Recent Advances in Insect Embryology in Japan and Poland
Edited by H. Ando and Cz. Jura
Arthropod. EmbryoL. Soc. Jpn.
(ISEBU Co. Ltd., Tsukuba) 1987

125

Position of Germ Rudiment and Rotation of Embryoin Eggs of Some Dragonflies (Odonata)

Kozo MIY AKA W A
Synopsis
Changes of the dorso-ventral axis of embryos of seven dragonfly species during development
are described, on the base of the dorso-ventral axis of the egg when deposited, corresponding to
the axis of the mother. In Zygoptera, Anisozygoptera, and aeshnid Anisoptera, so far studied, thegerm rudiment is formed on the dorsal side of the egg. The embryos rotate through 180° in
Zygoptera, 90° in Anisozygoptera, and 0° in an aeshnid Anisoptera. In exophytic eggs of libellulid Anisoptera, the embryos exhibit a gravity dependent rotation to take a venter-up position atabout revolution stage. Time and cause of the rotation are divergent according to taxa, even in
individuals of the same species. Possible four different causes of the rotation are suggested. (I)Bilaterally asymmetric fusion of amnion and serosa probably brings about a rotation during revolution. (2) Zygopteran embryos, after revolution, rotate to fit themselves to the dorso-ventrally
asymmetric egg space through change of their form with growth or occasional muscular movements. (3) Libellulid gravity dependent rotation is caused by only difference of weight between
the embryo and the yolk. (4) Irregular rotations seen in grown embryos are attributed to occasional activities of muscles in trunk region.

Introduction
Since Wheeler's terminology (1893), the term "blastokinesis" is currently used formovements of the embryo in the egg of insects. There are two main movements inhemimetabolous embryos: the anatrepsis, the movement which occurs during formationof the germ band and amnion, and the katatrepsis (revolution) occurring after ruptureof the embryonic envelopes (amnion and serosa) and before the dorsal closure of theembryo. These movements occur in general as a dorso-ventral turning, to change theflexure of the embryo. The blastokinesis is remarkable especially in primitive orders of
the insects ( J ohannsen and Butt, 1941; Ando, 1962; Cobben, 1968; Anderson, 1972).
In addition to these dorso-ventral turns, the embryo sometimes performs rotation

126

K. Miyakawa

around the egg long axis. The rotations were observed in several hemimetabolous
orders, e. g., Odonata (Seidel, 1929), Plecoptera (Miller, 1939), Orthoptera (Slifer,
1932), Isoptera (Striebel, 1960), Gheleutoptera (Anderson, 1972), Thysanoptera (Haga,
1985), Homoptera (Sander, 1956), and Heteroptera (Gobben, 1968). Among these, thebest investigated, from comparative and systematic points of view, is Heteroptera by
Gobben (1968).
In Odonata, Seidel (1929) showed a 180 rotation of zygopteran Platycnemis pennipes
embryo at katatrepsis or revolution. This was later widely quoted as a representative of
the order (Krause, 1939; Weber, 1954; Ando, 1962; Anderson, 1972). Ando (1962) carried out an elaborate work on odonate embryology with special reference to Epiophlebia
superstes, but he did not show any detailed data on the rotation. Recently Prof. H. Ando
asked me to write a short joint-paper on the dragonfly embryology for a general publication (not yet published), and we decided to use Calopteryx atrata for this purpose. In
examination of C. atrata embryo, we confirmed a 180 rotation similar to that of P. pennipes (Seidel, 1929).
Since then I was interested in the rotation of odonate embryo and obtained data
for seven species, of six different genera, referable to five families, covering three suborders of Odonata. These brought me a view somewhat different from the previous
understanding of the odonate embryo rotation.
This paper describes brief outlines of embryogenesis, in living condition, with special reference to the rotation for seven odonate species, and gives a discussion on therotation of the embryo from embryological and ecological aspects.
00Materials and Methods
Species studied were as follows:
ZygopteraCalopteryx atrata Selys (Galopterygidae)
Cercion sieboldii Selys (Goenagrionidae)
Anisozygoptera
Epiophlebia superstes (Selys) (Epiophlebiidae)
Anisoptera
Aeshna nigrojlava Martin (Aeshnidae)
Orthetrum albistylum speciosum Uhler (Libellulidae)
Sympetrumfrequens Selys (Libellulidae)
S. parvulum Bartenef (Libellulidae)
Eggs of A. nigrojlava collected by Mr. K. Naraoka from Aomori Prefecture, and of
S. parvulum collected by Mr. Y. Arai from Yorii, Saitama Prefecture were given by Mr.
Y. Arai. Eggs of other species were collected by myself from Saitama Prefecture.
For investigation of rotations of the embryo, it was inevitable to keep the eggs in aconstant direction on the bottom of a watch-glass during development. In endophytically ovipositing species of Zygoptera, Anisozygoptera and aeshnid Anisoptera, the eggs
were extracted from the host plant tissue and transferred to the watch-glass on which
bottom vaseline was spread as a bond, thereby the initial dorso-ventral axis of the egg
relative to that of mother insect was recorded. These eggs developed in normal state.

Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

127

In exophytically ovipositing libellulids, the dorso-ventral axis of the eggs could not
be determined, because the eggs were collected into water of a vial, when the motherinsects were captured while ovipositing, were completely of radial symmetry. These
eggs were transferred to watch-glass within I or 2 days after oviposition. They attachedto the bottom of the glass with their gelatinous covering and their position was constantly kept until hatching. Thus, the direction of dorso-ventral axis of libellulid eggs
was unknown, and direction of the eggs relative to the glass bottom may have been determined at random or by gravity when arranged on the bottom.

Results
ZygopteraCalopteryx atrata Selys (Calopterygidae)
The eggs were obtained from populations inhabiting Koma river, Hidaka, Saitama
Prefecture (Miyakawa, 1982) in late summers of 1981 and 1984.
The egg just deposited was nearly cylindrical, 1.25 X 0.25 mm in size, with amembranous funnel around the anterior pole. As development proceeded, its volume
increased to 0.28 X 0.29 mm and its shape changed into a banana form with convex

26

Fig. l.

