 One hundred andeleven bikeshare services were launched in European cities
in 2017, more than double the average of the previous five
years, with cities in France, Germany, Italy, Poland andUnited Kingdom experiencing an increase of bikesharing
services on their streets. Several European countries areundertaking an energy transition in transport.153 By 2015,
railway electrification reached 60% in Russia, although
may not be running on 100% renewable power, 154 while therailways of Austria, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands,
Norway, Sweden and Switzerland are running on 100%
renewable electricity, either purchased from renewableenergy providers, or produced in renewable energy plants
owned and operated by the rail companies.155 Denmark
mandated in 2016 that advanced biofuels comprise 0.9% oftransport fuel consumption by 2020 156 and Norway agreed
in 2017 for E20 biofuel mandate by 2020.157 The first fuel celldriven passenger trains were homologated in Germany
in 2018.158
Several sector and government networks have emerged
to foster stakeholder coordination and mainstreaming of
implementation approaches., e.g. within the European
Union’s flagship CIVITAS which is predominantly for
European Union member states, or the MobiliseYourCity
Partnership supported by European Union, France andGermany for stakeholders outside the European Union.

4. Latin America and the Caribbean
Latin America has the highest urban population of any
continent, which is driving transport demand (and in manycases urban congestion and emissions, in combination
with rising motorization rates). Though per capita transport
emissions have risen, the region has high urban bus modeshares, a broad rollout of bus rapid transit (BRT) systems
and walking and cycling infrastructure. Latin America’s highrenewable energy share has sparked efforts to launch lowcarbon mobility through transport electrification.

Part I: Global Overview

exceeded the world average (27%), reaching levels of 208
and 297 vehicles per thousand inhabitants in 2015. In Brazil,
this was a result of federal government economic policies
that subsidized private vehicle purchases. Mexico’s growthin passenger activity was exceeded by its 115% growth insurface freight per capita, reaching a level of 5,147 tonne-km
per person in 2015.

Transport Emissions
After Asia and Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean
recorded the highest growth rate of transport CO2 emissions
among all regions, with emissions growing by 50% between
2000 and 2016, and reaching 598 Mt CO2 in 2016. Per-capita
transport CO2 emissions growth varied greatly in Brazil (38%)
and Mexico (6%) from 2000 to 2016, against an average
growth rate of 23% in Latin America during the same period.
Emissions per unit GDP in Brazil increased by 12%, anddecreased in Mexico by 6% from 2000-2016, while world
averages fell by roughly 15% during the same period. Gridemissions factors in 2015 (grams of carbon dioxide equivalent
per kilowatt-hour (gCO2/kWh)) for Argentina (384.2), Brazil(156.6), and Mexico (459.6) showed varying potential for lowcarbon electrification.160

Policy Measures
In 2017, Mexico City introduced a major parking policy
reform, limiting the number of parking spaces allowed incity construction codes, potentially leading to less autooriented land use. In the last 10 years, Latin Americancountries have added over 1200 km of rapid transit, 78% of
which was BRT.161 Latin America led world regions in BRT
implementation, with systems in 54 cities totaling 1,757 km
at the end of 2017 (following the addition of new systems in
Acapulco and Cartagena, and system expansions in Buenos
Aires, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte andSão Paulo in 2016), accounting for roughly a third of global
totals for each (relative to 8.5% of global population).162 Theshare of cycling in urban trips increased in several Latin
American cities from very low baselines. In Buenos Aires
the cycling share grew from 0.8% in 2002 to 3.3% in 2015 andin Bogota it grew from 0.5% to nearly 6%.163 Among ‘Improve’measures in Latin America and the Caribbean in 2016, Chile
announced that as of 2018, Santiago’s subway system–
the second largest in Latin America after Mexico City –would be powered by solar photovoltaic (42%) and windenergy (18%).164

Transport Demand
Per capita transport passenger activity increased 39% in
Brazil, and 22% in Mexico from 2000-2015, trailing the world
average of 45% during the same period. 2010 urban public
transport shares in Brazil (44%), Mexico (42%) and other
Latin American countries (59%) exceeded the global average(38%).159 Despite high public transport shares, private
motorization growth in Brazil (69%) and Mexico (49%) well

5. North America
Transport accounted for the largest portion (28%) of GHG
emissions in 2016 in the United States.165 The United States’
motorization rate well exceeds world and OECD averages,
but after peaking at 827 vehicles per 1,000 people in 2007, it
declined to 800 vehicles/1000 population in 2013 and began

Part I: Global Overview

growing again in recent years. In addition, drivers in the
United States drove nearly twice the distance (21,500 km
per year) than the average European driver (12,000 km peryear).166 While United States. per capita transport emissions
were nearly five times higher than the world average in 2015,
they are now on a downward trend, reaching a 2016 levelof 5.1 tonnes per capita. Canada released a climate action
plan, including carbon pricing, adaptation and resilience,and clean technology measures to help meet its target of
reducing national emissions 30% by 2030.167
The Trump Administration’s announced intent to withdraw
from the Paris Agreement has intensified climate action
among transport and other sectors in states and cities in
the United States, as seen by the launch of the UnitedStates Climate Action Center at 23rd session of theConference of Parties (COP 23) in late 2017. While growthof public transport options in North America remains
halting, interest in shared and electric mobility is on therise. As of 2017, the United States had the second largest
fleet of electric passenger vehicles, with 700,000 cars.
California reached a zero-emission vehicles market
share of 4.5% in 2017 and is responsible for 49.5% of total
EV sales in the United States.167

Transport Demand
Passenger vehicle ownership in the United States remainedroughly level (+1%) from 2000-2015, after a steadily risinghistoric trend. Likewise, passenger transport activity in the
United States declined in both per capita (-11%) and per unit
GDP (-22%) terms during the same period, exceeding average
decreases for OECD countries (-9% and -20%, respectively).
Combined urban public transport shares in Canada and theUnited States (6%) were the lowest of any region, and well
below the global average (38%).169 Per capita United States
freight demand decreased during this period, reaching alevel of 27,805 tonne-km per capita in 2015.

Transport Emissions
United States was the largest transport CO2 emitter in
2016, generating 1,648 Mt, more than twice the level ofthe second-largest polluter, China, which has more thanfour times as many citizens. United States’ transport CO2
emissions per capita decreased 4% from 2000-2016, to 5.11
tonnes per capita, and emissions per unit GDP decreased
at an even sharper rate (-28%), to a level of 1 tonnes per
USD 10,000 in 2016. This leads world and OECD averages,
and demonstrates the potential to decouple transport
CO2 emissions from economic growth. However, in 2016transport became the biggest single source of CO2 emissions
in the United States.170 Urban freight in the United Statesaccounted for only 4% of surface freight activity, but 58% of
surface freight CO2 emissions in 2015, showing the greatest
discrepancy between these indicators for any country
or region.171

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Policy Measures
Despite positive trends in transport demand and emissions,mitigation responses in North America trailed otherregions. In the past 10 years, North American cities haveadded 556 km of rapid transit, nearly 70% of which waslight-rail transit (LRT). While the ratio of transit to million
urban residents has grown slightly, it is offset by very low
population densities.172 The Alberta government committed
significant funding to LRT in Calgary173 and Edmonton.174
Various cities (e.g., Houston, Columbus, Los Angeles,
San Francisco, Richmond, Omaha, Jacksonville, Orange
County, Baltimore and Portland) have redesigned their
public bus network in recent years to increase connectivity,
equity and efficiency.175 New York City’s 2017 Climate
Action Plan committed to moving 80% of trips to walking,cycling and public transit by 2050. North America recorded
150 new bikesharing services, tripling the 2016 growth rate
and raising the number of bikesharing systems to 291 by
the end of 2017. The growth was driven by the expansionof dockless bikesharing to North America, with 98% of new
systems launched in the United States.176 The United States
experienced a 25% growth in bikesharing trips between
2016 and 2017, attributable to the launch of new systems.177
The United States has also heavily promoted investment invehicle technologies towards electrification. Around 0.7
million EVs (23% of the global EV fleet) drive on roads in
the United States, but the CO2 reductions are marginal.178 At
the end of 2017, a bill was proposed in California to ban thesales of new fossil fuel cars by 2040.179
Transportation network companies (TNCs) (e.g. Uber, Lyft)have offered an affordable mobility option for many and havebeen on the forefront of local policy discussions in the UnitedStates and Canada. With the increase in demand for theseridesharing services, cities are faced with challenges ofbalancing the positive and negative impacts of the industry
by establishing rules and regulations. Seattle initially capped
the number of ridesharing vehicles on the road; however,this ordinance was repealed in 2014.180 Edmonton legalized
operation for Uber in 2015; however, in 2016 Uber ceased
operations due to the company’s inability to comply with thecity’s stringent regulations requiring necessary insurance
and licensing of drivers.181 Approximately 5.7 billion miles
were added by TNCs in the United States’ largest metro
areas (Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, New York,
Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle, and Washington DC)
and have contributed to worsening traffic congestion.182
More detailed discussion on TNCs is given in Section III.B.5
New Mobility Services.
‘Improve’ policy measures in North America included
several focused on advancing renewable fuels. The PanCanadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate
Change, which prioritizes vehicle emission standards andcleaner fuels, zero emission vehicles, public transport andcycling infrastructure, and optimized freight corridors, wasagreed upon by most provinces and territories in December

17

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 20182016, with details developed further during the course of
2017.183 Los Angeles acquired 95 new electric buses andcommitted in July 2017 to transitioning its 2,220 buses
to zero emission electric buses by 2030.184 In 2016, theUnited States launched a Biofuels Innovation Challenge tocatalyze development of advanced fuels, providing funding
for pilot production of renewable diesel and jet fuels fromindustrial waste gases.185

6. Oceania
Oceania’s contribution to global transport demand and per
capita emissions remained low compared to other regionsin 2017. Australia has continued to invest in expanding its
urban public transport network, and carsharing continued to
grow throughout the region.

Transport Demand
Vehicle ownership in Oceania increased 9% from 20002015, to a total of 540 vehicles per 1000 inhabitants, roughly
comparable to European Union levels. By mid-2018, theregion had BRT systems in four cities, representing small
shares of the global BRT infrastructure length (1.9%) anddaily passengers (1.3%).186

Part I: Global Overview

Transport Emissions
Oceania’s regional share of around 2% of global transport
emissions remained at the same level for the period 20002016, while total emissions increased from 87 Mt in 2000 to
107 Mt in 2016. Following the trend of other OECD regions,
Oceania had a 23% decrease of transport CO2 emission
per unit GDP from 2000 to 2016. Transport CO2 emission
per capita reached roughly 2.7 tonnes per capita in 2016,
exceeding levels in Europe (1.5), but still well below levels inNorth America (5.1).

Policy Measures
Despite some additions to urban rapid transit networks, theratio of transit to urban residents in Oceania is the sameas it was in 2007.187 Policy measures in the region primarily
included ‘Improve’ measures aimed at increasing transportenergy efficiency. Oceania’s mitigation responses focusedon advancing renewable energy and sustainable fuels anddemonstrated innovations in energy efficiency of transport
fuels. New South Wales, Australia, released a renewableenergy tender for Sydney’s light rail system.188 The Australian
government invested USD 1.75 million towards biofuel andbiocrude production, with the aim of producing plant-based
renewable diesel and jet fuel.189 An Australian rail company
restored a 3-km section of abandoned track and launched
the world’s first fully solar powered passenger train.190

Part I: Global Overview

C. International Aviation and Shipping
Trends
1. International Aviation
The international aviation sector remains exempt from fueltaxation, and also receives subsidies for aircraft design andproduction, and airport design and operation; there havebeen limited efforts to cut these subsidies to date. In theEuropean Union, the aviation industry receives about EUR 3
billion in subsidies. However, because the industry is exempt
from the basic consumer tax and fuel tax, European Union
member states miss out on the potential tax revenue of EUR
20 to EUR 38 billion per year.195 Limited incentives remain
to curb emissions in the face of rising demand. 196 Whileparticipation in the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme
for International Aviation (CORSIA) from 2021 to 2035 isvoluntary, by August 2017, 73 countries, accounting fornearly 88% of international aviation activity, had confirmed
their intention to participate. CORSIA requires airlines toprocure offsets to cover all emission increases; however,by setting a baseline at 2020 levels, CORSIA is expected tocover less than 30% of total international aviation emissions
from 2020 to 2030.197

Transport DemandInternational passenger aviation demand grew 145% from2000 to 2015, with growth in non-OECD countries nearly 10
times greater than in OECD countries. Air travel accounted
for 15% of global passenger demand (passenger-km traveled)in 2015, with the share from OECD countries roughly doublethat of non-OECD countries.198 International freight aviation
demand has also increased significantly; since 2000; aircargo activity has increased by 65% and is projected to growrapidly over the next two decades.199 The size of the global
airline fleet has increased 6% since 2015, reaching 25,368
aircrafts in 2017, with the strongest growth in Asia (13.9%)
and Africa (7.7%).200

Transport Emissions
International aviation accounts for roughly 11% of totalenergy used in transport;201 if international aviation were acountry, it would be the third largest emitter after China andthe United States. 2016 emissions from international aviation
reached a record high of 523 million tonnes CO2, accounting
for roughly 7% of human-produced GHG emissions.202
Air freight has a much higher CO2 intensity than surface
transport and shipping freight. At only 0.1% of global tonnekm of freight carried, the contribution of aviation is currently
too small to significantly influence global freight emissions,however, observed and projected growth is likely to shift
this equation.

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Policy Measures
With few close substitutes for international passenger
aviation (with the exception of modal shift to passenger
and freight rail services in Europe), recent policy measures
have focused on measures to ‘Improve’ (rather than ‘Avoid’or ‘Shift’) airline trips. Since 2016, policy support for aviation
biofuels has increased. In 2016, ICAO announced that 66
nations, comprising 86% of international aviation activity,
had committed to reducing the sector’s greenhouse gas
emissions beginning in 2021 through a combination oftechnical and operational improvements, and support forthe production and use of sustainable aviation fuels.203
Aviation has a high potential for power-to-fuel technologies
because it requires fuels with high energy densities.204
Production of bio-jet fuels advanced with the certificationof two new technical production processes (bringing thetotal available to five); aircraft manufacturers Airbus andBoeing are leading efforts in bio-jet fuel development.205
Airlines are increasingly experimenting with biofuels.
Qantas announced in October 2017 that all Los Angelesbased flights will be powered by biofuels from 2020.206 UnitedStates carrier JetBlue signed one of the largest renewable
jet fuel purchase agreements to date, agreeing to buy some
33 million gallons of blended bio-jet fuel a year for 10 years(or roughly 20% of fuel consumption at New York’s John F.
Kennedy Airport).207 Airports in Stockholm and Los Angeles
also made bio-jet fuel available to selected airlines,208 whilein 2016, Oslo’s airport became the first airport globally tooffer biofuels to all air carriers.209 However, these activities
represent only a minor share of global fuel consumption.
Aviation operational efficiency programs have been mostly
introduced in China, Europe and the United States,210 and
new airports took steps to reduce the carbon footprints
of ground operations (e.g. Galapagos),211 though theseaccount for only a small fraction of the impact of global
airline activity. In 2016, a solar-powered aircraft, the Solar
Impulse 2, successfully completed a 16-month, around-theworld flight,212 and prototype development for short-range
electric flights continued.213 Improvements in airplane
design by manufacturers were also among 2017 policy
measures, though slow fleet turnover makes this a longerterm emissions reduction strategy. At the Global Climate
Action Summit (GCAS) in September 2018, United Airlines
became the first North American airline to commit to GHG
reductions of 50% from 2005 levels by 2050, and to introduce
a 30% biofuel blend on its flights.214

2. International Shipping
International shipping vessels carry close to 70% of global
freight activity, but emit roughly one-quarter of freight
emissions.215 With low diesel prices and a continued lackof international agreements in force, there were limited
incentives in 2017 to deviate from business-as-usual

19

20

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

approaches, and shift to more low-carbon shipping paradigms. In 2016,
the IMO set a limit for sulphur levels of 0.05% m/m (mass by mass) for
fuels (currently 3.5%) used in vessels by 2020.216

Policy Measures
In April 2018, the IMO adopted the goal to peak international shipping’s
GHG emissions as soon as possible, and to mitigate annual GHG
emissions by at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2008 levels, whileaiming for further efforts to decarbonize.223 As with aviation, there arefew close substitutes for maritime freight transport, and thus, policy
measures focused largely on ‘Improve’ measures. “Slow steaming” canreduce emissions by reducing travel speeds (10% less average speed
results in around 19% less emissions),224 but was not widely used in2017, with relatively low diesel prices. Although the potential of biofuelsin the shipping sector has been long discussed, few pilot projects
have been seen to date.225 In 2016, several liquid natural gas (LNG)fueled ships were deployed in Australia, and the industry’s agreement
to cap sulfur emissions by 2020 may catalyze more interest in LNG forshipping. However, while LNG is effective for reducing sulfur oxides(SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate emissions, issues such as
emissions of unburnt methane mean that LNG is not a climate friendly
option and unlikely to be a long-term solution for the shipping industry.
Research and development of electric and wind-powered ship
propulsion technologies that decrease emissions has continued. China
deployed the first all-electric cargo ship in December 2017, whichreached speeds of 13 km/hr with 2,200 tonnes freight.226 Rotor sails,
being developed by companies such as Magnuss and Norsepower, candecrease fuel consumption by up to 10% (or 1,100 tonnes per vessel
per year).227 In March 2017, Maersk announced plans to trial two rotor
sails on a cargo tanker.228 While promising, these measures have had
limited implementation (and therefore limited impact) to date. India
also launched a Green Port Initiative, aimed at installing wind and solar
power systems at the country’s ports,229 while in 2016 Singapore’s Jurong
Port completed solar power facilities to save 5,200t CO2 per year.230 In
2018, 7 ports (Antwerp, Barcelona, Hamburg, Los Angeles, Long Beach,
Rotterdam and Vancouver) launched the World Port Climate Action
Program to address climate change and reduce GHG emissions in linewith the Paris Agreement, as announced during GCAS.231

Part I: Global Overview

Part I: Global Overview

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Photo credit: Carlos Felipe Pardo

21

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part I: Global Overview

Dashboard II: Global Overview
The second dashboard breaks down the major aspects of
Dashboard I into regions and a selected number of countries
as well as the European Union as major economic group.

It shows transport demand through the passenger andfreight activity in absolute and per capita values, generalmotorization level and the development of passenger andYears

GlobalAfricaSouth
Africa

Asia

China

India

Europe

2000

32.3

N/A

0

N/A

2.6

2.2

N/A

Transport Demand
Passenger Activity(trillion passenger-km)

Surface Freight Activity(trillion tonme-km)

Passenger Activity per Capita(passenger-km per capita)

Surface Freight Activity per Capita(tonne-km per capita)

Motorization Rate (vehicles per 1,000
people, excl. two- and three-wheelers)Passenger Vehicle Motorization Rate(passenger cars per 1,000 people)

Commercial Vehicle Motorization Rate(commercial cars per 1,000 people)

2015

56.3

N/A

0.4

N/A

10.8

4.4

N/A

%Δ

74%

N/A

/

N/A

315%

100%

N/A

2000

64

N/A

N/A

N/A

1.57

0.54

N/A

2015

107.6

N/A

0.43

N/A

9.53

2.28

N/A

%Δ

70%

N/A

/

N/A

507%

321%

N/A

2000

5281

N/A

N/A

N/A

2096

2124

N/A

2015

7653

N/A

6526

N/A

7878

3374

N/A

%Δ

45%

N/A

/

N/A

276%

59%

N/A

2000

10465

N/A

N/A

N/A

1217

514

N/A

2015

14637

N/A

7820

N/A

6782

1740

N/A

%Δ

40%

N/A

/

N/A

457%

239%

N/A

2005

139.0328.15

140.76

49.64

23.78

9.03

468.882015

170.7237.56

173.6393.17

115.9122.05

499.80

%Δ

27%

33%

23%

88%

387%

144%

7%

2005

102.62

19.16

93.71

35.02

16.05

6.67

410.602015

125.6225.83

115.46

72.75

96.67

17.16

433.77

%Δ

22%

35%

23%

108%

502%

158%

6%

2005

36.41

9.00

47.05

14.62

7.73

2.37

58.29

2015

45.11

11.73

58.18

20.42

19.25

4.88

66.03

%Δ

24%

30%

24%

40%

149%

106%

13%

2000

4506

157.8236.03

1201.25

263.5795.26

1,150.32

2016

5923

291.0150.24

2310.29772.45270.62

1,104.04%Δ31%

84.39%

39.46%

92%

193.07%184.09%-4.02%

2000

0.74

0.19

0.79

0.32

0.20

0.09

1.58

2016

0.80

0.24

0.90

0.52

0.55

0.20

1.49

%Δ

8.00%

23.04%

13.85%

60.67%

167.92%125.92%-5.70%

2000

0.91

1.36

1.35

0.96

1.18

1.19

0.69

2016

0.78

1.27

1.20

0.89

0.81

1.10

0.52

%Δ

-14.00%-6.92%-11.25%-7.29%-31.02%-7.48%-24.64%

Transport Emissions

Transport CO2 Emissions(Mt)

Transport CO2 Emissions per Capita(tonnes CO2 per capita)

Transport CO2 Emissions per 10,000 USD(tonnes CO2 per 10,000 USD (constant2010 USD))

Part I: Global Overview

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

commercial vehicles. The second part gives information on
absolute transport CO2 emissions and per capita as well per
GDP for better comparison between the regions.
EU

Germany

RussiaLatin
America

BrazilMexicoNorth
America

UnitedStates

Oceania

Data Sources

5.9

0.98

0.9

N/A

1.1

0.6

N/A

8.3

N/A

IEA and WBCSD, (2004).
IEA/SMP Model
Documentation andReference Case Projection.
Available at:
http://www.libralato.co.uk/docs/SMP%20model%20guid
ance%202004.pdf, IEA,
(2016). Energy Technology
Perspectives 2016. Towards
Sustainable Urban Energy
Systems. International
Energy Agency. Available at:
http://www.iea.org/etp2016/

6.6

1.1

1.4

N/A

1.8

0.9

N/A

8.4

N/A

12%

13%

56%

N/A

64%

50%

N/A

1%

N/A

3.12

0.44

2.34

N/A

N/A

0.24

N/A

9.12

N/A

3.35

0.50

3.02

N/A

1.88

0.65

N/A

8.90

N/A

7%

15%

29%

N/A

/

166%

N/A

-2%

N/A

12106

11965

6255

N/A

6258

5917

N/A

29285

N/A

12963

13467

9429

N/A

8682

7229

N/A

26063

N/A

7%

13%

51%

N/A

39%

22%

N/A

-11%

N/A

6399

5387

15969

N/A

N/A

2399

N/A

32330

N/A

6591

6168

21001

N/A

9114

5147

N/A

27805

N/A

3%

14%

32%

N/A

/

115%

N/A

-14%

N/A

530.69602.70217.33123.92

123.17

198.67783.73805.40494.43579.74592.69356.91

196.12207.53296.71807.60825.79540.14

9%

-2%

64%

58%

68%

49%

3%

3%

9%

521.81564.34178.04

87.24

98.28

131.83461.29450.34402.45504.59551.61307.55144.44172.22213.97405.73382.34429.57

-3%

-2%

73%

66%

75%

62%

-12%

-15%

7%

69.04

38.36

39.28

36.01

24.89

66.84

322.44355.06

91.97

75.15

41.07

49.36

50.45

35.31

82.74

401.88443.45110.57

9%

7%

26%

40%

42%

24%

25%

25%

20%

892.38173.06189.12399.62125.45106.57

1,867.80

1,717.83

88.15

810.95146.39216.30598.03205.78141.46

1,820.07

1,647.93

107.01-9.12%-15.41%14.37%

49.65%

64.04%

32.74%-2.56%-4.07%

21.40%

1.83

2.12

1.29

0.77

0.72

1.05

5.97

6.09

2.89

1.60

1.79

1.50

0.94

0.99

1.11

5.08

5.11

2.72

-12.85%-15.85%16.30%

22.93%

38.47%

5.86%-14.99%-16.04%-5.79%

0.60

0.55

1.99

1.06

0.82

1.21

1.33

1.35

0.91

0.44

0.39

1.33

1.13

0.92

1.14

0.97

0.98

0.70

-26.36%-29.83%-33.15%

6.60%

12.27%-5.56%-27.07%-27.69%-22.83%

IEA and WBCSD, (2004).
IEA/SMP Model
Documentation andReference Case Projection.
Available at:
http://www.libralato.co.uk/do
cs/SMP%20model%20guidan
ce%202004.pdf, IEA, (2016).
Energy Technology
Perspectives 2016. Towards
Sustainable Urban Energy
Systems. International
Energy Agency. Available at:
http://www.iea.org/etp2016/,
United Nations, (2017). 2017
Revision of World Population
Prospects. Available at:https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/

SLoCaT calculations based
on OICA, (2015). Motorization
Rate 2015 - worldwide.
Available at:
http://www.oica.net/category/vehicles-in-use/, United
Nations, (2017). 2017 Revisionof World Population
Prospects. Available at:https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/

EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR
v4.3.2_FT2016. European
Commission, Joint ResearchCentre (JRC)/PBL
Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency.
Available at:
http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
overview.php?v=CO2andGHG
1970-2016
EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR
v4.3.2_FT2016. European
Commission, Joint ResearchCentre (JRC)/PBL
Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency.
Available at:
http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
overview.php?v=CO2andGHG
1970-2016, United Nations,(2017). 2017 Revision ofWorld Population Prospects.
Available at:https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/
EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR
v4.3.2_FT2016. European
Commission, Joint ResearchCentre (JRC)/PBL
Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency.
Available at:
http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
overview.php?v=CO2andGHG
1970-2016, World Bank,(2018). GDP (constant 2010US$). Available at:https://data.worldbank.org/in
dicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part II. Transport Demand,
Emissions, and Mitigation
Pathways
Photo credit: FancycravePart II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018T

his section is divided into three parts: Part A discusses
the various drivers of transport demand, considering
recent trends in passenger and freight transport demand,and reports on global development of transportation
infrastructure; Part B reviews transport emissions growthby mode and region, and explores transport energy
intensity, carbon intensity of fuel, and other impacts; andPart C discusses transport emissions projections andmitigation potential.

examining the global status of transport and climate change.
The mobility of goods and passengers is influenced byseveral external factors (i.e. developments that are not partof transport, such as population growth, economic growthetc.). Historically, growth in the demand for passenger andfreight transport has been closely correlated with growth inpopulation, urbanization, sprawl, economic activities, andfluctuating oil prices, which in turn create impacts such asincreased oil and energy consumption, and CO2 emissions(Figure 6).

A. Transport Demand232

Population Growth

1. Drivers of Transport Demand

Each person added to the population creates additionaltransport demand. However, population growth in and of
itself should not be a major driver of growth in personaltransport demand. Population growth significantly
influences many other drivers of transport demand, such as
per-capita income, urbanization, sprawl/suburbanization,
average age of the population, and regional population
growth. From 2000 to 2017, the global population increased
by about 1.4 billion people and reached 7.5 billion, with 82%
of the increase concentrated in middle and low-income

Opportunities for mitigating emissions will depend on
providing low carbon solutions to meet the major elementsof transport demand. Similarly, the problem of growing
climate vulnerability of transport infrastructure and services
is closely related to the type and location of transport
networks built and needed to serve this demand. Therefore,a sound understanding of the composition of transportdemand around the world is an essential starting point for

Figure 6: Transport Demand Drivers and Impacts (2000 to 2017)234

Transport
EnergyConsumption

andothersPopulation

Transport
DemandDrivers
Urban
Population

Impacts on
Transport

Increase leads togrowth ofGDPandothersTransport
CO2
Emissions

Oil
Consumption

Growth between 2000 andmost recent year

Development of Key Drivers and Emissions (2000 = 100)

GDP 58%160

Urban Population 44%

150

Transport Energy
Consumption 38%

140

Transport CO2
Emissions 29%

130

Population 23%
120

Oil Consumption 19%110
1002000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Population

Urban Population

GDP

Transport Energy Consumption

Oil Consumption

Transport CO2 Emissions

25

26

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

countries. The global population passed 7 billion in 2011 andhas grown by 8.5% between 2010 and 2017. China and India
alone contributed a third of the population increase from2000 to 2017.233

Rapid Urbanization235
Urban population growth exceeds the rate of global
population growth. In 2017, more than half of the world’s
population (54%) lived in urban areas. Urbanization is moreconcentrated in high-income countries (with an 81% urban
population share), than in middle- and low-income countries(51% and 30% urban population share, respectively). Asia,
home to nearly 60% of the world’s population, has almost
2.2 billion urban citizens and a share of 49%. But the mosturbanized region is North America with 83% of people living
in cities, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean (79%),and Europe (74%). Low-income countries are catching up;
between 2000 and 2017, low-income countries experienced
the highest rate of urbanization (94% increase), with Africa(81%) and Asia (59%) leading over other regions.236 The
number of large and mega-cities doubled between 1995 and2015.237 By 2016, 24 of the world’s 31 megacities were locatedin developing countries, as are all 10 of the cities projected
to become new megacities by 2030.238
Urbanization can improve mobility efficiency because it
is in less urbanized regions that travel distances can bemuch longer and less efficient due to less public transportand more personal vehicle travel. Rising urban populations
increase mobility demand within cities that are already often
congested and accommodating various types of transport
users within cities with limited space that were likely plannedin a way that prioritizes cars. While there are negative
externalities associated with increased urbanization, suchas congestion and local air and noise pollution, there arealso potential benefits.239 If transport and spatial planningare well coordinated in cities, the increased population
density can support higher capacity urban public transportsystems, and a mixture of land uses within walking and biking
distance from transport. (See Sections III.B.1. Sustainable
Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management,
III.B.2. Urban Transport, and III.B.4. Walking and Cycling fordiscussions of policy responses that encourage sustainableurban development and shifting trips to low-carbon modes.)Economic Growth
The relationship between economic growth and transport isreciprocal. Transport is a key enabler of economic activity
and trade; higher incomes lead to higher demand for goods
and services that need to be transported. Better transportsystems enhance access to income generating activities
which in turn lead to economic growth and can drive demandfor personal travel and tourism due to infrastructure growthand more affordable fares.

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

Global GDP increased by 58% between 2000 and 2017 andreached a global value of USD 78 trillion in 2017.240 Economic
growth is the transport driver with the strongest growth in thelast two decades. Growth in per capita incomes in various
countries and regions has also led to increased ownershipand use of private vehicles. Car ownership continues to be a
status symbol for many people, even in lower income levels
in which lower fuel efficiency has a larger financial impact.
This trend can continue for many years before eventuallyslowing due to saturation of private vehicle ownership.
Freight transport demand reflects the combined effects ofeconomic growth and the changing industry compositionof the economy. Countries at an early stage of economic
development are more dependent on the production andhigh-volume transport of low-value primary products. As
they move up the global value chain, services and highervalue, lower-volume goods become more important, leading
to lower freight intensity per unit of GDP.

Oil Consumption and Prices
As a result of the growing transport activity and demand,oil consumption is on the rise, recording a growth of 18%
between 2000 and 2016. Per day, 98.5 million barrels of oil
were consumed in 2017.241
The price of oil is an underlying determinant of GDP growth,trade, and the demand for transport. In oil-importing
countries, lower oil prices boost growth in GDP and trade by
improving competitiveness. The retail price of gasoline anddiesel, which are largely affected by a country’s fuel taxes,
may lower oil prices which in turn reduce the ownershipcosts for personal vehicles. As a result, consumers are
more likely to purchase a personal vehicle and drive longer
distances. In 2017, crude oil prices were at USD 51 per
barrel,242 showing a slight increase from 2016 levels, but still
far below 2011-2014 levels. There is considerable uncertainty
about future prices, particularly as alternative fuels come online. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that oil
prices may rise to USD 72 to USD 97 per barrel by 2025.243

2. Passenger Transport Demand Trends••

Since 2000, global passenger transport activity(passenger-km) has increased 74%, with mostof this increase concentrated in non-OECD
countries.
Between 2000 and 2015, modal share in mostcountries shifted towards private automobiles
and air travel, and away from public transport
services.

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Passenger Transport Activity

traveled in 2015 occurred in urban areas. Among motorizedmodes, passenger cars represented about 40% of global
passenger transport activity, land-based public transport
about 35%, aviation about 15%, and two-and-three wheelers
about 11% of total passenger transport demand.247

Global passenger mobility increased from 32 trillion
passenger-km in 2000 to about 56 trillion passenger-km in2015 (Figure 7). However, not all populations and geographic
regions contributed evenly to this growth. In fact, theincrease in passenger mobility was fully concentrated in
non-OECD countries, in which the global share of passenger
mobility increased from 44% in 2000, to about 66% in 2015.244

However, great diversity exists in the mobility patterns
among different geographical and income regions. For
example, passenger cars contributed about 62% of the
motorized passenger mobility demand in OECD countries,
while its share in non-OECD countries was about 29% in 2015
(Figure 8).

Among all countries, the magnitude and intensity ofpassenger mobility growth in China is unparalleled.
From 2000 to 2015, passenger mobility in China increased
fourfold, from 2.6 trillion passenger-km to about 11 trillion
passenger-km.

There is also significant variation among countries. For
example, among non-OECD countries, railways contributeabout 27% of motorized passenger mobility demand in
India, while its share is only 1% in the countries of theASEAN region.

Public transport passenger activity (bus and railways) has on
average stabilized to 2000 levels in OECD countries, and has
not increased in the past decade despite supportive policies
and investments, whereas in non-OECD countries, public
transport passenger activity has doubled from 2000 levels.
Currently, transport activity is still closely correlated witheconomic development (GDP growth) in low-and middleincome countries, while in OECD countries, there could bea slight weakening of this coupling of passenger transportdemand with GDP. For example, in the European Union the
GDP increased by about 30%, while per-capita passenger
mobility only increased by 9%.246

Between 2000 and 2015, modal share shifted towards private
automobiles and airplanes, and away from public transport
services in most countries. Passenger car activity has been
persistently falling or stalled in many European countries
and North America for the past decade, reflecting suchfactors as: the high rate of urbanization; the availability ofgood quality public transport; and the adoption of policies
discouraging car use in favor of public transport (See Part
III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport Demand
Management and III.B.2 Urban Transport). In non-OECD
countries - where urban public transport and non-urban rail,
bus transport, and walking and cycling facilities are often
inadequate - growth in travel is principally driven by growth
in private vehicle ownership. Air travel recorded nearly 4
billion passengers carried in 2017, an increase of 145% from2000 (Figure 9).249

Passenger Transport Demand by Mode
Global passenger transport demand comprises several
segments. About half (51%) of the global passenger-km

Passenger Mobility (in Passenger Kilometers)

Figure 7: Status of Passenger Mobility (2000 and 2015) 245

60

12

50

10
8

40

6
30

4
20

2

10
ASEAN Brazil
0

World

China

OECD Non-OECD

2000

2015

EU

India

Mexico Russia South United
Africa States

27

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

Figure 8: Motorized Passenger Transport Mode Share in OECD and non-OECD Countries (2015) 245
Passenger Activity (passenger-km) in OECD Countries

62%

10%

2%

6%

Passenger Activity (passenger-km) in Non-OECD Countries

20%

29%

34%

15%

10%

12%

Figure 9: Growth of Passenger Activity for Motorized Transport Modes 250

OECD Countries
Growth Between 2000 and 2015

28

Non-OECD Countries–8%

Global

266%

–23%

45%

87%
6%
91%
44%

Private Vehicle Ownership
Motorization generally follows an S-shaped curve, withprivate vehicle ownership rising slowing when average
incomes remain low, accelerating when middle-income
level is reached, and slowing again when incomes become
high. Current vehicle ownership levels are 487 and 69
passenger vehicles per 1000 population in OECD and nonOECD countries, respectively.251 In countries that have more
recently reached middle-income levels, such as Botswana,
China, India, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka, average annual
ownership growth rates were typically in the range of 6–17%
from 2005 to 2015.252 Some of these middle income countries,
like India and China, support the growth of their automobile

59%
179%

150%

184%

156%
425%

145%

industry; as a result, these countries are likely to experiencehigh growth rates of motorization. Private vehicle ownershiplevels do not stagnate in high-income countries. In 2017, thesales of private vehicles increased by 3% in the European
Union. The same year, 15.1 million vehicles were registeredin the European Union; the highest number of registeredvehicles since 2007.253
Experience suggests that, if economic growth continues
in the absence of sustainable transport measures, rapid
motorization may continue in these countries for many years
until eventually per capita car ownership approaches levels
seen in high-income countries (as highlighted in Part III:
Responses to Transport and Climate Change Impacts). Many

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

lower-income developing countries have yet to achieve the
GDP growth that would trigger the onset of rapid motorization,
but some may be expected to do so in the coming years.
A consequence of rapid motorization, especially in theabsence of sustainable alternatives including walking and

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

cycling, is a reduction in physical activity levels, which
negatively impacts public health and contributes to climatechange (See Sidebar: Public Health Impacts of Passenger
Transport Demand).

Photo credit: Justin Raycraft

Public Health Impacts of Passenger Transport Demand
Direct Public Health Impacts
Transport has major impacts on health. For example, byencouraging physical activity, such as walking and cycling,urban transport systems can also positively influence healthoutcomes.254 Urban transport can also create direct, negative
impacts on public health through its contributions to local
air and noise pollution, and road injuries and fatalities.
Additionally, a well-functioning (uncongested) transportsystem allows the population to better access health careservices.255 Most of the global top-ten causes of death (e.g.
heart attack, stroke, pneumonia, chronic respiratory disease,lung cancers, diabetes, road injuries) are strongly linked
to externalities such as local air pollution and physicalinactivity.256 (See Section III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning
and Transport Demand Management and Part III.B.4 Walking
and Cycling).

Indirect Public Health Impacts
Less well known are the indirect health impacts of urban
transport infrastructure, as seen through changes in thedesign and social interaction of neighborhoods. Such impacts
include access to public and green space, social cohesion,and protection from crime and violence. Improved mobility
for those who have less access to private vehicles—women,children, the elderly and the poor—also enhances healthequity.257 Moreover, transport has a decisive influence on more
upstream determinants of health and health equity, by enabling
access to education, decent jobs, healthcare, leisure andclean water. Transport emissions impact natural ecosystems
and drive climate change, which have indirect health effects.258

Linking Transport Climate Action
and Public Health
Global growth in transport demand and emissions will further
deepen the health and equity impacts of transport systems.
These impacts will particularly affect low- and middleincome countries and cities that are experiencing rapid
urbanization, weak transport regulation and enforcement,
and poor infrastructure, Climate action in the transport sector
that advances cleaner fuels and vehicles (See Section III.B.7
Electric Mobility and Section III.B.8 Renewable Energy inTransport), more active transport (See Section III.B.4 Walking
and Cycling), and safer streets can yield significant, immediate
public health benefits, while reducing the transport sectors’
GHG emissions contributions.259,260,261

29

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

3. Freight Transport Demand Trends•

Since 2000, global freight transport demand (intonne-km) has almost doubled.

•

Freight demand is growing faster than GDP, withsurface freight activity increasing by 177% from2000 to 2015.

•

Urban freight constitutes about 12% of roadfreight demand (in tonne-km), but generates
about 50% of road freight vehicle km, a majorityof freight activity done within an urban area.

Freight Transport Activity
Global freight transport demand increased by 68% fromabout 64 trillion tonne-km in 2000, to about 108 trillion tonnekm in 2015.262 Maritime freight carried by far the largest
portion of freight tonne-km (69%), followed by road (22%)
and railways (9%), with much lower volumes for air freight(less than 1%). Road freight increased its share from 12% in2000 to 22% in 2015 (see Figure 4). Maritime shipping is themain transport mode for long-distance trade, accounting foraround 70% of global trade value.263 For many commodities,
it offers significant cost and convenience advantages
compared with other modes.
Freight demand is growing faster than GDP, with surface
freight activity (e.g. road and rail) increasing by 177% from2000 to 2015.264 It has been estimated that for every 1%
increase in GDP per capita, per-capita road freight activity
increases by an average of 1.07%.265 However, this figure
masks considerable national disparities. From 2000 to 2015,
surface freight activity nearly doubled in OECD countries,
nearly tripled in non-OECD countries, increased fourfold in
India, and increased six-fold in China. This rapid increasein freight activity in Asia is mainly due to the exportoriented nature of its economic growth, the rapid change ineconomic structure from agriculture to industrialization, andthe globalization of production activities and supply chains
across Asian countries.

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

Rail freight is important in geographically large countries—
such as China, India, Russia and the United States—where
the railway’s lower per-km transport operating costs canoutweigh its fixed and handling costs. However, data for
65 countries from 1990–2010 indicates that nearly 55% ofcountries had negative growth rates in rail tonne-km. Among
possible explanations for this are: continued investment
in road infrastructure improvements; shortfalls in railway
investment; trends toward just-in-time deliveries; shifts
toward higher-value products; and shortcomings in thecommercial orientation of railway institutions. While there
has been a tremendous increase in road-freight activity
since 2000, the rail-freight mode share has stagnated to 2000
levels.
Urban freight constitutes only about 1% of total freightactivity in tonne-km (or about 12% of road freight activity)
but generates about 50% of road freight vehicle kilometer
travel,266 as final products get delivered in low volumes andat high frequencies in congested conditions.
In line with developments in the world economy, demand
for shipping services—represented as millions of tons
loaded—increased, with an annual growth rate of 3.4% from2000 to 2016. The share of the major bulk commodities (e.g.
coal, iron ore, grain) amounted to about 31% of total volume(increasing from 16% in 1980). In contrast, the share of oil andgas reduced from 51% in 1980, to 30% in 2016. In 2016, global
shipping activity reached 88 estimated trillion of tonne-km,
increasing by an annual growth rate of 3.7% from 2000.267
Aviation contributed only about 0.1% of global freighttransport demand; however, this demand is growing rapidly(see Figure 4). Since 2000, air cargo movement has increasedby 65%,268 and now represents more than 35% of global tradeby value (i.e. about 7.4% of global GDP).269

4. Transport Infrastructure Supply•

Since 2000, global roadway length increased
by about 40%. While conventional railway
infrastructure stagnated at 2000 levels, highspeed railway infrastructure increased by nearly
12 times from 1990 levels.

•

Since 2000, there has been significant expansionof BRT (835%), light rail (88%), and metro system(67%) infrastructure.

Freight Transport Demand by Mode
Surface freight accounts for about 31% of global freight
volume, with the majority carried on the road, followedby rail. Surface freight activity (road and rail) increased
40% from 2000 to 2015. Due to its competitiveness andconvenience for door-to-door delivery, road freight transport
plays a leading role across global regions. There has been
tremendous mode-shift towards road freight, with totalroad freight increasing to 22% in 2015. In the same period,
the global road freight fleet (i.e. light commercial vehicles(LCVs), medium- and heavy-duty trucks) doubled from 93 toabout 186 million. Currently, 70% of the freight vehicle fleet is
LCVs, with 17% medium- and 13% heavy-duty trucks.

Transport infrastructure supply drives transport activity
demand patterns, depending on whether that infrastructure
is concentrated in roadways, railways or public transport.
Paved roads (without any explicit distinctions in car lanes,
bus lanes or cycling lanes) constitute roughly 97% of the
global surface land transport infrastructure. Since 2000, theglobal roadway network length increased by about 40%,from 35 million kilometers to about 49 million kilometers,

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

to meet the growing demand by passenger and freighttransport. Since 2000, about 90% of road infrastructure
growth occurred in non‐OECD countries (Figure 10).270
Global railway development provides a contrasting
picture when compared with road development. Railway
infrastructure has remained stagnant at 1990 levels.
Overall, roughly 120,000 rail track‐km were removed or
retired since 1990. Railway infrastructure density shows
significant reductions in many OECD countries (e.g. Austria,
Germany, Ireland, Latvia, United States). While conventional
railway infrastructure stagnated at the global level, HSR
infrastructure increased to nearly 12 times the 1990 level,

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

passing an estimated 35,000 km in 2017.272 Over the last two
decades, China has led high-speed railway infrastructuredevelopment, accounting for nearly 60% of global highspeed rail infrastructure (See Section III.B.3 Railways forfurther discussion of high-speed railway expansion trends).
Air transport infrastructure expanded further in recent
years to accommodate the growth in passengers and freight
carried. In 2017, 35.8 million registered air carrier departures
were recorded. 60% of the departures have been in OECD
countries but departures in non-OECD countries (e.g.
China, Kazakhstan, United Arab Emirates and Vietnam) are
increasing, and grew threefold (320%).273

Figure 10: Paved Road Infrastructure Growth (2000 to 2015) 271

248%

Road Network Increase from 2000 to 2015 (%)

250

200

150

110%

100

50

90%

75%
52%

39%
12%

0
World

119%

OECD

Photo credit: Alexander Savin

Non-OECD

5%

6%

10%

South
AfricaEU27

UnitedStates28%

Mexico

India

ASEAN

RussiaBrazilChina

31

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

The Rapid Transit to Resident (RTR) Ratio indicator by theInstitute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP),
which compares a country’s urban population with the lengthof rapid urban transit lines (including light rail, metro, andBRT) that serve them, has shown significant improvement inboth OECD and non-OECD countries (e.g. Colombia, China,
France, and Indonesia).274 Globally, between 2000 and 2017,
BRT, light rail and metro system infrastructure expanded by
952%, 91% and 74%, respectively (Figure 11).275

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

In 2017, 26 cities in eleven countries added 703.8 km of
metro rail, six cities added 62.4 km of BRT, and 17 cities
added 135.2 km of light rail.277 Globally, however, the RTR
ratio has increased only marginally, from about 10.9 km to11.1 kilometers per million population (in cities with morethan 500,000 people) (See Section III.B.2 Urban Transport for
further discussion of metro rail, BRT and light rail policies
and infrastructure expansion.).

Figure 11: Transport Infrastructure Increase (2000 to 2017) 271

1,200

Development of Infrastructure (2000 = 100)32

Growth between 2000 and 2017

Bus Rapid
Transit: 953%

200

Growth between 2000 and 2017

Light RailTransit: 92%
Metro: 74%

1,000

High-Speed
Rail: 722%

800

Roads: 47%
100

600

Rail:

400

200

0

0

YEAR 2000 VS YEAR 2017

YEAR 2000 VS YEAR 2017

-5%

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

B. Transport Emissions andOther Impacts278•

Global growth in CO2 emissions from the transport sector
has been driven by increasing demand for transporting
passenger and goods, and the corresponding growth in thelevels of activity served by the various modes of transport.

Total GHG emissions (excluding those from land use)
increased from 36.1 Gt in 2000 to about 49.3 Gt in 2016 in CO2
equivalent, i.e. an increase of about 37%. About 72% of theseemissions are CO2 emissions, 19% are methane (CH4), 6% arenitrous oxide (N2O), and 3% are fluorinated gases (F-gases),calculated using Global Warming Potentials for 100 years.280
The top six CO2 emitters (i.e. China, United States, European
Union, India, Russia and Japan, in decreasing order ofemissions) constitute about 51% of the global population,
65% of global GDP, and 65% of total global GHGs. The CO2
emissions from the energy sector281 account for the largest
share of global anthropogenic GHG emissions, representing
about 68% of global emissions in 2014.282 Since the industrial
revolution, global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion,a major source of anthropogenic GHGs, have dramaticallyincreased from near zero to about 23.7 Gt in 2000, and toabout 32.3 Gt in 2015, an increase of about 36%.

Emissions in the transport sector are dependent on four
factors, as captured in the ‘ASIF’ formula: the product oftravel demand in passenger-km and/or freight activity (A) (intonne-km travel) across all modes; the mode share (S); thefuel intensity (I) of each mode in liters per passenger-km (ortonne-km for freight); and the carbon content of the fuel or
emission factor (F), in grams of carbon or pollutant per literof fuel consumed. These components are not assumed to
be independent, but interconnected, and each component
may directly or indirectly influence the other components(positively or negatively). The ‘ASIF’ formula is the foundation
for the ‘A-S-I’ strategy framework.

1. Economy-Wide CO2 Emissions•

Transport is the third-largest CO2-emitting sector
after the power industry and other industrial
combustion.

The power industry (i.e. the generation of electricity andheat) is the largest source of global fossil CO2 emissions,283
with a 38.5% share in 2016, followed by other industrial
combustion (i.e. combustion for industrial manufacturing
and fuel production) with a share of 21.2%, and transport isthe third largest source with a share of 20.9% (Figure 13).

Since 2000, economy-wide and transport-sector
emissions have increased by 37% and 29%,
respectively.

Figure 12: ASIF Formula 279

Total
GHG
Emissions

∑

=

Fuel,
Mode

Activity

Structure

passenger-km
tonne-km
vehicle-km

EnergyIntensity% shareof modeCarbonIntensity
CO2e
MJ

MJ per km
mode

Figure 13: Fossil CO2 Emissions by Sector (1970 to 2016) 284, 285
1412
CO2 Emissions (Gt)

10
8

+270%
+164%

6

+65%
+13%

4

+112%

2
0

Power Industry

Transport

Other industrial combustion

Development from 1970 to 2016

Buildings

Non-combustion

33

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

2. Transport CO2 Emissions Trends•

In 2014, transport produced about 14% of global
GHG emissions.

•

From 2000 to 2016, GDP and transport CO2
emissions increased by 52% and 29%,
respectively.

Transport sector CO2 emissions increased from 5.8 Gt in 2000
to 7.5 Gt in 2016, an increase of 29%. Transport produced
about 14% of global GHG emissions as of 2014.286 Transport
was also the largest growing sector between 2000 and 2016
in 40 countries, among which are 29 non-OECD countries
from all regions.287
Incremental improvements in transport fuel efficiency
and carbon intensity of fuels have kept global growth intransport CO2 emissions (29%) lower than the growth intransport demand (i.e. growth in passenger traffic (74%) andfreight traffic (68%) volumes.288 Ethanol and biodiesel blends
implemented in numerous countries have lower lifecycle
GHG emissions. However, there have been no large-scalechanges in transport technology capable of disrupting theCO2 emissions growth trend.
As discussed in Section II.A, economic growth has been a
key enabler to higher demand of the transport of passengers
and goods. The growth in transport demand produced
contributed to the increase in CO2 emissions from thesector. From 1970 to 2000, global GDP increased with anannual average growth rate of 3.3%, while transport CO2
emissions increased with an annual growth rate of 2.4%.
Since the 2008 financial crisis, GDP and transport emissions
have grown moderately at an annual rate of 2.7% and 1.1%,
respectively, indicating a weakening of this coupling ofPart II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

transport sector CO2 emissions with GDP (Figure 14). Good
examples for decoupling of transport CO2 emissions from
economic growth are Singapore and Uzbekistan. From 2010
to 2015, the GDP has increased in these countries by 22%
and 189%, respectively, while the transport CO2 emissions
have decreased by 6% and 38%, respectively.289

Transport Emissions Growth
by Region and Country
For many years, global growth in transport CO2 emissions
was mainly attributable to increases in travel activity inOECD countries. However, by the 1990s, growth in travelin these countries began to slow. Between 2000 to 2016,transport carbon emission patterns changed in significant
ways. With continuing incremental improvements in vehicle
efficiency, by the mid-2000s the transport CO2 emissions ofOECD countries stopped growing.
Albeit starting from a small base, transport demand began
to grow rapidly in non-OECD countries in the early 2000s.
The share of non-OECD countries in total transport CO2
emissions also increased from 27% in 2000 to 41% in 2016,
while the share of OECD countries reduced from 58% to 43%(Figure 15).
The United States, European Union, China, India and Russia(in decreasing order) collectively constitute close to 60%
of total transport CO2 emissions (excluding international
aviation and shipping emissions). Due to high growthin travel activities and the slow pace of fuel efficiency
improvements, international aviation and shipping
emissions have increased by 47% and 33%, respectively,
and now constitute about 16% of total transport emissions(Figure 15).

Figure 14: Transport Emissions Relative to Economic Growth (1990 to 2016) 290

160

160
150

140

140

GDP - Average Annual
Growth 3%

120

130

100

120 Transport CO Emissions 2

2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

Average Annual Growth 1.6%

80
60
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

Development with 2000 = 100

34

GDP

Transport CO2

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Figure 15: Transport CO2 Emissions Share of OECD and non-OECD Countries (2000 to 2016) 291
100

OECD Countries

Transport Emission Shares (%)

90

Non-OECDCountries

80
70

International
Aviation

6050International
Shipping

40
30
20
10
199
0
199
1
199
2
199
3
199
4
199
5
199
6
199
7
199
8
199
9
200
0
200
1
200
2
200
3
200
4
200
5
200
6
200
7
200
8
200
9
201
0
201
1
201
2
201
3
201
4
201
5
201
6

0

Transport emissions growth rates are decreasing in OECD
countries. Transport CO2 emissions decreased marginallyfrom 2.99 Gt in 2000 to 2.94 Gt in 2016. From 1990 to 2000,
about 13% of OECD countries had an annual growth rateof transport emissions of less than 0%. In 2000 to 2016, theshare of OECD countries with an annual growth rate oftransport emissions below 0% increased to 77%. By contrast,
non-OECD countries show an increasing trend in transport
growth rates and emissions grew from 1.5 Gt in 2000 to 2.9

Gt CO2 in 2016. Alone from 2010 to 2016, nearly 31% of nonOECD countries had transport emission annual growth rates
exceeding 5%.
In examining the transport CO2 emissions trends by country,
recent growth is led by countries in East Asia, Southeastern
Asia, Central Asia and Africa. To a lesser extent, Latin America
and the Caribbean show a growth trend, with only Cuba
showing a reduction of transport CO2 emissions (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Average Annual Growth Rates of Transport CO2 Emissions (1990 to 2016) 292

35

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

3. Disaggregating Transport CO2 Emissions•

Since 2000, public transport mode share (inpassenger-km travel) has remained stagnatedat 2000 levels, whereas railways and shipping
freight mode share (in tonne-km) has reduced
from 87% to 78%.

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

The increase was fully concentrated in non-OECD countries,
where its share increased from 3% to 8% from 2000 to 2015
(Figure 17).

