ISSN : 2395-3160
Volume 1 (No. 1)

July 2015

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ISSN : 2395-3160

JOURNAL OF GLOBAL RESOURCES[

Volume 1 (No. 1)

July 2015

CONTENTS
Articles1.
Sustenance of Water Resources in Bikaner District :Issues and Prospects

1

Ahmed Ali, M. M. Sheikh and Shashi Kala Ranga

2.

Spatial Decision Support System for Utility Infrastructure
Development : A Case Study of Jodhpur City Electrical
Distribution Network

12

Pratibha Peshwa and S. Palria

3.

Influence of Water Resources on Agriculture in Uskopaljska
Valley, Bosnia and Herzegovina

23

Haris Gekić and Aida Bidžan

4.

Local Peoples' perceptions Toward Tourism: A Case Study ofMorni Hills (Haryana)39

Prem Chand5.

We The Custodians of The Environment and Global
Resources: An Overview

46

Malti P. Sharma

6.

Why Are River Basins Considered The Best Areal Unit For
Morphometric Analysis: A Technical Perspective

53

Prashant Kumar and Payal Srivastava

7.

Study on physico-chemical parameters of Siliserh lake Alwar
District, India

71

Meena L. R. and Pankaj Nama

8.

Green Accounting: A Systematic Approach for Managing
Natural Resources76

Kamlesh Kumar, Pinku Suthar and B.B.L. Sharma

9.

Natural Disaster Management Law: An analytical Study

81

S. K. Saini

10.

Temperature Variability in Indira Gandhi Canal Area :Pre and Post Five Years Analysis

88

Nazneen Ahmed

11.

Sustainability of Tourism activity in Ladakh Region

99

Malvika Poonia and Anamika Poonia

12.

Urban Environmental Correlation in Jaipur City during Last
Decade: An Ecological Overview

108

Anoop Dutt Shukla

13.

Modeling The Water Cost : Case Study of Great Man Made
River Authority

14.

The Status of Medical Facilities in the Tribal Areas of
Chhattisgarh(With special reference to Primitive Tribes)

115

Mohamed Omar Kumati

128

Mahesh Shrivastava

15.

Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use
Sunil Kumar Verma

135

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015 Page 1-11

1

SUSTENANCE OF WATER RESOURCES IN BIKANER DISTRICT :ISSUES AND PROSPECTS
Ahmed Ali
Retd. Principal, Govt. College, Ratangarh (Churu)
M. M. Sheikh
Associate Professor, Geography
Govt. Lohia P.G. College, Churu (Raj.) India
Shashi Kala Ranga
Lecturer in Geography, Jain PG Girls College, Bikaner

Abstract: Water is a prime natural resource of earth. It is essential for sustenance for
all forms of the life, food production and human development activities. All theseproperties impart to water its greater utility for human well-being. Scarcity of water
resources is one of the constraints of development in the arid and semi-arid regions of
our country. In the desert ecosystems, water constitutes the most important and an
indispensable natural resource that limits plants growth and yield. Over exploitation ofground water for agriculture uses leading to fast depletion of limited ground water
resources. The continuous decreasing trend of water table has become matter ofconcern for hydrogeologists and environmentalists. Therefore, surface and groundwater resources and their conjunctive uses are equally important for over all
development of these water stress regions. In view of these circumstances, there is anurgent need of protection, conservation, and sustainable development of scarce water
resources of this desert region.
Key words: Water, Natural resources, Hydrology, Scarcity

Introduction
Ever increasing population, urbanization and industrialization are becoming the
major problems for the quality of surface as well as ground water resources.
The surface water and ground water resources of the country play a major rolein agriculture, hydropower generation, livestock production, industrial activities,
forestry, fisheries, navigation and recreational activities etc. Unfortunately, it isbeing adversely affected both in terms of quality and quantity by humanactivities. Potable water, which is hardly 0.1% of all the water available on theplanet, the scarcity of water is increasing day by day. The management ofground water is more important than the surface water, because cleaning of1

ground water and making it suitable for domestic or agricultural uses is more
complicated problem. Water quality directly affects the health of human beings
and animals to a large extent. The mushrooming of concrete jungles andnetwork of roads and paved areas has literally sealed the top surface of landand blocked the natural path of water infiltration to aquifers in the urban areas.
This imbalance between the depletion of ground water resources on the one
hand and their slow recharging on the other. It has resulted in the rapid
depletion of aquifers and the consequent lowering of the water table at an
alarming rate in the Bikaner district. Rainwater harvesting is an engineeringsolution to water problem especially in this arid ecosystem.
Hypothesis
The main purpose of the study is to present a holistic view of the ecologicalproblems of water availability, water quality and water supply in a geographicalperspective. The spatial and temporal aspects of such studies are thus the main
focus and are highly valuable under ever increasing pressure of population forspace and resources, which has caused disequilibrium in nature. In this context,
an attempt has been made to test the hypothesis that the demand of water
resources are continuously increasing and the quality of water is also
deteriorating due to ever increasing demographic pressure and humandevelopment activities in the study area.
Objectives
1. To provide a comprehensive picture, evaluate the existing water
resources in relation to the demand of water for domestic, industrial andagricultural sectors.
2. To relate quality of drinking water with health, explore relationships
between biotic and abiotic composition of water, nature of industrial
effluents and urban sewage, morphological and geological structure of
the study area.
3. To suggest a strategy for rational and conjunctive use of ground andsurface water resources to mitigate the problems of water supply both inregard to the quantity and quality.
4. To recommend ecologically feasible measures for sustainable
development of water resources along with environmental conservation,
protection and sustainable development of this desert ecosystem.
Database and Methodology
The present study includes secondary as well as primary data. The secondary
data were collected from published and unpublished documents of government2

departments like PHED, Ground Water Board, Municipal Corporation, UIT,
Town Planning, Census, Directorate of Economic and Statistics and Directorateof Public Health and Industries etc.
Present Status of Water Resources
Bikaner district is located in the north-western part of Rajasthan. It covers about
30387.75 sq.km. (7.98% of the state's area) area with population of 1901005(3.36% of the state). Rajasthan is located in the Thar desert, and it has only one
percent of country's water resources on account of limited erratic andunpredictable nature of monsoon climate. The study area has acute shortage ofwater along with the average monsoon and non-monsoon season rainfall is
26.37 cm and 7.58 cm, respectively. The Bikaner district has no river system
therefore, it has acute shortage of surface as well as ground water resources.
Ground water resources are not adequate to fulfill the ever-growing needs ofwater resources of the study area. Therefore, canal facilities (IGNP) weredeveloped in 1961. After inception of canal irrigation in the north-western
Rajasthan, surface water resources are also being used for drinking, agriculture
and industrial uses. In the north-western part of Bikaner district which is served
by canal irrigation system, the surface water is also used in drinking as well as
agricultural purposes. In north-eastern, eastern, central and southern part of the
district which is covering about 84083 ha. area, the ground water is used for
irrigation purposes. The district has total irrigated area of about 194098 ha., outof which 43.32 percent area is irrigated by ground water resources. Presently
Bikaner district's 56.81% (438) villages are depended on ground water
resources and the remaining 43.19% (333) villages (Poogal, Khajuwala,
Chhattargarh) are served by canal water services. The villages of Nokha andSridungargarh tehsils are fully dependent of ground water resources. The
villages of Bikaner, Kolayat, Lunkaransar are served by surface as well as
ground water resources.
Water Availability
Underground water, which is the main source for drinking, agriculture and otherpurposes in Bikaner district. It is generally found at a depth of about 80 to 120
metres below the ground level. The discharge from the well varies from 18,200
litres per hour (4000 gallons per hour) to 91,000 litres per hour (20000 gallons
per hour). In Bikaner district, there are four major hydrological units viz., Bilara
limestone, Nagaur sandstone, tertiary sandstone and the quaternary alluvium.
The study area has about 227.0832 mcm ground water resources and presently
214.9282 mcm water is being exploited. The percentage of ground water
availability of the different blocks of the study area varies from 11.82 percent(Kolayat) to 27.86 percent (Nokha) blocks. Therefore, Nokha block has
maximum (63.2686 MCM) available ground water resources (Table 1). The
3

ground water availability for irrigation purposes is about 17.1003 mcm and theground water development rate is about 94.65% in the study area. The alluvium
formations cover major part (north-western part) of the district but due to saline
ground water and thick sequence small area in north-eastern and south-westernpart in Lunkaransar and Kolayat blocks have been delineated as ground water
potential. In these geological formations depth to water table ranges from 100 to
140 m and these formations occupy about 14% potential area. The general
depth to water table increases from south-west to north-east direction. The
water table contours indicate that the general direction of ground water flow issouth-east to north-west. The ground water studies indicate that hydraulicgradient generally varies from 1.1 to 2.5 m/km. The quality of ground water issuitable for irrigation and drinking purposes. In southern part gradient become
more steep (4.5 to 5.0 m/km). In Bikaner and Kolayat blocks quality of groundwater is saline.
Table 1 : Bikaner District : Status of Ground Water Resources, 2004

Ground water study indicates that tertiary sandstone formations occupy
south-western part of the Bikaner block where it covers extensive area. These
formations also spread in peripheral part of adjoining block. The depth to thewater table in these geological formations ranges from 140 m in the west to 200
m in the eastern part of the district. These hydrogeological formations
encompass about 56% potential area. The ground water capacity of theseformations range from 110 to 200 m3/day (Table 1 and Fig. 1).
The third important geological water bearing formations are Nagaur
sandstone which belong to Marwar super group rocks. The thickness of the litho
4units varies from 140 m to 250 m. Geographically southern part of Kolayat andNokha tehsils are covered by these hydrogeological formations.
Figure 1

5

The depth of ground water in these formations varies chronologically andit ranges from 38.10 to 116.38 m. The quality of ground water of theseformations suitable for domestic and non-domestic uses. The depth to the watertable ranges from 160 m to 260 m. The depth to the water table increases tonorth to south. Nagaur sandstone formations occupy about 28% potential area.
The southern part of Nokha tehsil is covered by Bilara lime stone formations
where depth to water table is increases more than 260 m. The thickness of thehydrogeological formations varies 115 to 225 m. These litho units covers small
area in southern peripheral part of Nokha block, which covers nearly 2%
potential area. The depth of ground water ranges from 48.42 m to 78.20 m. The
ground water capacity varies from 70 to 120 m 3/day. The quality of groundwater of these hydrogeological formations suitable for consumptive uses.
Qualitatively, alluvium geological formations of Bikaner and Kolayat containsaline water, which is not potable. The depth to water table in these formations
ranges from 23.87 m to 47.59 m in the Bikaner tehsil and11.12 m to 63.48 m in the Kolayat tehsil block.
Water Potability
Bikaner district's 55.22 percent area (16779.24 sq.km.) contains saline groundwater, and the remaining part of the district (44.78 percent) has potable water,which is used for domestic as well as non-domestic uses. The Bikaner district
has about 749 villages, about 62.08 percent (465) villages have potable water
resources and the remaining 37.92 percent (284) villages have saline water. As
far as the spatial distribution pattern of ground water resources is concerned,
the northern and western (Kolayat, Khajuwala, Chhattargarh, Pugal andLunkaransar) part, have saline ground water and remaining more than half partof southern and eastern parts (Bikaner, small portion of Lunkaransar,
Dungargarh and Nokha tehsils) have potable water. The availability of groundwater in the Bikaner district ranges from 11.12 to 135.15 metres.
Geohydrologically, Kolayat and Lunkaransar tehsils are safe ground waterzones, where potable water is found at the depth of about 37.85 m to 135.15 m
and 20.53 m to 66.15 m, respectively.
As far as potability of ground water resources is concerned blockwise
percentage ranges from 24.13 percent (Kolayat) to 97.68 percent (Nokha
block). The south-eastern part of the district where Nokha and Sridungargarh
block are situated the percentage of potability of water is above 90%. On theother hand western part of the district (Kolayat, Bikaner, Lunkaransar) has very
little percentage of potable water, the percentage of saline ground water ranges
from 65.61 percent in the Bikaner block to 75.87 percent in the Kolayat block.

6

Water Quality and Impact on HealthWater quality directly affects the health ofhuman beings and animals in a profound manner. The trends of increasing
population, urbanization and industrialization are gradually becoming a threat tothe quantity and quality of surface water as well as ground water resources. As
far as the quality of water is concerned the ground water of Kolayat andLunkaransar have more salinity in comparison to Nokha and Bikaner tehsils.
Therefore, the chemical analysis of TDS indicates that the quality of groundwater in the study area is not suitable for consumptive uses. The study
highlights that whole district area has heavy concentration of abiotic
components like chloride and nitrate in ground water and the values of thecontaminants are greater than the maximum recommended values of WHO
norms. The spatial distribution of fluoride of the study area reveals that slightly
to moderately saline water is normally free from fluoride contamination.
The study area is fully depended on ground water, which is free frombiotic contaminants. An assessment of biotic contaminants in water is moresignificant for the reason that most of the water-borne diseases like cholera,
diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid and hepatitis spread through contaminatedwaters. Therefore, the study area needs a sound water management strategy tosolve the problem of human health.
Water Consumptive Patterns
Water demand in Rajasthan is fast increasing with increase in population,
urbanization and industrialization. Water in Rajasthan is mainly consumed for
irrigation purpose, and second and third priorities are for drinking and industrial
purposes, respectively. About 63.33% of the net irrigated area exists underground water irrigation. At present the water supply should be 3952.73 lacgallons for 13205444 persons of urban area according to central norms of watersupply but actual supply of water is only 2672.11 lac gallons. Thus, a wide gap
exists between the water demand and supplied to the people. The gap may be
widens when our future demand of water would be raised to 6723.85 lac gallons
for urban population of 226.61 lac in 2021. Likewise for rural population, thewater demand according to central norms would raised to 10843.15 lac gallons
in 2021 (Fig. 2).
In 1901, the population of Rajasthan was 1,02,94,090 and it increased to
1,59,70,774 in 1951 but during the same duration, the population of Bikaner
district also increased from 1,90,457 to 3,43,091. On account of increasing
population, water demand also increased in the state from 1721 lac GPCD
(gallon per capita per day) to 2719 lac GPCD and in the Bikaner district 33 lac
GPCD to 65 lac GPCD. If we compare the population growth and water demandof urban and rural areas for the above mentioned period of data analysis
indicates that urban population in the Rajasthan state for the first five decades
7

increased almost double (15.5 lac to 29.5 lac), consequently water demand also
increased approximately in the same ratio (375 LGPCD (lac gallon per capita
per day) to 715 LGPCD). But in the study area, the urban population of Bikaner
district increased three times during the same period. Consequently water
demand in the urban areas also increased three times (12 LGPCD to 36
LGPCD) The overall population migration trend is from rural to urban areas,
therefore demographic pressure is continuously increasing in the urban area on
account of better infrastructural facilities. Consequently the water demand also
increased in the urban areas.
Figure 28Looking to the population growth and migration trends of the population
indicate that after 1951 population growth and water demand are bothincreasing continuously in the each decade. The overall population increase of
the state of Rajasthan was recorded 5.5 times during the last century. But in theurban areas population growth increased more than 8.5 times. As a result,water demand also increased in the same manner. The study area of Bikaner
district recorded higher (56.96%) population growth rate than Rajasthan state(28.33%) and country as well (21.34%) in 2001. This growth rate is runninghigher since 1971 due to introduction of Indira Gandhi Canal. The livestock
population has also increased by two and half time since last 50 years. If wecompare the study area of Bikaner district with the state of Rajasthan the overall
growth of population was noticed more than 10 times during the last century but
the increase of the urban population was observed more than 12 times.
Consequently, water demand in the urban areas also increased in the sameratio (12.04 times) for the above mentioned period.
The detailed analysis of the population growth and water demandindicates that the population of the state will increase to 8.15 crores in the year
2021. The population increase and the water demand will also increase in the
study area of Bikaner district. The projected population of the Bikaner district
will be approximately 32.8 lac in the year 2021. The data analysis further showsthat the population growth rate in the urban areas will be higher than that ofrural areas. Therefore, it is expected that the water demand will be also
increased faster that of rural areas in the study area (Fig. 2).
With the rise in population and steady growth of industries haveincreased the demand of ground water. Ground water is the sole source ofdrinking water for local residents, industries and agriculture in the study area.
The study area of Bikaner was under safe zone in ground water till 1998. But as
the exploitation of ground water with increasing number of public and field tube
wells enhanced, the district reached in critical and very critical stage. In the year
2001, the ground water resources were in critical stage, but continuous
unplanned and excess use of water (131.78%), resources is the main cause of
the change in the stage of over exploitation of ground water development. The
exploitation of groundwater for irrigation and adoption of commercial and waterloving crops has put Nokha (131.78%) and Bikaner tehsils (105.78%) in very
critical zone while Dungargarh (96.33%) has reached in critical level. The maincause of depletion of ground water resources are continuous increasing ofwater demand on account of increasing demographic pressure and poor
recharge of ground water resource due to little and unpredictable monsoon
rainfall. The other tehsils like Kolayat and Lunkaransar have saline water which
is not suitable for cultivation. The remaining three tehsils i.e. Chhatargarh,

9Khajuwala and Pugal have canal irrigation facilities and have brackish water.
Therefore, it is essential to conserve rain water to mitigate the water crisis.
Under such circumstances, it is essential to conserve rainwater tomitigate the ill-effects of drought, stabilize agricultural production and develop
water resources for the region. The use of water in a society varies in time andspace. There are two different ways in which society makes use of water
resources. The first is the traditional and the second is the modern. Traditional
methods of water use are devised to make the optimum use of the available
water.
In the arid areas of Rajasthan people build unique undergroundstructures of various shapes and sizes to collect rain water for drinking
purposes. These structures called tanka, kund or kundi are constructed. Sincetanka are the main source of drinking water in these areas, people zealously
protect and maintain them. Just before the onset of the monsoon, thecatchment area of the tanka is cleaned up to remove all possible pollutants, andhuman activity and grazing of cattle in the area are prohibited. The stored rainwater is utilized for the whole year. These simple traditional water harvesting
structures are useful even during years of below-normal rainfall. It is therefore
essential to adopt water management strategies to conserve and protect thelimited available water resources of this arid district.
Conclusion
Water, although inexhaustible, is highly limited in quantity and quality both inrespect of space and time. Ground water should be used with due care and it
should not be depleted in reckless and uncontrolled manner. The techniques
like watershed management, rainwater and ground water harvesting, judicious
use of water in household, agriculture (sprinkler, drip, irrigation and dry
farming), industry and appropriate water recycling techniques should used forthe purpose. The proper assessment, conservation and efficient use of surface
and ground water resources is essential for developing water management
strategies. The study suggests to evolve a strategy to fix priorities for optimum
utilization of limited ground water resources (domestic, agricultural andindustrial uses) in this desert ecosystem.
The ground water replenishment is not keeping pace with extraction. We
must resort to age-old and time-tested traditional practices of rain water
conservation (Kui, Nadi, Bawri, Tanka, Talab, Johar, Khadin, Jhalra etc.) to
overcome the water crisis. Careful examination of water quality and periodical
monitoring of abiotic and biotic contaminants of water is necessary to safeguard
the health of the residents. There is an urgent need to create public awarenessregarding rational use of limited water resources of the district. Water Cost must
be charged according to quantity of water used. Water conservation and10

development should be interlinked for the protection and sustainability of thewater ecology of this desert ecosystem.
References
1. Vidyanathan (2006) : India's Water Resources Contemporary Issues on
Irrigation, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India.
2. B.W. Pandey (2005) Natural Resources Management, Mittal Publications, New
Delhi, India.
3. D.K. Todd (1959) : Ground Water Hydrology, Tokyo, Toppan and Co., 195, 268
4. D.S. Deshmukh (1975) : Status of Groundwater Studies, Development andUtilization in India. Approaches and Methodologies for Development of
Groundwater Resources. Proceedings of Indo-German Workshop, pp. 1-20.
5. Dasgupta, K. and Mann, H.S. (ed.) (1977) : Ground Water Resources in Desert
Ecosystem and Its Importance. CAZRI monograph No. 1, Jodhpur Central Arid
Zone Research Institute.
6. G.W.D. (2003) : Ground Water Resource and Management Report, Bikaner(Rajasthan).
7. G.W.D. (2004) : Re-Appraisal of Ground Water Resources of Bikaner District,Rajasthan.
8. Govt. of Rajasthan (2003) : Public Health and Engineering Department,
Unpublished Data on Water Resources, Bikaner.
9. Prakash, Anjal (2007) : Challenges of Water Management, Economic andPolitical Weekly, Jan. 27, Vol. XLII, No. 4, p. 293.
10. Raju, K. Srinivasa, Sarkar, A.K. and Dash Moti Lal (2004) : Integrated Water
Resources, Planning and Management, M/s Jain Brothers, 16/873, East Park
Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi.
11. Ranga, Shashikala (2012) : Water Management in the Desert Ecosystem ofBikaner District : Problems and Prospects, Ph.D. Thesis Awarded, M.G.S.Univ.,
Bikaner.
12. V. Ratana Reddy and S. Mahendra Dev (2006). Managing Water Resources.
Policies Institutions and Technologies, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
India.

