The Changing Dynamics ofTwenty-First-Century Space PowerJames Clay Moltz1
Abstract
Many recent assessments of space power have posited a US decline
and predicted a gloomy future in comparison to China and Russia.
However, such analyses—based almost exclusively on state-run activities—
present only part of the picture. In the twenty-first century, a new formof bottom-up, net-centric, commercially led space innovation is emerging that promises cheaper and more timely technological developments
to those nations that can effectively tap into them, thus reshaping traditional definitions of space power. This study first sets a baseline byfocusing on Cold War space power determinants, next analyzes recentchanges among the three leading spacefaring nations, and then looks
into the future, factoring in the expanded role of commercial space startups and military space alliances. The article concludes that new formsof networked space power could put the United States in a more favorable position than countries relying on state-controlled innovation anddevelopment.
Traditional measures of space power have focused on the activities ofa nation’s military and civil space programs. This common emphasis comesfrom the Cold War when the United States and the Soviet Union createdwell-funded, government-run, and largely military-led (and sometimes
secret) space programs to “show the flag,” support their operational
forces and intelligence needs, and prevent surprise nuclear attacks. Since
James Clay Moltz is chairman of the Department of National Security Affairs at the Naval Postgraduate School, where he also holds a joint professorship in the Space Systems Academic Group.
His recent books include The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of National
Interests, 3rd ed. (Stanford University Press, 2019); Crowded Orbits: Conflict and Cooperation in Space(Columbia University Press, 2014); and Asia’s Space Race: National Motivations, Regional Rivalries,
and International Risks (Columbia University Press, 2012).

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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space Powerthe early 2000s, China has entered this club with a large-scale space program run by its military while also conducting civil human spaceflightand a range of scientific and quasi-commercial activities. After a decadeof severe decline in the 1990s, Russia’s space program has rebounded
under President Vladimir Putin and, according to some accounts, is set
to surpass Soviet achievements, especially regarding new military capabilities, including counterspace.2
According to some popular and expert reports, the United States isfalling behind in comparison to these rising and revanchist space powers.3
As Vice President Michael Pence stated at the first meeting of the newly
revived National Space Council in the fall of 2017: “America seems tohave lost our edge in space.”4
US military leaders are legitimately concerned. US intelligence officials
recently released an assessment stating that Russia will likely deploy new
antisatellite weapons within the next few years for use against US spaceassets.5 US Strategic Command’s Gen John Hyten also stated recently,“From a defense perspective, the isolation [as a result of Western sanctions] has not slowed the Russian modernization program . . . on thespace side.”6 Russia also remains the only country currently delivering
US astronauts to the International Space Station and continues to produce the main engine used in the United States’ Atlas V rocket, setting
up uncomfortable dependencies for the United States.
Regarding China, Air Force Lt Gen Steven Kwast has argued that
Beijing has a relative advantage in its preparedness for space conflict,stating, “In my best military judgment, China is on a 10-year journey
to operationalize space. We’re on a 50-year journey.”7 In civil space,a major US news magazine recently concluded that, in contrast to currently vague US goals, “China is boldly moving ahead with its own space
exploration efforts, and with little ambiguity about its mission,”8 given
its continuing manned spaceflights, new Hainan Island launch site, andplans for larger boosters.
Finally, military analyst Brian Chow says that the United States isfacing “a new game-changing threat under development in China andRussia” in the form of spacecraft with robotic arms that might quickly
disable US military satellites in a conflict.9 Such negative assessments of
US space power are based on traditional determinants, which presume
that capabilities emerge almost exclusively from top-down, government
funded, and largely military-led efforts, where centralization, national
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autonomy, and secrecy play key roles. Aspects of these trends are indeed
worrisome. However, do they tell the whole story? Or are there otherfactors that need to be considered in evaluating comparative twentyfirst-century space power?
Traditional, state-run approaches to space security have led authors to
three assumptions: (1) that war in space is inevitable, (2) that nations will
have to rely exclusively on their assets for fighting in space, and (3) thatspace wars will be dominated by offensive strategies, as opposed to spacebased defensive or deterrent approaches. One of the leading realist
scholars on space power, Everett Dolman, makes this case, “if somestate or organization should desire to contest or control space, denying
the fruits thereof to another state, there is simply no defense against
such action—there is only deterrence through the threat of asymmetric,
Earth-centered retaliation.”10
However, new conditions may facilitate other options, such as spacebased deterrence by denial. A state may, over time, create a resilient constellation of hundreds of networked satellites (national, commercial, andallied) that may be able to convince an adversary that its forces will not
be able to accomplish their objective of denying space-derived information. In 2016, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense Douglas Loverrostated in congressional testimony, “we must remove the likelihood that
attacks in space will succeed. Strangely enough, there are those who
believe that we cannot do this… That conclusion would be untrue.”11
In the modern world, technological, economic, social, scientific, andeven military dimensions of power have begun to shift from the national
to the international context. This point suggests that space power will
also be affected by globalization and interdependence, where networks
and success in innovation are becoming at least as important as national
government capabilities in creating power and influence. Indeed, thehighly nationalistic and state-focused strategies of Russia and China
may in the future represent anachronisms rather than cutting-edge approaches to space security. At the same time, new forms of networked
space power could offer the United States a distinct advantage. If thisis true, then assessments of comparative future power in space must
be reexamined and, possibly, recalculated based on new measures. As
Loverro argues regarding the proper response to the threats posed by
Russia and China in space, “the US response is clear—we must leverage
our two natural and sustained space advantages: the US commercial/
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entrepreneurial space sector, and our ability to form coalitions with ourspace-faring allies.”12
If such comparative advantages can be exploited to supplement
national assets and eventually transform narrow, national defensive capabilities into more robust architectures, then the autonomous, highly
centralized, military-led, nationalistic, and secretive space programs that
dominated the Cold War period could face new challenges of their own
against more resilient, networked space coalitions. A key variable affecting
these trends is the future nature of space innovation. Will traditional
state-run programs lead it or instead will it be led by commercial actors,
who may move more quickly in responding to market conditions andin developing new technologies? These dynamics merit particular attention, as effective innovation will be the main driver of future spacetransformation and, consequently, changes in space power.
This article first presents a brief history of the Cold War and the“technocratic” approach to space power. It then assesses how the UnitedStates—after riding high in the 1990s—suffered relative declines in the
military and civil space sectors after 2000 compared to Russia and China.
Next, it reconsiders emerging trends in space activity and the increasing(and often discounted) role of the commercial space sector, especiallystart-up innovators. It also considers the potential contributions of military space allies, proposing a new concept for space power via networked
capabilities. Finally, the article assesses future US, Chinese, and Russian
prospects in space. It concludes that the United States—thanks to its vibrant commercial space sector and its emerging partnerships with spaceproficient allies—has greater potential than its rivals to retain (and evenexpand) its future space power and influence. However, this will requirecontinued US national commitment to space and favorable policies inregard to the commercial sector and US allies.