Transport Emissions by Modeand Sub-Sector

Transport Emissions by Country Grouping
Since 2000, the aggregated modal share (i.e. road, railways,
shipping, aviation) in transport emissions has been similar
across OECD and non-OECD countries. However, there are
significant variations among countries. For example, roadshare in transport emissions (in 2015) varied from 63% in
Russia to 97% in Mexico. Railway share in total transport
emissions is negligible in Southeast Asia countries, whereas
it is above 5% in South Africa, India and Russia.
Further, within the road sector, there are significant variations
in magnitude and intensity of growth of different sub-modes.
For example, light-duty vehicles constitute about 49% oftransport CO2 emissions share in OECD countries, but only
39% in non-OECD countries. Since 2000, the emissions shareof light-duty vehicles has reduced in OECD countries, but
increased in non-OECD countries. Two-and-three-wheelers
constitute only about 1% and 8% share in total transport
emissions in OECD and non-OECD countries, respectively.
Two- and three-wheeler emissions have grown globally thefastest among all modes, with about 260% growth from 2000
to 2015 due to their high relevance in India and in ASEAN
as a major mode of transport. Between 2000 and 2015 theactivity of motorized two- and three-wheelers increased
from 2.8 trillion passenger-km to 8.5 trillion passenger-km.293

Passenger and freight CO2 emissions growth have followedtransport activity growth trends, but with much lower
intensity. Since 2000, passenger and freight activity haveincreased by 74% and 68%, respectively. However, passenger
and freight transport emissions have only increased by 36%
and 75%, respectively. Freight emissions are now growing
much faster than passenger transport emissions with freight
emissions share in transport CO2 emissions increasing from
35% in 2000 to 41% in 2015.
The main passenger modes contribute to global passenger
CO2 emissions roughly in proportion to their share of global
passenger activity. Passenger cars, two-and-three wheelers
and mini buses constitute 65% of passenger transport
activity and contribute about 75% of passenger transport
CO2 emissions. However, public transport services (e.g.
heavy road, rail, bus and railways), which accommodate
about 22% of passenger activity, generate only about 7% ofpassenger transport CO2 emissions (Figure 18).
Comparing maritime freight and surface freight, there is aninverse relationship between market share and emissions.
Surface freight using road and rail produces about 75% of
freight CO2 emissions carrying about 30% of tonne-km, whilemaritime shipping produces 24% of freight CO2 emissions,carrying 69% of tonne-km.296 This reflects the much lower
CO2 intensity of maritime shipping compared with surface
freight modes. Air freight has a much higher CO2 intensity

Figure 17: Transport CO2 Emissions Share (Mode) (2000 and 2015) 294

100

Shipping

90
Transport CO2 Emission Share (%)

36

Aviation

8070

Freight Rail60

Passenger Rail50
40

Buses and Minibuses

30

Two- and Three-Wheelers

20

Trucks10

Light Duty Vehicle

0
2000

2015

OECD

2000

2015

Non-OECD

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Figure 18: Passenger and Freight Modal Shares: Activity, Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions (2015) 295
Passenger

100

Freight
Shipping

90

Air

Share (%)

80
70

Rail

60

Heavy Duty Vehicle

50

Light Duty Vehicle

40
30
20
10
0

Activity

EnergyConsumption(EJ)

Transport CO2(Mt)than surface transport and shipping; at only 0.1% of global
freight in terms of tonne-km, is currently too small tosignificantly influence global freight emissions.297 However,since 2000, air cargo movement has increased by 65%, andis set to grow very fast over the next two decades.298
Urban freight constitutes only about 1% of total freightactivity in tonne-km (or about 5% of surface freight activity),
but causes about 16% of the surface freight CO2 emissions.299
Among transport sub-sectors, road transport is by far thelargest producer of global CO2 emissions from transport,
accounting for three-quarters of transport emissions in 2015.
This reflects road transport’s relatively high CO2 emission
intensity, and its leading role in the major market segments
for urban and non-urban passenger transport and surface
freight. Rail, which has a lower CO2 emission intensity anda much smaller market share (i.e. about 8% of passenger
transport activity, and 28% of surface freight transport
activity), only produces about 3% of transport CO2 emissions.

4. Transport Energy Intensity•

Since 2000, passenger and surface freighttransport energy intensity have decreased by
29% and 15%, respectively.

Energy use for the transport sector is the product of total
travel, the modal shares, and the energy intensities of eachmode. Any change in any variable will significantly impact
the total energy consumption. Energy intensity, or the ratio
between energy consumption and passenger activity (inpassenger-km) and freight activity (in tonne-km), varies
significantly among modes and regions. For example,

Activity

EnergyConsumption(EJ)

Transport CO2(Mt)

globally, two-and-three-wheelers and large passenger cars
provide similar transport output in terms of passenger-km(large cars have 8% lower passenger-km when comparedwith two-and-three-wheelers), but the energy consumptionof large cars is more than four times the energy consumptionof two-and-three-wheelers.300

Energy Intensity by Transport Mode
From 2005 to 2015, passenger transport energy intensity
reduced by 27%, while freight transport energy intensity
reduced by only 5%. All modes of passenger transportshow improvement, with light-duty vehicles showing theleast progress. However, significant heterogeneity exists
among LDVs in relation to fuel economy in OECD countries,
with Europe and Japan having greater fuel economy thanAustralia, Canada and the United States.301
Road freight vehicles show no reduction in energy intensity
due to several factors, including vehicle attributes, payloads,
and lack of policy frameworks, among others. In surface
freight, activity in the European Union is only 10% higher thanin Russia, but the energy consumption in surface freight ismore than five times that of Russia. One of the main reasonsfor such a wide gap in energy intensity of surface freight is
the role of railways. In Russia, rail constitutes about 70% of
the surface freight activity, while in the European Union it is
only 12% (tonne-km).

Energy Intensity by Country Grouping
Transport energy intensity is much higher in OECD countries
when compared with non-OECD countries, mainly due tomode split in favor of private vehicles, aviation and trucks(non-OECD countries have a higher share of public transport

37

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

Figure 19: Transport Energy Intensity (2014) 302

Passenger

7
Transport Energy Intensity (2014)
MJ/activity (passenger-km or tonne-km)

38

Freight
World

6

OECD

5

Non-OECD

4
3
2
1
0

Air

Light Road

Heavy RoadRail

and railways) (Figure 19). Other reasons include low
occupancy and loading, due to use of less energy-efficient
vehicles (fleet composition, vehicle size), or due to lower
penetration of alternative transport energy (biofuels, electric
two-wheelers).
Among OECD countries, the United States and European
Union have similar total passenger transport activity
levels. United States passenger activity is higher than theEuropean Union by about 6%, but the passenger transportenergy consumption in the United States is twice theEuropean Union level. One factor driving this gap in energy
intensity is the mode share of buses and railways in thepassenger transport activity (passenger-km); United States
public transport mode share is 9% versus 16% in theEuropean Union.
Between 2000 to 2015, changes in travel demand, mode share,and energy intensity interacted to determine increases in
per-capita transport energy consumption of 27% globally,
1% in OECD countries, and (98%) in non-OECD countries.303

5. Carbon Intensity of Transport Fuels

Light Road

Heavy Road

Rail

Currently, the transport sector is the least diversified energy
end-use sector. The principal source of transport carbon
emissions is the combustion of fossil fuels, and transportlags behind other energy sectors in its use of renewableenergy. Globally, about 50% of renewable energy is usedin the residential, commercial and public sectors, while inOECD countries a similar proportion is used to generate
electricity.304
Oil is the predominant fuel used for passenger and freighttransport by road, water and air, and accounted in 2016 for
94% of global transport fuel combustion.305 Gasoline anddiesel remain the dominant transport sector fuels, comprisingroughly 75% of total transport energy consumption in 2015
(Figure 20). Overall, transport accounted for about two-thirdsof global oil consumption in 2015, with road transport alone
accounting for half.306 The reliance of transport on oil alsomeans that a sizeable portion of international freight consistsof movements of oil for end-use in transport. Trade in crude
oil and petroleum products (including gas) accounted forabout 30% of global maritime freight tonnage in 2016.307
Electricity share in transport energy consumption has
increased marginally over 15 years (i.e. from 0.7% in 2000
to 1% in 2015). The main exception is railways, which are
powered by a significant share of electricity (39%) comparedto 56% by oil products.308 Further electrification of transport
must come along with decarbonization of the power sector.

•

Since 2000, oil demand in the transport sector
has increased by about 25%; transport remains
extremely dependent on oil.

•Transport accounted for about two-thirds ofglobal oil consumption in 2015, with road transportalone accounting for half of oil consumption fromtransport.

6. Other Climate-Related Transport Impacts

Electricity share in transport energy consumption
has increased marginally from 0.7% in 2000 to 1%
in 2015.

Climate change is often not the main driver of changes totransport policies; other negative externalities of transport
activities, such as local air pollution and black carbon•

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Figure 20: Total Transport Energy Consumption by Fuel Source (2000 and 2015) 309

Transport Energy Consumption (EJ)

120
100

Total forOECD:

Total for
Non-OECD

Total forOECD:

Total for
Non-OECD

53 EJ

25 EJ

56 EJ

57 EJ

80

Other Fuel Use*
Total Residual
Bunker FuelElectricity
Jet Fuel
Diesel60

Gasoline40
200GlobalOECD

Non-OECDYEAR 2000

GlobalOECD

Non-OECDYEAR 2015*Ethanol, Biodiesel, CNG, LPG, Hydrogen

emissions, often give rise to policy change. Addressingthese transport impacts is essential to achieving mostof the proposed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which contains climate change targets along with the Paris
Agreement.

Local Air Pollution
While most GHG emissions from transport take the formof CO2, other transport GHGs include CH4, volatile organic
compounds (VOC), NOx, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide(CO), F-gases, non-absorbing aerosols, and black carbon(BC).310 These pollutants from transport degrade local air
quality and are detrimental to public health. Outdoor air
pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature
deaths globally in 2016.311
The global aggregated data on transport externalities indicate
a possible weakening of the coupling of externalities such astransport air pollutant emissions with income. However, thisfigure masks considerable national disparities and contrasts
between the improvement in high-income countries withthe lack of improvement or worsening in middle and lowincome economies. OECD countries have demonstrated
more progress in reducing air pollutants from transport
than non-OECD countries, which are facing a faster rate ofincreased transport demand. It is therefore more urgent for
non-OECD countries to address the issue to save lives andimprove health for citizens. For example, Europe significantly
reduced emissions of certain air pollutants the transport
sector between 1990 and 2015: CO and non-methane volatileorganic compounds (NMVOCs) (both by around 85%); SOx(by 49%); and NOx (by 41%).312 By 2015, emissions of PM2.5 haddecreased by 42% from 2000 levels. In India by comparison,from 2000 to 2010 transport sector NOx emissions increasedby 44%.313

Black Carbon
Black carbon (BC) from transport consists of airbornesoot particles left from incomplete combustion of fossil
fuel, especially diesel.314 This is typically due to low
vehicle emissions standards, inadequate vehicle engine
maintenance and high sulfur content in diesel fuel.
Although the climate effects of BC are complex and not
fully understood, they may be second only to CO2 in termsof potency. 315 In addition to climate effects, BC is a leading
cause of human mortality and morbidity, as it is emitted in theform of PM2.5 (particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometers).316
The human body cannot protect against exposure to ultra
fine particles like PM2.5, which is associated with a rangeof respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and withpremature death.317
Among transport modes, road transport and shipping are thelargest producers of BC. According to the IPCC, in North andSouth America and in Europe, over half of BC emissions result
from combustion of diesel and other heavy distillate fuels(including marine oil) in vehicle engines. The IMO sulphur
cap is expected to significantly reduce such emissions frominternational shipping form 2020. BC emissions from roadtransport are also significant and rising in Asia and Africa.318
They are one of the main causes of chronic smog in cities
such as Beijing, Delhi, Dhaka, Karachi and Lagos. Thus,
climate change mitigation strategies in the transport sector
can result in many co-benefits. While selecting mitigation
options, opportunities for potential health and environment
synergies need to be identified.

39

40

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Transport Sector Adaptation and Resilience
In addition to impacts from the transport sector on local air
pollution and black carbon emissions, there are also climatechange impacts to the transport sector from extreme
weather events and natural disasters. Slow onset changes

Climate Impacts and Vulnerability in
the Transport Sector
Transport infrastructure and services are vulnerable to theimpacts of natural disasters and climate change. This isespecially true in high-risk locations, such as coastal areas,
flood plains, or along deforested mountain slopes, where
exposure to natural hazards and disasters like extreme
heatwaves, hurricanes, storm surges, flooding and landslides
is higher. Climate change is expected to further increase
the risks of natural disasters, whose impacts may varysignificantly by region, with coastal areas expected to be mostimpacted due to high exposure to sea-level rise and coastal
storms. Incidentally, coastal areas are frequently where muchof transport networks and infrastructure are located.
Damage to transport assets from natural disasters andextreme weather events often requires costly repairs andreconstruction, with longa-term implications. Disruptions to
the transport network cause delays, and impairs access tomarkets, products and services, affecting the whole fabric ofsociety and the economy for extended periods of time. Wellbeing losses are often felt beyond the immediate event, andthe extent of the impact depends on the level and speed ofconnectivity restoration.

Climate Impacts in the Transport Sector
The transport sector will be directly and indirectly impacted
by climate change. Sea level rise, increased storm intensity,changes in extreme temperatures – both increase in the
average temperature across the year and increase in thenumber of heatwaves – and precipitation have direct impacts
on transport infrastructure, operations and user behavior.
Climate change may also impact the demand for products andservices that will indirectly impact the transport sector, shifting
infrastructure needs. It is worth noting that not all impacts will
be negative; for instance, warmer winters in cold regions arelikely to reduce delays, improve reliability and decrease need
for winter maintenance.
Climate change is expected to impact the infrastructure andservices of all transport sub-sectors and modes:

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

such as sea level rise and changes in seasonal rainfall canalso cause major problems for transport infrastructure,requiring often costly and sometimes complex adaptation
measures (See Sidebar: Climate Impacts and Vulnerability in
the Transport Sector).

•

•

•

Road and rail transport are sensitive to hightemperatures and pavements can rut and buckle.
Intense precipitation and longer periods of sustained
precipitation have the most pronounced effect onroad infrastructure through flooding. Increase intemperature and humidity or prolonged dry spells
can raise potential for asphalt deterioration. For
inland waterways, changes in seasonal precipitation
as well as in extremes mean that both high flow and
low flow can cause problems. Drought conditions
can severely restrict inland waterway activities
Ports and any transport infrastructure along coastlines, are particularly vulnerable to sea-level-riseand storm surges. Heavy rain and winds can disrupt
port and airport operations.
Underground transit facilities and tunnels are
particularly susceptible to extreme heat as somesystems have had to close on hot days and flooding
from heavy periods of precipitation, storms or sealevel-rise.

Resilient Transport
Transport can play a role in enhancing the resilience ofcommunities and economies. Resilience in infrastructure
depends largely on fundamental design assumptions
which may be long out of date. Climate factors should beconsidered when making long-term decisions about transport
infrastructure investment, location and design. For instance,
resilient transport systems include adaptive construction
designs and materials that can withstand climatic changes, orthat can be retrofitted in a timely manner.
Climate change considerations can be incorporated intotransport asset management lifecycles to avoid lock-in effects
and to enhance adaptive capacity. Enhanced capacity oftransport agencies, operators and users can help to minimize
impacts on communities and economies. If a metro system isinterrupted, for example, other options within the system canbe accessed to quickly cover service. Other Climate Change
impacts require investments over long periods, integrated
with asset maintenance and replacement cycles, as mostdamage to roads and rail is from chronic conditions (e.g. manysuccessive days above a temperature threshold) rather thanextreme events.
continued next pagePart II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Climate Impacts and Vulnerability in
the Transport Sector (continued)

NDCs, 29 prioritized the transport sector for adaptation, and only
10 specified transport adaptation measures like vulnerability
assessments and infrastructure resilience planning. In the
NDCs, the focus on adaptation is low when compared to thefocus on mitigation.319

Challenges for Mainstreaming Climate
Adaptation in Transport
The 2010 UNFCCC Cancun Agreements established the national
adaptation plan process and the 2015 Paris Agreement adopted
a global goal to “enhance adaptive capacity, strengthen
resilience and reduce vulnerability to climate change.” Theinternational agreements generated attention and efforts
towards climate adaptation.
Countries developed Nationally Determined Contributions(NDCs) plans to increase resilience post-2020. Out of the 166

Challenges to mainstreaming adaptation in the transport sector(even where data sets are sufficient) include the following:•••

Decision making within uncertainty of the extent andstrength of local impacts;
Coordination and cooperation of agencies acrosssector mandates; andLack of relevant and reliable data to support planningand decision making.

C. Transport CO2 Emission Mitigation
Targets and Potential

demand (in passenger-km and tonne-km) could grow by 90160% and by 100%-230%, respectively, if no effort is made to
manage transport demand.323

The transport sector is responsible for 23% of energyrelated GHG emissions worldwide; with growing transportdemand, transport emissions are increasing at a faster rate
than from any other sector.320 Based on current policies andpractices, the emissions pathway for the transport sector is
projected to increase by 50% by 2030, and to double by 2050,
compared to 2010 levels.321 However, transport stakeholders
are working together in an effort to curb transport emissions
in line with scenarios to keep temperature change
below 2°C.

While most of the population in middle and low-income
countries still do not have access to personal motorized
vehicles, this situation is rapidly changing. The baseline
global projections of global light duty vehicle (LDV) stock
indicate an increase from around 0.85–1.1 billion LDVs in2010, to 2.0–3.0 billion LDVs in 2050.324 While total passenger
travel in non-OECD countries was only slightly greater thanin OECD countries in 2015, it is projected to be more than
three times greater by 2050.325•

By 2050, global transport sector CO2 emissions
could more than double, reaching 10 to 18 Gt.

•

Non-OECD countries will be responsible fornearly all increases in transport emissions, with
their share increasing from 40% in 2015, to a
projected 56%-72% in 2050.

1. Transport Business-as-Usual Projections
To understand potential emission reductions within thetransport sector, it is important to discuss future projected
emissions alongside current policies and measures.

Transport Demand Business-as-Usual (BAU)
Projections
Change in transport demand is a key driver of future trends
in transport CO2 emissions. Looking forward, global transport
activity (passenger and freight) is expected to continue
growing under current trends and policies, with faster
growth expected for freight transport. The BAU322 projections
from 2015 to 2050 reveal that passenger and freight transport

Due to rapid urbanization in Asia and Africa, urban passenger
transport activity could increase by about 84%, with asignificant shift towards private vehicles.326 From 2015–2050,
non-urban passenger transport activity is projected toincrease two to three times.327
Future projections of surface freight activity in 2030 and 2050
show continued growth in all regions of the world, with roadfreight remaining the leading mode in all regions, and littlechange in the market shares of road and rail freight. Striking
is the projected trebling of surface freight in the Asia-Pacificregion—driven by rapid growth in developing countries inAsia—to account for two-thirds of surface freight by 2050.328

Transport Emissions BAU Projections
Despite their inherent uncertainties, transport demand
projections are instructive. The IPCC’s Fourth Assessment
Report in 2007 estimated that the share of non-OECD
countries in the total transport emissions will increase to
46% by 2030.329 However, by 2015, the non-OECD share intransport emissions had already increased to 48% (15 years
ahead of the forecast).330 Emissions growth rates are highest
among Asian countries, where collectively CO2 emissions
could increase by more than 300% over the 2010-2050
period.331 The top countries where the emission growth is41

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

projected to be very intense (roughly 300-1400%) from 2010
to 2050 are Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Lao PDR,
Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Peru and Vietnam.332
The projected growth in transport CO2 emissions of thevarious transport market segments is quite similar to theprojected growth in demand (See Section II.A Transport
Demand). Globally, urban passenger transport, surface nonurban passenger transport, surface freight, and aviation andmaritime shipping segments will each account for a quarterof emissions over the period until 2050.333 The present trends
reveal a continued dominance of road transport emissions,as well as an increase in aviation emissions.
Growth in transport activity does not necessarily resultin a parallel growth in CO2 emissions, due to the impact ofexisting low-carbon policy actions to reduce both the energy
intensity of modes and the carbon intensity of fuel. However,BAU projections suggest that the global transport sector CO2
emissions could still increase to 10 to 18 Gt (i.e., an increase ofabout 40% to 150% above 2015 levels) (Figure 21).334

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways“Holding the increase in the global average temperature towell below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue
efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above preindustrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly
reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.”336 It is also
acknowledged that there is a need to “reach global peakingof GHG emissions as soon as possible” and arrive at netzero global emissions in the second half of this century byachieving a balance between GHG emissions and removalsby GHG sinks.
Scientists and researchers find the Paris Agreement
commitment to be ambitious. It will be very challenging to
end the world’s centuries-old reliance on fossil-fuels withinjust a few decades. However, most also agree that theconsequences of not doing so would be catastrophic.

Economy-Wide 2°C and 1.5°C Scenarios
Limiting temperature rises to not more than 2°C is expected
to reduce the likelihood and severity of dangerous climate

Figure 21: Transport Business-as-Usual CO2 Emissions Projections (2000 to 2050) 335

Transport CO2 Emissions (Gt)42

20

IEA SMP (2004)

18

IEA Reference Scenario (2017)
ITF (2017)16

ICCT-BAU (20112)
14

World Energy Council (2009)12

Global Calculator (2015)10

SloCat (Avg BAU) (2008–2017)
IRENA (2018)

8
6

2010

2020

2030

2. Paris Agreement-Compatible Transport
Emissions Pathways•

Global transport emissions will need to be
reduced to 2 to 3 Gt CO2 per year by 2050 to meet
Paris Agreement mitigation targets.

By signing the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, 195
countries recognized that existing efforts and commitments
to mitigate GHG emissions were insufficient and would need
to be stepped up significantly. The countries pledged to work
toward aggregate GHG emission pathways consistent with

2040

2050

impacts. The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report estimated thatwithout additional policies and investments to reduce GHG
emissions beyond those in place today, future emissions
growth would be largely driven by growth in population andeconomic activities. By 2100, this would result in global meansurface temperature increases of 3.7°C to 4.8°C, comparedwith pre-industrial levels; well above the 2°C limit.337
The idea of a 2°C limit has been part of the global dialogue
on climate change for several decades. It was adopted asa global climate target in 2010 when 193 countries signed
the Cancun Agreements committing governments to “holdPart II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

the increase in global average temperature below 2°C above
pre-industrial levels.”338
The discussion is still very much evolving regarding a 1.5°C
economy-wide scenario in the Paris Agreement.339 Onlya few scientific studies exist that chart out the degree oftransformation required for a 1.5°C world. The IPCC Special
Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C shows that limiting
global average temperature increase to 1.5°C is possible,
but it requires unprecedented changes and far-reachingtransitions in all sectors. CO2 emissions would need to be
reduced by at least 45% from 2010 levels by 2030 and reachnet-zero by around 2050, which would also require existing
CO2 to be removed from the atmosphere.340

Transport Sector 2°C and 1.5°C Scenarios

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018with pre-NDC trajectories; however, current NDCs would
likely result in warming of about 2.8°C above pre-industrial
levels,344 therefore falling well short of Paris Agreementtargets.
These global mitigation scenarios inform mitigation
imperatives at the sectoral level:
1.

Faced with high and rising emissions, a dramatictransformation in energy use is needed to achieve a
net-zero emissions economy by mid-century or soonafter.
This transformation must scale up quickly, as acontinuation of high emissions in the short-term will
necessitate a more drastic and costly transformation in
the long-term.
All sectors must decarbonize if temperature rise is tobe contained, with exceptions limited by the extent towhich other sectors can achieve negative emissions.
NDCs need to consider important interlinkages withother sectors (e.g. linkages between electric mobility
and renewable energy, or implications of electric
mobility on energy supply and networks).345

2.

3.

While climate policy objectives are often formulated on an
economy-wide basis at international and national levels,in practice such objectives need to be implemented on asectoral basis. In the transport sector, there are limited
interpretations of Paris Agreement commitments, and thedegree of transformation required in the transport sector. The
available evidence suggests that transport CO2 emissions
would need to be restricted to about 2 to 3 Gt in 2050 (1.5°C,
beyond 2°C scenario (B2DS)), or about 70 to 80% below 2015
levels.341 For the 2-degree scenario (2DS), transport CO2
emissions would need to be restricted to about 3 to 6 Gt in
2050, or about 40 to 70% below 2015 levels. Since transport
infrastructure-related decisions “lock-in” transport demandfor decades to come, Paris Agreement-compatible 2050
targets will be hard to realize if the transition is not started inearnest within the next two to five years.

3. Transport Sector Mitigation Potential

Nationally Determined Contributions

Assessing Transport Sector Decarbonization
Potential

The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) provide
an overview of national climate action plans for reducing
transport sector emissions and adapting to climate change
in transport. Among the 165 NDCs submitted to date
(representing 192 countries, with all European Union member
countries under a single NDC), 76% explicitly identify thetransport sector as a mitigation source, and more than
63% of NDCs propose transport sector-specific mitigation
measures; however, only about 8% of NDCs include a
specific transport sector emission reduction target, andonly about 12% of NDCs include assessments of countrylevel transport mitigation potential. (See Section III.A Policy
Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change).342
Existing NDC targets for 2030 are largely economy-wide,
not transport sector-specific. The current analysis showsthat even if the economy-wide 2030 targets are translated
to the transport sector, assuming the current proportionaltransport share in economy-wide emissions, there would
be a projected 16% gap with the B2DS trajectory.343 Overall,
implementation of the first generation of NDCs would lead tolower economy-wide emission growth rates when compared4.

•

The transport emission gap between BAU and
1.5DS is 16 Gt CO2 for 2050.

•

Cumulative transport mitigation potential inabsolute terms is about 60% greater in non-OECD
countries than in OECD countries.

Despite the key role of transport in meeting Paris Agreementtargets, many global multi-sectoral studies consider thetransport sector difficult to decarbonize. The IPCC Fourthand Fifth Assessment Reports (AR4 and AR5) both suggest
modest mitigation potential in the transport sector comparedto many other sectors.346 If present trends continue, thetransport sector could potentially become a major roadblockto avoiding dangerous climate change.347
While there is a growing awareness of transport sector’srole in energy sector decarbonization, globally, only
about 42% of those countries that have pledged to reduce
emissions in Paris have carried out long-term low carbon
transport emission modeling (Figure 22).348 However, thesecountries account for 85% of transport CO2 emissions,349 andthus implementation of low carbon transport measures inthese countries holds significant mitigation potential. The
identification of appropriate country-specific mitigation
measures could inform the development of integrated,region-specific policy packages in a global roadmap fortransport decarbonization.

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

Figure 22: Countries with 2050 Transport Low Carbon Estimates350

Figure 23: Projected Transport CO2 Emissions: Business as Usual and Low Carbon Pathways (2010 to 2050)335
20
18

ted

jec

14

Pro

B

y

wa

ath

P
AU

Transport Emission Gap of 16 Gt

16Transport CO2 Emissions (WTW) (Gt)

44

12
10
8
6

Proje

4

cted

2
0
2010

2020

Low C

arbon

2030

Recent global studies assert that the transport sector
can provide a significant contribution to economy-wide
decarbonization with 2050 emissions being 1.5 Gt to 10 Gt,
with an average of 4.5 Gt, i.e. the emission gap of 44% with
the B2DS trajectory (Figure 23). A number of these models
suggest that emission reductions of 2°C or below arepotentially feasible in the transport sector by 2050. Thus,

Pathw

ay
2040

2050

global transport CO2 emissions show reductions in thesame order of magnitude as emissions from other sectors.
This contradicts the more qualitative general assumption(as suggested in the IPCC AR4 and AR5) that the transport
sector will lag behind in reduction, because reductions are
more “challenging” in transport.351

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Transport Decarbonization Potential by Region
and Sub-Sector

efficiency improvement through 2050, and a carbon-neutral
growth from 2020.358 The Carbon Offsetting and Reduction
Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) seeks to stabilize
CO2 emissions from international aviation by requiring
airlines to procure offsets to cover all emission increases
above 2020 levels on routes between participating states.
While participation during 2021–35 is voluntary, 73-member
countries, accounting for 88% of international aviation
activity, have confirmed their intention to participate from theoutset.359 However, by setting the baseline at 2020 emission
levels, CORSIA will cover less than 30% of international
aviation emissions during 2020–30.360

The potential to reduce GHG emissions in percentage terms
is roughly the same in OECD and non-OECD economies.
GHG emissions in the 2DS in 2050 are 60% to 70% lower
than in both 4°C scenario (4DS) and 6°C scenario (6DS), but
the cumulative abatement potential in absolute terms (inMt CO2 equivalent) is about 60% greater in non-OECD (i.e.
generally middle- and low-income) countries than in OECD(i.e. generally high-income) countries.353
Among sub-sectors, various studies indicate mitigation
potential proportionate to the size of the sector, withroad sector providing the largest magnitude of potential
mitigation. Decarbonizing freight transport is consideredmore challenging than passenger transport in the AR5.354
However, mitigation potential for passenger and freightshow a similar bandwidth (Figure 24). 355 Urban passenger
transport must mitigate emissions to a large extent andrural passenger transport to follow in a smaller degree but
reaching similar total emission levels by 2050.

In international shipping, in October 2016, the IMO approveda roadmap to develop a comprehensive strategy for the
reduction of GHG emissions from ships, with the prospectof an initial strategy being adopted in 2018, to be followed
by a final GHG reduction strategy by 2023. In April 2018, IMO
agreed to mitigate annual GHG emissions by at least 50%
by 2050 compared to 2008 levels, while aiming for further
efforts to decarbonize the shipping sector.361 Given thatinternational shipping emissions are already significant,Figure 24: Transport Mitigation Potential across Sub-sectors (2020 to 2050) 356
20International FreightTransport

18

Domestic FreightTransport

Transport CO2 Emissions (Gt)

16
14International Passenger
Transport

12

Rural Passenger
Transport

108Urban Passenger
Transport

6
4
2
0

2020

2030

2040

Business - As - Usual

2050

2020

2030

2040

2050

High Mitigation - Bundling all strategies(Avoid-Shift-Improve)

Within the global climate change process, GHG emissions
from aviation and shipping may be addressed under the
UNFCCC through inclusion in NDCs. Mitigation strategies
may also be achieved unilaterally, through bilateralagreements between countries, or among member statesof the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) andInternational Maritime Organization (IMO).
In 2016, the member states of ICAO adopted a global marketbased scheme to mitigate CO2 emissions from international
aviation.357 ICAO’s aspirational goals are a 2% annual fueland growth in demand exceeds present trends in fuelefficiency improvements, maritime shipping may consider
alternative fuels, renewable energy, carbon pricing andoperational measures to yield a more significant reductionof emissions.362
A recent meta-analysis of mitigation measures in NDCs,
mitigation studies, and technology needs assessments
indicates a high prioritization of mitigation measures related
to fuel efficiency and fuel decarbonization.364 As seen in
Figure 26, in terms of the “A-S-I” framework, nearly two-

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

Box 1: The Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework for Sustainable Transport Measures
The Avoid-Shift-Improve (A-S-I) Framework363 was developed to better categorize the measures and ambitions taken in the transport
sector on climate change and sustainable development. ‘Avoid’ refers to avoiding and reducing the need for motorized travel withtransport system efficiencies through integrated transport and spatial planning and transport demand management (See Section
III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management). ‘Shift’ seeks to improve trip efficiency by shifting useof private vehicles to the use of public transport, walking and cycling. ‘Improve’ refers to measures that improve vehicle and fuelefficiency as well as optimizing transport infrastructure (Figure 25).

Figure 25: Avoid-Shift-Improve Framework
Key
Elements

Avoid

Shift

Improve

Definitions

Avoid and reduce the needfor motorized travel

Shift to more environmentallyfriendly modes

Improve energy efficiency oftransport modes

TCC-GSR
PolicyExamplesTransport
DemandManagement

Urban Public
Transport

Railways

Walking and
Cycling

New Mobility
Services

Fuel
EconomyElectric
Mobility

Renewable
EnergyTackling climate change mitigation and improving the probability of reaching a 1.5DS target will require more ambitious andcomprehensive measures in low-carbon transport plans including a balanced set of strategies to: ‘Avoid’ unnecessary transport trips;‘Shift’ existing trips to more efficient, low carbon modes; and ‘Improve’ the technologies of transport to reduce emissions.

Figure 26: Typology of Transport Mitigation Strategies 366
100%

Other Improve Strategies
Inspection & maintenance

80%
66%

IMPROVE

Fuel Quality & Vehicle Emission
Standards Improvement
Intelligent Transport System60%

E-mobility
Decarbonising Fuel

40%

Fuel Economy Improvement
23%

SHIFT

11%

AVOID

Shift Strategies (Freight)

20%

Shift Strategies (Passenger)0%

NDCs(165 NDCs for
192 Countries)

Mitigation Studies(81 Countries)

Technology Needs
Assessments(28 Countries)

Avoid Strategies

Part II: Transport Demand, Emissions, and Mitigation Pathways

thirds of the measures are ‘Improve’-related (i.e. vehicle
and fuel technologies), and about one- third of measuresare ‘Avoid-’ and ‘Shift-’ related (i.e. behavior based or
infrastructure improvements). For example, NDCs submitted
by OECD countries focus on transport electrification,energy efficiency measures and other technology-based
measures, while non-OECD countries see ‘Shift’ strategies,
especially public transport expansion and rail infrastructuredevelopment, as major mitigation strategies.365
The main sources of emission savings in OECD and nonOECD country groupings are improved vehicle efficiency,
use of biofuels, scaling up the use of electric vehicles,
and implementation of ‘Avoid’ and ‘Shift’ policies. In OECD
countries, electrification of transport can reduce 32% of
BAU emissions and improve vehicle efficiency by 24%. In
non-OECD countries electrification, biofuels and vehicle
efficiency can have 26%, 23% and 23% emissions savings,
respectively. In both groups, ‘Avoid’ and ‘Shift’ policies
add important shares of 18% (OECD) and 14% (non-OECD).
The largest projected reductions in emissions will be for
LDVs, trucks, aviation and shipping; with smaller changes
for buses, rail and two- and three-wheelers. For LDVs andtrucks, near-term vehicle efficiency improvements andlonger-term electrification will be key; for short distancemodes, electrification will be the major decarbonization
pathway (See Section III.B.7 Electric Mobility and Section
III.B.8 Renewable Energy in Transport for more discussion
on optimizing synergies between vehicle electrification andrenewable electricity supply).

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

By 2060, two- and three-wheelers, LDVs, and rail and roadbased public transport will transition to electric or otherultra-low or zero emissions technologies. Longer distancemodes—including trucks, shipping and aviation—are
currently considered more difficult to electrify and may
depend more on efficiency improvements together withthe replacement of fossil fuels with biofuels until otheralternatives are developed and mainstreamed. A shift
from high to low carbon modes is also envisaged, withthe use of LDVs, aviation and trucks shifting to rail andpublic transport.367
The intensity of transformation foreseen in many transport
decarbonization technology pathways is ambitious. Mostof these roadmaps illustrate that reaching 1.5°C climate
targets depend on two crucial factors: the availability oftechnologies, and the availability and penetration of low- to
zero-carbon fuels. For example, to achieve a 1.5DS pathway,
studies indicate that passenger cars must be completely
electrified by 2050. The IEA has estimated that to reachnet-zero GHG emissions from transport shortly after 2060,
the global EV stock must reach 25 million by 2020, and must
exceed 200 million by 2030, and by 2060 EVs would needto account for 85% of global vehicle stock.368 In general,modeled low-carbon scenarios will require much moreaggressive market uptake of EVs than targeted by policy
commitments to date (See Section III.B.7 Electric Mobility),
indicating the need for policies supported with additionalcross-sectoral optimization (e.g. decarbonizing electricity).

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III. Policy Frameworks forTransport and Climate Change

Photo credit: Clayton Lane

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

R

1. Nationally Determined Contributions

A. Frameworks and Mechanisms for
Tracking Low Carbon Transport Measures

The NDCs communicate intended mitigation and adaptation
actions by UNFCCC Parties. The first NDCs were submitted
as Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC)
by Parties in 2015 and, with the ratification of the Paris
Agreement, the INDCs officially became NDCs372. The NDCs
must be submitted in a five-year cycle, with the second
generation due in 2020. The process is supported by the
Global Stocktake (Paris Agreement Article 14), which willtake place in 2023 and every five years thereafter, to takestock of the implementation of the Paris Agreement. As
of July 2018, 195 Parties have signed (i.e. preliminarily
endorsed) the agreement, with 179 of those having ratified(i.e. agreed to be legally bound by) the agreement.373
Approximately 89% of global emissions are covered by theParties that have ratified the agreement, with China (20%)
and the United States (18%) accounting for a large share of
global emissions.374

educing emissions from the transport sector andadapting its infrastructure for greater resilience toclimate change has become a global priority. This section
summarizes the frameworks and mechanisms tracking low
carbon transport measures and provides an overview of
the international policy frameworks that include transport
within their targets. Section B is divided into eight sections
that offer an overview of progress on key indicators withinvarious sub-sectors, as well as examples of policy targets
and initiatives implemented across global regions.

At the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris,
Parties to the UNFCCC reached a landmark agreement tocombat climate change and to accelerate and intensify
the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low
carbon future.369 The Paris Agreement aims to strengthen
the global response to the threat of climate change bykeeping global temperature rise this century well below 2
degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue
efforts to limit the temperature increase even further tobelow 1.5 degrees Celsius. It calls for ambitious goals to beestablished: appropriate financial flows; a new technology
framework; and an enhanced capacity-building framework
to support actions taken by countries based on their own
national objectives (also known as Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs)).
To achieve the Paris Agreement targets, the transport sector
must accelerate action towards decarbonization by midcentury. The Agreement entails supporting and empowering
opportunities for the transport sector to contribute to its
ambitious goals for GHG emission reductions through the
NDCs submitted by Parties, and non-Party stakeholder
involvement in the UNFCCC process (e.g. through the
Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action (MPGCA)).
The UNFCCC provides other reporting mechanisms todescribe intended measures and ambitions on climatechange mitigation and adaptation, including the long-term
low-emission development strategies (LT-LEDS), national
adaptation plans (NAPs), National Adaptation Programmeof Actions (NAPAs), and the Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions (NAMAs).370 Both NAPs and NAPAs
focus on adaptation, but the main difference is that NAPAs,
established in 2001, are following a specific process andresult in a list of adaptation projects and they are justcompiled by developing countries, while NAPs (decided in2011) emphasize an integrated, country-specific process
resulting in medium- to long-term adaptation planning, andis done by developing and developed countries.371

Transport Mitigation and Adaptation Measures in
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

Of the submitted 166 NDCs representing 193 countries, 76%
highlight the transport sector as a mitigation source, though
only 8% include transport emission reduction targets.
Passenger transport is well-represented in NDCs; includedin 64% of those that highlight transport. Urban transportmeasures are mentioned in 38% of NDCs, while other areas
receive less attention. Freight transport contributes around
40% of emissions but appears in only 21% of the NDCs withtransport measures (Figure 27).375
The majority (about 65%) of the 356 proposed mitigation
measures in NDCs represent ‘Improve’ strategies. Thisfocus on technological measures helps explain why NDCs
do not fully optimize the mitigation potential of the transport
sector, which can be achieved by implementing more holistic
polices that include ‘Avoid’ and ‘Shift’ strategies (Figure 28).
Transport adaptation has received less attention than
mitigation in NDCs. Though adaptation is included in someform in nearly every NDC, transport adaptation appears in 29
NDCs (16%), while 10 NDCs (4%) identify specific transport
adaptation measures (e.g. infrastructure resilience
projects), underscoring an opportunity to further emphasizetransport adaptation in the NDC framework (See also Box 2:
Adaptation Policy Measures in the Transport Sector).378

Transport CO2 Reduction Targets in NDCs
There is an opportunity to improve the NDCs’ commitments
on transport through developing sectoral targets, identifying
priority actions and increasing ambition. While about 76% of
NDCs highlight transport sector mitigation, a much smaller
share of NDCs (8%) propose transport sector emission

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Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 27: Number of NDCs Highlighting Modes and Sub-Sectors 376

80

Coverage of Transport Modes

Coverage of Transport Subsectors

70
60
Number of NDCs

50

50
40
30
20
10
0

Passenger
Transport

Freight
Transport

Urban
Transport

Heavy RailAnnex I
Non-Annex I

High Speed
Rail

Shipping

Aviation

Walking and
Cycling

Annex I
Non-Annex I

reduction targets, and those that do represent countries
with only about 4% of the global transport emission share(e.g. Burkina Faso and Trinidad and Tobago have set
ambitious transport reduction targets that are at least twice
as ambitious as their economy-wide emission reduction
targets). In addition, 8% of NDCs include national transport
BAU emission projections, and 12% of NDCs include
estimates of country-level transport mitigation potential(Reference Table 1).379 Investments required for the transport
sector to achieve desired mitigation goals are highlighted
in about 9% of NDCs, and for countries with transport
sector emission targets, 29% of NDCs provide investment
estimates. Reference Table 2 provides examples of projected
investment requirements to implement proposed transportmitigation measures noted in NDCs.380

Several countries highlighted progress towards
implementation of NDC transport measures in the UNFCCC
NDC Spotlight series (e.g. 20% of new cars sold in Norway
in 2017 were electric vehicles, relative to an NDC target for
100% new passenger cars sold to be zero emission in 2025);381
however, these updates do not follow a structured reporting
format. In the next round of NDCs, to be submitted by 2020,
experts are looking for parties to improve coordination with
relevant ministries that are involved in decision-making
for the transport sector to increase ambition and identify
specific actions in order to prioritize those with the highest
mitigation and development impacts. Further, individual
country, city and company plans in many cases show higher
levels of mitigation ambition than those reported in NDCs;382
however, there is currently little clarity on how to incorporate
these more ambitious plans in the UNFCCC process.

Figure 28: Share of Avoid, Shift and Improve Transport Measures in NDCs 377
Number of Transport Mitigation Actions in NDCs

65%

IMPROVE
Annex I
Non-Annex I

28%

SHIFT

7%

AVOID
0

50

100

150

200

250

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Linkage of NDCs to Other Global Processes
The transport sector is becoming more visible in other global
processes on climate change and sustainable development.
In 2015, the UN adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, and established 17 SDGs and 169 targets.
Transport is linked to direct and indirect targets of 8 SDGs.383 In
the voluntary national reviews (VNRs) submitted to the HighLevel Political Forum (HLPF) in 2017, nearly all countries (42of 43 countries) reporting on their contributions to the SDGs
referenced transport, and 35% provided specific examples
for transport actions.384 VNRs of Costa Rica, Portugal andSweden include activities and programs on transport andclimate change, ranging from air travel emission reductions,bike- and carsharing and renewable energy. In addition, the
New Urban Agenda (NUA) emerging from the Habitat III
conference commits to the use of sustainable and efficienttransport infrastructure and services where possible.385
There is potential to more closely link the NDC, VNR, andNUA processes through the coordinated efforts of actors at
global, regional and national levels.

2. Long-term Low-emission
Development Strategies
In addition to the NDCs, the Paris Agreement invites Parties
to formulate and communicate long-term low emission

development strategies (LT-LEDS), which are essential
for setting low-carbon trajectories to 2050. Throughthe formulation of an LT-LEDS, the development andimplementation of future NDCs can be guided.
Only 10 countries have submitted LT-LEDS to the UNFCCC,
with submissions largely from the global North (except for
Benin and the Marshall Islands).386 Benin’s LT-LEDS wasdeveloped with the support of the French Development
Agency (AfD), Africa4Climate, and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) and others. All longterm strategies cover plans and actions in the transport
sector, with most focusing heavily on mitigation anddecarbonization, and only Benin and the Marshall Islands
mentioning transport adaptation measures (Reference
Table 3).

3. National Adaptation Plans and National
Adaptation Programmes of Action
As the impacts of climate change on transport infrastructureand services are already taking place and will increase in
the future, it is important for governments to recognize thevalue of adaptation plans and strategies within the global
processes as well as local impacts (Box 2).

Box 2: Adaptation Policy Measures in the Transport Sector387
Transport systems worldwide are vulnerable to the increasing
impacts of a changing climate, which increase the potential
for catastrophic impacts. Resilient transport is an essential
contributor to disaster recovery. Transport systems andservices are already being severely disrupted by climaterelated events, with an ever-growing number of incidents inboth the developed and developing world. The systemic natureof transport means that disruption in one mode can severely
impact another.
Adaptation in the transport sector is necessary for bothdeveloped and developing countries. Sustainable low-carbon
passenger and freight transport systems must adapt to climatechange with a view to strengthening resilience, ensuringbusiness continuity, maintaining reliability and increasing
market share (relative to high-carbon transport systems), allof which are vital for achieving the full mitigation potentialof the transport sector. Despite this, transport adaptation
has received much less attention than transport mitigation insubmitted NDCs, specific measures for the transport sector
are also not sufficiently highlighted in the NAPs and NAPAs
submitted to date and most low- and middle- countries do nothave a climate vulnerability and mapping study.

•
•
•

•
•
•

•

Steps to scale up actions for transport adaptation include thefollowing:

•

•

•

Building transport adaptation capacity at local, national
and international levels is crucial and can be done

through capacity building and support for more resources
for climate adaptation;
Promoting climate risk screening and vulnerability
mapping, and assessments of existing transport systems,
services, and all new projects;
Recognizing the key role of integrating climate change into
road asset management systems in enhancing adaptive
capacity;
Developing and adopting industry-relevant technicalstandards to ensure that transport infrastructures are
climate resilient, with appropriate adaptive capacities tominimize future risk;
Leveraging additional climate finance to shift public andprivate investments towards resilient transport systems
and building technical adaptive capacity;
Including climate risk in environmental impact
assessments of major transport project and making risk
and vulnerability part of design standards and norms.
Integrating adaptation into infrastructure maintenance,
replacement and improvement processes andincorporating incremental adjustments that adapt
infrastructure to new standards;
Cooperating with the broader adaptation community tointegrate transport into adaptation programs, plans andactivities;
Develop strong connections between adaptation planning,disaster risk reduction and sustainable development; andStrengthening coordination across funding, implementing
and operating agencies.

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

National adaptation plans (NAPs) are used to identify
medium-/long-term adaptation needs, and to develop
strategies to address those needs. NAPs aim to facilitate theintegration of climate change adaptation into relevant newand existing policies, programs and activities to establish
and develop planning processes and strategies acrossvarious sectors and levels of government.388
Adaptation plans, especially those in developing countries,
are often limited by insufficient technical capacity, a lack ofreliable information on future climate impacts, and current
inventories of transport assets and services. With morereliable and up-to-date inputs, transport sector adaptationand mitigation plans can include more science-basedtargets.
By the end of 2017, 30 developed countries had prepared
country adaptation plans and strategies registered with
the UNFCCC.389 The European Environmental Agency (EEA)
reports that 25 of the 28 European Union member states
had adopted a national adaptation strategy by late 2017,
and 15 had developed a national plan.390 By late 2017, only
eight developing countries had prepared NAPs registeredwith UNFCCC.391 Among these, six mention climate change
impacts on transport, and five refer to specific transport
adaptation measures (Reference Table 4).392
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) allow
least developed countries (LDCs) to prioritize responses tourgent and immediate needs to adapt to climate change.
NAPAs contain a list of ranked priority adaptation activities/
projects, as well as short profiles of each activity, designed
to facilitate the development of project proposals for
implementation. The UNFCCC also established a Least
Developed Countries Fund to assist the preparation andimplementation of NAPAs, and an LDC Expert Group toprovide technical support and advice to the LDCs.393
By 2017, 51 LDCs have completed NAPAs registered with the
UNFCCC.394 Among these, 34 included descriptions of climatechange impacts on transport, and 18 included specifictransport adaptation measures. Examples of transport
adaptation measures included in the NAPAs are listed
in Reference Table 5,395 though there is no clear reporting

Photo credit: Kinsey

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

process on the degree to which implementation has beenachieved. In sum, we some progress in advanced countries
but relatively little in other countries, which implies serious
risks ahead on transport adaptation.

4. Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions
Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), whichrefers to any action that reduces emissions in developing
countries and is prepared under the umbrella of a national
governmental initiative, were an outcome of the Bali Action
Plan from COP 18 in Doha (2012).396 NAMAs are supported
and enabled by technology, financing, and capacity-building,and are aimed at achieving a reduction in emissions relative
to BAU emissions in 2020. NAMAs also emphasize financial
assistance from developed countries to developing countries
to reduce emissions.
Transport NAMAs show potential for pre-2020 actions
through various measures, including public transport
development, green freight programs, scaling up of electric
mobility, and better mobility management (i.e. TDM). A
smaller but noticeable number of NAMAs focus on fueleconomy and energy efficiency measures, improvement ofdata and modeling for the transport sector, cycling, urbanrail, walking, improving fuel quality and vehicle emission
standards, and land-use planning.
By November 2017, there were a total of 237 NAMAs underdevelopment and 22 at the implementation stage. 12% of
the NAMAs focus on transport and three transport NAMAs
have reached the implementation stage.397 An analysis of
27 identified transport NAMAs registered to the UNFCCC
shows that 78% cover passenger transport, and only 30%
cover freight transport (five NAMAs cover both freight andpassenger transport).398 Though four additional transport
NAMAs emerged between April 2017 and November 2017,
there is little evident momentum that NAMAs are poised
to make a significant contribution to transport sector
decarbonization.

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018evidence of GHG emission reductions and/or examples
of modal shift from carbon-intensive transport modes
to low carbon transport solutions affected the specificpolicy, where available

B. Policy Landscape on Transport andClimate ChangeThis section of the report contains eight sub-sections
describing major policy areas for low carbon transport policy
targets and measures. The eight policy areas in this initial
version of the report were selected based on policy areas
with abundant data and examples (e.g. urban transport,
railways, walking and cycling) as well as areas of emerging
interest and action (e.g. new mobility services, electric
mobility, renewable energy in transport), with the goal tobalance ‘Avoid’, ‘Shift’, and ‘Improve’ measures. Other
sectors with significant emissions shares are describedin the Global Overview at the beginning of the report (e.g.
private motorized transport, freight transport, aviation andshipping) and are incorporated in existing policy landscapesections (e.g. green freight under electric mobility, aviationand shipping under renewable energy, intercity transport
under passenger and freight railways). These eight policy
areas are to be expanded in future iterations of the TCC-GSR.
Each policy landscape section consists of the following
structure:•

Overview: Provides brief general background on thespecific policy and an explanation of measures ortransport modes•

Policy Landscape: Describes the status of implemented
or planned policies and targets set by countries, cities,businesses and organizations through examples•

Market Trends: Outlines the growth of the policy area
and its extension to new regions or sectors in recent
years

•

Key Indicators: Provides snapshot of trends indevelopment of policy landscape and market
development indicators (see further description below)•

Emission Reduction Impacts and Modal Shift: Provides•

Global Initiatives Supporting Policy Area: list of
associated organizations and stakeholders working on
the specific policy

Policy examples in each of these sections focus on policy
targets set or measures implemented primarily in 2017 and2018, with selected examples from prior years where more
recent examples are not available. Examples are intended
to showcase a broad array of representative and innovative
examples from a range of global regions and developed
and developing country contexts; at the same time, theseexamples are not intended to be exhaustive due to space
limitations. Mode shift and emission reduction impacts foreach of the policy areas are quantified where possible, butthese data sets are limited in most policy areas.
Key indicators at the beginning of each section are
representative indicators that show the progress of specificpolicies towards low carbon transport on a global level. In
certain cases, robust data was impossible to collect, but
indicators are nevertheless listed in these areas to show
the importance of collecting relevant data over time. Key
indicators are divided into policy landscape indicators,
which provide quantitative information about applied policy
instruments and market development indicators, whichshow quantitative information on market size of relatedtransport modes and areas that may be expected to result
from the policies described over time, though causal links
between the two are not implied.
A subset of major indicators showing the status quo oftransport and climate change are summarized in Dashboard
III along with a brief summary of key findings from eachpolicy landscape section. The indicators are to be refinedand expanded in future iterations of the TCC-GSR.

53

54

Photo credit: Simon Smiler
PartTRANSPORT
III: Policy Frameworks
for Transportand Climate
ChangePartCLIMATE
III: Policy CHANGE
Frameworks
for Transport
andREPORT
Climate Change
AND CLIMATECHANGEGLOBALSTATUS REPORT 2018TRANSPORT AND
GLOBALSTATUS2018

1. Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management
Overview

Policy Landscape: Policies and Examples

Background

Policy Measures Implemented
Sustainable mobility planning is a comprehensive, integrated
approach to transport planning in cities (or at national
levels), which may incorporate various TDM measuresdescribed below.

A comprehensive, integrated way to plan the mobility
system serving people in cities is through sustainablemobility planning. The difference to traditional transport
planning is that sustainable mobility planning not only
focus on a coordinated transport system but also how
the system impacts its users. This process involves
various stakeholders in the planning process, aims
for an interdisciplinary approach with the objectivesof accessibility and quality of life, and addresses
environmental concerns among other aspects.399
Transport demand management (TDM) refers to a large
menu of options that encourage travelers to ‘Avoid’ trips or‘Shift’ their trips to more resource-efficient travel options.
TDM reduces total (i.e. personal and freight) vehicle travel
and associated costs, and/or stimulates walking and cycling
as well as more compact spatial development. The basic
approach of TDM is that it allows cities to limit vehicle traffic
to the roadway capacity, and rewards travelers who use
resource-, space- and energy-efficient modes. Table 1 lists
various types of TDM strategies for passenger transport,
which tend to be most effective when implemented as
packages. In recent years, TDM has received more attention
from policymakers; however, implementation of such TDM
measures as parking pricing, efficient road pricing orcomprehensive smart growth policies remains limited (seecity examples in below sections).

•

National urban mobility policies (NUMPs):
The Philippines implemented The Sustainable
Transportation Act of 2017, which explicitly mentions
several such TDM strategies as carpooling, congestion
pricing measures, programs to promote telecommuting,and flexible work schedules. The bill further promotes asustainable transport action plan, integrated spatial andtransport planning, use of alternative fuels, walking andcycling and public transport.401 Similarly, India’s Ministryof Housing and Urban Affairs unveiled its Urban Green
Mobility Scheme 2017, which aims to promote walking
and cycling, alternative fuels and electric mobility, andimprove road safety by the adoption and implementationof TOD and TDM measures. The scheme will provide
USD 10.75 billion to 103 cities over a period of sevenyears. Major improvements are expected in the areasof pedestrian, cycling, and public transport facilities.402•

More than 800 sustainable urban mobility plans(SUMPs) have been identified to date, with the clear
majority being applied in European cities (63%), and 10
countries represent 80% of European SUMPs (Figure29). In 2017, the Romanian city Turda approved a SUMP,

Table 1: Transportation Demand Management Strategies400
Incentives to Use Efficient Modes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Efficient parking pricing
Parking regulations
Road/area tolls, congestion
pricing, zero/ or low emission
zonesRoad space reallocation
Distance-based pricing
License plate policies (odd/even plate restrictions)
Commuter financial incentives(parking cash out, subsidized
or free transit)

Smart Growth Development Policies
•
•
•
•
•
•

Smart Growth policies andplanning practices
Transit-oriented development
More connected (e.g. ramp
metering) and complete
streets
Streetscaping, curb buildouts,
landscaping features toreframe public space
Parking policies (on-street andoff-street, efficient parking
management
Social housing and transport
policy integration

•
•
•
•
•
•

Implementation Programs

Complementary Mobility Strategies

Transportation Management
Associations
Commute trip reduction
programs
School and campus transportmanagement
Freight transport management
Mobility management
marketingTransport planning reforms

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Flextime
Off-peak deliveries
Telework and delivery services
that reduce vehicle travel
Pedestrian and bicycling
improvements
Public transit and taxi service
improvements
Multimodal trip planning and/or payment tools
High occupancy vehicle (HOV)
encouragement
Carsharing, ride sharing

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Figure29:
29:Sustainable
SustainableUrban
UrbanMobility
MobilityPlans
PlansbybyRegion
RegionandCountries
Europe 404
FigureandforforCountries
in inEuropeSUMPs in Europe
Africa5%

United Kingdom

Asia

15%

Germany

Europe63%

FranceLatin America andthe Caribbean
North America

8%

Slovenia

Oceania

3%

Spain

6%

Italy
Other European
Countries

and was also the winner of the 6th SUMP award.403
Many cities around the world have comprehensive
transport planning that are not identified as SUMPs but
are very similar and reflect a comprehensive strategy
for sustainable transport.
••

Complete Streets and multimodal planning practices
ensure that walking, bicycling and public transport
are safely and efficiently accommodated in roadwayplanning.405 Several Indian cities in 2017 madesubstantial changes in their public spaces by building
and planning Complete Streets Networks. Chennai has
already completed more than 40 km, and in October
2017, invited tenders to redesign an additional 22 kmof streets. Pune broke ground on its 100 km Complete
Streets network and approved a Bicycle Plan that aims
to create a 300 km bicycle-track network in the city.406 In
2015, the Urban Redevelopment Authority in Singapore
launched its ‘Streets for People’ program, supporting
the transformation of streets into car-free, vibrantpublic spaces.407
Transit Oriented Development (TOD) refers to mixed,
dense urban development centered around or locatednear a transit station, which aims to create vibrantand connected communities and eliminate the needfor some motorized trips. TOD can be encouraged by
local governments through zoning laws, integrated
transport, housing and spatial plans, new mobility
services near residential developments, among otherthings408 (New mobility services are discussed in
Section III.B.5 New Mobility Services). China in 2017
launched China Sustainable Cities Integrated Approach
Pilot Project to help seven major cities incorporate TOD
principles into future transit and urban plans.409 For
example, Shenzhen, China is constructing new metro
stops and lines following Hong Kong’s successful ‘Rail+ Property’ TOD business model. As of August 2017
there were 11 TOD projects in process in Shenzhen,

where transport authority receives a cut of the profits
from the commercial or residential buildings aroundthe metro.410 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, while extending
its MRT network, aims to make several new stations
future TODs.411 The Colombian government initiated a
new EUR 14.9 million project in 2016 with TOD as NAMA
to transform the urban development model in several
cities, shifting how and where public and private
neighborhood infrastructure investments are made.
The Mayor of Cali, for example, positioned the “Green
Corridor” at the heart of Cali’s transformation into asustainable city.412‘Avoid’ measures reduce the need to travel and/or the
distance traveled:•

Vehicle quota systems and vehicle restrictions
are implemented by local or national governments
to control the number of new vehicles that can beregistered and/or purchased to regulate the growth ofvehicle ownership. Such a system proved successful inShanghai, where it was introduced in 1990, as Shanghai
had 66% fewer vehicles than Beijing in 2010.413 In Japan
all car owners need evidence of an off-street parking
spot to be able to register a car, which supports low
vehicle growth in larger cities.414 In October 2017, theLand Transport Authority of Singapore announced thatits vehicle growth rate would be reduced to zero (from0.25%), effective February 2018, and that the government
would instead invest approximately USD 20 billion in rail
infrastructure and bus contracting subsidies.415•

Vehicle use restrictions: In Delhi, India the government
installed an “odd-even” number plate policy again in
November 2017. The policy is part of a larger response
plan to the severe air pollution in the city, and could serve
as a long-term remedy, together with the strengtheningof public transport.416 In March 2017, Pico y Placa

55

56

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018(“rush hour and license plate”) took place in Medellin,
Colombia, which is designed to help regulate traffic
during rush hours and reduce critical pollution levels.417 In
2016, China adopted restrictions on internal combustion
engine (ICE) vehicles, then implemented a trial in fivecities with special number plate licenses for new energy
vehicles (NEVs), to provide preferential policies (i.e. tax
reductions). Following this pilot, the Ministry of Public
Security announced in August 2017 that special plates
for NEVs would be issued in every city nationwide.418
Jakarta, Indonesia announced in August 2017 its intention
to apply the odd-even license plate traffic policy, whichbegan in 2016, in additional areas of Jakarta.419 Vehicle
use restriction policies can have unintended impacts andrebound effects if residents purchase additional vehicles
to avoid days that an existing vehicle is prohibited fromdriving. Also, Mexico City’s case has shown that thevehicle restrictions have so far not delivered the desired
air quality improvements because those who could afford
to have bought additional vehicles.420•

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

and widespread applications of congestion charging(including credit-based pricing policies) can improve
the welfare of all citizens.421 Congestion charging has
been implemented in seven cities in Europe. In the Asia
region, Singapore successfully introduced congestion
charging in the 1970’s, as well as several other TDM
measures contributed to reducing vehicle-km per capita
by 16% between 1991-2014, and reducing transport CO2
emissions per capita by 21% from 1991-2014 (Figure 30).

