Chapter

5Intelligent Transport
Systems
Takaaki Hasegawa
Professor, Division of Mathematics, Electronics and Informatics, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Saitama University

5.1

An introduction to ITS

5.1.1 What is ITS?
The term ITS was coined in 1994, and stands for “Intelligent Transport Systems” or “Intelligent Transportation Systems.” In a broad sense, an ITS is a system relating to mobility that has increased in sophistication through information technology (IT). However, the specific terms and concepts differ according
to the country and situation.
The Japanese government and the specified nonprofit corporation, ITS Japan, use “kodo doro kotsu
shisutemu,” meaning “intelligent road and transportation systems,” but the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers, the Information Processing Society of Japan, the Institute ofElectrical Engineers of Japan, and others use “kodo kotsu shisutemu,” which in English means “intelligent
transport systems.”
As Fig. 1 shows, The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism defines an ITS as “anew transport system constructed with the goal of alleviating road traffic problems such as accidents
and congestion using state-of-the-art information and communication technologies to create an information network based on people, automobiles, and roads.”1)
ITS Japan explains the concept as, “a system for solving a variety of problems that road traffic faces,such as accidents, congestion, and environmental measures, through the exchange of information
between people, automobiles, and roads. It attempts to coexist
with the environment and improve energy efficiency by elimiPeople
nating accidents and congestion while at the same time optimizing the road network by utilizing state-of-the-art information and communication and control technologies. In
addition, it has the potential to create new industries andmarkets with its diverse related technologies, and promises tobe a driving force in changing the social system.”2)
In each academic society listed above, ITS are not limited

Information andCommunication
Roads Technology Vehicles
Figure 1. The Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism’s ITS1)

50｜Theory

to automobiles, but also include railways, aircraft, and shipping traffic as areas that can also benefit fromthe sophistication of mobile IT. This mobility-oriented concept is popular in other countries, especiallyin Europe.
5.1.2 Organizations promoting ITS
In a variety of countries, ITS are promoted by a wide range of organizations including governments,
local governments, industries, and academic societies. For example, as of 1996 the ministries and agencies promoting ITS in Japan were called the “five concerned ministries,” consisting of the National Police
Agency, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, and Ministry of Construction. After subsequent reorganization and renaming, there
are currently many more ministries and agencies involved, including the Cabinet Secretariat, Cabinet
Office, National Police Agency, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry, and Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Also, ITS Japan, aspecified nonprofit corporation, has been essential in the promotion of ITS in Japan. ITS Japan has taken
the role of Secretariat of the ITS World Congress and ITS Symposium, and is responsible for the publication of academic journals such as the International Journal of ITS Research. It actively promotes ITS
activities in the spirit of international cooperation among industry, government, and academia.
The ITS World Congress, described later, is a trilateral symposium held every year, rotating
between Europe, Asia, and the United States, and centering around the European Road Transport Telematics Implementation Coordination Organization, which is a private-public organization for promoting ITS in Europe, the Intelligent Transportation Society of America, which is a nonprofit scientific andeducational organization for the purpose of ITS promotion and serves as the official advisory committeeof the US Federal Department of Transportation, and ITS Japan. Moreover, there are many other private–public organizations promoting ITS in each country and together with the efforts of a variety ofuniversities and research institutes, ITS are receiving broad promotion.
In addition to the IEEE and Transportation Research Board in the United States and the three Japanese academic societies mentioned above, other academic societies, such as the Society of Automotive
Engineers of Japan, the Japan Society of Civil Engineers, the Japan Society of Traffic Engineers, and theInternational Association of Traffic and Safety Sciences, are also involved in the promotion of ITS. ISO/TC 204 - Intelligent Transport Systems plays a central role in standardization, but coordination with
International Telecommunication Union is still undertaken, especially in the field of information andcommunication.
5.1.3 Aims of ITS
According to the definition of ITS, the range and concept used in each field may change, but the purpose of ITS generally relates to the “safety, efficiency, environmental concerns, and convenience of traffic
and transport via the thorough utilization of IT.” Therefore, changes in information and communication,
positioning, and underlying sensing technology by means of lifestyle and value changes as well as theadvancement and dissemination of science and technology, always bring about changes in the ITS world.