A Brief History of Cold War Space Power
Looking back at Cold War trends in space power assessments, thepopular metrics for success were the number and size of launches, accomplishments by astronauts (first in orbit, first spacewalk, and first on
the moon), the fielding of military support technologies, and discoveriesin space science. These areas depended almost completely on state-runand state-funded programs throughout the Cold War. It was a period
dominated by the two superpowers who together conducted well over
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95 percent of space launches up through 1991.13 As historian Walter
McDougall argued in his 1985 Pulitzer prize-winning book, space activity embodied the post–World War II concept of “technocracy,” which
he defined as “the institutionalization of technological change for state
purposes, that is, the state-funded and -managed R&D explosion of
our time.”14 Without state sponsorship and military interest, McDougall
observed, the US-Soviet “space race” and its many technological developments would not have taken place.
In building space power, the Soviet Union benefited from its larger
rockets and ability to put significant payloads—instruments, canines,
and humans—into space. With the Soviet Union’s accomplishments pilingup, from Sputnik I’s launch in 1957 through Yuri Gagarin’s spaceflightin 1961 and then other flashy Soviet “firsts” (two people in space, thenthree, and then a spacewalk), the United States was seen as woefully lagging behind Moscow in perceived space power. However, public perception was only part of the story. In the secretive world of national security
space, the Soviet Union knew the United States was creating advantages.
The first reconnaissance satellites (Grab and Corona) achieved success in
1961, years before their Soviet counterparts, but the Eisenhower and
Kennedy administrations chose to keep their existence secret. During
the 1960s, US technological advantages in reliable electronics, computers,
and miniaturization combined to move the United States even further
ahead in national security space. Furthermore, it helped to facilitate thehighly successful and well-publicized Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, which culminated in the 1969 moon landing. This event finallyended the notion of the Soviets leading the way in space power, at least
until the late 1970s.15
Meanwhile, China lagged even further behind, conducting its firstspace launch in 1970. The influence of Communist Party politics
plagued China’s space program—and overall “technocratic” power—
during the 1960s and 1970s. This came as a result of the anti-Western
Cultural Revolution (which sent thousands of engineers into thecountryside for reeducation) and an unlucky association with General
Lin Biao, whose alleged coup attempt against Mao Zedong in 1971 andsubsequent death in a suspicious airplane crash in Mongolia set back thespace program for nearly a decade.16 Only in the 1980s did China begin
to emerge as a fledgling space power under Deng Xiaoping, by building
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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space PowerThe failure of the United States to launch any astronauts during theCarter administration in the late 1970s began to raise concerns of a US
space power decline. Critics of the US program began pointing to Soviet
long-duration flights on a series of Salyut stations and to counterspacecapabilities from the resumption of Soviet antisatellite testing. Popularfears of a relative US nuclear and space power “gap” helped electRonald Reagan.18 The Challenger disaster in 1986 and coincidental problems with the US Air Force’s satellite launch program led to renewed
assessments—including the cover story of Time magazine in October
1987—of a dangerous advance in Soviet space capabilities.19 However,the United States again resumed its stature as the leader in space witha series of successful shuttle flights and new constellations of military
satellites, including the groundbreaking capabilities introduced by the
Global Positioning System (GPS). The Soviet Union’s collapse led to theselling off of many Russian space technologies, which later contributed
to China’s emergence in space.

Space Power Dynamics in the 1990s:
US Hegemony
The early post–Cold War period was characterized by US technocratic
dominance in space. US space accomplishments included the successful
operation of the space shuttle, leadership in organizing the constructionof the International Space Station (ISS), commercialization of the military GPS system (a vast windfall for US companies), and the reestablishment of military space launch reliability under the Evolved Expendable
Launch Vehicle program.
Meanwhile, Russia experienced its sharpest decline in space power—
in both relative and absolute terms—since 1957. Although a legacy fleetof launchers allowed it to maintain a significant role in the newly internationalized, post–Cold War commercial launch sector, its constellations deteriorated significantly, its spending on civil space dropped
precipitously, and its military space program developed wide gaps incapability, suffering dangerous “blackout” periods in space-based reconnaissance and early warning. With post-Soviet Russia on the brink ofeconomic collapse, NASA opted to extend a helping hand to the Russian Space Agency in the form of contracts for astronaut flights to theRussian Mir station and cooperative work on the ISS. US goals in thiscooperative effort included lowering overall costs for the station andStrategic Studies Quarterly ♦ Spring 201971

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preventing former Soviet missile scientists from taking jobs in countries
of proliferation concern.20
Nevertheless, Russian space employment dropped precipitously due
to long periods of unpaid wages, as the Yeltsin government struggled
financially. By 1996, the Russian Space Agency’s budget had declined
to a mere $700 million.21 As Brian Harvey describes, despite efforts by
the Energiya enterprise to keep up with its commitments to the ISS in
the late 1990s in the face of on-again, off-again support from the Yeltsin
administration, “new [state] funding turned out to be a complex setof bank loans rather than on-the-spot cash. Dates again slipped andslipped. The situation worsened with inflation and the slide of the rubleon foreign exchanges.”22 US funding helped salvage some of the work,and the Russians met their commitments, albeit late. The de-orbiting of
Russia’s Mir space station in early 2000, due to lack of funding, marked
the symbolic end to this humiliating period of relative decline for Russia.
The subsequent launch of the Zvezda module for the ISS marked a newstart, as did Russia’s success in marketing the Proton booster, which had
17 commercial launches by the end of the decade.23
China in the 1990s was still emerging slowly as a “technocratic” space
power. It began pursuing a state-led, import substitution strategy by acquiring foreign technology and learning to build copies. With Russian
enterprises struggling to survive, China benefited greatly from fire-saleprices for major space technologies, especially for its own future humanspaceflight operations. The Chinese government also invested heavily inthe development of space manufacturing infrastructure and personnel, making only small advances in near-term capability but setting the foundation for later growth. In the commercial sector, it benefited in part fromthe Reagan administration’s cooperative agreements, which eventually
allowed 26 US commercial satellites to be launched on Chinese Long
March boosters by the end of the next decade. However, this program—
under the state-created Great Wall Industry Corporation—came to ahalt in 1999 after the House report, U.S. National Security and Military/
Commercial Concerns with the People’s Republic of China (“Cox Report”),
alleged the transfer of sensitive information by two US space companies
during investigations after failed Chinese launches.24 The cessation ofthis cooperation cut Chinese commercial space revenues dramatically in
the initial years of US sanctions and heightened export controls.25
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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space PowerIn the military sector, this period saw significant Chinese investments
in research and development, but few tests. Little hint of the military direction of China’s space program in the coming decade would be foundat the time. However, China had witnessed the United States’ use of
space-supported warfare in the Persian Gulf in 1991 and the Balkans
in the late 1990s. This convinced Beijing of its dangerous inferiority
and the need to be prepared to challenge and defeat US space assets
in a crisis. The Chinese military’s new goal of being able to fight “local
wars under modern, high-tech conditions” meant that disruption of US
space-supported command, control, communications, and intelligencewould take on a new level of importance in the future.26