Congestion charging refers to variable road tolls thatare intended to reduce peak-period traffic volumes
to optimal levels. Tolls can vary based on a fixedschedule, or be dynamic, changing depending on realtime levels of congestion. Exemptions may be provided
for zero-emission vehicles to drive electric mobility
as a key mitigation strategy, or for high-occupancy
vehicles to encourage a shift from single-occupancy
vehicle (SOV) trips. This TDM measure can reduce
the generalized cost of other SOV car users by easing
congestion, and therefore can induce traffic in the same
way as increasing road capacity could do. Additional
research has shown that limited (e.g. highway only)•

Car-free streets & banning internal combustion engines
in cities: Multiple cities worldwide plan to go car-freethrough a variety of mechanisms, and these bans on ICEs
could be a critical tipping point for increased investment
in urban public transport. For example, Kigali, Rwanda
initiated a monthly car-free day, banning all motorized
vehicles from the streets in 2016; the city is restricting
street parking and planning several bus-only transport
corridors.423 Oslo, Norway announced plans to ban allcars from its city center by 2019, and will invest heavily
in public transport and cycling infrastructure. Madrid,
Spain plans to make 500 acres of its city center car
free, and transform the roads into walking streets.424
Nationwide bans of ICEs are discussed in Section III.B.7
Electric Mobility.

•

Fossil fuel subsidy reform can be seen as an ‘Avoid’
strategy, as it disincentivizes travel by conventional
motor vehicles, and as an ‘Improve’ strategy, as it
incentivizes both manufacturers and consumers toincrease uptake of fuel-efficient vehicles. (See Section
IV.A Financing for Transport and Climate Change fordiscussion of recent country reforms.)

Figure 30: Singapore Economic vs. Transport Growth (1991 to 2014) 422
Figure 30: Singapore’s Economic Growth in Comparison to Transport (1991 to 2014)

China

200

902%

GDP

+91%

150

Transport Emission –21%
(CO2 per capita)
Roadspace

–29%

100

Singapore's Major
TDM Measures1975 Congestion Pricing
2014

2013

2012

2011

2009

2010

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

1999

2000

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

50
1991

1991 Values = 100–16%
Vehicle Activity(veh-km per capita)

1990 Vehicle Quota System
1998 Electronic Road Pricing

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change‘Shift’-focused TDM Measures shift passenger andfreight trips that do happen to more energy efficient or
environmentally friendly modes (i.e. walking, cycling, bus,rail). The examples below just show a few potential ‘Shift’
measures and other notable examples are off-peak farediscounts for public transport, fare integration with bike- or
carsharing and incentives for car-pooling.
•(e.g. Buffalo, Hartford, Cincinnati) and of other cities
setting parking maximum ordinances (e.g. London). In July
2017, the Mayor of Mexico City introduced a major parking
policy reform and announced the limitation of parking
spaces in city construction code, committing to improving
spatial planning by limiting private vehicle parking spaces,
as well as requiring mandatory bicycle parking spots and thecreation of a fund to improve mass transit that developers
must pay as they approach the maximum parking quotas in
the central area.433

Through commute trip reduction (CTR) programs
employers encourage their workers to use resourceefficient commute modes, share rides, or even telework.
Incentives may include public transport benefits,charging for on-site parking, parking cash out,425 andrideshare matching. For example, the Egyptian start-up
company Raye7 contributes to the reduction of individual
motorized transport as drivers are encouraged to share
their vehicles with others through a point system.426
Washington State has a successful CTR program since1991 including initiatives for mortgage discounts forplaces closer to work, financial support for home offices
and vanpools.427 The Eco-Mileage system, launched in2017 in Seoul, South Korea rewards citizens who reduce
their driving compared to km driven the year before.428
Los Angeles Metro announced plans to introduce infall 2018 its TAPforce account-based payment system,
which incentivizes use of transit and other mobility
services including bikeshare, electric vehicle sharing,and ride-hailing.429

The most expensive parking can be found in cities inAustralia and the United States (Table 2), though in many
contexts high parking prices require complementary policies
to significantly reduce motorized vehicle trips and traffic
congestion.
••

Efficient parking pricing & policies reduce or eliminate
minimum parking requirements or establish upper limits
for parking spaces in zoning codes, and price parking
where possible so that motorists pay directly for useof parking spaces.430 Parking management and pricing
refers to restricting and directly (or even dynamically)
charging for the use of a parking space. Efficient parking
pricing can provide numerous benefits, including
increased turnover and less parking search time,parking facility cost savings, reduced traffic problems,and increased revenues.

•

Low Emission Zones (LEZs) are a regulatory measurein which access within a defined area is restricted forpolluting passenger and freight vehicles (i.e. vehicles
with higher emissions cannot enter the area or must pay
higher charges for access). The concept is well appliedand documented for Europe but less so in other parts of
the world:
Eight European cities (Antwerp, Balingen,Barcelona, Gent, Grenoble, Lille, Oslo and Overath)introduced new LEZs in 2017, bringing the global
total to 241 cities.435
In addition, London announced the world’s firstultra-low emission zone (ULEZ) to be put in place in
2019.436 In preparation for the ULEZ a new Toxicity
Charge (T-Charge) was introduced in central
London in September 2017, to help deter the use of
more polluting vehicles (including vans and othercommercial vehicles) and encourage walking,cycling or using public transport.437••

Many cities are implementing such policies.431 New York
City first introduced a Park SMART program in 2008 to
price curbside parking in commercial areas at variable
rates. Following the program’s successes (i.e. decreased
occupancy and parking duration) the city is currently
planning an updated program.432 It is important to note thetrend of mid-sized cities are removing parking minimums

Off-hour deliveries (OHD) refer to freight deliveries
made outside of regular business hours (typicallybetween 7:00 PM and 6:00 AM), with the goal of reducing
deliveries that would have taken place during day hours
and thus increasing daytime congestion and pollution.
London created a “Retiming of Deliveries” office in2015 to promote OHD; New York’s OHD program had
400 confirmed participants in 2016; and Copenhagen,Brussels, São Paulo and Bogota have conductedsuccessful pilots; with the private sector requesting
expansion in each case.439

Table 2: Top 10 Cities with the Most Expensive Parking
Rank

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

City

SydneyNew York

Brisbane

Melbourne

BostonChicagoLondonTokyo

Price for 2h
Parking at
PPP in USD

34.85

32.97

26.67

22.85

21.56

20.80

20.78

15.89

9

10

San Francisco Washington,
DC
15.16

14.85

57

58

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 31:
byby
RegionFigure31: Overview
OverviewofofMajor
MajorTDM
TDMMeasures
Measures
Region 438

Europe

238
17
7

10

1

3
1

Asia

Latin
AmericaTransport Demand Management Measures(Number of Cities)
Vehicle Restrictions (covering measures limiting the number of vehicles entering the city or limiting the ownership of private vehicles)
Low Emission Zones (restricting vehicles based on their pollution levels from certain areas)
Congestion Charging (charging road users for driving within the city)

Policy Targets Set••

New York released a Climate Action Plan for the city
in October 2017,440 committing that by 2050 80% ofpassenger trips taken will be by foot, bike or on public
transit. To achieve this goal, the subway and bus
system will be improved, new miles of protected bikelanes will be built, in addition to expanding bike sharing
systems. TDM measures included are an updated
smart parking policy (PARK SMART), and possible low
emission zones.441
London’s Mayor’s Transport Strategy set out a target toincrease the proportion of walking, cycling and taking
public transport to 80% by 2041, meaning an averageof 3 million fewer car trips in London every day. The
Strategy uses a combination of several TDM measures:new densified developments around public transport
stops; implementing more inclusive and safe walking
routes, better cycling environment and improved public
transport called ‘Healthy Streets’, restricting parking
provision and car – free area; and keeping existingroad charging schemes. The ambition is that 70% of
Londoners will live within 400 meters of a high-quality,

safe cycle route and for example on walking, the goal
is to increase the number of walking trips by morethan one million per day by 2024 (from 6.4 million to 7.5
million).442

Market Development
There is a global trend towards adoption of low-emissions
vehicle zones. While this trend is dominated by European
Union cities, more Asia and Latin American cities are
adopting TDM policies as well.
Effect of minimum parking requirements: An analysis of2011 United States household survey data concluded thatminimum parking requirements lead to car-free households
paying USD 142 per month on average, or if summed up to
the total of the whole car-free population, USD 440 million
per year for garage parking that they do not use for car
storage.443
Unbundled parking: In the United States in 2012, the national
average cost of constructing one below-ground parking
space was USD 34,000, and one above-ground space wasPart III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

USD 24,000.444 The cost of constructing parking is high andgenerally passed on to renters and owners. A 2013 studyof downtown Los Angeles that had been converted tohousing after the city passed its Adaptive Reuse Ordinance,
concluded that bundled parking raised the rent for anapartment by about USD 200 per month, and raised the priceof a condo by about USD 43,000. Unbundling parking from thecost of housing allows renters and homeowners to choose
whether or not they are willing to pay the additional cost of a
dedicated parking space, depending on their travel behavior
and mode choices.

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Overview of Key Indicators
TDM takes a human-centered transport planning approach;it does not focus solely on infrastructure measures but
aims to actively influence the behavior of citizens by using
management measures such as congestion charging, or
implementation of transport sector-wide carbon pricing (See
Section IV.A: Financing for Transport and Climate Change).
TDM indicators prescribe a wide range of phenomena, fromthe presence of LEZs, congestion charging and vehicle
restriction policies to SUMPs.

Table 3: Overview of Key Indicators for Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management

KEY INDICATORS FOR TDM
2017

2015

% CHANGE

Congestion charging zones(# of cities)

7

N/A

N/A

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb

Low emissions zones(# of cities)

241

189

28%

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://
www.slocat.net/trakb, Sadler Consultants
Europe GmbH, (2018). Urban AccessRegulations in Europe. Available at: http://
urbanaccessregulations.eu/, Wang, Y. et al.,(2017). Study on International Practices for
Low Emission Zone and Congestion Charging.
World Resources Institute. Available at:https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
Study_on_International_Practices_for_Low_
Emission_Zone_and_Congestion_Charging.
pdf

Vehicle restrictions

28

N/A

N/A

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb

Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans(# of plans)

806

N/A

N/A

Based on SLoCaT calculations of GIZ,
(2018). Urban Mobility Plans. Available
at: https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/
viewer?mid=1PnE9ux2r3BhcFGv2M_AZ
1pD7SwU&ll=19.816856479523285%2C1.4289565999999922&z=3

Countries with passenger mode shiftplans (# of countries)

36

N/A

N/A

Countries with freight mode shift plans(# of countries)

10

N/A

N/A

2016

2014

% CHANGE

Source/s

Diesel prices(USD cents/liter)

85.5

120.8

-29%

Super (high grade) gasoline prices(USD cents/liter)

97.1

130.4

-26%

Data received by GIZ and based on GIZ,
(2017). Non-Alternative Facts on
International Fuel Prices in 2016. Available
at: https://www.giz.de/expertise/downloads/
giz2017-en-ifp2016-2017.pdf

Source/s

Policy Landscape Indicators

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb

Market Development Indicators

59

60

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 32: Devepment of London's Trip Modal Share (1995 to 2015)
Figure 32: London Trip Mode Share 445

50

0

100

50

0

100

50

% of all trips
100

0

1995

1995

1995

1995

1996

1996

1996

1996

1997

1997

1997

1997

1998

1998

1998

1998

1999

1999

1999

1999

2000

2000

2000

2000

2001

2001

2001

2001

2002

2002

2002

2002

2003

2003

2003

2003

2004

2004

2004

2004

2005

2005

2005

2005

2006

2006

2006

2006

2007

2007

Introduction of
Low Emission Zone

2007

2007

2008

2008

Phase 1: February 2008

2008

2008

2009

2009

2009

2009

2010

2010

2010

2010

2011

2011

2011

2011

2012

2012

2012

2012

2013

2013

2013

2013

2014

2014

2014

2014

2015

2015

2015

2015

Phase 2: January 2012

Emission Reductions Impacts and Modal shift•% of all trips% of all trips% of all trips0•

Following implementation of congestion charging
and complementary public transport improvements,
London’s public transport share increased from 25%
to 37% from 1995-2015, while its private vehicle sharedecreased from 49% to 36% (Figure 32).

50

100

Washington State, United States implemented the
CTRtrips. In downtown Seattle, the City’s CTR Alternate
Plan has Law in 1991 to force employers to work with
employeesdecreased commuters driving alone from
35% in 2010 to lessto reduce the amount and length ofdrive-alone commutethan 30% in 2017.446

Global Initiatives Supporting Sustainable Mobility Planning and TDM•••

C40’s TOD Network supports city efforts to delivercompact, walkable, mixed-use communities centeredaround high quality public transport. Cities participating in
the network have prioritized four focus areas (financing,social equity, public engagement, active mobility) aroundwhich they are actively sharing knowledge.
Global Designing Cities Initiative is a program of National
Association of City Transportation Officials (NACTO),
supporting the shift towards sustainable, safe and healthy
cities through street transformation. Their Global Street
Design Guide offers technical details about complete
street design, and supports practitioners worldwide in
redefining the role of streets.
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy(ITDP) promotes socially equitable and environmentally
sustainable transportation policies and projects
worldwide. ITDP released version 3.0 of their TOD
Standard in June 2017, which outlines eight core principles
of urban design and spatial planning, each supported by
specific performance objectives and easily measurable
indicators, or metrics. In 2018, the Pedestrians First:
Tools for a Walkable City was released to facilitate theunderstanding and the measurement of features that

•

•

•

promote walkability in urban environments around theworld at multiple levels
The Global Green Freight Action Plan (GGFAP) aims
to enhance the environmental and energy efficiencyof goods movement in ways that significantly reducethe climate, health, energy, and cost impacts of freighttransport around the world.
The MobiliseYourCity Partnership supports local
governments in developing countries plan sustainableurban mobility for more inclusive, livable and economicallyefficient cities, and to reduce GHG emissions. The
MobiliseYourCity Partnership provides an introduction ofnational urban mobility policies and investment support
programs that typically foster urban public transport.
The European Union has implemented several urban freightknowledge-sharing initiatives that include information on
green freight, co-modality, and e-freight, including the“Best Practice Factory for Freight Transport” (BESTFACT)and Sustainable Urban Goods Achieved by Regional andlocal policies (SUGAR) initiative. The CIVITAS Awards
and SUGAR Awards recognize innovative green freightprojects in cities in developing countries.

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

2. Urban Public Transport

Photo credit: Nikola Medimorec

Overviewbuses operate over many more kilometers than metros
do worldwide, the number of kilometers of segregatedbusway is below that of metro. In 2016, the total length of
metro lines in the world was over 10,000 km; more than
twice the total length of bus lanes in priority corridors.
75 new metro systems opened since 2000, with 53,768
million passengers annually worldwide.447

BackgroundThe benefit of public transport results from pooling more
people than private cars in an equivalent unit of space,which can reduce the total number of vehicle kilometers
traveled (VKT) by passengers who might otherwise travel in
their own vehicles. By reducing VKT, public transit reduces
congestion, urban space requirements, local and global
pollution, crashes, and noise. High-quality transit, such asrail and BRT, can accelerate TOD and lead to a higher scaleof the mentioned benefits, as well as to further positive
impacts: less car ownership, more walking, cycling andpublic transport use.
The focus on public transport has been in extending
metro networks, building segregated lanes for buses, andproviding integration among urban transport services.
It is important when planning for urban transport toacknowledge the role of other mass transport modes
such as paratransit, tricycles and other informal transport
options in cities as they provide services where there
may be gaps within the public transport network. Public
transport improvements are most effective when combinedwith TDM measures (See Section III.B.1 Sustainable
Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management).

•

Bus Priority Systems: Bus priority corridors comein a variety of forms, and BRT has gained more
popularity worldwide as a cost-effective alternative to
far more expensive urban rail investments.448 Between
2005-2017, Mexico City expanded their Metrobus BRT
system to seven lines, totaling 140km and carrying
1.24 million passengers per day.449 To completely
redesign Dublin’s public transport system, the National
Transport Authority of Ireland in May 2017 proposed the‘BusConnects’ plan consisting of 17 new bus routes,
with all separate bus lines.450•

Trams and Light Rail Transit: Nearly all regions
worldwide have seen growth in the number of LRT
and tram systems serving their cities, with an ongoingrenaissance in the tram since the 1980s. The first LRT in
Sub-Saharan Africa was opened in 2015 in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia451 and followed by a 45.2 km long light rail line
in Abuja, Nigeria in 2018.452 Samarkand, Uzbekistan
inaugurated a newly built 6.4 km-long tram line in
April 2017, and a second 5.3 km-long route beginningin 2018.453 Aarhus, Denmark opened Phase I of its firstmodern light rail line that included 6.5 km and 10 stops
in December 2017.454•

Cable cars: Cable cars are an emerging trend in public
transport in cities with hilly terrain is the use of cablecars or gondolas. Because of their ability to traverse
steep hillsides and cross rivers, cable cars can becost-effective mass transport solutions in areas whereother modes could not operate. Medellin, Colombia
introduced its Metrocable line, which acts as a feeder
to the city’s metro system, and many other cities havelooked to replicate Medellin’s success. Numerous cablecar projects have been completed since 2016 in Latin
America (Rio de Janeiro, Caracas, Guayaquil, Santo
Domingo, and La Paz), Asia (Busan and Yeosu in South
Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong), Africa (Constantine), andEurope (London, Koblenz, Bolzano).455•

Public bikeshare, carsharing and ridehailing systems:
See Section III.B.5 New Mobility Services for further
discussion.

Policy Landscape
Policy Overview
Local governments worldwide aim to increase the modeshare of public transport, or to maintain it at high levels bybuilding new infrastructure such as metro, LRT, and BRT
systems, and by ensuring high quality service (e.g. ticket,
timetable and physical integration of modes). Seamless,synchronized transfers with easy (and smart) fare systems
are crucial for intermodality, and for competing with privatetransport. Finally, financial incentives can further increase
the attractiveness of public transport services and more
effectively pull travelers out of their private vehicles.

Increasing Urban Public Transport Supply•

Metro: Bus priority and metro systems have grownsteadily during the last few decades. Even though urban

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Box 3: Urban Transport Indices
Indices by various organizations attempt to compare the mobility performance and development of cities. Here, four
indices regarding urban mobility have been identified, and their Top 10 rankings summarized. Each index has a different
set of indicators and sample of cities – for example, innovative transport schemes and level of public funding fortransport. As shown, Singapore, Stockholm, Amsterdam and Copenhagen are regarded as those with the world’s besturban transport environment.
Table 6: Overview of Top Cities in Urban Mobility Indices
Rank

1

2

Qualcomm,
Urban Mobility
Index (2017)

Oslo

LondonArthur D. Little
and UITP,The Future of
Mobility 3.0(2018)

Singapore

Arcadis,Sustainable
Cities Index(2016)
Deloitte, City
Mobility Index(2018) (Futureof Mobility)

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Paris

ZurichTokyo

BerlinMunichSeoul

Stockholm Amsterdam Copenhagen Hong Kong

ViennaLondonParis

ZurichHelsinki

ZurichSingapore

Stockholm

ViennaLondonFrankfurt

Seoul

Hamburg

PragueMunichSingapore

BerlinLondonHelsinki

Tokyo

Barcelona

Seoul

Stockholm

Paris

BostonAmsterdam Copenhagen

The top-ranked cities are mainly from Europe and Asia, representing high-density urban areas. These cities invest in the
expansion of public transport and have a well-established cycling network as well as a good walking environment. These
cities prioritize sustainable transport modes, which leads to high modal shares of public transport, cycling and walking,safe roads and higher quality of public spaces. The levels of per- capita transport GHG emissions are lower in these cities
than in other places around the world.

Intermodality
Intermodality, a key feature of integrated transport systems,
aims to create more effective, efficient and convenient trips. A
precondition of intermodality is cooperation among different
transport operators (and private companies), which could
involve a metropolitan or regional transport authority as aneffective central institution. Intermodal systems incorporating
informal and formal transport systems, with public transport
services connected to shared transport, and walkableneighborhoods or walking networks, can allow cities especially in developing countries and emerging markets - toleapfrog conventional models of car-centric development.
Effective intermodality advances equity for vulnerable groups(e.g. women, children, elderly, disabled, poor) and ensures apeople-centered approach to mobility and development more
broadly. For example, the mobility needs of women, especiallyin developing countries, tend to be more heterogeneous,combining domestic and caregiving tasks with work trips.
Intermodality serves the trip chaining phenomenon, where
trips are short, multimodal, and frequent.457 (See Section III.B.3
Passenger and Freight Railways and Section III.B.5 New
Mobility Services for further discussion.)•

In recent years, several cities and regions have
implemented smart ticketing systems, which provide
seamless transfers between modes. For example, in
Taipei, Taiwan travelers can use their EasyCard (smartcard) to rent shared bicycles, with docking stations
located at most metro stops. In the Netherlands,
travelers can rent a bicycle for their last mile at any
large train station with their (national) smart card.
Since 2018, citizens in Dublin can use the smart card
(LEAP Card) to access carsharing services.458 Welldesigned train stations, smart ticketing solutions, andsynchronized transfers can all enhance intermodality
and connect local public transport with regional andnational rail transport (See Section III.B.3 Passenger
and Freight Railways)

User Financial Incentives
Providing travelers with financial incentives, including freeor discounted fares, can increase the attractiveness of
public transport services. As an emergency response tocritical air pollution levels, in 2017, several cities announced
or implemented trials of free public transport. Brussels,

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Belgium announced that public transport and bikesharing
systems would be free on heavily polluted days, and expect
to fully implement the measure by summer 2018.459 In
December 2017, Kaohsiung, Taiwan launched a three-monthfree public transport scheme to combat air pollution, and on
its first day saw a 10% increase in subway passenger during
the morning peak.460 Seoul, Korea implemented similar
emergency measures in January 2018, when air quality
reached critical levels, providing free public transport duringrush hour.461

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

Market Development•

Rapid Transit to Resident (RTR): The RTR ratio indicator,
which compares a country’s urban population (for cities
with more than 500,000 people) with the length of rapidtransit lines (including rail, metro, and BRT) that serve
them, shows significant improvement in many countries
such as France, Colombia, China and Indonesia.470
Globally, since 2000, the BRT system, light rail transit
and metro system infrastructure expanded by 835%,
88%, and 67%, respectively. Globally, in 2017, 26 cities ineleven countries added 703.8 km of metro rail; six cities
added 62.4 km of BRT; and 17 cities added 135.2 km oflight rail. By comparison, in 2016, more metro rail wasadded (37 cities, with 754.5 km), three times more BRT
was added (12 cities, and 176.2 km), but less light rail
was added (nine cities, with 81.5 km).471 The growth islargely driven by transit expansion in Chinese cities.472
The RTR ratio (for cities with more than 500,000 people)
has only increased marginally, from 10.9 km in 2016, to
11.1 km in 2017 (2%) per million population.473•

Metro System Expansion: In 2017, the total length of
metro lines in the world was over 14,000 km, which
is nearly three times the total length of bus lanes inpriority corridors.474 The total length of metro lines is
steadily increasing, with multiple cities introducing newlines in 2017. This rapid increase worldwide in metro
systems and network lengths is mainly a reflection ofdevelopments in China. Shanghai opened additionallines and extensions to what is already the world’s
longest metro system, bringing the total length to 637
km.475 Shenzhen plans to add another 148.9 km and fivelines to its network after the National Development
and Reform Commission approved the next phase of
the system in July 2017, which should be finished by2022 and will add five lines to the existing network.476
In New Delhi, India a new 12.64 km-long metro line
was inaugurated late 2017, significantly reducing travel
times between Noida and south Delhi.477 In November
2017, the West Metro was launched in Helsinki,
Finland, a 14 km extension of the Helsinki metro line into
the neighboring city of Espoo.478 For Qatar Rail, 2017 wasa year of important milestones: 69% of the Lusail Tram
project was completed,479 a network that will consist of
4 main tram lines that span 33 km, and 37 passenger train
stations. The first line is scheduled to open in 2018.480 At
the same time, 77% of the Doha Metro project (a 300
km network consisting of four lines) was completed by
Spring 2018.481•

Bus Rapid Transit Growth: By the end of 2017, BRT
systems were implemented in in 169 cities with a total
length of more than 5,000 km (Figure 33).482 Several cities
introduced new systems, for example Multan, Pakistan

National Urban Transport Funding
Urban transport funding is of equal importance to user
incentives. Dedicated financial support of public transport
from the national government is critical for cities to beable to provide high quality networks. In many cases,
national funding is contingent on local governments
meeting certain criteria, such as completion of sustainableurban mobility plans. National governments in Colombia,
Mexico, India, South Africa, and Brazil have introduced
programs to at least partially fund construction of new
mass transit systems.462 The MobiliseYourCity Partnership is
supporting the development of new national public transport
investment programs in Indonesia and Peru. The Ministryof Transportation in Indonesia, for example, provides 635
buses in 17 provinces to support the development of public
transport by allocating USD 307 million in its 2018 budget forland transport. 463

Policy Targets Set•

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia opened a 51 km-long new mass
rapid transit (MRT) line and 31 new stations in July 2017,
resulting in a 3.7% increase in average daily ridership of
public transport. The national government plans several
other rail projects to meet a nationwide public transport
modal share target of 40% by 2030.464•

Kigali, Rwanda’s 2013 Public Transport Master Planprioritizes public transport on five bus-only corridors
totaling 92 km and plans to phase out the use of privatetransport by 2040.

•

Singapore wants to increase its public transport modeshare during peak period from 66% (2015) to 75% in
2030.465•

The New South Wales Government announced arenewable tender for Sydney’s light rail system.466•

In 2016, Chile announced that as of 2018, Santiago’s
subway system – the second largest in Latin America
after Mexico City – would be powered by solar
photovoltaic (42%) and wind energy (18%).467•

China in its NDC submission of 2015 aims to promote
the share of public transport in motorized travel in bigand-medium-sized cities, and to reach a share of 30%
by 2020.468

Indonesia’s National Policy aims to increase public
transport mode-share of 32% in 2019.469

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 33: Evolution of BRT Systems 484
Figure 33: Evolution of BRT Systems (1968 to 2017)18

Number of New Cities

15

4,000

12
3,000
9
2,000
6
1,000

3
0

Kilometer of BRT Worldwide

5,000

1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017

0

inaugurated its 18.5 km-long BRT system (Multan
Metrobus) in January 2017, with 21 stations.483 Hanoi,
Vietnam launched its first 14.5 km corridor.
•

Minibus services: Minibuses are owned by private
operators and can be regarded as paratransit orinformal public transport. They are a dominant public
transport method in many African countries. For
example, in Dakar, 3,000 minibuses provide around 80%of the public transport supply. In recent years minibus
improvement schemes have been implemented whereby
fleet renewal can lead to emission reductions.485•

Trams and Light-rail transit development: In 2014,
388 cities worldwide had trams and LRT in operation,
representing over 2,300 lines and totaling morethan 15,600 km of infrastructure.486 Alberta, Canada
committed USD 1.53 billion to Calgary Green Line
LRT,487 as well as USD 600 million to support Edmonton’sSoutheast Valley Line LRT.488 Worldwide, many cities arereviving or introducing new tram systems. Seoul, South
Korea opened an 11.4 km-long LRT line in September
2017 to improve accessibility in the northeast of Seoul,
operated by 18 driverless two-car trains.489 In December
2017 a new 3.1 km-long tram link between the Swiss city
Basel and French town St. Louis in Alsace was opened,
which revives a tram service that closed around 60
years ago.490

Emission Reduction Impacts and Modal Shift•

Modal shares in public transport in developed countries
oscillate between 1% (Stockton, United States) and
43% (Prague, Czech Republic), whereas in developing

countries, modal shares range from 8% (Guayaquil,
Ecuador) to 83% (Taichung, Taiwan). The push from(local) governments towards public transport is also
noticeable in historically car-oriented cities. For
example, in Dubai, UAE metro became the most popular
public transport mode in the city, capturing 36% of public
transport ridership in 2017. Public transport mode share
has grown from 6% in 2006 to 17% in 2017 largely due
to changing attitudes in the city towards using public
transport.491 In the United States, however, ridership has
declined nationally by 3% between 2014 and 2016.492 Thisis likely attributed to the attractiveness of other mobility
options (e.g. shared mobility, affordability of personalvehicles) and transit service supply issues.493

Overview of Key Indicators
When provided with viable, attractive public transport withseamless transfers and last-mile solutions such as walkablenetworks and bikesharing systems, travelers do not need torely on private vehicles to reach their destinations (See Part
III.B.5 New Mobility Services). The indicators summarized
below show the current global urban public transport supply
based on available data, noting there are qualitative as wellas quantitative factors contributing to the effectivenessof these systems (e.g. quality of service and the degree towhich systems are integrated with spatial planning policies
to create TOD).494 Several countries allocate a national
fund to support local governments with public transport
infrastructure costs.

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Table 5: Overview of Key Indicators for Urban Public Transport

KEY INDICATORS FOR URBAN PUBLIC TRANSPORT
2017

2016

% CHANGE

Source/s

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)(# of systems)

169

167

1.2%

BRT+ Centre of Excellence and EMBARQ,(2018). Global BRTData. Version 3.37.
Available at: http://www.brtdata.org

Urban Rail (Metro and Modern Light Rail)(# of systems)

223

220

1.4%

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://
www.slocat.net/trakb

Rapid Transit to Resident Ratio(for cities with population 500,000+)

11.1

10.9

1%

Policy Landscape Indicators
Countries with national funding for urban
transport (# of countries)
Market Development Indicators

Global Initiatives Supporting Public
Transport•••

ITDP, (2018). Rapid Transit Database. Institutefor Transportation and Development Policy.
Available at: https://docs.google.com/a/
itdp.org/spreadsheets/d/1uMuNG9rTGO5
2Vuuq6skyqmkH9U5yv1iSJDJYjH64MJM/
edit?usp=drive_web•

Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative enables
leaders in developing countries and emerging
economies to create sustainable urban mobility. The
initiative offers technical and financial support for
innovative ideas. TUMI supports projects, leadershipdevelopment, and career building for urban leaders,
decision-makers, planners and students; connecting
1000 leaders worldwide.

CoMET and Nova Metro Benchmarking Groups
are comprehensive international urban railway
benchmarking consortiums made up of 35 metro
systems from 33 global cities. The groups are jointly
owned by the members with the aim of providing a
confidential forum for sharing best practices andimproving performance.

•

UITP Declaration on Climate Change Leadership
launched in 2014, demonstrates the public transport
sector’s commitment to tackling climate change.
The Declaration’s goal is to double the market
share of public transport by 2025. The Declaration
is supported by more than 350 pledges to climate
action, from over 110 members of the international
public transport community in over 80 global cities.

BRT Centre of Excellence was established in 2010
with funding from the Volvo Research and Education
Foundation. Made up of a consortium of researchorganizations, the Centre aims to advance thelatest research and practical knowledge about BRT
planning, design, operations. The Centre led thedevelopment of BRTdata.org, a global database of
BRT characteristics, performance metrics and costs.

•

The C40 Clean Bus Declaration is led by the C40
Cities Climate Leadership Group (C40), and aimed
at influencing manufacturers, public transport
operators,
leasingcompanies,
multilateraldevelopment banks and other funding agencies tosupport city ambitions to decarbonize urban masstransport.

•

The MobiliseYourCity Partnership supports local
governments within developing countries to planand implement sustainable urban mobility plans, byproviding an introduction to national urban mobility
policies and investment support programs thattypically foster urban public transport.

EcoMobility Alliance was created in October 2011,
in Changwon, Korea. It is a transformation of theformer Global Alliance for EcoMobility, which waslaunched in Bali on 10 December 2007, at COP 13.
The common goal of the group of local governments
is to create and implement urban mobility strategies
that prioritize people and the environment.

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

3. Passenger and Freight Railways

Photo credit: Anthony Ivanoff

Overview

competitive with other modes. Therefore, different
networks aim to overcome these problems andstandardize international network standards.

Background•

Rail transport demand is steadily expanding in most regionsof the world, in particular in metropolitan areas with soaring
populations (See Section III.B.2 Urban Public Transport). It
is estimated that this transport subsector will experienceand average growth of 2.7% worldwide for the 2021 to 2023
period.495 Africa/Middle East and Latin America are theregions with the highest expected growth rates, at 5.2%
and 4.8% respectively.496 Passenger rail transport demandis also being driven by a surge in demand for intercity
and interurban mobility. Furthermore, the demand for long
distance rail journeys is growing in many countries, a trendthat is expected to increase with further development ofhigh-speed rail (HSR) networks in Europe and particularly
Asia. For distances up to 1,200 km, HSR is increasinglycompeting with air transport, especially in China where in
2015, 910 million Chinese traveled by all forms of rail, morethan double the 415.4 million who flew.497
In addition to passenger rail transport, rail freight is a key
element in an interconnected transport system. Rail freight
generates a low level of externalities and produces much
lower CO2 emissions and energy consumption per tonne-km
than road freight.

Policy LandscapeMeasures Implemented
Shifting transport activity towards low carbon rail transport isessential to achieve climate targets, and releases increasingpressure on congested road networks. In addition to thismodal shift, rail’s energy usage could be further improved;since 1990 it has improved by 37% per transport unit, andrail’s carbon emissions have improved by 30% per transport
unit.498‘Shift’ Measures: The list below showcases examples of shiftmeasures for passenger and freight trips to more energy
efficient or environmentally friendly modes, including rail.
•

Standardization of Cross-Border Rail: Countries
worldwide over time have adopted different track gauge
standards, electrification, and traffic management
systems, differences that form a barrier for bothpassenger and freight rail transport to be internationally•

The Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T)
is a European Commission policy that aims to
implement a Europe-wide network of roads, railway
lines, inland waterways, maritime shipping routes,
ports, airports and rail-road terminals. Many TEN-T
rail projects focus on creating international longdistance corridors, the implementation of common
technical standards, and the European Rail Traffic
Management System.499 The Gotthard base tunnel(Switzerland) opened at the start of 2017 for freightrail transport, and is an important piece of the TEN-T
Core Network enhancing European integration.500
Bulgaria’s Transport Minister announced in March2017 that until 2020, Bulgaria will invest EUR
2.25 billion in transport infrastructure (under the
Operational Programme Transport), and another
EUR 207.8 million under Connecting Europe Facility,
to develop by priority the Core Corridors of the TEN-T
network.501 Spain is set to invest EUR 500 million in
updating its high-speed rail network, and to extend
it by adding an important new southern route. It alsoplans to invest EUR 2 billion in the Mediterranean
Railway Corridor to connect Murcia, Valencia and
Catalonia with the French rail network, improving
regional connectivity for both passenger andfreight rail.502

Expansion of Inter-Regional Passenger and Freight Rail
Networks•

The Trans-Asian Railway network now comprises
117,500 km of railway lines, serving 28-member
countries, and aiming to serve cultural exchanges
and trade within Asia, and between Asia andEurope.503 The first freight train carrying 88
containers traveled along the ancient Silk Road,
and arrived after 12,000 km and 20 days of travelfrom London, UK in Yiwu, China.504•

Argentina strongly committed in 2017 to developing
its rail freight network, when the Ministry ofTransport and China Railway Construction
Corporation agreed on the conditions to fully
modernize rail freight transport between the
Mendoza province and Buenos Aires to increase
the capacity from 2.3 million tonnes to 13 million
tonnes by 2024, and by renewing the signaling
systems, and many civil structures.505

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change•

The Australian Federal Government in 2017 hascommitted to the full delivery of Inland Rail with anadditional USD 6.5 billion. The 1700 km long freightrail line will complete the national freight network
between Melbourne and Brisbane.506•

Kenya inaugurated a 480 km long new rail track(Standard Gauge Railway) connecting port city
Mombasa and capital Nairobi in four-and-halfhours, the largest infrastructure project since its
independence in 1963.507 The aim is to shift 30% of
freight on the corridor to rail.

•

Improve Intermodality: The first and last mile of journeys,
as well as the interfaces between modes, present
significant barriers to passengers using intercity andinterurban rail. The city center location of the intercity
rail station, however, allows intermodality with urban
public transport services and cycling and walking. This
interaction, and how several cities have enhanced
their overall transport systems by creating multimodal
hubs is discussed in more detail in Section III.B.2 Urban
Public Transport.

•

Intermodal freight transport is the ideal solution for
effective transport services based on cooperation
between different modes, carrying the major part of thejourney by a sustainable and efficient mode such as rail,
and involving other actors such as trucks to complete
the door-to-door carriage. New sustainable urban
commodity delivery modes such as bike or electricvehicles require logistic hubs located near the city, likethe railway stations, to ensure sustainable door-to-door
freight services.
•completion in 2020, the terminal will be served by 12
trains and 200 trucks daily.508 The terminal area hasseven rail tracks and is located beside the roll-on/
roll-off terminals. It is estimated that 100,000 trailers
per year will switch from one transport mode toanother at the terminal.509•

In the Port of Hamburg’s modal split, rail further
increased its share of containers transported from
41.6% to 42.3% in 2016. More than 200 freight trains
reach or leave Hamburg’s rail port daily.510•

In December 2017, Jundiaí Intermodal Terminal,
operated by Contrail Logistica, opened for
operation in Brazil. The terminal is strategicallylocated close to South America’s largest port (Portof Santos), and has reduced cargo transport times
from 24 hours to 16 hours. Currently, the cargovolume moved by railroad is just 2%, but Contrail
aims to increase this in the coming years.511 The
environmental benefits are substantial: one trainof 21 wagons carries the equivalent of 42 trucks.512•

Inland waterways provide a complementary option
to railways for passenger and freight transport, as
they are significantly more efficient in terms of GHG
emissions than roads, and in many cases at least
equivalent to railways. Inland waterway transport
can be used for distribution of construction
materials in urban regions to relieve congestion
and reduce GHG emissions.513‘Improve’ Measures: increase the energy efficiencyof passenger and freight rail modes, operations andtechnologies.

Arken Combi Terminal at the Port of Gothenburg,
Sweden was opened in December 2017. On

Figure 34: Electrification of Railways for Global and Selected Countries from 1990 to 2015 517

100

Share of Electrified Railway (%)

90

81%

80%

80
70

68%

63%

60

30

61%
46%

50
40

63%

62%

31%

25%

20
10
0

World

OECD
EuropeAfrican Germany
Countries

Italy

Russia1990 to 2015 (5 - year steps)

China

India

Japan

Korea

67

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

Increasing Rail Efficiency and Energy Diversification:
Multiple countries in 2017 have taken steps todecarbonize their railway systems:•••

The amount of electrified railway tracks isincreasingly growing, and this positively influences
the carbon intensity of the rail sector, enabling
opportunities for rail transport decarbonization.514
Rail electrification has reached 81% in Korea, 63%
in Japan, 61% in India and 46% in China (Figure34). The increase in Korea and China comes fromthe opening of their high-speed rail networks. In
addition, as part of its ‘Mission Electrification’ plan,
Indian Railways signed its first large engineeringand construction contract for route electrification in
August 2017.515 In September 2017, the first electric
freight trains ran between Minsk, Belarus andVilnius, Lithuania after completion of electrificationon the line.516
The railways of Austria, Denmark, Finland, theNetherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland
are running on 100% renewable electricity, eitherpurchased from renewable energy providers or
produced in renewable energy plants owned andoperated by the rail companies.518 All electric trainsin the Netherlands are running on wind energy
since January 2017.519 India launched its first solarpowered local train. One solar-powered diesel
electric multiple unit train could save 21,000 litersof diesel per year.520
In September 2018, the world’s first hydrogen train
entered service in Germany. The Coradia iLint uses
fuel cells, and the hydrogen to power the train
is produced carbon-free. Alstom will deliver 14
additional trains by 2021, replacing all diesel trainson the route.521

•

•

•

In 2018, Eurostar committed to having no traction energy
sourced from fossil fuel sources by 2030.525•

Railway accounted for 27% of the cargo volume moved
at Port of Santos, Brazil in 2017, which the port aims toincrease to 40% in the next 10 years.526•

Port of Antwerp, Belgium invested 1.4 million euros
over three years to shift port- generated freight traffic
to sustainable modes and aims at a modal split of 10%
for rail transport by 2020.527

Market Trends
Passenger Rail Transport•

In 2015, rail accounted for 6.7% of global passenger
transport activity (in passenger-km).528 High-capacity
services account for most of the global urban rail
activity (estimated in passenger-km).

•

The share of high-speed rail in global intercity railpassenger activity grew considerably between 2010 and2015, doubling from 10% to 20%. While the global highspeed rail network accounts for only 2% of the global
rail network, it transports now a fifth of rail passengers.
This growth was largely driven by a surge of high-speed
rail activity in China in the same period, and a number ofcountries recently inaugurating new HSR connections(Figure 35).
•

In 2017, China further developed its alreadyextensive 25,000 km long HSR network, by opening
several new lines (e.g. the 1300 km long Chongqing– Taiyuan line, and the 300 km long Shijiazhuang –Jinan line).529 China clearly dominates the growth inrecent years, with a 10-fold increase between 2010
and 2016.

•

The Dutch railway company Nederlandse Spoorwegen
had a target to power all electric trains with 100%
renewable electricity by 2018, but achieved it in 2017,ahead of schedule.

Deutsche Bahn achieved a 2.6% increase inpassenger-km in 2017—the third year in a row withgrowth in passenger numbers—mainly causedby the opening of the new HSR Munich – Berlin
connection.530•

India’s railways minister in November 2017 announced
a target for the complete electrification of the country’s
mainline network within five years.522 In 2017, 4,000km
of railway was electrified, or 6% of India’s national
network.523

France inaugurated two new HSR lines between
Tours to Bordeaux and Rennes, both constructedunder public-private-partnerships, reducing travel
times by 35-40%.531 The Tours – Bordeaux link isalso part of the TEN-T Atlantic Network.

•

Republic of Korea opened a new 120 km-long
HSR line from Wonju to Gangneung, connecting
the eastern coast to Korea’s HSR network,
and increasing accessibility from the Seoul
capital region.532

Policy Targets Set•

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

The main German rail operator Deutsche Bahn
announced in late 2017 an even more ambitious climate
target. By 2020, Deutsche Bahn aims to reduce its
specific CO2 emissions from rail, road, air and oceantransportation by 30% compared to 2006 levels; and by
50% by 2030.524

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

533
FigureWorldwide(2010
Figure35:
35:Development
Development ofof HSR
HSR Worldwide
to 2016)

China (RZD)
800

Billion Passenger (km)

700

300
250

600
500
400
300

200
150
100

200
100
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

902%
-30%

Russia (RZD)

N/A

Sweden (SJ)

N/A

UK (Eurostar)

N/A

Italy (FS SpA)

9%

Spain (RENFE)

29%

France (SNCF)-6%

Germany (DB)14%

Taiwan (THSRC) 29%

50
0
2010

China
Other Europe

Korea (KORAIL) 37%

Japan
2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

22%

2016

Freight Rail Transport

Key Indicators

In North America, but also in Asia, freight rail operations
generally meet better structural conditions than in Europe.
Distances are generally longer, stops less frequent, andthe infrastructure allows for substantially longer andheavier trains, thus making freight operations less costly
than in Europe. In some places such as in North Americaand Australia, railway infrastructure and operations areoften single integrated companies, often with far lesspassenger traffic. In the European Union, the so-called rail
freight corridors have been implemented to focus efforts
on improving the framework conditions on designated lines
with high economic importance.

Rail transport can significantly contribute towards thedecarbonization of the transport sector, by reducing roadfreight transport and shifting passengers from air transportto (high-speed) rail transport. This decarbonization process
firstly significantly depends on the amount of railway tracks
with electrification, and secondly on the energy sources
used to generate that electricity. In cities, the specific energy
consumption of high-capacity urban rail is the lowest of allurban passenger transport modes, and therefore also has
untapped decarbonization potential.538 The competitivenessand market position of rail transport is measured by theindicators of mode share and rail activity.

In 2015, rail accounted for 6.9% of global freight transport
activity (in tonne-km). Rail freight reached 9.5 trillion tonnekm by 2015, which equals a 37% increase since 2000. NonOECD countries account for two-thirds of the rail freightactivities. Africa, Latin America and Asia make up only 1%,
4% and 3% share of global rail freight (excluding OECDcountries, China and India), respectively.534

Emission Reductions Impacts and Modal Shift

Rail freight volumes have increased by 6.9% in 2017 in Brazil,
and the handled tonne-km increased by 10%, representing
the strongest increase in the last 12 years.535 Rail freight
operators in Switzerland saw a 0.9% increase in market
share compared to 2016, with rail accounting for 39% of
freight carried, while road’s share of freight transport
decreased by 1.5%.536 During the first half of 2017, rail freight
between Russia and China increased 19% compared to thesame period last year.537

Among the different modes of transport, railways havethe highest share of electrification. Electricity represents
around one-third of the energy used globally by the railway
sector, with 40% of rolling stock powered by electric traction,and electrified lines representing 25% of the total. The useof electricity in railways worldwide went from 17% to 39%(measured as share of final energy consumption) between
1990 and 2015.539 Just over one-third of the electricity is
estimated to be renewable, contributing 9% of rail energy.540(See Section III.B.8 Renewable Energy)
Available data also suggest that high-speed trains in East
Asia have a larger capacity and operate with loads well
above the European average.541 In the case of China and69

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Table 6: Overview of Key Indicators for Passenger and Freight Railways

KEY INDICATORS FOR RAILWAYS
2016

2015

% CHANGE

Source/s

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Rail passenger activity(trillion passenger-km)

2.833

2.954

-4%

High-speed rail(billion passenger-km)

704

616

14%

Rail freight activity(billion tonne-km)

8.614872

8.567466

0.5%Rail network length(km)(2015): 1,701,721(2014): 1,697,505

0.2%

32,58730,125

8%

Railway electrification share(% of rail network)(2015): 31.4

(2014): 30.1

1%

Passenger Rail CO2 Intensity(g CO2 /passenger-km)(2015): 17.61(2014): 17.17

1.9%

Freight Rail CO2 Intensity(g CO2 /tonne-km)(2015): 14.22(2014): 14.91-3.9%

Policy Landscape Indicators
Countries with railway mode shift targets(# of countries)
Market Development Indicators

High-speed rail
(length in km)

UIC, (2016). Railway Statistics 2015 Synopsis.
International Union of Railways. Available
at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2015_
print_5_.pdf; UIC, (2017). Railway Statistics
2016 Synopsis. International Union ofRailways. Available at: https://uic.org/IMG/
pdf/synopsis_2016.pdf

UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook
2017. Energy Consumptions and CO2
Emissions International Union of Railways
and International Energy Agency.
Available at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/
handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf

542
Figure 36:
36: Energy
EnergyIntensity
IntensityofofHigh-Speed
High-SpeedRail
Rail
Geographic
Area(2005(kJ/passenger-km)
Figureinby
Selected
Countries
to 2015)500
Energy Intensity of High - Speed Rail (kJ per pkm)

70

450

United Kingdom

17%Germany

12%300

Sweden17%

250

France33%

200

Russian Federation 8%(2013 to 2015)

400
350

150
100
50

Japan

45%

China

17%

0
2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Japan, loads are estimated to be, on average, three times
larger than in Europe, where high-speed trains transport on
average 300 passengers. As a result, passenger movements

2012

2013

2014

2015

in China and Japan take place at a lower energy intensity perpassenger-km compared with European averages, despite
higher energy intensities per train-km (Figure 36).

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

HSR can deliver much-needed environmental benefits (CO2emission savings) by shifting passengers away from airtransport, which has a much higher carbon intensity. Firstly,
the energy use per passenger-km of HSR is about 10 to 20%
of aviation in global average. Secondly, this energy, whenobtained from decarbonized electricity, has the potential toemit very low or even zero CO2 emissions.543 Shown below(Figure 37) is the low carbon intensity of rail transport,
which over the years has dropped to levels around 15 g CO2/
passenger-km.

544
Emissionsfor Passenger
and FreightTransport
Figure37:
37:Railway
RailwayCO
COEmission
FigureIntensity
for Passenger
and FreightTransport (1975 to 2050)
2245

CO2 Emissions (g CO2/km)

40

UIC's Low Carbon RailTransport Challenge:

35
30

50% below
1990 levels
by 2030

25
20
15
10

75% below
1990 levels
by 2050

Passenger (g CO2/passenger-km)

2050

2030

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

0

1975

5

Freight (g CO2/tonne-km)

Global Initiatives Supporting Railways•

International Union of Railways (UIC) Low Carbon
Sustainable Rail Transport Challenge sets out ambitious
but achievable targets to improve rail sector energy
efficiency, reduce GHG emissions, and achieve a moresustainable balance between transport modes. The UIC
challenge is supported by UIC’s 240-member railway
companies based in 95 countries worldwide. The
Climate Responsibility Pledge was signed by more than
70 members of UIC.

•

Shift2Rail contributes to smart and sustainable growth by
fostering research and innovation in the railway sector.
The purpose is to: achieve Single European Railway
Area; enhance the attractiveness and competitivenessof the European railway system to ensure a modal shift
from roads towards rail; and sustain the leadership ofthe European rail industry on the global market.

71

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

4. Walking and Cycling

Photo credit: Nikola Medimorec

Overview

Policy LandscapeBackground

Policy Measures Implemented

Globally, more than one-third of all trips are made on footor by bicycle545 and in a few countries the modal share ofwalking and cycling is between 50% and 70%. It is important
to note that much of the global level research has nothistorically split the data between walking and cycling.
Further research indicates that most of this mode share isby foot, as is the case in Nairobi, where the mode split is
47% walking and 2% cycling.546 Cycling and walking are still
the principal mode of transport in most developing cities,
particularly in Africa and Asia.547•

The climate-friendliness of these modes, and thecontributions they make to meeting the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and the New Urban Agenda(NUA) are clear.548 Article 114 of the NUA prioritizes
sustainable infrastructure for public transport, and walking
and cycling over private motorized transport. By seamlessly
integrating the transport networks of motorized and activemodes (walking and cycling), the mobility needs of citizens
can be met.549 Walking and cycling are space- and costefficient modes that require minimal infrastructure andcapital investment. However, walking and cycling are still
often underrepresented in sustainable mobility planningpolicies and often not perceived as full-fledged alternatives
to motorized transport modes.550 Bikesharing is primarily
discussed in Section III.B.5 New Mobility Services, andelectric (assist) bicycles are discussed in Section III.B.7
Electric Mobility.
Walking and cycling also offer a variety of co-benefits that
include health, inclusion and economic gains (e.g. improving
property values, increasing revenues for businesses).551
Prioritization of walking and cycling can strengthen social
cohesion, and improve the overall quality of life in cities:“Walking and cycling […] enhance urban quality andfacilitate social cohesion; they are cheap, flexible, personalmodes without which the majority of people in low- andmiddle-income countries are unable to participate in theeconomy and community, or access education, healthcare and other urban services.”552 The safe systems
approach of building safer infrastructure for walking andcycling increases road safety for cars as well. (Complete
Streets and multimodal integration are also discussed in
Section III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport
Demand Management).