Chapter 5: Intelligent Transport Systems｜51

The next section will review the history of ITS.

5.2

History of ITS

5.2.1 The beginning of the ITS World Congress and the transition of Japan’s ITS
The annual World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems (hereinafter, World Congress) was first
held in Paris in 1994, and the following year saw it held in Yokohama. The first World Congress wasnamed and positioned as “The First World Congress on Advanced Transport Telematics and Intelligent
Vehicle-Highway Systems,” and the theme was “Towards an Intelligent Highway Transport System.”3)
The name was officially changed to contain ITS at the second World Congress. Japan enthusiasticallyembraced ITS following the Congress in Yokohama in 1995, and in 1996 the “Grand Plan to Promote
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)” was established by five concerned (then-) ministries and ITS has
been actively promoted ever since. Figure 2 shows the subsequent timeline.
The period from 1996 until mid-2004 came to be known as the first stage of ITS. As of 2014, 21
services in 9 fields have been launched, such as the widely used Vehicle Information and Communication System (VICS), which is representative of a sophisticated navigation system, and Electronic Toll
Collection (ETC).4)
An ITS is one system made of many, and understanding of the underlying systems is important tounderstand the system as a whole. Many of these were small-scale systems created as dedicated systems
for their various uses (system by system). Recently, systems tend to be applications or “apps” built onFirst Stage

Second Stage

Next-Generation ITS(Promotion of practical implementation) (Dissemination and accelerated spread (Responding to social challenges)of the technology through society)1996
Five concerned ministries

2004
Japan’s ITS Promotion Council

Automatic toll collection system
Safe driving support
Traffic management optimization
Road management efficiency
Public transport support
Commercial vehicle efficiency
Pedestrian support
Emergency vehicle operations support

1995
World Congress in Yokohama

Facilitation and environmentalload reduction

Improved convenience

Regional activation

Foundation development
and internationalization

2004
World Congress in Nagoya

Figure 2. The flow of Japan’s ITS4)

Recommendations for future creations by the ITS

Enhanced safety

ITS Promotion Guidelines

The grand design of ITS Promotion

Sophisticated navigation system

2013
ITS Japan

2013
World Congress in Tokyo

Realization ofsustainablemobility

52｜Theory

platforms. For example, the creation of a word processing application running on top of an OS platform
on a home computer, which led to the disappearance of the word processor as a dedicated machine, or
the increased rate of smartphone use after the development of apps that could run on mobile platforms
such as Android or iOS, which ushered in a decline in the use of standard portable handsets or featurephones. Such a shift has also seen dedicated car navigation systems making the changeover to car navigation apps running on smartphones. In short, the shift from dedicated systems to platform oriented
systems is a significant change (Fig. 3).

Application (App) N

Application (App) 3

Application (App) 2

Application (App) 1

System N

System 3

System 2

System 1

・・・

・・・

・・・

Platform
Figure 3. Platform-oriented. System implementation using applications running on a platform

In 2004, the Japan ITS Promotion Council released its “ITS Promotion Guidelines,” the pillars ofwhich are “safety and security, environment and efficiency, and comfort and convenience,”4) and represent a top level purpose-oriented concept with the main thrust being that each system is integrated andrunning on a platform. For examples of various projects see Reference 4.
The first stage of promotion was the practical use of the technology, the second stage was the dissemination and accelerated spread of the technology through society, and since 2010, the realization of asustainable mobile environment has been promoted as the next generation of ITS’s response to social
issues. For the future of ITS, in light of the changes in both the societal and technical contexts, efforts
continue toward the expansion of regional ITS and the realization of a next-generation mobility society.
These efforts can be summed up in eight points:4)
1. Construction of a safe and secure transport system
2. Construction of a next-generation automobile society
3. A response to environmental needs
4. A response to the development of information and communication technologies
5. A response to the movement of next-generation people and goods
6. The introduction and promotion of an integrated regional ITS
7. Disaster response
8. A response to internationalization
5.2.2 The history of related fields
Although the term ITS was coined in 1994, as previously mentioned, its origins can be traced back to
the 1980s with programs that used sensing, information and communication, and signal processing andChapter 5: Intelligent Transport Systems｜53