Shifts in Space Power from 2000 to 2017:
Russia’s Resurgence, China’s Rise
The twenty-first century began with an all-consuming terrorist strikeagainst the US homeland in the form of the 9/11 attacks. In this environment, space became a secondary priority for Washington, andthe two main elements of US space power—civil and military space—
both struggled, allowing China and Russia to make relative gains. The
United States remained the world leader in civil and military space, but
its reigning position diminished. The commercial sector continued to
grow steadily but did not yield revolutionary, sector-changing products
in launch, communications, human spaceflight, space manufacturing,or imagery. Relative US space power suffered under both the Bush andObama administrations, which witnessed tight budgets and the untimely
cancellation of the US space shuttle program without a replacement.
NASA faced considerable problems in the early 2000s, beginningwith the 2003 Columbia disaster, which killed all the astronauts aboard
during a breakup as the shuttle reentered the atmosphere. The standdown of shuttle operations forced the United States to rely on Russia foraccess to the ISS. This was the first such period of dependency, but not
the last. Pres. George W. Bush’s Vision for Space Exploration speech in2004 attempted to rally NASA for a cooperative return to the moon
as a jumping-off point to Mars.27 However, in the midst of the wars in
Afghanistan and Iraq, the US administration could not offer any realfunding. President Obama’s attempt to continue elements of that program with the Asteroid Redirect Mission failed to garner either congressional or public support. With the end of shuttle flights in 2011, NASA
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entered into its second and longest period of dependence on Russia
for human spaceflight. While the completion and operation of the ISS
marked major accomplishments and the Mars Rover program captured
the public’s attention, an inherited budget deficit forced the Obama administration to cut NASA’s budget and its planned return to the moon.
US civil space leadership suffered globally as a result.28
In the face of rising threats to US space assets, however, the Obamaadministration developed new concepts in its 2010 US National Space
Policy and the 2011 National Security Space Strategy. These documents
set a course away from traditional US nationalism in space toward international engagement, including operational cooperation with allies. By
2016, the United States had signed over a dozen space situational awareness sharing agreements with foreign countries and 50 companies andcommercial organizations.29 Also, in 2015, the US military began work
toward a Joint Interagency Combined Space Operations Center (JICSpOC)
to begin the process of operationalizing space cooperation with allies
and the commercial sector. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter establishedthe Defense Innovation Unit Experimental (DIUx) in Mountain View,
California. The goal was to increase the pace of adopting innovations
from Silicon Valley’s commercial start-up companies into the realm of
military deployment to boost effectiveness and save money. However,this effort had limited initial results and had to be reorganized. The JICSpOC
also failed to achieve its intended mission. In the face of emerging Russian and Chinese threats, the outgoing Obama administration approved
funding for $5 billion aimed at increasing “space protection” capabilities. Overall, however, under both Bush and Obama, the United States
failed to address a series of problems in civil and military space enterprises in a context where promising commercial technologies had not
yet yielded significant security benefits.
Meanwhile, Russia under Vladimir Putin took a very different activist
course to reconstitute its space program in the early 2000s. Recognizing the military vulnerability Russia faced and the fact that the nation’s
space program represented one of the few remaining elements of Russia’s international prestige, he pursued several actions. Putin plugged thegaps in his military constellations, restored the Russian GLONASS
GPS system, and upgraded the military launch site at Plesetsk. Most
worrisome, Putin restarted work on several counterspace programs, dormant since the Cold War, citing new threats from US missile defenses
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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space Powerand the X-37B experimental space plane. Russia began testing its Nudol
direct-ascent antisatellite system and undertook a series of on-orbit experiments in proximity operations, including near some Western communications satellites in geostationary orbit.30
Drawing on revenues from newly renationalized oil and gas companies, Putin also restored the civil space budget. Due to Russia’s averageannual economic growth of 7 percent from 2003 to 2007, the Russian
space program underwent a remarkable “resurgence,” in the words ofFrench space expert Bertrand de Montluc.31 He specifically cited Russia’s leadership in commercial space launch. But Montluc cautionedthat Russia’s long-term strategy remained unclear, noting, “Reusable
launchers will not be on the cards for another 30 years.”32 Nevertheless, Russia’s possession of the Soyuz launcher eventually made it thesole point of access to the ISS, putting it into a de facto leadership role.
Not surprisingly, President Putin used his leverage to increase the pricefor foreign astronauts of a round-trip ride to the ISS to $70 million.
Under President Dmitri Medvedev (2008–12), Russia also began an effort to stimulate a start-up sector by creating the Skolkovo Innovation
Center near Moscow. With state funding and a favorable “incubator”
environment, several small firms emerged, mostly in the launch components sector.33 However, their activities remained minor, due in partto opposition from the state sector, indicating a Russian preference fortraditional technocracy.
Efforts to reconstitute Russia’s former space science glory proved unsuccessful. The much-ballyhooed flight of the Phobos-Grunt spacecraft
to a moon of Mars in November 2011 (with a range of Russian andforeign, including Chinese, scientific payloads) ended in a disastrous
failure. When faulty computer chips caused the spacecraft to becomeunresponsive shortly after launch, it became stranded in a low, uncontrolled orbit around Earth. The reentry and breakup of this expensive
and much-anticipated mission in early 2012 met with finger-pointing
about failures of quality control within Roscosmos and political pressures to launch. However, flush with cash, the Russian government
doubled down on a major plan for lunar and planetary exploration. The
development of a series of new launchers, plus the construction of a major
new launch site in the Russian Far East (Vostochny) was intended toremove Russia’s dependence on—and $115 million in yearly rent payments for—the former Soviet launch facility at Baikonur in Kazakhstan.