Durations of embryonic development of Calopteryx atrata in various temperature.
Filled circles showing pre- or post-revolution period; filled triangles, totalembryonic period; open triangles, from data of Ando (1962).

K. Miyakawa

128

LR

AT
MD

MX
LB

Tl
T2
T3
CL

AID

PR

Fig. 2. Revolution with a 180 rotation of an embryo of Calopteryx atrata at 24 t. A, 23: 00(24. IX. 1981); B, 00: 00 (25. IX. 1981); C, 01: 15; D, 02: 00; E, 02: 40; F, 03: 25;
G, 04: 45; H, 07: 25; I, 09: 50;], ll: 00. For further explanation see the text. A4,
10, fourth and tenth abdominal segments; AM, amnion; CE, cephalic lobe; CL,
caudal lamella rudiment; DO, secondary dorsal organ; EY, compound eye rudiment; LB, labium rudiment; LR, labrum rudiment; MD, mandible rudiment; MG,
mid-gut; MX, maxilla rudiment; PR, proctodaeum; RG, rectal gill rudiment; SE,
serosa; ST, stomodaeum; TI-3, pro-, meso- and metathoracic segments or legs; Y,yolk.
0Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

129ventral side. Dorso-ventral axis of this egg corresponds to that of the mother insect.
The germ rudiment was formed at the dorsal side of 1/5 egg length from the posterior pole. The protocorm developed from the posterior end of the germ rudiment andsank into the yolk extending toward anterior pole of the egg. Thus the embryo became
J-shaped in side view. When the embryo became segmented and beared appendages, it
became S-shaped with dorsally curled gnathal region and ventrally bent abdomen. At
this stage the embryo-yolk complex surrounded by the serosa detached from the chorion at both anterior and posterior poles of the egg. Embryo rotation never occurred till
just before revolution or katatrepsis.
Time length of embryonic development differed according to temperature asshown in Fig. 1, and QIO was calculated as 2. 13.
At the end of pre-revolution period, a space between the embryo and the amnion,
in front of the head (amniotic cavity), enlarged and the united membranes of amnionand serosa became clearly observed as two lines between the embryo and the chorion.
Revolution began when the united part of the two membranes ruptured.
Figure 2 shows processes of revolution of an embryo at 24°C. Two hours before
rupture of the membranes (RM), the embryo was in a position unchanged in dorsoventral axis as before (A). Then clockwise rotation of the embryo began, as viewed
from the posterior pole of the egg, and it proceeded about 90° in 1 hr (B). RM occurred when the embryo rotated about 100° (C), and the rotation proceeded further (D)and reached 180° when the embryo's head turned toward the anterior pole l. 5 hr after
RM (E). About 2.5 hr after RM, the head reached a mid-way of the egg length and all
the gnathal and prothoracic segment escaped from the yolk (F). Further processes, G,
H, I, and J of Fig. 2 show stages at 3.5, 6.5, 9, and 10 hr after RM, respectively. No
further rotation occurred during these period ..
Then, other 36 eggs were re-examined. The results are shown in Fig. 3.
Embryonic stages are here roughly divided into pre-revolution stage (A), revolution
stage (B), and later stage after dorsal closure (C). No embryos rotated in prerevolution stage, but in an early stage of revolution 75 % of embryos rotated 90° to
180°. At the end of revolution stage 180° rotated embryos increased in number, andalmost all the embryos rotated 180° by the end of embryonic period. Examination of
the other, more than 60 eggs of full-grown stage in the plant tissue, revealed that
almost all the embryos were in a position 180° rotated from that of pre-revolution
stage.
From these observations, it was concluded that, in Calopteryx atrata, the embryo
does not rotate during pre-revolution stage, but it rotates, in most cases, during revolution stage and in some cases, during post-revolution stage, and completes 180° turn
along the antero-posterior axis of the egg by hatching.

Cercion sieboldii Selys (Coenagrionidae)
Eggs examined were collected from some floating roots of the reed, Phragmites japonica in which oviposition was made by a female in tandem at Ichino river, Saitama, on
9. August 1985 (n = 20). Embryonic period was 17-18 days at a mean temperature of
29°C (26°C -32°C). Revolution occurred at 12-13 days after oviposition.

K. Miyakawa

130

~v

~\v
' ,
d,

\

,

0

0°

)

\

0

...
..... :.... :

36

..

~:

..
.....

e

1

~

90°

.....

180°

ser

35

A

B

Fig. 3. Orientation of the egg at oviposition (Ov) in the host plant (anterior pole upward;
dorso-ventral axis, dv) and orientation of the embryos at successive stages in theegg of Calopteryx atrata (n=36). Numerals indicate number of embryos at each stage
rotated at 90° and 180° from the initial position (0°) in the egg shell. A, anatrepsis
stage; B, katatrepsis stage; C, post-revolution stage.

_______ 00-------90·

--180

0

A

Fig. 4.

B

Rotation of Cercion sieboldii embryos. Egg axes are indicated as a-p (anteroposterior) and d-v (dorso-ventral). Developmental stages the same as Fig. 3.

Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

Fig. 5.

A

B

c

F

G

H

D

131

E

f

Revolution and rotation of an embryo of Epiophlebia superstes in the egg, left sideview with the anterior pole upward. A, 1408 hr (21. V. 1985); B, 1100 hr (22. V.
1985); C , 1302 hr; D, 1453 hr; E, 1649 hr; F, 0820 hr (24. V. 1985); G, 0820 hr(25. V . 1985); H , 0930 hr (29 . V. 1985); I, 0830 hr (31. V. 1985); j, 0820 hr (3.
VI. 1985) . For further explanation see the text.