Walking and Cycling Plans: 69% of African countries,
75% of Latin American countries and 83% of Asian
countries have at least one national transportcommitment that recognizes the value of walking andcycling in their countries, cities and rural regions.553
In Brazil, the first National Network for Low Carbon
Mobility was launched in 2017 and 10 cities started
to work on a Complete Streets project to have betterwalking and cycling.554 Some examples of different
policy targets, measures and investments are shown
below. Here, cities are often the leading examples ofgovernment entities with walking plans:••Paris, France, under the leadership of Mayor Anne
Hidalgo, has begun to reorganize urban space and‘pedestrianize’ the city.555 As part of the walking
plan Paris Piéton several intersections have beenredesigned, and car traffic has been restricted.556
Terrassa, Spain launched its Step by Step campaign
to improve the walkability of the city. The campaign
consists of several measures to encourage the shift
towards walking and cycling as part of the city’s
Urban Mobility Plan 2016-2020, which was approvedin June 2017.557 Boston’s Green Links is a city plan toconnect people in every area to Boston’s greenway
network by installing new paths and bike facilities.558

Public investments in walking and cycling•

The United Kingdom government in April 2017
published a EUR 1.4 billion plan to increase
cycling and walking, aiming to double cycling by
2025.559 Barcelona, Spain announced a EUR 32
million plan in August 2016 to improve its cycling
infrastructure network.560 By mid-2017, the city’s
cycling infrastructure network had grown 20% overthe previous year-and-a-half, and the number oftrips taken on bikes grew 14% in 2016.561 Bordeaux,France adopted a new EUR 70 million Cycling
Plan 2017-2020, aiming to increase the modal
share to 15% by 2020. The focus within the planis cycling infrastructure, in addition to extending
the public bikeshare system, bicycle parking, 2
new bike rent and information centers, subsidies
for bike purchases, and campaigns to promote
cycling.562 Toronto, Canada approved its 10 Year

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Policy Targets Set

Cycling Network Plan in mid-2016, which identifies
around 252 centreline km of new infrastructure.563
The government of Ontario, Canada doubled its
investment (to USD 74 million) in local cycling
in 2017, and allocated almost one-third to theCity of Toronto to support its 10 Year Cycling
Network Plan.564 Seattle, United States updated its
Pedestrian Master Plan in March 2017, with USD
22 million invested in sidewalk improvements toprovide safe access to schools and public transit.565•

In May 2017, Seoul, Korea opened Seoullo 2017,a former overpass transformed into a pedestrian
bridge. The USD 40 million project, which attracted
1 million visitors in the first 14 days,566 is a step tomaking the city more pedestrian friendly.567•

The Dutch government continues to stimulate
cycling, and allocated EUR 100 million in 2018 toaccelerate the construction of cycling routes,
and to improve parking facilities at train stations.
The State Secretary of Infrastructure and Water
Management highlights the important contributionof the bicycle to accessibility, livability and health.
The aim is to pull another 200,000 commuters out of
their private vehicles and onto bicycles by making
3 billion more cycling kilometers.568

•

•

•

The city of Nairobi set a target to increase mode share ofwalking from 47% to 50% for trips up to 5 km by 2025, and toincrease mode share of cycling from 2% to 10% for trips up
to 15 km by 2015.573 In Bogota, Colombia Mayor Peñalosa’s
administration aims to double the number of cycling trips in
Bogotá by 2020, from 5% to 10% of all trips.574•

Helsinki, Finland aims to increase the modal share forcycling to 15% by 2020, with 11% of trips made by bicycle
in 2013.575 The national goal is to increase the numbers of
trips made by bicycle or foot to 30% by 2030.576 Ljubljana,
Slovenia reached their modal share target of 15% of
cycling by 2020 (10% by 2010) already in 2017, and set
a new target of 30% by 2030, and Düsseldorf, Germany
increased the modal share from 5% (2004) to 12.4% (2013).

•

Vienna, Austria developed a Strategy Paper for
Pedestrian Traffic in 2014 and followed up with acomprehensive and exemplary monitoring program.577 On
the federal level, Austria devised a 2015 Master Plan for
Walking, containing a strategy to promote walking andraise its status in all fields of policy making.578

Market Trends

Germany runs a subsidy scheme “Climate
Protection through Cycling,” and co-funds theconstruction of fast cycle routes as a climate
action measure. In addition, around EUR 3.2
million of funding is made available every year
for the implementation of the National Cycling
Plan.569 Colombia included the possibility of 70%
financial support to cities towards walking andcycling improvements in its national development
plan for 2015-2018.570 Even though governments
have increased interest in cycling and walking, inreality most transport investments are still focusedon non-sustainable transport modes. For example,in Latin America, 60% of mobility investments areconcentrated in projects for private vehicles.571

Walking and Cycling for Transport Activity•

Bicycle-Friendly Cities: The bi-annual index of themost bicycle-friendly cities captures efforts by local
governments to implement urban cycling policy
measures. The Copenhagenize Design Company has
published this index since 2011, currently ranking 136
cities through 14 indicators (Table 7).

Population-based surveys conducted between 2002 and2016 show that people in low-income countries walkor cycle on average 63 minutes per day for transport,
while people in middle-income countries walk or
cycle 41 minutes, and high-income country citizens
walk or cycle only 25 minutes per day to get to andfrom places. The 63 minutes in low-income countries
can be regarded as mostly walking but the survey
did not differentiate between walking and cycling in
the data collection. Similarly, 83% of people in lowincome countries walk or cycle for transport at least
once a week. This share is around 50% in high-income
countries. Figure 38 summarizes the results of the World
Health Organization (WHO) analysis of populationbased survey data collected with the Global Physical
Activity Questionnaire in 101 countries from nearly halfa million adults over the age of 18, covering all regions
and income groups.579

Table 7: Top 10 Bicycle-Friendly Cities in 2017 572
Rank

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

City

Copenhagen

Utrecht

Amsterdam

Strasbourg

Malmo

Bordeaux

Antwerp

Ljubljana

Tokyo

Berlin73

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 38: Walking and Cycling for Transport by Income Group 580
Figure 38: Walking and Cycling Activity for Transport by Income Group

63.2
Mean daily minutesof walking or cycling
for transport

41.3
25.4
83

Population doing any
walking and cycling
for transport

67
50

Low income countries

Middle income countries

High income countries

Walking Mode Share Trends

Cycling Mode Share Trends••

Modal share of walking differs substantially between
continents, countries and cities. As shown (Figure 39), it isparticularly high in low-income countries, and in cities witha high share of public transport. However, the real share ofwalking could easily be 10% higher or lower depending on
the data collection methodology used. It is very difficult tocompare the data since its reliability differs considerably.
Since mode share often plays a crucial role in policy
decisions, and in policies to reduce carbon emissions,developing a reliable global measurement of mode shareshould be a high-priority task. The WHO methodology, andthe International Walking Data Standard could serve as
starting references for such important efforts.

Cycling is a well-established transport mode in
the Netherlands, Denmark and Japan. As Figure
40 shows, the modal share in larger Danish cities
reaches up to 45%, with an estimated national shareof 27%. In China, e-bikes contribute a significant
share to cycling, and in cities the share of cycling in
total trips is close to 25%.

Figure 40 also shows that bicycle ownership rates arehigher in countries with a higher share of cycling. The
Netherlands (1.3) and Denmark (0.8) have higher rates ofbicycles per citizen than many other countries. A study
from 2015 regarding the availability of bicycles worldwide

FigureWalkingininDifferent
DifferentSelected
Cities Globally
Figure39:
39: Modal
Modal Share of Walking
Cities 582

61

50

48

40

41
28

20

33
23

10

28

19

31
24

29

25
18

12

11
Ottawa34

30

Bellingham

60

17

13

AfricaAsia

EuropeLatin America

North America

BrisbaneSydneySan Francisco

BogotaRio de Janeiro

CuencaLondonViennaZurichAlmatyTokyo

Mumbai

Kathmandu

Cape Town

Dar es Salaam0
NairobiWalking in percent of all trips (%)

70

Oceania

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 40: Modal Share of Cycling for Transport 583
Figure 40: Modal Share of Cycling for Transport in Selected Regions and Countries (2015)
45%
1.2

35%
30%

0.9

25%
20%

0.6

15%
10%

Bicycles per Citizen

Cycling as % of Total Trips

40%

0.3

5%
0%

Netherlands DenmarkJapan2015 Cycling Mode Share

China

Germany

India

Africa2015 E-Bike Mode Share

Middle East

Large City (over 300k)
Mode Share

UnitedStates

MexicoBrazil0.0

Small City (below 300k)
Mode Shareshowed through a global survey that availability ofbicycles is the lowest in Africa, and highest in Europe.584•

An analysis of cycling in Latin American cities supports theargument that cycling infrastructure among other factors
enables higher shares of the population using cycling fortransport: In Bogota, a city with a 392 km cycling network,
recorded that 5% of all trips are done through cycling. Rio deJaneiro developed 307 km of cycling lanes and has a shareof 3.2%.585

The economic benefits of cycling are significant;estimated at around EUR 500 billion per year in theEuropean Union.589•

Similarly, the market for neighborhood walkability is
increasingly recognized by the real estate industry insome parts of the world to create economic value andenable more rail opportunity. The common objective of amore walkable and bikeable environment is completelyaligned with the goal of emission reductions.

•

The pedestrianization of Mexico City’s Madero Street
resulted in 117 million new walking trips, a 30% increasein economic activity and 96% reduction in crime along
the project street.590•

Another co-benefit of cycling is the connection it builds
with road safety. A larger share of people cycling leads
to a safer environment for cyclists, and fewer roadtraffic fatalities among people riding bicycles.591•

Walking and cycling deliver better public health andreduces air pollution: Residents of neighborhoods
with sidewalks, transit stops and shops are more likely
to walk, and therefore tend to have lower levels of
cardiovascular disease, obesity and other health issues
related to sedentary lifestyles.592 593 More than 80% of
people living in urban areas that monitor air pollution are
exposed to air quality levels that exceed the WHO limits.
While all regions of the world are affected, populations
in low-income cities are the most impacted.594 Thus ashift from motorized transport to walking and cycling
contributes to the reduction of local pollutants andrelated negative impacts.

Bikeshare Growth
Growth in bikesharing, including the new dockless bikesharesystems, accelerated in China and the United States in 2017.
For more discussion on global bikeshare trends, see Section
III.B.5 New Mobility Services.

Co-Benefits of Walking and Cycling
Walking and cycling offer a variety of co-benefits, a fewof which are mentioned below. Given that the negative
externalities of individual motorized transport are becoming
more apparent, government interest in cycling andwalking transport infrastructure has increased globally inrecent years.586• Walking and cycling are the only transport modes that
render more external benefits than costs. In the case ofwalking, a study in Switzerland shows that CHF 10 centsare saved for every kilometer walked. The externalcosts of walking and cycling are CHF 1 billion (USD 1.3
billion), while the external benefits are CHF 1.3 billion(USD 1.6 billion) (Figure 41).587

75

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

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FigureandandBenefitsofTransport
Transport(2015)
in 2015 588
Figure41:
41:External
External Costs
Benefits
Costs ofExternal health benefits,
Walking and Cycling

CHF
1.3 BNBENEFITS

External costsof transport, 2015

CHF
12.8 BNCOSTS•Walking and cycling support equity and inclusion
particularly for the poor. More effective public
transport and safer walking/cycling routes can yieldsignificant savings in travel time and expense, as
well as benefits in disease prevention and healthpromotion.595 More walkable cities enable greater
equity in physical activity levels, across all ages,
genders and health profiles.596

Cargo Bikes for Freight Transport

Shifting Towards Low-Emission Modes•

Walking and cycling are the most environmentallyfriendly transport modes. Figure 42 compares walking
and cycling to other major transport modes in Europe,and clearly shows their advantage for low carbon

72%

Walking and Cycling

7%

Public Transport

2%

Rail (Passenger
and Freight)

8%

Air

10%

Shipping>1%transport. A 3.5-meter corridor used by pedestrians or
cyclists can respectively host 19,000 or 14,000 people
per hour while having no carbon footprint.
•

A Swiss study estimated that, depending on the
scenario, 4% to 15% of the gap towards the emission
reduction targets can be met by shifting car trips towalking and cycling.600•

Cycling and walking by residents of Copenhagen saves
the city every year around 90,000 tonnes CO2.601•

The carbon reduction potential of walking is notextensively researched, but one study estimatesthat increases in the mode share of walking in
Bogota, Colombia from 20% to 25% of travel could
reduce transport emissions by 6.9%, which equals an
investment of USD 17 to reduce a tonne of CO2.602 In
addition, a package of walkways, cycleways and BRT
could reduce emissions by 25%, at an investment costof USD 30 per tonne CO2.603 Most research on the carbon
reduction potential is often calculated based on shifting
short car trips to walking or cycling. It is assumed,for example, that 20% of CO2 emissions in the United
Kingdom comes from car trips of 8 km or less.604 In the
United States, 60% of car trips in 2017 were less than 10
km and many short trips can be substituted by walking
or cycling. 605•

The mode shift potential of walking and cycling issignificant. Based on best practices in cities, walking
and cycling together with public transport can easily
reach 80%. Hong Kong (mostly walking and transit)
already reached 90% in 2011,606 Zurich and Vienna werenear 75% in 2016.607

The use of standard bicycles, cargo bikes, and cargo
tricycles is important for the transport of goods, primarily
in urban areas, for last-miles deliveries. Germany’s Cycling
Freight Last Mile Funding Program is funding 30% (up to
max. 2500%) of new cargo bikes.597 In the busiest areas of
Rio de Janeiro, restaurants, pharmacies, supermarkets,
hardware & building supplies stores, and other small
businesses employ workers to make most deliveries (about75%) in an area of under 3 km, and the rest (25%) in areasof up to about 8 km.598 (For more discussion of electric bikes,
and their application in freight transport, see Section III.B.7
Electric Mobility.)

Emission Reductions from Walking and Cycling

Road Transport(Light- and HeavyDuty Vehicles)

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Table 8: Overview of Key Indicators for Walking and Cycling

KEY INDICATORS FOR WALKING AND CYCLING
2017

2016

% CHANGE

Source/s

Countries with national cycling plans(# of countries)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Countries with national walking plans(# of countries)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Modal share of walking

N/A

N/A

N/A

Modal share of cycling

N/A

N/A

N/A

Mean minutes walked by day

N/A

N/A

N/A

Mean minutes cycled by day

N/A

N/A

N/A

Bicycle ownership(bicycles per 1,000 people)

N/A

N/A

N/A

Cycling infrastructure(dedicated protected cycling lanes per capita)

N/A

N/A

N/A

Policy Landscape Indicators

Market Development Indicators

N/A

FigureComparisonof Cycling
and Walking
to OtherModes 599
Figure 42: Carbon
Footprint
and Capacity
By Transport
Mode
Capacity (people per hour on 3.5m wide lane)
0

5,000

10,00015,00020,00025,0000g CO2 per passenger-km
19,000 people per hour
0g CO2 per passenger-km
14,000 people per hour

28g CO2 per passenger-km
22,000 people per hour
56g CO2 per passenger-km
9,000 people per hour
81g CO2 per passenger-km
No information on people per hour

107g CO2 per passenger-km
2,000 people per hour
0

25

50

75

100

Carbon Footprint (gCO2 per passenger-km)

125

77

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

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Potential for Emission Reduction Based on
Denser Cities and Mixed-Use Neighborhoods•••

approach with denser cities and good public transport
services is much bigger, and still needs to be exploredby research on both a global and regional basis.

Research continuously confirms the importance ofhigh-density, mixed-use neighborhoods and cities.608
International Association of Public Transport (UITP)
shows in the synthesis report about its “Mobility in Cities
Database” that the shorter trip distances in high density
areas naturally lend themselves to more walking andcycling and allow for more efficient and viable public
transport. This is also shown in Figure 43 with different
data. (Information on how to increase urban density are
given in Section III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning
and Transport Demand Management.)
A comparison of the densely populated city of Nairobi
with the less densely populated city of Dar es Salaamshows that mode share of walking and cycling in
Nairobi was 61%, and in Dar es Salaam it was 48% (datafrom 2010). Both cities have a similar GDP.609 Even in
relatively densely populated countries like Switzerland
the effects, particularly on walking, are substantial:
In places with 17 to 24 residents and workplaces per
hectare, 34% of all trips are made on foot. In places witha density of more than 162 residents and workplaces
per hectare, the mode share of walking rises to 57%.610
Density, connectivity and destinations within walking
and cycling distance are the cornerstones of the built
environment for walkable and cyclable communities.
Emissions reduction potential based on an integrated

Freight Transport•

Research suggests that more than 25% of all goods,
and 50% of light goods could be dispatched by cyclein European cities,612 and a European Union-co-funded
project report concludes that 50% of motorized trips
in European urban areas that involve goods transport
have the potential to be shifted to the bicycle.613

Overview of Key Indicators
Key indicators of walking and cycling are listed below, but
as noted, there is currently a lack of global and regional
data to complete the values. The main indicators that would
provide a clear picture of the status of walking and cycling
are modal share; mean minutes walked and cycled; lengthof bicycle networks; and bicycle ownership rates. The
policy landscape can be indicated by the specific plans ofcountries and cities in relation to walking and cycling. It is
important to acknowledge that while walking and cycling
have many features in common, they also differ substantiallyfrom each other, and require different approaches in termsof policy and planning and infrastructure because of thedifferent movement patterns, trip purposes, and physicalabilities involved.

Figure 43: Urban Density & Modal Split Share 611
Figure 43: Urban Density and Sustainable Transport Mode Share100

Mode Share of Public Transport,
Walking and Cycling (%)

90
80
70
60

High Income Cities

50

Middle Income Cities

40

Low Income Cities

30
20
10
0

0

5,000

10,00015,00020,000Urban Density (people per km2)

25,00030,000Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Global Initiatives Supporting Walking
and Cycling•

European Cyclists’ Federation (ECF), promotes
cycling as a sustainable and healthy means oftransportation and recreation through projects in
Europe and the world. The premier international
planning conference on cycling (Velo-City) brings
together knowledge and information on cycling andencourages cycling as part of daily transportation
and recreation.

•

Cycling Delivers on the Global Goals, led by theWorld Cycling Alliance (WCA) and the ECF, aims toincrease the modal share of cycling worldwide, todouble cycling in Europe by 2020, and to mobilize
support in local, national and international
governments and institutions to scale up action on
cycling.

•

Walk21 is an initiative and international charity
dedicated to ensuring the right to walk and theopportunity to enjoy it for everyone throughout
the world. It convenes its largest international

conference once a year. Walk21 developed theInternational Charter for Walking, signed by morethan 5,000 people including 500 mayors. Further,
they adopted a standard for walking data andprovide ongoing work with cities around the world(e.g. Hong Kong and Lagos).
•

Global Sidewalk Challenge, spearheaded by
Walk21, sets the target to construct, or rehabilitate,
100,000 km of additional dedicated, safe, barrierfree sidewalks in the proximity of public transporthubs. Many projects will be realized in low- andmiddle-income countries by 2030.

•

ITDP’s Pedestrians First, a tool that facilitates theunderstanding and measurement of the featuresthat promote walkability in urban environments
around the world. It increases the understandingof walkability and supports decision-makers tocreate walkable urban areas. The UN declared
June 3 World Bicycle Day and encourages Member
States to devote attention to the bicycle in crosscutting development strategies, and to include
the bicycle in international, regional, national andsubnational development policies and programs.

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Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

5. New Mobility Services
Overview
Background
New mobility services offer users access to sharedtransport modes on an ‘as-needed’ basis.614 Examples of
new mobility services for hire covered in this section focus
on those innovative mobility technologies that include
ridesharing or app-based bikesharing schemes. The term‘new mobility’ covers a variety of services, ranging fromone-way free-floating services (a transport mode used
to reach a destination and left anywhere within a certain
geographic area), one-way station-based services (atransport mode returned to a designated station near thedestination), round-trip services (a transport mode returned
to origin) and ridesharing services (arrangements made on
an app for a shared ride).615, 616 Other new mobility services
and definitions, such as transportation network companies(TNCs), microtransit, micromobility services and sharedautonomous vehicles (SAVs), will be touched on in thissection (Definitions in Box 4).

Photo credit: Davidson Luna

These mobility options promise a more efficient usage ofvehicles and infrastructure through a better matching of
supply and demand. Except for carpooling, these new service
options are collecting data that can inform infrastructure
planning, and generally help understand mobility patterns
and gaps in a network. It is important to note that the adventof these new technology options to use of shared private
vehicles could lead to more lower occupancy vehicle trips
and a shift away from public transport, if it is not planned for
effectively and sustainably. Such an impact can be solved
through TDM measures (See Section III.B.1 Sustainable
Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management).
Electrification of transport (See Section III.B.7 Electric
Mobility) and AVs have the highest potential to reduce
emissions and improve efficiency if combined with sharedmobility.617 Understanding the status and advantages of new
mobility services can support policy-makers in leveraging its
positive mobility impacts and environmental outcomes while
mitigating its unintended or negative impacts.

Box 4: Definitions of New Mobility Services•••

Shared mobility is transport services and resources thatare shared among users, either concurrently or one after
another. Transport modes for hire could include traditional
services such as public transport, private shuttles, buses,
taxis, auto-rickshaws or new mobility service options
such as car and bike-sharing.618
Bikesharing is a service where bicycles are shared
among members of a system. Typically, the bikesharingorganization owns and operates a fleet of bicycles. Eachbicycle is shared by different people at different times,
whereby each time a participant utilizes the bicycle forprivate use. Users access bicycles on an as-neededbasis for one-way (point-to-point) or round-trip travel.
Carsharing is a service where individuals typically accessvehicles by joining an organization that maintains a fleetof cars and light trucks deployed in lots and other parking
spaces located within neighborhoods and at public transit
stations, employment centers, colleges and universities.
Typically, the carsharing operator provides gasoline,
parking, and maintenance. Generally, participants pay
a fee each time they use a vehicle.619 Such systems areclassified as one-way carsharing (user can leave vehicle
at another place) and two-way carsharing (user needs

to return vehicle to original location). Carsharing can bemade through a peer-to-peer system where car owners
make their private vehicle accessible for others to use.
•

Ridesharing facilitates incidental shared rides between
drivers and passengers with similar origin-destination
pairings (also known as carpooling).620•

Ridesourcing / transportation network companies (TNCs)
provide prearranged and on-demand transportation
services for compensation, which connect driversof personal vehicles with passengers. Smartphone
applications are used for booking, ratings (of both drivers
and passengers), and electronic payment.621•

Microtransit is a technology-enabled private transit
service that often uses shuttles or vans and ischaracterized by fixed schedules, dispatch operations,
fixed routes, flexible routing, or a combination of these.

•

Shared Automated Vehicle (SAV) is an automated vehicle
shared by more than one user. This can include both“pooled” and “non-pooled” options; “pooled” refers toa vehicle being shared by multiple unrelated users ona single trip to the same destination, and “non-pooled”
refers to a vehicle shared by multiple individual users
making separate, sequential trips.622

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Policy Landscape

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

Grants and low/no-interest loans from local
municipalities and agencies to operators can provide
seed money that may not be available through theprivate sector for capital expenditures. For low-income
countries, funding can be provided through international
funding or climate finance instruments (See Part IV.A
Financing for Transport and Climate Change). This
funding can also be used to finance feasibility studies
and pilot programs. USD 18 million in federal Congestion
Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program funds,
and USD 3 million in municipal funds were leveraged
to launch the first phase of Chicago’s bikesharing
program, Divvy.632•

Risk-sharing partnerships: Using the “subtraction
model,” a shared mobility operator values the monthly
operational cost of providing a service at a particularlocation, and then subtracts the monthly revenue. If
there is a shortfall, they can bill the partner. Under
this model, the risk-sharing partner only pays the costneeded to maintain service availability. This can also
be a strategy to encourage service in new locations(e.g. low-income or lower-density areas) that may nototherwise be economically feasible for a shared mobility
operator. For example, Montgomery County in Maryland
launched a one-year carsharing pilot program with
WeCar (now Enterprise CarShare) using a risk-sharing
model. Under the pilot program, the county provided
USD 1,100 per month in guaranteed revenue for 20 to 30
vehicles placed on county property.633•

Requests for proposals (RFPs) issued by local
governments and public agencies can encourage newmobility startup operations in their communities. In
many cases, an RFP process allows public entities to be
active advocates and partners of new mobility services,
providing the agencies with the ability to negotiate
and regulate areas such as parking and instituting
requirements for operations (e.g. requirements thatnew mobility operators provide travel behavior data to
local governments). In April 2016, for example, the Cityof New Orleans issued an RFP for the private operationand financing of a comprehensive bikesharing system.634•

Public Permitting: For cities where new mobility services
operate on a for-profit basis without city subsidy, local
governments and public agencies may use permitting
structures to guide those services to align with the
public interest. Seattle implemented a permit systemfor companies operating dockless bikeshare systems
to ensure effective and proper use of public space,monitor policy compliance, and to require that the data
produced by these companies is available for permit
enforcement and for government planning efforts.
In June 2017, a regulatory framework for docklessbikesharing was published by the Department ofTransportation.635 Sao Paulo, Brazil has also introduced

Policy Measures Implemented
•

•

•

•

National new mobility regulations: China tightened theregulatory framework for its carsharing market in 2017
to ensure that the quickly growing market is developing
in an organized way. In addition, local governments
have been encouraged to cut parking fees and evenprovide free spaces for shared cars to promote thegrowing business.623 Both BMW and Daimler expanded
their carsharing programs in China in 2017.624 There is aclear increased presence of car companies in the fieldof mobility as a service (MaaS) and shared mobility.
Priorities for new mobility can accelerate sharedmobility growth by allocating parking for carsharing,curb space for bikesharing stations, and loading zones
for ridesourcing/ TNCs, microtransit, and shuttles. In
2017, Madrid’s city council actively encouraged theuptake of electric carsharing, which are allowed totravel in restricted zones and park almost anywhere
for free.625 In September 2017, a Carsharing Act enteredinto force in Germany. The Act enables authorities toprioritize shared vehicles with regard to parking feesand parking spaces to improve user benefit.626 In Seattle
some parking spaces throughout the city are designatedfor carsharing vehicles627 and Seoul designated 1,600
parking spots in 2016 to carsharing services, raising
the designation to 2,400 by 2018.628 Bremen, Germany,a forerunner in carsharing with 10,000 users, has 14
sharing stations that combine cars, public transport andbicycles.629 New York City announced in May 2018 that
it will take away 300 public parking spaces and reserve
them exclusively for cars from sharing companies
like Zipcar.630
Easing zoning regulations and parking minimums
can promote the inclusion of shared mobility in new
developments. Commonly referred to as incentive zoning
for shared mobility, these policies can be categorized
as: (1) policies that enable reduced parking (including
reducing the number of required parking spaces
in new developments and substituting general use
parking for shared modes); and (2) policies that allow
increased density.
Joint marketing campaigns & business customers:
Municipalities can engage in joint marketing campaigns
with shared mobility operators and ensure that
programs have visibility on public agency websites andin newsletters, outreach materials, and press releases.
The United States General Services Administration, forexample, which manages one of the largest federal
government vehicle fleets, announced in the fall of2014 that it was beginning a one-year pilot program toreplace its fleet of vehicles with Enterprise CarShare in
Boston, Chicago, New York, and Washington, DC.631

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018a permit structure for TNCs, requiring data, setting
vehicle standards, imposing fees on the kilometers oftravel, and incentivizing women and minority drivers.636
In 2017, Estonia passed as one of the first countries in
Europe a law allowing ridehailing services to operate.637
Jordan released a new bylaw to legalize ridehailingservices that use mobile apps beginning in 2018. The
government demands high vehicle standards andregulates the fee structure the ridehailing operators
must pay to the government.638 Uber received in June2018 a permit to operate in London after being banned in
United Kingdom’s capital since multiple months.639••

Integrated Urban Planning: Incorporating sharedmobility into plans and planning processes at all levelsof government can aid in understanding the current
and future impacts of new mobility on communities
and allow local communities to leverage the positive
impacts of new mobility. Data collected by ridehailingservices can benefit local authorities for infrastructure
planning and network improvements. New mobility
services can benefit from better walking environments
to increase accessibility. Integrating shared mobility
allows communities to establish a longer-term vision for
new mobility services’ role in urban design, planning,and policy-making efforts. For example, San Diego’s
general plan identifies numerous transport policies that
support shared mobility, alternative modes and TDM.640
Public Transit Partnerships: In Dallas, Dallas Area
Rapid Transit partnered with paratransit service
provider, MV Transportation, and TNC service provider,
Lyft, to offer on-demand paratransit service.641 Finland
adopted The Act on Transport Services, reforming thecurrent transport legislation642 to further stimulate the
MaaS concept. The new law intends to link different
transport services (ridehailing, taxis and train journeys)
into travel chains. The Act on Transport Services sets
obligations for service providers to share their relevant
data via platforms.643 The operator of Vienna’s public
transport system Wiener Linien launched WienMobil, a
Maas platform, in 2017 allowing users to book and pay
for multi-modal trips from door to door.644 More transportmeasures that affect new mobility services as well are
discussed in Part III.B.1 Sustainable Mobility Planning
and Transport Demand Management.

Policy Targets Set

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Market Trends
Ridesourcing / Transport Network Companies•

As of early 2017, Didi in China has over 400 million users
in 400 cities, accumulating 25 million rides per day,which is more than twice the amount of all other global
ridesourcing companies combined.647 In Southeast Asia,
the ridesourcing service Grab expanded operations to
168 cities by the end of 2017 and their service covers
bicycles, scooters, cars and buses.648•

In 2017, Lyft was used for over 375 million rides in North
America and Uber served 4 billion rides globally.649 By
2018, Uber’s ridehailing app service was operating in 80
countries.650 Many other ridehailing services expanded
their operations in different regions and countries,
offering app-based services in recent years.

•

Indonesia’s GO-JEK provides 18 app-based on-demand
services including transportation (motorcycle taxis
and ridehailing) and freight/delivery/logistics. As of
May 2018, GO-JEK had a fleet of 1 million motorcycle
taxis, and will deliver food, groceries, shopping, tickets
and even medicine. In early 2018, the company wasvalued at USD 5 billion and announced plans to invest
USD 500 million towards expansion across Southeast
Asia, including Vietnam, Thailand, Singapore and
the Philippines.651•

Among developing countries, the Philippines had
one of the earliest regulations on Transport Network
Companies (TNCs) passed in 2015.652•

New apps that aggregate options and optimize routes,
enable users to ride microtransit (e.g. Chariot, Via);or have groceries delivered using courier network
services (e.g. Postmates, Caviar).

•

A new trend in 2018 is the acquisition of bikesharing
companies by ride sourcing firms for the development ofbroader mobility platforms. In April 2018, Uber acquired
dockless bikeshare company, JUMP, for a reported
USD 100 million,653 and in July 2018, Lyft acquired
Motivate, the company operating the largest stationbased bikeshare systems in the United States, including
New York’s Citibike, Washington, D.C.’s Capital
Bikeshare, and Portland’s Biketown, for an estimated
USD 250 million.654

Bikesharing655•

Shanghai set a target in early 2016 for carsharing toachieve 8,000 service spots, a fleet of 20,000 EVs, and
30,000 charging poles by 2020.645••

The Netherlands aims to have 100,000 shared cars on
the road in 2018. Carsharing is part of the Green Deals,
a program in which the Dutch government promotes
innovative initiatives for sustainable economic growth.
Since the start of the deal in 2015, the number of sharedcars has grown by 55%.646

There were 250 bikesharing systems in 2010, and over
1,000 by 2015 (Figure 44). A total of 443 new bikesharing
programs were launched in 2017, bringing the number ofbikesharing services to 1,765. Within a year, the numberof global bikesharing systems grew by 33%.

•

While bikesharing expansion between 2000 and 2010
took place mainly in Europe, it shifted to Asia from 2011and has also taken off in North America since 2015.

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

FigureGrowthof
ofBikesharing
Bikesharing(2007(2007toto2017)2017)662
Figure 44: Growth
1,766
1,322

380
277
171

800

600

400

96

2011

103

2010

106
82

200

41

2008

48
1000

2012

2009

89

1200

200

2013

476

1400

216

2014

676

1600

187

2015

892

1800

243

2016

1,079

2000

444

2017

29

2007
0

0

50

100

•

•

•

•

Asia

Europe

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

New Bikesharing Services per Year

Total Number of Bikesharing Services

Africa150

Latin America and the Caribbean

The growth was spearheaded by the United States,
where around 146 new bicycle programs were brought
to the streets in 2017, followed by China, with atleast 123 identified bikeshare system launches in thesame year.
Bikesharing systems expanded in cities around theworld, with steep increases since successful launches
in Paris (2007), London (2010) and New York (2013).
There has been a recent emergence of transformative
business models by the private sector in bikesharing.
Mobike, a dockless bikesharing company, whose bikes
have integrated global positioning system (GPS), no
chains and tubeless tires, is an example of this trend.
By the end of 2017, it had placed 8 million bikes in morethan 200 cities globally and raised USD 600 million656. In
2018 Mobike was acquired by Meituan Dianping, thelargest on-demand online service provider in China for
USD 2.7 billion.657 Through an increase of such systems,
Shanghai emerged in 2017 as the “largest bikesharing
city in the world,”658 with 1.7 million bicycles available
to the public.
China was the leading country in new bikesharelaunches from 2010 to 2016. Between 2016 and 2017
dockless bikesharing systems grew tremendously in
China and began to expand globally in 2017. While in2016 the ratio of traditional bikesharing systems to
dockless bikesharing openings was 4:1, it changed
to 1:4 in 2017. In 2016 and 2017 nearly 100 docklessbikesharing systems were introduced in Chinese cities.
In Africa, the only city-wide bikesharing system wasoffered in Marrakech, Morocco, until in 2017 Cairolaunched a bikesharing service with the support of
the United Nations Human Settlements Programme(UN-HABITAT).659 More systems are being piloted in•

North America

Oceanianeighborhoods and certain areas (e.g. neighborhoods,
campuses) of a city, and dockless bikesharing systems
are entering the African market as well.
Bikesharing also grew substantially in the UnitedStates, with 25% more bikeshare trips taken in 2017
compared to 2016 due to increased ridership and new
system launches. In June 2017 Seattle DOT publisheda regulatory framework for dockless bikesharing andlaunched a pilot project that had more than 15,000 rides
in the first week.660 By the end of 2017, five docklessbikeshare systems were operating in 25 UnitedStates cities. The number of bikeshare bikes doubled
from 42,500 in 2016 to nearly 100,000 in 2017. To makebikeshare more accessible and affordable to more of the
population, 32% of cities with station-based bikesharesystems offer fee discounts to lower-income users.661

Carsharing•

As of October 2016, carsharing was operating in an
estimated 2,095 cities in 46 countries on six continents.
Approximately 15 million carsharing members sharedover 157,000 vehicles.663 (Figure 45)•

Asia accounts for 58% of worldwide carsharing
membership, and 43% of global fleets deployed. Since
2015 carsharing took off in China; with fleet sizes
reaching up to 30,000 vehicles as of early 2017. The
average yearly growth rate has been over 200%, driven
by strong (both national and local) government support,
as well as receptiveness among Chinese customers for
new mobility solutions.664 Europe is the second largest
carsharing market, accounting for 29% of worldwide
members and 37% of vehicle fleets.665

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

16

180

14

160

12

140
120

10

100

8

80

6

60

4

40

2

20

0

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

0

Global Carsharing Vehicles in Thousands

Global Carsharing Members in Millions

666
Figure45: Global
GlobalCarsharing
CarsharingMembers
MembersandandVehicles
VehiclesTrendsFigure 45:
Trends
(2006 to 2016)

Total Number of Carsharing Vehicles
Members Africa
Members Europe

Members North America
Members Asia

Ridesharing
Egypt’s Raye7 mobile carpooling app was founded in 2014
to help commuters share rides to work. The app has hosted
more than 50,000 rides, and several corporations offer it as abenefit to their employees.667

Members Latin America
Members Oceania

trial where it served 30,000 passengers, it was expanded
to two more areas at the end of 2017.673, 674•

As of 2018, there are no known shared autonomousvehicle (SAV) fleets in service, though some privatecompanies are beginning to explore fully-automated
SAV fleets, while public agencies have begun to explore
potential strategies of regulating such services.675

Other Forms of Micromobility Services•

After the first scooter sharing service launched in San
Francisco in 2012, there are now 29 cities world-widewith around 8,000 free-floating, mostly electric scooters(92% of all vehicles) and an estimated 350,000 users.
In Electric kick scooter sharing was introduced in late
2017/early 2018 in North America. Bird, Lime and otherprivate companies have electric kick scooters in 33
countries (of which 30 are in the United States), as of
mid-2018.669 Reports show that more women than men
have a positive perception of electric kick scootersand women seem to adopt them more quickly than they
have adopted to shared bicycles. Overall, electric kickscooters have the potential to attract more diverse
group of users.670 2017 twice as many systems launched
as in 2016 with a strong geographic focus on Europe.668

Autonomous Vehicles•

The development of autonomous vehicles (AVs) has
surged, with 104 cities in 26 countries piloting or
preparing to pilot AV systems by the end of 2017.671
Further, trials by companies are being showcased atlarge conferences, but few autonomous technologies
are broadly accessible to the public.

•

In January 2017, Paris introduced an electric AV shuttle,
that is driverless and able to transport up to 10 people
over the Charles de Gaulle Bridge.672 After a successful

Emission Reductions and Mode Shift to
New Mobility Services
Ridehailing / Ridesourcing / TNC impacts•

There are still uncertainties about the impacts ofridehailing services. A 2017 study of 4,000 ridehailingmembers in seven major United States cities concluded
that the services are increasing VKT. The study foundthat between 49% and 61% of ridehailing trips either
would not have been made at all, or would have beenaccomplished via transit, bike, or foot.676 This finding
supports the argument that new mobility services need
to be included in a coordinated transport system toimprove efficiency and complement existing sharedmobility services.

Bikesharing impacts•

Paris’ Vélib’ bikeshare has the intention to reduce GHG
emissions by 25% until 2020 as part of the city’s Climate
Energy Plan.677 Mobike claims that in China the usage of
their bicycles has saved 540,000t CO2 and doubled themodal share of cycling from 5.5% to 11.6% from 2016
to 2017, but such self-reported data has to be takenwith caution .678

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Table 9: Overview of Key Indicators for New Mobility Services

KEY INDICATORS FOR NEW MOBILITY SERVICES
2017

2016

% CHANGE

Source/s

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Ridesharing systems(# of cities with ridesharing/ridehailing services)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Bikesharing systems(# of systems in total)

1,766

1,322

33%

SLoCaT calculations based on Meddin, R., (2018). Bikesharing
Map. Available at: http://www.bikesharingmap.com

Carsharing vehicles(# of vehicles)

2016: 157,357

2014: 104,060

51%

Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M., (2018). Innovative
Mobility: Carsharing Outlook. UC Berkeley: Transportation
Sustainability Research Center. Available at: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/49j961wb

AV systems in trial(# of countries)

26

N/A

N/A

Bloomberg, (2018). Initiative on cities and autonomous vehicles.
Bloomberg Aspen Initiative on Cities and Autonomous Vehicles.
Available at: https://avsincities.bloomberg.org/

Policy Landscape Indicators
Countries with new mobility regulations(# of countries)
Market Development Indicators

Carsharing impacts•

A survey of car2go users in five North American cities
found that each carsharing vehicle removed between
7 to 11 vehicles from the road (either sold or forgone).
Two to 5% of carsharing members sold a vehicle, and
7% to 10% postponed a vehicle purchase.679 A studyof station-based one-way carsharing participantsin France found a 23% reduction in private-vehicle
ownership after joining Autolib. Carsharing in Munich
showed a clear reduction in privately-owned cars andin this case each carsharing vehicle can replace up to
eight private vehicles.680•

Cohen and Shaheen (2018) see that VKT are reduced
between 7.6% to 80% among carshare members inNorth America, which reflects uncertainty about
exact impacts.681 Reductions in vehicle miles traveled
ranged from 6% to 16% on average across the one-way
carsharing company car2go population.

•

Correspondingly, reductions in GHG emissions
ranged from 4% (Calgary) to 18% (Washington, DC)

Global Initiatives Supporting
New Mobility Services••

Shared-Use Mobility Center is a public-interest partnershipworking to foster collaboration around shared mobility,and helping to connect the growing industry with public
transport agencies, cities, and communities across thecountry.
Innovative Mobility Research Group and theTransportation Sustainability Research Center at the
University of California, Berkeley explore innovative
mobility technologies and services that could improvetransportation options, while reducing their negativeon average.682 Carsharing use in the United States is
estimated to reduce household emissions by 35% to41%, and to reduce vehicle miles traveled by 28% to
43% annually.

Overview of Key Indicators•••

Indicators of new mobility services take stock ofimpacts to date by tracking the current extent ofsharing systems around the world. The expansion of
bikesharing and carsharing systems is analyzed, as
well as countries with AV systems in trial, to show themarket development of new mobility services. For thepolicy landscape, the focus will be on the number ofcountries with new mobility regulations in place. New
mobility regulations can stand for plans to introduce orto regulate the use of any type of new mobility system.
Cities such as Seattle, San Francisco, Washington,
DC, Providence (Rhode Island)683, and other UnitedStates cities have the introduced regulations on new
mobility services.
societal and environmental impacts. They publish relevant
research on shared mobility, including a semi-annual
global carsharing outlook data and syntheses.
Shared Mobility Principles for Livable Cities waslaunched in 2017 and endorsed by countries, internationalorganizations and mobility service providers. The 10
established principles aim to support the development ofsustainable, inclusive, prosperous, and resilient cities.
Bloomberg Aspen Initiative on Cities and Autonomous
Vehicles monitors and supports the advancement of
the development of AVs in cities around the world since
October 2016. It provides information on new technologies
and methods on how to transition to AVs.

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

6. Fuel Economy

Photo credit: Manfred Breithaupt

Overview

Policy LandscapeBackground

Policy Measures Implemented

The International Energy Agency (IEA) has estimated thatthe number of passenger cars on the road could triple
globally from 2010 to 2050 and freight activity by trucks
would double, with the majority of this growth occurringin non-OECD countries.684 Implementation of stricter fueleconomy standards are essential to address some of thenegative implications of this growth, and an important tool todecarbonize our transport systems worldwide. Improved fueleconomy (liters per vehicle-km) can help reduce negative
impacts by reducing oil use and CO2 emissions, and saving
money. New technologies to improve vehicle efficiency
must be part of a wider approach that also includes ‘Avoid’and ‘Shift’ interventions (i.e. behavior or lifestyle changes ofconsumers towards more efficient vehicles, driving less andmore efficiently). The “Dieselgate” scandal in 2015, in which
the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT)
found that some diesel-engine Volkswagen Group vehicles
in the United States were emitting substantially more NOx
pollution than in laboratory tests, reinforced the need formore robust test procedures that better reflect real-world
driving conditions.685 It is well documented that the gap
between CO2 (or fuel consumption) in the laboratory and in
the real world has been widening over time.686•

Labeling Schemes: Labeling schemes make it easierfor consumers to understand the fuel economy or CO2
emissions of the vehicle that they are considering forpurchase, and to identify vehicles that are more efficientand cheaper to run. Labeling should complement fueleconomy standards to better influence consumer
choices.689 Many countries have introduced fueleconomy labeling schemes in recent years, including
a number of developing or emerging economies,
such as South Africa, Chile (the first and only Latin
American country with a mandatory scheme), Thailand,
and Vietnam (Figure 46). In March 2018, Montenegro
introduced a mandatory fuel economy labeling scheme
for all new vehicles.690•

Fiscal incentives: Many European Union countries havevarious tax schemes (e.g. registration tax, circulation tax)
in place to encourage the purchase of low CO2 emitting
vehicles. South Africa has an emission tax rate basedon the amount of CO2 exiting the exhaust.692 Since 2016,
Thailand’s excise tax on new vehicle purchases has
been based on CO2 instead of engine size. The average
fuel economy of new passenger cars has improved
by 4.6% in 2016-2017 due to the increasing sales ofvehicles with lower engine displacement and vehicle
weight.693 Turkey, despite no official CO2 regulation
for new vehicles, has an average CO2 emission level
lower than the European Union, because of very highfuel taxes.694 Other countries, including Austria, Chile,
Denmark, France, Mauritius, and Singapore havedeveloped a fee rebate system that provides subsidies
for the most efficient vehicles, and additional taxes on
the least efficient ones.695 Feebate systems are a good
instrument for developing economies, as they can bea budget-neutral government policy, by balancing thefees the government receives and the rebates it pays.696
In January 2018, Singapore revised its feebate system
to cover not just CO2 but also four other pollutants as
an important approach to reduce air pollution andclimate change impacts; the surcharge for a vehicle isdetermined by its worst-performing pollutant.697 Sweden
adopted a new bonus-malus system for green vehicles
with low emissions in 2017 which came into force in2018 to help increase the share of green vehicles on
the road. Cars, vans and light buses will all be affected

The Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI) has shown thatwith existing cost-effective technologies, it is possible todouble average light vehicle fuel economy globally by 2030 for
new light duty vehicles, and by 2050 for all light duty vehicles(’50by50’).687 This includes the use of improved materials andaerodynamics, and new technologies such as start-stopengines, regenerative braking and hybrid or fully electric
drivetrains. The mix of available vehicles - hybrid, electric, as
well as internal combustion engine (ICE) drivetrains - in the
global fleet will vary by market and the relative affordabilityof the technologies available, particularly in low-income ordeveloping countries.
Fuel economy is important for all types of passenger andfreight vehicles, as well as for aircraft and ships. Most data
and analysis have been carried out for light-duty vehicles(LDV), which is why the focus of this section is primarilyon this category, but increasingly attention is being paid toother areas, including heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). GFEI has
established a new ‘35by35’ target for HDVs.688

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

EconomyLabeling
Programs
for fora Selectionof Countries(1978691to 2016)
Figure 46: Year
Year ofofImplementation
ImplementationofofVehicle
VehicleFuel
Fuel
EconomyLabeling
Programs
a Selectionof Countries

Australia

US

1978

South
Korea

1988

China

CanadaGermanyJapan

New
Zealand

1999 2000

2005

AustriaUK

Netherlands

Mandate

2015

2020

Market size covered by program

Policy Targets Set
Fuel Economy Standards:

Currently 38 governments have established fueleconomy (or CO2 emission standards) for LDVs: Brazil(CO2-tax based system), Canada, China, India, Japan,
Mexico, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the UnitedStates, as well the 28 countries of the European
Union.700 A number of other countries also follow theseregulations, such as Iceland, Norway (which has
additionally set a more ambitious non-binding target of85g) and Switzerland. In the United States, California
has established its own fuel economy standards,
which meet or exceed federal standards. California’s
more stringent standard has been adopted by 15 otherstates as well.701 In total, these countries account foraround 80% of all LDV sales globally and they have thefollowing targets:702

ThailandSingapore
Brazil Chinese
Saudi Arabia
Taipeiby the new system, where high emission vehicles will
be taxed at a higher rate for the first three years. The
new measure supports the government’s aim to reducetransport emissions by 70% by 2030, compared with2010 levels.698•

Vietnam
Chile

2010

Voluntary

Light-Duty Vehicles: LDV fuel economy has been targeted
since the 1970s, initially in response to increasing oil prices,but more recently due to a recognition of the reduction ofvehicle CO2 emissions, decreased oil consumption andincreased investment in vehicle technologies.699 Morecountries have introduced fuel economy policies forpassenger cars since 2005. Since carbon emissions areproportional to fuel consumption, regulation can be madebased on CO2 or fuel economy.

India

•

The European Union has the most ambitious(lowest) target, at 95 gCO2/km by 2021 for passenger
vehicles. The United States and Canada have atarget of 99 gCO2/km for 2025. South Korea has atarget of 97 gCO2/km for 2020, while China’s 2020
target is 117 gCO2/km (Figure 47).

•

For passenger light-truck vehicles, Japan has
the lowest current target, at 135 gCO2/km by 2022,
followed by Canada, the United States and theEuropean Union.703•

In 2017, the European Union started to replace
the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) with theWorldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure
to guarantee more realistic testing conditions and morereliable results, followed by Japan in 2018.704 In 2018,
the European Union agreed to reduce vehicles’ CO2emissions by 35% by 2030, compared with 2021 levels.705
It is part of a bigger ‘Clean Mobility Package’ that
supports procurement of clean vehicles, deploymentof alternative fuels, freight intermodality, long-distancebus travel, and research and development investments
in battery technology.706•

In October 2017, China’s Ministry of Industry andInformation Technology implemented the first zero
emission vehicle (ZEV) national policy on top of theexisting fuel economy standards with a target of 5 L/100
km in 2020.707

Heavy-Duty Vehicles: In the past 5 years, countries have also
started putting in place standards for HDV fuel economy,
which is important since trucks are the fastest growing
source of global oil demand.709 Canada, China, Japan, theUnited States, and most recently India have approved HDV

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Figure 47: CO2 Emissions Performance and Standards for Light Duty Vehicles (2000-2015)708
Figure 47: CO2 Emissions Performance and Standards for Light Duty Vehicles (2000-2015)
220

Brazil9

Target for 2017: 138

200

Canada
8

160

7

140

6

120

5

100

4

80
3
60
2

40

0

Market Trends

Target for 2025: 99
European Union
Target for 2021: 95
India
Target for 2022: 113
Japan
Target for 2020: 122
MexicoTarget for 2016: 145
Republic of Korea

Improvements in fuel economy slowed from 1.8% in
2005-2008, to 1.2% in 2012-2015, and to only 1.1% in

2025

2024

2023

2022

2021

South Africa
Target for 2020: 142
United States
Target for 2025: 99

2014-2015.713 In the period between 2005 and 2015, theglobal motorization rate had an annual growth rateof 2.5%,714 which implies that improvements in fueleconomy can’t compensate for the growth in vehicles
on the road.
•

25 countries monitored by GFEI showed an improvementin average fuel economy in 2015 compared with 2005.
The greatest progress was observed in Turkey, which
improved its fuel economy by more than 30% between
2005 and 2015 (Figure 48).715•

Despite having the most ambitious targets, the European
Union recorded a decrease in fuel economy of newvehicles in 2017. New cars sold in the European Union
emitted 0.4 g/km more than in 2016, reaching 118.5 g
CO2/km (by NEDC test procedure).716 It is the first-everrecorded increase in fuel economy for the European
Union.717•

An increasing proportion of vehicles are now soldin non-OECD markets; these accounted for 49% of all
sales by 2015, up from 31% in 2005. 40% of the global
vehicle stock (vehicles in operation) is now in nonOECD markets.718

Fuel Economy
Average fuel economy globally improved by 1.5%
between 2005 and 2015.711 This is roughly half of therate needed to achieve GFEI’s target to double averagevehicle efficiency of new vehicles by 2030, which initiallyrequired a 2.8% annual rate of improvement, although
this has now increased to 3.7% a year between 20152030 because of a lack of progress.712

2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0

fuel economy programs, while the European Union, Mexico,and South Korea are actively developing programs. India
passed in August 2017 a two-phased plan to raise the fuelefficiency of HDVs, with the first phase starting in April 2018,
while the second phase targeted for implementation in April
2021. It applies to diesel-powered trucks and buses with agross vehicle weight of 12 tonnes or more; currently, suchvehicles account for 60% of the fuel use and CO2 emissionsof the HDV fleet in India.710

•

China

Target for 2020: 97
1

20

•

Target for 2025: 99
Fuel Consumption (l/100 km gasoline equivalent)

CO2 Emission values (g/km), normalized to NEDC

180

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 48: Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy and Vehicle Sales by Country (2005 to 2015) 719

LDV salesin 2015

76.4 Million

12.0

Lge/100km

10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0

2005

2010

EU28

World

Non-OECDOECD and EU

CanadaMexicoUnited States

Philippines

Russian Federation

Australia

Indonesia

Peru

Egypt

Chile

China

ThailandSouth Africa

BrazilArgentina

UkraineMalaysia

India

Korea

Japan

Germany

Italy

United Kingdom

Turkey0.0France2.0

2015

Trends in Vehicle Size

Emission Reductions Impacts and Modal Shift

The size of vehicles has a significant impact on CO2emissions.
• From 2010 to 2015, globally, the average vehicle
registered increased in weight by over 5%, and in size(footprint) by more than 3%. This included average
footprint increases of 6% for newly registered cars in
China, where the greatest number of cars were sold,with local manufacturers matching the larger size andweight of foreign designs.720

Available data indicates that the introduction of vehicle
fuel economy standards has saved an estimated 2.3 million
barrels per day (mb/d) of oil consumption worldwide in
2015; reduced global oil demand by 2.5%; and reduced theenergy consumption in the global road transport sector by
6%. Countries with fuel economy standards saved 9.7%
of fuel consumption in road transport.723 There is a gap in
information about the global emissions reduction impacts
from the implementation of stricter fuel economy policies;
however, the data available indicates there is a reduction of
consumption. Additionally, this data shows there is a shift tomore fuel-efficient vehicle types.

••

A significant trend in recent years has been a global
shift towards demand for sports utility vehicle (SUV)
body styles, which tend to have similar footprints tosedans but are taller and heavier. The market share of
SUVs has tripled in the past decade.721
In addition, battery electric vehicles tend to be heavier
because of the weight of the battery pack. Currently
most technological improvements in power density
and specific power of battery packs are being used
to increase vehicle range, rather than reduce vehicle
weight.722

Overview of Key Indicators
The indicators summarized below provide a snapshot of
the global fuel economy trends in development of policy
landscape and market development.

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Table 10: Overview of Key Indicators for Fuel Economy

KEY INDICATORS FOR FUEL ECONOMY
2017

2016

% CHANGE

Source/s

Countries completed GFEI fuel economy
benchmarking(# of countries)

38

27

41%

GFEI, (2016). Global Fuel Economy An Update
For COP 22. Global Fuel Economy Initiative.
Available at: https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/
media/412594/gfei-cop22-update-lr-spreads.pdf
GFEI, (2017). GFEI action for more fuelefficient vehicles: COP 23 update. Global Fuel
Economy Initiative. Available at: https://www.
globalfueleconomy.org/media/460944/cop23update-report.pdf

Countries with LDV fuel economy labelingschemes(# of countries)

50

44

14%

ICCT & APEC, (2015). A Review and Evaluation of
Vehicle Fuel Efficiency Labeling and Consumer
Information Programs. Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation. APEC#215-RE-01.27 Available at:https://www.apec.org/Publications/2015/12/AReview-and-Evaluation-of-Vehicle-Fuel-EfficiencyLabeling-and-Consumer-Information-Programs &Shahbandari, S. (2016). Cars in UAE to have fuelefficiency rating next year. Gulf News. Available
at: https://gulfnews.com/news/uae/transport/
cars-in-uae-to-have-fuel-efficiency-rating-nextyear-1.1678219 & GFEI, (2018). GFEI enables newfuel economy label for Montenegro. Global Fuel
Economy Initiative. Available at: https://www.
globalfueleconomy.org/blog/2018/march/gfeienables-new-fuel-economy-label-for-montenegro

Countries with LDV fiscal incentives for
efficient vehicles(# of countries)

18

18

0%

APEC, (2015). A Review and Evaluation of Vehicle
Fuel Efficiency Labeling and Consumer Information
Programs. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.
APEC#215-RE-01.27 Available at: https://www.
apec.org/Publications/2015/12/A-Review-andEvaluation-of-Vehicle-Fuel-Efficiency-Labelingand-Consumer-Information-Programs & Yang,
Z., Bandivadekar, A., (2017). 2017 Global Update
Light-duty vehicle and greenhouse gas and fueleconomy standards. The International Council on
Clean Transportation. Available at: https://www.
theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/2017Global-LDV-Standards-Update_ICCTReport_23062017_vF.pdf

Countries with LDV fuel economy standards(# of countries)

37

36

3%

Yang, Z., Bandivadekar, A. (2017). 2017 Global
Update Light-duty vehicle and greenhouse gas
and fuel economy standards. The International
Council on Clean Transportation. Available at:https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/
publications/2017-Global-LDV-Standards-Update_
ICCT-Report_23062017_vF.pdf

Countries with HDV fuel economy standards(# of countries)

5

4

25%

GFEI, (2017). Targeting Heavy Duty Vehicle
Fuel Economy. Global Fuel Economy Initiative.
Available at: https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/
media/460941/hdv-fuel-economy.pdf

Countries with green freight schemes(# of countries)

20

N/A

7.6

8.1

Policy Landscape Indicators

Smart Freight Centre, (2017). Smart Freight
Leadership: Green Freight Programs Worldwide
2017. Available at: http://www.nucms.nl/tpl/
smart-freight-centre/upload/Green%20Freight%20
Programs%20Worldwide%20-%20SFC%20
May2017_FINAL.pdf

Market Development Indicators
Average light duty vehicle fuel economy(Liters of gasoline equivalent (Lge)/100 km))

6.2%

IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparisonof light-duty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015.
Ten Years of Fuel Economy Benchmarking.
International Energy Agency and Global Fuel
Economy Initiative. Available at: http://www.iea.
org/publications/freepublications/publication/
wp15ldvcomparison.pdf

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Global Initiatives Supporting Fuel
Economy••

The Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI) assists
governments and transport stakeholders in
improving vehicle fuel economy and reducing carbon
dioxide emissions. It aims to double the average
fuel economy of new light-duty vehicles globally by2030, and all vehicles by 2050. The initiative works
to secure real improvements in fuel economy, andthe maximum deployment of vehicle efficiency
technologies across the world, across the full range
of vehicle sizes and technologies, including hybrid
and fully electric vehicles.
The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV)is a global public-private partnership working with
developing and transitional countries to reduce air
pollution from vehicles through the promotion ofcleaner fuels and vehicles.