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Russia’s space resurgence reached a high-water mark in 2014 when
Roscosmos’s annual budget totaled a healthy $4.2 billion, and Russia
conducted 35 successful launches, far surpassing both the United States
and China.34 However, the combined effects of corruption, Westernsanctions after Russia’s seizure of Crimea and intervention in eastern
Ukraine, and falling state oil and gas revenues eventually began to put
pressure on Roscosmos. President Putin’s prized project—the Vostochny
Far Eastern launch site—failed to meet its operational goal of a 2015
launch due to rampant corruption, which resulted in politically embarrassing hunger strikes by unpaid workers, the loss of hundreds ofmillions of dollars, and the firing of two successive managers.35 Putin
eventually took the unusual step of putting the project directly under
the control of Deputy Prime Minister Dmitri Rogozin. In late 2015, to
eradicate corruption and raise quality control after a series of Roscosmos
launch failures, President Putin abolished the space agency altogether
and established the eponymous “State Space Corporation Roscosmos”
in early 2016. It was described as a commercial unit of the Russian
government intended to reduce corruption and run the consolidated
space industry according to best business practices. However, Roscosmos
remained much more like a state enterprise than a commercial one.
Vostochny finally conducted its first launch in April 2016. However,after a failed launch in November 2017, even Russian analysts began to
downplay previously rosy prospects for the facility, discounting the possibility of any near-term cosmonaut launches.
Meanwhile, China’s major state-led investments in space advancement began to bear fruit in the early 2000s. Fearful of US military spaceadvantages, eager to rally public support for the communist leadership
through high prestige space missions, and hopeful of spurring developments in high technology to benefit the Chinese economy, Beijing began
to make deliberate efforts to advance its place in the space community.
After several unmanned tests, the Chinese military launched Shenzhou
V with its first taikonaut (Chinese astronaut) aboard in October 2003,
shocking the world by becoming the third country to launch and return
a human from Earth orbit. A slow but steady series of successes inhuman spaceflight, including a small station (Tiangong 1) visited by taikonauts in 2012 put other countries on alert that China was making along-term commitment to civil space activity, even if it was managed
by the military. With an unmanned mission to the lunar surface with
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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space Powerits Jade Rabbit rover, the establishment of a substantial space science
program, and cosponsorship (with Russia) of a UN initiative to preventthe weaponization of space, China sought to burnish its credentials as a
responsible space player. In 2008, China attempted to establish itself as
an international space leader by founding the Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO). The Beijing-based APSCO was modeled on
the European Space Agency, but the limited space capability of its othermembers—including Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan, and Peru—reduced thelikelihood of any real technological synergies emerging from this cooperation.
China’s kinetic antisatellite test in January 2007 showed another, moretroubling side of its military-led space program. By flaunting international
norms on debris mitigation and then continuing to develop a range ofcounterspace capabilities over the next decade, China showed a commitment to developing an offensive military space capability aimed at
possible use against the United States in a future regional conflict. From
being a virtually nonexistent military actor in 2000, China emerged by2017 as a potent military competitor, albeit one with considerably lessoperational experience.
Only in the commercial sector did China’s space capabilities seem tolag behind world space leaders. While China’s Great Wall Industry Corporation expanded its sales of on-orbit satellites and low-cost launches—to countries such as Nigeria, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Laos—the highly
subsidized nature of most of these deals suggested that the criteria forsales were based more on politics than economics. In the launch sector,
after its loss of launch rights for satellites with any US components after
1999, China slowly gained a niche commercial market thanks to European efforts in developing satellites without US components. However,this market remained modest.
More significantly, China successfully bypassed its former European
partners in the Galileo GPS network by developing and launching its
own system called BeiDou.36 With 23 satellites by 2016, the constellation entered into regional operation, with additional satellites and global
functionality promised by 2020. China began to force domestic enterprises to purchase BeiDou receivers while enticing foreign countries tobuy into the network on favorable terms. Overall, Chinese developments
during the 2000 to 2017 period marked major accomplishments relative to both Russia and the United States, although the US space program
continued to lead the world in terms of its absolute space capabilities.
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Emerging Changes in Space Power Dynamics
Until recently, the source of space power has relied heavily on statefunding and innovation. However, over the past several years, the increasing share of commercial space in the total arena of space activity
merits reevaluating traditional measures. Christopher Kirchhoff, a former official at DIUx, observes that “most innovation today—unlikethat of two generations ago—takes place in the commercial sector, notgovernment labs.”37 Accordingly, where state spending dominated spacerevenues well into the 2000s, today the commercial sector accounts forover three-quarters of the $323 billion spent yearly across the globe on
space activity.38 These new trends in space spending, activity, and thenexus of innovation suggest the need to consider a revised model ofspace power as we look toward the future. While the earlier space race
period could be accurately characterized as dominated by rival, state-led“technocracies,” a more flexible, disaggregated, and resilient “netocracy”
is now emerging as a rival model of space organization (see Fig. 1.) It
may soon prove to be a superior model for the challenges facing countries in establishing twenty-first-century space power. We can define
space-related netocracy as a new form of organization based on publicprivate partnerships, distributed architectures, rapid innovation, and theuse of multiple commercial and allied partnerships.