11

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 12-22

2
SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR UTILITY INFRASTRUCTURE
DEVELOPMENT : A CASE STUDY OF JODHPUR CITY ELECTRICAL
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
Pratibha Peshwa and S. Palria
Department of Remote Sensing and Geo-informatics
Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati University, Ajmer
Email: pratibhapeshwa1@gmail.com
Abstract: A typical power system consists of generation, transmission and distribution.
The total network is a complex grid of interconnected lines. This network has thefunction of transmitting power from the points of generation to the points ofconsumption. The distribution system is particularly important to an electrical utility for
two reasons: its proximity to the ultimate customer and its high investment cost. But,
Distribution is considered the weakest link in the chain of power supply because of highlosses (T & D losses). The paper is an attempts to throw light on electrical distribution
network of Jodhpur City with a web based SDSS develop to improve energy efficiency.
To efficiently manage utility operations, separate systems exist and the role of eachsystem is different and unique. The lacuna falls here, in operating process of theseunique and different systems, as there is lack of proper flow of information between
these systems. With the huge & complex electrical distribution network consisting ofmany sources, feeders, alternate feeding points; updating and management of network
data is a Herculean task. As stated above a multi disciplinary, multi-attribute, web
based open source spatial decision support system can assist in solution of complex
problems and provide efficiency gains in operational & non-operational areas of utility
business, most importantly will helps utility sector for simple & effective visualization ofcomplex distribution network, together with fast electrical operations.
Key words: Infrastructure Management, Spatial decision support systems, Distribution
Network, Power System.

Introduction
Spatial decision support systems have evolved greatly over the last few
decades based on advances in underlying technologies such as computer
hardware and software, networking, and communication technologies. Afterearly development in the 1970s and 1980s, the concept of SDSS gained
traction in the 1990s. The development of SDSS became much more common
in the late 1990s when ever greater amounts of digital spatial data were
becoming available and personal computers were becoming widely used. The
growth has continued into the 2000s with diversification based on technologicaldevelopments. The development of SDSS generally followed developments in
Geographic Information Systems, with many concepts and techniques of thescience taken from decision support systems research and advances.
12

Figure 1. Evolution of Decision Technologies (DSS, GIS and SDSS)

In order to address complex multidisciplinary issues with spatial
dimensions, spatial decision support systems have been designed, developed,
and implemented for a variety of different application domains over the last
several decades. The great advances in networking technology and the use of
the Web led to the increased use of Web-based technologies in SDSS
architectures in the last decade. With improving efficiency and usage of thesesystems, the ubiquity in domains like infrastructure management particularly inutility sector, SDSS that operate with multidisciplinary components are
becoming feasible. While there are some ready-to-use SDSS available, it ismore common for potential SDSS developers to design and construct a new
system specifically while dealing with multidiscipline‘s systems. There are avariety of tools used for building SDSS applications, and the technology
continues to evolve. Traditionally, many SDSS were GIS centric as GIS
provided the necessary spatial data management and analysis functionality.
Disadvantages of GIS-centric SDSS have been that GIS software is expensive
and generally requires expertise to use. The development of open source andfree GIS software is to some extent overcoming the first problem, while thedevelopment of GIS services over the Web and the development of digitalspatial analytical and mapping libraries or modules are helping to address bothissues. The use of these technologies allows the development of SDSS that
only utilize a portion of the functionality available in a full-fledged GIS, and thus
limits cost and reduces the level of expertise necessary to use the applications.
The above section depicts the importance of various technologicalcomponents being evolved and used for the development of multidisciplinary
SDSS over the period, with specific highlights for infrastructure management
domain. The later section will particularly briefs on web based SDSS forelectrical utility distribution sector. Man‘s use of energy can be seen in everyday
operations such as mechanical motion and the production of heat and light.

13

Figure 2. Electrical network super imposed on geographical landbaseElectrification plays a prominent role in maintaining the standard of living.
Energy demand has been increasing with burgeoning population coupled withintensive agricultural activities, industrialization and changes in living standards.
A typical Power System consists of Generation, Transmission & distribution.
The total network is a complex grid of interconnected lines. This network has
the function of transmitting power from the points of generation to the points ofconsumption. The distribution system is particularly important to an electricalutility for two reasons: its proximity to the ultimate customer and its highinvestment cost. But, Distribution is the weakest link in the chain of power
supply. Distribution has been identified as the key focus area in power sector
reforms. Ideally, T&D losses should be in range of 5- 7%, but in India, T&D
losses are in the range of 30-40%. This is the major factor of energy shortage.
Some of the following areas shall be looked at to implement distribution reforms
to reduce losses and improve energy efficiency. They are 100% consumer
metering and AMR, proper & effective visualization and monitoring of complete
electrical network, Feeder & DT metering etc. In the present days, many of theElectrical utility companies in India are facing problems due to high energy
losses, reduced quality & reliability of supply, billing issues, theft of energy, no
proper strategic revenue collection methods & representation, etc. This results
in inefficient operation, consumer dissatisfaction & loss of market value of theutility in public. With the huge & complex electrical distribution network
consisting of many sources, feeders, alternate feeding points; updating andmanagement of network data is a Herculean task.
As stated above a multi disciplinary, multi-attribute spatial decision
support system can assist in solution for complex problems and provide
efficiency gains in operational & non-operational areas of business such as fast
operations, Reduction in response time, Customer Care, proper Energy
Auditing & forecasting, loss calculations & most importantly it helps utility sector
for simple & effective visualization of complex distribution network.
14

Analysis
The ongoing reforms programme in the Indian power sector requires
Information Technology (IT) to play a dominant role in institutionalizing thechanges and improvements. Here these focused technologies serves a dual
purpose, i.e. Provides the platform for execution of business processes andCreates the information base for timely, effective decision making at theoperational and strategic levels. Enabling these focused technologies helps inachieving the above reforms (a) accurate up-to-date information of the entire
network, (b) Electrical Network & Consumer mapping by physical pole to polesurvey, (c) unique code for various electrical, (d) Technical attributes of theelectrical network assets physically surveyed & linked with GIS map, (e)detailed door-to-door consumer survey for the creation of consumer database,(f) unique Consumer Index Number (CIN) provided to all types of consumers
based on electrical address, (g) consumer database shall been linked with
the network database for the purpose of defining the consumer's electricalconnectivity.
Various functionalities provided by GIS Application Software are –(a) The
changes in the network can be timely monitored, analyzed and correctly
updated on a periodic basis.
Figure 3: Distribution N/w representation in GIS(b) Network Analysis: Evaluate 33 KV, 11 KV and LT feeder-wise technicallosses. Identify the network section overloaded or having high technical losses.
Identify the area of unbalanced loading of DT and LT Network and takecorrective action to minimize technical loss. Work out voltage regulation of the
network and identify the areas having high voltage drops and suffering with low
voltage problem. Using the GIS & Network Analysis software, virtually network
shall be re-configured to minimize technical losses, voltage drop, over loading.
(c) Load Forecasting: GIS becomes an effective tool in optimal design andchoice of substation location, demand-side management, future load
15

assessment and load planning and load distribution. (d) EABS (Energy Auditing& Billing System): The Computerized Billing System shall be implemented for
effective and prompt customer billing system, which will provide tools to monitor
control and process the revenue collection functions of the DISCOM.
Figure 4: Distribution N/w representation in SCADA(e) SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition): SCADA system like analert watch dog monitors utility network in real time and provides remote controlof switching devices, transformers and equipments. Integration with GIS
facilitates Utility to coordinate the maintenance and fault rectification activities ofthe distribution system with in less turnaround time.
(f) DMS (Distribution
Management System): Supports operational improvements by using online
network, data received from SCADA. Used efficiently to manage 11kV andbelow network, by providing planned switching orders and load flow analysis.
Case Study
Geographical area of investigation i.e. study area for research is Jodhpur city,
second largest district of Rajasthan state which is centrally situated in Westernregion of the State.

16

Figure 5. Study Area – Jodhpur

Government of Rajasthan on 19th July 2000, issued a gazettenotification unbundling Rajasthan State Electricity Board into Rajasthan Rajya
Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Ltd.(RVUN), the generation Company; Rajasthan Rajya
Vidyut Prasaran Nigam Ltd.,(RVPN), the transmission Company and the three
regional distribution companies namely Jaipur Vidyut Vitran Nigam Ltd.,(JVVNL)
Ajmer Vidyut Vitran Nigam Ltd.(AVVNL) and Jodhpur Vidyut Vitran Nigam
Ltd.(JdVVNL)

17

Figure 6. State Load Dispatch Centre (SLDC), Rajasthan

Figure 7. Power map of Jodhpur

The area of operation of Jodhpur Discom is 182509 sq. km,
approximately electrifying 83% of villages/towns with 1520871 total customers
with 39% of T&D losses. The research work was conducted for Jodhpur city,
covering Pal area specifically. For the development of such multi disciplinary,multi-attribute spatial decision support system for Infrastructure Management,
various data and collateral information were collected from different sources.
JODHPUR DISCOM was the major source for electrical distribution network andelectrical dataset so collected for Jodhpur city. From there, basic understanding
about distribution network, flow of electricity from point of generation to point of
distribution, network schematics and briefs about working and data flow among
the departments were collected. The major source for spatial dataset i.e. ward
boundary, building network etc. was from regional remote sensing center,
Jodhpur (RRSCJ) and Google earth.
18

Simultaneously, research study was conducted which covers the needand significance of spatial decision support system nationally andinternationally, its evolution and trends, major building components and its core
drivers for development. Together with this, a detailed study was also
conducted during the research for Infrastructure management, its developing
trends and significance for society and SDSS, specifically for utility sector. Thenthe research coverage moved towards identifying the major components fordevelopment of web-based SDSS for infrastructure management. Once thecomponents were identified, then research coverage moved towards analysis
and interpretation of data so collected from different sources in specific format.
Various tools and techniques were used during this process for creation ofcomplete electrical and spatial dataset in shape file format. After data creation,
development for web-based SDSS was done using ArcMap, ArcGIS Server,
open source Flex Builder etc. The development phase includes various
modules for implementation of numerous system features. After completion ofdesign, development and implementation phase for SDSS, research coverage
moved towards testing the developed application on real data.
Advanced capabilities such network monitoring, Network tracing, Queryshell and Analysis can go far in giving utilities the power to be successful incompetitive environment. These various tools, technologies, and systems usedin the developed SDSS can play a crucial role in optimal working of power
sector. By integrating the key functions from separate systems so used indevelopment of this SDSS i.e. ArcGIS Desktop engine, ArcGIS Server, Open
source Flex builder etc., improvement of visualization of all the required
information on Network Map with respect to location leads to better
management.
Objectives
a. To study Infrastructure Management and its various applications
identified, also to investigate the major technological drivers so
developed.
b. To study Spatial Decision Support System together with its evolution andtreads over the last several decades.
c. To highlight the variety of SDSS application examples from a range of
disciplines using a variety of techniques developed nationally andinternationally.
d. To identify main components of a spatial decision support system,
including the database, model base, user interface and knowledge
components for managing infrastructure together with utility structure forthe area.
e. Review the existing electrical utility structure of the area.
19

f. To make efficient design, develop and implement the domain levelspatial decision support system (query shell) for infrastructure
management of the area using various technologies such as,
programming languages & development environments, Geographicalland-base and overlaying electrical distribution network.
Methodology
As the research comprises of various individual elements / systems and theirintegration, so methodology for the research comprises study of Spatial
Decision Support.
Figure 8. Methodology

20System together with its evolution and treads over the last several
decades with variety of SDSS application examples from a range of disciplines
using a variety of techniques developed nationally and internationally. Also
include study of Infrastructure Management and its various applications.
Geographical area of Investigation i.e. study area for research is Jodhpur city.
Detailed study of the existing electrical utility structure of the study area with
understanding of complete electrical network and schematics will be conducted,
which later in turn, will help in identifying the main components of a spatial
decision support system for design and development of utility infrastructure
management, including the database, model base, user interface andknowledge components for managing utility structure for the area. Data creation
will include extraction of landbase dataset from satellite image by hybridclassification. Electrical dataset will be collected Jodhpur DISCOM. SDSS
development will include web application layout with its customization forvarious modules like report generation, customer details, thematic maps, loss
calculation etc.
Conclusion
This research and development effort can build on the powerful analysis
capabilities that GIS is bringing to public works infrastructure management.
Advantages of SDSS for Utility Infrastructure Development: Consumer indexing and asset codification for Efficient network
management and Accurate data management
 Geo reference network display enables easy identification and setting up
new connections
 Provides necessary information on land use pattern for planning optimum
expansion of network and enables more systematic network operation andmaintenance Sorting of consumers based on feeder which helps in fault identification andenergy auditing Aids in planning and analyzing future expansion of the utility network Decreases turnaround time for servicing complaints
 Improves efficiency by means of periodic scheduled assets maintenance Decreases the outage levels of assets and increases operational efficiencyof the system
 Provides facility to conduct energy auditing, load forecasting and voltage
regulation based on feeder
 Provides facility to reconfigure network as per requirement
 Power pilferage analysis by determining the amount of power consumed bya particular Transformer against the load sanctioned
 Analysis of Power flows and load balancing

21 Virtually reconfiguring / replacing conductor types / placing capacitors,
voltage regulators to analyze the voltage regulation for system improvement
 Integration with billing system and Energy audit study, gives the information
about total energy losses (technical and commercial) in the system.
References
1. Ashour, 2006 : Considerations for designing spatial data for a multi-purpose
GIS system ; Map Middle East
2. Bali, 2009 : Role of GIS in Power Distribution, Map World forum
3. Bannur, Rolta, 2006 : Advanced Geospatial Solution for Utilities and Network
Management : Map Middle East
4. Bergey, Ragsdale, Hoskote, 2003: A decision support system for theelectrical power districting problem Decision Support Systems
5. Ferreira and Duarte, Portugal, 2005 : TS37.9 A GIS-Based Integrated
Infrastructure Management System, FIG Working Week 2005 and GSDI-8.
6. Ghose, 2005: GIS & RS Based Planning For Power Projects ; Map Middle
East
7. Kale and Lad, Reliance Energy Ltd, 2005 : Data Model "Heart ofGeographical Information System" in Electrical Utility, Map India
8. Kale and Lad, Reliance Energy Ltd, 2006 : GIS integration with SCADA,DMS & AMR in Electrical Utility, Map India
9. Lemer, USA, Progress toward integrated infrastructure-assets management
systems: gis and beyond, APWA International Public Works Congress
NRCC/CPWA Seminar Series ―Innovations in Urban Infrastructure‖
10. Patil, Map World Forum 2009: Implementation of Technology: GIS based
Electrical Distribution Network
Management, Monitoring and Analysis
System UGVCL Experience.
11. Ramachandra, George, Vamsee and Purnima, 2006 : Energy Education
Science and Technology: Decision Support System for Regional electricity
planning
12. Ramanathan Sugumaran and John DeGroote, 2010 : Spatial Decision
Support Systems Principles and Practices
13. Rinner, 2007: A geographic visualization approach to multi-criteria evaluationof urban quality of life International Journal of Geographical Information
Science 21(8):907–919.
14. Stuart Rich and Kevin H. Davis, 2010 IFMA Foundation: Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) for Facility Management

22

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 23-38

3
INFLUENCE OF WATER RESOURCES ON AGRICULTURE INUSKOPALJSKA VALLEY, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINAHaris Gekić and Aida Bidžan
Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo,
Zmaja od Bosne, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Email: hgekic@gmail.com