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

below50 is a global collaboration that brings together
the entire value-chain for sustainable fuels, i.e.
fuels that produce at least 50% less CO2 emissions
than conventional fossil fuels. The initiative aims tocreate a critical mass of players (developers, users
and investors) to grow the global market for theworld’s most sustainable fuels.

•

The objective of the Global Strategy for Cleaner
Fuels and Vehicles is to virtually eliminate fineparticle and black carbon emissions from new andexisting heavy-duty diesel vehicles and engines
through the introduction of low sulfur fuels, andvehicle emission standards by 2030.

•

Other relevant global initiatives, for example the
Global Green Freight Action Plan, are mentioned in
Section IV.B Stakeholders Mobilizing for Action on
Transport and Climate Change.

91AND CLIMATECHANGEGLOBALSTATUS REPORT 2018
PartTRANSPORT
III: Policy Frameworks
for Transportand Climate
ChangePart III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

7. Electric Mobility
Overview
Background
The first automobiles in the 19th century were powered
through electricity.724 These were quickly overtaken
by gasoline- or diesel-fueled cars, which are primarycontributors to climate change. Since 2010, electricity has
regained attention as a power source for two- and threewheelers, public transport vehicles, LDVs and HDVs.
Electrification is already well established in rail transport,
which is further discussed in Section III.B.2 Railways andSection III.B.8 Renewable Energy in Transport. Electricvehicles (the employment of EV, referring to electric battery
passenger cars if not mentioned otherwise), have grownfrom almost zero electrically-powered passenger vehicles
before 2010, to one million cars in 2015, to two million vehicles
a year later in 2016, and three million by 2017 (Figure 49).725
Fuel cell EVs are not covered due to lower levels of global
implementation. If powered by hydrogen form renewables,
this type of vehicle would be a low carbon mobility solution
with potential for heavy-duty vehicles, rail transport,
maritime shipping and aviation.727
There are several critical barriers to overcome to ensurethat electric vehicles are helping achieve the full potential indecarbonization and meeting SDG targets. Today, one major
issue is that the electricity for powering EVs is based on

Photo credit: Avda

mostly non-renewable energy sources. An electric motor ismore efficient than an ICE vehicle, but CO2 savings can only
be achieved if the electricity grid is decarbonized. However,as the European case shows, renewable energy production
is growing rapidly, and in terms of lifecycle emissions EVs
emit less CO2 than fossil fuel cars even with the most CO2intensive power sources.
Further, battery production contributes significantly to thelifecycle emissions of EVs, and sourcing raw materials
for the lithium ion batteries produced mostly of nickel andgraphite can have other negative environmental and social
impacts. The Philippines, for example, closed or suspended
operations at 17 nickel mines in 2017 due to environmental
concerns.728 Policies and standards can help govern thesustainable production and disposal (or recycling) of EV
batteries. The increasing uptake and popularity of EVs is met
by a supply bottleneck which leads to a limit accessibility of
EVs and a slow transition to EVs.729

Policy Landscape
Policy Measures Implemented
The recent growth of electric mobility is stimulated byconcerns about climate change, air pollution and traffic
noise caused by ICE. Other contributing factors include
oil independence goals, energy efficiency targets andFigure 49: Electric Vehicle Stock (battery and plug-in electric hybrids) 726

Global Electric Vehicle Stock (Million Vehicles)

92

3.0

NORTH AMERICA: 0.7 MILLION IN USA
14,000 in other countries

26% of global EV fleet

2.5

EUROPE
0.85 MILLION

2.0

27% of global EV fleet

1.5

ASIA
1.2 MILLION IN CHINA
0.1 million in other Asian countries

1.0

47% of global EV fleet

0.5
0.0

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

OTHER REGIONS
0.2% of Global Fleet

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

tax on a temporary pilot basis for 2018 for all EVs.742
Argentina slashed import duties on electric, hybrid andhydrogen cars in May 2017. The lower duties (reduced
from 35% to 5% and lower) will be in place for three
years.743 As of early 2017, Austria offered a purchasepremium for electric cars charged with 100% renewableelectricity. For a full electric or fuel cell powered vehicle
people can receive up to EUR 4,000, and up to EUR 1,500
for a plug-in hybrid.744 Singapore replaced the Carbon
Emission-based Vehicle Scheme with the new Vehicular
Emissions Scheme, which enables rebates of up to SGD
20,000 (around USD 15,000) at the end of 2017.745 In 2018,
Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan both introduced zero importduties on electric vehicles.746 The United States provides
a federal tax credit of between USD 2,500 and USD 7,500
for EVs acquired after December 2009; however, thecredit will begin to phase out for each manufacturer
after 200,000 EVs have been sold by the manufacturer in
the United States.747

industrial policy, as well as innovations reducing the costsof batteries that make EVs more affordable. As the example
of California shows, some of the main policy drivers of EVs
have been standards for automakers, fuel economy andzero emission mandates. Several countries have adopted
tax incentives and exemptions for EVs, and to introduce theuse of EV in public transport fleets and carsharing services,which unlock a huge potential to reduce car ownershiplevels and transport costs. Volvo announced in 2017—thefirst major automobile company to do so—that it would stop
the production of cars with ICEs from 2019 on and switch
all models to electric or plug-in hybrids.730 Sweden launchedseveral innovative projects and published a National Planfor Electric Roads in November 2017. The plan envisages
electrifying around 1,400 km of road between the threemain cities—Stockholm, Malmö and Gothenburg—which
together represent 70% of Sweden’s heavy goods traffic.731••

Electric Buses: While electric buses with overhead
wires (often called trolley buses) have been in use
for several decades, recent developments focus onbattery-powered electric buses. In Edinburgh, UK
the first all-electric public buses started operation in
October 2017. Much of central Edinburgh is served bythese vehicles, and the fleet will be extended in 2018
to create a first fully-electric route in the city.732 CapeTown, South Africa, received its first ten electric busesin the second half of 2017, and from there electric buses
will expand to Windhoek in Namibia and Mauritius in
the coming years.733 Santiago, Chile incorporated thefirst two electric buses into its public transport fleet
in November 2017, with 90 of these buses expected
to be in circulation by the end of 2018.734 Shenzhen,
China replaced all of its buses (16,539) with EVs by theend of 2017, becoming the first city worldwide with afully electric bus fleet.735 Both the national German andUnited Kingdom governments launched programs topromote electric buses, offering substantial financial
support to public transport operators for the acquisitionof plug-in hybrid or full-electric buses and charging
infrastructure.736 The German electric bus promotion
program launched in 2018, covering up to 80% of
incremental e-bus costs and up to 40% of charging
infrastructure costs.737 These are just a few of various
examples of electric bus deployment in 2017.
Electric Cars: Norway accounted for the largest market
share (39%) of new car sales in 2017 and has thehighest share of EVs per capita.738 EV owners in China
receive purchase tax exemptions between USD 5,000
and USD 8,500 from the national government.739 Local
governments can add further subsidies, and EV owners
do not pay license plate restrictions/acquiring fees.740 In
January 2017, new import tax laws came into force inGeorgia reducing import duties for plug-in hybrid cars
by 60% and removing them completely for battery EVs
which led to a 42% of car imports to be hybrid or fully
electric by September 2017.741 Ukraine has adopted aprovisional exemption on value-added tax and excise•

Electric Car Sharing: In March 2017, in Madrid a newelectric carsharing service was launched (Emov) for
which more than 100,000 customers signed up in just 5
months.748 Singapore’s first electric carsharing service
was officially launched in December 2017, with 80 carsand 32 charging stations.749 car2go has approximately
1,400 purely electric car2go vehicles circulating on theroads of Amsterdam, Madrid and Stuttgart.750 (Car- andbikesharing is discussed further in Section III.B.5 New
Mobility Services.)•

Electric Two- and Three-Wheelers: Sweden gives aboost to e-bikes with a 25% subsidy for the purchaseof an e-bike (budgeting USD 42 million per year for theperiod 2018-2020). The program is extremely popular:
approximately 2,000 applications per week were sent
to Sweden’s Environmental Protection Agency during
the first three months.751 France announced in February
2017 that individuals can receive EUR 200 financial
assist (one per person) for purchasing a pedal-assist
electric bike through January 2018.752 China accounts
for 42% of the global stock of electric two wheelers.753 In
India, Ola plans to add 10,000 three-wheelers between
2018 and 2019, as part of a major expansion of 1 million
EVs by 2021.754

Policy Targets Set
The clear majority of EVs are sold in markets that have adopted
public policies to help overcome the prevailing barriers
to EV adoption: model availability, upfront cost, charging
infrastructure, and awareness. New announcements on
EV policy targets are emerging from companies, cities andcountries on a regular basis (Figure 50).
•

EV Fleet Targets: In 2017, 13 new countries announced
targets on EV uptake, bringing the number of countries
with targets to 60.755 These targets aim to increase EV
fleets, incorporate EVs into public transport services,

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Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 50: Countries and Regions with Fossil Fuel Vehicle Phase-out Plans 762

introduce EV tax exemptions and financial incentives tohelp consumers overcome the barrier of higher upfront
costs,756 and enforce regulations to ensure that car
manufacturers produce a certain amount of EVs as partof their annual sales (in the case of China). For example,
Costa Rica in December 2017 approved its ElectricTransportation Bill, which sets a goal of 37,000 EVs
within 5 years. The usage of EVs is promoted by making
them more affordable with several tax exemptions,and developing a national network of fast-charging
infrastructure.757 Malta extended the grant scheme onenvironmentally friendly vehicles with another EUR
150,000 in July 2017, setting an indicative target of
5,000 EVs by 2020.758 Malaysia announced an Electric
Mobility Blueprint with the goal of having 100,000 EVs,
125,000 charging stations, 2,000 electric buses and100,000 electrified motorcycles by 2030.759 New Zealandannounced its Electric Vehicles Programme in 2016,
aiming to reach approximately 64,000 EVs on the road by
the end of 2021.760 Sri Lanka announced plans to replace
all state-owned vehicles (including buses) with electricor hybrid models by 2025, and private vehicles by 2040.761•

Phase-out of Fossil Fuel Vehicles: Vehicle and fuelregulations help overcome the barrier of EV model
availability.763 In 2016, Norway became the first country
to announce a ban of vehicles with ICEs, going into
effect as early as 2025. In 2017, six more countries anda few regions followed with plans for a complete shift
to electric mobility. Netherlands, Slovenia and Irelandplan to phase-out ICE vehicles by 2030, Scotland in 2032,
and California, France, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and the UK in
2040 (Figure 50).

•

Electric Buses: twelve major cities, including Seattle,
London, Barcelona and Cape Town promised in October
2017 to buy only zero-emissions buses from 2025 on,under the C40 joint “Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration,”with 59,000 buses (of all types) currently operating.764 In
Los Angeles, the County Metropolitan Transportation
Authority voted in July 2017 to transition its fleet of morethan 2,200 buses to zero emission electric buses by theyear 2030. It immediately took a first step of acquiring
95 electric buses as well as charging infrastructure for
USD 138 million.765 In Poland, 41 cities and municipalities
signed an agreement beginning 2017 to buy fleets of

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

electric buses by 2020.766 Mexico City is planning anelectric bus project serving approximately 160,000 daily
trips along a 22 km-long corridor, which is the largestscale electric bus project in Latin America to date.767
In December 2016, 43 articulated zero-emission buses
started operating in the Dutch cities Eindhoven andHelmond.768 Beginning in 2018, an additional 100 electricbuses were introduced at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport
and the surrounding area. The projects contributeto the goal set by the government to have only zero
emission buses starting from 2025 in the Netherlands.769
Barcelona, Spain introduced two electric articulatedbuses in September 2016, which can charge batteries
while en route.770•

Electric Cars: South Africa announced in April 2017 thecommitment to have more than 2.9-million electric carson the road by 2050 to meet Paris Agreement goals.771
Thailand also aims to have 1.2 million electric vehicles
on its roads by 2036.772 In September 2017, China imposeda tough sales target on car makers in which NEVs needto account for 10% of annual sales by 2019.773 The target
will be raised to 12% for 2020. Poland wants to makeelectric mobility a key part of its agenda and plans to put
1 million EVs on the road by 2025.774•

Electric Freight: China’s Ministry of Transport identified
green freight as a top priority in its 13th Five-Year
Strategy, and aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 7%
to 8% by 2020.775 By the end of 2017, the government
released an action plan (Action Plan for Promoting
the Healthy and Stable Development of Road FreightTransport Industry 2017-2020) to help companies gain
easy access to NEVs, and to promote the electrificationof urban freight vehicles.776 In March 2017, 27 BYDCompany electric trucks went into service at the Los
Angeles, freight facilities area.777 One key componentof California’s Sustainable Freight Action Plan, released
in 2016, is the deployment of more than 100,000 ZEVs/
equipment by 2020.778 The California Air Resources
Control Board proposed in 2017 that 2.5% of truck sales
be zero emissions starting in 2023, increasing to 15% by2030.779 Sweden has invested in an electric road system
to meet its 2030 target (a transport sector independentof fossil-fuel vehicles). The first 2-km stretch, which is acatenary system that supplies the trucks with electric
power like trolley buses, opened in April 2018.780

EV Charging Infrastructure
Charging stations are an important element of electric
mobility. Charging infrastructure helps overcome refuelingand convenience barriers. Countries or industries set certain
standards to allow charging of different models. Charging
stations can be configured for slow or quick-charging of EVs.
Charging infrastructure is generally categorized into private
and public charging stations. The low availability of publiccharging stations is often described as a bottleneck forelectric mobility,781 because public charging infrastructure

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

reduces range anxiety and could be at least partiallyaddressed with more public investment or private-sectorbusiness models such as Tesla. As the electric mobility
industry evolves, standards for charging stations need to
evolve as well, to keep pace with the rate of innovation in
vehicle models and technology.
•

In 2017, China built world’s largest EV charging networkwith 167,000 stations, and the aim that the distance
between two charging stations would be less than one
kilometer in urban areas.782 Germany announced in 2017
a commitment to build 1,000 new EV charging stations
along the German Autobahn by 2020.783•

Egypt announced in February 2018 that it would workwith a EV company (Revolta), to build 65 charging
stations across the country, with the goal of having 300
stations by 2020.784 Chilectrica, an electric company inChile, is leading the installment of charging stationsin that country, and plans to build the necessary
charging infrastructure to service 600 electric buses by
2020, which is equivalent to 10% of the present public
transport fleet. Slovenia’s strategy on alternative fuelsin the transportation sector includes plans to expand
the current network of charging stations to 1,200 by
2020, 7,000 by 2025 and 22,300 by 2030.785

Market Trends
Market Development
EV Fleets•

Private EV fleets: Total electric passenger car stock(including battery and hybrids) stood at 0.3% of totalcars in 2017.786 In 2017, China had the largest fleet ofindividual four-wheelers, with nearly 1.2 million electriccars, followed by the United States with 762,000 cars,
Japan (205,000 cars), Norway (176,000 cars), and theNetherlands (119,000 cars). In addition, China had 250
million electric two-wheelers, and 50 million threewheelers on its roads in 2017.787•

Public EV fleets: The global electric bus stock wasaround 375,000 to 385,000 buses in 2017, which meansthat 13% of the total global bus fleet (mostly related
to public buses, but any kind of bus (standard or
articulated) is implied) is electrified.788 There are over
300 cities in the world with battery-powered electric or
hybrid buses, and the majority of them are in Eastern
Asia, Europe and North America.789 China alone has
370,000 electric buses in operation.790 The electrificationof bus fleets is happening at a rapid pace. Energy
Efficiency Limited Services, an Indian public sector
company tendered 10,000 EVs and is distributing theseespecially to public institutions, firms, and ministries.
This has eased the beginning of the EV market inIndia significantly.791

95

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate ChangeElectric Freight

Charging Infrastructure•

Worldwide, there are more than 3.5 million charging outlets,over 85% of which are private, and follow different, in somecases conflicting standards.802 Similar to global electric car
stock, global electric vehicle supply equipment outlets are
increasing rapidly, surpassing 2 million in 2016, and 3 million
in 2017.803 Electric cars still outnumber public charging
stations by more than six to one, indicating that most drivers
rely primarily on private charging stations.

••Companies such as Deutsche Post DHL Groupannounced long-term 2050 decarbonization plans, andintroduced technology solutions including electricdrive trucks, e-scooters, and City Hub cargo bicycles.792
By November 2017, Deutsche Post DHL Group had
introduced 5,000 StreetScooters in service, with anannual reduction of more than 16,000 tonnes of CO2
after 13.5 million kilometers driven.793 FedEx added 292
electric vehicles to their fleet (in total 2,100) in 2017. UPS
currently has 300 fully electric vehicles in operation withthe goal of having a quarter of their fleet purchased by
2020 use alternative fuels.
Daimler delivered in 2017 the first all-electric lighttrucks with a range of 100 km and 83-kilowatt hour(kWh) batteries to UPS in the United States,794 andlater to DHL for use in Europe795. Electric heavy truck
projects have been announced by several companies:
Tesla showcased their first all-electric truck model to
go into production by 2019;796 Nikola Motors developed
a fuel cell long-distance truck in 2017;797 and Daimler
announced two all-electric heavy and medium duty
vehicles.798
Amazon’s Prime Air service introduced a drone freightdelivery pilot in the United Kingdom in 2016, with
development centers in Austria, France, Israel, United
Kingdom and the United States,799 and with otherautonomous freight delivery options under developmentin Europe.800

EV Battery Storage and Cost
The lithium-ion technology that EV batteries use isconstantly improving. As a result, the batteries have an
improved lifespan and power capacity, while charging
speeds, costs, battery size and weight are decreasing. Thisis a critical tipping point for the gradual uptake of EVs in the
global market.
The costs of batteries will decline further. In 2017, theaverage battery price is USD 209/kWh, and it is predicted
to fall below USD 100/kWh by 2025 and USD 70/kWh by
2030.801 With reductions in battery costs, the economic
competitiveness of EVs with ICE vehicles is also increasing,
because batteries are the main cost increment of an EV. Thisis an important tipping point necessary for wider adoption ofelectric vehicles.

•

Tesla set the ambitious 2017 target of doubling its
Supercharger network, which is already the largest
fast-charging network in the world, from roughly 5,000
charging stalls to 10,000. While the company fell shortof its goal, it did make notable progress, increasing
the number of private charging stations from 5,000
in 770 locations to 8,250 chargers in 1,120 locations
worldwide.804 Tesla’s new goal is to have 18,000
Superchargers installed by the end of 2018.805

Overview of Key Indicators
The global uptake of EVs depends on several factors,
including advances in vehicle and battery technologies,
reduced costs from economies of scale and technologicalinnovation, enabling policy environments, and government
incentives. The reduction in cost of batteries is a criticaltipping point that will predicate the widespread global
uptake of EVs. The availability of charging infrastructureis also a helpful for a broad global rollout of EVs, because
it will increase the attractiveness of EVs across market
segments and will allow EV integration into larger urban
transport systems.

Emission Reduction Impacts
The obstacle to higher emissions savings is a very carbonintensive power generation.806 Vehicles with battery EVs
emit 39% less CO2 emissions per kilometer than vehicles withICE on average, depending on vehicle type and country’s
power source.807
According to the IEA, EVs avoided emissions of 29.4 Mt
CO2 in 2017, 81% of which can be attributed to China’s
2-wheelers, 7% North America, 5% Europe, and 3% China’s
LDV and 3% China’s bus and 1% by other Asian countries.
The electric buses in Shenzhen, for example, emit 48% less
CO2 than comparable diesel buses.808 As the integration ofelectric buses increases globally, research on the service
level impacts of these vehicle types is still in its infancy.

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Table 11: Overview of Key Indicators for Electric Mobility

KEY INDICATORS FOR ELECTRIC MOBILITY
2017

2016

% CHANGE

Electric vehicle targets(# of countries)

61

48

27%

ICE phase-out targets(# of countries)

7

1

700%

EV incentives (subsidy, enabling legislation) for
consumers(# of countries)

67

N/A

N/A

Electric vehicle market share(% of total fleet)

0.3%

0.2%

50%

Electric vehicle stock(plug-in hybrids and battery)

3,109,050

1,982,040

57%

Public charging points(slow and fast)

430,151

313,567

37%

Public charging points(slow and fast)

318,128

237,258

34%

Public charging points(slow and fast)

112,023

76,30947%

Source/s

Policy Landscape Indicators

SLoCaT, (2018). E-mobility Overview on Trends
and Targets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/
default/files/e-mobility_overview.pdf

Market Development Indicators

Global Initiatives Supporting Electric
Mobility•••

The EV30@30 campaign, launched at the Eighth
Clean Energy Ministerial in 2017, set the collective
aspirational goal of a 30% market share for electricvehicles in the total of all passenger cars, lightcommercial vehicles, buses and trucks by 2030.
EV100 is part of the Marrakech Partnership for Global
Climate Action (MPGCA), a transport initiative thataims to accelerate the transition to electro-mobility
by leveraging the role corporate demand can playin driving EV uptake, and the roll-out of charging
infrastructure. The initiative was launched in 2017,with ten-member companies from various sectors in
Europe and China.
The International Zero-Emission Vehicle Alliance(ZEV Alliance) is a collaboration of governments
acting together to accelerate the adoption of zero-

IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018.
International Energy Agency. Available at:https://webstore.iea.org/global-ev-outlook-2018

emission vehicles (electric, plug-in hybrid, and fuelcell vehicles). The governments have committed
to making all passenger vehicle sales in theirjurisdictions ZEVs by no later than 2050, and tocollaborating on policies and actions to achieve
their ZEV targets.
•

The Taxi4SmartCities coalition connects worldwide
taxi companies that are committed to accelerating
the energy transition of their vehicle fleet by 2020 and
2030. More generally, the Taxi4SmartCities coalition
intends to defend a progressive and modern versionof the taxi as a key actor of the Smart City.

•The Urban Electric Mobility Initiative (UEMI) aims
to boost the share of EVs in individual mobility (twoand three-wheelers and light duty vehicles), andintegrate electric mobility into a wider concept ofsustainable urban transport that achieves a 30%
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in urban
areas by 2030.

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AND CLIMATECHANGEGLOBALSTATUS REPORT 2018
PartTRANSPORT
III: Policy Frameworks
for Transportand Climate
Change8. Renewable Energy in Transport
Overview
BackgroundIn the power sector, the renewable energy transformation
is well underway, but other sectors like the transport sector
are still lagging. To achieve the Paris Agreement’s objectives,
the transport sector needs to follow a similar path to theenergy sector’s.809 The entry points for renewable energy inthe transport sub-sectors can include: the use of 100% liquidbiofuels (i.e. ethanol, biodiesel and advanced biofuels)810
or of biofuels blended with conventional fuels; natural gas
vehicles and infrastructure converted to run on upgradedbiomethane and biogas; and the electrification of transport(provided the electricity is renewable). There is also an
ongoing discussion about how to generate liquid or gaseouselectricity-based synthetic fuels, in particular hydrogen
pathways, especially for passenger transport. Hydrogenfrom renewable electricity can supply power to support
decarbonization of transport and other sectors.811 However,fuels and vehicle technologies vary greatly in terms of theirtechnical maturity, costs, level of sustainability, climate
mitigation potential, distribution and acceptance rates
among users.812 Policy strategies are thus being implemented
at different levels (from international to sub-national), andwhile some are relevant to the transport sector overall,others are sub-sector specific to accommodate industry andusers’ needs and preferences.

Photo credit: Isaek

In 2015, the renewable energy share in transport wasestimated at 3.1%, while renewable electricity represented
approximately 0.3% of energy use in the sector (Figure 51).813
In road transport, renewable energy use was estimated at
4.2%, with more than 96% attributable to biofuels.814 Railcan integrate biofuels in fleets fueled by oil products, andrenewable electricity in fleets powered by electricity; 9%of rail energy in 2015 came from renewable sources (Seealso rail electrification in Part III.B.3 Railways). Aviationand shipping remain the most difficult sub-sectors todecarbonize, but several options are being explored. Planes
can use biofuels blended into traditional jet fuel at various
levels (e.g. bio-jet fuels), and ships can use biofuels or otherrenewable-based fuels (e.g. electricity-based hydrogen orammonia) for propulsion, or they can directly incorporatewind and solar energy. As the transport sector adopts
biofuels and promotes their production, from a sustainable
development point of view it is critical that the industry
mandates the sustainable production of its biofuels.

Overview of Key Indicators
The deployment of renewables is encouraged explicitly,for instance, by policies that promote the use of renewableelectricity in transport,816 but it is also likely to be driven
implicitly by policies that support the uptake of renewableelectricity in parallel or independently of policies that support
electric mobility.817 The removal of fossil fuel subsidies, theapplication of a carbon tax, low carbon standards or vehicles

815
Figureof Renewable
Energyin Transport
in 2015
Figure 51: Share
Renewable
Energy Sharein Transport
Sector(2015)

Non-Renewable Electricity

1.0%
E

Fossil Fuels

95.9%

Renewable
Energy3.1%

Ethanol

1.60%

Biodiesel

0.80%

Other Liquid
Biofuels

0.40%

Renewable
Electricity

0.30%

Biomethane

0.01%

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Table 12: Overview of Key Indicators for Renewable Energy in Transport

KEY INDICATORS FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY
2017

2016

% CHANGE

Biofuel mandates(# of countries)

70

68

+3%

Advanced biofuel mandates(# of countries)

2

2

0%

Renewable transport targets(# of countries)

42

42

0%

100% renewable energy in transport target(# of countries)

1

1

0%

Policies for EVs combined with renewableelectricity(# of countries)

2

2

0%

Renewable electricity target and electricvehicles targets(# of countries with both)

43

N/A

N/A

REN21, (2018), Policy Database. Available at:
http://www.ren21.net/status-of-renewables/
ren21-interactive-map/; SLoCaT, (2018).
E-mobility Overview on Trends and Targets.
Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
files/e-mobility_overview.pdf

Share of renewable energy in transport (%)•
Biofuels share in transport (%)•
Renewable electricity share intransport (%)

N/A

3.1%

N/A

IEA, (2017). World Energy Outlook 2017.
International Energy Agency. Available at:https://webstore.iea.org/world-energyoutlook-2017

Share of renewable energy in road
(%)

N/A

4.2%

N/A

IEA, (2017). Renewables 2017. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.
org/publications/renewables2017/

Share of renewable energy in rail
(%)

N/A

2015: 9%N/A

UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017.

Share of renewable energy in aviation
(%)

N/A

N/A

N/A

Share of renewable energy in shipping
(%)

N/A

N/A

N/A

Biofuels global production(billion liters)

142.7

139.2

+2.5%

Ethanol global production(billion liters)

105.5

102.6

+2.8%

Biodiesel (FAME) global production(billion liters)

30.7

30.6

+0.3%

Biodiesel (HVO) global production(billion liters)

6.5

5.9

+10.2%

Biofuel use(% of fuel consumption)

N/A

3%

N/A

Biofuel use in road transport(million barrels of oil equivalent per day,mboe/d)

N/A

1.7

N/A

Biofuel use in aviation and maritime818(million barrels of oil equivalent per day,mboe/d)

N/A

<0.1

N/A

Source/s

Policy Landscape Indicators

REN21, (2018), Policy Database. Available at:
http://www.ren21.net/status-of-renewables/
ren21-interactive-map/

Market Development Indicators

2.8%
0.3%

Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions.
International Union of Railways. Available
at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/handbook_ieauic_2017_web3.pdf

REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018.
Paris, REN21 Secretariat. Available at: http://
www.ren21.net/gsr-2018/

IEA, (2017). World Energy Outlook 2017.
International Energy Agency. Available at:https://webstore.iea.org/world-energyoutlook-2017

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 52: Biofuel Blend Mandates820

about this biofuel.822 Further, to ensure the climatefriendliness and low carbon value of biofuels, induced
land-use change emissions from crops need to be
estimated.823

emission standards also represent measures that support
the decarbonization of the transport sector, and renewableenergy implicitly.

Policy Landscape•

To date, only Denmark, Italy and the United States
have introduced mandates for advanced biofuels.
The United States through the Renewable FuelStandard, and California through the Low Carbon FuelStandard, support advanced biofuels by giving thema higher value than conventional biofuels in tradingmechanisms designed to enable market actors tocomply with the United States standard.

•Some countries have implemented fiscal and financial
incentives to promote biofuel production, distribution
and consumption, as well as conducting researchand development into new technologies. The UnitedStates and other countries, including Australia, andUnited Kingdom continue to support the developmentof advanced biofuels with grants for research anddevelopment.824 In 2016, Argentina put in placetax exemptions for biodiesel production; Sweden
reintroduced tax cuts on ethanol and biodiesel; andThailand supported E20 and E85 blends as well as atrial program for the use of B20 in trucks and B10 for
military/government use.825 Some countries, such as

Policy Measures Implemented•

At least 70 countries have now enacted biofuel
blending mandates (at the national or subnational
level), seven of which have adopted blending
requirements for biofuel shares higher than 10%.819•

The debate over the use of crop-based biofuel
feedstocks continued in 2017, particularly in Europe.
Concerns cited by those who challenge the use of
traditional biofuels for fueling transport include: foodavailability, cost to consumers, potential land-use
concerns, the sustainability of fuel sources used forbiofuel production, and life-cycle emissions impacts.
As a consequence, biofuel promotion policies havebegun to include specific requirements for the use ofnext-generation cellulosic biofuels.821 In the European
Union the use of palm oil, for example, will be phasedout by 2030 due to the environmental concerns

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Brazil and Thailand, have successfully introduced
policies expanding their fleet of flexible-fuel vehicles,826
facilitating the widespread deployment of higher-levelbiofuels, and the use of unblended biofuels in flexiblefuel vehicles.
•

Australia has awarded funding for the constructionof a bio-crude and advanced biofuel laboratory,
potentially resulting in the capability of producing
renewable diesel and jet fuel from plant material.
Under the Sustainable Biofuels Innovation Challenge,
the United States provided funding for the developmentof a demonstration-scale facility capable of producing
renewable diesel and renewable jet fuel out of gases
from industrial waste.827 In the Netherlands, a publicprivate partnership aims at getting a bio-jet fuel supply
chain up and running to supply significant quantities
of sustainable jet fuel to Schiphol Airport. Bioport
Holland involves aviation and bio-jet fuel stakeholders
at the main Dutch ports and airports.828•

The European Union’s sustainability criteria for
conventional biofuels envision a 50% higher minimum
reduction in GHG compared with fossil fuels andprohibits growing biofuels in areas converted fromland with previously high carbon stock (e.g. wetland orforest) or producing them from raw materials obtained
from land with high levels of biodiversity (e.g. primary
forest or grassland).829 Canada has also released a setof guiding principles for sustainable biofuels;830 andthe state of California has defined policy frameworks
requiring a reduction in life-cycle carbon intensity fortransport fuels.831

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

Integrated planning allows for the leveraging ofsynergies between EVs and variable renewableenergy, for example, by strengthening demand-side
management opportunities related to vehicle charging
practices (e.g. smart charging, vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
strategies), planning charging infrastructure along withthe renewable electricity production, and developing
V2G services.832 Figure 53 highlights countries, statesand provinces with EV and renewable energy targets
that are the foundation for integrated policy planning.
Sector coupling refers to the integration of energy
supply and demand across electricity, thermal andtransport applications, which may occur via coproduction, combined use, conversion or substitution.
The coupling of the electricity sector with efficienttransport can assist in integrating rising shares ofvariable renewable energy, stabilizing the grid andreduce its curtailment; it can also open pathways
for renewable electricity into new end-use markets,provided that the additional demand is aligned withsystem requirements and does not instead increasesystem stress.833 The development of V2G services isstill in the early stages, implemented only in pilot anddemonstration programs. For example, in Holland, 325
Dutch municipalities, several companies, universities
and grid operators have joined the Living Lab Smart
Charging platform. Supported by the national
government, the platform’s ultimate objective is toensure that solar and wind energy power all electricvehicles in the country.834

Figure 53: Countries, States and Provinces with Electric Vehicle and Renewable Energy Targets835

101

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018••

While there are limited examples of countries with
explicit policy linkages between EVs and renewableelectricity, such as Austria, Luxembourg and Germany:
Until 2015, Luxembourg provided a grant of EUR 5,000
for the purchase of flexible, plugin hybrid and extended
range electric vehicles. Only purchasers who had also
signed a renewable electricity contract with theirenergy provider received the premium. In their current
electric mobility policy, applicable from 2017 to 2018,
Austria provides a grant for a range of electric vehicle
and two wheelers if they use renewable electricity
or hydrogen for fuel. In 2017, Germany established atendering program of EUR 300 million to stimulate thedeployment of charging infrastructure for electricvehicles. Only charging stations that supply renewableelectricity for charging (renewable electricity
procurement or self-generation) qualify for the grant.836
Forty-three countries have targets (at the nationalor sub-national level) for both EVs and for shares ofrenewable electricity, which can result in increased
use of renewable energy in transport as the numberof EVs increase on the roads while more renewableenergy becomes available for charging (Figure 53).837

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change•

The rail sector has a long history of using renewableenergy, spurred by national and subnational obligations
and mandates. For example, the Bay Area Rapid Transit
system, which provides public rail service to California’s
San Francisco Bay Area, set a requirement that 50% of
the rail system’s power come from renewable energy by2025 (compared to a state-wide target of 50% renewableelectricity by 2030) and 100% by 2045.841 However, rail
companies have been the primary drivers of renewableenergy as part of their effort to decarbonize theirbusinesses, increase energy security and reduceenergy costs. In 2015, prior to the Paris Agreement, therail operators around the world had already committed
to the following targets, which formed the UIC Low
Carbon Rail Transport Challenge:842•

A 50% reduction in energy consumption from train
operations by 2030, and a 60% reduction by 2050.

The global aviation industry, representing 192
countries, also recognizes the need to address climatechange and has adopted a number of aspirational
goals, including a 50% reduction in net aviation CO2emissions by 2050 (relative to 2005 levels).843 In 2016,
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
adopted the Carbon Offset and Reduction Scheme forInternational Aviation (CORSIA) which, among otherthings, supports the production and use of sustainableaviation fuels, particularly drop-in fuels produced frombiomass and different types of waste.844 To date, over
100,000 commercial flights have used sustainableaviation fuels,845 including United Airlines, which,among other airlines, has begun to use commercialscale volumes of alternative fuels for regularlyscheduled flights.846 Avinor, the public operator of
Norwegian airports, announced in January 2018 that
all flights under 1.5 hours are targeted to be entirely
electric by 2040.847 Aviation fuels are generally notincluded in national transport mandates for biofuelswith Indonesia being the only exception, where a 2%
renewable jet fuel mandate was introduced in 2017,
which has the intention to be raised to 5% by 2025.848To
also reduce their emissions, Delta Airlines reported
that it had converted 15% (or 15,00 pieces) of its groundsupport equipment (GSE) fleet to electric (eGSE) as ofearly 2016; eGSE is used to service airplanes between
flights including refueling, towing, luggage/freightcarts, etc.849•

The International Maritime Organization (IMO)
agreed to a 0.5% sulphur cap by 2020, which will have
implications for the burning of heavy fuel oil and offers
opportunities for the development of renewablebased fuels. IMO’s initial strategy on GHG reductions
mentions that IMO will consider and analyze measures
to encourage ports and ships to use power supplied byrenewable sources.850

Policy Targets Set
In Europe, 10% of transport fuels consumed in each
European Union member state must come fromrenewable sources by 2020.839 In 2018, the European
renewable energy goal was adopted, which increased
the target to 14% by 2030.840 Several countries, mainlyin Europe, have set up their own targets for renewableenergy in transport, focusing primarily on roadtransport.

A 50% reduction in CO2 emissions from train
operations by 2030, and a 75% reduction by 2050;•

The railways of Austria, Denmark, Finland, theNetherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland
are running on 100% renewable electricity, eitherpurchased from renewable energy providers or
produced in renewable energy plants owned
and operated by the rail companies.838 (See Part
III.B.3 Railways for more discussion about railway
electrification).

••

Market Trends
Market Development•

In 2017, global ethanol production increased 2.5% in
relation to 2016; the slight decline in Brazil was offset
by increases in the United States, Europe, and China.
Biodiesel production remained relatively stable in2017, following a 9% increase in 2016 compared to 2015
(Figure 54).

•

The technology for producing, purifying and upgrading
biogas for use in transport is relatively mature, andTRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

Figure 54: Biofuel Production from 2004 to 2017851
160

Growth between 2004 and 2017

140

Biodiesel (HVO) 117%

120

Biodiesel (Fame) 1,310%

Billion Liters100
80

Ethanol (HVO)

242%

60
40
20

0
2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Biodiesel (HVO)*

2010

2011

2012

2013

Biodiesel (FAME)

2014

2015

2016

2017

Ethanol*HVO recorded from 2013

Note: Two categories of biodiesel exist: HVO biodiesel (Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil) and FAME biodiesel (Fatty Acid Methyl Ester).

scooters, and bicycles are rapidly becoming
commonplace, and prototypes for heavy duty trucks,
planes, and ships were released in 2017858 (See Part
III.B.7 Electric Mobility for further discussion of electricmodes). Further electrification of the transport sector
has the potential to create a new market for renewableenergy and facilitate the integration of variable
renewable energy, if market and policy settings ensurethat the charging patterns are effectively harmonizedwith the electricity system requirements.

natural gas vehicles (NGVs) and the associatedinfrastructure are increasing slowly but steadily aroundthe globe. NGVs provide a good entry point for biogas
in the transport sector, so it is encouraging to see thatmany countries, although mostly developed countries,
have relatively well-developed NGV infrastructure.852
A few examples of NGV infrastructure in developing
countries can be found in Colombia and Pakistan.853•••

Power-to-X (P2X) refers to any technology thatconverts electricity to a gaseous or liquid energy
carrier and offers another option for deploying
renewable energies in transport. Although still in theearly stages of development, P2X is expected to beparticularly useful and economically viable on thedevelopment of ammonia for the shipping sector aswell as long haul road transport and aviation, where
few or no competing low carbon technologies exist yet.
Nevertheless, such technology is less energy efficient
as a direct supply of electricity to drivetrains, as P2X
currently delivers 13% efficiency against electricity’s
73% efficiency.854
Uniper Energy Storage constructed the world’s first
demonstration plant for storing wind energy in thenatural gas grid, WindGas Falkenhagen (Germany).855
Around 360 Nm3/h of hydrogen is generated by meansof electrolysis and fed via a 1.6 km hydrogen pipeline
into the gas grid operated by ONTRAS Gastransport
GmbH. This energy is then available to the electricity,
heating, mobility and industrial market.856
Electrification of the transport sector was historicallylimited to trains, light rail and some buses. In 2017,
there were signs of the entire sector opening toelectrification.857 Fully electric passenger cars,•

Biofuels: The production of biofuels in Asia increasedby 2.4% in 2017 in relation to 2016, compared to anincrease of more than 12% in 2016.859 The biggest
producer was China, followed by Thailand andIndonesia. Ethanol production increased by 8.6% in2017 over 2016, mainly driven by a rise of 15% in China,
which produced more than half of Asian ethanol.860
Biodiesel production was relatively stable relative to2016, with Indonesia responsible for 36% of productionin Asia.861 The fact that China and India together houseapproximately 32% of the world’s NGVs and have welldeveloped NGV infrastructure shows the potential for
integrating biogas. In 2017, India announced that its
first biogas-fueled bus started operation.862

In Europe, policy and public support for first-generation
biofuels continued to be uncertain, partly due tosustainability concerns, but also due to an increasing
interest in electric mobility. Conversely to ethanol andbiodiesel’s slow growth, biogas’ share in the transport
fuels mix continued to increase (+12% between 2015 and2016). Europe is home to three of the world’s four largest
producers of biogas for vehicle fuel: Germany, Sweden and
Switzerland.863

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

The United States continued to be the largest producerof biofuels, supported by both agricultural policy and thefederal renewable fuel standard. Production of ethanolincreased by close to 2.8% in 2017 relative to 2016, and arecord average blend rate of 10.08% was achieved,864 andfurther increase can be expected due to new regulations
allowing all-year use of E15.865 In 2018, Minnesota
implemented a mandate that diesel has to contain 20%
biofuel.866 The United States is the largest market globallyfor biogas as a transport fuel, and production, which grewnearly six-fold between 2014 and 2016, increased again in2017 by 15% relative to 2016.

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

also used fuel from Gevo to supply eight airlines using
the airport for a trial period.875 Qantas signed a longterm supply contract with Agrisoma to supply fuels
based on carinata oil seed, and carried out a transpacific flight from Los Angeles to Melbourne using 24
tonnes of a 10% blend of carinata-based biofuels.876
China’s Hainan Airlines also made a trans-Pacificflight from Beijing to Chicago using biofuel derived
from waste cooking oil.877•

Shipping consumes around 12% of the global
energy used in transport,878 and is responsible
for approximately 2% of total economy-wide CO2
emissions. China saw the launch of the world’s first allelectric cargo ship in 2017, while in Sweden, two large
ferries were converted from diesel to electricity.879 The
Finnish company Viking Line installed the world’s firstrotor sails on a passenger vessel in 2018, which saves
them 900 tons of fuel annually.880 For example, in the
Netherlands, GoodFuels collaborated with the Dutch
coastguard to supply biofuels for use in its ships, andwith Heineken and Nedcargo to demonstrate the useof biofuels on inland waterways, transporting beerfrom a brewery in Zouterwoude to Rotterdam before
being exported internationally.881 The Great Green Fleet– an energy efficiency initiative by the United States
Navy – is supporting the Australian Navy to reduce
their resilience on fossil fuels by trialing biofuels in its
fleet.882•

Rail accounts for around 1.9% of the total energy
used in transport, and it is the most highly electrified
transport sub-sector. The share of electricity wasestimated at 39% in 2015, up from 29% in 2005.883
Just over a third of the electricity is estimated to be
renewable, contributing 9% of rail energy.884 The New
South Wales government in Australia announced arenewable tender for the Sydney light rail system.885
In 2016, Chile announced that as of 2018, Santiago’s
subway system – the second largest in Latin America
after Mexico City – would be powered by solar
photovoltaic (42%) and wind energy (18%).886

Biofuel production in Latin America grew 2% in 2017.
Biodiesel production went up by 9% following an 11%
increase in 2016, while ethanol production was stable.867
Biodiesel production in Brazil increased by 12.9% relative
to 2016, reversing the 4.4% decline in 2016.868 Uruguay
launched the first electric route in Latin America, withsix charging stations at 60 km intervals.869 Since Uruguay
gets 98% of its electricity from renewable energy, its
electric mobility strategy is part of a larger national goal toincrease the share of renewables in the country’s energy
mix.870 In June 2017, the first all-electric TransMilenio bus,
running on 100% renewable energy, started operation in
Bogotá, Colombia. The long-term goal is to expand the zerofuel buses fleet over the next years to help reduce carbon
emissions. One single electric bus will curb 135 tonnes of
CO2 emissions every year.871
In Africa, production of biofuels increased 28% in 2017, up
from 17% in 2016.872 In Nigeria, the state oil corporation
signed an agreement with the government of the state of
Kebbi to build an ethanol plant, and in Zambia, Sunbird
Bioenergy Africa launched a program to secure thefeedstock for an ethanol project to provide 15% of Zambia’s
petroleum requirements.873•

Aviation accounts for around 11% of the total energy
used in transport.874 In 2017, several airlines andairports made progress using biofuels for long haul
flights, securing appropriate fuels and making biofuels
available at key airports. Virgin Australia procured
aviation fuels from Gevo, and Chicago’s O’Hare airport

Part III: Policy Frameworks for Transport and Climate Change

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Global Initiatives Supporting Renewable Energy in Transport•

The Future of Fuels is a collaborative initiative led by the nongovernmental organization Business for Social
Responsibility (BSR) to drive a sustainable transition to low carbon commercial road freight with new tools, convenings
and partnerships. They have developed the Sustainable Fuel Buyers’ Principles, and a Fuel Sustainability Tool.

•

The BioFuture Platform is an international, country-led initiative, a multi-stakeholder mechanism for policy dialogue
and collaboration among leading countries, organizations, academia and the private sector. In 2017, the BioFuture
Platform saw 19 countries agree to scale up their bioenergy commitments and develop sustainable biofuels targets,and the Mission Innovation Sustainable Biofuels Challenge was launched and aims to stimulate and coordinate
efforts to bring new sustainable biofuels to the market.

•

The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) created the Low Carbon Technology Partnershipinitiative on Low Carbon Freight, which is building a coalition of companies, governments and customers to share andscale replicable models to achieve emissions reduction actions in road freight globally.

•

RE100 is a global initiative led by The Climate Group in partnership with the CDP (former Carbon Disclosure Project).
It involves over 130 influential businesses committed to 100% renewable electricity, including companies in thetransport sector. For example, the FIA Formula E, the first electric single-seater championship where all cars run
on 100% renewable power, and La Poste, the leading mail service in France committed to powering its EV fleet with
100% renewable electricity by 2020.

•

At the climate conference COP 23 in November 2017, a multi-stakeholder alliance launched the Transport
Decarbonisation Alliance (TDA).887 France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Costa Rica and the Paris Process on Mobility
and Climate (PPMC) are members of the Alliance, which includes countries, cities, regions, and private-sector
companies committed to ambitious action on transport and climate change.

105

106

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Dashboard III: Market Developments and Policy
LandscapeYears

GlobalValue

Regional Breakdown
AfricaAsia

EuropeNorth
Latin
Oceania
America America

Data Sources

1. Sustainable Mobility Planning and Transport Demand Management

Low emissions zones (# of cities)

Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans(# of plans)

2015

189

0

2

187

0

0

0

2017

241

0

3

238

0

0

0

%Δ

28%

0%

50%

27%

0%

0%

0%

2016

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2017

806

42

123

500

68

51

22

%Δ

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2016

167

5

42

44

54

18

4

2017

169

5

43

44

55

18

4

%Δ

1%

0%

2%

0%

2%

0%

0%

2015

220

6

82

88

20

24

0

2017

223

6

85

88

20

24

0

%Δ

1%

0%

4%

0%

0%

0%

0%

2015

8567.47

136.4923022.488

2824.2520.000

2524.585

59.64920168614.87

133.4532985.763

2899.5280.000

2547.253

59.649

%Δ

1%

-2%

-1%

3%

0%

1%

0%

2015

33,174023481.3

9692.4

0

0

0

2016

34,678024216.2

10462.118

0

0

0

%Δ

5%

0%

3%

8%

0%

0%

0

2016

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2017

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb, Sadler
Consultants Europe GmbH, (2018).
Urban Access Regulations in Europe.
Available at:
http://urbanaccessregulations.eu/,
Wang, Y. et al., (2017). Study on
International Practices for Low
Emission Zone and Congestion
Charging. World Resources Institute.
Available at:https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/Study_on_International_Practices_f
or_Low_Emission_Zone_and_Conges
tion_Charging.pdf
Based on SLoCaT calculations of GIZ,
(2018). Urban Mobility Plans.
Available at:https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/
viewer?mid=1PnE9ux2r3BhcFGv2M_A
Z1pD7SwU&ll=19.816856479523285%2
C-1.4289565999999922&z=3

2. Urban Public Transport

Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)(# of systems)

Urban Rail (Metro and Modern
Light Rail) (# of systems)

BRT+ Centre of Excellence and
EMBARQ, (2018). Global BRTData.
Version 3.37. Available at:
http://www.brtdata.org

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb

3. Railways

Rail freight activity (billion ton-km)

High-speed rail (km)

UIC, (2016). Railway Statistics 2015
Synopsis. International Union ofRailways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2015_print_5_.pdf; UIC, (2017). Railway
Statistics 2016 Synopsis. International
Union of Railways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2016.pdf
UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway
Handbook 2017. Energy Consumptions
and CO2 Emissions International
Union of Railways and International
Energy Agency. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf

4. Walking and Cycling
Mode share of walking(% of travel time or distance)

Mode share of cycling(% of travel time or distance)

%Δ

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2016

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2017

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

%Δ

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2010

277

0

44

219

2

9

3

2017

1766

2

698

685

67

291

22

%Δ

538%

N/A

1486%

213%

3250%

3133%

633%

5. New Mobility Services
Bike-sharing systems(# of systems)

SLoCaT calculations based on
Meddin, R., (2018). Bikesharing Map.
Available at:
http://www.bikesharingmap.com
Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M.,

Rail freight activity (billion ton-km)

High-speed rail (km)20168614.87

133.4532985.763

2899.5280.000

2547.253

59.649

%Δ

1%

-2%

-1%

3%

0%

1%

0%

2015

33,1740

Railways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2015_print_5_.pdf; UIC, (2017). Railway
Statistics 2016 Synopsis. International
Union of Railways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2016.pdf

UIC and
IEA, (2017).REPORT
Railway 2018
AND
STATUS
23481.3TRANSPORT
9692.40 CLIMATE
0 CHANGE0 GLOBAL
Handbook 2017. Energy Consumptions

2016

34,678024216.2

10462.118

0

0

0

%Δ

5%

0%

3%

8%

0%

0%

0

2016

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2017

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

%Δ

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A Regional
N/A Breakdown
N/A
N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

and CO2 Emissions International
Union of Railways and International
Energy Agency. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf

4. Walking and Cycling
Mode share of walking(% of travel time or distance)

Mode share of cycling(% of travel time or distance)

2017

N/A
Global
N/A
Value

%Δ

N/A

2016

Years

Africa
N/A

Asia
N/A

N/A

Europe
N/A

N/A
Latin

N/A
North

America
N/A America
N/A

N/A

Data Sources

Oceania
N/A

5. Sustainable
New Mobility
Services
1.
Mobility
Planning and Transport Demand Management
2010
2015
2017

277
189
1766

0
0
2

44
2
698

219
187
685

2
0
67

9
0
291

3
0
22

%Δ

538%

N/A

1486%

213%

3250%

3133%

633%

Low emissions zones (# of cities)

2017
2014

241
104,060

0N/A

320,344238
57,947035

024,2100
1,524Car-sharing systems(# of vehicles)

2016

157,357

379

67,32957,857

61

26,691

5,040

%ΔΔ
%

51%
28%

N/A
0%

231%
50%

0%
27%

74%
0%

10%
0%

231%
0%

2016

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2017
2016

806
37

42
0

123
4

30
500

1
68

251

0
22

2017
%
Δ

38
N/A

0
N/A

5
N/A

30
N/A

1
N/A

2
N/A

0
N/A

%Δ

3%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

2016

4
167

05

2
42

0
44

0
54

1
18

04

2017
2017
%Δ
%Δ

5
169
25%
1%

0
5
0%
0%

3
43
50%
2%

0
44
0%
0%

0
55
0%
2%

1
18
0%
0%

0
4
0%
0%

2015

220

6

82

88

20

24

0

2016
2017

198204223670
681641085563460881080
20592980
24

7609
0

2017
%Δ

31090501%860
0%14662404%7988700%1850
0%808010
0%

13541
0%

%Δ

57%

28%

80%

42%

71%

36%

78%

Bike-sharing systems(# of systems)

6. Fuel Economy
Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans(# of plans)Countries with LDV fuel economy
standards (# of countries)

2. Urban Public Transport
Countries with HDV fuel economy
Bus Rapid (#Transit(BRT)
standards
of countries)(# of systems)

7. E-Mobility
Urban Rail (Metro and Modern
Light Rail)(# of systems)
Electric
vehiclestock(Battery and Plugin-HybridElectric Vehicle)

3. Railways

Countries with electric vehicle
targets (# of countries)

2016

48

4

14

24

3

1

2

2017
2015

61
8567.474
136.492193022.488

312824.252

4
0.000

1
2524.585

2
59.649

Rail freight activity (billion ton-km)

%Δ
2016

27%
8614.870%133.45336%2985.763

29%2899.528

33%
0.000

0%
2547.253

0%59.649Biofuels global production(billion
litres)rail (km)High-speed

%Δ
2016
2015
2017
2016
%Δ
%
Δ
2016

1%
139.9
33,174
143.5
34,678
3%
5%
61

-2%
0*
0
0*
0
0%
0%
7

-1%
11.3*
23481.3
12.2*
24216.2
8%
3%
9

3%
19.5*
9692.419.4*10462.118
-1%
8%
30

0%
35.6*
0
38.1*
0
7%
0%
12

1%
67.2*
0
69.9*
0
4%
0%
2

0%
0
0
0
0
0%
10

Countries with biofuel
4. Walking
Cyclingmandates(# ofandcountries)

2017

62

7

9

30

12

2

2

%Δ
2016

2%
N/A

0%
N/A

0%
N/A

0%
N/A

0%
N/A

0%
N/A

100%
N/A

2017

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

8. Renewable Energy in Transport

Mode share of walking(% of travel time or distance)

Mode share of cycling(% of travel time or distance)

%Δ

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2016

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2017

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

%Δ

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2010

277

0

44

219

2

9

3

2017

1766

2

698

685

67

291

22

%Δ

538%

N/A

1486%

213%

3250%

3133%

633%

SLoCaT,(2018). TraKB.
Available
SLoCaT calculations
based
on at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb,
SadlerMeddin, R., (2018). Bikesharing
Map.
Consultants
Available at:Europe GmbH, (2018).
Urban
AccessRegulationsinEurope.
http://www.bikesharingmap.com
Available at:
http://urbanaccessregulations.eu/,
Wang, Y. et al., (2017). Study on
Shaheen, S., Practices
Cohen, A. forandLow
Jaffee, M.,
International(2018). Innovative
Carsharing
Emission
Zone andMobility:
Congestion
Outlook. UC
Berkeley:
Transportation
Charging.
World
Resources
Institute.
Sustainability
Available
at: Research Center.
Available at:https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files
https://escholarship.org/uc/item/49j961/Study_on_International_Practices_fwb
or_Low_Emission_Zone_and_Conges
tion_Charging.pdf
Based on SLoCaT calculations of GIZ,
(2018). Urban Mobility Plans.
Availableat:
Yang,Z., Bandivadekar,
A. (2017). 2017https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/
GlobalUpdate Light-duty vehicle andviewer?mid=1PnE9ux2r3BhcFGv2M_A
greenhousegas and fuel economy
Z1pD7SwU&ll=19.816856479523285%2
standards.
The International Council
C-1.4289565999999922&z=3
on
Clean Transportation. Available at:https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/fi
les/publications/2017-Global-LDV-Standards-Update_ICCT-Report_23062017_
vF.pdf
GFEI, (2017). Targeting Heavy Duty
Vehicle Fuel Economy. Global Fuel
BRT+ Centreof Excellence
EconomyInitiative.
Availableandat:
EMBARQ, (2018). Global BRTData.
https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/m
Version 3.37. Available at:edia/460941/hdv-fuel-economy.pdf
http://www.brtdata.org

SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at:
http://www.slocat.net/trakb
IEA,(2018). Global EV Outlook 2018.
International Energy Agency.
Available at:https://webstore.iea.org/global-evoutlook-2018

SLoCaT, (2018). E-mobility Overview on
Trendsand Targets.
Available 2015
at:
UIC, (2016).
Railway Statistics
http://slocat.net/sites/default/files/eSynopsis. International Union ofmobility_overview.pdf
Railways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2015_print_5_.pdf; UIC, (2017). Railway
Statistics 2016 Synopsis. International
Union of Railways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/synopsis_2016.pdf
REN21, (2017). Global Status Report
2017.
REN21
Available at:
UIC and
IEA,Secretariat.
(2017). Railway
http://www.ren21.net/gsr-2017/,
Handbook 2017. Energy Consumptions
REN21,
GlobalInternational
Status Report
and CO2(2018).
Emissions2018.
REN21 and
Secretariat.
UnionParis,of Railways
International
Availableat:Energy Agency.
Available at:
http://www.ren21.net/gsr-2018/https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf*Data for regions based only on asubset of countries

5. New Mobility Services
Bike-sharing systems(# of systems)

SLoCaT calculations based on
Meddin, R., (2018). Bikesharing Map.
Available at:
http://www.bikesharingmap.com
Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M.,

107

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part IV. Supporting Responses
to Transport and Climate
Change Action
Photo credit: FancycravePart IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

A. Financing for Transport and Climate
ChangeThis section summarizes global investment in the transport
sector and examines the current level of investment fromfour sources: the public sector, the private sector, official
development assistance (ODA), and climate finance. The
funding gap between the current level of investment andprojected future needs in the transport sector is highlighted
as well (Box 5).