Cold WarSpace Power Model("Technocracy")• National• Secret• Military-led• Independent• Few, large platforms(vulnerable)• Slow, top-downinnovation

21st Century Space Power
Model ("Netocracy")• International• Transparent• Commercially led• Networked• Many, small platforms(resilient)• Rapid, bottom-up
innovation

Fig. 1. Comparison of space power models

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Conditions for the creation of net-centric space power are emerging
from the so-called “NewSpace” revolution, where venture capital, dynamic entrepreneurs, scientific innovators, and a supportive politicaland legal infrastructure are combining to bring a whole range of new
space technologies to the marketplace. Critical in this process is an environment that supports the free flow of ideas and people and protects
intellectual property. Otherwise, innovators may develop to a certain
stage and then move elsewhere for a more favorable business climate.
Notably, such innovation “hubs” are present in some areas of the UnitedStates, due to a combination of technological factors, human capital,and political/legal mechanisms that have made rapid start-up formation
possible and have assured investors that successful companies will be allowed to keep profits and expand their businesses. Such conditions do
not exist in Russia today and are only partly present in China, creating
significant potential advantages for the United States.
Another set of changing factors relates to the role of international
cooperation in military space. In the past, the disparities in capabilities between the superpowers and other spacefaring countries were so
stark that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union would havederived any substantive benefits from sharing constellations and engaging in extensive data-sharing or operational cooperation with allies.39
Until 2010, US National Space Policy had not made any mention of
possible benefits to the United States from integrating aspects of the US
military space program with those of its allies. However, those conditions have changed as a number of US friends and allies have now developed sophisticated space capabilities—including India, Israel, Italy,
France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom. Moreover, a numberof these countries in Europe and Asia have the financial capability tocontribute to advanced military space architectures, some of which are
too expensive for even the United States to field alone. These space capabilities have raised the attractiveness of military space alliances for thosecountries that are willing to engage foreign space powers.
In light of these new dynamics, how are the three leading space powers
likely to fare going forward? Are the gloomy assessments of certain US
experts and officials merited?
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US Trends
The United States has begun to address its relative decline in space, although only in part due to government efforts. NASA’s budget remains
flat, and the Department of Defense projects aimed at addressing theresilience of space assets are largely continuations of policies begun latein the Obama administration. However, these projects are now coming to fruition. General Hyten’s focus on space as a war-fighting realm
has brought a new tone of seriousness to the US approach to military
space protection, as has the standing up of the National Space Defense
Center at Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado. The reestablishment of
the National Space Council has raised the importance of space activity
within the national defense enterprise, while also highlighting the importance of public-private partnerships. Former Defense Secretary James
Mattis’s decision to reform and reinvigorate the DIUx organization set
up by his predecessor (and change the name to the Defense Innovation
Unit-DIU), by increasing funding and expanding its reach, marked another positive sign. DIU can now fund projects directly and operates inMountain View, Boston, Austin, and Washington, DC.40
However, the most dynamic recent change in US space capabilities iscoming from the commercial sector itself, especially among start-ups.
Already, the space marketplace is being flooded with new products
and services from these emerging US space ventures. These include
revolutionary, low-cost services now being offered by US companies in
the fields of Earth observation, space situational awareness, satellite
tracking, space launch, and space manufacturing. After many years ofpromising change, NewSpace companies are now bringing revolutionary products to the marketplace, which is shifting space power
leadership back toward the United States.41
In Earth observation, the San Francisco-based company Planet now
operates 150 satellites, the largest constellation of satellites ever launchedby a private company or a government, providing daily revisits of allareas of the globe.42 In the field of space situational awareness, Menlo
Park, California–based start-up LeoLabs is operating its own phasedarray radar (constructed in Texas) and developing the largest catalog of
low Earth orbital objects outside the US government.43 It plans to expand this network with three additional radars, supported by a growing commercial and governmental client base. In space manufacturing,
another Mountain View-based start-up, Made in Space, now operates
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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space Powerthe only 3-D printer on the ISS and is working toward the capability tobuild and robotically assemble large structures in orbit, thus drasticallyreducing construction costs.44 Each of these companies is helping theUnited States build new elements for future space power and resilience.
In the launch field, 2017 marked the first time the United States
has led global launches since 2003, with 29 successful orbital missions,compared to 20 for Russia and 16 for China.45 Even more remarkable
is the fact that Elon Musk’s Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX)
company conducted 18 successful launches. SpaceX has the prospect tolaunch more in the future if the company can perfect its ability to return
boosters to the ground and reuse them safely. SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket
also surpassed Russia’s Soyuz as the most successful launcher for the firsttime. Other US companies, including the United Launch Alliance andOrbital ATK, add to the US tally, while start-ups like Blue Origin andRocket Lab provide further capability to the US launch stable. Indeed,
the commercial launch sector seems to be entering a period of UnitedStates dominance.
In the intelligence area, the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO)
and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency are aggressively pursuing benefits from the commercial sector, including from start-ups withsmall satellites. Growing capabilities and the availability of persistentobservation of points of interest have changed the previously skeptical
attitude of US intelligence providers regarding the commercial sector.
As NRO director Betty Sapp said recently about the US government’s
former development of its own buses and systems, “Those days are longgone.”46 Today, with purchases from companies like Planet, DigitalGlobe,
and others, the real problem facing the US intelligence community is
how to handle the vastly increased flow of data. The NRO, according
to Sapp, is using this commercial bonanza to plan for a future involving“integrated architectures that meet user needs with far more affordability,
resiliency, and tolerance for failure.”47
Another area where the United States has begun to show leadership isin the area of military space alliances. The underlying concept of military space cooperation begun during the Obama years has continued
thus far under the Trump administration, providing benefits in termsof reduced cost, increased deterrence, and expanded resiliency, despite
the recent emergence of new counterspace threats. Again, the prospects
for space cooperation are greater for countries with existing military
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alliances, such as the United States. For the first time, the concept of amilitary space “network” is realistic. The Wideband Global SATCOM
system now funded by the United States and eight of its close allies,
who receive bandwidth in return for their financial contributions to thisconstellation of communications satellites, demonstrates this concept.
In the area of space situational awareness agreements, US Strategic
Command has now established 83 international data-sharing agreements
to expand its network of satellite and debris information to improve
space safety and the effectiveness of US operations.48 Also, the Air Forceannounced the opening of the Combined Space Operations Center inthe summer of 2018 at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, completing a multiyear process of consultations and exercises that eventually led
to the center. 49 The initial foreign military partners will include Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The point of this effort is toallow more rapid sharing of information among countries and the actual
conduct of joint missions involving the commercial sector and the intelligence community. A supporting process—the Multinational Space
Collaboration (MSC) initiative—is working with additional countries
toward future cooperation in space situational awareness and operations,
including Germany and France, with future participation expected from
Italy, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, and Spain.50 Another exampleof emerging military space cooperation is the Enhanced Polar System recapitalization, in which US military communications payloads are being
hosted on Norwegian polar-orbiting satellites, saving the United Statessome $900 million.51 US military space war games now also regularly
include US allies. Notably, such military space partnerships have notyet emerged in either Russian or Chinese space policies or architectures.
Neither country has significant military allies that are space-capable, andthe two sides, despite other forms of military cooperation, have thus far
exhibited inadequate trust for real cooperation in military space.
The one area of space power where the United States’ commitment
and plans remain somewhat vague is in civil space. Although President
Trump’s one-page Space Policy Directive of December 2017 outlined ageneral goal of returning to the moon and moving on to Mars, it did
not offer details on how to organize or fund such missions.52 The administration’s second directive on space in March 2018 provided more information on commercial and military space but almost nothing about
NASA.53 The currently flat NASA budget does not seem to offer enough82

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flexibility to support major manned missions—absent new funding—and more recent discussion of trying to free up funds by privatizing the
ISS do not seem realistic. The absence of a NASA administrator or a
White House science advisor for over a year set back the organization’splanning process. It remains to be seen if the Trump administration will
be able to make up for lost time in getting NASA back on track as a
global civil space leader, as the commercial sector cannot be expected tocarry out US scientific missions.