K. Miyakawa

132

The egg of a middle age was I. I X 0.2 mm in size, and banana-shaped with convex ventral side. Its curvature was larger than in Calopteryx atrata.
The embryogenesis was quite similar to that of Calopteryx atrata, except in the posture of full-grown embryo. The embryo of Cercion sieboldii had a posture of whole theabdomen straight with a flexure at the departure of the caudal lamellae in the egg (Fig.
4), while in Calopteryx atrata the embryo of this stage had a posture with a flexure at theeighth abdominal segment (Figs. 2, 3).
Figure 4 shows positions of the embryo in the egg through development (A) before, (B) during, and (C) after revolution. No rotations were observed in early
embryonic stage, but all the embryos rotated 180 by hatching. Of the embryos examined, 14 % began rotation before the rupture of envelopes, 62 % in an early revolution stage, 16 % in a later revolution stage, and 8 % after completion of dorsal closure.
Thus the time of rotation was variable as observed in Calopteryx atrata.
0

Anisoqgoptera
Epiophlebia superstes (Selys) (Epiophlebiidae)
Eggs observed were those laid into thalli of the bryophyte, Conocephalum conicum ata mountain stream of Saitama Prefecture in 1985 - 1986 (if. Tamiya and Miyakawa,1984). The thalli were easily kept in live condition in moisture, and were convenient to
extract the eggs from them and also to observe the eggs in situ through transmittent
light. Ages of embryos, when collected, were estimated according to descriptions ofAndo (1962), and four series of eggs, in which the embryos were in early stages before
the revolution, were used in this study.
The egg was newly cylindrical with dorso-ventral symmetry and 1.05 - 1.15 X
0.33 mm in size.
Of 18 eggs extracted, 16 eggs developed normally in water of watch-glasses underroom temperature of 23°C (16. 5°C - 33. 5°C).
Figure 5 shows the positional change of an embryo through development from justbefore revolution to full-grown stage. The embryo, before revolution, was in a position
with its dorsum directed to upper surface of the thalli, and was S-shaped in lateralview. The orientation of the embryo in the egg agreed dorso-ventrally, but reversed
antero-posteriorly with that of mother insect which laid (Fig. 5 A). Figure 5 B showsthe embryo at the beginning of revolution, i. e. just after the rupture of embryonic envelopes. No rotation occurred until this stage. Then revolution of the embryo proceeded as shown in Fig. 5 C - G. After revolution of the embryo, yolk was taken into
the mid-gut, and dorsal closure was completed. Compound eyes were heavily pigmented and other organs were formed (Fig. 5 H). The embryo showed occasional
muscular movements and turned its direction at 90 for the first time (Fig. 5 I), andreached full-grown stage (Fig. 5 J).
Figure 6 shows rotations of 10 of these embryos during and after revolution stages.
One embryo (10 %) rotated 90 as early as in the revolution stage, but the other (90 %)commenced rotations after the dorsal closure. All the embryos rotated by 7 days after
commencement of revolution. It was interesting to note that some embryos rotated00Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

133

nearly 180 in a day after the occasional muscular movements began, and 80% of theembryos took a final position 90 rotated from the original position.
00

DEVELOPMENT

-

25

15

12

30 DAYS
v

-$d

E

R

Fig. 6.

Rotatograph for Epiophlebia superstes embryos in the eggs extracted from the hostplant (n= 10). Arrow tops indicating ventral side of the embryos. Circles enclosing
the arrow top showing egg shells in posterior view with ventral side downward.
Developmental time is indicated by days after oviposition. E, stage when eyes pigmented;. H, hatching; M, stage when muscles became functional; R, revolution
stage.

A

Fig. 7.

M

B

c

Schematic expression of rotations for Epiophlebia superstes embryos in the eggs freefrom the host plant. if. Figs. 3, 4.

K. Miyakawa

134

Analysis of these 16 embryos revealed that 10 (62%) rotated 90°, three (19%) rotated 45° or 150°, and three (19%). rotated 0° or 180° at the last day of embryonic life.
The final directions of these embryos revealed that they rotated clockwise (62 %), anticlockwise (19 % ), and 0° and 180° (19 %) as a result of rotations. From these data,rotations of the embryos are schematically shown in Fig. 7.
A question arose as whether the same is true for the embryo in the egg inserted in
the thallus of Conocephalum conicum. To prove this, observations were made on the eggs
from the underside of the thallus through a transmittent light. The pre-revolution
embryos were in a position as their venter directing toward the underside of the thallus, the same as those occurred in extracted eggs. From this stage onward, 68 eggs
were individually followed every day. At a revolution stage, corresponding to Fig. 5 F,
34 embryos (50%) were found to have rotated 90°, of which 24 (67%) were anticlockwise, whereas 10 (36 %) were clockwise when viewed from posterior pole of the egg.
Two embryos (3 %) were non-rotated and 32 (47 %) were undetermined because of
opacity of the thallus. As development proceeded, all of observable embryos kept theirdirection unchanged. At a post-revolution stage, corresponding to Fig. 5 H or I, 52
embryos were found to have rotated at 90°, of which 37 (71 %) were anticlockwise and15 (29%) were clockwise (Fig. 8). In later stage, all the observable embryos were rotated at 90°. As compared to the case of extracted eggs, embryos in plant showedsomewhat different feature in that 90° rotation occurred as early as revolution stage
and further repeated rotations did not occur. These differences may have been caused
by presence or absence of surrounding plant tissue which suppressed expansion of theegg space in cross section. This suppressed condition may have brought about rotation
during revolution and inhibited rotations during post-revolution period. This point will
be discussed later in detail.
Behaviour of the pronymphs, how to escape from the host plant was observed (n =10). After hatching (if. Ando, 1962), all the pronymphs escaped from the thallus
through the oviposition pore by peristalsis, without rotation, with their dorso-ventral
axis parallel to the plant surface. After escaping from the oviposition pore, the pronymphs performed a· twisting movement with the caudal appendages attaching to theoviposition pore. When their head touched to the plant surface, the pronymphs moved
there abandoning the caudal support, forming a bridge, and they changed their posture
to a state with ventrally flexed abdomen beneath them. After this, the pronymphs rose
their head and jumped ahead by sudden extension of the abdomen (if. Tokunaga andOdagaki, 1939) within a second or more. If failed to jump, the pronymphs repeated thesame movement until success of jump. From this observation, it was suggested that the
90° rotation of the embryo in the egg would have a perspective advantage to cost the
pronymph the lowest energy in forming the bridge just after escaped from the oviposition pore.

Anisoptera
Aeshna nigroflava Martin (Aeshnidae)
Eggs used were laid into wet filter paper by a captive female collected by Mr. S.

Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

Fig. 8.

Epiophlebia superstes embryos at 90° rotated from the initial position in the eggs in
the host plant, Conocephalum conicum, viewed from the underside of the plant. The
left embryo rotated clockwise and the right one anticlockwise, in posterior view.

A
Fig. 9.

135

B

c

o

E

F

G

Development of Aeshna nigroflava embryos. A - Band D - E are of the sameembryos, respectively. A - E are in the eggs located as their left side upward andF, G are in those located as their dorsal side upward in the watch-glass. All theeggs in upper view. A, 9. XI. 1985; B, 14. I. 1986; C, 17. Ill. 1986; D, 12. Ill.
1986; E, 13. Ill. 1986; F, 28. Ill. 1986; G, 28. Ill. 1986. Note that embryos ofthis species never performed rotation throughout development.

136

K. Miyakawa

Naraoka on 11. October 1985.
The egg was nearly cylindrical with somewhat pointed anterior pole and a round
posterior pole and 1.9-2.15 X 0.4-0.43 mm in size.
Eggs were fixed to a watch-glass, employing the method previously mentioned (n= 16). These were divided into two groups, the one fixed in a side-up position, anotherin a dorsum-up.
As feature of early stage was quite similar to that of Epiophlebia superstes, it is omitted here.
The embryos developed and reached a stage before revolution, during first month.
In this stage they had developed compound eyes with deep pigmentation and redbrownish spots on each side of the thoracic and abdominal segments. The embryos
overwintered in this state (Fig. 9 A, B). Detailed descriptions of hibernating stage will
be given later under a separate heading.
After hibernation, the embryos increased in size, and changed bending of theirhead and abdomen. Pigmented parts of compound eyes and body segments enlarged.
In the mean time, yolk decreased in volume, and embryos, as a whole, decreased insize forming a large space at the posterior pole of egg. No rotation occurred during thisperiod. As development proceeded, the embryo-yolk-serosa complex decreased in size
further, and the space at the posterior pole enlarged extending to 1/5 egg length. The
head apex bent more ventrally and the abdominal bending became acuter (Fig. 9 C).
This was the final state of pre-revolution stage of the embryo. No rotation occurred tillthis stage in all the embryos observed.
Revolution occurred in March of the next year. All the survived embryos (n = 14)of the two groups performed revolution along each sagittal plane which was determinedat the pre-revolution stage (Fig. 9 DE, FG). Thus, in this species, rotation never occurred with revolution. After rotation the embryos developed also without rotation.
Hatching occurred in a period from mid-March to early April. Although hatchingof the pronymphs was not directly observed, directions of the pro nymphs at hatchingwere known from the directions of the split of the chorion, which was made by the egg
tooth or egg burster present on the frons of the embryo (cj. Ando, 1962). Consequently
the split line was corresponding to the mid-ventral line of the embryo. The split lines
showed that all the embryos never rotated until hatching.

Orthetrum albistylum speciosum Uhler (Libellulidae)
The egg used were collected from a female captured when ovipositing on a vinyl
sheet above the vegetable farm, just after copulation, at Kawagoe, on 17. September
1985 (cj. Miyakawa, 1979). In order to observe daily change of the embryos, 22 eggs
were transferred to a watch-glass. After half a day they attached to the bottom with
their own gelatinous covering in a direction, which, however, was unknown in dorsoventral polarity. Of these, 21 eggs developed normally, and pronymphs hatched 9 days
after oviposition under a mean room temperature of 22°C (17°C - 29°C).
The newly laid egg was ellipsoid and 0.43 X 0.27 mm in size. The egg increased
in size to 0.49 X 0.36 mm after development of 7 days (Fig. IQ E). The chorion waselastic, and in some eggs the anterior pole of the chorion was found in a position devi-

Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

A

B

c

D

137

E

Fig. lOo

Development of Orthetrum albistylum speciosum embryos in the eggs attached to a
watch-glass, all upper view. A, 3 days old; B, 4 days old; C, 4 days old; D, 7 days
old; E, 7 days old. Note directions of the embryos. C is in a venter-up position resulted from a gravity dependent rotation. Abbreviations the same as Fig. 2.

Fig. 11.

Rotatograph for Orthetrum albistylum speciosum embryos (n = 20). Encircled arrow
tops show directions of the ventral side of the embryos. Developmental time is indicated by days after oviposition. G, gravity; H, hatch; R, revolution.

Table 1. Results of upside-down reversal experiment Orthetrum albistylum speciosum (n= 160).

DorsumupIntermediate

hr

148

12

0

12 hr

38

37

85

1

day

25

44

91

2

days (7 days old)

52

74

34

Time after
reversed0

Venterup

138

K. Miyakawa

ated from the embryo's long axis (Fig. 10 D).
The germ rudiment was recognized through a transmittent light as a transparent
layer on the surface of the yolk at the posterior or postero·lateral part of egg as early as
1 day after oviposition. From these observations, directions of the dorso·ventral axis of
the eggs were presumed as to be perpendicular (n=8) and nearly horizontal (n= 14) togravity, if the blastoderm did not rotate. The germ band, in large part, developed on
the periphery of the yolk. The protocorm extended peripherally, passing the posteriorpole, to the opposite side of the egg and reached near the anterior pole, from where,
however, it extended sinking into the yolk (partially invaginated type, Ando, 1962).
The position and direction of the protocephalon relative to the egg was the same as in
Epiophlebia and Aeshna.
On the third day of development, the germ band was segmented (Fig. 10 A). At
this stage, 14 of 22 embryos took a position lateral to, seven nearly perpendicular to
gravity, and one stopped development.
On the fourth day of development, revolution occurred, but rotation was notobserved.
On the fifth day of development, most of the embryos took a position as their ven·
tral side upward (p < 0.001) (Fig. 10 C). This venter·up position may have beenbrought about through rotation probably caused by difference of weight between theembryonic area and the yolk on the one hand, and by size of the embryo·yolk complex
smaller enough than the egg space to allow slide of the complex and the chorion on theother.
In order to prove this presumption, other 160 simultaneously laid eggs were re·versed upside down at the end of the fifth day of development. The results were asshown in Table 1. From these data, changes of the ratio through the first day after re·versed supported the above presumption. The ratio of the second day, however,
opposed it. To solve this question, changes of the embryos through development must
be considered.
Figure 11 shows the daily change of directions of the 20 embryos of the watch·glass through the development. In 3-4 days after oviposition, most of the embryos liedin a position lateral to gravity (p<O.Ol), but without a significant difference in dextro·
sinistral polarity (p>0.05). Revolution occurred in this period (Fig. 10 B). In 5-6
days after oviposition, most of the embryos took the venter·up position (p < 0.05). The
embryos of 7 days old became large enough to fill the egg space and their muscles be·came functionable to change direction of the embryo. Direct observation on someembryos at this stage revealed rotations of this type. Thus, the question arisen in theabove experiment was solved.
Hatching occurred on the ninth day after OViposItion. When hatching, the pro·nymphs burst the chorion mid·ventrally and escaped from the egg with peristalsis.
Most of the pronymphs, at this time, were in venter·up or latero·venter·up position
whereas few were in dorsum·up position (p<O.Ol).