1. Current Transport Investments andProjected Future Investment Needs•••

Global annual investment in transport in 2010 was
estimated in the range of USD 1.4 and USD 2.1
trillion, with a mean value of USD 1.75 trillion.
Projected transport infrastructure financing needs
are between USD 2 to USD 5.8 trillion per year for
2DS, and USD 5.8 trillion per year for B2DS.
Transport investment needs (infrastructure, fuels
and vehicles) can reach USD 860 trillion between
2017 and 2060 in a BAU scenario, and USD 751
trillion for B2DS.

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

The total investment in transport infrastructure in 2011 for
25 Asia-Pacific economies, which represent around 60%of the global population, was around USD 300 billion.890 In
Africa, investments for transport totaled USD 24.5 billion in2016, down from USD 34.4 billion in 2014.891 The World Bank
estimated that developing regions invested approximately
4% to 8% of their GDP in infrastructure, with the exception of
Latin America, which invested less than 3%.892
Public-sector investment represented 42% of the global
total for transport in 2010, and private-sector investment
therefore represented 58% of the global total (mean value
estimate of USD 1.015 trillion) (Figure 55). ODA for transport
constituted only 2% of public-sector investments investment
in 2010. While 12 transport projects funded by climate financeinstruments (CFI) in 2017 totaled only USD 111 million, and16 climate-related bonds (often referred to as green bonds)
enabled an investment volume of USD 6.9 billion.894
Many investments are given to conventional projects insteadof focusing on sustainable, low carbon transport. An analysisof the private participation in infrastructure (PPI) Databaseshows that for land transport, conventional road projects
account for three out of four transport investments.895 Official
development finance (i.e. ODA and other official flows) for
transport show that in 2013 only 30% of transport financing

Figure 55: Proportion of Public and Private Investment in Transport, 2010 estimate893

Private, high-income
countries

47%

Public, Low /middle-income countries
$

$

$

28%

$

$

$

$

$

Private, low /middle-income
countries

11%$

Public, high-income
countries

14%

$

$

Annual transport investment between USD 1.4 trillion and USD 2.1 trillion

Current Investments in Transport
Global annual investment in transport in 2010 was estimatedto be in the range of USD 1.4 and USD 2.1 trillion.888,889 An
estimated 76% of the total mean investment (USD 1.75
trillion) from public and private sources was in high-income
countries (USD 1.3 trillion), and the remaining 24% (USD 420
billion) was in low and middle-income countries (Figure 55).

can be considered in support of low carbon transport.896
In Africa, 44% of the transport support was used for roadprojects, only 19.2% for urban transport and 4.15% for rail.897
The European Union, in November 2017 proposed to invest
EUR 1 billion in 39 transport projects using the European
Union Fund, Connecting Europe Facility. For the first time
European Union grants are combined with financing fromthe European Investment Bank (EIB), National Promotional
Banks and private banks.898

109

110

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Projected Future Investment Needs
Focusing on transport infrastructure needs, a follow-up
study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) estimates 2050
investment needs at USD 2.3 trillion per year in to reach 4DS
benchmarks, and USD 2 trillion per year for 2DS, suggestingthat a low carbon transport pathway is more cost-effective.
Non-OECD countries are projected to require over twice theinvestment of the OECD countries to 2060, with 2DS requiring
about 15% more investment in the non-OECD countries
compared to the status-quo.899

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

infrastructure costs for urban transport between 2010 and
2050 in a BAU scenario and a high-shift scenario, where
investment prioritizes public transport, walking and cycling.
In the BAU scenario, the total costs came to roughly USD
12.5 trillion per year (or USD 500 trillion in total), while thecosts in the high-shift scenario are USD 10 trillion per year
(USD 400 trillion in total). It concludes that investments inlow carbon transport are over 20% cheaper and reduce CO2
emissions of urban transport by 40% below the 2050 BAU
scenario. In the study, OECD countries account for 40% of
costs, while non-OECD countries account for the remaining
60%.904

Box 5: Calculating Projected Transport Investment Needs
The International Energy Agency (IEA) presented three pathways for energy sector development to 2060,901 and estimatedtheir relative costs:
Table 13: IEA pathways for energy sector development to 2060
IEA Scenario

RTS: reference for‘business as usual’scenario (i.e. the global
four-degree Celsius
warming scenario)902

2DS: two-degree Celsius
warming

B2DS: beyond two-degree
Celsius warming

Projected Cost vs. RTS(2017-2060)--

USD 130 trillion cheaper

USD 110 trillion cheaper

Projected Savings--

Projected fuel savings of
USD 88 trillion

Projected fuel savings of
USD 110 trillion

Recurrent fuel savings are mainly expected to accrue in the first instance to individuals and firms, not the public sector.
Thus, it is useful to look at what component of total costs in the RTS and the B2DS required public investment (e.g. roads,
railways, other transport infrastructure, associated rolling stock) as opposed to those associated with the spendingof individuals and firms (e.g. vehicles, fuels). Using IEA data, components of public investment for the RTS and B2DS
scenarios from 2017-2060 are estimated to be USD 193 trillion and USD 261 trillion, respectively; a difference of USD 66
trillion.
Using this approach, the financing gap may be as low as USD 40 trillion from 2017-2060, or USD 930 billion per annum(2015 prices), with 60% required to meet the needs in developing countries. This estimate assumes that the savings onroads are realizable, and that some of the higher investment required in the B2DS can be offset by new revenues frommotoring taxes and charges.903
Calculations by the IEA for the whole transport sector(expenditure on vehicles, infrastructure and fuels) showthat the projected financing need for 2017-2060 is USD 20
trillion per year (Reference Technology Scenario (RTS)) and17.5 trillion per year to meet the B2DS low carbon pathway,
which results in a gap of USD 109 trillion (See Box 5 for moredetails.) Under the same scenarios, transport infrastructure
spending projections assume a need of USD 5.7 trillion peryear for RTS, USD 5.8 trillion per year for 2DS, and USD
7.2 trillion per year for B2DS. The higher costs for the low
carbon scenarios (i.e. 2DS and B2DS) are due to expansionof intercity rail, metro systems and HSR networks.900
The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy(ITDP) and University of California, Davis estimated the

For the period 2015-2035, the net transitional investment
required to increase the ability of existing and new transportsystems to mitigate climate change is estimated at just over
USD 3 trillion (in addition to existing transport investments
estimated at USD 1-2 trillion per year), of which over 80%
relates to low-carbon modes (e.g. railways and masstransit).905
The transport infrastructure financing needs of the 45
developing countries in Asia-Pacific are estimated to be
an average USD 557 billion per year (or USD 8.4 trillion in
total) between 2016 and 2030. This includes an estimated
USD 37 billion per annum for climate proofing treatment oftransport.906

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

2. Current Sources of Transport Finance••••

The private sector contributed 58% of the global
total transport investment, with the bulk (81%) of
this in high-income countries.
Transport lags behind other sectors in climate
finance, as less than 2% of climate finance projects
are associated with low carbon transport.
Green bonds for transport are on the rise, reaching
between USD 17 to USD 24 billion in 2017.
Transport remains largely marginalized in
discussions of carbon pricing and emission trading
schemes, with key exceptions.

To reach Paris Agreement targets, significant
transformational investments are required to increase thesustainability of both existing and new transport systems.
Transport finance can be channeled through a rangeof capital financing instruments, and through a mix of
institutional channels in a variety of ways:
1.

2.

3.

Investment by government agencies, which draw onrevenue from user charges, beneficiary charges, taxes,
borrowing, asset sales, operating efficiencies and, forlower levels of government, transfers from higher levelsof government;
Investment by public or semi-public businessenterprises, which contribute equity and draw onloans and other debt instruments such as bonds thatare serviced by revenue from beneficiary charges andgovernment contributions; andInvestment by the private sector, through public-private
partnerships, with the private sector contributing equity
and drawing on loans and other debt instruments suchas bonds that are serviced by revenue from beneficiary
charges and government contributions.

Public Sector Investment
Global domestic transport investment by governments wasestimated to range between USD 558 billion and USD 886
billion in 2010, or 42% of the total global transport investment.907
China, Japan, and the United States accounted for aroundhalf of all domestic government transport spending in 2010.908
Nearly one-third of public investment in transport occurs indeveloping countries, primarily in large upper-middle income
countries like Brazil, India, and Russia. Among all low andmiddle-income countries, public investment accounts formore than half (56%) of the total transport investment.909 In
the Asia-Pacific region, the public sector was the dominantmode of financing of transport infrastructure between 2011-

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 20182014. During this period, Bhutan, China, India and Vietnam
each invested more than 5% of GDP in infrastructure.910
The rapid growth of transport demand factors will lead tomany future investments to be taking place in developing
countries.

National Transport Investment Programs
High-quality public transport networks are generally reliant
on dedicated national government financial support, and inmany cases national funding is contingent on lower levels ofgovernment meeting certain criteria, such as the completionof sustainable urban mobility plans (SUMPs). National
governments in Brazil, Colombia, India and Mexico haveintroduced programs to at least partially fund constructionof new mass transit systems.911 The MobiliseYourCity
Partnership is assisting the development of mobility plans to
support new national mass transit investment programs incountries such as Indonesia and Peru.912

Sustainable Transport Subsidies
Public subsidies can reduce the cost of sustainable transportmeasures, including, low-emission transport modes andfreight transport. This can help incentivize shifting trips
from more energy intensive, higher emitting modes to moresustainable modes.
Public subsidies may target transport users (e.g. throughpublic transport fare subsidies for low-income populations),
though evidence suggests that current subsidies do notalways benefit those with the greatest need. Other subsidies
target transport operators (e.g. to increase available supplyof public transport services), though there is broad evidence
that operating subsidies can lead to inefficiencies.913
Subsidies may also incentivize less sustainable transportmodes (e.g. by reducing the cost of fossil-fuel based modes;
see Box 6: Fossil Fuel Subsidies).
Some recent subsidy announcements accrue directly totransport consumers. For example, EV owners in China
receive purchase tax exemptions between USD 5,000
and USD 8,500 from the national government.914 Sweden
budgeted USD 42 million annually from 2018-2020 to provide
consumers with a 25% discount on the purchase price ofan e-bike.915 Similarly, in February 2017, France announced
that individuals can receive a EUR 200 rebate for purchasinga pedal-assist electric bike through January 2018.916 (See
Section III.B.7 Electric Mobility for further discussion of EV
uptake targets and subsidies.)

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Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Box 6: Fossil Fuel Subsidies
Many governments maintain fossil fuel subsidies or fail to adequately tax fossil fuels, suppressing retail prices of gasoline
below the price of crude oil on the world market.917 These public subsidies lock society into private road transport poweredby gasoline or diesel fuels.918 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that the monetized impacts of externalities
are 10 times the direct financial cost of subsidies. While the distortionary effects of these direct and indirect subsidies arewell recognized, many governments find these policies difficult to abandon due to vested interests.
Annual global fossil fuel subsidies were estimated to be around USD 425 billion in 2015.919 Of this, USD 325 billion are
spent on consumer subsidies to keep the price of fossil fuels down, while the remaining USD 100 billion are government
subsidies that artificially lower the costs of production.920 On average in 2015 and 2016, G7 governments gave at least USD
81 billion annually in fiscal support and USD 20 billion in public finance, for both production and consumption of oil, gas
and coal at home and overseas, and a significant part of the subsidies (USD 26 billion) goes towards fossil fuel use in thetransport sector.921 In 2016, the G7 decided to end most of fossil fuel subsidies by 2025.922
Between 2014-2016, 11 European countries and the European Union (responsible for 83% of Europe’s energy-related GHG
emissions) provided at least EUR 112 billion in annual subsidies to the production and consumption of fossil fuels, with
44% of these subsidies provided to the transport sector.923
Several countries have reformed their fossil fuel subsidies since 2015 (Figure 56): Fossil fuel reforms in Indonesia in 2015
realized 10% savings of the state budget (USD 15.6 billion), and increased the budget of the Ministry of Transportation
by 45%.924, 925 India removed price controls on diesel and gasoline, and launched a successful campaign to get richer
consumers to voluntarily give up subsidized liquefied petroleum gas.926 The United Arab Emirates in July 2015 announced
additional reforms on fuel subsidies to encourage individuals to adopt more fuel-efficient vehicles and use more public
transport. As a result of fuel price increases, the modal split of public transport increased from 6% in 2006 to 17% in
2017.927
In April 2017 prime ministers of the Nordic countries together launched the Nordic Solutions to Global Challenges
initiative, which incorporated fossil fuel subsidy reform as a key priority.928 The implementation of pricing reforms fortransport fuels remains a complicated domestic issue in many countries, as shown by the social unrest that followed fuelreforms in Mexico in January 2017. The 20% rise of transport fuel prices, caused by bringing the fuel prices closer to thetrue market value, led to nationwide protests.929

Figure 56: Countries Implementing Fossil Fuel Subsidy Reform in 2015-2016930

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Private Sector Investment
In 2010, private-sector investment represented 58% of the
global total transport investment (mean value estimateof USD 1.015 trillion), or approximately USD 589 billion.931
Private-sector investments in transport were distributed bysub-sector as follows: (i) roads, about 50%; (ii) rail/ metro,
about 22%; (iii) airports 19%; and (iv) ports 9%.932
Private-sector investment commitments in developing
countries totaled USD 71.5 billion across 242 projects in all
sectors. Transport represented 36% of these investments(USD 44 billion).933 Transport represented about 29% of theestimated mean private investment in 2010 in low-middle
income countries, excluding China.934 In Africa in 2016, thenon-public-sector investment in transport accounted for
20% of total investment.935 And for example in India andChina, transport infrastructure (including roads, railways,
airports, and seaports) accounts for more than 30% of total
private infrastructure investment.936
So much of this is public investment which is privately
financed as governments issue bonds and used for theirown project development; considered here to be public
investment. Many of the world’s railways and metros wereprivately funded using bond issuance - whether project bonds,
local authority bonds, or government bonds. At present,
large institutional investors want to buy infrastructure bonds
to match their long-term local currency liabilities, so there
is great potential for developing bonds as the major arm ofprivate investment in sustainable transport, if necessary
with guarantees and credit enhancement measures toarrive at a suitable risk allocation. Approximately USD
263 billion of rail bonds were issued in China in 2010 (Seediscussion of climate-themed and “green” bonds in Part 5,
below.).937 About USD 181 billion of private-sector finance
was estimated for low and middle-income countries in 2010,or 18% of total private investment.938
Another mechanism for private-sector investment intransport is a public-private partnership (PPP). PPPs canentail the private-sector funding, constructing and even
operating of public infrastructure and services. The private
sector does this using equity provided by shareholders anddrawing on loans and other debt instruments such as bonds.
PPP agreements also provide the private-sector businesswith a stream of revenue that it can use to service its debts,

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

and to provide a return on its equity. In 2017, PPI investment
for transport nearly doubled from 2016, from USD 18.8 billion
to USD 36.5 billion, equal to 39% of global PPI investment.
This was largely due to a USD 6.8 billion HSR project inChina; a USD 6.0 billion HSR project in Indonesia; and a USD
3.1 billion monorail project in Thailand.939

3. Official Development Assistance forTransport
Multilateral and bilateral ODA channeled throughgovernments was estimated to be about 2% of totaltransport sector investment in 2010.940 For the Asia-Pacificregion, it is estimated that 2.5% of total investment was
via ODA in 2015.941 Thus, current domestically publicfinanced investment in transport is by far greater thanODA. Nevertheless, ODA may have a more significant rolein certain regions, locations and at periods of economic
downturn. For example, in 2012, up to 10% of total spending
in Sub-Saharan Africa on infrastructure of USD 81.6 billion
was financed by international development assistance.942
Of similar significance to ODA are export credits, which
represented about USD 16 billion of commitments for‘Transport and Storage’ in 2012.943 For example, France andGermany are financing new metro lines via export credits in
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, respectively.

4. Multilateral Development Bank
Investments in Sustainable Transport
In 2012, eight multilateral development banks (MDBs)944
committed to invest USD 175 billion in loans and grants forsustainable transport in developing countries from 2012-2022
as part of the Rio+20 Commitment (Figure 57).945 Between
2012 and 2016, the MDBs had collectively committed USD
108 billion, which is on track to meet the target. Even
though the average of USD 17.5 billion per annum is itself
only a part of total ODA, this commitment supports a shiftof investments towards sustainable transport. These MDBs
also committed to a greater purpose of bringing the latest
knowledge on sustainable transport activities to countries
and demonstrating effective approaches that can then be
scaled up.

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Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Figure 57: Investments by MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport Towards the Goal of Rio+20 Commitment945
180

Target of MDB WGST
(175 billion USD)

160
Investments in Billion USD

114

140
120
100

20.7

80

22.2

60

20.4

40
20
0

24.9
20.0
2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Period of Rio+20 Commitment

Investment by MDBs

From 2012 to 2016, Asia has received the greatest volumeof MDB investment with USD 39.6 billion, followed by
Europe (USD 25.8 billion), Africa (USD 21.3 billion) and theLatin American and Caribbean region (USD 19.7 billion)(Reference Table 6).

Funding for Mitigation and Adaptation
Not all transport investments are not considered climate
finance. MDBs define climate finance as financial resources
committed by MDBs for operations and components
enabling activities related to climate change mitigation
and adaptation in developing and emerging economies.947
Examples of types of projects or project elements thatcount as mitigation investments counted as climate financeinclude railways, inland waterway transport, urban public
transport and energy switching/reduction. In the case ofadaptation, each project is examined on a case by casebasis and only the incremental portion of investment
needed for adaptation is counted as climate finance. If an
investment includes mitigation and adaptation there is no
double-counting, and its value is apportioned between the
two as considered appropriate by the respective MDB. From2011 to 2017, multilateral development banks committed USD
37.4 billion to MDB climate finance for transport mitigation,
representing 19% of the total MDB climate finance of USD
193.8 billion during the period (Reference Table 7).
In 2016, the eight largest MDBs reportedly provided USD
4.7 billion to climate finance for mitigation in the transport
sector, representing 22% of the total mitigation financeof USD 27.4 billion. Year to year total figures for mitigation
have averaged USD 26 billion (in current prices). In total,
finance for adaptation for all sectors in 2016 was 29% of thatprovided for mitigation.948 Investment loans have provided
73% of mitigation finance, and 79% of adaptation finance.

Climate Change Funding Targets949
Establishing long-term targets to increase climate-focusedinvestments is a growing trend among MDBs. At or around
COP 21 Paris in 2015, seven of eight MDBs represented in
the Working Group on Sustainable Transport set targets toincrease climate spending for transport and other sectors,
and two years later, these targets are being translated to theimplementation of projects to support low-carbon, resilienttransport systems.
Some MDBs have set specific targets to increase climatespecific investments for transport. For example, in 2015, theAsian Development Bank (ADB) set a 2020 goal of USD 1
billion for transport climate mitigation and adaptation, outof a planned USD 6 billion investment in climate action
by 2020. In 2013, European Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment’s (EBRD) Transport Strategy committed to
doubling the contribution of transport (by annual businessvolume) to the goals of its Sustainable Energy Initiative overthe five-year period (2013-2018), relative to the previous
five-year period. Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) expects
to set specific investment targets for transport and othersectors following the anticipated development of its action
plan in 2018. The World Bank (WB) has the target of 28%
climate finance by 2020, and 35% for transport by 2020.950
Other MDBs have opted to set aggregated targets acrosssectors, or to set only indicative targets for climate
investments in sustainable transport. In this vein, African
Development Bank (AfDB) has not set sector-specifictargets in its USD 5 billion 2020 climate change lending
goal (set in 2015); but it is anticipated that transport andenergy will account for more than 50% of the total. In 2013,
EIB targeted at least 25% of annual investment in climatechange mitigation and adaptation; and in 2015 increased
this target to 35% of investments in developing countries by

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

2020. Development Bank of Latin America (CAF) establisheda new climate target in 2017, with the goal that by 2020 30%
of operations have at least one climate change component(building on 22% in 2016), though there is no specific target
for the transport sector. Inter-American Development Bank(IADB) aims for 30% of approvals by 2020 to be climatechange-related, including project (sub)components that
contribute to adaptation or mitigation.

5. Climate Finance for Sustainable
Transport951
Climate Finance Instruments

projects in 2017 supported by CFIs, down from a peak of 41
CFI-funded transport projects in 2012.
The overall trend of CFIs shows a decrease of transport
projects and investment since 2012, apart from 2016, whenover USD 1 billion investment volume was achieved through
NAMA projects in Mongolia, Serbia and Vietnam. Between
2000 and 2009, the average investment volume was around
USD 64 million per year, and it grew to USD 390 million in
average for transport between 2010 and 2017. The average
number of transport projects per year was 4.5 between 2000
and 2009, and 26.5 between 2010 and 2017 (Figure 58).953
Overall, the investments of CFIs are marginal comparedto the general public and the private-sector investment intransport.

Climate finance covers projects by nine major climate
finance instruments (CFIs): Clean Development Mechanism(CDM), the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), the Green Climate
Fund (GCF), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), theInternational Climate Initiative (IKI), the Joint Crediting
Mechanism (JCM), Joint Implementation (JI), Nationally
Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA), and the Nordic
Development Fund (NDF).

Transport is only a small portion of other financial instruments.
For example, the sector accounts for less than 2% for CDM,
GEF and JI. Less than 10% of climate change mitigation
related funds from the GEF, and 16% of the WB´s CTF havegone to low-carbon transport projects. For the CDM, thisshare was even lower, with only 0.3% of Certified Emission
Reductions being generated from transport projects.

Until now, transport lags behind other sectors in climate
finance, mainly because of project selection criteria that

Twelve transport project investments by CFI in 2017 received
a total of USD 111 million.955 The lion’s share of CFI-approved
transport projects until 2017 were implemented in Asia andFigure 58: Climate Finance Projects and Investment Volume by Year954

40

1,400

CDM

1,200

CTF

1,000
30

800

20

600
400

10

200

0

0
Before
2010

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

favor other sectors, and overlook co-benefits of lowcarbon transport projects. Less than 2% of climate financeprojects have been for transport. From 1992 to 2017, nine
CFIs have approved 282 projects for transport, cumulatively
contributing approximately USD 3.8 billion of support. 952
However, analysis of recent projects in the CFI pipelines
indicates a decrease in transport projects: 12 transport

2015

2016

2017

Climate Finance Investments(Milli on USD)

Transport Projects per Year

50

GCF
GEF
IKI
JCM
JI
NAMA
NDF
Investment

the Latin America and the Caribbean region, respectively
134 (48% of all CFI projects), and 69 projects (24%). Africa
followed with 47 projects (17%), but the level of investment
was higher than in Latin America. China received 24
projects, followed by Vietnam (20), Colombia (18), India (17)and Mexico (15) (Figure 59).

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Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Figure 59: Climate Finance Instruments for Transport from 1992 to 2017 by Region956
Africa17%

Global4%

Oceania1%
Latin America andthe Caribbean

24%
EuropeAsia

6%

Three-quarters of CFI transport projects are related topassenger transport, and among transport sub-sectors,
more than 70% relate to urban transport, followed by heavy
rail (6%) and walking and cycling projects (5%).957 A small
amount of CFI projects are related to water transport andshipping (3%) and aviation (1%). No CFI project has been
implemented for high-speed rail to date.
In all instruments, adaptation projects remain far behindcompared to funding for transport mitigation projects. 958
Only 9% of the transport projects approved by CFI since 1992
focus on adaptation. The establishment of the GCF in 2015
has not yet led to an increase in transport adaptation andmitigation projects, as only three of 76 projects to date focus
on transport. Resilience for transport infrastructure andservices is an ongoing need.

Figure 60: Growth of Transport Green Bonds965

48%

Green Bonds
Many of the world’s railways and metros were privately
funded using bond issuance - whether project, local
authority or government bonds. While CFI transport projects
have been decreasing, the position of transport is gaining
prominence in green and other climate-themed bonds.
There is great potential for developing bonds as the majorarm of private investment in sustainable transport because
large institutional investors want to buy infrastructurebonds to match long term local currency liabilities. Greenbonds, bonds with proceeds earmarked for projects withenvironmental benefits, help to attract investor demand forclimate-aligned investments, reduces market friction andtherefore facilitates financial flows.959

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

In 2017, a total of USD 155.5 billion were labeled green
bonds.960 With a multitude of rail and urban metro deals,
green bond allocations to low carbon transport almost
doubled in volume (from USD 13 billion to USD 24 billion) in
2017, accounting for 15% of total green bond issuances.961
Beyond this labeled green bond market, the Climate Bonds
Initiative (CBI) has defined unlabeled bonds as those thatfund climate solutions but are not specifically labeled
as green.962 Transport (with 61%) is the largest theme ofthese unlabeled bonds funding climate solutions, with USD
544 billion outstanding already identified.963 The majorityof these bonds are financing the railway sector (railway
infrastructure, rolling stock, subway construction).
SLoCaT identified 36 green bonds issuing USD 17.5 billion in
2017; an increase of 21% in comparison to 2016 (Figure 60).
The Climate Bonds Initiative identified that between 2010
and 2017 the number of green bonds prioritizing transport
doubled to a total of 97 bonds. Major transport bonds thatwere issued in 2017 have been funded by the Bank of China,
New York MTA, San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit(BART), SCNF, Wuhan Metro and other organizations. The
Alpha Trains Group, based in Luxembourg, raised USD 250
million in 2017, and became the first green private bondinvested in rail rolling stock to be used for the acquisition of
63 modern electric train sets.964

Carbon Pricing
Transport is still largely marginalized in discussions ofcarbon pricing and emission trading schemes (ETS) withsome exceptions. California updated its cap-and-tradescheme in July 2017, which through the inclusion of fuelproviders indirectly affects the transport sector.966 In China
the world’s largest carbon market, which includes transport,
was launched in December 2017 after approval of thenational ETS by China’s State Council.967

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

As of 2017, several countries and subnational entities
have included transport in an emission trading or cap andtrade schemes, including Tokyo Metropolitan Area (2010),
Kazakhstan (2013), Quebec (2015), California (updated in2017), and the seven pilot ETS launched in 2013 in China,
which ultimately led to the national ETS in 2017.968

B. Stakeholders Mobilizing for Action on
Transport and Climate Change
Stakeholders from the public and private sector, UN
organizations, MDBs, non-government organizations(NGOs) and other transport-related entities are forming
collaborative mechanisms to mobilize actions on transportand climate change. These initiatives demonstrate thepotential of non-state actors working towards sustainabletransport, measuring the progress of transport in addressing
climate change, and raising awareness of policy-makers on
global processes.
Inspired by the call to action by Secretary General Ban Kimoon in September 2014 and followed up by the Lima Paris
Action Agenda, 15 transport initiatives were developed
by non-state actors in the transport sector that wereshowcased during COP 21. In 2017, six new transport
initiatives were formed, and in 2018 one more transport
initiative joined. There are now 22 Marrakech Partnershipfor Global Climate Action (MPGCA) Transport Initiatives,
which include both passenger and freight transport andtouch on all transport sectors and modes (Box 7). These
initiatives complement and build on existing transportfocused initiatives in the UN system, which include the UN
Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) Environmentally
Sustainable Transport Forum969 and the UN Economic andSocial Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP)
Regional Action Programme for Transport Development.970

Photo credit: Sarah Petersen/ Portland Bureau of Transportation

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Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Box 7: Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action (MPGCA) Transport Initiatives
Airport Carbon Accreditation
Reducing carbon emissions & increasing airport sustainability
Airport Carbon Accreditation aims to reduce carbon emissions and achieve best practices in carbon
management from operations fully within the control of airports, with the ultimate target of airports becoming
carbon neutral.
Aviation’s Climate Action Takes Off
Collaborative climate action across the air transport sector
The Aviation’s Climate Action Takes Off initiative aims to control international aviation CO2 emissions through abasket of aviation CO2-reduction measures, including a goal of carbon-neutral growth through a global marketbased mechanism.
below50Growing the global market for the world’s most sustainable fuels
The initiative commits to reduce CO2 emissions by replacing 10% of global transportation fossil fuel use with
low-carbon transport fuels by 2030, and 27% by 2050; equivalent to 2.1 Gt CO2 avoided per year.
C40 Clean Bus Declaration
Raising ambition and catalyzing markets
The cities that are part of the initiative will incorporate over 160,000 buses in their fleet by 2020, 42,000 buses ofwhich they have committed to switching to low emission.
Cycling delivers on the global goals
Increase the modal share of cycling worldwide, and double cycling in Europe by 2020
The initiative aims to mobilize support of members from the World Cycling Alliance and the European Cyclists’Federation (ECF) to enable local, national and international governments and institutions to scale up action on
cycling.
EcoMobility Alliance
Ambitious cities committed to sustainable transport
The EcoMobility Alliance reinforces local governments’ commitments to transforming their transportation
systems and mobility patterns, aiming to reduce automobile dependency and become more sustainable, lowcarbon and people-centered.
Electric Vehicles Initiative
Accelerate the introduction and adoption of electric vehicles worldwide
The Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) is a multi-government policy forum dedicated to accelerating the
introduction and adoption of electric vehicles worldwide. The new campaign, EV 30@30, was launched in 2017to speed up the deployment of electric vehicles and target at least 30% new electric vehicle sales by 2030.
EV100
Accelerate the transition to electro-mobility
EV100 aims to accelerate the transition to electro-mobility by leveraging the role corporate demand can play indriving EV uptake and the roll-out of charging infrastructure. Companies joining EV100 commit to transitioning
their fleets to electric vehicles and/or installing charging infrastructure at their relevant premises by 2030.
Global Fuel Economy Initiative
100 countries for 50 by 50
GFEI aims to double the average fuel economy of new light-duty vehicles globally by 2030, and all vehicles
by 2050. It assists governments and transport stakeholders in improving vehicle fuel economy and reducing
emissions of carbon dioxide.
Global Green Freight Action Plan (GGFAP)Reducing the climate and health impacts of goods transport
The GGFAP aims to enhance the environmental and energy efficiency of goods movement in ways thatsignificantly reduce the climate, health, energy, and cost impacts of freight transport around the world.
Global Sidewalk Challenge
Valuing and delivering more walkable communities
The Challenge aims to commit cities and organizations to construct, or rehabilitate, 100,000 km of additional
dedicated, safe, barrier-free sidewalks in the proximity of public transport hubs by 2030, the majority of which
will be in low- and middle-income countries.
Global Strategy for Cleaner Fuels and Vehicles
Introducing low sulfur fuels, and vehicle emission standards by 2030
The Initiative’s objective is to virtually eliminate fine particle and black carbon emissions from new andexisting heavy-duty diesel vehicles and engines through the introduction of low sulfur fuels, and vehicle
emission standards by 2030.

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

ITS for Climate
Using intelligent transportation systems (ITS) to deliver big results at a small cost
ITS for Climate Initiative aims to take a stand in favor of using ITS solutions to work towards a low-carbon,
resilient world and to limit global warming below the 2-degree target and contribute to adaptation to climatechange in large cities and isolated territories.
Low Carbon Road and Road Transport Initiative (LC2RTI)
Green roads-clean growth
LC2RTI is led by the World Road Association (PIARC), and its objective is building strong and sustainable
adaptation policies for the road network, including sensitive engineering structures and infrastructure(bridges, rural roads, etc.).
MobiliseYourCity Partnership
100 cities engaged in sustainable urban mobility planning to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
The Partnership aims to engage national governments in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the European Union
to introduce sustainable urban mobility policies and/or incentive programs, and to having local governments
engaged in reducing their emissions by 50% through the development of integrated sustainable urban
mobility plans. By 2018, 10 national governments and 39 cities have joined the network, which is supported bycontributing donors, development finance institutions, technical assistance agencies and expert organizations
predominantly from the European Union and its member states.
Navigating a Changing Climate:‘Think Climate’ to reduce emissions, strengthen resilience, and adapt waterborne transport infrastructure
The coalition is committed to promoting a shift to low carbon inland and maritime navigation infrastructure andto raising awareness of the need to adapt and improve the resilience of waterborne transport infrastructure,with an emphasis on working with nature.
Taxis4SmartCities
Accelerating the introduction of low emission vehicles in taxi fleets by 2020
Taxis companies around the world are committed to accelerating the energy transition of their vehicle fleetsby 2020 and 2030. The Taxi4SmartCities coalition intends to defend a progressive and modern version of thetaxi as a key actor of the Smart City.
Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative (TUMI)
Accelerate the implementation of sustainable urban transport development and mitigation of climate change
The objective of the TUMI is to accelerate the implementation of sustainable urban transport development andmitigation of climate change by mobilizing finance, building capacities and promoting innovative approaches.
Urban Electric Mobility Initiative (UEMI)
Harnessing technological innovations and better urban planning to promote low carbon transport
UEMI is committed to boosting the share of electric vehicles in individual mobility (two- and three-wheelers
and light duty vehicles) and integrating electric mobility into a wider concept of sustainable urban transportthat achieves a 30% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in urban areas by 2030.
The UIC Low Carbon Sustainable Rail Transport Challenge
On the low carbon track
The initiative sets a challenge in the framework of the green growth agenda and climate change perspective
for 2030 and 2050. It sets ambitious but achievable targets for improvement of rail-sector energy efficiency,
reductions in GHG emissions, and a more sustainable balance between transport modes.

UITP Declaration on Climate Change Leadership
Supporting our goal to double the market share of public transport by 2025
The initiative aims to double the market share of public transport by 2025 and implement 350 commitments toclimate action made by UITP members.

ZEV Alliance
Accelerating global zero-emission vehicle adoption
The ZEV Alliance works to accelerate the adoption of ZEVs, including electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids, andfuel-cell vehicles. The governments pledged to the initiative commit that they will strive to make all passenger
vehicle sales in their jurisdiction’s ZEVs by no later than 2050.

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The MPGCA Transport Initiatives represent a broad rangeof multi-stakeholder coalitions covering all modes oftransport through decentralized action to reduce transport
greenhouse gas emissions and strengthen the resilienceof transport infrastructure. Collectively these initiatives,
if widely supported by state-and non-state actors, andimplemented at scale, can reduce the carbon footprint of an
estimated half of all the passenger and freight trips made by2025.971

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Other broad-based initiatives on transport and climatechange include the International Transport Forum (ITF)
Decarbonising Transport Project, the Sustainable Mobility for
All Initiative (SuM4All), and the Transport Decarbonisation
Alliance (TDA) (Box 8).

Box 8: Other Initiatives on Transport and Climate ChangeInternational Transport Forum (ITF) Decarbonising Transport Project
The International Transport Forum (ITF)’s Decarbonising Transport (DT) initiative will track global progress towards decarbonizationof transport and help governments close the gap between their commitments and mitigation actions, by establishing commonly
acceptable pathways to achieve zero transport emissions by around 2050.
The project consists of two components, one quantitative and one focusing on the creation of an inclusive policy dialogue. The
quantitative outputs generated from a suite of transport models developed by ITF will produce policy insights that can be integrated
into national climate mitigation strategies and used to support updated NDCs.

Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) Initiative
The Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) Initiative was established in 2017 as a multi-stakeholder platform to advance policies
on sustainable mobility at global, national, and local levels. SuM4All aims to facilitate the delivery of four primary objectives ofsustainable transport, which include Universal Access, Efficiency, Safety, and Green Mobility.
A Global Mobility Report (GMR) was released in 2017 to examine the performance of the transport sector based on three components:(i) four global objectives that define “sustainable mobility;” (ii) quantitative and qualitative targets for those objectives, drawn
from international agreements; and (iii) indicators to track country-level progress towards those objectives. It covers all modes oftransport, including road, air, waterborne and rail.

Transport Decarbonisation Alliance (TDA)The Transport Decarbonisation Alliance (TDA), consisting of countries, cities & regions, as well as companies, is a “coalition of thewilling” eager to pave the way for an accelerated worldwide transformation of the transport sector towards a net-zero emission
mobility system.
TDA’s members are resolutely committed to transport decarbonization and zero emission mobility dynamics, to reach the global goalof carbon neutrality by 2050 more quickly. As an avant-garde, TDA will act as a strong voice for ambitious action on transport andclimate change in the Talanoa Dialogue, launched at COP 23.
The TDA was officially launched in May 2018 with six countries (Costa Rica, Finland, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands and Portugal),five cities (Gaia, Lisbon, Matosinhos, Porto, Rotterdam) and six companies (Alstom, CEiiA, EDP, ITAIPU Binancional, Michelin, and
PTV). As of September 2018, the TDA had 20 members, consisting of six countries, six cities/regions and eight companies.

Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

These initiatives and collaborations, while establishedby actors from different sub-sectors and organizations
for various objectives, share certain common goals andperspectives. Some of these initiatives focus on coalitionbuilding and broadening support from state and non-state
actors to implement sustainable transport actions (e.g.
MPGCA Transport Initiatives, TDA), while others focus on
measuring the progress of transport towards addressing
climate change and sustainable issues (e.g. SuM4All, ITF
Decarbonising Transport Project).
The TDA and SuM4All also share a strong emphasison advocacy and raising policymakers’ awareness ofglobal agendas (e.g. UNFCCC Process). These initiatives
are important players, demonstrating the potential andinfluence of non-state actors in enhancing knowledge of,and financing for, sustainable transport. Nonetheless, gaps
remain in transport stakeholder collaborations, including thefollowing:•••

A-S-I measures: Promoting a ‘Shift’ to more sustainable
modes of transport and transport infrastructure iscentral for more than half of the MPGCA Transport
Initiatives. Most of the MPGCA Transport Initiatives also
have a strong ‘Improve’ focus in their actions. Only a
few of the initiatives have a strong focus on activities
that ‘Avoid’ the need for unnecessary motorized trips.
Passenger and Freight Transport: There are far more
initiatives and commitments made in relation topassenger transport than in relation to freight transport.
For example, there are seven MPGCA transport
initiatives on urban transport, and three initiatives onelectric mobility, but only one initiative on green freight,
and one on shipping and logistics. Also, among the four
objectives of the SuM4ALL initiative - Universal Access,Efficiency, Green Mobility, and Safety – there is a heavy
focus on passenger transport, with freight transport
only represented within the Efficiency objective and
the Green Mobility objective. Complementary initiatives
such as the UN Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD) sustainable freight framework972 andbusiness-to-business leadership initiative Clean
Cargo973 can help to address this gap.
Mitigation and Adaptation: There is also an imbalance
between transport mitigation and adaptation. An
analysis of 22 MPGCA transport initiatives974 showsthat they focus on mitigation (e.g. GFEI, GGFAP, ZEVAlliance), whereas Navigating a Changing Climate
is one of the few with a very strong emphasis on
adaptation. A number of initiatives incorporate
adaptation-related outputs (e.g. policy guidelines,
seminars), including ITS for Climate, Navigating a
Changing Climate, and UIC Rail Challenge, but no
initiative has set goals or targets related to transport
adaptation. For others, adaptation is incorporated
under the Green Mobility Objective of SuM4ALL, which
proposes a qualitative Transport Vulnerability Index.
TDA and ITS Decarbonising Transport project also
primarily focus on mitigation actions.

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018•

Technology: Technology is not treated equally among
these initiatives. Technology is an important topic for
the ITS Decarbonizing Transport Project, as it focuses
on developing a suite of modeling tools that produce
simulations of technological evolution. Technology forcleaner fuels and transport efficiency is highlighted
under the Efficiency objective under SuM4All, but only
one MPGCA transport initiative focuses on transporttechnology (ITS for Climate). These efforts arecomplemented by initiatives like the Climate and Clean
Air Coalition’s Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles and Engines
Initiative, which works to reduce BC emissions throughappropriate technologies.

Examples of Global Partnerships and Platforms
In addition to those mentioned above, several initiatives andpartnerships have been established to support countries
with technical knowledge resources needed to implement
measures to meet climate change-related targets. Manyof these initiatives are newly developed, and have yet todemonstrate consolidated support to countries

NDC Partnership975
Launched in 2016 to provide countries with access to thetechnical knowledge and financial support to achieve
large-scale climate and sustainable development targets,
including but not specific to the transport sector.

2050 Pathways Platform976
Launched in 2016 to build a broader constellation of cities,
states, and companies engaged in long-term low-emissions
planning, and in support of national strategies, including but
not specific to the transport sector.

Low Emissions Development Strategies Global
Partnership (LEDS GP)977
LEDS GP engages leaders from over 300 institutions acrossgovernment agencies, technical institutes, international
agencies, and NGOs. It operates through regional platforms
in Africa, Asia, Europe and Eurasia, and Latin America
and the Caribbean, and has six technical global working
groups, including a Transport Working Group, and a global
secretariat. Developing country leaders in each region set
priorities for learning, collaboration, and advisory supportdelivered collectively through the Partnership.

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Part IV. Supporting Responses to Transport and Climate Change Action

Examples of City-Led Initiatives

We Mean Business981

Under2 MoU978

By 2017, 660 companies had pledged 1,117 commitments
related to climate change. Transport-related commitments
under We Mean Business include below50 (sustainable
fuels) and EV100 (commitment on electric mobility). 38
companies have committed to these transport goals to date.

205 jurisdictions representing 43 countries and six continents
have signed or endorsed the climate agreement known as theUnder2 MOU (Memorandum of Understanding). Actions andcommitments on sustainable transport are highlighted in the
majority of Under2 MoU Appendixes submitted by signatory
cities to date (e.g. Gifu (Japan), Nampula (Mozambique),Northern Holland, Mexico City, Québec).

Examples of Business Sector Initiatives
Science-Based Targets Initiative979
WWF and partners formed a joint initiative on ScienceBased Targets to increase corporate ambition on climate
action. The initiative will demonstrate achievable goals
to reduce corporate (transport) emissions, with the aim of
250 companies adopting and disclosing emission reduction
targets by 2020.980

Example of Other Sector-Led Initiatives
Shared Mobility Principles for Livable Cities982
The Shared Mobility Principles for Livable Cities werelaunched at the 2017 Ecomobility World Festival in Kaohsiung,Taiwan. These principles, produced by a working group ofinternational NGOs, are designed to guide urban decisionmakers and stakeholders towards developing sustainable,
inclusive, prosperous, and resilient cities with transportationthat facilitates the safe, efficient, and pollution-free flow ofpeople and goods, while also providing affordable, healthy,
and integrated mobility for all people.

Photo credit: Philipp Boehme

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Reference Tables

Reference Tables
Reference Table 1: Transport Targets Expressed in Nationally Determined Contributions983
Country

Transport Targets

Total Economy-Wide Targets

Bangladesh

24% below 2030 BAU

Reduce GHG emissions in the power, transport, and industry
sectors by 12 MtCO2e by 2030 or 5% below BAU emissions for
those sectors

Brunei Darussalam

Land Transport sector: to reduce CO2 from morning peak hourvehicle use by 40% by 2035

Energy consumption 63% below 2035 BAU, Renewable share to
be 10%, Increase forest to 55% of land area

Burkina Faso

Unconditional Target: 0.42% below BAU by 2030
Conditional Target: 42% below BAU by 2030

6.6% below 2030 BAU

Côte D'Ivoire

5.73% below 2030 BAU

28% below 2030 BAU

Dominica

16.9% below 2014 levels by 2030

44.7% below 2014 by 2030

Ethiopia

10 Mt by 2030

N/A

Gabon

20% below 2025 BAU

At least 50% below 2025 BAU

Grenada20% below 2025 BAU

30% below 2010 levels by 2025

Japan

27% below 2013 or 163 Mt by 2030

26% below 2013 levels by 2030

Marshall Islands

16% below 2025 BAU and 27% below 2030 BAU

32% below 2010 levels by 2025

Palestine

20% trucks and buses using CNG by 2040 and 25% shift fromprivate cars to public buses by 2030

No Information

Republic of Moldova

15% below BAU by 2020

64-67% of 1990 levels by 2030

Seychelles

Oil imports for transport 15% to 30% below 2030 BAU

29% below 2030 BAU

Trinidad and Tobago

30% below 2030 BAU for public transport

15% below 2030 BAU

Reference Table 2: Investment Requirements for NDC Measures984
Country

Priority Transport Projects

Investment Requirements (USD)

Bangladesh

Dhaka MRT and elevated highway

5.3 billion (2011-2030)

Benin

Development of intra- and inter-urban transit

2.78 billion (2011-2030)

Burkina Faso

Improvement of public transport, use of biofuel

98 million

Eritrea

Improve rail and bus transport

1 billion

Lao PDR

Implementation of nationally-appropriate mitigation actions (NAMA) in transport sector

105 million (2015-2020)

Lesotho

Improvement of vehicle efficiency, modal shift to public transport

Additional investment of 1.5 million (2020),
2.0 million (2030)

South Africa

1. Electric vehicles
2. Hybrid electric vehicles (20% by 2030)

1. 513 billion (2010-2050)
2. 488 billion

Togo

Promotion of low carbon transport modes

40 million

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Reference Tables

Reference Table 3: Transport References in Long-Term Strategies985
Country

Publication Year

Benin

2016

Construction of better drainage structure to increase resilience of road infrastructure; inclusion of climate change
strategies (i.e., adaptation and mitigation) in public procurement.

Transport references in LTS

Canada2016

Transport sector is a key sector for Canada’s decarbonization pathway: electrification of transport modes, use of
biofuels, LNG and renewable energy in the transport sector.

Czech Republic

2018

Transport Policy of the Czech Republic (2014–2020) and the Action Plan for Clean Mobility envisage a gradualincrease in the share of alternative propulsion and fuels in road transport and further electrification of railways, agradual shift of freight transportation from road to rail or water transport.

France2016

Set target to improve vehicle energy efficiency (an average of 2l/100km for new light duty vehicles sold in 2030);
transition to low-carbon energies and installation of charging points for electric cars and gas delivery units;
management of travel demand (through remote working, spatial planning and other measures); improvement invehicle occupancy rates (carpooling); modal shift of people and goods to non-road and non-air transports.

Germany

2016

Developed strategies to reduce GHG emissions in road transport, increase funding for electric mobility, provide
financial incentives for use of low carbon mobility options, increase modal shift to public transport, rail freight,
and inland shipping, promote walking and cycling, and expand the use of electricity-based fuels in national andinternational air and maritime transport.

Mexico2016

Maximize transport system efficiency, development of multimodal transport networks, reduce transport needs(collective transport services for companies), incentives and programs for non-motorized transport, green freight,
and reduction of fossil fuel subsidies to strengthen development of public transport.

Ukraine2018

Modernization of transport through promotion of vehicles using alternative fuels or are electrified, increase highspeed train service, plan more efficient public transport systems, raise freight activities by rail and inland water
through intermodality and port modernization.
Ukraine aims to reduce GHG emissions from mobile sources by 60% compared to 1990 by 2030 and the LTS expresses
the economy-wide target of 31-34% reduction by 2050, compared to 1990.

United Kingdom

2018

Passed the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation to increase use of biofuels in transport, mass adoption of zero
emission vehicles, invested in public and rail transport development;
Every car and van will need to be zero emission by 2050 (UK has announced an end to the sale of all new
conventional petrol and diesel cars and vans by 2040)
By 2040, cycling and walking would to be the natural choices for shorter journeys, or as part of a longer journey
Emissions from transport falling by almost 30 per cent compared to 2018 baseline (to around 83 Mt by 2032)

United States ofAmerica

2016

Continue to tighten fuel economy and GHG emissions standards for both light- and heavy-duty vehicles, increase
fuel efficiency and electrification of transport modes, increase investment in low-carbon fuels and vehicles, reduce
vehicle miles traveled by promoting public transport, ridesharing, walking and cycling.

Reference Table 4: Transport Adaptation Measures in Submitted NAPs986
Country

Publication Year

Transport Adaptation Measures

Brazil2016

Harmonize national adaptation plans and policies with local planning, involving private-sector actors, civil society
and academia;
Elaborate adaptation and resilience programs at the local level, and integrate with other relevant sectors;
Incorporate vulnerability studies and resilience planning in urban mobility plans
Consider principles of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (AbE);
Strengthen and qualify public and non-motorized public transport infrastructure
Ensure intermodal integration and system flexibility;
Incorporate adaptation studies in technical standards for design and maintenance of the urban mobility infrastructure
Support innovation in projects that reduce carbon emissions and increase the adaptive capacity for climate change

Burkina Faso

2015

Pass and enforce laws and regulations on construction of hydraulic, road and settlement infrastructures
Promote public transport in order to control energy consumption

Cameroon

2015

Integrate adaptation plans into local development plans (LDPs)
Discourage construction of roads unsuitable for climate change
Develop, maintain and rehabilitate urban infrastructures (construction of 150 km of roads and 17000 social housing)
Develop and extend tarred road network (more than 3500 km by 2020) and rehabilitate the road network (2000 km of
tarred roads to be rehabilitated by 2020)
Provide at least 1000 km of railway tracks, and exploit the deep-water port of Kribi
Construct the deep water port and the Limbe Yard.

Chile

2017

Enhance provisions of transport and transit, and introduce adaptation plans for cities

Kenya

2017

Short Term Actions:
Conduct risk and vulnerability assessments of existing infrastructure
Conduct risk and vulnerability assessments of upcoming infrastructure (roads, railways, marine, aviation, buildings,
ICT)

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Reference Tables

Kenya

2017

Conduct an assessment of whether existing and planned infrastructure assets are compatible with a low carbon
climate resilient economy;
Conduct capacity building on infrastructure climate proofing.
Medium Term Actions:
Climate proof buildings, roads, railway, marine, aviation and ICT infrastructure through use of appropriate designs
and building materials.
Long Term Actions:Re-assess infrastructure vulnerability and upgrade infrastructure to withstand climate impacts with the latest
technology.

Sri Lanka

2016

Improve climate resilience and disaster risk preparedness of transport;
Assess the impacts of projected changes and extreme weather scenarios on transport systems
Assess vulnerable and hazard prone areas/roads and prepare maps
identify climate resilient improvements in transport planning,
Develop guidelines to improve the resilience of transport system for extreme weather situations
Create awareness on climate risks in transport to commuters, drivers and transport operators
Establish an early warning and hazard communication system for commuters and drivers (Focus: mobile phones,
navigation systems, radio channels)

Reference Table 5: NAPA Transport Measures987
Country

Publication Year

NAPA Transport Adaptation Measures

Afghanistan

2009

National Solidarity Program (NSP) for local community development supports small-scale reconstruction anddevelopment activities by establishing more than 16,343 locally elected Community Development Councils (CDCs)
across the country and has financed over 22,458 community projects. 88% of the community projects involve
infrastructure projects for rural roads, irrigation, electrification, and drinking water supply

Bhutan2012

Implemented a project on landslide management and flood prevention to ensure safe and convenient mode ofcommunication/ transportation facilities

Cambodia

2006

Rehabilitation of Upper Mekong and Provincial Waterways to improve water transportation

Comoros

2006

Reinforcement of energy infrastructures for production and transport

Maldives

2006

Develop coastal protection for airports and further develop main islands
Strengthen capacity for planning and design of infrastructure to ensure development of resilient infrastructure.

Myanmar2012

Development of road and transport infrastructure as adaptation options that should be considered for effective
adaptation in the Energy and Industry sectors

Samoa

2005

Implementation of Road Asset Management Systems (RAMS) and Coastal Infrastructure Management Plans
Compliance with Code of Environmental Practices on impact studies and design
Construction of sea walls with standards and specification where appropriate

Timor-Leste

2010

Deliver a comprehensive roads maintenance program for all existing roads
Construct new bridges to provide all-weather access on major routes within five years, and the remainder of nationaland district roads by 2030
Establish national ring road standards, and establish a ring road to these standards by 2030

Tuvalu2007

Implementation of multi-million dollar tar-sealed roads infrastructure project for Funafuti to increase connectivity ofrural communities with the main settlement and urban center

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Reference Tables

Reference Table 6: MDB Sustainable Transport Investment by Region (2011 - 2016)988
MDB Investment for Sustainable Transport (2012-2016) (USD million)
Region

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Total

Africa3,970.4

3,809.4

3,615.1

5,343.8

4,574.1

21,312.8

Asia

6,331.7

7,791.1

8,062.9

8,906.7

8,556.8

39,649.1

Europe5,765.7

7,068.6

4,964.2

4,575.1

3,464.8

25,838.4

Latin America and the Caribbean

3,899.3

5,845.2

3,074.5

3,244.1

3,671.9

19,735.0

42.5

418.7

703.3

105.4

415.8

1,685.8

Oceania

Reference Table 7: MDB Total Climate Finance and Transport Mitigation Finance Commitments (2011-2017)989
Year

MDB climate finance(USD billion)

Transport mitigation finance(USD billion)990% of transport mitigation finance tototal MDB climate finance2011

27.014

4.011

15%

2012

26.846

4.743

18%

2013

23.803

4.23

18%

2014

28.345

6.316

22%

2015

25.096

5.283

21%

2016

27.441

4.667

17%

2017

35.219

8.114

23%

Total

193.76437.36419%

Endnotes

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Endnotes
1

2

3.

4

Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016;
Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and
Bakker, S., (2018). Decarbonising transport to achieve
Paris Agreement targets. Energy Efficiency, 1-24.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9671-3
Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016

12. 12 United Nations, (2017). 2017 Revision of World
Population Prospects. Available at: https://esa.un.org/
unpd/wpp/
13 See Section II.A for more information.
14 Based on SLoCaT calculations of World Bank, (2018).
GDP (constant 2010 USD). Available at: https://data.
worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD
15 See Section II.B for more information.

IEA and WBCSD, (2004). IEA/SMP Model
Documentation and Reference Case Projection.
Available at: http://www.libralato.co.uk/docs/SMP%20
model%20guidance%202004.pdf; IEA, (2016). Energy
Technology Perspectives 2016. Towards Sustainable
Urban Energy Systems. International Energy Agency.
Available at: http://www.iea.org/etp2016/18 See Section II.A for more information.

Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016

6

Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016

7

IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016.
Towards Sustainable Urban Energy Systems.
International Energy Agency. Available at: http://www.
iea.org/etp2016/911 IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016.
Towards Sustainable Urban Energy Systems.
International Energy Agency.Available at: http://www.
iea.org/etp2016/

The 35 OECD member countries include: Australia,
Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Latvia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United
Kingdom, and United States.