Abstract: This paper contains valuable information about current state of water
resources and their vulnerabilities with special attention to erosion, floods andirrigation. This analysis is very useful for agricultural planning and water managementin Uskopaljska valley. Area of Uskopaljska valley is not a homogeneous in respect of
topography, slope, temperature and other resource endowments. The important farmsurvey of use of water resources was conducted on almost 25% of farms to find out
main actors of irrigation. During the survey to the sample farms in various settlements
spread over the Uskopaljska valley, it is noticed that most of the farmers are
uneducated and unaware the proper irrigation methods. The west part of the
Uskopaljska valley is under intense pressure of erosion while eastern hilly region isunder the pressure of deforestation, erosion, unsuitable cultivation and overgrazing. An
effort in this paper is done to explore and understand main groundwater and surface
water processes. The study of stage of development of water resources is essential for
better planning and sustainable development of the any agricultural area.
Key words: water erosion, groundwater, Vrbas river, standardized precipitation index

Introduction
The efficiency of irrigation methods is relatively small and amounts to, on
average, less than 50%, which means that more than half of the applied water
is not used by the plants, but rather percolates into the groundwater, runs off
the surface, or evaporates. With special irrigation techniques, however, thequantity of water lost and, hence, the quantity of water used may be reduced(Martin, Sauerborn, 2013). Water is an important physiological condition of lifeand possible limiting factor of agricultural production. Insured and regulated
water supply from groundwater and surface resources is a basic and essential
aspect on which depends any future planning of irrigation of agricultural land.
The deficit of water in soil slows down normal development, reduces the volume
and quality of yield or leads to the extinction of agricultural crops. On the other
hand, a surplus of water in soil has a negative effect on culture. Certain
agricultural cultures have different needs for water during the growing season,so that hydrological conditions determine the structure of crop production.
(Singh, 2004). Besides, water is an important factor of location of rural
settlements. The values of standardized precipitation index (SPI), hydrothermal23coefficient (HTC) and the referential potential evapotranspiration (ET 0) indicate
a deficit of moisture during the growing season. Therefore, agricultural crops
during the summer months should be provided with additional quantity of waterby irrigation. A necessary prerequisite for determining the amount of water
available for irrigation is the analysis of the basic hydrological characteristics ofgroundwater and surface water in the area Uskopaljska valley. Water is also
very important for livestock. In particular, cattle (bovine) are demanding,because they need 50-100 liters of water in the most ordinary everyday care.
Sheep are less demanding, they spend 2-6 liters of water per capita a day.
Favourable grazing may take even a few days without water. This is the main
reason that cattle farming is the most developed in the humid and semi-humid
areas, while sheep are strong also in colder regions (sheep type merino)(Vrišer, 1995).
The withdrawal of large amounts of ground water by mechanical means
is potentially very important for agriculture of Uskopaljska valley, which iscurrently not used. Therefore, to keep the appropriate watertight layer in its
perennial form, the use of groundwater should be done very carefully. The main
objective of optimum utilization of limited water resources is to increase
agricultural production and to protect and conserve water resources for otherirrigation purposes. For a successful conjunctive use of ground and surface
water, as well as rational exploitation and use of water resources is necessary.
Study Area
Geographically, the Uskopaljska valley has is situated in the 43˚51' Northernlatitues and 44˚15' North latitude, and between 17˚16' East longitude and 17˚51'
East longitudes. The Uskopaljska Valley mostly belongs to the geotectonic
complex of Central Dinarides, and only a small southwestern part enters thegeotectonic complex of external Dinarides. The Uskopaljska valley spans in to
the two structural-facial zones of Mesozoic predominantly triassic limestone anddolomite with Central Bosnia schistose mountains in the core to which belong
the largest part of the Uskopaljska valley. The higher limestone-dolomite zoneof high karst with slight development of flysch in Palaezoic sediments, which
covers only the furthest southwestern part of the municipality. The separated
zones have Dinaric direction and were being pushed to the southwest, which
created overthrust of tectonic structure. In the structures of the lower order,
there are creases and faults highlighted by the Voljevac fault whose lowering
created the Uskopaljska valley.
In term of relief, there is negative form of relief presented by Uskopaljska
valley, which covers the central part of the municipality, and mountain areas inwhich massifs which are raised by tectonic movements interchangeably revolve,
and are later modified by erosion, especially denudation, with surfaces that are
actually spacious plateaus in those mountainous areas slightly dissected andbroken down by erosion. All areas with altitude of 400-600 m cover 80.4 km² or
7.4 % of the municipality's surface. The second hypsometric level is of 601-900
m and it covers 360.9 km² or 33.2 %, and the third level is above 900 m with
645.9 km² or 59.4 % of the surface. Terrain configuration of the Bugojno's area24

conditioned the way of usage of agriculture land and its today's structure, inwhich meadows and pastures cover 19.1 %, and arable lands and gardens
cover 16.3% of the teritory. We must underline here that in the last 30 years,
due to migrations of younger and active population, great number of oldhouseholds in villages, due to impossibility of land cultivation , constantly
spreads their area under meadows and pastures (Gekić, 2013). This area
belongs to pre-mountain moderate continental type climate or, as per V. P.
Keppen's climate classification, this region has Cfb climate (moderate warm andwet climate with warm summer), while in the mountain areas especially in theeast, northeast and west, is found Cfc climate as well (moderate warm and wet
climate with fresh summer). On high mountain system of Vranica Dfb and ET
types of climate are present. Summers are moderate warm here, wintersmoderate cold with snow precipitation. Average annual air temperature amounts
8.8°C. Average monthly temperatures for period of several years of following up
are positive for all months except January which has negative mark of -0.3°C.
The most hottest month is July with average temperature of 17.8°C.
The territory of Uskopaljska valley is very rich in waters, rivers, streams
and springs. That enables the irrigation of larger areas and development ofgrowing fruits and vegetables. The main hydrographic skeleton of the
Uskopaljska Valley area is presented with the Vrbas River and its tributaries.
That is why this area, from hydrographic point of view, belongs to the Black
Sea's river basin. In the space between Gornji Vakuf and Donji Vakuf in the
Uskoplje valley, the Vrbas River flows through its central part named Bugojno
valley. Administratively, the Uskopaljska valley is situated in the state of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, the entity of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, andwithin it, in the Middle-Bosnian Canton (Figure 1). Topographically, it belongs to
the Mountain-Valley macroregion, and the Upper Vrbas-Pliva mesoregion of
Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Uskopaljska valley there are three municipalities:
Bugojno (34559 population), Donji Vakuf (14739 population) and Gornji VakufUskoplje (22304 population) and road transport accessibility is satisfactory. Byroads, Uskopaljska Valley is almost equally away from the cities of Banja Luka,
Sarajevo, Mostar, and Split (around 140 km). The total length of border of
Uskopaljska valley towards the neighbouring municipalities is 259 km and in
those borders the Uskopaljska valley around 1087.2 square kilometers in area.
According to the Census 2013 in Uskopaljska Valley lives 71.602 people.

25

Figure 1. Location of Uskopaljska Valley in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Groundwater Resources
Groundwater fuctuations of the upper - free level of phreatic aquifer depends
on rainfall, temperature and infiltration inflow of river water (Dinić, 1991).
Phreatic groundwater is spatially related to sand and gravel river alluvium, thatis alluvial plains of rivers and terrace sediments. It was formed mainly along theriver Vrbas and lower flows of the left tributaries (Trlica, Trnovača, Trunta,
Gračanica, Veseočica, Prusačka River) and lower flows of the right tributaries(Crnodol, Bistrica, Vileški stream, Vitina, Drvetinska river, Čehajićka River).
Groundwater with free surface in rocks and inter-granular porosity (phreaticaquifer) that have greater permeability are the characteristic of the alluvial plainof the river basins.
In the territory of Bugojno there was found the average depth of the firstlevel (1.7 - 2.5 m) of the phreatic aquifers in the alluvial plain which showed avery big and continuous development. The second level was recorded at a
depth of 2.7 to 4 m and it is characterized by isolated reservoirs that havecaused clay or marl deposits. The third level of groundwater at depths between
4.5 to 6.6 m belongs to the deepest phreatic aquifers and it occurs in large
reservoirs. Phreatic aquifers reach its monthly maximum levels in February andMarch, and a minimum in September. Therefore, the minimum level of phreaticaquifers occurs after a hot summer. Shallow depth of the upper water level inphreatic aquifers of alluvial plain makes this water readily available for use, sousing motor pumps those are used for irrigation of agricultural crops (rainwater
irrigation). Therefore, in the Uskopaljska valley, the most common way ofcompensating the deficit of moisture during the growing season should be byusing these groundwater. Phreatic aquifer in terrace sediments is at significantly
26

smaller area and is located at a greater depth which, together with a smallabundance, limits the use of this aquifer for irrigation. Moreover, groundwater
are suitable for irrigation from the aspect of physical and chemical composition
which does not significantly affect the normal development of agricultural crops,
soil salinization and alkalization.
Artesian, subartesian aquifer, especially karst aquifers are very
numerous in the area of Uskopaljska valley and they are of the various waterabundance. The largest distribution of karst aquifers in the region of
carstificated areas is stronger especially in Vranica mountain range in the east
dominated by devonian sediments especially layered dolomites and limestones.
Karst aquifers in less carstificated areas are most prevalent in the wider area ofmountains Kalin, Rudina and Hum in the east and in the space of Skrtska
mountain and Sapčenica in the west dominated by triassic sediments layered
limestone and dolomite. Significant karst aquifers are only in east of Bugojno,
within the limestone malma on Radovan mountain and palaeozoic on thewestern slopes of Vranica. These aquifers are discharged through two springsof Bistrica, whose variations of abundance amounts to 6/0.3 and 2.5/0.3 m3 /swith a significant and rapid fluctuations (COWI, 2012). Fissure (shattered)aquifer was formed in crystalline schists and igneous rocks. Intense surface
runoff and slight infiltration of precipitation into the ground do not allow thecreation of large reserves of groundwater in these rocks. Fissure aquifer
supplies numerous springs that are poor in water. Despite the small andvariable abundance, springs generally do not dry up, and observations from thefield indicate that fissure aquifer is not used for irrigation of agricultural crops.
Spaces with fissure aquifers are most common in the west from Koprivnica toPršljanica, Voljički stream, and in the space of Vranica, Hum, Rudina and Kalinin the east. It should be noted that the areas with no groundwater are mostabundant in the area of Uskopaljska valley (almost everywhere where triassic
and permian deposits dominate).
Surface Water Resources
Surface waters in relation to agricultural production can be assessed in terms of
its use for irrigation and in terms of protection of agricultural land from flood
waters. The necessary precondition for the assessment is the knowledge of thebasic properties of river networks and river regime. The main hydrographic
backbone of the area of Uskopaljska valley is the river Vrbas and its tributaries,
hence hydrographically, this space belongs to the Black Sea basin. The Vrbas
basin in this area is presented mainly by waterproof series of sediments. Mostof the catchment area of Uskopaljska valley and the river Vrbas is presented bysurface flows, and only the bottom of the valley is characterized by a shallow
aquifer. The Vrbas river rises by smaller springs in the area of Zec mountain to
the southeast, at an altitude of 1.715 m and then flows westward up to Voljevci
where it bends towards the north and flows in the north-western direction along
the whole Uskopaljska valley with a total length of about 75 km. The Vrbas riverin this area receives numerous tributaries from the left and from the right sidewhich are, however, characterized by a small length of its course. It has thecharacter of a typical mountain-depression river with big falls in the27mountainous areas in the southern and northern part and small falls in the
middle part of the flow in the area of Uskopaljska valley. Due to the small fall in
the area of Bugojno, meanders, unstable and shallow bed, the Vrbas and its
larger tributaries outflow, flood and backfill lower parts of the alluvial plain withdrift. Consequently, the coastal areas of the alluvial plain are not suitable forintensive agricultural production.
The most important right tributaries of the Vrbas in the area of
Uskopaljska valley are: Krušćica (3 km), Bistrica (15 km), Goruški stream (9km), Vileški stream (14 km), Vitina (11 km), the Drvetinska river (10 km), theČehajićka river (12 km) and the Oboračka river (15 km). By length, the left
tributaries are not far behind: Drugišćina (8 km), Trnovača (7 km), Voljišnica (12km), Gračanica (14 km), Veseočica (27 km), Poričnica (15 km), the Prusačka
river (13 km) and Semešnica (15 km). All larger left tributaries flow mainly to thenortheast, while the right flow westward which indicates the exposure of theregion. The springs of individual streams are quite high, often above thevegetation, and they overcome great height on shorter strokes, so they flow in
the form of rapids. In geographical terms basins of major tributaries of the Vrbas
can basically be divided into the valley and mountainous part of the basin.
Mountainous areas of the basin of the Desna, Voljišnica, Bistrica, Veseočica,Semešnica, Vileški stream and Vitina are characterized by large declines in thelongitudinal profile and torrential character. It is similarly with theaforementioned river tributaries. In contrast, flows in the valley part of the basin
have small drops in the longitudinal profile (for example, the Drvetinska river,
Goruški stream, Odžački stream, Krušćica, Krupa, Gračanica, Poričnica,
Lubovo, the Čehajićka river), so there are the intense accumulation of sedimentin the basin.
The total length of all watercourses in Uskopaljska valley is 1.720 km,
while the total length of only permanent watercourses is around 850 km. The
catchment area of the river Vrbas in this area corresponds to the surface of
Uskopaljska valley in the broader sense, that is 1087.2 km 2. The Vrbas river
basin is complex geologically and geomorphologically, and depending on these
two factors there have been established certain hydrographic relations, with avery characteristic outflow (surface and underground) and with characteristic
outflow indixes. Rainwater from the catchment of the river Vrbas, due to thehigh energy of relief, are quickly pouring and flowing into the main stream. The
Vrbas river basin is the widest in the area of Bugojno and there it is almost
symmetrical. The total length of all watercourses in Uskopaljska valley is 1.720
km, while the total length of only permanent watercourses is around 850 km.
The catchment area of the river Vrbas in this area corresponds to the surface of
Uskopaljska valley in the broader sense, that is 1087.2 km2. Drainage waterflowing out in an average speed, are crossing 1.58 km to get to the mainstream. The density of the river network is somewhat higher, because the basin
is built mostly of impermeable rocks or hydrological insulators and storm waterin not so large amount plunge from the surface into the underground area.
However, if one considers only the length of permanent watercourses, then thedensity of river network is twice lower, that is 0.78 km / km2.
28

The density of the river network is different in mountainous and plain partof the basin and it is significantly higher in the mountainous region. Adverse
morphological and climatic characteristics, and a lot of water absorption in the
mealy river and lake sediments, contribute to the low density of the river
network in the plain part of the valley. The structure of river network is also very
important in terms of agricultural production, since it can be adopted as anindex of water erosion of soil. The structure of river network is the result of river
network density and frequency of watercourses. Thus, during the field researchin the area of mountains Kalin and Rudina, it was noticed that, on the upper
slopes, there are developing short streams that are becoming longer bylowering down the slope and meeting other tributaries, which confirms that thelength of watercourses in the area of Uskopaljska valley can be seen as anindex of water erosion. Although the precise relationship has not been
established, the scientific studies agree that the density of the river network insome space can be taken as an index of soil erodibility.
The critical value of the density of the river network on km² of the surface
which can cause erosion of soil by water is 0.90 km/km². Leopold had alreadyconfirmed in 1969 that average 2.59 km² of catchment area is sufficient to keep
the length of watercourse of 2.24. The lower values of density of the river
network are therefore safer and vice versa higher values will automaticallyaffect the appearance of greater soil erosion which negativelly impacts on
agricultural production. The studies that are of agricultural geographic
importance, and are related to such index of soil erosion were made for the
space of Uskopaljska valley. The total length of all watercourses is 1.720 km,
while it is by hypsometric levels segregated on the basis of index of watererosion of soil and based on the importance of agricultural production thefollowing (Figure 2):
1. On the first level to 600 m above the sea level, which covers about 8.7% of
the Uskopaljska valley, there is a little more than 149 km of watercourses which
ultimately gives the index of soil erosion of 1.87 which is the highest value and it
can be concluded that the risk of water erosion in this region is the largest.
However, if we take into account only permanent watercourses, the erosion
index value falls to around 0.8 which is the value in the normal range.
2. In the second level of 601-750 m above the sea level which covers more than
18% of Uskopaljska valley, the value of the index of soil erosion is 1.82 if wetake into account all watercourses, and it is only for 0.05 lower than the value atthe previous level, but still represents excessive zone. As in the previous level
when one takes into account only permanent watercourses, the value of erosion
index decreases and is slightly more than 1, so in this area a risk of soil erosion
is increased.
3. The third level consists of the area more than 750 m that has no intensive
agricultural production and which covers even 73.3% of the total Uskopaljska
valley. The length of all watercourses is about 1.261 km which gives the index
29

of soil erosion from 1.5. Taking into account only permanent watercourses,
index of soil erosion also declines to 0.7 in the limits of the normal range.
Figure 2. Hypsometric levels as basis of index of water erosion

Therefore, the risk of water erosion of soil is the largest in the
hypsometric level of 601-750 m, and therefore on those areas where there areintensive agricultural production as is the case especially upstream from themouth of Gračanica into the Vrbas, one should take account of the possible
occurrence of water erosion, which can threaten agricultural crops. According to
its looks, the Vrbas river network in the area of Uskopaljska valley is of dendroid
type that is characteristic of the basins that are located in areas of hydrologicalinsulators, with high rainfall and high energy relief. The density of the river
network is distributed evenly, and petrographic and geological relations affectthe surface inflow. The catchment area is mostly forested, which is very
important for hydrographic observations. Vegetative cover reduces the speed ofinflow by their roots and biological needs, but it is also an important factor in apositive way because it slows down evaporation and lessens torrent regime.
Inflow speed into the river Vrbas is quite large, it causes changes in the annual
cycle of water levels as well as flows. The wave of high water is quickly
transferred by the Vrbas river. Especially characteristic are tributaries, in thiscase, which bring plenty of fluvial material in the form of alluvial fans on thestretch from the mouth of Voljišnice in the south all the way to the Čehajićka
river in the north. Plenty of material comes from the mountainous part, with big
falls, from where inundated material is transported.