information processing to achieve a greater sophistication of traffic and transport, such as the Partners
for Advanced Transportation Technology (PATH) Program in California in the United States and thePROgraMme for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety (PROMETHEUS)
in Europe. Furthermore, if projects in Europe, America, and Japan such as automated driving, route
guidance, and the provision of traffic information are included, the origins can be traced back to the1950s.5) Please refer to existing literature6) that explains the needs and legislation required regarding thetransition of research and development of automated driving, which began in the 1950s and comes up
to the present day with Japan’s ITS research and development projects on vehicle convoys traveling
together in a line for increased energy efficiency.
5.2.3 System architecture
The system architecture conceptually represents interactions between the elements of each system andthe system as a whole, as if laid out on a nautical chart, to achieve the system’s objectives, and is intended
to effectively advance the development of systems that require time to realize their large-scale practicalapplications and to spread through society. The purpose of system architecture development is to construct integrated systems efficiently, to ensure the scalability of the system, as well as to promote national
and international standardization.
The system architecture in Japan that was formulated in the late 1990s (see Fig. 4) includes a complete picture (see Fig. 5) of the user service system, which is a premise of the plan.7)

PeopleCenterCollection/provision of external information

Collection/provision of organizational information

Detection (accidents, vehicles,
drivers, obstacles, people)

Movement plan management

Road traffic information management(movement path, traffic, weather)

Movement path planning management

Human interface unit

(possible replacement for wide area wireless communications such as satellite communications or broadcasting)

Short-range communications (road-to-vehicle*)

Short-range communications (vehicle-to-vehicle)

Vehicle control

Public transport service information management

Wired communications

Wide-area wireless communications

VehicleTraffic flow control plan management

Wheelchair management

Road traffic information management(movement path, pathway, site, traffic, weather)

Road traffic information management (movement path)

Vehicle information management

Toll collection management

Human interface unit

Accident information management

Detection (accidents, obstacles, people, goods)

External

Roadside- Provision of
travel/tourism/entertainment
related information- Provision ofbusiness/media/government
related information- Provision of route/facilities
information- Provision of support for
emergency activities/disasterprevention information- Information network access- Banking services- Public transport authority usage
and reservations/checkins/ticketing services/etc.

Fee calculations
Movement path planning management
Road traffic information management
Traffic flow control plan management
Detection (accidents, vehicles, obstacles)
Human interface unit

*Short-range communication (road-to-vehicle) indicates narrow range communication that takes place between the roadside and the vehicle/people.

Figure 4. System architecture (interconnected subsystems)7)

54｜Theory(User services)(Individual user services)(Sub-services)

1. Sophisticated navigation system(Development field)(1) Provision of traffic-related information(1) Provision of routeinformation to the driver

1. Provision of optimal
path information

2. Automatic toll collection system(3) Automatic toll collection(2) Provision of destination information(2) Provision of other institutional
information to the driver(4) Provision of driving environment information

3. Safe driving support

2. Provision of roadtraffic information
3. Provision of traffic jam/congestion information(time required, etc.)(5) Risk warnings

4. Reliable guidancealong selected route(6) Driving assistance(7) Automated driving(8) Optimization of traffic flow

4. Traffic management optimization(9) Provision of traffic control information when a traffic accident occurs

ITS(10) Maintenance work efficiency

5. Road management efficiency(11) Management of special vehicles(12) Provision of traffic regulation information
6. Public transport support(13) Provision of public transport usage information

7. Commercial vehicle efficiency(15) Commercial vehicle operations management support(14) Public transport operations, operations management support(16) Continuous automated driving of commercial vehicles
8. Support for pedestrians and others(17) Route guidance(18) Hazard prevention