58

Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016

IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016.
Towards Sustainable Urban Energy Systems.
International Energy Agency. Available at: http://www.
iea.org/etp2016/
IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
- Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/

10 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental

16 See Section II.A for more information.
17 UNCTAD/RMT, (2017). Review of maritime transport
2017. United Nations Conference on Trade andDevelopment. ISBN 978-92-1-112922-9. Available at:
http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/rmt2017_en.pdf
19 IPCC, (2018). Global Warming of 1.5 °C. Available at:
http://www.ipcc.ch/report/sr15/
20 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
- Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/etp2017/; Gota, S., Huizenga, C. and Peet,K., (2016). Implications of 2DS and 1.5DS for Land
Transport Carbon Emissions in 2050. Available at: http://
www.ppmc-transport.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/
SLoCaT-1.5DS-2050-Report-2016-11-07.pdf
21 IPCC, (2018). Global Warming of 1.5 °C. Available at:
http://www.ipcc.ch/report/sr15/; Gota, S., Huizenga,
C. and Peet, K., (2016). Implications of 2DS and
1.5DS for Land Transport Carbon Emissions in
2050. Available at: http://www.ppmc-transport.org/
wp-content/uploads/2016/11/SLoCaT-1.5DS-2050Report-2016-11-07.pdf
22 Climate-KIC and IEA, (2015). The Global Calculator v23.
Available at: http://www.globalcalculator.org
23 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
24 Löhr, E., Perera, N., Hill, N., Bongardt, D. and Eichhorst,
U., (2017). Transport in Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs). Deutsche Gesellschaft fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. Available
at: http://ledsgp.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/2017_
Transport-in-NDCs.pdf
25 Löhr, E., Perera, N., Hill, N., Bongardt, D. and Eichhorst,
U., (2017). Transport in Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs). Deutsche Gesellschaft für

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Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. Available
at: http://ledsgp.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/2017_
Transport-in-NDCs.pdf
26 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

Endnotes

Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/
41 See Section III.B.7 and Section III.B.8 for more
information.

27 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

42 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/

28 IEA, (2018). Transport: Tracking Clean Energy Progress.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/tcep/transport/

43 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://webstore.iea.org/
global-ev-outlook-2018

29 See Section II.C for further discussions.

44 Hall, D. and Lutsey, N., (2017). Literature review
on power utility best practices regarding electricvehicles. International council on clean transportation.
Available at: https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/
publications/Power-utility-best-practices-EVs_whitepaper_14022017_vF.pdf

30 Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K. and Kaar, G., (2015).
Emission reduction potential in the transport sector
by 2030. Paris Process on Mobility and Climate.
Available at: http://ppmc-transport.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/08/Emission-Reduction-Potential-in-theTransport-Sector-by-2030.pdf
31 Pachauri, R.K. and Reisinger, A., (2007). Climate Change
2007: Synthesis Report. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm
32 Excluding international aviation and shipping andconsidering only direct emissions. See II.C for further
discussions.
33 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
and Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available at: http://
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34 IEA, (2016). Energy Efficiency Market Report 2016.
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35 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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36 McFarland, M., (2018). Electric bicycles emerge asa hot trend in the U.S.. CNN Business. Available at:https://money.cnn.com/2018/01/17/technology/ebikeselectric-bikes/index.html
37 DutchNews, (2018). Bike sales rise after years of
decline, electric bikes lead the way. Available at:https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2018/03/bike-salesrise-after-years-of-decline-electric-bikes-lead-theway/
38 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://webstore.iea.org/
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39 Based on data provided by Xiangyi Li, Research
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40 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21

45 Hawkins, A., (2017). This Electric Truck Startup Thinks
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thor-trucks-electric-truck-etone-tesla; Ros, M., (2017).
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46 IATA, (2018). Sustainable Aviation Fuels – Fact andFigures at a Glance. International Air Transport
Association. Available at: http://www.iata.org/
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47 Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M., (2018).
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48 Song, N., Schmitz, K., Schlosser, A. and Li, D., (2017).
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49 Bloomberg, (2018). Initiative on cities and autonomousvehicles. Bloomberg Aspen Initiative on Cities andAutonomous Vehicles. Available at: https://avsincities.
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50 Levine, J. and Kahmann, S.L.M., (2018). Off to the races:
How will policy shape autonomous vehicles tech in
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51 English, C., (2018). Coradia iLint hydrogen train receives
approval for commercial operation in German railway
networks. Alstom Press Release. Available at: https://www.alstom.com/press-releases-news/2018/7/
coradia-ilint-hydrogen-train-receives-approval-forcommercial-operation-in-german-railway-networks

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52 SLoCaT, (2017). 2017 High Level Political Forum: Limited
focus on the contribution of transport toward realizing
the Sustainable Development Goals. Available at:
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53 SLoCaT, (2016). SLoCaT Report on the Habitat III “New Urban Agenda”- Informal Intergovernmental
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54 PPMC, (2017). COP23: Transport building momentum toraise ambitions and define implementation pathways.
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at: http://www.ppmc-transport.org/wp-content/
uploads/2017/09/COP23-Final-Report-from-a-TransportPerspective.pdf
55 SLoCaT, (2018). E-Mobility Overview of Trends andTargets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
files/e-mobility_overview.pdf
56 SLoCaT, (2018). E-Mobility Overview of Trends andTargets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
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57 Shirouzu, N. and Jourdan, A., (2017). China sets 2019deadline for automakers to meet green-car sales
targets. Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.
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58 Transport Decarbonisation Alliance, (2018). Transport
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59 Schuitmaker, R. and Cazzola, P., (2018). Commentary:
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60 WHO, (2018). Global Action Plan on Physical
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61 SLoCaT, (2018). Transport Sector Makes New
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62 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
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63 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
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64 CBI, (2018). Green Bond Highlights 2017. Climate Bonds
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65 Climate finance instruments considered include Clean
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Fund (CTF), the Green Climate Fund (GCF), Green
Bonds (GB), the Global Environment Facility (GEF), theInternational Climate Initiative (IKI), the Joint Crediting
Mechanism (JCM), Joint Implementation (JI), theNationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA), andthe Nordic Development Fund (NDF).
66 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
67 See Section IV.A for further discussion.
68 Mathiesen, K., (2016). G7 nations pledge to end fossil
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69 Muenster, M., (2017). Understanding Energy Reformand Fuel Prices in Mexico. Breakthrough Fuel.
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70 Hemmings, B., (2018). How the undertaxed,
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71 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
72 SLoCaT, (2018). Sustainable Development Goals &Transport. Available at: http://www.slocat.net/sdgstransport
73 SuM4All, (2017). Global Mobility Report 2017: Tracking
Sector Performance. Sustainable Mobility for All.
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74 Rodrigue, J.P., (2017). The Geography of Transport
Systems. 4th Edition, New York: Routledge, 440 pages.
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75 EEA, (2014). Adaptation of transport to climate change
in Europe: Challenges and options across transportmodes and stakeholders. ISBN 978-92-9213-500-3,
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76 EEA, (2017). Number of countries that have adopted
a climate change adaptation strategy/plan. European
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eu/airs/2017/environment-and-health/climate-changeadaptation-strategies
77 Peet, K. et al., (2017). COP23: Transport Building
Momentum to Raise Ambition and Define
Implementation Pathways, Final Report COP23.
Available at: http://www.ppmc-transport.org/wp-

129

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content/uploads/2017/09/Transport-COP23-FinalReport-01-12-2017-1.pdf
78 IEA, (2017). Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2017.
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79 Sims, R. et al., (2014). Transport. In: O. Edenhofer
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Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
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Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA,pp. 599-670.
80 In the TCC-GSR, light-duty vehicle (LDV) accounts for
personal cars and passenger vans. Road freight covers
light commercial vehicles, freight vans, medium- andheavy-duty trucks unless stated otherwise.
81 See Section II.B for further discussions.
82. 82 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.
slocat.net/trakb
83 GFEI, (2016). Targeting Heavy Duty Vehicle Fuel
Economy. Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available at:https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/media/460941/hdvfuel-economy.pdf;
84 The 35 OECD member countries include: Australia,
Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Latvia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United
Kingdom, and United States.
85 See Section II.A for further discussions.
86 IEA and WBCSD, (2004). IEA/SMP Model
Documentation and Reference Case Projection.
Available at: http://www.libralato.co.uk/docs/SMP%20
model%20guidance%202004.pdf; IEA, (2016). Energy
Technology Perspectives 2016. Towards Sustainable
Urban Energy Systems. International Energy Agency.
Available at: http://www.iea.org/etp2016/
87 See Section II.A for further discussions.
88 UN Habitat, (2013). Planning and Design for Sustainable
Urban Mobility: Global Report on Human Settlements
2013. Chapter 2: The State of Urban Transport.
Available at: https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/
uploads/2013/06/GRHS.2013_Rev.2014.01_02.pdf
89 Cervero, R., (2013). Transport Infrastructure and theEnvironment: Sustainable Mobility and Urbanism.
University of California. Available at: https://iurd.
berkeley.edu/wp/2013-03.pdf
90 UNEP, (2016). Global Outlook on Walking and
Cycling. Policies & realities from around theworld. United Nations Environment. Available
at: https://www.fiafoundation.org/media/404898/
globaloutlookonwalkingandcycling.pdf

Endnotes

91 TfL, (2018). Ultra-Low Emission Zone. Transport for
London. Available at: https://tfl.gov.uk/modes/driving/ultra-low-emission-zone
92 BRT+ Centre of Excellence and EMBARQ, (2018).
Global BRTData. Version 3.37. Available at: http://www.
brtdata.org
93 Data received by UIC.
94 SLoCaT calculations based on Meddin, R., (2018).
Bikesharing Map. Available at: http://www.
bikesharingmap.com
95 SLoCaT, (2018). E-Mobility Overview of Trends andTargets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
files/e-mobility_overview.pdf and Section III.B.2
96 Ministry of Railways, (2017). Electrification of Railway
Lines. Government of India Press Information
Bureau. Available at: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/mbErel.
aspx?relid=169090
97 Bloomberg, (2018). Is your city getting ready for AVs?
This is a guide to who’s doing what, where, and how.
The Aspen Institute. Available at: https://avsincities.
bloomberg.org/global-atlas/
98 Wadud, Z., MacKenzie, D., and Leiby, P. (2016). Help or
hindrance? The travel, energy and carbon impacts ofhighly automated vehicles. Transportation ResearchPart A: Policy and Practice Volume 86, p. 1-18. doi.
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99

IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives
2016. Towards Sustainable Urban Energy Systems.
International Energy Agency. Available at: http://www.
iea.org/etp2016/

100 IEA and WBCSD, (2004). IEA/SMP Model
Documentation and Reference Case Projection.
Available at: http://www.libralato.co.uk/docs/SMP%20
model%20guidance%202004.pdf; IEA, (2016). Energy
Technology Perspectives 2016. Towards Sustainable
Urban Energy Systems. International Energy Agency.
Available at: http://www.iea.org/etp2016/
101 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/
102 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
103 SLoCaT, (2018). Low-carbon Transport for Development:
Trends and Recommendations for Islamic Development
Bank Member Countries.
104 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
- Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/
105 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
106 UNCTAD, (2016). From decision to action: Moving

Endnotes

towards an inclusive and equitable global economic
environment for trade and development. Nairobi
Maafikiano, United Nations Conference on Trade andDevelopment. Available at: http://unctad.org/meetings/
en/SessionalDocuments/td519add2_en.pdf The United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD) mandate reached in July 2016 (Nairobi
Maafikiano) reiterated a commitment to enhance
trade and port efficiency and improving transport
connectivity to increase efficiency and resiliency, andreduce transport costs, but concrete measures are yet
to be realized.
107 Duggan, B., Muktar, I., (2017). Nairobi to Mombasa
high-speed railway opens. CNN. Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2017/05/31/africa/kenya-nairobirailway/index.html
108 Webb, J. (2017). The New Silk Road: China launches
Beijing-London Freight Train Route. Forbes. Available
at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/jwebb/2017/01/03/
the-new-silk-road-china-launches-beijing-londonfreight-train-route/2/#17dd71887446; The Hindu, (2017).
First direct London-China train completes 12,000 km
run in 20 days. Available at: http://www.thehindu.com/
news/international/first-direct-london-china-traincompletes-12000-km-run-in-20-days/article18299736.
ece
109 DHL, (2017). DHL expands environmentally-friendly‘City Hub’ concept in the Netherlands with customized
electric vehicles. Press release. Available at: http://
www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/releases_2017/all/
express/dhl_expands_environmentally_friendly_city_
hub_concept_in_the_netherlands.html
110 DHL, (2017). Target met for 2017: 5,000 StreetScootersin service at Deutsche Post DHL Group. Press release.
Available at: http://www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/
releases_2017/all/parcel_ecommerce/target_met_
for_2017_5000_streetscooters_in_service_at_dphl_
group.html
111 Williams, B., (2017). 9 futuristic trucking projects
that will compete with Tesla’s Semi. MashableAsia.
Available at: https://mashable.com/2017/11/16/teslasemi-trucking-projects-roundup-nikola-daimlervolkswagen/#I2HuanmDGPqH
112 Amazon, (2018). Amazon PrimeAir. Available at:https://www.amazon.com/Amazon-Prime-Air/b?ie=UTF8&node=8037720011
113 Vincent, J. (2016). These six-wheeled delivery robots
are starting trials in Europe. The Verge. Available at:https://www.theverge.com/2016/7/6/12105010/deliveryrobot-london-just-eat-starship-technologies
114 World Bank, (2017). Data: GDP per capita (constant2010 USD). Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/
indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD
115 SLoCaT calculations based on OICA, (2015).
Motorization Rate 2015 - worldwide. Available at: http://
www.oica.net/category/vehicles-in-use/; World Bank,

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018(2017). Data: GDP growth (annual %). Available at:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.
KD.ZG?end=2017&start=2000; Juden, M., (2016). WhichCountries Have Graduated from Each Income Group,
and When? Center for Global Development. Available
at: https://www.cgdev.org/blog/which-countries-havegraduated-each-income-group-and-when
116 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016.
Note that the increase in transport CO2 emissions wasbriefly halted by the financial crisis of 2007-2008, and in2009 transport emission decrease by 1.7%.
117 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016.
118 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
119 Vanderschuren, M. and Jennings, G., (2017). Nonmotorized travel behavior in Cape Town, Dar es Salaam
and Nairobi. Routledge, London and New York; UNEP,(2016). Global Outlook on Walking and Cycling. Policies& realities from around the world. United Nations
Environment. Available at: https://www.fiafoundation.
org/media/404898/globaloutlookonwalkingandcycling.
pdf
120 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016
121 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
Assessment Agency. Available at: http://edgar.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016
122 ITDP, (2018). Rapid Transit Database. Institute forTransportation and Development Policy. Available at:https://docs.google.com/a/itdp.org/spreadsheets/d/1u
MuNG9rTGO52Vuuq6skyqmkH9U5yv1iSJDJYjH64MJM/
edit?usp=drive_web
123 BRT+ Centre of Excellence and EMBARQ, (2018). Dar
es Salaam. Available at: https://brtdata.org/location/africa/tanzania/dar_es_salaam
124 SBR, (2017). Mobike Expands to Nairobi. Shanghai
Business Review. Available at: https://www.sbrchina.
com/mobike-expands-nairobi/
125 UN Environment, (218). The UN in Nairobi launches
bike-sharing scheme. Press release. Available at:https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/
story/un-nairobi-launches-bike-sharing-scheme
126 JICA, (2017). Northern Corridor Master Plan, Which

131

132

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Aims for Sustainable Growth in East Africa, to Be
Completed in April. Japan International Cooperation
Agency News. Available at: https://www.jica.go.jp/
english/news/field/2016/170126_01.html

Endnotes

Railway Station - Oriental Land), Phase 3 Project ofLine 9 (Mid Yanggao Road - Caolu). Shanghai Metro.
Available at: http://service.shmetro.com/en/yygg/1082.
htm

127 SLoCaT, (2018). E-Mobility Overview of Trends andTargets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
files/e-mobility_overview.pdf

140 SLoCaT calculations based on Meddin, R., (2018).
Bikesharing Map. Available at: http://www.
bikesharingmap.com

128 NITI Aayog and Rocky Mountain Institute, (2017). India
Leaps Ahead: Transformative mobility solutions forall. Available at: https://www.rmi.org/insights/reports/
transformative_mobility_solutions_india

141 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
Consumption and CO2 Emissions. International Union
of Railways. Available at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/
handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf

129 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
- Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/

142 Hanley, S., (2018). Shenzhen Completes Switch To
Fully Electric Bus Fleet. Electric Taxis Are Next.
CleanTechnica. Available at: https://cleantechnica.
com/2018/01/01/shenzhen-completes-switch-fullyelectric-bus-fleet-electric-taxis-next/

130 Tebay, A., (2016). Korea opens Suseo high-speed line.
International Railway Journal. Available at: http://
railjournal.com/index.php/asia/korea-opens-suseohigh-speed-line.html
131 UIC, (2017). High speed traffic in the world.
International Union of Railways. Available at:https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/high_speed_passengerkm_20171130_.pdf
132 NBSC, (2017). 2017 China Statistical Yearbook. National
Bureau of Statistics of China. Available at: http://www.
stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2017/indexeh.htm
133 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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iea.org/etp2017/
134 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/
135 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
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ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016
136 Adilla, F., (2016). New rail lines to spur transit-oriented
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nst.com.my/news/2016/12/197930/new-rail-lines-spurtransit-oriented-projects
137 Tillu, J. S., (2017). Transit-Oriented Development with
Chinese Characteristics: localization as the rule rather
than the exception. The World Bank. Available at:https://blogs.worldbank.org/eastasiapacific/tod-withchinese-characteristics-localization-as-the-rulerather-than-the-exception
138 ITDP, (2018). Rapid Transit Database. Institute forTransportation and Development Policy. Available
at: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1uMuN
G9rTGO52Vuuq6skyqmkH9U5yv1iSJDJYjH64MJM/
edit?usp=sharing
139 Yang, Y., (2017). Soft Operation of Line 17 (Hongqiao

143 Garg, M. and Sharpe, B., (2017). Fuel consumption
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International Council on Clean Transportation.
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144 EEA, (2017). Monitoring progress of Europe’s transport
sector towards its environment, health and climate
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at: https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/transport/term/monitoring-progress-of-europes-transport
145 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
Research Centre (JRC)/PBL Netherlands Environmental
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ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016
146 ECF, (2017). EU Cycling Strategy: Recommendations
for Delivering Green Growth and an Effective Mobility
System in 2030. European Cyclists’ Federation.
Available at: https://ecf.com/sites/ecf.com/files/EUCS_
full_doc_small_file.pdf
147 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/
148 IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016:
Towards Sustainable Urban Energy Systems.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2016/
149 ITDP, (2018). Rapid Transit Database. Institute forTransportation and Development Policy. Available
at: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1uMuN
G9rTGO52Vuuq6skyqmkH9U5yv1iSJDJYjH64MJM/
edit?usp=sharing
150 Kelly, O., (2017). 17 new bus routes announced under
EUR 1bn Dublin traffic plan. Irish times. Available
at: https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irishnews/17-new-bus-routes-announced-under-1bndublin-traffic-plan-1.3100100

Endnotes

151 Metro Report (2017). Aarhus opens Denmark’s firstmodern light rail line. Available at: http://www.metroreport.com/news/single-view/view/aarhus-opensdenmarks-first-modern-light-rail-line.html
152. 152 Pucher, J. and Buehler, R. (2017). Cycling towards amore sustainable transport future. Transport Reviews,
37(6), 689-694, DOI: 10.1080/01441647.2017.1340234
153 SLoCaT calculations based on Meddin, R., (2018).
Bikesharing Map. Available at: http://www.
bikesharingmap.com
154 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
Consumption and CO2 Emissions. International Union
of Railways. Available at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/
handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf
155 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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159 Replogle, M. and Fulton, L., (2014). A Global
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165 EPA, (N.D). Fast Facts on Transportation Greenhouse
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166 Federal Highway Administration, (2018). Average
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167 Government of Canada, (2017). Pan-Canadian
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168 Perry, F., Kredell, C., Perry, M. and Leonard, S., (2018).
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170 EIA, (2017). Today in Energy: U.S. energy-related C02
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171 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
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173 JOC News Service, (2018). $1.53-billion federal
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174 CNW, (2018). Edmontonians enjoy preview of newlight rail vehicles for future Valley Line Southeast.
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175 TransitCenter, (2017). Bus Network Redesigns.
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176 SLoCaT calculations based on Meddin, R., (2018).
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177 NACTO, (2017). Bike Share in the U.S.: 2017. National
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178 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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179 Stevenson, M., (2018). California bill to ban new
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180 City of Seattle, (2014). Repeal of Ord 12441. Available at:
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181 Stolte, E., (2016). Uber confirms app will be dead
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182 Schaller Consulting, (2018). The New Automobility:
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183 ECCC, (2017). Pricing carbon pollution in Canada: how
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184 Nelson, L.J. and Reyes, E.A., (2017). Metro agrees
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185 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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186 BRT+ Centre of Excellence and EMBARQ, (2018).
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188 Caughill, P., (2017). All Dutch Trains Now Run On
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189 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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190 Climate Action, (2017). The world’s first fully electricsolar train launched in Australia. Available at: http://
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191 EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European
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192 Martinez Romera, B., (2016). The Paris Agreement andthe Regulation of International Bunker Fuels. RECIEL,
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193 Murphy, A., (2016). A false dawn for action on aviation
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198 IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016:
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199 Crabtree, T., Hoang, T., Tom, R. and Gildemann, G.,(2016). World Air Cargo Forecast 2016-2017. The
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200 Note: Africa data includes Middle East as well.
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212 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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201 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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215 See Part II.B Figure 8.

202 Transport & Environment, (2015). Shipping and aviation
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203 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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204 Schemme, S., Samsun, R. C., Peters, R. and Stolten, D.
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206 Climate Action, (2018). First biofuel flight between US
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207 JetBlue, (2016). JetBlue Announces One of theLargest Renewable Jet Fuel Purchase Agreementsin Aviation History. Press release. Available at: http://
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208 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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209 McKenna, J., (2017). Norway´s airports refuel aircraftwith biofuels. World Economic Forum. Available at:https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/11/norwayairports-biofuels-avinor/
210 ACA, (2018). Airports addressing their CO2 emissions.
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213 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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214 SLoCaT, (2018). Transport Sector Makes New
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216 IMO. (2016). Frequently Asked Questions: The
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218 See Part II.B Figure 8.
219 UNCTAD/RMT, (2017). Review of maritime transport
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220 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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221 Schuitmaker, R. and Cazzola, P., (2018). Commentary:
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224 Faber, J., Nelissen, D., Hon, G., Wang, H. and Tsimplis,M., (2012). Regulated slow steaming in maritime
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Transport and Environment, Seas at Risk, CE Delft.

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225 Florentinus, A., Hamelinck, C., van den Bos, A., Winkel,
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226 Hanley, S., (2017). China Launches World’s First
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227 Carlström, V., (2017). Maersk and a Finnish startup will
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228 Maersk Tankers, Norsepower, ETI, (2017). Maersk
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229 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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230 The Business Times, (2016). Jurong Port starts world’s
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235 Each country has a different definition of city and urban
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236 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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237 A large city is defined as having populations of
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238 UN, (2016). The World’s Cities in 2016. United Nations.
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240 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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241 EIA, (2018). Global Liquid Fuels. Short-Term Energy
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242 EIA, (2018). Crude oil prices increased in 2017, andBrent-WTI spread widened. U.S. Administration Energy
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243 IEA, (2017). World Energy Outlook 2017. International
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247 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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249 World Bank, (2018). Data: Air transport, passengers
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251 SLoCaT calculations based on OICA, (2015).
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252 SLoCaT calculations based on OICA, (2015).
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253 EEA, (2018). No improvements on average CO2 emissions
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254 WHO, (2011). Urban transport and health: A sourcebook
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256 WHO, (2015). Global Health Observatory data. World
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257 WHO, (2011). Urban transport and health: A sourcebook
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258 WHO, (2011). Urban transport and health: A sourcebook
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259 WHO, (2012). Health in the green economy: health co-

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benefits of climate change mitigation-transport sector.
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260 Mueller, N., Rojas-Rueda, D., Cole-Hunter, T., de Nazelle,A., Dons, E., Gerike, R., Goetschi, T., Panis, L.I., Kahlmeier,S. and Nieuwenhuijsen, M., (2015). Health impact
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261 Stevenson, M., Thompson, J., de Sá, T.H., Ewing, R.,
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262 IEA and WBCSD, (2004). IEA/SMP Model
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263 UNCTAD/RMT, (2017). Review of maritime transport
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266 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
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271 IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016.
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272 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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274 ITDP, (2015). 2014 RTR Report - Rapid Transit
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275 Note that in practice investments in BRT are dwarfed
by each of the other modes/subsectors shown in termsof daily capacity in passenger km.
276 Roads and Rail (with 2016 and 2017 being basedon average growth in previous years) based on
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skyqmkH9U5yv1iSJDJYjH64MJM/edit?usp=drive_web
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278 This chapter is based on author analysis of data from
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279 Dalkmann, H., Brannigan, C., Lefevre, B. andEnriquez, A., (2014). Module 5e: Urban Transportand Climate Change. Gesellschaft für Internationale
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281 This includes fuel combustion (major part) and fugitive
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releases of gases resulting from production, processes,
transmission, storage and use of fuels)
282 IEA, (2017). CO2 Emissions from Fuel
Combustion 2017 Overview. International
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283 Fossil CO2 emissions include all anthropogenic
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and ammonia production or consumption). Source:
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284 Power industry: power & heat generation plants;
Transport: mobile combustion from road, rail,
shipping & aviation; Other Industrial Combustion:
fuel combustion for industry manufacturing andfuel production; Buildings: non-industrial stationary
combustion; Non-combustion: industrial process
emissions, agriculture and waste. Source: JanssensMaenhout, G. et al., (2017). Fossil CO2 & GHG emissions

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Paris Agreement targets. Energy Efficiency, 1-24.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9671-3
287 Based on SLoCaT calculations of EDGAR, (2017).
EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European Commission, Joint
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ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2andGHG1970-2016
288 IEA, (2016). Energy Efficiency Market Report 2016.
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289 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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290 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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291 EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016. European
Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC)/PBL
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency.
Available at: http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.
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292 Map based on EDGAR, (2017). EDGAR v4.3.2_FT2016.
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Available at: http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.
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model%20guidance%202004.pdf; IEA, (2017). Energy
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298 Crabtree, T., Hoang, T., Tom, R., Gildemann, G., (2016).
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301 GFEI and IEA, (2015). International Comparison ofLight-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy 2005-2015: Ten yearsof fuel economy benchmarking. Global Fuel Economy
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305 BP, (2018). BP Energy Outlook, 2018 Edition. Available
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308 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
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314 CCAC, (n.d.). Black carbon. Available at: http://www.
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ipccreports/tar/wg3/index.php?idp=286
323 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
324 Yeh, S. et al., (2017). Detailed assessment of global
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trd.2016.11.001
325 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
326 Replogle, M.A. and Fulton, L.M., (2014). A Global High
Shift Scenario: Impacts And Potential For More Public
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327 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
328 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en
329 Pachauri, R.K. and Reisinger, A., (2007). Climate Change
2007: Synthesis Report. Intergovernmental Panel on
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330 Excluding international aviation and shipping andconsidering only direct emissions.
331 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en

318 Sims, R. et al., (2014). Transport. In: O. Edenhofer
et al., Climate Change 2014. Mitigation of Climate
Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
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Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA,pp. 599-670.

332 Gota, S., Huizenga, C. and Peet, K., (2016). Implicationsof 2DS and 1.5DS for Land Transport Carbon Emissions
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wp-content/uploads/2016/11/SLoCaT-1.5DS-2050Report-2016-11-07.pdf

319 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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334 Climate-KIC and IEA, (2015). The Global Calculator
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theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT%20
Roadmap%20Energy%20Report.pdf; IEA, (2017).
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Documentation and Reference Case Projection.
Available at: http://www.libralato.co.uk/docs/SMP%20

320 IEA, (2017). CO2 emissions from combustion
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publications/freepublications/publication/
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321 Gota. S, Huizenga, C., Peet, K. and Kaar, G., ( 2015).
Emission Reduction Potential in the Transport Sector
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322 The “Business-as-usual” (BAU) scenario is thebaseline level of emissions resulting if future

333 ITF, (2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en

Endnotes

model%20guidance%202004.pdf; ITF, (2017). ITF
Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en; Gota, S., Huizenga,
C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and Bakker, S., (2018).
Decarbonising transport to achieve Paris Agreementtargets. Energy Efficiency, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s12053-018-9671-3; World Energy Council, (2011).
Global Transport Scenarios 2050. Available at: https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/
wec_transport_scenarios_2050.pdf
335 Climate-KIC and IEA, (2015). The Global Calculator
v23. Available at: http://tool.globalcalculator.org; ICCT,(2012). Global Transportation Energy and Climate
Roadmap. The impact of transportation policies
and their potential to reduce oil consumption andgreenhouse gas emissions. Available at: https://www.
theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT%20
Roadmap%20Energy%20Report.pdf; IEA, (2017).
Energy Technology Perspectives 2017 - Catalysing
Energy Technology Transformations. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/
etp2017/; IEA and WBCSD, (2004). IEA/SMP Model
Documentation and Reference Case Projection.
Available at: http://www.libralato.co.uk/docs/SMP%20
model%20guidance%202004.pdf; IRENA, (2018).
Global Energy Transformation. A Roadmap to 2050.
International Renewable Energy Agency. Available at:https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/
Publication/2018/Apr/IRENA_Report_GET_2018.pdf; ITF,
(2017). ITF Transport Outlook 2017. OECD Publishing,Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282108000-en; Gota,
S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and Bakker,S., (2018). Decarbonising transport to achieve Paris
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336 UN, (2015). Paris Agreement. United Nations. Available at:https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/
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337 IPCC, (2014). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of
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the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change.
338 The 2°C scenario (2DS) is defined as “maintaining a
50% probability of global average temperature rise ofless than or equal to 2 degrees, relative to the global
average temperature before the industrial revolution,by 2100.” The 2012 Cancun Agreements’ objective of
keeping the average global temperature rise below two
degrees Celsius resulted in the development of several
pathways for a 2-degree scenario for an economywide emissions with the 2050 range to achieve a
2-degree scenario varying from 15 to 34 Gt (with anaverage of 25 Gt i.e. 47% below 2010 level. Source:
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Available at: https://climateactiontracker.org/global/
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UNEP, (2016). The Emissions Gap Report 2016. UN
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339 Based on limited available literature, estimates for a
1.5-degree scenario suggest a 2050 economy-wide
emissions range from 4 to 19 Gt (Climate Action
Tracker, (2017). CAT Emissions Gaps. Available
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to below 1.5 °C). One possible interpretation is the
IEA’s “beyond 2°C scenario” (B2DS) which “explores
how far deployment of technologies that are alreadyavailable or in the innovation pipeline” could improveupon the 2DS (see Figure 17). While not requiring
unforeseen technology breakthroughs or limitationof economic growth, B2DS assumes that technology
improvements and deployment are pursued to theirmaximum practicable limits in order to achieve netzero emissions by 2060 and stay net zero or below
thereafter. The IEA estimates that emissions would
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340 IPCC, (2018). Special Report Global Warming of 1.5 °C.
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344 Climate Action Tracker, (n.d.). Addressing global
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346 The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report states that
“decarbonizing the transport sector is likely to be morechallenging than for other sectors, given the continuing
growth in global demand, the rapid increase in demand
for faster transport modes in developing and emerging
economies, and the lack of progress to date in slowing
growth of global transport emissions in many OECD
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348 Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9671-3
349 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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350 Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and
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351 Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9671-3
352 Based on a large compilation of studies that were used
for Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K., Medimorec, N. and
Bakker, S., (2018). Decarbonising transport to achieve
Paris Agreement targets. Energy Efficiency, 1-24.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-018-9671-3
353 IEA, (2016). Energy Technology Perspectives 2016:
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Transport Carbon Emissions in 2050. Available at: http://
www.ppmc-transport.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/
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354 Sims, R. et al., (2014). Transport. In: O. Edenhofer
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Endnotes

Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
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355 Climate-KIC and IEA, (2015). The Global Calculator v23.
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356 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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357 ICAO, (2016). Historic agreement reached to mitigate
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358 ICAO, (2016). On Board. A Sustainable Future. Available
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359. Global Aerospace, (2018). CORSIA is Coming:
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360 Global Aerospace, (2018). CORSIA is Coming:
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361 IMO, (2018). Annex 11. Resolution MEPC.304(72)(adopted on 13 April 2018). Initial IMO Strategy on
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362 ITF, (2018) Decarbonising Maritime Transport. Pathways
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363 GIZ (n.d.). Sustainable Urban Transport: Avoid-ShiftImprove (A-S-I). Available at: https://www.sutp.org/files/
contents/documents/resources/E_Fact-Sheets-andPolicy-Briefs/SUTP_GIZ_FS_Avoid-Shift-Improve_EN.pdf
364 The analysis includes about 352 measures from165 NDCs, 1500 transport mitigation measuresin mitigation studies from 81 countries, and 186
measures from technology needs assessment reports
from 28 countries.
365 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
366 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

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367 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/368 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
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International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/369 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, (n.d.). Climate: Get the Big Picture. Available
at: http://bigpicture.unfccc.int/#content-the-parisagreement
370 A broad overview of UNFCCC transparency andreporting mechanisms is available at: https://unfccc.
int/process-and-meetings/transparency-and-reporting/the-big-picture/what-is-transparency-and-reporting
371 McGray, H., (2014). Clarifying the UNFCCC National
Adaptation Plan Process. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/blog/2014/06/
clarifying-unfccc-national-adaptation-plan-process
372 The TCC-GSR doesn’t distinguish between INDCs and
NDCs in its data and analysis.
373 Climate Analytics, (2018). Paris Agreement Ratification
Tracker. Available at: https://climateanalytics.org/
briefings/ratification-tracker/
374 Climate Analytics, (2018). Paris Agreement Ratification
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375 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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376 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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377 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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378 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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379 Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K. and Kaar, G., (2016).
Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDCs) Offer
Opportunities for Ambitious Action on Transportand Climate Change. Paris Process on Mobility andClimate. Available at: http://www.ppmc-transport.org/
overview_indcs/
380 Gota, S., Huizenga, C., Peet, K. and Kaar, G., (2016).
Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDCs) Offer
Opportunities for Ambitious Action on Transportand Climate Change. Paris Process on Mobility andClimate. Available at: http://www.ppmc-transport.org/
overview_indcs/
381 UNFCCC, (2018). NDC Spotlight Series. Available
at: https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/
nationally-determined-contributions/ndc-spotlight382 Data Driven Yale, NewClimate Institute and PBL,
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383 SLoCaT, (2018). Transport and SDGs. Available at: http://
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384 SLoCaT, (2017). 2017 High Level Political Forum: Limited
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report_final_webuse.pdf
385 SLoCaT, (2016). SLoCaT Report on the Habitat III “New Urban Agenda”- Informal Intergovernmental
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informals_report_v1.pdf
386 The 10 countries which have submitted LTS are: Benin,
Canada, Czech Republic, France, Germany, MarshallIslands, Mexico, Ukraine, United Kingdom, and theUnited States. UNFCCC, (2018). Communication of longterm strategies. Available at: https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/long-term-strategies
387 For more information, please see Component 7:
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388 UNFCCC, (2017). Overview - National Adaptation
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workstreams/national-adaptation-plans/overview
389 UNFCCC, (2018). Adaptation Plans and Strategies.
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390 EEA, (2017). Number of countries that have adopted
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391 Developing countries which have submitted NAPs
are: Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, Colombia,
Kenya, Sri Lanka, State of Palestine, Sudan, and Togo.
392 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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393 UNFCCC, (2018). National Adaptation Programmes of
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workstreams/national-adaptation-programmes-ofaction/introduction
394 LDCs which have submitted NAPAs are: Afghanistan,Angola, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso,
Burundi, Cambodia, Cape Verde, Central African
Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic ofCongo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lao
People’s Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia,
Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania,

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Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda,
Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone,
Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan,
Tanzania, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu,
Yemen, Zambia.
395 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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396 UNFCCC, (n.d.). FOCUS: Mitigation - NAMAs, Nationally
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397 Afanador, A., Bucqet, C., Haehl, T., Klein, N.,
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398 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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399 Wefering, F., Rupprecht, S., Buehrmann, S. andBoehler-Baedecker, S., (2014). Developing and
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400 VTPI, (2016). Online TDM Encyclopedia. Victoria
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401 Seate of The Philippines, (2017). SB No. 1568 of 2017;
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402 UITP India, (2017). MoHUA unveiled urban green
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403 Andronic, R., (2017). Successful SUMPs - the Turda
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404 Based on SLoCaT calculations of GIZ, (2018). Urban
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405 NACTO and Global Designing Cities Initiative, (2016).
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406 ITDP India, (2018). A year of radical planning,2017 passes by. Institute for Transportation andEndnotes

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407 Urban Redevelopment Authority, (2017). About Streetsfor People. Available at: https://www.ura.gov.sg/ms/
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408 Federal Transit Administration, (2018). Transit-Oriented
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409 Tillu, J.S., (2017). Transit-Oriented Development with
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410 Yu, F., (2017). Hong Kong can show China how to move
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411 Adilla, F., (2016). New rail lines to spur transit-oriented
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412 NAMA Facility, (2017). Colombia Transit-Oriented
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413 Xiao, J. , Zhou, X. and Hu, W., (2017). Welfare analysisof the vehicle quota system in China. International
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414 Barter, P., (2014). Japan’s proof-of-parking rule has an
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415 Goh, C., (2017). LTA Cuts Vehicle Growth Rate to
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416 Taneja, R., (2017). Odd Even Rule Returns in Delhi,
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417 Whymedellin, (2017). Pico y Placa to help reduce
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418 Zhou, W., (2016). 5 Cities Begin Issuing Special
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419 The Jakarta Post, (2017). Odd-even Plate Traffic Policy
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420 Davis, L. W., (2017). Saturday driving restrictions fail to
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421 Kockelman, K. and Lemp, J., (2011). Anticipating NewHighway Impacts: Opportunities For Welfare Analysis
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422 Based on compilation of data from Land Transport
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423 Mugisha, I.R., (2017). Kigali aims to make city free ofprivate transport. The EastAfrican. Available at: http://
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424 Garfield, L., (2017). 12 major cities that are starting togo car-free. Business Insider. Available at: http://www.
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425 When employers subsidize the cost of parking, they
can offer employees who don’t drive to work (andchoose more environmentally friendly modes) the cash
equivalent of the parking subsidy.
426 UBA/GIZ, (2017) Reverse Innovation – Rethinking
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427 Jaffe, E., (2015). How Washington State Convinced
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428 C40, (2017). Cities100: Soeul - Leaving the Car Behind
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429 Smart Cities Dive, (2018). LA Metro to develop MaaS
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430 VTPI, (2016). Parking Pricing Implementation
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431 ITDP, (2015). Parking Guidebook for Beijing. Institute forTransportation and Development Policy . Available at:
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432 New York City Mayor’s Office of Sustainability,(2014). New York City’s Roadmap to 80 x 50. Available
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433 ITDP, (2017). How Mexico City Became A Leader
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434 Parkopedia, (2017). Global Parking Index. Available at:https://www.parkopedia.com/static/reports/global_
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435 Sadler Consultants Europe GmbH, (2018). Urban
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436 TfL, (2018). Ultra Low Emission Zone. Transport for
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437 TfL, (2017). GLA – Ultra-Low Emission Zone Will Start in
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438 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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439 Holguín-Veras, J., et al (2018). The New York City OffHour Deliveries Program: A Business and CommunityFriendly Sustainability Program.
440 New York City, (2017). New York’s Roadmap 80 x 50.
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441 Dovey, R., (2017). New York City Issues Ambitious
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442 TfL, (2017). GLA – Mayor Sets Out Ambitious Plan to
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444 Gabbe, C. J .and Pierce, G., (2017). The hidden costof bundled parking. Access, 51 (Spring). Available
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445 TfL, (2016). Travel in London. Report 9. Mayor of
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446 Commute Seattle, (2018). 2017 Mode Split Press
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447 UITP, (2018). World Metro Figures 2018. Statistics Brief.
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448 Cervero, R., (2013). Bus Rapid Transit (BRT): An
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449 BRT Data, (2018). Mexico City. Available at: https://brtdata.org/location/latin_america/mexico/mexico_city
450 Kelly, O., (2017). 17 new bus routes announced under
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451 Perry, F., (2015). Addis Ababa gets sub-Saharan Africa’s
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452 Burroughs, D., (2018). First phase of Abuja light rail
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453 Barrow, K. ,(2017). Samarkand opens first tram line.
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454 Metro Report, (2017). Aarhus opens Denmark’s firstmodern light rail line. Available at: http://www.metroreport.com/news/single-view/view/aarhus-opensdenmarks-first-modern-light-rail-line.html
455 Rubiano, L. C., (2017). Innovation in the air: using cablecars for urban transport. The World Bank. Available at:
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456 Qualcomm, (2017). Qualcomm Urban Mobility Index:
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457 Chadha, J. and Ramprasad, V., (2018). Why it is Key
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458 Transport for Ireland, (2018). You can now use your
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459 Nelsen, A., (2018). Brussels to make public transport
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460 Taipei Times, (2017). Free rides boost Kaohsiung
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daily-ridership-on-the-rise/
465 Ministry of Transport, (2018). Making Public Transport
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470 ITDP, (2015). 2014 RTR Report - Rapid Transit
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471 ITDP, (2018). Rapid Transit Database. Institute forTransportation and Development Policy. Available at:https://docs.google.com/a/itdp.org/spreadsheets/d/1u
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472 ITDP, (2018). China’s Metro Boom Continues to Drive
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org/2018/07/30/china-drives-rapid-transit-growth/473 ITDP, (2018). Rapid Transit Database. Institute forTransportation and Development Policy. Available at:https://docs.google.com/a/itdp.org/spreadsheets/d/1u
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474 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
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475 Metro Report, (2018). Shanghai adds metro Line 17.
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single-view/view/shanghai-adds-metro-line-17.html
476 Barrow, K., (2017). Shenzhen to build 149 km of metro
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railjournal.com/index.php/metros/shenzhen-to-build149km-of-metro-lines-by-2022.html

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

477 Livemint, (2017). Narendra Modi to launch Delhi’s
Metro’s magenta line today. Available at: https://www.
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478 NIB, (2017). NIB-financed Helsinki - Espoo metro line
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news_press_releases/2204/nib-financed_helsinkiespoo_metro_line_launched_in_finland
479 Qatar Tribune, (2018). 2017, a year of milestones for
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480 Railway Technology, (n.d.). Lusail Light Rail Transit.
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481 Ataullah, S., (2018). Qatar Rail completes 77% of workof Doha Metro Project. The Peninsula. Available at:https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/05/04/2018/
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482 BRT+ Centre of Excellence and EMBARQ, (2018). Global
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483 Sindhu, H.A., (2017). PM Nawaz inaugurates Multan
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484 BRT+ Centre of Excellence and EMBARQ, (2018). Global
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485 International Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment and The World Bank, (2016). Urban
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reports/ppar_Senegal_102016.pdf
486 UITP, (n.d.). Light rail latest figures. Available at: http://
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487 JOC News Service, (2018). $1.53-billion federal
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488 CNW, (2018). Edmontonians enjoy preview of newlight rail vehicles for future Valley Line Southeast.
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489 Global Rail News, (2017). Seoul launches new light

147

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rail line. Available at: https://www.globalrailnews.
com/2017/09/04/seoul-launches-new-light-rail-line/
490 Green, A., (2017). New cross-border tram line opens
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491 Gulf News, (2018). 1.51 million use Dubai public
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uae/transport/1-51-million-use-dubai-public-transportdaily-1.2178600
493 Mallett, W.J., (2018). Trends in Public Transportation
Ridership: Implications for Federal Policy.
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494 Mallett, W.J., (2018). Trends in Public Transportation
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fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45144.pdf
494 491 ITDP, (2016). The BRT Standard. Available at:https://www.itdp.org/2016/06/21/the-brt-standard/EndnotesJ., (2017). Spain invests 2 billion Euros in Mediterranean
Railway Corridor. RailFreight. Available at: https://www.
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503 UNESCAP, (2018). Trans-Asian Railway. Available at:
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504 Webb, J., (2017). The New Silk Road: China launches
Beijing-London Freight Train Route. Forbes. Available
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direct London-China train completes 12,000 km run in
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505 RailwayPro, (2017). Argentina: CRRC to modernise San
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495 UNIFE, (2018). World Rail Market Study: forecast
2018 to 2023. The European Rail Industry. Available
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attachments&task=download&id=938

506 Regional Development Australia, (2017). Melbourne to
Brisbane Inland Rail - A once in a generation project
connecting regional Australia with global markets.
Available at: https://rda.gov.au/news/2017/20170629melb-bris-inland-rail.aspx

496 UNIFE, (2018). World Rail Market Study: forecast
2018 to 2023. The European Rail Industry. Available
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attachments&task=download&id=938

507 Duggan, B., Muktar, I. (2017). Nairobi to Mombasa highspeed rail opens. CNN. Available at: https://www.cnn.
com/2017/05/31/africa/kenya-nairobi-railway/index.html

497 Sun, X., Zhang, Y., Wandelt, S., (2017). Air Transport
versus High-Speed Rail: An Overview and Research
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doi:10.1155/2017/8426926
498 Loubinoux, J.P. (2017). Rail can help deliver a lowcarbon future. International Railway Journal. Available
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499 EC, (2018). About TEN – T. Available at: https://
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500 Weedy, S., (2018). Award plaudits for freight-friendly
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railfreight.com/corridors/2018/02/21/award-plauditsfor-freight-friendly-gotthard-project/

508 Port of Gothenburg, (2017). All systems go. New
intermodal terminal opens in December. Available
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news/all-systems-go--new-freight-terminal-opens-indecember/
509 Port of Gothenburg, (2017). Flying start for newly
opened combi terminal at the Port of Gothenburg.
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510 Port of Hamburg, (2017). Port of Hamburg resumes
growth course. Press release. Available at: https://www.hafen-hamburg.de/en/news/port-of-hamburgresumes-growth-course---35088
511 Ward, R., (2018). Santo’s Contrail slashes containertransit times. JOC. Available at: https://www.joc.com/
rail-intermodal/contrail-intermodal-terminal-slashescontainer-transit-times_20180328.html

501 RailwayPro, (2017). Bulgaria to invest over EUR 2
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railwaypro.com/wp/bulgaria-invest-eur-2-billiontransport-projects/

512 MRS, (2017). Novo Terminal Intermodal de Jundiaí vai
aumentar eficiência das empresas da região no acesso
ao Porto de Santos. Available at: https://www.mrs.com.
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502 RailwayPro, (2017). Spain’s Government to boost
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513 Pauli G. (2016) Emissions and Inland Navigation. In:
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Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-171753_14

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514 UIC, (2016). Carbon footprint of Railway Infrastructure.
International Union of Railways Available at; https://
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infrastructure.pdf

526 MRS, (2017). Novo Terminal Intermodal de Jundiaí vai
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ao Porto de Santos. Available at: https://www.mrs.com.
br/post-blog-mrs/novo-terminal-intermodal-de-jundiaivai-aumentar-eficiencia-e-competitividade-dasempresas-da-regiao-no-acesso-ao-porto-de-santos/

515 India Times, (2017). Indian Railways signs the first
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power/indian-railways-signs-first-epc-contract-tospeed-up-electrification/59916669
516 Barrow, K., (2017). Minsk – Vilnius electrification
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517 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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518 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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519 France-Presse, A., (2017) Dutch electric trains
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jan/10/dutch-trains-100-percent-wind-powered-ns

527 Weedy, S., (2017). Port of Antwerp modal shift scheme
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528 IEA, (2017). High-speed rail presents major
opportunities for decarbonisation of transport.
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iea.org/newsroom/news/2017/december/high-speedrail-presents-major-opportunities-for-decarbonisationof-transport.html
529 Babones, S., (2018). China’s High-Speed Trains Are
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520 Climate Action, (2017). India launched its firstsolar power DEMU train. Available at: http://www.
climateactionprogramme.org/news/india-launched-itsfirst-solar-power-demu-train

530 Briginshaw, D., (2018). Passenger growth andinternational success boost DB profits. International
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521 Alstom, (2018). World premiere: Alstom’s hydrogentrains enter passenger service in Lower Saxony.
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531 Burrows-Tayler, E., (2017). New high-speed train lines
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new-high-speed-train-lines-from-paris-to-bordeauxand-rennes-set-to-open

522 Jha, S., (2017). Confusion greets Indian electrification
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532 Tebay, A., (2017). Korea opens Olympic high-speed line.
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523 Ministry of Railways, (2017). Electrification of Railway
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533 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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524 DB, (2017). 50 Prozent weniger CO2-Austoß bis 2030 Fernverkehr ab 2018 mit 100 Prozent Ökostrom. Press
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Klimaziel-1201554
525 Eurostar (2018). Eurostar unveils new Tread
Lightly environmental targets New 10 point planin support of 2016 Paris Climate Agreement.

534 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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535 Gutierrez, J., (2018). Rise in Brazil’s rail freight volumes.
RailFreight. Available at: https://www.railfreight.

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uploads/2013/06/GRHS.2013_Rev.2014.01_02.pdf

536 Green, A., (2017) Swiss rail freight continues to gain
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548 Welle, B. and Luke, N., (2017). How Global Policy Does
(and Does Not) Account for Walking and Cycling. The
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537 Freightweek, (2017). Rail freight up 19 percent
between Russia and China. Available at: https://www.
freightweek.org/~freightweek/index.php/en/latestnews/85-rail/2845-rail-freight-up-19-percent-betweenrussia-and-china

549 Sum4All, (2017). Global Mobility Report 2017: Tracking
Sector Performance. Sustainable Mobility for All.
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worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/28542/120500.
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538 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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550 European Commission, (2018). Draft Action 2: Promoting
sustainable and active mobility behaviour. Available at:https://ec.europa.eu/futurium/en/urban-mobility/draftaction-2-promoting-sustainable-and-active-mobilitybehaviour

539 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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551 Donda, E., (2018). How cycling makes you healthier andhappier. European Cyclists’ Federation. Available at:https://ecf.com/news-and-events/news/how-cyclingmakes-you-healthier-and-happier

540 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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541 UIC, (2016) International Railway Statistics. 2016
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542 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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543 IEA (2017). High-speed rails present major
opportunities for decarbonisation of transport.
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news/2017/december/high-speed-rail-presents-majoropportunities-for-decarbonisation-of-transport.html
544 Based on data received by UIC.
545 Cervero, R., (2013). Transport Infrastructure and theEnvironment: Sustainable Mobility and Urbanism.
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berkeley.edu/wp/2013-03.pdf
546 UNEP, (2016). Global Outlook on Walking and
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547 UN Habitat, (2013). Planning and Design for Sustainable
Urban Mobility: Global Report on Human Settlements
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552 UNEP, (2016). Global Outlook on Walking and
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553 UNEP, (2016). Global Outlook on Walking and
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554 UNEP, (2017). Brazil. Share the Road. Available at:https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/
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555 Willsher, K., (2017). Paris mayor unveils plan to restrict
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556 Mairie de Paris, (2017). Paris aux piétons : vers une
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557 Government Europa, (2017). Made for walking.
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558 City of Boston, (2018). Boston Green Links. Available at:https://www.boston.gov/departments/transportation/
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559 UK Government, (2017). Government publishes £1.2
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560 Sutton, M., (2016). Barcelona to increase cycling

Endnotes

network “165%” by 2018 with EUR 32m investment.
Cycling Industry News. Available at: https://cyclingindustry.news/barcelona-to-increase-cyclingnetwork-165-by-2018-with-e32m-investment/
561 Blanchar, C., (2017). On your bike: Barcelona’s cycling
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562 Swennen, B., (2017). 70 million EUR investment to makeBordeaux a top cycling city in France. ECF. Available
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563 City Hall Toronto, (2016). Cycling Network 10 Year Plan.
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streets-parking-transportation/cycling-in-toronto/cycletrack-projects/cycling-network-10-year-plan/
564 DCN News Services, (2017). Ontario doubles
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565 Office of the Mayor, Seattle Government, (2017). Mayor
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566 Medimorec, N., (2017). From 1970 to 2017, from Station
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567 Smithers, A., (2017). South Korea’s Seoullo 7017
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568 Dutch Government, (2018). Staatssecretaris Van
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569 BMVBS, (2013). National Cycling Plan 2020.
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570 Progreso, (2015). Colombian National Development
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571 de la Lanza, I., (2018). Cyclists and Walkers Lead
Mexico City on the Road to Sustainability. The CityFix.
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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

572 Copenhagenize Design Company, (2017). Bicycle
Friendly Cities Index 2017. Available at: http://
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573 UNEP, (2016). Global Outlook on Walking and
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574 C40, (2018). Cycling for all on Bogota’s first resilient
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575 City of Helsinki, (2017). Promotion of Cycling. Available
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576 Baltatzi, E., (2016). Finland sets national goal toincrease number of trips made by bicycle to 30% by
the year 2030. European Cyclists’ Federation News.
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577 Mobility Agency for Vienna, (2014). Strategy Paper
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wienzufuss.at/zu-fuss-gehen-in-zahlen/wissenswerteszum-fussverkehr
578 Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft,
Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft (BMLFUW) and
Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Innovation und
Technologie (BMVIT), (2015). Masterplan Gehen –Strategie zur Förderung des FußgängerInnenverkehrs
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579 The analysis was done specifically for this project andhasn’t been previously published. To get an idea about
the GPAQ and GPAQ implementation, more information
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582 Figure based on data received by section author.