30

The study of the river regime in Uskopaljska valley, basically, is focusedon the Vrbas river. All storm water, which is surface or groundwater flow, mainly
flows through the Vrbas. In Uskopaljska Valley there are two hydrometricstations Daljan (Donji Vakuf) and Gornji Vakuf. There is no matching of highrainfall with high water levels, which can be clearly seen if we compare the dataon average monthly amount of rainfall with the data of water levels. Therefore,
the backlog of maximum water levels with the maximum rainfall, occurs
primarily due to the impact of nival. The minimum water levels which occur inJuly, August and September, are a direct consequence of climate impacts,
geological structure and morphometric characteristics of the basin. The
minimum of average water levels on the watermeter of Gornji Vakuf occurs in
September (43 cm), and in the Daljan in September (a little more than 38 cm).
The difference between the water levels in August and September is negligible.
Elevated water levels occur in late autumn months as a result of increased
precipitation, and they are the largest in late spring months due to theappearance of snow retention. Prevailing distribution of watertight sediments,
great energy of the relief, which is particularly strong in the further southern,eastern and western parts of the basin, improve surface inflow, which reflects
negatively on the feeding of underground reservoirs. Thus, evaporation is oneof the very important factors in the warmer part of the year, for July, August and
September water levels.
Maximum to minimum water levels are in relation 2:1. In the annual
cycle of water levels, it is observed that high water levels last from December toearly June, ie. six months, and according to the water levels, hydrological year
may be divided into two parts. The first is from December to June, as the periodof elevated water levels, and the second is from June to early December, as aperiod of low water levels. Fluctuations between the low and high water areabout 30 cm (Gornji Vakuf) and 59 cm (Daljan), and maximum 108 cm in
December (Daljan). Daily fluctuations of water levels on the river Vrbas are very
common. Depending on climatic factors, water levels are rapidly changing
during the day in a positive way. The waves of high waters are quick and shortlived. Knowledge of low and high water levels is significant from the aspect ofagricultural production. At extreme maximum water levels, on unregulated andunprotected parts of the riverbeds, rivers outpour and flood agricultural land.
This is especially evident on the left tributaries of the river Vrbas in the plain part
where in the previous years, the outpouring of the river Veseočica was the mostpronounced. Maximum water levels are directly related to snowmelt (MarchApril), or with increased rainfall (May-June). Flood wave usually lasts a few
days. Extremely minimal water levels are associated with the summer months
and as stated they do not match the minimum rainfall. Both on the left and on
the right tributaries of the Vrbas in the plain part, they are long-lasting andexpressed. In addition to pluviometric regime and precipitation character, theoccurrence of extreme minimum water levels are affected by air temperature,soil infiltration capacity, porosity of sediments from the bottom of basin which ishigh, evapotranspiration, etc.

31

As the water flows are very dependent on the water level, they show
similar characteristics in the annual distribution with water levels. At thehydrological station Daljan, on average per year flows through 16.64 m³/s ofwater, mostly in the spring months. The lowest flows occur in the summer, July
7,5 m³/s, August and September by 6.6 m³/s and October 6.7 m³/s as a result of
temperature conditions and high evapotranspiration. The largest flows occur inthe spring months due to snow melting, in April 53.2 m³/s and May 47.6 m³/s
and winter in December 47.4 m³/s and February 48.9 m³/s. A similar situation isrecorded at the hydrological station Gornji Vakuf whose flows are the result of afar smaller number of tributaries and rainwater with smaller areas (Hydrological
yearbooks of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1961-2013). That is why during thesummer low flows are below 1 m³/s, and high in the spring months of 10-17
m³/s. The value of average flows is from 1-2 m³/s in summer, and from 5-10
m³/s in the spring months. The flow of the river Vrbas and the water level areconstantly growing since the beginning of September until the beginning of June
when it starts to decrease. It should be noted that differences in flow rates
between Daljan and Gornji Vakuf are the result of the increase of flow rates
which is received by the Vrbas river from the basin, because the confluence of
the Vrbas to Daljan is higher about 4 times then the basin of Gornji Vakuf.
On the hydrograph of the Vrbas river at Daljan, one clearly see a periodwith increased values of average flows (underwent conservation) which lasts
from February to July, and which is primarily a result of snow melting. During
this period elapses 59% of the total annual discharge. The biggest flood waves
in the rivers of Uskopaljska valley are related precisely to this period. Therefore,
most water in the rivers of Uskopaljska valley elapse in the period when crops(except vegetables) have enough moisture from atmospheric precipitation andwater from the active rhizosphere (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Average flows of Vrbas River, 1961-2013
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

Average flows in m³/s

32

IX

X

XI

XII

After June up to November is the period of equable lower flow. During
the three summer months, in a period when crops may require an additionalamount of moisture for normal growth and bearing of fruit, only about 14% of
the total annual flow runs through the river Vrbas. The Vrbas, from the Gornji
Vakuf widening to the Donji Vakuf widening, flows through the bottom of porous
valley and has far fewer falls in the longitudinal profile than on the rest parts ofthe flow which affects the intensity of the absorption of river water into thesubstrate and its evaporation. Therefore, the western part of the Uskopaljska
valley in this part in summer is much poorer in surface waters than the eastern.
Accordingly, the use of river water for irrigation is spatially and temporally
limited. By comparing the moisture deficit and average monthly flows during thegrowing season, it is noted that the timing of the available quantities of riverwater in relation to the needs of agriculture is unfavorable. The disproportion
between the amount of available river water and the required amount of water
for irrigation is linked to the July and August. Besides, many rivers are drying up
in this period or they flow beneath the biological minimum, so a deficit of water
for irrigation is somewhat more pronounced. The use of river water directly fromthe river beds is in places more favorable due to the proximity to the river bed.
In order to balance the flow of the rivers of Uskopaljska valley in thesummer months, it is necessary to reduce surface run-off and to keep
groundwater longer in the basin. By applying different agricultural practices(plowing, plowing along the contour line and the like.) and by the construction ofreservoirs, the flow of rivers can be improved. The construction of reservoirs on
major tributaries of the Vrbas would provide the additional quantities of water for
irrigation, and balance the flow of rivers and groundwater regime. The mostfavorable geomorphological, geological and climatic conditions for theconstruction of water accumulations are related to the middle part of the rivers
flow, and the highlands basin rim. From these reservoirs, it would be possible toirrigate agricultural land in a natural way (by gravity), as it would have a higher
hypsometrically position in relation to arable land in the alluvial plain and riverterraces (COWI, 2012). Similar or nearly identical conclusions about the regimeof the Vrbas can be obtained on the basis of data for specific runoff and theamount of runoff. Specific runoff shows how much rainwater expressed in liters
with each km² of the catchment areas in every second flows to the mainstream
or to its cross section. Finally, it can be concluded that the river Vrbas in thearea of Uskopaljska valley has nival-pluvial regime. Not even the tributaries of
the Vrbas in this area depart from this regime. Based on these criteria, it can beconcluded that the risk of flooding is very large in the coastal area of many
watercourses in Uskopaljska valley. For the last twenty years in Bosnia andHerzegovina, there were no higher waves of high water recorded, which led tothe encouragement for approaching the rivers, and even the construction ofbuildings in the floodplain of watercourses. All this changed in the course of2014, when the great flood affected area of Bosnia and Herzegovina. However,
the area of Uskopaljska valley was not largely affected by the flood.

33

According to the degree of capacity of self-purification and concentrationof harmful substances, water basins of major rivers of Uskopaljska valley
belong to II and III class. The degree of contamination of river water isdetermined by the pace of wastewater discharge during the year andfluctuations in flow of watercourses. In this sense, there are especially critical
periods of minimum flows in rivers when their ability to self-purification is
reduced to a minimum. Therefore, depending on the water flow of the Vrbas,
they are classified in II and III class. Despite the increased amounts of nitrite
and phenol, the river water of Uskopaljska valley are suitable for irrigation ofagricultural crops (average concentration of nitrite of 0.2 g/m 3 upstream from
Gornji Vakuf to 1 g/m³ downstream from Donji Vakuf; the average phosphorus
concentration is from 0.06 g/m³ upstream from Gornji Vakuf to 0.09 g/m³
downstream from Donji Vakuf). The tributaries of the Vrbas that rise in highmountain areas and which do not pass through major settlements arecharacterized by I class of water. In particular, this applies to Semešnica in thenorthwest and Bistrica and Kruščica in the east.
Table 1: Parameters of moisture regime in vegetative period in Uskopaljska
valley, 1961-2013

AnnualPrecipitation

Precipitation invegetative
period827 mm
411 mmET0Vegetetative period
Deficit

556 mm

HTC-145 mm

1.6

Source: calculated from Meteorological yearbooks of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1961-2013.

In months of vegetative period (April-October) the deficit of moisture isapproximately 145 mm in areas of alluvial plains and river terraces up to 650 m
above sea level, and in this period, for agricultural crops, it is necessary toprovide around 1450 m3/ha of water. The deficit of moisture during the growing
season according to calculations done using CROPWAT 8.0 in the lower partsof Uskopaljska valley is around 1450 m3/ha. With an increase in altitude, thedeficit of moisture during the growing season is gradually reduced. This way of
calculating the moisture deficit does not take into account the reserves of waterin the active rhizosphere and use of ground water by plants, so it can beconcluded that the deficit of moisture in the spring months is slightly lower thanthese values of potential evapotranspiration (Table 1). There is a risk ofdrought, which can potentially get the scale of a natural disaster in the shortterm. Particularly high risk is left to the production spring field crops (corn,
potatoes, clover etc.), where due to the slope and the lack of water, the use of
irrigation is limited or impossible. Despite the previously mentioned, thanks toirrigation and even modern agrotechnical measures, yields in vegetable andcrop production are stable.

34

Table 2: Values of SPI in Uskopaljska valley, 1961-2013
SPI

I
-1.52

II
-1.10

III
-0.67

IV
-0.42

V
0.26

VI
0.69

VII
-0.50

VIII
-0.42

IX
0.18

X
0.43

XI
2.22

XII
0.86

Source: calculated from Meteorological yearbooks of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1961-2013; Doesken, 1993

The value of a standardized precipitation index (SPI) during July andAugust (-0.50 and - 0.42) indicate a slight lack of rain in these months and it isnecessary and justified to irrigate crops. With increasing altitude value, the SPI
value increases, so the need for irrigation is reduced. Benefits for the irrigationof agricultural land in the Uskopaljska valley are different. They are primarily
determined by the amount of available water, morphometric predisposition,
morphological, physical and chemical properties of soil types. In view of theabove, only the areas of hypsometric level to 700 m above sea level havemoderate suitability for irrigation. Suitability for irrigation decreases withincreasing altitude (Table 2). The greatest need for irrigation in the month of
July and August is when it is both the lowest level of water and minimum flows
in rivers, but also a low level of ground water. Temporal distribution of theavailable quantities of water in relation to the needs of agriculture isunfavorable. However, the contrast is favorable spatial distribution of available
water for irrigation in areas of intensive agricultural production. In relation to themorphometric characteristics of the relief, the most favorable areas for irrigationin Uskopaljska valley are the alluvial plains and river terraces.
Slope angles determine the way of the irrigation of agricultural land.
Irrigation by spillover can be used on agricultural land whose slope is less than
3 degrees, while artificial rain, drip and sub-irrigation along with undertaking
anti-erosion measures is used on the slopes of 3-6 degrees. Therefore, if one
takes into account that slopes up to 3 degrees affect 23.5%, from 3 to 6
degrees 10.3% of the total Uskopaljska valley, it can be concluded that inrelation to the morphometric characteristics of the relief it is possible to irrigate
20,000 hectares of agricultural land. Irrigation of agricultural land with a slope of
6 degrees requests previously terracing. Therefore, the most suitable areas for
irrigation in the Uskopaljska valley are related to plain land of gentle slope.
These are the spatial units in which there occur deep and medium deep
permeable soil types (fluvisol, eutric cambisol, etc.). The best properties for
irrigation has land of I and II cadastral class that in Uskopaljska valley takes
only 2.382 ha of agricultural land. In addition to taking anti-erosion measures(terracing, drip irrigation, etc.) it is possible to irrigate more about 11.896 ha.
Optimal irrigation of agricultural lands makes it difficult to fragment plots.
Therefore, the functioning of major irrigation systems previously require
reparcelling of agricultural lands. Particularly large amounts of water for
irrigation should be provided in the second half of the growing season when therainfall is reduced, and evapotranspiration is maximum. During this period,
many agricultural crops complete their vegetative development, and thus havean increased need for moisture. Irrigation is a very costly measure. Although it
undoubtedly affect the yield increase (field crops by 20-30%, forage crops for
80-100%, fruit by 15-25%), the construction of irrigation systems can be35

economically justified only in the case when one makes a good choice of crops,
crop rotation and enables better use of irrigated areas (Žurovec, 2012).
The most common type of irrigation of arable land in Uskopaljska valley
is linked to the use of shallow groundwater of phreatic aquifers. Shallow depthof groundwater level of phreatic aquifer of alluvial plains and technical andoperational characteristics of motor pumps allow this water to be extensively
used for irrigation. In 2013, there was a total of 260 motor pumps for irrigation.
In the technique of irrigation, instead through channels, today are mostly usedsprinklers and water guns (artificial rain). About 80% of larger farmers use
sprinkler irrigation as a technique. It is better because it allows more efficientuse of moisture by vegetable crops. If one takes into account that the vegetable
crops need additional amount of moisture during the growing season, there canbe concluded that the water from the alluvial aquifer irrigates about 1,000 ha ofarable land.
Table 3: Use of water resources in irrigation of arable land, 2014

BugojnoDonji Vakuf
Gornji Vakuf
Uskopaljska Valley

Tap
water
74,3
53,7
53,1
60,2

River
flows
11,4
24,4
31,3
22,2

Private well

No irrigation

14,3
22,0
15,6
17,6

36,4
18,0
44,8
33,7

Source: Farm survey in Uskopaljska valley, 2014

Water from river flows are far less likely to be used for irrigation ofagricultural crops. According to municipal data in Uskopaljska valley and fieldresearch carried out in 2014, only about 4% of farmers use flooding, while about
12% use a drip system or drip irrigation. Because of the high river banks,
reduced river flow during the summer months and distance of most parcels ofriverbeds, the use of river water for irrigation directly from the river bed isdifficult. These waters are used for irrigation of agricultural crops in those partsof the alluvial plain where the coasts are more accessible and the plots closer tothe river bed.
According to the Farm survey in Uskopaljska valley (2014), mostirrigation is done using tap water even 60.2% of farms use this way thatsignificantly harm the reserves of drinking water serving households whichcauses the occurrence of frequent reduction of water in Uskopaljska valley.
Even 33.7% of the respondents said that they do not irrigate thier land, which issurprising. At the municipal level even 74.3% of farmers of Bugojno as a sourceof water for irrigation uses tap water, and only 11.4% uses river flows. Almost
equal situation is in the municipalities of Donji Vakuf and Gornji Vakuf with thedifference that they increasingly use groundwater by 6.4% (Table 3, Figure 4).

36

Figure 4 : Use of water resources in irrigation by municipalities, 2014
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Tap water

River flows
BugojnoDonji Vakuf

Private well
Gornji Vakuf

Source: Farm survey in Uskopaljska valley, 2014

Conclusion
As basic measures in protection against high water, there stand out:
construction of reservoirs on rivers, construction of embankments andregulation of the riverbed of the lower river flows. In Uskopaljska valley, thepreviously given measures did not completely meet thier goal. There are almost
no embankments along the river Vrbas. Strategies of the management of water
resources need to have the support in the physical environment. These
strategies should include the protection of rivers and watersheds, control overagricultural activities in terms of soil fertilization and irrigation, purification ofpolluted water, etc.
-

we should protect all water resources
we should avoid projects, measures and any impacts (the introduction ofharmful substances) that may result in reduction in groundwater quality
it is fundamental to significantly reduce the ever-growing gap between
the coverage of water supply and the coverage of sewerage network andpurification units, considering that this gap is seriously threatening thequality of groundwater

There is an urgent need for integrated strategies for the management ofwater resources which should have the support in spatial planning (theprotection of rivers and watersheds, control over agricultural activities in termsof soil fertilization and irrigation, purification of polluted water, etc.). Water
supply at a distance should be considered only if there is no appropriate locallyavailable water resources, or if it is not possible to use water resources.
Contribution to the protection of water resources through taking action of large
scale at the level of river basins includes the cooperation of municipal
authorities, and if necessary the extension of this cooperation beyond the37

cantonal borders. Spatial planning should also play a role in flood protection
and the implementation of protective measures, in determining patterns of landuse, and in helping to coordinate and reconcile different interests. In thisrespect, protection and re-establishment of floodplains is useful, as regards thefight against floods, as well as with the protection of environment.
Irrigation as measure aims to compensate for the lack of water that
occurs in growing crops, that is the correction of natural water regime ofmoistening artificially adding water at the time suitable for the properdevelopment of plant to raise the threshold achieved in the production of field
crops and in the years that are the dry – that is all frequent occurrence in thelast 20 years. Besides, irrigation allows better utilization of land by introducing
another harvest. Irrigation to some extent compensate for the negative effects
of reducing fertilising by chemicals for returns, and allows the production of"healthy food". The tendency of decrease in annual precipitation, especiallyduring the growing season, has led to increased interest in irrigation in theFederation of BiH. Securing water for irrigation according to the needs ofagricultural production is the main task of water management organizations inaddressing the problems of irrigation (Fundamentals of Land Development,
2011).
References
1. COWI, 2012. Integralna vodno-energetska studija razvoja sliva rijeke
Vrbas.vodni resursi. Svjetska banka. NTFSPI, Banja Luka.
2. Farms survey in Uskopaljska valley by Gekić, H. 2014.
3. Gekić, H., 2013.Agricultural Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina: A casestudy of Bugojno.Geo-Analyst, Geographical Society of North Bengal.Alipurduar
4. Hydrological Yearbooks of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1961-2013. SHMZSarajevo.
5. Leopold, L.1969.Fluvial Proesses in Geomorphology, Indian Eurasia Publishing
House, New Delhi
6. Martin, K., Sauerborn, J., 2013. Agroecology, Springer, Dordrecht.
7. McKee, T.B., N.J. Doesken, Kleist,J., 1993.: The Relationship of Drought
Frequency and Duration to Time Scales. Preprints, 8th Conference on Applied
Climatology, 17-22 January, Anaheim, California
8. Meteorological Yearbooks of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 1961-2013.SHMZSarajevo
9. Osnove ureĎenja zemljišta - program navodnjavanja i program okrupnjavanja
posjeda u Federaciji Bosne i Hercegovine.2011.Agronomski i prehrambenotehnološki fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru.Mostar
10. Vrišer, I., 1995. Agrarna geografija.Filozofska fakulteta v Ljubljani.Oddelek zageografijo.Ljubljana
11. Žurovec, J. 2012. Melioracije i ureĎenje poljoprivrednog zemljišta.Univerzitet u
Sarajevu.Poljoprivredno-prehrambeni fakultet.Sarajevo.