Sympetrumfrequens Selys (Libellulidae)
The eggs used were collected from a female captured when ovipositing in tandem
on a temporary water at Kawagoe on 30. September 1985. As the shape and otherPosition and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

139

characters of the egg resembled those of O. albistylum speciosum, they were treated assame as the former. Important difference from the former was that Sympetrum frequens
embryo paused its development in winter and hatched in the spring of next year (if.
Ando, 1962). This will be decribed later in a separate heading and shown in Fig. 17.
The egg was ellipsoid and 0.56 X 0.32 mm in size just after laid. It increased to0.60 X 0.41 mm at full-grown stage.
The germ rudiment appeared on the second day of development at the posteriorpole of the egg as a transparent area on the periphery of the yolk. This area was narrow in some eggs and wide in others, suggesting that their initial directions of dorsoventral axis were variable as observed in O. albistylum speciosum.
On the fourth day, the germ bands became segmented and their directions
appeared much certainly. On the fifth day, some laterally lied embryos showed theirabdomen extended to a point about 1/5 egg length from the anterior pole of the egg.
The remnant of the abdomen was sunk into the yolk. On the seventh day, the proctodaeum was pigmented in red-brownish colour in some precocious embryos. It was thisstage that the directions of the 39 embryos were known in certainty. Sixteen embryos
lied laterally and 23 embryos lied medially to gravity. On the 15th day, the stomodaeum became red-brownish in precocious embryos, so that these embryos had bothstomo- and proctodaeum red-brownishly coloured. On the 22nd day, the embryos
reached a stage with compound eyes pigmented, but no sign of revolution appeared
yet. Directions of 39 embryos were venter-up (31), intermediate (6) and dorsum-up (2).
On the next day they changed 38, 0 and 1, respectively. This type of rotation was quite
similar to that of O. albistylum speciosum, which, however, occurred in post-revolution
stage. Then the upside-down reverse test .was carried out, using 80 other eggs of thesame age during a period of 28-29. October (28th-29th day).
Figure 12 shows results of the upside-down reverse test. This proved that the rota-

C9
~

0

,

,,,,'.', ,,,C9

0

Q)
<
0::

I-

•

R

CV

I

t

y

' , ,,

'., ,

,

G

:-,"" I
\0----'"

0-

HRS 0

2

3

12

0

2

3

4

5.5

Fig. 12. Results of upside-down reversal experiments in Sympetrumfrequens egg (n=80). All
the embryos were in a venter-up position before reversal (R). Just after reversal
the embryos naturally took a dorsum-up position, but they rotated through ca.
180 during half a day to take a venter-up position. Reversal again of the eggs
(RR) resulted in further 180 rotation of the embryos during 5. 5 hr to take again
a venter-up position.
0

0

140

K. Miyakawa

tion of S. frequens embryos was also gravity dependent. But, in this species, the rotation
proceeded with slide of the chorion and the serosa with the aid of an egg fluid as a lubricant between them. The IBO° rotation in the second turning test (RR) required aperiod of about 5.5 hr.
Revolution (Fig. 13) occurred in November and December in B2.5% embryos.
The remnant embryos revoluted in January to March of the next year. Duration of revolution differed according to temperature. It lasted 2 days at 16t (Bt-24t), but it
lasted nearly half a month at BOC (It -17t).
Rotations were observed in 62 % embryos (n =40) just before, during, and just after revolution. The rotation at this period was apparently different from the gravity dependent nature as mentioned above, because it was divergent in the angle and final
direction according to individuals. In post-revolution stage, all the embryos rotatedirregularly with their occasional muscular movement.

Fig. 13. Positional change of a Sympetrumjrequens embryo in the egg during a period before
and after revolution, upper view. A, 4. XI. 1985; B, 9-10. XI. 1985; C, D, E, 1l.
XI. 1985; F, 12. XI. 1985. Note that the embryo rotated ca. 90 during revolution
from a venter-up position (A) and then returned again to the venter-up position(C). Abbreviations the same as Fig. 2.
0Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

141

When hatching, the full-grown embryos or pronymphs burst the chorion anteroventrally along their mid-line. Examination of chorion's burst line revealed that thepositions of the pronymph at hatching (n=28) were venter-up (60.7%), intermediate(35.7%), and dorsum-up (3.6%). Thus, 96.4% of the pronymph escaped from thechorion at directions free from the bottom of the watch-glass on which the eggs
attached.
Figure 14 shows, as a summary, rotations of 20 embryos of S. frequens during theirdevelopment. All the embryos simultaneously took the venter-up position through thegravity-dependent rotation at a period after compound eyes had pigmented (E) and before revolution (R). During the course of revolution they rotated variously or did not
rotate at all. Later, after muscles had become functionable some of them rotatedvariously. Finally, almost all the embryos rotated just before hatching .

.
Z

a.... R
III

~

III

>

III

Cl

Fig. 14.