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583 Mason, J., Fulton, L. and McDonald, Z. (2015). A
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584 Oke, O., Bhalla, K., Love, D. and Siddiqui, S., (2015).
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597 BAFA, (2018). Kleinserien Klimaschutzprodukte:
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585 Ríos, R. A., Taddia, A., Pardo, C., lleras, N.,(2015). Ciclo-inclusión en América Latina y el
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598 Hagen, J.X., Lobo, Z., Linke, C., (2017). Clean, Silent,Space-Efficient And Non-Trivial Urban Freight Delivery:
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586 Pucher, J. and Buehler, R., (2017). Cycling towards amore sustainable transport future, Transport Reviews,
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599 EEA, (2016). TERM 2016: Transitions towards a moresustainable mobility system. European Environment
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605 Green Car Congress, (2018). Nearly 60% of all vehicle
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606 Legislative Council Secretariat, (2016). Statistical
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613 Wrighton, S. and Reiter, K., (2016). CycleLogistics–
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608 Sallis et al., (2016) Physical activity in relation tourban environments in 14 cities worldwide: a crosssectional study. The Lancet, April 2016. & Billie
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615 Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M., (2018).
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616 Amey, A., Attanucci, J. and Mishalani, R., (2011).
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619 Shaheen, S., Cohen A. and Roberts, D., (2006).
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620 Chan, N. and Shaheen, S., (2012). Ridesharing in North
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621 Rayle, L., Dai, D., Chan, N., Cervero, R. and Shaheen, S.,(2016). Just a better taxi? A survey-based comparisonof taxis, transit, and ridesourcing services in San
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622 Shaheen, S. and Cohen, A., (2018). Managing theTransition to Shared Automated Vehicles: Building
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623 Wangshu, L., (2017). New rule to cities: Ease
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624 Zhang, Xi., (2017). BMW Rolls Out Car-Sharing Service
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625 Eltis, (2017). How Madrid is embracing electriccarsharing (Spain). Available at: http://www.eltis.org/
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626 Feiler, T., (2017). Carsharing Act- New Benefits for
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627 Edmonds, B., (2018). Carsharing and Parking
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628 Hong, S., (2018). Seoul expands ‘car-sharing’network. The Korea Herald. Available at: http://www.
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630 Maslin Nir, S., (2018). Car-Share Companies Get
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631 Rapid Shift, (2016). Planning for Shared Mobility: Whatcities can do now. Available at: http://www.rapidshift.
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632 City of Chicago, (2013). City to Launch Divvy Bike
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637 Plucinska, J., (2017). For Uber, if only Estonia wereEurope. Politico. Available at: https://www.politico.eu/
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639 Kharpal, A., (2018). Uber allowed to operate in London
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641 SUMC, (2017). Dallas area Rapid Transit (DART), Lyft,
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642 Ministry of Transport and Communications,(2017). Public transport in the Act on Transport
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644 UITP, (2017). The Mobility as a Service (MaaS) SuccessStory: WienMobil. Available at: https://www.uitp.org/
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645 Song, N., Schmitz, K., Schlosser, A. and Li, D., (2017).
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646 Government of the Netherlands, (2015). Green
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647 Crabtree, J., (2018). Didi Chuxing took on Uber andwon. Now it’s taking on the world. Wired. Available at:https://www.wired.co.uk/article/didi-chuxing-chinastartups-uberEndnotes

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661 NACTO, (2017). Bike Share in the U.S.: 2017. National
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662 SLoCaT calculations based on Meddin, R., (2018).
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663 Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M. (2018).
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653 Hawkins, A.J., (2018). Uber acquires dockless bikeshare startup Jump. The Verge. Available at: https://www.theverge.com/2018/4/9/17213994/uber-acquiresdockless-bike-share-jump

665 Song, N., Schmitz, K., Schlosser, A. and Li, D., (2017).
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654 Small, A., (2018). Lyft Just Became America’s Biggest
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666 Shaheen, S., Cohen, A. and Jaffee, M. (2018).
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655 Section largely based on SLoCaT calculations of
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667 Mostafa, E., (2016). Raye7 looks to take over Cairo
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656 Liang, L., (2018). China rides into a bike-sharing future.
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668 Howe, E. and Bock, B., (2017). Global Scootersharing
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657 Cadell, C., (2018). China’s Meituan Dianping acquires
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658 Jiang, H., (2018). Chinese Cities Aim to Rein in BikeSharing Boom. World Resources Institute. Available at:
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659 Egypt Independent, (2017). Egypt to launch country’s
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660 Seattle Department of Transportation, (2017). FreeFloating Bike Share. Available at: http://www.seattle.
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669 Dickey, M. R., (2018). Electric scooters are going worldwide. TechCrunch. Available at: https://techcrunch.
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675 Stocker, A. and Shaheen, S., (2017). Shared Automated
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676 Bliss, L., (2017). The Ride-Hailing Effect: More Cars,
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680 Schreier, H., Becker, U. and Heller, J., (2014). Evaluation
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684 IEA, (2009). Transport, energy and CO2 emissions:moving towards sustainability. International Energy
Agency, Available at: https://www.iea.org/publications/
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685 Transport and Environment, (2017). Diesel: the true
(dirty) story. Why Europe’s obsession with diesel cars
is bad for its economy, its drivers and environment.
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Diesel_report_final.pdf
686 Tietge, U., (2017). From laboratory to road: A

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687 Eads, G., (2009). 50by50 – Prospects and Progress.
Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available at: https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/data-and-research/
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688 GFEI, (2017). GFEI action for more fuel efficient
vehicles: COP23 Update. Global Fuel Economy Initiative.
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689 Yang, Z., Zhu, L. and Bandivadekar, A., (2016). Review
and evaluation of vehicle fuel efficiency labeling andconsumer information programs. The International
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690 GFEI, (2018). GFEI enables new fuel economy label forMontenegro. Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available
at: https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/blog/2018/
march/gfei-enables-new-fuel-economy-label-formontenegro
691 Yang, Z., Bandivadekar, A. (2017). 2017 Global Update
Light-duty vehicle and greenhouse gas and fueleconomy standards. The International Council on
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692 AutoTrader, (2014). Where does the emissions tax go?
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toyota/prius/5bffb9c3-22be-450c-997c-dd75d95ea74cwhere-does-the-emissions-tax-go%3F
693 GIZ, (2018). Fuel Efficiency Policies in the Land
Transport Sector in Thailand - Phase II - Data, Cost
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published).
694 Mock, P. (2016). The Automotive Sector in Turkey. A
Baseline Analysis of Vehicle Fleet Structure, Fuel
Consumption and Emissions. The International Council
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695 GFEI, (2016). Autotool - Feebates. Available at: https://www.globalfueleconomy.org/transport/gfei/autotool/
approaches/economic_instruments/fee_bate.asp
696 Schroten, A., Aarnink, S., Gardiner, B., Szewczyk,
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697 LTA, (2017). New vehicular emissions scheme toreplace carbon-based emissions vehicle schemefrom 1 January 2018. Joint media release by theLand Transport Authority (LTA) & NEA. Available

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at: https://www.lta.gov.sg/apps/news/page.
aspx?c=2&id=08685840-d664-4713-9ccb-96dcd8936d08
698 Government Offices of Sweden, (2017). Bonus - malus
system for new vehicles. Press release. Available at:https://www.government.se/press-releases/2017/05/
bonusmalus-system-for-new-vehicles/
699 Kodjak, D., Sanchez, F. and Segafredo, L., (n.d.).
Policies that Work: How vehicle standars and fuelfees can cut CO2 emissions and boost the economy.
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700 ICCT, (2017). 2017 Global update: Light-duty
vehicle greenhouse gas and fuel economy
standards. International Council on Clean
Transportation. Available at: https://www.theicct.
org/publications/2017-global-update-LDV-GHG-FEstandards
701 California, whose vehicle regulations predated the 1970
US Federal Clean Air Act, is the only state permitted
to adopt its own vehicle emissions standards, whichmust be at least as stringent as Federal regulations.
Section 177 of the Clean Air Act authorizes other states
to voluntarily adopt the California standard in lieu of
the Federal standard. 15 states have currently done so,and these are known as “Section 177 States”.
702 Light truck sales are significantly higher in the UnitedStates than other countries, because this category
includes trucks and four-wheel SUVs. In contrast, lightcommercial vehicles in China are typically used forurban light logistics or for carrying agricultural goods
by small business holders and farmers.
703 ICCT, (2017). 2017 Global update: Light-duty
vehicle greenhouse gas and fuel economy
standards. International Council on Clean
Transportation. Available at: https://www.theicct.
org/publications/2017-global-update-LDV-GHG-FEstandards
704 Gardner, R. and Marotta, A., (2018). Transposition of
GTR15 (WLTP) into UN Regulations Update for GRPE
from WLTP Transposition Task Force. Available at:https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2018/
wp29grpe/GRPE-76-24e.pdf
705 European Council, (2018). CO2 emission standards forcars and vans: Council agrees its position. Available
at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/pressreleases/2018/10/10/co2-emission-standards-for-carsand-vans-council-agrees-its-position/
706 EC, (2017). Energy Union: Commission takes action
to reinforce EU’s global leadership in clean vehicles.
European Commission Mobility and Transport.
Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/
road/news/2017-11-08-driving-clean-mobility_en
707 Kodjak, D. (2017). China publishes updated fuel

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economic standards with mandate for EVs. Global
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globalfueleconomy.org/blog/2017/october/chinapublishes-updated-fuel-economy-standards-withmandate-for-evs
708 ICCT, (2018). Chart library: Passenger vehicle
fuel economy. International Council on Clean
Transportation. Available at: https://www.theicct.org/
sites/default/files/Global_PV_figure_data_20180406.
xlsx
709 IEA, (2017). The Future of Trucks. Implications
for energy and the environment. International
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publications/freepublications/publication/TheFutureof
TrucksImplicationsforEnergyandtheEnvironment.pdf
710 Garg, M. and Sharpe, B., (2017). Fuel consumption
standards for heavy-duty vehicles in India.
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711 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
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www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
wp15ldvcomparison.pdf
712 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
and Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available at: http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
wp15ldvcomparison.pdf
713 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
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714 SLoCaT calculations based on OICA, (2015).
Motorization Rate 2015 - worldwide. Available at: http://
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715 OECD/IEA, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy, ten years of fuel economy
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716 EEA, (2018). No improvements on average CO2
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europa.eu/highlights/no-improvements-on-averageco2
717 ICCT, (2018). CO2 emissions from new passenger carsin the EU: Car manufacturers’ performance in 2017.
Available at: https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/

157

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files/publications/EU_manufacturers_performance_
CO2_20180712.pdf
718 SLoCaT calculations based on OICA, (2015).
Motorization Rate 2015 - worldwide. Available at: http://
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719 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
and Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available at: http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
wp15ldvcomparison.pdf
720 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
and Global Fuel Economy Initiative. Available at: http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
wp15ldvcomparison.pdf
721 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
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722 IEA and GFEI, (2017). International comparison of lightduty vehicle fuel economy 2005-2015. Ten Years of Fuel
Economy Benchmarking. International Energy Agency
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723 IEA, (2016). Energy Efficiency Market Report 2016.
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724 Fulton, L., Mason, J. and Meroux, D., (2017). Three
Revolutions in Urban Transportation. UC Davis, Institutefor Transportation Development and Policy. Available
at: https://www.itdp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/
UCD-ITDP-3R-Report-FINAL.pdf
725 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://webstore.iea.org/
global-ev-outlook-2018
726 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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727 IRENA, (2018). Hydrogen from renewable power:
Technology outlook for the energy transition.
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Publication/2018/Sep/IRENA_Hydrogen_from_renewable_power_2018.pdf
728 Opray, M., (2017). Nickel mining: the hidden
environmental cost of electric cars. The Guardian.
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sustainable-business/2017/aug/24/nickel-mininghidden-environmental-cost-electric-cars-batteries

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729 Vaughan, A., (2018). Lack of models, not charging
points, ‘holding back electric car market’. The
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730 Volvo, (2017). Volvo Cars to go all electric. Press
release. Available at: https://www.media.volvocars.
com/global/en-gb/media/pressreleases/210058/volvocars-to-go-all-electric
731 Modijefsky, M., (2018). ‘Electric roads’, innovative pilot
projects launched in Sweden and the Netherlands.
Eltis. Available at: http://www.eltis.org/discover/news/
electric-roads-innovative-pilot-projects-launchedsweden-and-netherlands
732 BBC News, (2017). Edinburgh set for first all-electricbuses. BBC News. Available at: http://www.bbc.
com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-41429207;
Riordian, C., (2017). First fully electric public buses in
Edinburgh unveiled. Scotsman. Available at: https://www.scotsman.com/news/first-fully-electric-publicbuses-in-edinburgh-unveiled-1-4573165
733 Venter, M., (2017). Cape Town’s e-buses to arrive at end
2017; e-bus plant on track. Engineering News. Available
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734 Santiago Times, (2017). Chinese-made electric buses hit
Santiago streets. Santiago Times. Available at: http://santiagotimes.cl/2017/11/15/chinese-made-electricbuses-hit-santiago-streets/
735 Hanley, S., (2018). Shenzhen Completes Switch To
Fully Electric Bus Fleet. Electric Taxis Are Next.
CleanTechnica. Available at: https://cleantechnica.
com/2018/01/01/shenzhen-completes-switch-fullyelectric-bus-fleet-electric-taxis-next/
736 Office for Low Emission Vehicles (OLEV), (2018).
Ultra-Low Emission Bus Scheme. Department forTransport. Available at: https://bit.ly/2qkVYW1;
Government Europa, (2018). EU approves EUR 70m forelectric buses in Germany. Available at: https://www.
governmenteuropa.eu/eu-approves-electric-buses-ingermany/84893/
737 BMU, (2018). Das Bundesumweltministerium fördert
Elektrobusse. Bundesministerium für Umwelt,
Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit. Available at:https://www.bmu.de/themen/luft-laerm-verkehr/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/bmub-foerderprogramm/
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738 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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global-ev-outlook-2018
739 IEA, (2017). Global EV Outlook 2017. International
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GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf

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740 IEA, (2017). Global EV Outlook 2017. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.
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GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf
741 Tabula, (2017). 42% of imported cars in Georgia
are hybrids. Available at: http://www.tabula.ge/en/
story/126928-42-of-imported-cars-in-georgia-arehybrids
742 Talant, B., (2018). Ukraine seeks boost in electric car
sales with import tax exemption. Kyiv post. Available
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from VAT. Available at: https://www.globalfueleconomy.
org/blog/2018/january/ukraine-exempts-evs-from-vat
743 Newbery, C., (2017). Argentina cuts import duties onelectric, hybrid cars to spur sales. S&P Global Platts.
Available at: https://www.platts.com/latest-news/
electric-power/buenosaires/argentina-cuts-importduties-on-electric-hybrid-21723273
744 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2017/
745 The Straits Time, (2017). Dollars and sense of the new
Vehicular Emissions Scheme. Available at: https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/transport/dollarsand-sense-of-the-new-vehicular-emissions-scheme
746 Sputnik, (2018). В Кыргызстане снизили пошлинына ввоз машин, электромобили — бесплатно.
Sputnik News. Available at: https://ru.sputnik.
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Kudryavtseva, T., (2018). Uzbekistan introduces zero
duty on import of electric vehicles. 24 kg news agency.
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introduces_zero_duty_on_import_of_electric_
vehicles/
747 EERE, (2018). Electric Vehicles: Tax Credits and Other
Incentives. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy. Available at: https://www.energy.gov/eere/
electricvehicles/electric-vehicles-tax-credits-andother-incentives
748 Gualtieri, T., (2017). Cheap Electrics Swarm Madridin Challenge to Conventional Cars. Bloomberg.
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articles/2017-08-11/cheap-electrics-swarm-madrid-inchallenge-to-conventional-cars
749 Arrifin, A., (2017). Singapore’s first electric car-sharing
service rolls out with 80 vehicles. Channels News
Asia. Available at: https://www.channelnewsasia.com/
news/singapore/singapore-s-first-electric-car-sharingservice-rolls-out-with-80-9492380
750 car2go, (2018). White Paper Five reasons why
carsharing plays a decisive role in the breakthrough ofelectric mobility. Available at: https://www.car2go.com/

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media/data/germany/microsite-press/files/car2go_
white-paper_electric-mobility_2018.pdf
751 Business Insider Nordic, (2018). Sweden’s new 25%
subsidy on e-bikes is so popular that it could soon run
dry. Available at: https://nordic.businessinsider.com/
swedens-new-$40-million-electric-bike-subsidy-is-sopopular-that-it-could-run-out-soon--/752 Markham, D., (2017). France offers EUR 200 subsidy
on electric bike purchases. Treehugger. Available at:https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/france-offers-200subsidy-electric-bike-purchases.html
753 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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global-ev-outlook-2018
754 Reuters, (2018). Indian ride-hailing firm Ola to add
10,000 electric three-wheelers to fleet. Available at:https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-ola-electric/
indian-ride-hailing-firm-ola-to-add-10000-electricthree-wheelers-to-fleet-idUSKBN1HN0I8
755 SLoCaT, (2018). E-mobility Overview on Trends andTargets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
files/e-mobility_overview.pdf
756 Yang, Z. Slowik, P., Lutsey, N., Searle, S., (2016).
Principles for Effective Electric Vehicle Incentive
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sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_IZEV-incentivescomp_201606.pdf
757 Alvarado, L., (2018). Costa Rica Begins Changes toPromote Use of Electric Cars. The Costa Rica Star.
Available at: https://news.co.cr/costa-rica-beginschanges-promote-use-electric-cars/70188/; Cole, J.,(2017). Costa Rica Approves Incentives for Electric
Vehicles. Truthdig Available at: https://www.truthdig.
com/articles/costa-rica-passes-law-promotingelectric-vehicles/
758 Transport Malta (2017). Grant Schemes on electric
Environment Friendly Vehicles. Press Release.
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press-release-25-july-2017-grant-schemes-on-electricenvironment-friendly-vehic Transport Malta, (2017).
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strategies-policies-actions/national-transport-visionsstrategies
759 Malaysian Investment Development Authority, (2017).
Plan targets to make Malaysia marketing hub for
EVs by 2030. Available at: http://www.mida.gov.my/
home/4234/news/plan-targets-to-make-malaysiamarketing-hub-for-evs-by-2030/
760 Ministry of Transport, (2018). Electric Vehicles. New
Zealand. Available at: https://www.transport.govt.nz/
multi-modal/climatechange/electric-vehicles/
761 The Straits Times, (2017). Sri Lanka to scrap stateowned fossil fuels vehicles by 2025. Available at:

159

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Endnotes

https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/
sri-lanka-to-scrap-state-owned-fossil-fuel-vehiclesby-2025

Surge. Bangkok Post. Available at: https://www.
bangkokpost.com/business/news/1414335/poweringthe-ev-surge

762 SLoCaT, (2018). E-mobility Overview on Trends andTargets. Available at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/
files/e-mobility_overview.pdf

773 Shirouzu, N., Jourdan, A., (2017). China sets 2019deadline for automakers to meet green-car sales
targets. Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.
com/article/us-autos-china-electric/china-sets-2019deadline-for-automakers-to-meet-green-car-salestargets-idUSKCN1C30ZL

763 Lutsey., N., (2017). Integrating electric vehicles
within U.S. and European efficiency regulations.
The International Council on Clean Transportation.
Available at: https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/
publications/Integrating-EVs-US-EU_ICCT_WorkingPaper_22062017_vF.pdf
764 Doyle, A., (2017). Twelve major world cities agree tobuy zero-emissions buses from 2025. Independent.
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business/news/zero-emission-buses-world-cities2025-london-paris-los-angeles-fossil-fuels-cape-townmexico-city-a8015621.html

774 Autovista Group, (2017). Poland and Sweden look tobuild on electric vehicle aspirations. Available at:https://www.autovistagroup.com/news-and-insights/
poland-and-sweden-look-build-electric-vehicleaspirations
775 Song, S., (2017). China Moves Transport Toward Smart,
Green and Inclusive Freight Transport. The CityFix.
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765 Byrd, A., (2017). Los Angeles to Transition to Electric
Buses to Fight Climate Change. Colorlines. Available
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L.J., Reyes, E.A., (2017). Metro agrees to buy 95 electricbuses, in the first step toward an emissions-free fleet.
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776 Dixon, T., (2018). EV Revolution in China - Next Stop:
Delivery & Freight Vehicles. CleanTechnica. Available
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766 Autovista Group, (2017). Poland and Sweden look tobuild on electric vehicle aspirations. Available at:https://www.autovistagroup.com/news-and-insights/
poland-and-sweden-look-build-electric-vehicleaspirations

778 Jones, K., (2016). California freight plan calls for zeroemission trucks. Available at: http://www.fleetowner.
com/regulations/california-freight-plan-calls-zeroemission-trucks

767 C40 Cities, (n.d.). Cities in Mexico and Colombia focus
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768 Metro, (2016). Europe’s largest electric public bus fleet
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769 Schiphol Group, (2018). Europe’s largest electric bus
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770 Bruge, P., (2016). Barcelona unveils two electric
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barcelona-unveils-two-electric-articulated-buses-anden-route-rapid-charging-station

777 Morris, C., (2017). 27 BYD electric trucks go into service
at LA-area freight facilities. Charged Electric Vehicles
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779 Gies, E., (2017). Electric Trucks Begin Reporting for
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780 Erixon, L., (2017). How electrification is helping Sweden
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781 IEA, (2017). Global EV Outlook 2017. International
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org/publications/freepublications/publication/
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771 Kings, S., (2017). SA promises three million electriccars. Mail & Guardian. Available at: https://mg.co.
za/article/2017-04-07-00-sa-promises-three-millionelectric-cars

782 Sun, W., (2017). China builds world’s largest EV
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772 Maikaew, P., Praiwan, Y., (2018). Powering the EV

783 Lambert, F., (2017) 1,000 new EV charging stations

Endnotes

coming along German Autobahn by 2020. Electrek.
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784 Reuters, (2018). Electric car-charging stations maketheir way to Egypt. The Africa Report. Available at:
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785 STA, (2017). Slovenia to ban sale of new petrol anddiesel cars from 2030. Slovenian Press Agency (STA).
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786 Based on Calculations of IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook
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787 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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788 BNEF, (2018). Electric Buses in Cities: Driving towards
cleaner air and lower CO2. Bloomberg New Energy
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789 Based on data provided by Xiangyi Li, Research
Analyst, World Resources Institute, on 9 September
2017.
790 IEA, (2017). Global EV Outlook 2017. Available at: https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
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791 Ministry of Power, (2017). Elextric Vehicles to be
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792 DHL, (2017). DHL expands environmentally-friendly‘City Hub’ concept in the Netherlands with customized
electric vehicles. Press release. Available at: http://
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hub_concept_in_the_netherlands.html
793 DHL, (2017). Target met for 2017: 5,000 StreetScootersin service at Deutsche Post DHL Group. Press release.
Available at: http://www.dhl.com/en/press/releases/
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794 Lambert, F., (2017). Daimler delivers first electrictrucks to UPS. electrek. Available at: https://electrek.
co/2017/09/15/daimler-delivers-first-electric-trucks-toups/

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

electric truck - and a surprise new sports car. The
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797 Williams, B., (2017). Nikola’s zero-emission, 1,200mile range trucks have a new design partner.
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798 James, S., (2018). Daimler Announces Two All-Electric
Trucks to Compete with Tesla’s Semi. Greener ideal.
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799 Amazon, (2018). Amazon PrimeAir. Available at:https://www.amazon.com/Amazon-Prime-Air/b?ie=UTF8&node=8037720011
800 Vincent, J., (2016). These six-wheeled delivery robots
are starting trials in Europe. The Verge. Available at:https://www.theverge.com/2016/7/6/12105010/deliveryrobot-london-just-eat-starship-technologies
801 BNEF, (2018). Electric Buses in Cities: Driving towards
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802 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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803 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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804 Lambert, F., (2017). Tesla had a record year ofSupercharger expansion but fell short of its goal.
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805 Spaen, B., (2017). Tesla Plans To Launch 18,000
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806 IEA, (2018). Global EV Outlook 2018. International
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807 BNEF, (2018). Electric Buses in Cities: Driving towards
cleaner air and lower CO2. Bloomberg New Energy
Finance. Available at: https://data.bloomberglp.com/
bnef/sites/14/2018/05/Electric-Buses-in-Cities-ReportBNEF-C40-Citi.pdf

795 Lambert, F., (2017). Daimler starts delivering all electrictrucks in Europe. electrek. Available at: https://electrek.
co/2017/12/14/daimler-fuso-ecanter-all-electric-truckseurope/

808 Castellanos, S., Li, X., (2017). Photo Essay: In a Global
First, Shenzhen Steers Toward 100% Electric Bus Fleet.
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in-a-global-first-shenzhen-steers-toward-100-electricbus-fleet-xiangyi-li-sebastian-castellanos-schuylernull/

796. 796 Wong, J.C., (2017). Elon Musk unveils Tesla

809 Mead, L., (2018). REN21 Renewables Report: Heating,

161

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TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

Cooling, Transport Lag Behind Power Sector in Energy
Transformation. International Institute for Sustainable
Development. Available at: http://sdg.iisd.org/news/
ren21-renewables-report-heating-cooling-transportlag-behind-power-sector-in-energy-transformation/
810 Advanced liquid biofuels can be refined from a rangeof sources, including agricultural and forest residues,
non-food energy crops, short-rotation tree species,
solid biogenic waste, and algae. These options
allow the production of biofuels for transport, while
mitigating sustainability risks associated with changing
land use and competition over food production. IRENA,(2016). Innovation Outlook: Advanced Liquid Biofuels.
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811 IRENA ,(2018). Hydrogen from renewable power:
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Publication/2018/Sep/IRENA_Hydrogen_from_renewable_power_2018.pdf

Endnotes

Energy Crops. The International Council on Clean
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824 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2017/
825 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2017/
826 Flexible-fuel vehicles have an internal combustion
engine capable of operating on gasoline or any blendof gasoline and ethanol up to E85. AFDC, (2018). Flexible
Fuel Vehicles. Alternative Fuels Data Center. Available
at: https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/flexible_fuel.
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827 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
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skynrg.com/saf-flights/partnerships/

812 AFDC, (2018). Fuels and Vehicles. Available at: www.
afdc.energy.gov/

829 EC, (2018). Sustainability Criteria. European
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813 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/

830 Natural Resources Canada, (2016). Guiding Principles
for Sustainable Biofuels in Canada. Available at:
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resources/3663

814 IEA, (2017). IEA Renewables 2017: Analysis andForecasts 2022. International Energy Agency. Available
at: https://www.iea.org/publications/renewables2017/
815 IEA, (2018). World Energy Balances. International
Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.iea.org/
statistics/balances/
816 E.g. by introducing renewable electricity mandates
or binding financial and fiscal incentives for electric
mobility to the use of renewable electricity.
817 In this case, the share of renewable electricity in thetransport sector would depend primarily on the shareof renewables in the electricity mix.
818 Includes international aviation and maritime bunkers.
819 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/
820 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/
821 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
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823 Pavlenko, N. and Searle, S., (2018). A Comparisonof Land-Use Change Emissions Estimates from831 IEA-RETD, (2015). Driving renewable energy fortransport – Next generation policy instruments
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832 IEA, (2017). Global EV Outlook 2017. International
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org/publications/freepublications/publication/
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833 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/
834 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2017/
835 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
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836 IRENA, IEA and REN21, (2018). Renewable Energy
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837 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/

Endnotes

838 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
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839 EC, (2018). Renewable energy directive. European
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en/topics/renewable-energy/renewable-energydirective
840 Voegele, E., (2018). EU reaches deal on REDII, sets new
goals for renewables. Biomass Magazine. Available
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841 Spector J., (2017). Bay Area Rapid Transit will run
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842 PPMC, (2017). A Global Macro Roadmap Outlining
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Paris Process on Mobility and Climate. Available
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843 IATA, (n.d.). Climate Change. International Air Transport
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environment/Pages/climate-change.aspx
844 ICAO, (2018). Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme
for International Aviation (CORSIA). International
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int/environmental-rotection/Pages/marketbasedmeasures.aspx
845 IATA, (2018). Sustainable Aviation Fuels – Fact andFigures at a Glance. Available at: www.iata.org/
pressroom/Documents/SAF-stats-sheet.pdf
846 Robinson, U.A., (2017). Personal communication with
REN21, United Airlines.
847 Lamb, H., (2018). Norway to begin electrifying its
aircraft. Engineering and Technology. Available at:https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2018/01/
norway-to-begin-electrifying-its-aircraft/
848 El Takriti, S., Pavlenko, N., Searle, S., (2017).
Mitigating International Aviation Emissions: Risks andOpportunities for Alternative Jet Fuels. International
Council on Clean Transportation Fuels. Available at:https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/
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vF.pdf; IATA, (2017). Fact Sheet: Alternative Fuels(Montreal: December 2017), p. 3. International Air
Transport Association. Available at: https://www.iata.
org/pressroom/facts_figures/fact_sheets/Documents/
fact-sheetalternative-fuels.pdf
849 NREL, (2017). Electric Ground Support Equipment at
Airports. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Available at: https://www.afdc.energy.gov/uploads/
publication/egse_airports.pdf

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850 IMO, (2018). Annex 11. Resolution MEPC.304(72)(adopted on 13 April 2018). Initial IMO Strategy on
Reduction of GHG emissions from Ships. Available
at: http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/
PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Documents/
Resolution%20MEPC.304(72)_E.pdf
851 Based on data of REN21’s Global Status Report 2005
to 2018. REN21 Secretariat. Available at: http://www.
ren21.net/status-of-renewables/global-status-report/
852 IRENA, (2017). Biogas for Road Vehicles
Technology Brief. International Renewable Energy
Agency. Available at: http://www.irena.org/
DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_Biogas_for_
Road_Vehicles_2017.pdf
853 NGV Global, (2018). Natural Gas Vehicle Knowledge
Base. Available at: http://www.iangv.org/
854 Transport and Environment, (2017). How to makethe Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) work forrenewable electricity in transport. Available at:https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/
publications/2017_06_Electricity_in_REDII_0.pdf
855 Uniper, (n.d.). Power-to-Gas. Available at: https://www.
uniper.energy/storage/what-we-do/power-to-gas
856 Uniper, (n.d.). Power-to-Gas. Available at: https://www.
uniper.energy/storage/what-we-do/power-to-gas
857 Huizenga, C. (SLoCaT), Personal communication
REN21. 23 February 2018858 Hawkins, A., (2017). This Electric Truck Startup Thinks
It Can Beat Tesla To Market. The Verge. Available
at: https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/15/16773226/
thor-trucks-electric-truck-etone-tesla; Ros, M., (2017).
7 Electric Aircraft You Could Be Flying In Soon. CNN
Travel. Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/travel/
article/electric-aircraft/index.html
859 IEA, (2018). Oil 2018, Analysis and Forecasts to 2023.
International Energy Agency. Available at: http://
www.oecd.org/publications/market-report-seriesoil-25202707.htm Ethanol and biodiesel converted tobarrels of oil equivalent for overall biofuel percentages,
using a conversion rate of 1 barrel ethanol = 0.58
barrels of oil, 1 barrel biodiesel = 0.86 barrel oil fromBP. Statistical Review of World Energy Approximate
conversion factors. Available at: https://www.bp.com/
content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/energy-economics/
statistical-review-2017/bp-statistical-review-of%20
world%20energy-2017-approximate-conversionfactors.pdf
860 IEA, (2018). Oil 2018, Analysis and Forecasts to 2023.
International Energy Agency. Available at: http://
www.oecd.org/publications/market-report-seriesoil-25202707.htm
861 IEA, (2018). Oil 2018, Analysis and Forecasts to 2023.
International Energy Agency. Available at: http://
www.oecd.org/publications/market-report-seriesoil-25202707.htm

163

164

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

862 NGV Global. Current Natural Gas Vehicle Statistics.
Available at: http://www.iangv.org/current-ngvstats/; IANS. “Biogas Bus Launched In Kolkata”.
Financial Express. 31 March 2017. Available at: http://
www.financialexpress.com/india-news/biogas-buslaunched-in-kolkata/609690/
863 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/864 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/
865 Ta, L., (2018). President Trump is opening up E15
gasoline to year-round use. Can your car use it?
Des Moines Register. Available at: https://www.
desmoinesregister.com/story/news/2018/10/09/ethanoldonald-trump-iowa-e-15-renewable-fuel-corn-iowafarmers-economy-ethanol-hurt-my-car/1579293002/
866 Minnesota Department of Commerce, (2018). Biodiesel.
Available at: https://mn.gov/commerce/industries/fuel/biodiesel/
867 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/
868 REN21, (2018). Global Status Report 2018. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2018/869 Demartini, C., (2017). Electric vehicles: Latin America
joins the global trend. VIA news. Available at: http://via.
news/south-america/electric-vehicles-latin-americajoins-global-trend/
870 Acosta, I. (2014). Uruguay’s public transport goeselectric. Inter Press Service. Available at: http://www.
ipsnews.net/2014/03/uruguays-public-transport-goeselectric/; Firme V., (2015). Uruguay puts high priority on
renewable energies. Inter Press Service. Available at:
http://www.ipsnews.net/2015/11/uruguay-puts-highpriority-on-renewable-energies/
871 Emblin, R., (2017). Bogotá introduces world’s firstelectric articulated bus. The city paper. Available
at: https://thecitypaperbogota.com/bogota/bogotaintroduces-worlds-first-electric-articulated-bus/17391
872 IEA, (2018). Bioenergy workshop: Political andregulatory issues related to Bio-CC(U)S. International
Energy Agency. Available at: http://task41project5.
ieabioenergy.com/ieaevent/market-regulatory-issuesrelated-bio-ccus/
873 Biofuels News, (2017). Nigeria Invests In New
Bioethanol Plant As It Diversifies Away From Oil.
Available at: https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13186/nigeria_invests_in_new_bioethanol_
plant_as_it_diversifies_away_from_oil/; BiofuelsNews, (2017). Sunbird Bioenergy Africa launches
cassava outgrower programme for bio ethanol project.
Available at: https://biofuels-news.com/display_

Endnotes

news/12705/sunbird_bioenergy_africa_launches_cassava_outgrower_programme_for_bioethanol_
project/
874 Shares calculated from: U.S. Energy Information
Administration, (2017). International Energy Outlook
2017. Transportation sector passenger transportand energy consumption by region and mode.
Available at: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/data/browser/#/?id=50-IEO2017&region=0-0&cases=Refe
rence&start=2010&end=2020&f=A&linechart=Refere
nce-d082317.2-50-IEO2017&sourcekey=0 U.S. Energy
Information Administration, (2017). Transportation
sector freight transport energy consumption by region
and mode. Available at: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/
aeo/data/browser/#/?id=51-IEO2017&cases=Reference&sourcekey=0875 Biofuels News, (2017). Chicago O’Hare Airport goesgreen with renewable jet fuel. Available at: https://
biofuels-news.com/display_news/13098/chicago_ohare_airport_goes_green_with_renewable_jet_fuel/;
Biofuels News, (2017). Gevo flies high by supplying jet
fuel to Virgin Australia. Available at: https://biofuelsnews.com/display_news/12978/gevo_flies_high_by_
supplying_renewable_jet_fuel_to_virgin_australia/
876 Biofuels News, (2017). Qantas and Canadian biofuel
producer sign farm to flight biofuel deal. Available
at: https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13155/
qantas_and_canadian_biofuel_producer_sign_farm_
to_flight_biofuel_deal/; Biofuels News, (2018). Qantas
completes first transpacific biofuels flight. Available
at: https://biofuels-news.com/display_news/13368/
qantas_completes_first_transpacific_biofuels_flight/
877 Biofuels News, (2018). China’s first successful crossocean biofuels flight completed. Available at: https://
biofuels-news.com/display_news/13177/chinas_first_
successful_crossocean_biofuels_flight_completed/
Biofuels News, (2017). Biofuels to power Qantas’ flights
between LA and Australia. Available at: https://biofuelsnews.com/display_news/13013/biofuels_to_power_
qantas_flights_between_la_and_australia/
878 Biofuels News, (2018). China’s first successful crossocean biofuels flight completed. Available at: https://
biofuels-news.com/display_news/13177/chinas_first_
successful_crossocean_biofuels_flight_completed/
Biofuels News, (2017). Biofuels to power Qantas’ flights
between LA and Australia. Available at: https://biofuelsnews.com/display_news/13013/biofuels_to_power_
qantas_flights_between_la_and_australia/
879 Quanlin, Q., (2017). Fully electric cargo ship launchedin Guangzhou. China Daily. Available at: http://
www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-11/14/
content_34511312.htm; ABB, (2017). HH Ferries
electrified by ABB win prestigious Baltic Sea Clean
Maritime Award 2017. Press release (Zurich: 14
June 2017). Available at: http://new.abb.com/news/
detail/1688/HH-ferries-electrified-by-ABB-winprestigious-baltic-sea-clean-maritime-award-2017;

Endnotes

Lambert, F., (2017). Two massive ferries are about tobecome the biggest all-electric ships in the world.
Electrek. Available at: https://electrek.co/2017/08/24/
all-electric-ferries-abb/
880 MAREX, (2018). Viking Line Installs Rotor Sail on Cruise
Ferry. The Maritime Executive. Available at: https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/viking-lineinstalls-rotor-sail-on-cruise-ferry
881 Goodfuels, HEINEKEN Netherlands, Nedcargo and
GoodFuels launch first major pilot on sustainablemarine fuel for inland waterway transport; Sea
Trade Maritime News, (2016). Will biofuels become asignificant alternative fuel for shipping? Available at:
http://www.seatrade-maritime.com/news/americas/
will-biofuels-become-significant-alternative-fuel-forshipping.html.
882 Parking, B., (2016). US Navy to tap Australian biofuelhub. Renewable Energy World. Available at: https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/08/u-snavy-to-tap-australian-biofuel-hub.html
883 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
Consumption and CO2 Emissions. International Union
of Railways. Available at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/
handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf
884 UIC and IEA, (2017). Railway Handbook 2017. Energy
Consumption and CO2 Emissions. International Union
of Railways. Available at: https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/
handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf
885 Caughill, P., (2017). All Dutch Trains Now Run On
100% Wind Power. Business Insider. Available at:
http://uk.businessinsider.com/wind-power-trains-innetherlands-2017-6?r=US&IR=T

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

the difference in applicable years, price levels andestimation methods it is concluded the estimates arereasonably similar.
890 ADB, (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs.
Asian Development Bank. Available at: https://www.
adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/227496/specialreport-infrastructure.pdf
891 ICA Secretariat, (2017). Infrastructure Financing Trends
in Africa – 2016. Available at: https://www.icafrica.
org/fileadmin/documents/IFT_2016/Infrastructure_
Financing_Trends_2016.pdf
892 Fay, M. et al., (2017). Rethinking Infrastructure in
Latin America and the Caribbean: Spending Betterto Achieve More. The World Bank Group. Available
at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
en/676711491563967405/pdf/114110-REVISEDRethinking-Infrastructure-Low-Res.pdf
893 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
Trillion Dollar Question: Tracking Public and Private
Investment in Transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
894 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
895 Saha, D., (2018). Low-carbon infrastructure: anessential solution to climate change? World Bank.
Available at: http://blogs.worldbank.org/ppps/lowcarbon-infrastructure-essential-solution-climatechange

886 REN21, (2017). Global Status Report 2017. REN21
Secretariat. Available at: http://www.ren21.net/gsr2017/896 Miyamoto, K., (2015). Official development finance for
infrastructure. Support by multilateral and bilateraldevelopment partners. OECD report to G20 financeministers and central bank governors. Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/development/OfficialDevelopment-Finance-for-Infrastructure.pdf

887 United Nations, (2018). New Transport Decarbonisation
Alliance for Faster Climate Action. Press release.
Available at: https://unfccc.int/news/new-transportdecarbonisation-alliance-for-faster-climate-action

897 ICA Secretariat, (2017). Infrastructure Financing Trends
in Africa – 2016. Available at: https://www.icafrica.
org/fileadmin/documents/IFT_2016/Infrastructure_
Financing_Trends_2016.pdf

888 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D., & Raifman, M., (2014). The
Trillion Dollar Question: Tracking Public and Private
Investment in Transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf The
estimate covers investment in networks, vehicles
in some cases, and interchange facilities across alltransport modes, including air, water, and land-based
freight and passenger transport. The figures exclude
operating and maintenance costs and consumer
spending on vehicles and fuels by individuals or firms.

898 EC, (2017). EU invests EUR 1 billion in transport network
development. European Commission Mobility andTransport. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/transport/
themes/infrastructure/news/2017-11-30-eu-invest-1billion-euro-in-transport_en889 Analysis of International Energy Agency (IEA) dataon the same basis as for WRI described in footnote 1
provided a spending estimate of about USD 2.8 trillion
per annum from 2015 – 2020 (2015 prices) or one third
higher than WRI’s upper estimate for 2010. Given

899 Lefevre, B., Chaudhary, A. I., Yavrom, D. and Srivastava,A., (2016). The Trillion Dollar Question II: Tracking
Investment Needs in Transport. Working Paper.
Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Available
at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/The_Trillion_
Dollar_Question_II_Tracking_Investment_Needs_in_
Transport_0.pdf
900 IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives 2017
- Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/

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901 These scenarios exclude estimates for climate
proofing; IEA, (2017). Energy Technology Perspectives
2017. Catalysing Energy Technology Transformations.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://www.
iea.org/etp2017/
902 Reference Technology Scenario (RTS) provides
a baseline scenario that takes into accountexisting energy- and climate-related commitmentsby countries, including Nationally Determined
Contributions pledged under the Paris Agreement.
The 2°C Scenario (2DS) and the Beyond 2°C Scenario(B2DS) each sets out a rapid decarbonisation pathway
in line with international policy goals.
903 Not only to raise revenue but to dampen demand
which would be expected to be stimulated by lower
motoring costs.
904 Replogle, M. and Fulton, L., (2014). A Global
High Shift Scenario: Impacts and potential for
more public transport, walking, and cycling withlower car use. ITDP and UC Davis. Available at:https://3gozaa3xxbpb499ejp30lxc8-wpengine.netdnassl.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/A-Global-HighShift-Scenario_WEB.pdf
905 Huizenga, C., Sayeg, P. and Wuertenberger, L., (2014).
Policy Brief: Scaling-up Sustainable, Low-Carbon
Transport – overcoming funding and financing
challenges, and the role of climate finance. Available
at: http://slocat.net/sites/default/files/u10/draft_policy_
brief_-_for_cop20_dissemination_0.pdf
906 ADB, (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs.
Asian Development Bank. Available at: https://www.
adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/227496/specialreport-infrastructure.pdf
907 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
908 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
909 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
910 ADB, (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs.
Asian Development Bank. Available at: https://www.
adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/227496/specialreport-infrastructure.pdf
911 Owen et al., (2012). Evaluate, Enable, Engage:
Principles to Support Effective Decision Making in
Mass Transit Investment Programs. World Resources

Endnotes

Institute. Available at: https://wrirosscities.org/
research/publication/evaluate-enable-engageprinciples-support-effective-decision-making-mass
912 MYC, (2016). 100 cities are engaged in sustainableurban mobility planning to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. MobiliseYourCity. Available at: http://
mobiliseyourcity.net/resources/#NUMP
913 Estupiñán, N. et al. (2007) Affordability and Subsidies
in Public Urban Transport: What Do We Mean, What
Can Be Done? The World Bank, Latin America andthe Caribbean Region, Sustainable Development
Department. Available at: https://openknowledge.
worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/7562/wps4440.
pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y914 IEA, (2017). Global EV Outlook 2017. Available at: https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
GlobalEVOutlook2017.pdf
915. 915 Markham, D., (2017). Sweden offers a 25% subsidy
for electric bike purchases. Treehugger. Available at:https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/sweden-offers-25subsidy-electric-bike-purchases.html
916 Markham, D., (2017). France offers EUR 200 subsidy
on electric bike purchases. Treehugger. Available at:https://www.treehugger.com/bikes/france-offers-200subsidy-electric-bike-purchases.html
917 Wagner, A. and Flues, V., (2017). Non-Alternative Facts
on International Fuel Prices in 2016. GIZ International
Fuel Prices.
918 Merrill, L., (2018). Getting on the right track: Swap fossil
fuel subsidies to finance public transport.
919 Merrill, L., Bridle, R., Klimscheffskij, M. and Tommila, P.,(2017). Making the Switch: From fossil fuel subsidies tosustainable energy. Nordic Council of Ministers, Nordic
Council of Ministers Secretariat.
920 Finnsson, P.T., (2017). Nordic countries prioritise fossil
fuel subsidy reform. Euobserver. Available at: https://
euobserver.com/stakeholders/139822
921 Whitley, S. et al., (2018). G7 fossil fuel subsidy
scorecard: tracking the phase-out of fiscal support
and public finance for oil, gas and coal. Overseas
Development Institute. Available at: https://www.
odi.org/publications/11131-g7-fossil-fuel-subsidyscorecard
922 Mathiesen, K., (2016). G7 nations pledge to end fossil
fuel subsidies by 2025. The Guardian. Available at:https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/
may/27/g7-nations-pledge-to-end-fossil-fuel-subsidiesby-2025
923 CAN, (2017). Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe’s
fossil fuel subsidies. Climate Action Network Europe.
Available at: http://www.caneurope.org/publications/blogs/1471-report-phase-out-2020-monitoring-europes-fossil-fuel-subsidies
924 Pradiptyo, R. et al., (2016). Financing development with

Endnotes

fossil fuel subsidies: the reallocation of Indonesia’s
gasoline and diesel subsidies in 2015. International
Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). Available
at: https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/financing-development-with-fossil-fuel-subsidiesindonesia.pdf
925 IEA, (2016). Indonesia’s steady progress in tacklingfossil fuel subsidies. International Energy Agency.
Available at: https://www.iea.org/newsroom/
news/2016/december/indonesias-steady-progress-intackling-fossil-fuel-subsidies.html
926 Hafeneth, T., (2017) Reforming Fossil Fuel Subsidies fora Cleaner Future. The World Bank. Available at: http://
www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/11/21/
reforming-fossil-fuel-subsidies-for-a-cleaner-future
927 Khaleej Times, (2015). Fuel prices in UAE to bederegulated from August 1. Available at: https://www.
khaleejtimes.com/business/local/fuel-prices-in-uaeto-be-deregulated-from-august-1; Arabian Business,(2018). Dubai public transport riders rise to more than
550m in 2017. Available at: http://www.arabianbusiness.
com/transport/390611-dubai-public-transport-ridersrise-to-more-than-550m-in-2017
928 Finnsson, P. T., (2017). Nordic countries prioritise fossil
fuel subsidy reform. EUobserver. Available at: https://
euobserver.com/stakeholders/139822
929 IISD, (2017). Fossil Fuel Subsidy Reform and the Just
Transition: Integrating approaches for complementary
outcomes.
930 Based on IEA, (2017). World Energy Outlook 2017.
International Energy Agency. Available at: https://
webstore.iea.org/world-energy-outlook-2017 and GIZ,
in: Merrill, L. and Morgan-Jones, M., (2018). The Triple
Win. Fossil Fuel Subsidy Reform and Fuel Taxation:
Opportunities for Government to Save Money, Fund
Sustainable Development, and Reduce GHG Emissions.
Modern Environmental Science and Engineering.
January 2018, Volume 4, No. 1, pp. 49-62. Doi: 10.15341/
mese(2333-2581)/01.04.2018/006
931 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
932 Chao, J. et al., (2017). Private Participation in
Infrastructure Annual Update. World Bank Group.
Available at: http://www.pppcouncil.ca/web/
P3_Knowledge_Centre/Research/2016_Private_
Participation_in_Infrastructure__Annual_Report.aspx
933 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
934 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
935 ICA Secretariat, (2017). Infrastructure Financing Trends
in Africa – 2016. Available at: https://www.icafrica.
org/fileadmin/documents/IFT_2016/Infrastructure_
Financing_Trends_2016.pdf
936 ADB, (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs, p. 30.
Asian Development Bank. Available at: https://www.
adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/227496/specialreport-infrastructure.pdf
937 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
938 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
939 Saha, D. et al., (2018). 2017 Private Participation in
Infrastructure Annual Report. World Bank Group.
Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
en/658451524561003915/pdf/125640-AR-PPI-2017AnnualReport-PUBLIC.pdf
940 Lefevre, B., Leipziger, D. and Raifman, M., (2014). The
trillion dollar question: Tracking public and private
investment in transport. World Resources Institute.
Available at: https://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/
trillion_dollar_question_working_paper.pdf
941 ADB, (2017). Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs.
Asian Development Bank. Available at: https://www.
adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/227496/specialreport-infrastructure.pdf
942 Guttman, J., Sy, A. and Chattopadhyay, S., (2015).
Financing African Infrastructure Can the World
Deliver? Brookings. Available at: https://www.
brookings.edu/research/financing-africaninfrastructure-can-the-world-deliver/
943 OECD, (2014). Development Co-operation Report 2014
Mobilising Resources for Sustainable Development.
Organisation for Economic Development andCooperation.
944 The eight MDBs are: African Development Bank(AfDB), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Development
Bank of Latin America (CAF), European Investment
Bank (EIB), European Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment (EBRD), Inter-American Development
Bank (IADB), Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) andWorld Bank (WB).
945 Replogle, M., (2015). Two Years In: How Are theWorld’s Multilateral Development Banks Doing in
Delivering on their $175 Billion Pledge for More

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Sustainable Transport? Institute for Transportation
Development and Policy. Available at: https://www.
itdp.org/2015/04/10/two-years-in-how-are-the-worldsmultilateral-development-banks-doing-in-deliveringon-their-175-billion-pledge-for-more-sustainabletransport/
946 MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport,(2013). Progress Report (2012–2013) of the
MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport.
Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/
files/institutional-document/34084/files/mdb-wgstprogress-report-2012-2013.pdf; MDB Working Groupon Sustainable Transport, (2015). Progress Report(2013–2014) of the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport. Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/institutional-document/154603/mdb-wgstprogress-report-2013-2014.pdf; MDB Working Groupon Sustainable Transport, (2015). Progress Report(2014–2015) of the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport. Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/institutional-document/176917/mdbprogress-report-2014-2015.pdf; MDB Working Groupon Sustainable Transport, (2017). Progress Report(2015-2016) of the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport. Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/institutional-document/211966/mdbprogress-report-2015-2016.pdf
947 For more information, please refer to Annex B and
Annex C of MDB Group, (2018). 2017 Joint Report on
Multilateral Development Banks’ Climate Finance.
Available at: https://www.ebrd.com/2017-joint-reporton-mdbs-climate-finance
948 MDB Group, (2017). 2016 Joint Report on MultilateralDevelopment Banks’ Climate Finance. Available at:https://publications.iadb.org/handle/11319/8505
949 MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport, (2018).
Progress Report (2016–2017) of the MDB Working
Group on Sustainable Transport (to be published).
950 World Bank, (2016). Climate Change Action Plan 20162020. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.
org/bitstream/handle/10986/24451/K8860.pdf
951 Information of this section are based on SLoCaT’s
data of climate finance transport instruments, SLoCaT,(2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.net/trakb
952 Nine major climate finance instruments (CFIs) areconsidered in this discussion: Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM), the Clean Technology Fund
(CTF), the Green Climate Fund (GCF), the Global
Environment Facility (GEF), the International Climate
Initiative (IKI), the Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM),
Joint Implementation (JI), Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions (NAMA), and the Nordic
Development Fund (NDF).
953 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

Endnotes

954 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
955 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
956 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
957 Heavy rail is defined here as intercity and interregional(non-urban), non high-speed rail connections. Metroand tram projects are included in the percentage ofurban transport projects.
958 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
959 CPI, (2015). The Global Landscape of Climate Finance.
Climate Policy Initiative, November Issue. Page 2.
960 CBI, (2018). Green Bonds Highlights 2017. Climate
Bonds Initiative. Available at: https://www.
climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi-green-bondshighlights-2017.pdf
961 CBI, (2018). Green Bonds Highlights 2017. Climate
Bonds Initiative. Available at: https://www.
climatebonds.net/files/reports/cbi-green-bondshighlights-2017.pdf
962. 962 Giuliani, D., (2017). Sidebar on Green Bonds forTransport. Climate Bonds Initiative.
963 CBI, (2017). Bonds and Climate Change: State of theMarket 2017. Climate Bonds Initiative. Available at:https://www.climatebonds.net/resources/reports/
bonds-and-climate-change-state-market-2017
964 Paztdorf, L., (2017). Alpha Trains green refinance deal:
Certified EUR 250m, US private placement for energy
efficient passenger trains. Climate Bonds Initiative.
Available at: https://www.climatebonds.net/2017/01/
alpha-trains-green-refinance-deal-certified-eur-250mus-private-placement-energy-efficient
965 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb ; Data received by CBI, (2018). Labelled green
bonds data. Available at: https://www.climatebonds.
net/cbi/pub/data/bonds
966 Hausfather, Z., (2017). Explainer: California’s new‘cap-and-trade’ scheme to cut emissions. CarbonBrief.
Available at: https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainercalifornias-new-cap-and-trade-scheme-to-cutemissions
967 Timperley, J., (2018). Q&A: How will China’s new
carbon trading scheme work. CarbonBrief. available at:https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-how-will-chinas-newcarbon-trading-scheme-work
968 Talberg, A., Swoboda, K., (2013). Emissions
trading schemes around the world. Parliament ofAustralia. Available at: https://www.aph.gov.au/
About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/
Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/2012-2013/
EmissionsTradingSchemesEndnotes

TRANSPORT AND CLIMATE CHANGE GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2018

969 UNCRD, (n.d.). Regional EST Forum. Available at: http://
www.uncrd.or.jp/index.php?menu=384

986 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

970 UNESCAP, (2016). Regional Action Programme forTransport Development in Asia and the Pacific.
Available at: https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/
files/Booklet_B_RAP2012-2016.pdf

987 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

971 PPMC, (2017). Marrakech Partnership for Global
Climate Action (MPGCA) Transport Initiatives: Stocktake on action toward implementation of the Paris
Agreement and the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable
Development. Paris Process on Mobility and Climate.
Available at: https://bit.ly/2HmGEzI
972 UNCTAD, (2018). UNCTAD Framework for Sustainable
Freight Transport. Available at: https://sft-framework.org/
973 BSR Collaboration, (n.d.). Clean Cargo. Available athttps://www.clean-cargo.org/
974 PPMC, (2017). Marrakech Partnership for Global
Climate Action (MPGCA) Transport Initiatives: Stocktake on action toward implementation of the Paris
Agreement and the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable
Development. Second Progress Report. Available
at: http://www.ppmc-transport.org/wp-content/
uploads/2017/11/2017-MPGCA-Transport-InitiativesReport_Final.pdf
975 NDC Partnership, (2018). NDC Partnership. Available at:https://ndcpartnership.org/
976 2050 Pathways Platform, (2018). 2050 Pathways
Platform. Available at: https://www.2050pathways.org/
977 Low Emissions Development Strategies Global
Partnership (LEDS GP), (2018). Advancing climateresilient, low-emission development around the world.
Available at: http://ledsgp.org/
978 Under2 MoU, (2018). The Under2 MoU. Available at:https://www.under2coalition.org/under2-mou
979 Science-Based Targets, (2018). Science-Based
Targets. Driving Ambitious Corporate Climate Action.
Initiative. Available at: https://sciencebasedtargets.org/
980 Labuting, N. et al., (2015). Driving Ambitious Corporate
Climate Action. Science Based Targets. Available
at: http://sciencebasedtargets.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/09/SBTManual_PubComDraft_22Sep15.pdf
981 We Mean Business Coalition, (2018). We
Mean Business. Available at: https://www.
wemeanbusinesscoalition.org/
982 Shared Mobility Principles for Livable Cities, (2018).
Shared Mobility Principles for Livable Cities. Available
at: https://www.sharedmobilityprinciples.org/
983 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
984 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb
985 SLoCaT, (2018). TraKB. Available at: http://www.slocat.
net/trakb

988 MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport,(2013). Progress Report (2012–2013) of the
MDB Working Group on Sustainable Transport.
Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/
files/institutional-document/34084/files/mdb-wgstprogress-report-2012-2013.pdf; MDB Working Groupon Sustainable Transport, (2015). Progress Report(2013–2014) of the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport. Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/institutional-document/154603/mdb-wgstprogress-report-2013-2014.pdf; MDB Working Groupon Sustainable Transport, (2015). Progress Report(2014–2015) of the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport. Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/institutional-document/176917/mdbprogress-report-2014-2015.pdf; MDB Working Groupon Sustainable Transport, (2017). Progress Report(2015-2016) of the MDB Working Group on Sustainable
Transport. Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/
default/files/institutional-document/211966/mdbprogress-report-2015-2016.pdf
989 MDBs, (2012). Joint MDB Report on Climate Finance2011. Available at: http://www.eib.org/attachments/
documents/joint_mdb_report_on_mitigation_
finance_2011.pdf; MDBs, (2013). Joint MDB Report on
Climate Finance 2012. Available at: https://www.ebrd.
com/downloads/sector/sei/climate-finance-2012.pdf;
MDBs, (2014). Joint MDB Report on Climate Finance2013. Available at: https://www.ebrd.com/downloads/
news/mdb-climate-finance-2013.pdf; MDBs, (2015).
Joint MDB Report on Climate Finance 2014. Available
at: http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Climate/mdb-climate-finance-2014-jointreport-061615.pdf; MDBs, (2016). Joint MDB Report on
Climate Finance 2015. Available at: https://www.adb.
org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/189560/
mdb-joint-report-2015.pdf; MDBs, (2017). Joint MDB
Report on Climate Finance 2016. Available at: https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/
Generic-Documents/2016-joint-report-on-mdbsclimate-finance.pdf; MDBs, (2018). Joint MDB Reporton Climate Finance 2017. Available at: http://www.ebrd.
com/2017-joint-report-on-mdbs-climate-finance
990 Climate finance for sustainable transport used in graphis only provided under the MDBs’ mitigation financeportfolio. Specific amount for financing transport
activities under the adaptation portfolio is not provided
in the reports.

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For more information, please visit:www.slocat.net/tcc-gsr