38

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 39-45

4
LOCAL PEOPLES' PERCEPTIONS TOWARD TOURISM: A CASE STUDY
OF MORNI HILLS (HARYANA)
Prem Chand
Indian Council of Social Science Research Fellow
Department of Geography, Panjab University, Chandigarh
Email: prem2011_kulvi@yahoo.com

Abstract: This study examines the local people perceptions towards tourism of Morni
Hills in Haryana. The study focused on residents in the vicinity of popular heritage
attraction on the Morni Hills. An attempts has been done to study the positive andnegative impacts of tourism towards the local people. Among the impacts the positivesocial impacts of tourism were most favourably perceived by the local people. The
finding of semi- structured interviews with residents supported the survey results.
Key words: Local People, Tourism impact, Perceptions, Morni.

Introduction
Although there is an increasing community understanding of the benefits,
tourism brings to communities, there are still many who are yet to appreciate
the significance of tourism, including policy makers and the general public.
Because community support, or lack of it, can have a significant effect on the
success or failure of a tourist destination, awareness-raising activity about thesignificance of tourism play a crucial role in the future development of theindustry. Tourism simultaneously portrayed as a destroyer of culture,undermining social norms and economic, degrading social structures, stripping
communities of individuality, and as a saviour of the poor and disadvantaged,
providing opportunities and economic benefits, promoting social exchange, andenhancing livelihoods. ―Multiplier effects‖ are often cited to capture secondary
effects of tourism spending and show the wide range of sector in a communitythat may benefit from tourism. Community support is important for tourism as it
is an activity that affects the entire community. Tourism businesses depend
extensively on each others well as with other businesses, government andresidents of the local community. Community decisions over tourism often
involve debates between industry proponents touting tourism‘s economic
impacts (benefits) and detractors emphasizing tourism‘s costs. Sound decisions

39

rest on a balanced and objective assessment of both benefits and costs and anunderstanding of who benefits from tourism and who pays for it.
The present day tourism is not the same as the travels of the early periodof human history. Tourism is the temporary movement of people to destinations
outside their normal place of work and residence. Such a pleasure-seeking
tourist is a traveller moving from place to place or visiting the same place
repeatedly. Tourism includes all economic activities, which are organised to fulfil
the needs of such travellers. Any travel for holidaying, business or professional
trips become a part of tourism if it is temporary, undertaken voluntarily and does
not aim at earning any livelihood the tourism is travel for recreational, leisure orbusiness purpose. Tourism has different meaning in different languages anddifferent regions and can be defined in different ways. The word ‗tourism ‗wasfirst used in 1811 and ‗tourist‘ in 1840. Tourism word is composed of two words„tour‟ and suffix „ism‟, the word tour is derived from the Greek, ‗Tornos‘, meaning
thereby ‗a circle; the movement around a central point, ‗ism‘ is defined as theaction of movement around a circle, i.e. the act of leaving and then returning tothe original starting point. Ziffer (1989) defined ―Tourism involves travelling torelatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objectof studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals,
as well as any existing cultural aspect (past and present) found in these areas‖.
In today‘s world, tourism is an important socio-economic activity. Tourism
now recognised as an international industry, generating a number of social andeconomic benefits. It promotes national integration and international
understanding, helps an improving infrastructure, creates employment
opportunities and augments foreign exchange earnings. Thus, tourism is as
much a part of social- economic development as any other related activity.
A Case Study: Morni Hills
Morni, the hill station in Haryana around 45 kilometres from Chandigarh, 35
kilometres from Panchkula as its district and is known for its Himalayan views,
flora, and lakes. The name of Morni believed to derive from a queen who once
ruled the area. The Morni Hills are offshoots of the Shivalik range of theHimalayas, which run in two parallel ranges. A hill divides the two lakes, butthere is theorised to be a hidden channel linking them, as the water level of twolakes remains roughly the same. Morni locale looks upon the lakes as sacred.

40

Figure 1. Location of Morni Hills

As Morni hills are relatively unexplored, they offer a rich opportunity foradventure seekers and explores. Trek to the lakes named Tikkar Tal, are sure
to be a source of pleasure. Trek to Ghagger offers another chance to explore
the unknown. Morni is a splendid green hillside dotted with flowering trees. The
low hill tracts of Morni filled with neem, pepal, jamun, dhak, amaltas, jacaranda
trees and yes, the delightful pine. The pine or ‗chill‘ as the locals call it, crowns
the hill tops and is one of the most delightful sights of the Morni Hills. Lakes ofMorni afford an opportunity for wonderful camping and relaxing amidst nature.
The flora and fauna are there to give company and serenity of the lake to blessyou. When the flowering trees blossom, the hillsides are awash with colour,
presenting a delightful sight. Morni is paradise for wildlife enthusiasts andbirdwatchers with its teeming population of birds like quails, partridges, sandgrouse and common doves as well as animals like jackals, hare, hyenas, Neelgai, sambhars and even leopards. Although some initiatives for thedevelopment of tourism in Morni have been taken by the Govt. Of Haryana, but
the real tourist potential of Morni yet has not been explored. The Haryana
government has also developed the hill resort to facilitate the tourists. The
government has laid roads connecting Morni hills with state highway near
Panchkula, to help visitors have a smooth ride to Morni Hills. Forest tourist huts,
rest houses like Lal Munia and a PWD rest house have been built for theconvenience of visitors and trekkers.
The Morni hills divide a lake into two and has hidden channel underneath
which helps in maintaining the water level of the lakes the same, around theyear. Both the lakes are considered very sacred. The inhabitants perform many
religious ceremonies in these lakes. On the banks of a lake, is a small temple,

41

which has a Trimurti idol belonging to the twelfth centuries. A few years ago,
this place said to have had a Shiv Mandir also. The sceneries all the way toMorni is no less beautiful than Morni Hill. The climate in Morni Hills issalubrious. Above all, Morni hills are unpolluted and presents a wide range ofattractions to all who love nature, birds, animals, lakes, gardens and hills to add
fun from trekking, mountaineering and rock climbing to simple travel overmountains.
Main Aspects of Tourism
Economic Aspects
 Increases employment opportunities.
 Improves transport infrastructure.
 Increases opportunities for shopping.
 Creates new business opportunities.
 Contributes to income and standards of living.
 Economic (direct, indirect, induced spending) is widespread in thecommunity.
Environmental Aspects
 Protection of selected natural environments or prevention of further
ecological decline.
 Improvement of the area‘s appearance (visual and aesthetic).
 Pollution (air, water, noise, solid waste and visual) Loss of natural landscape and agricultural lands to tourism development
Social and cultural Aspects
 Excessive drinking, alcoholism, gambling.
 Crime, drugs and prostitution.
 Negative changes in values and customs.
 Unwanted lifestyle changes.
 Displacement of residents of tourism development.
 Exclusion of locals from natural resources
Objectives, Data Source and Methodology
 To assess socio-economic and environmental aspects, perceptions of
the local people towards tourism in Morni.
 To examine the perception of people towards tourism with respect toinitiatives taken by Govt. for the promotion of tourism in Morni.
To achieve the above stated objectives the primary data have been collectedfrom a sample of 36 residents drawn out of the population of Morni hills basedon convenient sampling by interviews scheduled. The responses were noted42down on a well-designed questionnaire comprising of ten questions. The data
regarding various socio-economic indicators such as age, education,
occupation, gender, etc. was also taken under consideration. Simple statistical
tools such as averages, percentages were used. Cross-tabulation was used
where ever need to arrive at the results.
Research Findings
With regards employment opportunities it has noted that 66.7 percent
respondents agreed with the fact that tourism in Morni has given the boost to
employment opportunities. However, surprisingly, the employment opportunities
were mostly availed by daily wage earners. The labourer person had a morenumber of days to work than before, the time when the government has notrecognised Morni as a tourist place. From fieldwork, it has found that 86.11 percent respondents were literate, whereas only 14 per cent were illiterate. Amongthe literate respondent, 87.5 percent had a positive view regarding increased
employment due to tourism. Twenty-four respondents out of 36 i.e. 67 per centreplied that their business has expanded because of tourism. Among the
shopkeepers, 8 out of 14 respondents i.e. 57.1 per cent responded that theemployment opportunities have increased and their business ha expanded. Outof the sample, eight were students. All of them were of the view that
employment and business has increased due to tourism. Even the non-resident
have established their business in Morni.
A particular question pertaining to the improvement in infrastructure
facilities by govt. was ask to seek the opinion of people whether there has been
any improvement or not. Forty-six percent responded that they are satisfied withthe government spending, i.e. investment made or cost incurred by thegovernment on the infrastructure whereas 64 per cent were of the view that
there is a lack of infrastructural investment. However, the real potential of Morni
is yet unexplored which needs further investment by the government. 55.6
percent of the respondents reported that tourism has contributed to theincreased incidence of parent child conflict. The educated respondent (86percent) from the sample relied that tourism has led to unwanted lifestylechanges. 40 per cent shopkeepers were of the view that the tourism has
increased parent child conflict.
From the findings, it was concluded that 69.4 per cent respondents said
that tourism has contributed towards moral degradation among local youth.
While interviewing the respondents, the majority of them highlighted thenegative impacts of tourism viz. Tourists especially the females are not properly
dressed, they consume alcohol and drugs and create nuisance thereafter
leading to a negative impact on the children. With the tourism activities in Morni
Hills, they're found increase in the crime rate. 52.8 percent of the respondents
43emphasized that were insufficient police personnel to control crime. Among the
respondent, 94.7 percent educated respondents, 73.7 percent male and 36.8
per cent shopkeepers endorsed the viewpoint that tourism has posed a threat tothe safety of women in the area.
From the analysis, it inferred that 6.11 percent respondent agreed that
tourism had led to environmental degradation of Morni. Among the 31 educatedrespondents, 28have opined that there has been a loss of landscape andagricultural land due to tourism development. Seven out of fifteen shopkeepers
stressed that tourism has increased traffic congestion. Analysing the data
gender wise, the fact was further strengthened by 16 out of 23 males (68.2
percent) who responded positively that tourism has increased pollution in thearea.
Further Suggestions
The government should make more investment towards the promotion of
tourism in Morni Hills. More police personnel should be deployed. Proper laws
regarding the construction of tourist hotel /places should be implemented in thearea.. More business and job opportunities should be created for the local
residents. There should be proper solid waste management and a proper checkon property dealers.
References
1. Ateljevic, A. And Harris and Collins (2000): ―Getting Entangled: Reflectivity andthe Critical Turn in Tourism Studies,‖ Tourism Recreation Research, Vol.30,
No.2, pp.9-21.
2. Awang, K.W. (2009): ―Tourism Development- A Geographical Perspective‖,
Asian Social Science Jornal, Vol.5, No.5, pp.67-76.
3. Bhushan,R. (2006): ―Jharkhand: Unexplored Heaven for Eco-Tourists‖, Journalof Tourism Development, Vol.4, No.1.
4. Britton,R.A. (1979): ―Some Notes on Geography of Toursm‖, Canadian
Geographer, Vol.23, No.3, pp.276-282.
5. Cater,C. (1995): ―Environmental Contradictions in Sustainable Tourism‖, The
Geographical Journal, Vol. 161, No.1, pp.21-28.
6. Chadda, S.K. (1990): ―Himalayan Ecology, Ashish, New Delhi.
7. Chowdaiah (2002): Growth of Tourism in and around Mysore City- A
Geographical Analysis‖, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Mysore, Mysore-6,
Karnataka.
8. Christaller, W. (1955): ‗Beitrage zu einer Geographie des fremdenverkehrs‖(contribute to Geography of Tourism)‘, Erdkunde, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1-19.
9. Deniels,G. (1949), ―Central Place Theory and Sport Tourism Impacts‖ Annals of
Tourism Research, Vol.34, No.2, pp.332-259.
10. Gunn, C. A. (1988): Tourism Planning, Taylor and Francis, New York.
11. Harashwanti,B. (1994): Tourism in Garhwal Himalaya, Indus, New Delhi.
12. Holden (2008): Environment and Tourism, Routledge, New York.
13. Jafari, J. (1977): Editorial, Annals Of Tourism Research, Vol.3,pp.6-11.
14. Mitchell, l.S. (1979): ―The Geography of Tourism- An Introduction‖, Annals of
Tourism Research, Vol. 9, No.3, pp.235-244.
4415. Oglive, F.W. (1933): ―The Tourist Movement, Stapless‖, London.
16. Pritcharda, A. (2011): ―Hopeful Tourism: A new transformation perspective‖,
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol.38, No.3, pp941-963.
17. Roy, A.M. (1970): Bridging the Information gap for Attracting Foreign Tourist,
Capital Vol. CLXV, No.4137, pp. 793-795.
18. Sapna, L.K. (2012): ‗Impact of Tourism on Indian Economy‘, International
Journal of Marketing Financial Services and Management Research, Vol., No.
4, pp. 70-75.
19. Sandeep, K. & Vinod, K. (2014): ‗Perception of Socio-Culture Impacts ofTourism: Sociological Review‘, International Research Journal of Social
Sciences, Vol., No.3, No.2, pp. 40-43.
20. Selke, A. (1936): ―Geographical Aspects of the German Tourist Trade‖,
Economic Geography, Vol.12, pp.206-221.
21. Single, M. (2014): ‗A Case Study on Socio_Cultural Impacts of tourism in thecity of Jaipur, Rajasthan: India‘, Journal of Business Management & Social
Sciences Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 22-30.
22. Taylor, P.J. (1971): ―Distance Transformation and Distance Decay Function‖,
Geographical Analysis, Vol.3, No.3. pp.221-238.
23. William (2009): Tourism Geography: A New Synthesis, Routledge, New York.
24. Ziffer, Karen A. (1989): Ecotourism: the uneasy alliances, Conservation
International‘s series of working paper‘s on ecotourism.

45

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 46-52

5
WE THE CUSTODIANS OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND GLOBALRESOURCES: AN OVERVIEW
Malti P. Sharma
Associate Professor
S.K.Govt. (P.G.) College, Sikar (Rajasthan) India
Email: malti.sharma0@gmail.com

Abstract: Environment is the totality of our surroundings. It includes the whole global
ecosystem and natural resources. The environment came to us as a gift from theSupreme force, but , its maintenance was absolutely in the hands of all the living
beings that inhabited the liveable areas. It has been given as a legacy to be taken careof. Many circumstances influenced Man‟s relation with his surroundings. They
compelled Man to think in favour of saving the treasure received, as well as, misuse his
talents and despoil the valuable gift. The paper will deal with the positive and negativeroles played by Man in the handling of the natural resources. Man was and is the angel
as well as the devil. So, it is in our hands as human beings to safeguard the interests of
the whole human community by taking care of the environment and all the natural
resources. Some resources are irreplaceable, so we have to be conscious of keeping
them safe so as to be able to hand them over to progeny. We have to be absolutely
committed to the fact that we are the custodians of the environment and we owe it toour children to give them a better place to live in with as much overall growth andenhancement in all resources as possible.
Key words: Environment, Ecosystem, Natural Resources, Community, Custodian
Legacy Progeny

Introduction
When Man first appeared on this earth, he was not aware of the surroundings
and environment that he was supposed to live in. He explored his surroundings,
but, he was able to understand very little about the environment. Consequently,
he was not able to use or misuse his surrounding resources exhaustively.
Gradually, he developed awareness and things started changing. His
knowledge played a very positive role in enhancing many aspects of life and thegeneral environmental issues. At the same time, this knowledge, accelerated bygreed, played a very devastating role and things started going downslide. Man
has played both types of roles, positive as well as negative, regarding theenvironment and available resources. There have been a number of factors in46

the past, which affected his behaviour towards these resources. Most prominent
ones are:Bang and Blast of the Populace
The improvement in the living conditions resulted in good health and enhanced
breeding. The population multiplied in leaps and bounds. This is generally
understood as ‗Population Explosion‘. This created a revolutionary change inthe use of natural resources because increased populace meant increased
consumption of natural resources and accumulated energies. As Thomas
Robert Malthus says in An Essay on the Principle of Population, ―Population,
when unchecked, increases in a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases onlyin an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show theimmensity of the first power in comparison of the second‖. This had an
immediate and direct effect on the natural resources. Man consumed
agricultural products many times more than he used to in earlier times anddependence on animals for various purposes increased largely. He required
more space for himself. To create more living space, he shaved off the green
forests and replaced them with rock forests. The jungles which were a natural
habitat for numerous animals, were cut down. This way, deforestation deprived
them of their natural habitat, hence, their species began to extinguish. Redeveloping jungles with the help of promotional remedies like fertilizers andinsecticides created large pools of toxic chemicals and increased over-all
pollution. Animals of all sorts; those living on land, water or air; all were equally
threatened. To maintain their number, efforts to raise crops on a large scale
were made. This demanded many other resources. Use of chemicals multiplied,
resulting in pollution. Animals were reared on a large scale which resulted in the
manifestation of many more diseases and dearth of fodder. The waste
produced by these animals again became a nasty source of pollution. It waschallenging to produce various varieties of animals. Man applied his brain to
produce only the productive species of animals and plants. This went against
the demands of bio-diversity. Moreover, after producing a single produce, it wasessential to transport it to areas where it could be used more efficiently.
Prosperity is Top Priority for Man
We all have a tendency to work our way towards a comfortable life. At the initialstage, we were content with whatever nature had endowed us with andrestricted our consumption in proportion with the available quantity. We were
content with the limited resources and bare minimum comforts. In our search
for a higher level of comfort and prosperity, we have made many manipulations.
Scientific development and improved social scenario made our pursuit for
comforts very easy. The more they came our way, the more grew our greed forthem. We accelerated the production and distribution of goods at a fast pace.
47