9. Emergency vehicle operations support(19) Automatic emergency notifications(20) Emergency vehicle route guidance and relief activities support(21) Use of advanced information and communication technologies for information related to society

9

21

56

172
7)

Figure 5. Overview of proposed system architecture development for user service system

5.3

ITS fields and research and development themes

5.3.1 Overview of the fields of ITS
The different fields of ITS, from their fundamental technologies to their surface applications, are manylayered and the expansion of
System technologies/services/policies
these fields is similarly diverse.
As Fig. 6 shows, the frameworkof ITS fields are supported bytheir respective fundamental

Environment

Convenience

Other
systems

Recreation

ITS architecture/probe/ITS platform

Figure 6. Framework of ITS fields

Other fundamental
technologies

Fundamental technologies

ITS map technology

ITS HMI technology

ITS control technology

pedestrian services for the various functions provided by the

Efficiency

ITS sensing technology

as safe driving support services,traffic control services, andSafetyITS positioning technology

tion and communication, positioning, and sensing, and there
are numerous applications such

Traffic
Transport planning/ Pedestrian Environmental and Logistics Telematics
control road management system systemenergy system system

ITS information andcommunication technology

technologies such as informa-

Accidents andsafety system

Chapter 5: Intelligent Transport Systems｜55

fundamental technologies in the middle layer of the platform.8)
The technologies that underlie the applications change with the passage of time. For example, thetransition from dedicated information and communication, positioning, and sensing systems to all-purpose mobile phones, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and smartphones with built-in body sensing capabilities create
the landscape in which new applications are released. In addition, the continued evolution of each fundamental technology and system technology also sees the evolution of the safe driving support systemfrom simple danger warnings to assisted safe driving technologies to automated driving systems.
Figure 6 shows the universal and abstract concepts persistent through time from the fundamental
technologies to the surface applications.
5.3.2 Changes in trends of the ITS world, and research and development themes
Originally, the essence of ITS was mostly
Expansion of human perception range for action/decisionawareness enhancement (Fig. 7). Safe driving support systems such as danger warn-(Bring an understanding of the macro level to an understanding of the micro level)- Safety improvements- Efficiency improvements through route selection,
prevention of frustration- Economic effects of digital signage and excursions(excursions make changes down to the ground level,
context marketing)ing systems that inform the driver of risks
looming beyond the range of their field ofvision, wide-area real-time traffic inforUser’s position
mation that cannot be known by drivers
themselves, and the forecasting of potential areas of congestion all assist the driverin taking actions to avoid risks and inconveniences. They also inform drivers about
Figure 7. Awareness enhancement in the ITS fields
current road surface conditions and canalert the driver thereby helping to prevent accidents. Technologies spread out from there to anti-lockbraking systems (ABS) and collision avoidance systems assisting the driver in vehicle operation. Generally, these changes represent a transition from after-the-fact passive safety to before-the-fact active safety,
paving the way for automated driving at various levels.
VICS is a system transmitting traffic information, and initially collected sensing data from relatively large road systems using infrastructure-mounted sensors such as loop coils or ultrasonic sensors.
However, these data can fundamentally be collected only in areas close to the sensor locations. In contrast, systems developed over the past 10 years use probe car (floating car) data and then upload thosedata, including position, directly to servers on information networks. These systems are able to grasp
traffic conditions by aggregating collected data and delivering traffic information to each vehicle. Thismethod is able to select a single car from a group, and does not require any additional investment for
infrastructure such as installing new sensors. The data collected are not limited by the installation positions of the sensor infrastructure, as long as the car passes a sensor, the data are collected. However, thistype of probe system is not favorable overall. Although the installation locations of the infrastructure
sensors are limited, the traffic data collected are fine-grained. In contrast, the probe system relies on
absolute traffic volume and the proportion of sensors installed over the entire road system to determine