Russian Trends
Russia’s course under Putin regarding space organizations and innovation has followed political dictates rather than global economic bestpractices. The Putin administration has steadily reversed the significant
integration of the Russian space sector into the international marketplace, with mixed (and sometimes negative) results. In sharp contrast
to US and other Western trends—where small start-ups are driving acontinuous process of innovation—the Russian situation has moved toward extreme centralization. Since forming the State Space Corporation
Roscosmos, President Putin fired director Igor Komarov, who had comeout of the commercial sector, and instead appointed his former deputy
prime minister Rogozin to take over the agency in May 2018, suggesting
the primacy of political loyalty over business experience.
The problems Roscosmos faces today have much to do with the disconnect between its nationalist agenda and its growing isolation fromthe rest of the space community. Ironically, the very success of the Russian space industry in integrating into global supply chains in the 1990s
has now made it dependent on foreign components for construction ofsatellites. A recent study indicated that up to 75 percent of electronicparts on certain current-generation satellites come from the UnitedStates.54 With the advent of Western sanctions after Russia’s 2014 seizure of Crimea and intervention in eastern Ukraine, Russia has been
forced to substitute substandard and often ill-fitting Russian or otherforeign components from countries that do not adhere to UN sanctions.
Russia may develop renewed capabilities, but it will take time and steadybudgetary support for such efforts to succeed.
A second problem facing Roscosmos relates to changes in the international marketplace. In the 1990s, Russia was able to enter into thecommercial marketplace successfully due to a combination of factors
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including low costs, avid buyers (from the West and China), and theexistence of large stockpiles of “legacy” Soviet space products, especiallylaunchers. However, as that legacy of rockets and other technology has
gradually dwindled and Russian manufacturers have been spoiled by
two decades of high Western prices for space products, the NewSpace
revolution in the United States has created serious new challenges. Put
simply, prices are dropping, especially in the launch sector, and a variety of
new products are now available from commercial start-ups that Roscosmos
cannot produce or cannot offer with comparable quality and price. Russia had only one commercial launch in 2017; the rest were paid for by
the state. Similarly, there is not a market for Russian communications
satellites. As one recent Russian article observed regarding the quality ofsatellites produced under Roscosmos, “a significant portion of its satellites lack commercial potential” compared to their foreign, especiallyUS, counterparts.55 The main niche Roscosmos fills today is humanspaceflight—it is the only provider for astronaut transportation to andfrom the ISS. However, when NASA’s commercial crew program begins
service (now planned for 2019), Russia will lose much of that businessand the associated income.
Russia’s uncertain and highly oil-dependent state budget is anotherproblem facing the now re-centralized space industry. The long-term
Russian space budget for the 2016 to 2025 period, originally planned
for $70 billion, has now been reduced drastically to $20 billion.56 Looking ahead, Russia’s decision to put the bulk of its space investments into
the military sector over the past few years has created a serious declineof planned state investments in civil and commercial space. One of themain enterprises within Roscosmos, the Khrunichev State Research andProduction Space Center—builder of the workhorse Proton booster andnew Angara rocket—has had to resort to selling some of its property andbuildings to recoup costs not covered by existing funds from Roscosmos.57
The problem stems, in part, from a drop in state orders from seven rockets
to only three.58 This overall situation poses a serious threat to the longterm competitiveness of the Russian space industry. State orders are falling,
and Russia does not have marketable products for the increasingly competitive and innovation-driven commercial market.
Regarding innovation, Russia has become one of the least friendly
countries for start-ups since the business-friendly Medvedev finished his
one-term presidency in 2012. According to a recent report by experts at
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the Moscow-based Center for Strategic Assessments and Forecasts, thebusiness and legal environments for space start-ups in Russia today arehighly unfavorable.59 One Russian analyst describes a series of structuralproblems that have reduced its ability to organize itself for modern space
operations (compared to during the Cold War), such that its share of
the international space market has now declined to between 1 and 3
percent.60 Despite its declining budget, or perhaps because of it, Roscosmos itself has worked actively to block the emergence of commercial
start-ups, supported by Russian regulators who have made it extremely
difficult for entrepreneurs to obtain licenses to operate private spacecompanies. As the Center for Strategic Assessments and Forecasts notes,
even the list of requirements for establishing a space start-up is “classified,” adding that “to access it you need the permission of the FSB (Federal
Security Service).”61 Despite these obstacles, several Russian start-ups do
exist, some from Medvedev’s Skolkovo initiative. In the launch sector,
for example, a small number of fledgling rocket builders have been able
to find sponsors among Russia’s oligarchs and state-favored businesses.
Nevertheless, the hurdles facing Russian space start-ups are formidable,
making the kind of commercial space “innovation hubs” present in the
United States unlikely to be developed or duplicated any time soon.

Chinese Trends
China has risen the fastest and farthest among major spacefaring
countries over the past two decades and seems likely to continue on thistrajectory. However, despite recent Chinese efforts to stimulate technology incubators with government-provided seed money, the bulk of Chinese space activities continue to be state-run and militarily controlled.
As one Russian space analyst observed recently, “The Chinese model isreally the Soviet model.”62 The point here is that state direction and statefunding have gotten China to where it is today in space, an impressive
accomplishment. However, defense analyst Richard Bitzinger notes that“critical weaknesses remain” within China’s military industry and that it
has played the role of a “fast-follower” rather than that of an innovator.63
The question is, can this path continue?
Tai Ming Cheung from the University of California–San Diego hasstudied China’s military-industrial complex for more than two decades.
He has documented China’s keen ability to acquire and reverse-engineer
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defense sector. However, he raises doubts about whether China can takethe next step into innovation. Given the structure of Chinese industry,he observes, “Having the state define and pick winners and losers is not
how long-term sustainable innovation happens.”64 He notes the increasing pressure on Chinese companies to comply with government directions and controls, thus slowing innovation.
China’s typical processes over the past few decades of developing new
military technologies, as described by Cheung, “range from spending
heavily on importing large amounts of [foreign] technology and engaging in collaboration to the use of more nefarious means, such as industrial and cyber espionage.”65 The question going forward is whether
China can develop its own pathways to sustainable innovation rather
than copying existing technologies. In a startling realization after the
Chinese company Zhongxing Telecommunication Equipment faced
sanctions from the United States in the spring of 2018, Chinese leaders had to admit that the country still has a 90 percent dependence on
foreign (mainly US) components for its semiconductor products.66 Regarding space launch, a recent article in the state-run newspaper Global
Times lamented SpaceX’s accomplishments, “we are almost 10 years behind; more importantly, what our country has to desperately catch up
with is actually a private US enterprise.”67
Reforms, however, are being attempted. The problem, as Cheung
notes, is that “the People’s Liberation Army and defense industrial regulatory authorities are seeking to replace this outdated top-down administrative management model with a more competitive and indirect
regulatory regime, but there are strong vested interests that do not want
to see any major changes.”68 Nevertheless, in 2014 China instituted newlaws lowering financial thresholds and bureaucratic red tape in the establishment of private businesses. China hoped to stimulate the employment of new college graduates, spur the slowing economy, and acceleratetechnological innovation. It followed with more specific actions in 2015
aimed at fostering space start-ups.69 Overall, these actions succeeded inboosting the number of technology start-up companies in China, many
facilitated by the establishment of government-funded start-up “incubators” located around major universities, such as Beijing’s Tsinghua. Thusfar, some 60 fledgling space companies have been registered, but theresults have been somewhat disappointing.70 OneSpace Technologies
conducted China’s first private launch in May 2018, but it is a solid-fuel86

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rocket that only reached an altitude of 25 miles and lacked orbital velocity, thus putting it behind German rockets of the 1940s, which used
more sophisticated and scalable liquid-fuel technology. Shanghai-based
SpaceOK plans to build a constellation of 40 satellites aimed at supporting the government’s “One Belt, One Road” investment initiativeacross Asia.71 LandSpace hopes to begin solid-fuel rocket tests in 2018using former military rockets, while ExPace will use former military air
defense missiles to attempt to enter the launch market.72 These dynamics, thus far, suggest that conditions mirroring those in the US marketplace are still lacking in China and may require more political reforms
to stimulate truly bottom-up innovation.
Despite the existence of obstacles to innovation, China will continue
to advance rapidly in space capability. Through its state institutions andits military, China is moving to fulfill ambitious plans to establish a presence on the moon, launch a large space station, develop space-based solar power, and harness the ability to mine asteroids.73 It will also seek toimprove upon its already significant counterspace capabilities. However,
if China’s economy wavers, that raises questions related to the pace andthe sustainability of these efforts and leads to doubts about this state-led
path in space. Thus far, there are few signs that game-changing commercial technologies will be developed in China. Moreover, if US commercial companies and allies can render attacks on US national spaceassets more of an inconvenience than an existential threat, China’s heavy
investments into military space may simply be wasted. Former Deputy
Assistant Secretary of Defense Loverro noted in 2016 that US reconnaissance satellite cooperation involved “nearly 200 satellites and likely
20 ground infrastructures” and that the number of networked satellites
would rise to “over 600” by 2020.74 As he concluded, “Using this lever
to increase assurance of US imaging capacity presents an extremely complex problem to our adversaries, with little increase in our own costs.”75