We have started using raw material recklessly to create comfort for ourselves.
This is telling heavily on our resources. It is also causing plenty of pollution onland, water and in the air. Depletion of resources is taking place rapidly andregeneration of sources is not sufficient to compensate for the quantity being
consumed. This way, prosperity being the priority, makes us forget themaintenance of the quantity of natural resources and other aspects of theenvironment. American President, Theodore Roosevelt, once said, ―The
conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solvethat problem it will avail us little to solve all others‖. Hence our tendency to opt
for prosperity and comforts should include the safeguarding of other aspects.
Man's the Most Detrimental Species on EarthNo other living being causes harm to the environment as much as Man does.
He damages the environment in a number of ways. The automatic natural
system of compensating for the losses has been introduced by nature in someform or the other. The environment balances its losses in its own way but man‘s
impatience is spoiling things out of proportion. The population is very large andall human beings are hell bent on destroying the productivity of resources in as
many ways as can be, hence the earth is suffering a heavy loss.
Harmful Impact of Man’s Irrational BehaviourMan‘s vitiated brain has caused many harmful effects on his surroundings.
Creating waste in abundance makes recycling and improvised techniques
impossible. He pollutes the atmosphere in a number of ways. The soil is underperpetual threat from pesticides and herbicides, the garbage and other forms ofwaste thrown by man, chemical wastes and residues of the industries, all
mitigate the productivity and cleanliness of the soil by mingling in between thesoil particles. In a similar manner the industrial waste which is released in rivers
and canals, the human excreta and dead bodies of both human beings andanimals which are flown in rivers owing to religious rituals, the unsafe andunguarded surroundings that connect unhygenically to the water bodies,chemical wastes released in water during domestic, industrial, and commercial
activities, pollute the water and tend to be a threat for men as well as all otherwater animals. These aquatic animals are a natural resource and contribute in along way to the benefit of the ecosystem but man destroys the whole systemand deprives all living beings of safe and hygienic drinking water.
Air pollution is another harm caused by man to the environment. Duringindustrial production a huge amount of harmful gases are released in theatmosphere creating a poisonous effect for all inhabitants on the globe. This
pollution is caused on many levels ranging from very small domestic sources tovery big industrial ones. They cover almost every area on the globe resulting in48

creating a very dangerous atmosphere for all. Man‘s use of innumerable
chemicals for various commercial purposes is depleting the ozone layer at avery fast pace. This layer shields the upper crust of the earth on which all living
beings are placed from the harmful ultra-violet rays. By harming the ozone
layer, man is creating a grave threat to the environment.
Man as the Saviour of the Environment and Resources
As man is ruining the atmosphere and depriving mankind of many vitally
important resources, in the same way, very contrastingly, he is playing a very
important role in saving the environment from depletion. By our behaviour andlifestyle, we are contributing to the maintenance of the nature in a big way.
American President Theodore Roosevelt has very rightly said, ―If in a given
community unchecked popular rule means unlimited waste and destruction of
the natural resources—soil, fertility, waterpower, forests, game, wild-life
generally—which by right belong as much to subsequent generations as to thepresent generation, then it is sure proof that the present generation is not yet
really fit for self-control, that it is not yet really fit to exercise the high andresponsible privilege of a rule which shall be both by the people and for thepeople. The term ―for the people‖ must always include the people unborn aswell as the people now alive, or the democratic ideal is not realized‖. A thought
similar to this concern has prevailed in Man‘s mind and he has made many
positive and constructive efforts in the direction of saving the environment andnatural resources. Some very important efforts made by Man in this directionare: Saving the Rare Species From Extinction:
Many rare species of animals are facing extinction. Some conscious
environmentalists who are committed to the cause of saving the atmosphere,
are making conscious efforts to save these rare species. They are creating
natural and protected environment which is favourable for the breeding of theseanimals. Once they successfully breed them in large numbers and the animals
are big enough to survive on their own, they release them in their natural
surroundings. When they comfortably establish themselves in their wild habitat,
they increase their numbers on a natural breeding basis. This way they are
saved from extinction. The zoos maintained by environmentalists are a very big
contribution to mankind. The same is the case of vegetation. The variety which
is useful but being exhausted rapidly is being cultivated and maintained bynature lovers. Thereby they save the productive trees, plants, herbs and otherforms of vegetation from being washed out from the earth‘s surface. During thisprocess, many times, some new species of animals and plants also get
introduced intentionally or inadvertently. Some of them conform to thesurroundings very well. This way, they start developing as a newly introduced
species in the area. Man makes efforts to counter such species which have49

invaded these areas and replace them by the local and indigenous ones. The
overall impact of such efforts is that the environment is enriched.
 Protecting Native Animals and Flora and Fauna:Some native species of animals and plants are very difficult to breed andcultivate. They are under perpetual threat of extinction. They breed only incertain areas and under a certain set of circumstances. Efforts are made toreserve their conducive areas and living conditions for their enhancement sothat they are able to breed and grow rapidly. This way their numbers will grow ata faster pace and their breed will be saved from extinction. This holds value foranimals as well as plants, because the native vegetation has a great value of its
own.
 Conscious Efforts to Control Jungle Holocausts
Jungles which are rich in vegetation accumulate plenty of dry vegetation fromdead and dry trees. Sometimes when these are perpetually neglected, the dryheaps of plants catch fire which culminates into huge destructive holocausts.
Huge amount of wood, precious vegetation and wildlife is gutted in such
wildfires. Man has made efforts to keep an eye on such jungles and prevent
ignition of the valuable natural resources. Damage prevented in this way, helps
to save a lot of natural resources and lives. This exercise on a conscious levelis a commendable contribution towards saving the natural jungles.
 Sustaining Natural Ways of Living :Industrialization has changed the lifestyle of man to such an extent thateverything around him has gradually started becoming unnatural and artificial.
Man has become habitual of living on these artificial means. This has brought
many ill-effects too. Industrial food system has ruined the system of living on
natural foods, concrete forests have taught us to live in artificial houses, but
man has again made efforts to save it through permaculture. The ordinary man
does not comprehend the technical meaning of permaculture. Permaculture isan ecological design system for sustainability in all aspects of humanendeavour. It teaches us how to build natural homes, grow our own food,restore diminished landscapes and ecosystems, catch rainwater, and build
communities. Man is trying to appreciate and introduce the natural ways ofliving and introduce natural methods on a large scale. This has not only
enhanced the environment but also shown a very positive impact on humanhealth. It is a call which says, ―back to Nature‖ and connects us to the
productive ways of using existing natural resources.
 Multi-dimensional Efforts by Man:
When Man paid attention to all his surroundings, he found that a lot of attention
was required to mend the errors lying in a number of natural situations. The
natural wastes and dense vegetation knit a net in the water bodies which results50

in clogging of the waterways. When waste is dumped in such places, thesituation worsens. If such spots are cleaned and attended to regularly, then,clogging will not take place and the eco-system will be hygienic and healthy.
Consistent cutting of jungles for wood and clearing land for making colonies,
shaved off the earth‘s surface to a great extent. This is generally known as
deforestation. Man has made efforts on a large scale to re-cultivate barren andshaved off land with indigenous species of vegetation.
Energy Resources and their Multiplication are also a big contribution. Oilreserves are a very delicate issue because the consumption over the globe islarge and depleting resources will again be a source of great trouble for future
generations. Man has made a large feat in generating bio-fuels to support thefast depleting oil reserves. Solar energy run equipments and wind turbines havebeen developed to replace the other resources so that they can be saved tofeed mankind for a longer time. Biogas and other innovative energy sources
have also been developed recently.
Small Scale Indigenous Food Creating Systems have also beendeveloped. Food produced for commercial purpose is a prominent tradecommodity. Its production and consumption both are done on a large scale.
Looking into the commercial aspects of this industry, many rural families havestarted producing and supplying their own food products on their own limited
resources. This gives rise to a happy and healthy local economy. Local market
brings success to the local producer as well as the local consumer. The qualityof the produce is also far better than the commercial one. This contribution isvery significant because it affects life and economy on daily basis. Local food
not only ensures good health, but also adds to the economy and well being of
the society. Man has also made substantial efforts to use technologicalknowhow to mitigate all forms of pollution in the atmosphere. The various
filtration systems of nanotech , the various methods of treating air, water, soil
etc with chemicals, are the efforts which have contributed a lot in controlling
pollution.
 Routine Lifestyle as the great contributor:
The willingness of Man to become the custodian of the environment can bringabout substantial and meaningful changes. The consumable resources which
are under a threat of being exhausted can be used at a lower speed and inlesser quantity. Minor changes in the lifestyle can bring about major changes. If
we move in a group and use one big vehicle to carry all moving in the same
direction, rather than each one using his own small vehicle, can be very helpful.
In big cities people use carpooling to do the same.

51

The practice of using running tap water or running shower to bathe, canbe replaced by a tub or bucket. This can save a lot of water. Using water inchain pattern can also be very productive. For example, first washingvegetables in a tub of water, then using it to water plants in the kitchen garden.
Keeping windows and ventilators open can save electricity used in coolinggadgets and lights. Lesser use of washing machines, mixers, and other dailyequipments can save a lot of electricity. Solar energy can be used in many
ways in domestic work in place of electricity. All positive changes in lifestyleshould be implemented and advocated and passed on to the progeny. Many
institutions and individuals are actively working in this field.
Conclusion
Many things which we use in our daily life can be recycled for multiple use. Thiscan help us to reduce the overuse of natural resources as well as save theenvironment in many ways. Many disposable things which we dump as useless,can be used in a novel form before disposal. This is more the case withhousehold things. Cartons, wrappers, old clothes, waste material, all can beused creatively and constructively. The good aspect about this attitude is thateach and every person on the planet can do his or her bit to contribute towards
saving the environment and make the world a livelier and better place to live.
Every small action will contribute immensely to the betterment of living
conditions on the earth.
References
1. Bates. Marston. From Horace M. Albright Conservation Lectureship Berkeley,
California (23 Apr 1962), 'The Human Environment', collected in Conservatorsof Hope: the Horace M. Albright Conservation Lectures (1988), 44.
2. Malthus. Thomas Robert, An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798). In E.
A. Wrigley and David Souden (eds.), The Works of Thomas Malthus (1986),
Vol. 1, 9.
3. Roosevelt. Theodore, In A Book-Lover's Holidays in the Open (1916), 319
4. Roosevelt. Theodore, 'Our National Inland Waterways Policy', Address to the
Deep Waterway Convention, Memphis, Tennessee, 4 Oct 1907. In American
Waterways (1908).

52

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 53-70

6
WHY ARE RIVER BASINS CONSIDERED THE BEST AREAL UNIT FOR
MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS: A TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE
Prashant Kumar and Payal Srivastava
Research Scholars, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi
Abstract: Physical landforms seen around our social environment are formed anddesigned with a peculiar process of geomorphism by the constitution of naturalelements. Study of the shape, volume and size of these landforms has been attemptedby humans since the evolution of the streams like geography, mathematics andphysics. These practices have been polished and refrained by the time and by thedevelopment of morphometry. Many geomorphologists and other scientists haveattempted to comprise the proper definition of morphometry. According to known
Geomorphologist A.N. Strahler (1964) “Measurement of the shape or geometry of any
natural form – be it plant, animal or relief features – is termed as morphometry”. In fact,
morphometry incorporates quantitative study of the area, altitude, volume, slope,profiles of the land and drainage basin characteristics of the area concerned. This
study is carried out in the basin of River Suswa of Doon Valley to analyse its various
morphometric characteristics including areal, linear and relief properties. These
collaboratively give the proper idea of basin. Latest remote sensing and GIS
techniques have been incorporated to fetch out the proper matrix of the area. It helped
to delineate the river basin out of the bunch of many other small rivers clearly.
Key words: Delineate, Drainage, Texture, Ruggedness, Remote Sensing & GIS

Introduction
The technique of Morphometric Analysis has become important in evaluatinghydro-geomorphological parameters of drainage basins. Now the old methodsof this analysis have been associated and replaced accordingly by Remote
Sensing and Geographical Information System (R.S. & GIS) techniques which
help a researcher to produce high yield data with more precision and options ofrectification. A detailed description of the methods of morphometric analysis of
the basin characteristics is given by Horton (1932), Chow (1964), Doornkamp &King (1971), and Zavoianre (1985). According to Gardiner (1982), ‗morphometry
is potentially an important approach to geomorphology, since it affords
quantitative information on large scale fluvial landforms, which make up the vast
majority of earth‘s configuration‘.
Morphometric techniques are applied in character as well as integrated inapproach. It provides a clear picture of the topography of a region.
Physiography and physiographic environment of a particular region directly
53influence socioeconomic conditions leading to spatial variations. Therefore, one
has to take into account certain parameters which influence physiography.
Relief characteristics of a particular region are important in terms of theirinfluence over one another, which are independent. Researchers are able toevolve rationale for simulation or uniqueness occurring throughout the region
with the help of morphometric parameters.
Why a River Basin?
The search of an ideal unit of the earth surface for the study of landforms has
been the key query before geomorphologists. ‗Physiographic atoms‘ and‗drainage basins‘ had been selected as ideal areal units to serve the purpose.
But, of late, fluvially originated drainage basin has gained as a hydrological unit
(S. Singh and R. Srivastava). The limited, convenient and clearly defined andunambiguous topographic unit available in a nested hierarchy of sizes on thebasis of stream ordering and an open physical system in terms of inputs ofprecipitation and solar radiation of the drainage basin convinced most of thegeomorphologists and scientists to accept it as the fundamental geomorphic
unit for the Morphometric study of drainage basin characteristics.
River basins which are believed to be the most widely spread phenomenaon the earth surface are responsible for the formation of distinct shape of theearth‘s surface. Fluvial morphometry in general considers linear, areal and relief
aspects of a fluvially originated drainage basin. The linear aspect deals with the
hierarchical orders of streams, numbers and lengths of stream segments andvarious relationships among them and related morphometric laws e.g. Law ofStream numbers and Law of Stream length. The areal aspect includes theanalysis of basin perimeter, basin shape (both geometrical and topological),basin area and related morphometric laws viz. Law of Allometric growth, stream
frequency, drainage density and drainage texture. The relief aspectincorporates besides hypsometric, clinographic and altimetric analysis, thestudy of absolute and relative relief, relief ratios, average slope, dissection
index, ruggedness index etc.
Study Area: Suswa River Basin as a case
The study area constitutes the watershed of the Suswa River falling in theadministrative district of Dehradun (Uttarakhand). It is one the three significant
river basins of Doon Valley. The basin of Suswa covers a large part of
Dehradun City. A group of the geographers and hydrologists claims that the
Suswa River is a right bank tributary of the Song which eventually joins the
Ganga. On the other hand, the second group calls it a separate tributary ofGanges The origin of the river is near Khattapaani village in north eastern Duns.
It joins the Song River at eastern edges of Kansrao Reserve Forest near
54

Banbaha village, Doiwala. It drains the mid eastern part of Dun valley towards
the south which is very fertile, well-irrigated and densely populated. The river isperennial in the upper mountainous region where as it dries up in the lower part
because of base flow. The region is more or less an alluvial tract marked withtropical climate.
Morphometric Characteristics
A quantitative approach is adopted here to show the morphometriccharacteristic of the region. Various sources such as satellite imagery andtopological sheets have been used as database for this purpose. Master basin
has been demarcated based on Survey of India topographical sheets on
1:50000 scale. A hundred meters contour interval has been taken to produce
the elevation map of the area (Fig.1). Various GIS techniques are used toprepare maps and calculations. Sub-watershed delineation for the Suswa basin
is based on delineation devised by Central Ground Water Board as per National
Watershed Atlas. Three basins of Doon valley – Suswa, Song and Jakhan are
further subdivided into twenty-five sub-watersheds in total. The area understudy forms the whole basin of river Suswa consisting of eight sub-watersheds
namely 7A1, 7A2, 7A3, 7A4, 7A5, 7A6, 7A7 and 7B2 (Fig.2).
The drainage pattern of the Suswa river in the upper basin is more or lessdendritic. This type of drainage pattern is commonly found in which irregularbranching of tributaries happens in any direction and in almost any angle,
although usually at considerably less than right angle characterizes it (Fig.2).
Dendritic patterns are most likely to be found upon nearly horizontal
sedimentary rocks of uniform resistance or in the areas of massive igneousrocks, but also could be seen on the folded or complexly metamorphosed rocks(Thornbury, 1969). The fingertip tributaries are quite closely packed and makethe pattern very dense in the higher reaches.
Linear Properties
Stream Ordering. It was first introduced by Horton in 1945 and later modified
by Strahler (1952, 1964). This scheme is more universally accepted. The basisof the Horton-Strahler approach is a method of classifying segments of channel
in terms of stream order. In Horton‘s stream ordering, all unbranched streams
are designated as first order; two first order streams combine to make a second
order and so on. Subsequently, Strahler (1964) suggested slightly different
method and according to him, the first order streams are those that have notributaries. When two first order streams meet, the second order streams areformed, and two second order streams form the third stream and so on. The
trunk stream through which all the water and discharge pass is the segment of
the highest order. The basin is named after the highest order stream. The basin
55

of river Suswa consists of a total number of 512 perennial and non-perennial
streams that spread over an area of 248 sq. km (Table 5) and stretches for a
total length of 610.66 km (Table 1 & 2). Of all the sub-basins, 7A1, 7A2 and 7A7
together contain approximately three-forth of the total streams. Nearly one thirdof the total streams come under first order. Only 7A7 is a fifth order basin, 7A1,
7A2, 7A4, 7A6 and 7A7 are fourth order basins. 7A1 and 7A7 together accountfor more than half of the total stream length. 7A1 is the sub-basin with maximum
number and length of streams.
The count of stream channels in each order is known as stream number.
According to Horton‘s law the number of streams, counted for each order, areplotted on logarithmic scale on the y-axis against order number on arithmetic
scale on x-axis. Horton noted that the number of streams of different orders in awatershed decreases with increasing order in a regular way. When thelogarithms of the number of stream order are plotted against the order, thepoints lie on straight line.
Table 1: Order wise total number of Streams in Sub-basins
Subbasin
7A1
7A2
7A3
7A4
7A5
7A6
7A7
Total

First
Order
132
60
4
33
43
19
80
371

Second
Order
38
20
2
10
10
6
22
108

Third
Order
13
3
1
2
2
1
3
25

Forth
Order
3
1
0
1
0
1
1
7

Fifth
Order
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1

Total
186
84
7
46
55
27
107
512

Table 2: Order wise total Stream Length in Sub-basins (in Km)
Subbasin
7A1
7A2
7A3
7A4
7A5
7A6
7A7
Total

First
Order
128.57
58.38
2.95
32.98
31.99
16.73
60.8
332.4

Second
Order
50.27
20.41
1.58
15.29
21.44
7.64
30.86
147.49

Third
Order
36.17
5.5
1.84
14.35
17.82
1.07
13.95
90.7

Forth
Order
6.19
2.27
0
0.73
0
7.31
3.24
19.74

Fifth
Order
0
0
0
0
0
0
20.33
20.33

Total
221.2
86.56
6.37
63.35
71.25
32.75
129.18610.66

Both the variables are found to have high negative correlation. As one
moves from lower to higher order (i.e., 1, 2, 3 and so on), the number of stream
56segments decreases with highest order having just one stream that is themaster consequent stream.
Fig.1: Contour Map of Suswa Basin