Rotatograph for Sympetrum frequens embryos (n = 20). As this species had a longembryonic period and the proceeding of development widely differed according toindividuals, the period from muscles functioned (M) to hatch (H) was divided
into six stages at intervals for each embryo. Embryos with a cross symbol did nothatch till 10. IV. 1986. E, stage when eyes pigmented; R, revolution.

Fig. 15. Rotatograph for Sympetrum parvulum embryos (n=20). In this species, a period fromM to H was divided into four stages. Other explanations and abbreviations thesame as Fig. 14.

K. Miyakawa

142

As compared to the case of O. albistylum speciosum, the time of the gravitydependent rotation differed. In S. frequens, it occurred before revolution whereas in O.
albistylum speciosum, after revolution. However appearance of both embryos at thisperiod resembled each other in having well-pigmented compound eyes and welldeveloped body parts. In other words, it may be said that S. frequens embryos proceeded much more precocious development relative to occurrence of revolution than O.
albistylum speciosum embryos.

Sympetrum parvulum Bartenef (Libellulidae)
Egg used were taken by Mr. Y. Arai at Chichibu, Saitama Prefecture on 26.
September 1985 and were kept at 25"C till 14. November 1985. After receipt from him,
the eggs were reared under the room temperature as shown in Fig. 17.
The egg was ellipsoid and 0.59 X 0.45 mm in size at a grown pre-revolution
stage (Fig. 16). It was thicker than that of S. frequens, as seen in the ratio of width/
length, 0.76 contrary to 0.68 for the latter.
Figure 15 shows rotations of 20 embryos through development. The first line ofFig. 15 shows directions of the embryos on 17. November 1985. They were at a stage
with rudimentary segmental appendages and faintly coloured rudimentary proctodaeum (Fig. 16 A). As is seen in Fig. 15 the embryos directed variously to gravity. After a week the embryos reached a stage with pigmented compound eyes and developed
appendages (Fig. 16 B). At this stage all the embryos lied in the venter-up positiony

LB-.~~~~L:=MX
AT

A

B

Fig. 16. Positional change of a Sympetrum parvulum embryo in pre-revolution stage. A, laterurn-up position, 17. XI. 1985; B, venter-up position, 24. XI. 1985. Abbreviations
the same as Fig. 2.

Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

·C

143

.-------~------~------_.------_.------._------_r------~,14

1985

30

12

10

20

HRS
10

TEMPERATURE
I

o~------------------------~--L-----------------200

r

rL___S_._f_re_q_uJen.s. . .

~

OCT

NOV

DEC

___

__________________.....,..._~J 100
A. n;groflava_

III.....__________~..L_~~-REVOLUTION OF EMBRYOS

JAN

FEB

MAR

~

HATCH

APR

Fig. 17. Seasonal range of revolution and hatch in the hibernating embryos of Aeshna nigroflava (oviposition: 11. X. 1985) and Sympetrumfrequens (ovipos. :.30. IX. 1985) withthe environmental factors, temperature and photoperiod. Note that S. frequens
embryos, developed in the eggs simultaneously laid from the same mother, showeda wide range in time of revolution, whereas A. nigroflava embryos had a shortrange of revolution time in spring.
similarly to S. frequens embryos of the same age.
The embryos overwintered in a pre-revolution stage keeping the venter-up position.
Revolution occurred in a period from 1. February 1986 to 28. March 1986. Just after revolution, a considerable number of embryos (75%) turned at 90°-180° (Fig. 15,
line 3). This number was significantly higher than in S. frequens at the same stage (p<0.001). The same was true for a subsequent stage (Fig. 15, lines 4, 5) till just before
hatching. In this period, 70 - 80% of embryos usually took the venter-up position,
whereas in corresponding period of S. frequens only 20 - 30% of the embryos did so(Fig. 14, lines 4-7). This feature of S. parvulum embryo resembles rather O. albistylum
speciosum one than S. frequens one.
Hatching occurred in a period from 12. March to 5. April 1986. When hatching,
all the embryos (n = 18) took their position at least 30° apart from gravity where their
egg shells attached on the bottom of the glass.

144

K. Miyakawa

Development of hibernating embryos of Aeshna and Sympetrum
Aeshna nigrojlava embryos overwintered in a pre-revolution stage (Fig. 17) as previously stated by Ando (1962). The embryos did not exhibit any major morphologicalchanges from 9. November 1985 to 10. January 1986 (Fig. 9 A). A remarkable change
appeared on 14. January 1986 in the cephalic region of the embryo (Fig. 9 B). In thisregion, the serosa commenced shrinkage and the head bent somewhat ventrally. Thischange occurred at the minimum temperature of the season (ca. 5.5°C in average)
while the day length was increasing. Then, the embryos developed to prepare revolution for 1.5 months under a mean temperature of 8°C (0.5°C - 17°C). Revolution
occurred in March at 11 °C (4.5 °C - 18°C). Hatching began 10. April and ended 21.
April 1986. The temperature of this period was 16°C -17°C. The post-revolution periodof the embryos, therefore, was a month or less.
Sympetrumfrequens embryos performed revolution in November and December 1985
(82.5%) during which the day length was decreasing to the minimum. This agrees
with Ando's result (1962). However remnant of the embryos (17.5%) overwintered ina pre-revolution stage and they did revolution in January to March of the next year
(Fig. 17). Of 40 embryos, 28 (70%) hatched by 10. April 1986. No difference ofhaching rate was found between the two groups which were revoluted in 1985 (70%)
and in 1986 (71 % ) .
Sympetrum parvulum embryos overwintered exclusively in a pre-revolution stage, andthey performed revolution in February and March of 1986. Of 20 embryos examined,
18 (90%) hatched in a period from 12. March to 5. April 1986.
Seasonal type of the embryonic development of S. parvulum, therefore, is similar tothat of the latter group of S. frequens and somewhat resembles that of A. nigrojlava.
Hibernating stage of S. parvulum embryos, however, was much more advanced (Fig. 16B) than that of A. nigrojlava embryos (Fig. 9 A). It must be added here that A. nigrojlava embryos did not completely pause development during hibernation period. Minorchanges are detectable in development of compound eyes and segmental patches (if.
Fig. 9 A, B). Among these three species, S. frequens seems to have the most plastic nature in response to environmental factors, the temperature and the photoperiod.
Common character of the hibernating embryos of Aeshna and Sympetrum is seen in aprecocious development of some ectodermal organs, such as the compound eyes, thesegmental patches and the stomo- and proctodaeum, which reach an advanced stage
before revolution. This was never observed in other non-hibernating species so far
known.