Conclusion
The future of space power may not look like the past if current trends
in the commercial space sector continue. As US Space Command’s Gen
Howell Estes predicted in 1997 as he looked ahead in terms of space
power, “It is not the future of military space that is critical to the UnitedStates—it is the continued commercial development of space that will
provide continued strength for our great country in the decades ahead.”76
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Similarly, trying to determine the likely relationship between the US
military and commercial space sector back in 2002, Lt Col Peter Hays
commented, “It is currently unclear that military means are the best way
to protect commercial satellites or that the military will be called upon
to build a more robust space infrastructure based on perceived threats
to commercial systems.”77 Since Hays wrote that passage, the Cold War
assumption that US military assets would be needed to “protect” commercial assets in space has been challenged even more, to the extent that
it is now more common to discuss the concept of using commercial infrastructure or allied assets to provide resilience to what are seen as more
vulnerable US military assets. If this trend continues, it may well be thatcommercial capabilities and allies will prove to be essential to sustainable
space power by providing the mission assurance needed in various areasof space activity necessary for effective deterrence.
Just because the United States has a vibrant, emerging commercial
space start-up sector and strong friends and allies, however, does notmean it can assume future US power relative to its adversaries. As Gen
Jay Raymond stated recently, “Space superiority is not a birthright; itmust be earned.”78 Indeed, a lack of investment in either dimension ofnational space capability (civil or military) or ineffective policies to engage (and draw upon) the commercial sector and allies could cause overall US space power to fail to reach its potential. However, unlike some of
the gloomy assessments of relative power trends frequently heard today
within the US space community, there are also considerable grounds forbelieving that the United States has comparative advantages over Russia
and even China thanks to emerging innovation in the commercial spacestart-up sector and the presence of increasingly space-capable allies. The
problem facing both Russia and China in the twenty-first century isthat their model for space development posits a dominant role for theirgovernments, thanks in part to their leaderships’ insistence on absolutepolitical control over the process and results of innovation. Reforming
their state-centric model to favor start-ups and bottom-up innovation or
sharing of assets with foreign governments would require loosening political controls. Such actions are feared by current Russian and Chinese
leaders, making them unlikely to occur. State control over investment
can successfully develop national space activities in periods of strong
budgetary support and under conditions where technological innovation need only occur slowly. It is a less effective organizing principle in
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The Changing Dynamics of Twenty-First-Century Space Powera fast-growing, globalized, information-based economy where marketbased solutions can respond more quickly than state-led initiatives andwhere private capital is more readily available than government sources.
Under these conditions, state-led strategies are more likely to fail.
These points, however, should not make US policymakers overly confident. Continued slowness in US military acquisition and in establishing more resilient constellations, challenges posed by excessive government secrecy and export controls, and recent underfunding of spacescience and civil space could all cause the United States to miss thebenefits from these favorable trends. To ensure that the US advantage
in NewSpace comes to fruition regarding future space power, the US
government and the US military must develop and follow through on
initiatives aimed at institutionalizing strong US public-private and allied links in space. Also, the US should focus on moving from Cold War“technocracy” to twenty-first-century “netocracy.” Some of these actions
items should include:• continuing to create favorable rules for the US commercial space sector
that emphasize responsible behavior but allow for entrepreneurship;• fostering international discussions and interpretations of the Outer
Space Treaty that support commercial outcomes with proper national
licensing procedures;• engaging in sensible export control policies, allowing sharing oftechnologies that are already widely available from other foreign
suppliers but preventing the export of cutting-edge technologies
and purchases of US commercial space companies by non-allies;• shaping the space security environment by building more binding
international norms and rules against the creation of orbital debris(to include kinetic weapons testing) and interference with satellites,
while emphasizing the rights of companies to prosecute foreign violators
through existing international liability law;• developing public-private partnerships to support US civil space
activity, and continuing to invest in a robust space science and exploration agenda to build US leadership;• supporting military space resilience and sustainability, as well as
enhancing the military’s ability to work with the commercial sector,
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especially start-ups, through expanded use of rapid acquisitions
under “other transactional authorities” allowed under US law; and• promoting policies that institutionalize cooperation with US allies
in space, including joint space training, exercises, and operations.
Overall, the United States remains the world’s leading space powerand has the tools—national, commercial, and allied—to retain its comparative advantage in space. The challenge will be how to create flexible
yet effective mechanisms to build a new, “netocracy” framework for US
space power. Given emerging threats, this effort should focus on creating ashared deterrent posture based on resilience, superior numbers, continuous
innovation, and cooperative resolve to deny adversaries any belief thatthey will benefit from starting a future conflict in space. In this way, theUnited States should be able to develop a robust commercial infrastructure and sustainable defenses to continue US space power under changing
twenty-first-century conditions.

Notes
1. The author thanks an anonymous reviewer for providing a useful set of points to consider. The views in this article are those of the author alone and do not represent statements of
the official policy of the US Navy or the US Department of Defense. It draws upon interviews
conducted by the author at commercial space start-up companies in Silicon Valley, southern
California, Seattle, and Denver from May to September 2017. The author is grateful to Dan
Rasky, Bruce Pittman, and Tina Panontin of the NASA Ames Research Center for their advice
and assistance during this process.
2. Daniel R. Coats, “Statement for the Record, Worldwide Threat Assessment of the USIntelligence Community, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Daniel R. Coats, Director of
National Intelligence, May 11, 2017,” 11 May 2017, https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=801029.
3. See, for example, Richard A. Bitzinger, “Is China’s Space Program ‘Rocketing’ Past America?,”
The National Interest, 10 May 2016, https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/chinas-space-program-rocketing-past-america-16126; and Kelly Dickerson, “China’s Booming Space Program Might Put the US and Russia to Shame,” Business Insider, https://www.businessinsider.com/chinas-space-program-cnsa-photos-2015-11; and Bryan Bender and Jacqueline Klimas,“Space War is Coming—and the U.S. is Not Ready,” POLITICO, 6 April 2018, https://www.politico.com/story/2018/04/06/outer-space-war-defense-russia-china-463067.
4. Vice President Mike Pence, quoted in Jeff Foust, “National Space Council Calls for
Human Return to the Moon,” Space News, 9 October 2017, https://spacenews.com/national-space-council-calls-for-human-return-to-the-moon/.
5. Sandra Erwin, “U.S. Intelligence: Russia and China Will Have ‘Operational’ Anti-Satellite
Weapons in a Few Years,” Space News, 14 February 2018, https://spacenews.com/u-s-intelligence-russia-and-china-will-have-operational-anti-satellite-weapons-in-a-few-years/.