Fig. 2: Stream Order and Sub basin delineation in Suswa Basin

Bifurcation Ratio. Bifurcation ratio is the ratio between the numbers of stream
segments of any given order to the number of stream segments of the next57

higher order (Schumm, 1956). Its irregular tendency is seen from one order tothe next order.
Rb = N / (N+1)
Where N is the number of streams in the given order,
And N+1 is the number of steam in the next higher order.
Bifurcation ratio, a dimensionless property of the drainage basin is
supposed to be controlled by drainage density, stream entrance angles(junction angles), lithological characteristics, basin shapes, and basin areas etc(Strahler, 1964)4. It ranges from 3.0 to 5.0 for watersheds where the influence ofgeological structure on the drainage network is negligible. The relative
constancy of Rb is due to drainage systems in homogenous materials tend to
display geometrical similarity. Abnormal bifurcation ratios usually have marked
effect on maximum flood discharges. In areas of active gullies and ravines, thebifurcation ratio between first and second order streams may be considerably
higher than Rb of higher order streams. This is indicative for a state ofaccelerated erosion. This is clear from the table 3 that the values of bifurcation
ratios are relatively higher for second order streams in most of the sub-basins. It
is highest with 7.33 in sub-basin 7A7 followed by 6.67 in 7A2 and 6 in 7A6.
While these values generally have ranged between 2 and 3 for other stream
orders in all basins. This is lowest with value 1 in forth order in sub basin 7A7.
Table 3: Total Number of Streams (S.N.) and Bifurcation Ratio (B.F.) for
sub-basins
Order
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

7A1
SN
132
38
13
3
0

BF
3.47
2.92
4.33
-

7A2
SN
60
20
3
1
0

BF
3
6.67
3
-

7A3
SN
4
2
1
0
0

BF
2
2
-

7A4
SN
33
10
2
1
0

BF
3.3
5
2
-

7A5
SN
43
10
2
0
0

BF
4.3
5
-

7A6
SN
19
6
1
1
0

BF
3.17
6
1
-

7A7
SN
80
22
3
1
1

BF
3.64
7.33
3
1
-

Stream Length
Horton‘s Law of Stream Length states that the average length of streams ofeach of the different order in a basin tends to approximate a direct geometricseries in which the first term is the average length of the streams of the firstorder. The total stream length of various orders decrease as the orderincreases. Mean stream length is a dimensionless property, characterizing thesize aspect of drainage network and its associated surfaces (Strahler, 1964). It
is calculated as:
ALµ = Σ Lµ / Nµ
Where, ALµ = Mean stream length of given order58

Σ Lµ = Total stream length of given order
Nµ = Number of streams of given order
The relationship between cumulative mean stream length and the stream
order reveals more or less a straight line regression of positive exponential form
as postulated by Strahler (1964). Stream length ratio is the ratio between themean length of streams of any two consecutive orders (Horton 1945). It is
obtained by:
RL = ALµ / ALµ-1
Where, RL = Length Ratio
ALµ = Mean stream length of given orderALµ-1= Mean stream length of lower order
Table 4 clearly indicates that length ratio tends to deviate very muchwithin a sub-basin. As per Horton‘s Stream Length Ratio it should revolvearound a constant in an ideal basin. Broadly, it tends to be consistent towards
lower order and fluctuates highly towards higher orders basically due to lessnumber of streams and small observation units. The values of stream length for
Suswa basin visibly confirm the Horton‘s Law of Stream length.
Table 4: Mean Stream Length (M.L.) and Length Ratio (L.R.) for sub-basins
Order
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

7A1
ML
0.97
1.32
2.78
2.06
0

LR
1.36
2.11
0.74
0

7A2
ML
0.97
1.02
1.83
2.27
0

LR
1.05
1.79
1.24
0

7A3
ML
0.74
0.79
1.84
0
0

LR
1.07
2.33
0
0

7A4
ML
0.99
1.53
7.17
0.73
0

LR
1.54
4.69
0.10
0

7A5
ML
0.74
2.14
8.91
0
0

LR
2.89
4.16
0
0

7A6
ML
0.88
1.27
1.07
7.31
0

LR
1.44
0.84
6.83
0

7A7
ML
0.76
1.40
4.65
3.24
20.33

LR
1.84
3.32
0.70
6.27

Areal Properties
Basin Shape. The geometry of basin shape is of paramount significance as it
helps in the description and comparison of different forms of the drainage
basins. The ideal drainage basin is usually of pear shape. But since it isdependent on the size (of the basin) and length of the master stream of thebasin and basin perimeter, which are themselves dependent on other variables
such as absolute relief, slopes, geologic structure and lithological characteristics
etc., a wide range of variations in basin shape is bound to evolve.
According to Miller (1953), the Circularity Ratio of a basin is the ratio of
basin area to the area of a circle having the same perimeter as the basin. It isalso a dimensionless index to indicate the form outline of drainage basins(Strahler, 1964). The value ranges from 0 (a line) to 1 (a circle). Higher thevalue, more circular the shape of basin and vice versa. The ratio is influenced

59

by the length and frequency of streams, geological structure, vegetation cover,climate, relief and slope of the basin.
Rc = Area of basin / Area of the circle with same perimeter as the basin
Where, Rc = Circularity Ratio
Table 5: Basin Shape for sub-basins of Suswa Basin
S.No. Sub Basin
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

7A1
7A2
7A3
7A4
7A5
7A6
7A7
Total

Area

Perimeter

60.81
28.99
9.41
41.86
31.68
19.01
56.20
247.96

35.28
24.68
13.99
34.60
39.87
22.30
42.71
213.43

Total No. of Total Stream Circularity
Streams
LengthRatio
186221.20
0.61
84
86.56
0.60
7
6.37
0.60
46
63.35
0.44
55
71.25
0.25
27
32.75
0.48
107
129.180.39
512610.66-In the case of sub basins of Suswa, the values of circularity ratio range
between 0 and 1. This is highest for three sub basins 7A1, 7A2 and 7A3 with
0.6 that shows more rectangular or pear shapes of these basins. While it islowest for 7A5 with 0.25 that indicates more elongated or banana shape of thebasin.
Drainage Frequency
Drainage frequency is defined as the total number of stream segments per unit
area. The occurrence of stream segments depends upon the nature andstructure of rock, nature and amount of rainfall, vegetation cover and infiltration
capacity of soil.
Stream frequency = N / A
Where, N is the total number of streams segments
And A is the area which is usually in Km².
On an average drainage frequency or stream frequency is high in southwest part of the basin (Fig.3) which is due to high relief that leads to more of
gully and rill erosion and numerous ephemeral streams originate. Maximum
area is covered by 1 to 2 km per sq. km of streams (Table 5).
Drainage Density
Drainage density is length of the stream channels per unit square area. Horton(1945) defined drainage density as a ratio of all stream segments in a given
drainage basin to the total area of that basin. It is expressed in kilometers ofchannel length per sq. km. High drainage density represents the fine texture
60

and low, the coarse structure. It is measured for the degree of dissection ofbasin.
Drainage density = L / A
Where, L is total length of stream segments in Km.
And A is the area which is usually in Km².
The areas of high density of streams more or less correspond to areas ofhigh frequency, i.e., southern part of the basin (Fig.4). Almost half the area ofthe basin is occupied by class 2.00 - 3.00 (Table 7). Middle basins i.e., 7A3,
7A4 and 7A6 have less density mainly because of less frequency there.
Table 6: Drainage Frequency For sub basins of Suswa Basin
Drainage Frequency

0 – 1.00
1.00 – 2.00
2.00 – 3.00

Total Area
(in sq. km.)
9.41
148.7528.99% of Area
Occupied
3.79
59.99
11.69

3.00 – 4.00

60.81

24.52

Class

Table 7: Drainage Density for sub-basins of Suswa Basin
Drainage Density

0 – 1.00

Total Area
(in sq. km)
9.41% of Area
Occupied
3.79

1.00 – 2.00

60.87

24.55

2.00 – 3.00

116.8747.13

3.00 – 4.00

60.81

24.52

Class

61

Figure 3: Drainage Frequency for sub-basins of Suswa Basin

62

Figure 4: Drainage Density for sub-basins of Suswa Basin

63

Figure 5: Drainage Texture for sub-basins of Suswa basin

Table 8: Drainage Texture for sub-basins of Suswa Basin
Drainage TextureClass0 - 0.25
0.25 - 0.50
0.50 - 0.75

Total Area
(in sq. km)
70.28
87.88
28.99

% of Area
Occupied
28.34
35.44
11.69

0.75 – 1.00

60.81

24.52

64

Drainage Texture‗An important geomorphic concept is drainage texture by which we mean therelative spacing of drainage lines‘ (Smith, 1950). It has advantage over stream
frequency and drainage density, as it is a combination of both. Drainage texture
is a function of both frequency and density, thus higher the drainage densityand frequency, finer will be the drainage texture.
Drainage texture = stream frequency * drainage density
Fine texture is found in fragments in the southern and west parts of thebasin that is marked with a dense network of streams (Fig 5). A major section of
the basin in middle part has comparatively coarser texture due to little numberof streams found there (Table 8). Upper part also possesses high density has arelatively moderate texture.
Relief Properties
Absolute & Relative Relief. The actual elevation of any point above the mean
sea-level gives the absolute relief of that point. It provides a clear picture of thenature of terrain and undulations of the surface. Relative relief is defined as thedifferences in height between the highest and lowest point in a unit area. It isalso termed as amplitude of ‗available relief‘ or ‗local relief‘ (W.S. Glock 1932).
Higher the degree of dissection, greater is the relative relief.
Relative relief = Highest contour value/ Spot Ht. – Lowest contour value/ Spot Ht.

The absolute relief mapping for the Suswa basin is done by plotting
contours on an interval of 100 meters. On an average, absolute relief ranges
from 600 meters to 2100 meters. Upper part of the Suswa basin i.e., 7A5 hascomparatively higher elevation ranging from 700-2100 meters (Table 9). While
the rest part of the basin including other six sub basins are of low and medium
elevation ranging from 500–800 meters (Table 9). Very high relief is foundtowards the northern part that forms a part of the Lesser Himalayas.
Moderate to high relative relief is found in the area towards the upper
reaches in sub basin 7A5 where numerous closely packed first and second
order tributaries are found that have highly dissected the surface (Fig.6). Due tothis, greater undulations have been created over the facade. Extreme northernpart of the area has a higher relative relief i.e., 1400 meters. Southern partpossesses low relative relief (Table 9). Maximum area of the basin comes undermoderate relative relief ranging from 100-200 meters.

65

Table 9: Absolute and Relative Relief For sub-basins of Suswa Basin
Sub Basin

7A1
7A2
7A3
7A4
7A5
7A6
7A7

Absolute Relief(in meters)
Maximum
700
700
600
800
2100
700
700

Minimum
500
500
500
600
700
600
500

Relative Relief(in meters)
200
200
100
200
1400
100
200

Table 10: Relative Relief for sub-basins of Suswa Basin
Relative Relief

0 – 100

Total Area(sq. km.)28.42% of Area
Occupied
11.46

100 – 200

187.86

75.76

> 200

31.68

12.78

Class

Figure 6: Relative Relief for sub-basins of Suswa basin

66

Dissection Index
Dissection index, expressing a ratio of the maximum relative relief to the
maximum absolute relief, is an important indicator of the nature and magnitudeof the dissection of terrain (Slaucitajas 1936). Dissection index is also used asmorphometric determinant of the stage of cycle of erosion wherein old, matureand young stages are related to dissection indices of less than 0.1, 0.1 - 0.3,
and more than 0.3 respectively.
Dissection index = relative relief / absolute relief
Highly dissected areas are those that lie in the zones that have a dense
system of a number of streams actively involved in under-cutting. Around 13
percent area in the basin is highly dissected (Table 11). About 11 percent areaof the basin is very less dissected including sub basins 7A3 and 7A6. This isbecause very less flow of streams in these areas (Fig.7).
Ruggedness Index. Ruggedness is a derivative of long standing interaction
between available sharpness of local relief and the amplitude of available
drainage density and other environmental parameters. It is a measure ofsurface unevenness (Chorley, 1971).
Ruggedness index = (relative relief * drainage density) / 1000
Table 11: Dissection Index for sub-basins of Suswa Basin
Dissection IndexClass
0 – 0.20
0.20 – 0.40
0.40 – 0.60

Total Area(sq. km.)28.42
187.860.00% of Area
Occupied
11.46
75.76
0.00

0.60 – 0.80

31.68

12.78

67

Figure 7: Dissection Index for sub-basins of Suswa Basin

Table 12: Ruggedness Index for sub-basins of Suswa Basin
Ruggedness Index0 – 0.25

Total Area
(Sq. Km)
28.42% of Area
Occupied
11.46

0.25 – 0.50

98.06

39.55

0.50 – 0.75

89.80

36.22

0.75 – 1.00

0.00

0.00

>1.00

31.68

12.78

Class

68

Figure 8: Ruggedness Index for sub-basins of Suswa BasinHigh ruggedness is found in the upper reaches of the basin whererelative relief and drainage density are high as ruggedness is directly influenced
by both (Fig.8). Around three fourth of the total area is low to moderately
rugged. Thus the basin has rugged terrain in a contiguous unit in the southernpart and certain non-contiguous units in the northern part where high relief isfound. Some of the area in the basin is not as rugged in nature as the relief anddensity are low (Table 12). While sub basins 7A3 and 7A6 are very less rugged.
Thus, morphometry proves its soundness in being significant for getting abasic understanding of the study area which happens to be a drainage basin. It
is thus a fundamental step in any sort of regional planning which is done
through watershed approach. With the application of morphometric techniques,
the nature of terrain, slope, elevation, surface characteristics like texture,69

ruggedness, dissection etc. have been calculated for the study area. All theseparameters would further help in the evolving conservation methods for the
management of the land resource in the area as these are directly related to thegeomorphic processes transforming the physiography of the region.
References
1. Strahler, A.N., (1964), ―Quantitative Geomorphology of drainage basin andchannel networks in V.T. Chow (ed.)‖, Handbook of Applied Hydrology, pp. 43976.
2. Thronbury, W.D., (1969), ―Principles of Geomorphology‖, John Wiliey & Sons,
New York, pp. 594.
3. Singh, Savindra, (2000), ―Geomorphology‖, Prayag Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad,
pp. 353-84.
4. Singh, R.L., (1997), ―India: A regional geography‖, National Geographic Societyof India, Varanasi, pp. 475-77.
5. Horton, R.E., (1945), ―Erodional development of streams and their drainage
basins: Hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology‖, Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bull., 56, pp. 275-370.
6. Horton, R.E., (1932), ―Drainage Basin Characteristics‖, Trans. Amer. Geophys.
Union, 13, pp. 350-61.
7. Green, K., Kempka, D., & Lackey, L., (1994), ―Using remote sensing to detectand monitoring land-cover and land-use change‖, Photogrammetric Engineeringand Remote Sensing, 60, pp. 331-337.
8. Chorley, R.J. (ed.), (1971), ―Introduction to Physical Hydrology‖, Methuen & Co.
Ltd., Britain, pp. 153-161.
9. Bouma, J., (1997), ―The land use systems approach to planning sustainable
land management at several scales‖, Proceedings of the International
Conference on Geo-Information for Sustainable Land Management (SLM), ITC
Journal, pp. 237-42
10. Dhinwa, P.S., Pathan, S.K., Sastry S.V., & Rao, (1992), ―Landuse change
analysis of Bharatpur distt. Using GIS‖, Photonirvachak, JISRS, vol. 20(4), pp.
237-249.
11. Toll, D.L., Royal, J.A. & Davis, J.B., (1980), ―Urban area update procedures
using Landsat data‖, In Proceedings of the fall technical meeting of theAmerican Society of Photogrammetry held in Niagara falls, Canada, 1980,
edited by ASP (Falls Church, Virginia: ASO), pp. RS-E1-17.
12. Traeger, H.K., Steiner and Herring, A., (1997), ―Indicators of Sustainable Land
Management - A Literature Review‖, GTZ, Farming Systems Research,
Eschbom, Germany.
13. Jaiswal, R.K., Saxena, R., & Mukherjee, S. (1999), ―Application of Remote
Sensing technology for landuse/landcover change analysis‖, Photonirvachak,
JISRS, vol. 27(2), pp. 123-128.
14. Kumar, Sujit and Singh, U.C., (1993), ―Drainage basin morphometry of theLomti Nala, Distt. Rajnandgaon (M.P.)‖, Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences,Vol. 12F (1-2).
15. Khadri, S.F.R., and Rao, P. Sreenivas, (1995), ―Morphometric analysis of the
Beda river basin exposed near the south of Narmada river, M.P.‖, National
Geographical Journal of India, Vol. 41(4).
16. Upendran, N., George, Abe, and James, E.J., (1998), ―Morphometric analysis ofsmall watersheds in the Western Ghat region of Kerala‖, National Geographical
Journal of India, Vol. 44(1-4), pp. 190-200.
70

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015 Page 71-75

7
STUDY ON PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF SILISERH LAKE
ALWAR DISTRICT, INDIA
Meena L. R. and Pankaj Nama
Department of Zoology, J. N. V. University, Jodhpur (Raj.)
Email: laljeeram.meena57@gmail.com

Abstract: This Lake is picturesque and it is a home to a large number of migratory
birds. The tranquil waters of the Lake twined with the Arcadian ambiance moisten thebareness of the golden deserts. During the study period eight different Physicochemical Parameter were studied, water sample temperature was 26 0C ± 1.4149730C
to 25.8333 0C ± 1.412180C
and Ph was found from 7.3 ± 0.863323 to 7.25 ±0.860338.during the study period and DO ranged from 3.35 ± 0.525 mg/l to 3.05 ±0.484 mg/l., Free CO2 of lake water sample was ranged from 1.216±0.0851 mg/l to 1.2± 0.0791 mg/l the current study find out that the free CO2 was lesser it may converted
into Carbonates (CO3) and Bicarbonates. Carbonates value ranged from 3.4666±
0.5399 mg/l to 3.3 ± 0.5185 mg/l and Bicarbonates was from 53.666 ± 1.7297 mg/l to
52 ± 1.7160 mg/l. values was fluctuating due to the time of sampling, Total hardness
was from 42.33 ± 1.6266 mg/l to 41.1666 ± 1.614 mg/l. Hardness of water is mainly
imparted by alkaline earth metallic cations and highest value found in the month of
September Total Phosphates was from 1.3266 ±0.1227 to 1.1933 ± 0.07676. Lakewater was use full for drinking purpose and fish culture activity.
Key words: Siliserh Lake, Physico-chemical parameter.