Discussion
Position and orientation of the germ rudiment in the insect eggs
In hemimetabolous insect eggs, the germ rudiment differentiates from the blastoderm in a definite region, usually near the posterior pole of the egg as an area composed of thicker cells. The cells then aggregate to the prospective ventral midline of theembryo and form the vermiform germ band with elongation of the protocorm invagi-

Position and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

145

nating into, or on the surface of the yolk. Its antero-posterior axis, at least in the protocephalic region, agrees with the antero-posterior axis of the egg (cj. Ando, 1962,
1970; Cobben, 1968; Anderson, 1972). The dorso-ventral polarity of the germ disc,however, relative to that of the egg has previously been paid little attnetion, when theegg was dorso-ventrally symmetric.
Brandt (1869) showed the fine figures of Calopteryx virgo germ rudiment (his Figs. 4- 6, on PI. I). Judged from the dorso-ventrally asymmetric egg of the species, the germ
rudiment was apparently formed on the dorsal side of the egg. Seidel (1929) demonstrated clearly that the germ rudiment of Platycnemis pennipes was formed on the dorsalside of the egg (his Fig. 10). The same was true for zygopteran Cal. atrata and Cer.
sieboldii, anisozygopteran E. superstes, and anisopteran A. nigroflava of Odonata. These
facts show that in the primitive taxa of Odonata the germ rudiment is formed on thedorsal side of the yolk surface relative to the egg axis.
Cobben (1968), in Heteroptera, found that there were many positional types of thegerm band, but the early germ band was formed usually on the dorsal side of the egg(his Fig. 276). If the above observations not exceptional, it can be said that in primitive taxa of both hemimetabolous orders the germ rudiment, or early germ band, isformed on the dorsal side of the egg with orientation as its anterior end (protocephaIon) pointing to the anterior pole of the egg.
On the other hand, Cobben found that in heteropteran Miridae, Acantosominidae,
Tingidae and probably also Cydrinidae, the early germ band was formed on the lateralside of the egg. In these cases the dorso-ventral axis and position of the germ band
were about 90° rotated from the usual ones. Similar cases were found also in holometabolan insects. According to Okada (1960), the germ band was formed in various positions in cross section of the flattened ellipsoid egg of Chilo suppressalis (Lepidoptera), i.
e. the mid-line of the germ band was located on a flattened side of the egg in some examples, but it was located on a edged side of the egg in the others (his Text-Fig. 2). In
thrichopteran Stenopsyche griseipennis, the germ rudiment was formed on a dorso-Iateralor ventro-Iateral side of the egg which attached to the stone in water as its ventral side
directing to the stone surface when oviposition (Miyakawa, 1973).
Before going further, Hallez's law must be touched here. Cobben (1968) quoted
Hallez's original French description (1886) and discussed on the law in detail. From
his quotation, Hallez's law can be summarized as follows: There are exact agreementsin their principal (cephalo-caudal and dextro-sinistral) axes between the mother andthe egg on the one hand, between the egg space and the embryo on the other. According to Cobben, Hallez found his law based on Tettigonia veridissima (Orthoptera), Hydrophilus piceus (Coleoptera) and others, and his observations were probably made on
their ripe eggs. Cobben's modification of Hallez's law, applied to Heteroptera, is as follows: The orientation of the longitudinal and transverse axes of the released egg shelland the enclosed embryonic rudiment correspond with those of the depositing mother,unless eggs are rotated during delivery or the longitudinal axis is reversed in relation tothat of the female by tumbling.
In my present view, the position and orientation of the germ rudiment, in primitive taxa of Hemimetabola, seem quite reversed dorso-ventrally to the egg axis. But,
axes of the germ rudiment and the egg correspond antero-posteriorly. This assumption,
and above quoted facts, led me to have an idea that the current understanding of dif-

146

K. Miyakawa

ference between lower taxa of hemimetabolous and higher taxa of holometabolous germ
rudiments in the position and orientation relative to the egg may have been arisen byshift from dorsal to ventral, through r.otation, on the one hand, and from invaginatedto superficial, relative to yolk, on the other (cJ. Johannsen and Butt, 1941; Ando, 1962;
Gobben, 1968). At present time we have no information to support this assumption
concerning the dorso-ventral polarity of the chorion and yolk system in oogenesis stage(Mahowald, 1972), nor reliable information on rotation of the egg during oviposition.
Recent review by Gounce (1973) on the causal analysis of insect embryogenesis gave an
account, quoting Seidel's results on Platycnemis (1929), that differentiation center induces the germ rudiment formation in a restricted area of yolk periphery. Her account,however, did not give any information on relationship between the blastoderm-yolk system and the chorion concerning their dorso-ventral axis.
Finally, the term "ventral plate" must be discussed here. This is used as anequivalent to the germ rudiment, germ primordium or pregerm, i. e. a thickened areaof blastoderm to form future embryonic body. This term involves the polarity in itself,
showing dorso-ventral axis of the plate and it is quite reasonable for itself. However if
my present assumption based on the egg shell is adopted, the ventral plate is formedon the dorsal side of the egg in primitive taxa of Odonata and also in primitive Heteroptera.