56｜Theory

the quality of the data. At lower traffic volumes the precision and accuracy of the data collected falls, and nodata are collected at all if no vehicle
containing a transmitter passes thetarget area, since a vehicle without atransmitter does not work as a probe.
One example of using this feature is the collection of probe car data
immediately after the Great East
Japan Earthquake on March 11, 2011.
Figure 8 shows this example. The
portions in blue show traffic data
within a 24-h period after the earthFigure 8. Example of probe information system (Honda Internavi
quake. Note, however, that the figure
traveling experiences immediately after the Great East Japan
does not always show the traffic data
Earthquake)9)
for all potentially passable roads, it
simply shows four-wheeled passenger vehicles passing the sensor locations within a 24-h period. Furthermore, it does not show motorcycles or large transport vehicles using the roads; if a driver had not
happened to use the road, no trace would have been recorded at all. It also does not show the passage oftraffic on roads that are not colored blue. Yet, there is no doubt that these data were very important
information in supporting activities during the disaster situation.
A system using probes to gather data from smartphones is able to gather data with even finer granularity. While probes installed in vehicles provide data for only that single vehicle, probes transmittingfrom a smartphone can render extremely fine-grained position and direction data from people on buses,
trains, and riding in cars; pedestrians on streets and in underground malls; and people inside buildings.
It is also possible to process various pieces of uploaded data on the server side depending on conditions.
The use of smartphones as probes certainly reduces the size of the entity operating the system fromthe national level to the size of major companies, and in the future it is entirely feasible that this level
will again be reduced to encompass small and medium-sized organizations.
In addition, even though smartphone applications may be partly inferior to a dedicated car navigation system, the fact that many applications can replace dedicated systems is a clear indication of themove toward lightweight solutions.
ETC is a system that automatically collects user toll fees to pay for road construction and maintenance costs from vehicles using the road, so for this purpose it is not absolutely necessary that the user’svehicle pass through a gate. It is possible to levy the toll using indexed routing information from theposition data. If this is to become a reality, a system function preventing users from eluding the toll
charge will become necessary.
Now, let us discuss the role of positioning infrastructure as a fundamental technology. There is noChapter 5: Intelligent Transport Systems｜57

doubt that the most prevalent positioning infrastructure is GPS. However, in recent years, methods foracquiring specific position data by using the MAC address and RSSI of Wi-Fi access points are notably
becoming the second-most used technique for acquiring location information and position information,
representing positioning social infrastructure. With the addition of Bluetooth low-energy (BLE), positioning infrastructure has come to have a heterogeneous system structure. Similarly, this is also a contributing factor in the move toward lightweight solutions. Positioning using GPS requires a nationallevel endeavor; however, positioning using Wi-Fi and BLE has now become possible for companies andsmaller organizations. Of course, there are both strong and weak points in the environment for theapplication of GPS, Wi-Fi, and BLE. GPS excels in outdoor environments, particularly in mountainous
regions, at sea, and the like where there are few tall buildings. Wi-Fi is robust in urban areas, particularly
where users are inside buildings or underground shopping centers. BLE exerts its strength indoors. Thisis an additional contributing factor in the movement toward lightweight solutions.
Finally, there are expensive dedicated vehicles for detecting the condition of road surfaces damaged
by disasters. In contrast, by using the acceleration sensor information from smartphones attached to thedashboard, a system for detecting certain vibrations in the vehicle caused by damage to the road has
been put to practical use. The sensor accuracy of the dedicated vehicle is high but the speed of the vehicle is slow. On the other hand, the accuracy in systems using smartphones is low but data are continually
collected while the user is on the move. This is a further example of a lightweight solution.
5.3.3 Topics in 2014 and future development4)
ITS Japan has summarized the seven priority areas for the future development of ITS as follows:
1. The reduction of traffic accidents and road congestion to zero using advanced driver assistancesystems
2. The resolution of challenges to efficient transport through a movement support information
platform
3. The innovation of multimode transport to support mobility inside cities
4. The comprehensive management of road traffic
5. Increasing the efficiency of logistics
6. The optimization of energy use
7. The promotion of international cooperation
As shown in Fig. 9, the ITS World Congress of 2013 showcased ITS Green Safety. Figure 10 provides an overview of the basic shift toward automated driving, while Figure 11 illustrates the Green
Wave Project, one of the National Police Agency’s projects for FY 2014.
Due to space limitations the points above represent the general flow of ITS in Japan, see the following documents for more detailed information. See Reference 4 for the overall flow. See Reference 10 for
information concerning the fundamental technologies, V2V and V2I information sharing (Connected
Vehicles). As for information concerning positioning, the combination of GPS,11) gyros, dead reckoning,
map matching, and other such methods alongside Wi-Fi access points,12) cellular base stations, and the