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6. General Hyten, cited in Jacqueline Klimas, “Gen. John Hyten: Russian Isolation Not
Slowing Down Military Space Mission,” POLITICO, 20 April 2018, https://www.politico.com/story/2018/04/20/gen-john-hyten-russia-military-space-mission-538590.
7. Lt Gen Steve Kwast, quoted in Michael Sheetz, “USAF General Steve Kwast: China
in Space Five Times Faster than US,” CNBC, 10 November 2017, https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/10/usaf-general-steve-kwast-china-in-space-five-times-faster-than-us.html.
8. Marina Koren, “China’s Growing Ambitions in Space,” The Atlantic, 23 January 2017,https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/01/china-space/497846/.
9. Brian Chow, “China’s New Space Threat and the Justification of US Pre-Emptive SelfDefense,” Space Review, 18 January 2016, http://www.thespacereview.com/article/2903/1.
10. Everett Carl Dolman, “New Frontiers, Old Realities,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no.
1 (Spring 2012): 87, https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-06_Issue-1/Spring12.pdf.
11. Douglas Loverro, testimony, House, National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal
Year 2017 and Oversight of Previously Authorized Programs: Hearing before the Committee on
Armed Services, 114th Cong., 2nd sess., 2016, http://archive.org/details/gov.gpo.fdsys.CHRG-114hhrg20062.
12. Loverro, testimony.
13. See Table 1: Number of Spacecraft Launched Each Year in Claude Lafleur, “The Spacecraft Encyclopedia,” 4 October 2017, http://claudelafleur.qc.ca/Spacecrafts-index.html#Table-1.
14. Walter A McDougall, The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age(New York: Basic Books, 1985), 5.
15. James Clay Moltz, The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of
National Interests (Stanford, CA: Stanford Security Studies, 2011), 184.
16. For more on this period in Chinese space history, see James Clay Moltz, Asia’s Space
Race: National Motivations, Regional Rivalries, and International Risks (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2012), 79–83.
17. Moltz, Asia’s Space Race, 82–86.
18. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold
War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 109–10.
19. Michael D. Lemonick, “Surging Ahead: The Soviets Overtake the U.S. as the No. 1
Spacefaring Nation,” Time, 5 October 1987, http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,965658,00.html.
20. Susan Eisenhower, Partners in Space: US-Russian Cooperation after the Cold War (Washington,
DC: Eisenhower Institute, 2004), 41–49.
21. William E. Burrows, This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age (New York: Random
House, 1998), 301.
22. Brian Harvey, Russia in Space: The Failed Frontier? (Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing,2001), 92.
23. Harvey, Russia in Space, 295.
24. House, Report of the Select Committee on U.S. National Security and Military/Commercial
Concerns with the People’s Republic of China, 105th Cong., 1st sess., 1999, https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/105th-congress/house-report/851.
25. Great Wall Industry Corporation officials, interview by the author, Beijing, China, 23
September 2009.
26. On this shift, see Dean Cheng, “China’s Military Role in Space,” Strategic Studies
Quarterly 6, no. 1 (Spring 2012): 58, https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-06_Issue-1/Cheng.pdf.
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27. NASA, “The Vision for Space Exploration,” February 2004, https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/55583main_vision_space_exploration2.pdf.
28. NASA’s decision to pursue the Asteroid Redirect Mission alienated prior allied participantsin the Constellation program, as their contributions were no longer needed. On this point, see
Zoe Szajnfarber, Thomas M. K. Coles, George R. Sondecker, Anthony C. Wicht, and Annalisa
L. Weigel, “Moon First versus Flexible Path Exploration Strategies: Considering International
Contributions,” Space Policy 27, no. 3 (August 1, 2011): 131, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2011.05.003.
29. Frank Rose “Strengthening International Cooperation in Space Situational Awareness”(remarks, Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies Conference, Maui, Hawaii,
22 September 2016), https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/avc/rls/262502.htm.
30. On these activities, see Brian Weeden, Victoria Samson, and Secure World Foundation,
Global Counterspace Capabilities: An Open Source Assessment (Washington, DC: Secure WorldFoundation, April 2018), 2-1–2-35, https://swfound.org/media/206118/swf_global_counterspace_april2018.pdf.
31. Bertrand de Montluc, “Russia’s Resurgence: Prospects for Space Policy and International
Cooperation,” Space Policy 26, no. 1 (February 2010): 15–24, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2009.12.002.
32. De Montluc, “Russia’s Resurgence,” 20.
33. Bruce McClintock, “The Russian Space Sector: Adaptation, Retrenchment, and Stagnation,”Space and Defense 10 (Spring 2017): 7, http://www.usafa.edu/app/uploads/Space_and_Defense_10_1.pdf.
34. Anatoly Zak and James Oberg, “Viewpoint: Two Views on Russian Space: The Casefor Optimism,” Aerospace America (September 2015), https://www.aiaa.org/Aerospace-America-September-2015.
35. Tomasz Nowakowski, “Vostochny Report Part 3: Hunger Games,” SpaceFlight Insider,
3 May 2015, http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/roscosmos/vostochny-report-part-3-hunger-games/.
36. On this system, see Jordan Wilson, “China’s Alternative to GPS and its Implications for
the United States,” U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 5 January 2017,https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/Research/Staff%20Report_China%27s%20Alternative%20to%20GPS%20and%20Implications%20for%20the%20United%20States.pdf.
37. Christopher Kirchhoff, “Opinion: Why Silicon Valley Must Go to War,” New York Times,
2 May 2018, A21, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/02/opinion/silicon-valley-pentagon.html.
38. Joshua Hampson, “The Future of Space Commercialization,” Niskanen Center Research
Paper, 25 January 2017, 2, https://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/TheFutureofSpaceCommercializationFinal.pdf.
39. The one exception was the US relationship with Australia, but this unique arrangement relied exclusively on US technology (although it used Australia’s favorable location in
the southern hemisphere and its supportive military personnel to operate ground stations
for a variety of US satellite programs).
40. Briefing, senior DIUx official, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California, 11June 2018.
41. In this context, NewSpace is defined as “people, businesses and organizations working
to open the space frontier to human settlement through economic development.” See Space
Frontier Foundation, “What Is NewSpace?,” SpaceFrontier.org, accessed 19 November 2018,https://spacefrontier.org/what-is-newspace/.

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42. Senior officials at Planet, discussion with the author, San Francisco, California, 1 June
2017; and see also Planet’s website, https://www.planet.com/.
43. Senior official at LeoLabs, discussion with the author, Menlo Park, California, 7 June 2017.
44. Senior official at Made in Space, discussion with the author, Mountain View, California,
11 May 2017.
45. “2017 Space Launch Statistics,” 31 December 2017, Spaceflight101.com, http://
spaceflight101.com/2017-space-launch-statistics/.
46. Debra Werner, “To Move Fast, NRO Pledges To Leverage Commercial Space, Expand
R&D,” Space News, 23 April 2018, 20, http://bt.e-ditionsbyfry.com/article/To+Move+Fast%2C+NRO+Pledges+To+Leverage+Commercial+Space%2C+Expand+R%26D/3066530/491072/article.html.
47. Werner, “To Move Fast, NRO Pledges.”
48. Debra Werner, “International SSA Agreements Could Pave the Way for Further Space
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60. Ivan Moiseyev, Kart-Blansh. Vremya rasbora poletov (Carte Blanche. Time to Analyze the
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Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed or implied in SSQ are those of the authors and are notofficially sanctioned by any agency or department of the US government. We encourage
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