Rotations of the odonate embryos in further development
From the germ band stage onward, the embryonic period is here divided into
three stages, since mechanics of rotation seem to differ according to stages:(A) Anatrepsis stage - during which basic pattern of organs, except those of dorsal region, is formed in a condition enclosed with the amnion and serosa.
(B) Katatrepsis (revolution) stage - during which the amnion and serosa(embryonic envelopes or membranes) rupture, and the embryo turns dorsoventrally to acquire its position as its head points the anterior pole of the egg,
enclosing the yolk on its back.
(G) Dorsal closure of the embryo to hatching.
In Heteroptera Gobben (1968) found that there were rotations, if not all, in theabove stages A, B, G and he named them band rotation, embryonic rotation or spiral,and prolarval rotation, respectively. Most of the rotations were through 180°, but theband rotation (A) was limited to 90°, and the prolarval rotation (G) was irregular andthrough several angles. He considered that the embryonic rotation (B) was brought about principally by intrinsic action of the serosal-amniotic complex, but the other rotations (A and G) were of a quite different nature.
In Odonata, rotations were found also in all the stages A, B, G, but the rotation inso early stage as when the germ band started metamerism or limb buds just appeared,
was not observed.
In Zygoptera, all the embryos performed a 180° rotation in the dorso-ventrally
asymmetric egg, but feature of the rotation was different according to individuals. The
rotation took place in most cases during stages A - B and in some cases during stages
B-G. Seidel's statement on the rotation in P. penippes (1929) is the former case. ThesePosition and rotation of the dragonfly embryos

147

are separately considered as follows: (1) Rotation, which occurred in a period bridging
stages A and B, seems probably to be caused by a bilaterally asymmetric fusion ofamnion and serosa above the embryonic head, which brings about a twist of theembryo when the serosa, amnion and yolk system constrict to prepare and complete
the revolution (Fig. 2). This type of rotation was previously suggested by Cobben(1968) in saId id Heteroptera. (2) Rotation, which began in stage B, seems probably to
be caused by a bilaterally asymmetric constriction of the serosa and yolk system in major part and change of form of the embryo in minor. The latter resembles the next
item. (3) Rotation, which began in stage C, seems to be caused by irregular and partialchanges of form of the embryo by occasional muscular movements of trunk region to fit
the embryo in the dorso-ventrally asymmetric egg space.
Thus in Zygoptera so far known, occurrence of a 180 rotation is certain, thoughtime and cause of rotation are various. The full-grown embryo lies in orientation corresponding to that of mother insect (cj. Calopteryx virgo: Degrange, 1974).
Brandt's (1869) Figs. 1- 19 on the embryonic development of Calopteryx virgo areerrorneously referred to in text books (Tillyard, 1917, Fig. 109 A - K; Imms et al.,1971, p. 330). Brandt illustrated them quite exactly in right side view of the embryo(not the egg ! ), but he did not mention on occurrence of the rotation. Judged fromthe dorso-ventrally asymmetric shape of the egg and orientation of the embryo in his figures, the 180° rotation apparently occurred in a stage between Fig. 14 and Fig. 15
similarly to the case of C. atrata as shown in Fig. 2.
In Anisozygoptera, Epiophlebia embryos did not rotate in stage A, but they turnedmore or less 90°, clockwise or anticlockwise, by the end of embryonic period as a resultof a 90° rotation in stage B and/or later irregular rotations in stage C. This feature wassomewhat different between the eggs in the plant tissue and those extracted from it. In
the former case, almost all the embryos performed a 90° rotation at stage B, but did
not show further rotation in stage C (Fig. 8), whereas in the latter, rotations took placein both stages Band C (Figs. 6, 7). This difference may be attributed to: (1) Radialsymmetry of the egg, which unlike zygopteran eggs, never restricts the final orientationof the embryo during rotations in stage C. Rotation in stage C takes place more easily
in the unnaturally expanded chorion of the egg free from plant tissue. (2) In the expanded egg, on the contrary, the connection of the chorion and the serosa loosens andallows more easily a contradictory rotation when a 90° rotation takes place during
stage B.
The 90° rotated position of the Epiophlebia embryo may have an adaptive value forsubsequent movements of the hatched pronymphs on the plant surface to reach the water, as described previously.
In Anisoptera, there are two types of oviposition, the endophytic and the exophytic. The true endophytic oviposition is seen in only Aeshnidae in the suborder. Aeshnid
eggs morphologically and ecologically resemble those of Zygoptera and Anisozygoptera
and therefore are suitable to compare with them.
Aeshna nigroflava embryos never performed rotation throughout the embryonicperiod. Thus, after revolution, the embryos took a position dorso-ventrally 180° reversed to the egg axis. This is only the case among the odonate embryos so far studied.
Orientation of the full-grown A. nigroflava embryos, therefore, differ 90° from that ofanisozygopteran Epiophlebia embryos and 180° from that of zygopteran embryos.
0148

K. Miyakawa

Libellulid eggs are deposited exophytically. The dorso-ventral axis was unable tobe determined as stated previously. Consequently these are not comparable to those ofabove mentioned odonate taxa. However libellulid embryos exhibited a different type ofrotation. Embryos of Orthetrum and Sympetrum performed a gravity dependent rotation
before or after the revolution stage. This type of revolution exclusively resulted in theventer-up position of the embryo, probably caused by difference of the weight of theembryo and the yolk (Figs. 10-16). This is apparently different from rotations as seen
in zygopteran and anisozygopteran embryos. This may be attributed to the superficial
position of the embryo, and the shape and space of the egg shell which touches loose
the embryo during this stage. Other than this rotation, the libellulid embryos performed also the rotation during stage B through various angles according to individuals. This is regarded as similar to the case of other odonate taxa.
In conclusion, to establish the exact relationship among the three suborders in thisrespect, much more aeshnid species must be examined in future study. Furthermore, itis needed to find a method to determined the exact dorso-ventral axis of newly laid egg
in exophytic odonate taxa, including primitive Gomphidae, Petaluridae and Cordulegasteridae on the one hand, and also to examine Lestidae which have a habit ofendophytic oviposition into the terrestrial plants like Epiophlebia on the other, for completion of a comparative study on the rotation of odonate embryos from phylogeneticaland ecological points of view.

Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to Prof. Dr. H. Ando, Sugadaira Montane Research Center,
University of Tsukuba, for his kind help in various ways to proceed this work and critical reading of the manuscript. My cordial thanks are also due to Dr. R. H. Cobben,
Agricultural University of Wageningen, Netherlands, for his kind gift of his monograph, and to Mr. Y. Arai, Yorii, Saitama, for his helpful gift of good number of living
aeshnid and sympetrine eggs.

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Author's address: Dr. K. Miyakawa

Imafuku 1024, Kawagoe, Saitama 356,
Japan