58｜Theory

platforms using those technologies have a variety of error-causing factors.13) Please refer to the indicatedreferences for additional information, or see References 6, 14, 15, and 16 for information regarding

Figure 9. ITS Green Safety Showcases4)

Crash safety
Autonomous(Built-in to
vehicle)Seat belts
Airbags
Vehicle bodystructure foroccupant
protection

Preventive safetyand driving assistance
Collision mitigation
braking
Vehicle-to-vehicle
distance and speed
control
Lane keeping control

Already commercialized/In dissemination stage
Provision of information/Warnings
Cooperative(Road-to-car/
Car-to-car)

Advanced Driver
Assistance
Vertical andhorizontal control
Vehicle groupcontrol
Convoys

Fully automateddriving

Obstacle ahead
Lane merge support
Dynamic route guidanceAreas with a broader sense of automated driving
Figure 10. The basic shift toward automated driving4)

Chapter 5: Intelligent Transport Systems｜59

Early removal of footfrom accelerator

Speed

Through-intersection
support

Provision of signal informationfrom optical beacons
Soft braking

Position
No system

Speed

Provision of travelingspeed information

SystemIntersection stop
support

Position
No system

SystemFigure 11. Examples of government ITS-related projects in FY 20144)(Source: National Police Agency)

automated driving from a variety of conceptual angles. Furthermore, although these may cover slightly
different topics, see Reference 17 for information on location-based services from basics to practicalapplications, Reference 18 for electrical vehicle diffusion scenarios, and Reference 19 for design theoryof new traffic systems.
An ITS is a sufficiently large-scale system to be referred to as a “system of systems” as describedabove, and looking at the system as a whole—from the fundamental technologies, to the system technologies, and ultimately to the services provided—we see it is in close contact with the real world, as avery wide ranging subject with a deep hierarchy. At its base exists a collection of vehicles and pedestrians, moving entities on the land, sea, and air, as well as positioning and information and communication. Furthermore, the actual concrete measures taken for positioning and information and communication sub-platforms suitable for mobile use will change with the times. In the past few years, asmartphone sensing sub-platform has been added, and dramatic changes have happened. It is necessary
to cultivate the technologies that ITS use into the fundamental and system technologies that these formsof mobility require in order to help improve safety, enhance efficiency, reduce environmental load, boost
convenience, and create more enjoyment through automated driving and big data processing. We need
to become familiar with each individual technical field, and create a system that contributes to society
through the mobility of people and things. To tackle such a wide breadth and such deep layers, readers
are encouraged to deepen their knowledge on the fundamental and system technologies through thereferences provided in this chapter.
As for the future of ITS, it is necessary to provide ITS suitable for each region and promote therealization of a next-generation mobility society based on changes in social and technologicalconditions.

60｜Theory

References
1) Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. “ITS yogo shu” [ITS glossary]. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://
www.mlit.go.jp/road/ITS/j-html/topindex/topindex_g02_4.html. (in Japanese)
2) ITS Japan. “About ITS.” Accessed November 6, 2014. http://www.its-jp.org/english/about_e/.
3) European Commission. 1995. “Towards an intelligent transport system.” Community Research and Development Information
Service. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://cordis.europa.eu/news/rcn/3704_en.html.
4) ITS Japan. 2014. Nihon no ITS: ITS nenji repoto 2014 nen ban [Japan’ ITS: ITS annual report 2014]. ITS Japan. (in Japanese)
5) Tsugawa, Sadayuki. 1999. “Communication Systems in the Intelligent Transport Systems”. The transactions of the Institute ofElectronics, Information and Communication Engineers B J82-B (11): 1958–1965. (in Japanese)
6) Tsugawa, Sadayuki. 2013. “Survey on Automated Driving Systems.” IATSS Review Vol. 37, No. 3: 199–207. (in Japanese)
7) Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Inc. 2000. “ITS jitsugen no tame no sekkeizu: shisutemu akitekucha sakutei”[Plan to realize ITS: Drawing up a system architecture]. JAMAGAZINE, February. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://www.
jama.or.jp/lib/jamagazine/200002/07.html. (in Japanese)
8) Hasegawa, Takaaki. 2005. “On systematization of the ITS field.” Journal of Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers Vol. 104, No. 762 (ITS2004 89–97): 47–52. (in Japanese)
9) Honda Motor Co., Ltd. 2011. “Great East Japan Earthquake Traffic Information Maps Based on Honda Internavi Data Win
2011 Good Design Grand Award.” Honda Media Website, November 9. Accessed November 6, 2014. http://www.hondanews.
info/news/en/auto/4111109eng.
10) Ning, Lu, et al. 2014. “Connected Vehicles: Solutions and Challenges.” IEEE Internet of Things Journal Vol. 1, No. 4: 289–99.
11) Kubo, Nobuaki. 2010. “Dai 5 sho: GPS ni yoru sokuteichi to gosa yoin” [Chapter 5: measured values by GPS and error factors]. Paper presented at the tutorial session for the Institute of Positioning, Navigation and Timing of Japan, April 22.
Accessed November 6, 2014. http://www.denshi.e.kaiyodai.ac.jp/jp/assets/files/pdf/content/201004.pdf. (in Japanese)
12) Ito, Seigo, and Nobuo Kawaguchi. 2006. “Wireless LAN Based Hybrid Positioning System Using Bayesian Inference andAccess Point Selection.” IEEJ Transactions on Electronics, Information and Systems Vol. 126, No. 10. (in Japanese)
13) Hasegawa, Takaaki, Tetsuya Manabe, Katasuharu Hosoe, and Kazuo Mizuno. 2014. “Positioning Social Infrastructures fromthe Viewpoint of System Innovation: Applications and Smartphone Positioning Using GPS/Wi-Fi/BS.” IEICE Technical
Report (ITS 2013-76): 69–78. (in Japanese)
14) National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 2013. “Preliminary Statement of Policy Concerning Automated Vehicles.”Press Releases, May 30. Accessed November 11, 2014. http://www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/rulemaking/pdf/Automated_Vehicles_Policy.pdf.
15) Furukawa, Osamu, et al. 2014. Jidosha oto pairotto kaihatsu saizensen: yoso gijutsu kaihatsu kara shakai infura seibi made[Frontline development of autopilot systems for automobiles: From underlying technology development to social infrastructure development]. NTS. (in Japanese)
16) Petit, J., and S. E. Shladover. 2014. “Potential Cyberattacks on Automated Vehicles.” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TITS.2014.2342271.
17) Küpper, Axel. 2005. Location-based Services: Fundamentals and Operation. Wiley.
18) Hasegawa, Takaaki. 2010. “Diffusion of Electric Vehicles and Novel Social Infrastructure from the Viewpoint of Systems
Innovation Theory.” IEICE Transactions on Fundamentals of Electronics, Communications and Computer Sciences E93-A, No.
4: 672–678.
19) Hasegawa, Takaaki. 2013. “A Design Theory for New Transport Systems.” IATSS Review Vol. 37, No. 3: 224–232. Accessed
November 6, 2014. http://www.iatss.or.jp/common/pdf/publication/iatss-review/37-3-09.pdf. (in Japanese)
Practical application projects for reference
Practical application of a public involvement-type system for planning and evaluating road traffic safety measures: 160–163