Introduction
Fresh water habitats are located in different parts of the country especially inrural areas, and are mainly used as a source of drinking water, irrigation and forfish production by the local fisherman communities. However, tropical climate of
the region create an environment conducive for fast growth of fish. Fish is mostimportant bio-product of fresh, marine and brackish water ecosystem
contributing as an essential and beneficial food item to mankind since ancienttime. India‘s total potential for fish culture is about 3.5 million hectares of which
fresh water ponds cover 1 million Hectares (Shrivastava, 1988). The area underponds and tanks are holding potential of fish production would provide
employment opportunities to about two million people (Dwivedi, 2000). In
aquatic habitats, environmental factors include various physical properties ofwater such as the solubility of gases and solids, light penetration, temperatureand density. Chemical factors such as hardness, phosphate and nitrates arevery important for growth of primary productivity. Tropical and sub-tropical71

reservoirs are known to be more productive than temperate reservoirs andshallow smaller reservoirs are generally more productive than large reservoirs
due to their high primary production.
The relationship between the physicochemical parameters and plankton
production of pond water and their relation with monthly fluctuation of
zooplankton are of great importance and basically very much essential in careof fish culture. Fishes are more dependent on water temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, free CO2, alkalinity and some other salts for growth and development(Nikolosky, 1963.). Any change of these parameters may affect the growth,development and maturity of fish (Jhingran, 1985). Different causal influences,which determine the quality of water, show a characteristic change from season
to season (Munwar, 1970; Chowdhury and Mazumder, 1981.)
A good management practice is essential for any aquatic system used
for fish production. Within the recent past decades, there has been considerable
interest in the relevance of limnological information to the productivity,
development and management of aquatic environments often times,
limnological studies involve different approaches and objectives. While on the
one hand Zabbey et al., (2008) highlighted studies which involved regular or
periodic investigation into the ecology of water to provide insight into the statusof the physical and chemical indices for monitoring purposes, on the other,focused on the availability of natural food as an important factor governing fishrecruitment and production in the wild. Studies have shown that there is a close
link between the quality of water and the composition in any aquatic system.
Ovie (1995) reported that among others, physico chemical factors are known to
be major factors influencing zooplankton species richness of different
ecosystems. Knowledge of the fish population dynamics of both commerciallyexploited as well as currently unexploited species is essential. This has three
applications: to assess the levels of current exploitation relative to maximum
sustainable yield, to assess the potential of harvesting additional species(subject to practicability and socio-cultural acceptability), and to assure
biodiversity conservation.
Material and Methods
Siliserh Lake is a beautiful lake, Spread in 7 sq Kms area, Lake is located just165 Kms from Dhaula Kuan Delhi and 110 Kms is Jaipur, This lake is situated innorth eastern part of Rajasthan, This was built by maharaja Vinay Singh in year
1845. The lake and reservoir of Siliserh was created by Maharaja for people of
Alwar, because water can be channeled to Alwar city. A beautiful lake palace
was also built by Maharaja for his beloved wife Shila, It was used as Lake
palace and hunting lodge. This Lake is situated just 13 Kms from Alwar city and72also can be used as stop over before you move on Sariska Tiger Reserve /Sariska National Park, Siliserh lake is the minor project which is constructed onaravali ranges in Alwar district near about 15 km. It is situated in 27031‘27‘N
latitude and 76031‘56‘‘E longitude. Irrigation is the main purpose of the reservoir
but presently it has been used for fish culture and main source of drinking watersupply. Two sampling stations will be selected along the periphery of theSiliserh lake and will be named as Site I and Site II. Water samples will becollected monthly in the early hours for one successive six month from July
2013 to Dec 2013. Water samples will be collected at the time from all theselected sites following the instructions of APHA (1998) and will be analyzed forphysicochemical parameters. The data collected will be analyzed statically.
Results and Discussion
The data on physico-chemical analysis of Siliserh Lake has been given in Table
No.1. Water Temperature is a most important factor for aquatic life. During thestudy period it wasvaried from 26 0C ± 1.4149730C to 25.8333 0C ±1.412180C. Salve and Hiware (2006) , observed that during month of October,water temperature was high due to low water level and clear atmosphere.
Similar results were obtained in the present study. The pH values ranges from
7.3 ± 0.863323 to 7.25 ± 0.860338 The maximum pH value was recorded in themonth of August (monsoon) . pH was slightly neutral throughout the study
period. The values of DO fluctuate from 3.35 ± 0.525 mg/l to 3.05 ± 0.484 mg/l
mg/l. The maximum values were recorded in the month of October andminimum values in the month of August. The high DO in Month of October is
attributed to increase in temperature and duration of bright sunlight.
The long days and intense sunlight during October seems to accelerate
photosynthesis by phytoplankton, utilizing CO2 and giving off oxygen. Thisaccounts for the greater quantity of O2 recorded during October. The quantity isslightly less during August as reported by Masood Ahmed and Krishnamurthy.
The values of free Co2 range from 1.216±0.0851 mg/l to 1.2 ± 0.0791 mg/l mg/l.
The maximum value was recorded in the month of December and absent in themonth of October. High carbon-dioxide is due to increase in the decompositionof organic matter, low temperature and photosynthetic activities of phytoplanktons. Absence of free carbon-dioxide is due to its utilization by algae
during photosynthesis or carbonates present. Total alkalinity of carbonate
ranges from 3.4666± 0.5399 mg/l to 3.3 ± 0.5185 mg/l. The maximum value
was recorded in the month of August. Total alkalinity of bicarbonate ranges from53.666 ± 1.7297 mg/l to 52 ± 1.7160 mg/l. The value of bicarbonate is nearabout similar for all month.

73

Total Hardness fluctuate from 42.33 ± 1.6266 mg/l to 41.1666 ± 1.614
mg/l. The maximum value was recorded in the month of December andminimum value in the month of October. Total phosphate was ranged from1.3266 ±0.1227 to 1.1933 ± 0.07676. It was also a very important chemicalparameter which can be use by different type of algae as a nutrient.
Table 1: Monthly variation of physico-chemical parameter
PhisicochemicalParameter
JulyS1
2013
S2
AugS1
2013
S2
SeptS1
2013
S2
OctS1
2013
S2
NovS1
2013
S2
Dec S1
2013
S2

Temp
o
C

PH

DO

CO2

Carbonate

Bicarbonate

Phospha
tes

0.4

Total
hardness
Mg/l
46

26

6.5

2.3

1.8

56

1.16

26
25
26
27
27
28
28
25
24
24

7
7
6.8
7
7
7
9
8
7
8

2.3
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.6
1.6
4.8
4.0
4.0
5.4

0.6
5.2
4.8
0.1
0.2
1.6

46
42
40
48
62
14
12
43
44
54

1.8
2
2
6
6
6
6
5
4
-

56
56
54
56
54
50
46
54
52
50

1.2
3.01
2.21
1.32
1.45
1.02
0.92
0.83
0.74
0.62

25

7

4.0

1.6

50

-

50

0.64

Table 2 : One year observation of Phisico-chemical parameter of two
sampling site their mean and standard deviation is given in
Site

Temperature

Ph

DO

CO2

Total
Hardness

Alkalinity of
Carbonate

Alkalinity ofBicarbonate

Phosphates

S1

25.83333± 1.41218

7.25 ±
0.860338

3.05 ±
0.4843

1.216667±
0.08517241.16667±
1.614546

3.466667±
0.539912

53.66667±
1.729705

1.326667±
0.122762

7.3±
0.863323

3.35±
0.52504

1.2±
0.07918142.33333±
1.626682

3.3±
0.518514

52±
1.716003

S2

26±
1.414973

1.193333±
0.076762

Graphical variation of Physico-chemical parameter:Graph plate show results of sampling site S1.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Temprature S1
PH S1
DO S1
CO2 S1
T Hardness S1
July

Aug

Sept

CO3 S1
Oct

Nov

74

Dec

HCO3 S1

Graph plate show results of sampling site S2.
80
60
40
20
0

T S2
Ph S2
DO S2
CO2 S2TH S2CAR S2
BIC S2

References
1. APHA (1998): Standard methods for examination of water and waste water. 20thedition, edited by Lenore S. Clescerei, Arnold E. Greenber and Andrew D.
Eaton.
2. Chowdhury, S.H. and A. Mazumder (1981): Limnology of Lake Kaptai,-1.
Physicochemical features. Bangladesh. J. Zool., 9(2): 59-72.
3. Dwivedi, S.N. (2000): S and T approach for exponential growth in fish
production. (In: souvenir, The Fifth Indian Fisheries Forum, CIFE, pp-14-18.
4. Jhingran, V.G. (1985): Fish and Fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing
Corporation, Delhi, India.
5. Masood Ahmed and Krishnamurthy R. (1990): Hydrobiological studies of Wohar
reservoir Aurangabad(Maharashtra state) India. J. Environ. Biol. 11(3), 335343.
6. Munwar, M. (1970): Limnological studies on freshwater ponds in Hydrabad,
India: The Physicochemical complexes. Hydrobiol., 23: 179-195.
7. Nikolosky, G.V. (1963): The ecology of fishes. Academic Press. London, UK.
8. Ovie, S.I. (1995): Zooplankton species richness and Sorenson‘s index ofsimilarity for Asa lake and some other freshwater ecosystem in Nigeria.
National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries annual report, 57-62.
9. parameters of a minor reservoir, Sawana, Hingoli district, Maharashtra. 14.
Salve, B.S. and Salve, B.S. and Hiware, C.J. (2006): Studies on water quality of
wan parakalpa reservoir Nagpur, near Parli Vaijnath Dist. Beed. Marathwada
region. J. Aqua biol . 21(2):113-117.
10. Seasonal distribution and behaviour of nutrients with reference to tidal rhythm in
the Mulki estuary, southwest coast of India. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 42, 21-31(2000).
11. Shrivastava C.B.L. (1988): A text book of fishery science and Indian fisheries.
Kitab Mahal ageancies Allahabad,Pp. 17-18.
12. Zabbey, N., Sikoki, F.D. and Edoghotu, J.(2008): Plankton assemblages andenvironmental gradients in the middle reaches of the Imo river, Niger Delta,
Nigeria. African Journal of Aquatic Science, 33(2):241-248.

75

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 76-80

8GREEN ACCOUNTING: A SYSTEMATIC APPROACH FOR MANAGING
NATURAL RESOURCES
Kamlesh Kumar
Research Scholar, UGC-JRF (Geography), Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur
Pinku Suthar
Post Doctoral Fellow, UGC, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur
B.B.L. Sharma
Ex. Professor, Dept. of Geography, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur

Abstract: „Green accounting‟ is the popular term for environmental and natural
resource accounting, which incorporates environmental assets and their source andsink functions into national and corporate accounts. It is broadly defined as theidentification, collection, analysis, dissemination, and use of physical flow information(materials, energy and water flows), environmental cost information, and othermonetary information for both conventional and environmental decision-making. Thisdefinition of Green Accounting is similar to the definition of conventional natural
resources management methods, but has several key differences: It places particularemphasis on identifying environmental costs, including the costs of producing waste; It
includes information on physical flows and use of materials, water, and energy, as wellas cost information; Its information is particularly useful for activities and decisions withenvironmental impacts. Environmental accounting will also serve as a solid foundation
for an Environmental Management System (EMS) which increases the effectiveness ofan existing one management system not only for developing countries but also fordeveloped ones.
Key words: Green Accounting, Physical Flow Information, Environmental Costs,
Environmental Management System.

Green Accounting- A Green Step for Sustainable Future
Growth can no longer be measured in strictly economic terms such as themonetary value of output, income or expenditure per head. Additional criteria
are needed for green growth. According to UK economist Tim Jackson:―Prosperity consists in our ability to flourish as human beings -- within theecological limits of a finite planet. The challenge for our society is to create theconditions under which this is possible.‖ Green growth will come from applying
green public procurement and green research and development. Appropriate
penalties such as making the polluter pay for pollution and incentives like tax
breaks for investment in green R&D are required. However, measuring green
76

growth will need additional criteria such as sustainability, greenness, happinessor well-being.
In its 2009 Communication "GDP and Beyond: Measuring progress in achanging world," the European Commission proposed five actions as part of the
EU roadmap for the development of indicators relevant to the challenges oftoday:
1. Complementing GDP with environmental and social indicators;
2. Near real-time information for decision making;
3. More accurate reporting on distribution and inequalities;
4. Developing a European Sustainable Development Scoreboard; and5. Extending national accounts to environmental and social issues.
Green accounting incorporates environmental assets and their sourceand sinks functions into national and corporate accounts. It is the popular term
for environmental and natural resource accounting. Conventional national
accounts largely ignore:
1. New or newly observed scarcities of natural resources, which
threaten to undermine the sustainability of economic performanceand growth, and
2. Environmental degradation as an ‗external‘ (social) cost of economic
activity.
Green Accounting is similar to the definition of conventional natural
resources management methods, but has several key differences:
1. It places particular emphasis on identifying environmental costs,
including the costs of producing waste;
2. It includes information on physical flows and use of materials, water,and energy, as well as cost information;
3. Its information is particularly useful for activities and decisions withenvironmental impacts.
Green Accounting or Environmental Accounting is an important functionthat provides a means to incorporate information to manage and conserve
environment in the globalize world. The most compelling reason for practicing
green accounting is the growing body of evidence indicating that environmental
costs can make up a much larger proportion of costs than any country canrealize.

77Source: eco-efficiently action project.com

Objectives of Green Accounting
1. Segregation and Elaboration of all Environment related Flows andStocks of Traditional Accounts
The segregation of all flows and stocks of assets related to environment permits
the estimation of the total expenditure for the protection of the environment. A
further objective of this segregation is to identify that part of the gross domestic
product that reflects the costs necessary to compensate for the negative
impacts of economic growth, that is, the defensive expenditures.
2. Linkage of Physical Resource Accounts with Monetary Environmental
Accounts
Physical resource accounts cover the total stock or reserves of natural
resources and changes therein, even if those resources are not affected by the
economic system. Thus natural resource accounts provide the physicalcounterpart of the monetary stock and flow accounts of SEEA.
3. Assessment of Environmental Costs and Benefits(a) The use (depletion) of natural resources in production and final demand;(b) The changes in environmental quality, resulting from pollution and otherimpacts of production, consumption and natural events, on the one hand, andenvironmental protection, on the other.
4. Accounting for the Maintenance of Tangible Wealth
The SEEA (System of Environmental Economic Accounting) extends theconcept of capital to cover not only human-made but also natural capital.
Capital formation is correspondingly changed into a broader concept of capital78

accumulation allowing for the use or consumption and discovery ofenvironmental assets.
5. Elaboration and Measurement of Indicators of Environmentally
Adjusted Product and Income:The consideration of the costs of depletion of natural resources and changes inenvironmental quality permits the calculation of modified macro-economic
aggregates, notably an environmentally adjusted net domestic product (EDP).
Main Steps in Green Accounting
There is no single, formal methodology associated with green accounting. The
Satellite Economic and Environmental Accounts (SEEA) is a widely discussed
effort to compile economic and environmental data into a common frameworkusing green accounting. SEEA (System of Environmental Economic
Accounting) is structured as a series of methodological options from whichusers choose the techniques that are most appropriate to their needs. In
addition, the National Academy of Sciences, USA reviewed a system ofenvironmental accounts developed by the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)
in 1994 called the Integrated Economic and Environmental Satellite Accounts.
However, there has been little progress in developing a standardized system forgreen accounting. Some of the overarching methods currently in use for green
accounting include1. Natural resource accounts;
2. Emissions accounting;
3. Disaggregation of conventional national accounts;
4. Value of non-marketed environmental goods and services;
5. Green gross domestic product.
Problems of Green Accounting
1. It does not include comprehensive natural resource accounting because
regional natural resource accounts are not reflected in the main
accounts.
2. It focuses on the use of natural resource for economic activities andignores the flows and transformations within the natural resources.
3. The types of data needed are not available in the necessary format. Thus
lack of data has been one of the main problems in the SEEA.
4. Another problem arises when environmental data are directly connectedwith data of existing national accounts for the preparation of the green
accounting. They require assigning of environmental pollution loads tothe appropriate economic activities. However, the costs of preventing
pollution can only be determined if the causes of pollution are
identifiable. But the causes of many types of environmental pollution are
79not clear. If there are several pollution factors which cause environmental
damage, the assignment of this damage will be highly arbitrary.
5. Another problem arises when some of the consequences ofenvironmental pollution become visible after a long time. Estimating only
the immediate consequences will lead to wrong policy decisions.
6. There is no simple justifiable valuation system for the green accounting.
For different aspects of environmental problems, different valuation
problems are used such as prevention and restoration costs andcontingent evaluations based on surveys.
7. The pricing of all environmental variables in monetary terms in the green
accounting has consequences:i) The accounting system is restricted to those variables which areeasily monetized thereby reducing the range of the accounting
system,ii) Monetization of environmental variables and their concentration of
only a few aggregates results in a drastic reduction of the green
accounting system.
Green Accounting Contribute to Sustainability ?
By integrating social and ecological costs and benefits resulting from the naturalenvironment into traditional economic accounting systems, green accounting
aims to capture the interdependency and dynamic interactions between thethree pillars of sustainability (economy, society, and environment). Moreaccurately valuing natural resources costs and benefits may contribute to thedevelopment of more appropriate and sustainable economic, trade, anddevelopment policies. Incorporating green accounting into national economic
accounts could provide a measure of sustainability; however, considerable
advances in methods of measurement and valuation are needed. From a purely
accounting perspective, particular forms of capital could be diminished or, in an
extreme case, wholly eliminated without decreasing overall welfare if otherforms can be substituted for it. There are, of course, no substitutes for the lifesustaining services of nature and the question of when and how to account forthis fact is the source of many ongoing debates in green accounting.
References
1. http://www.epa.gov/sustainability,United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA).
2. http://www.gdrc.org/sustdev/concepts, Environmental Accounting.
3. http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/green-accounting-path-sustainable-future.
4. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/economics/environmental-economics/greenaccounting.
5. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/green accounting.
6. http://www.eco-efficiently-action-project.com.
80

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015 Page 81-87

9
NATURAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT LAW: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY
S. K. Saini
Associate Professor
Govt. Law College, Churu, Rajasthan
Email: drsksaini@rediffmail.com
Abstracts: India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its
unique geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides
have been recurrent phenomena. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakesof various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total
area is prone to cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade
1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30 million
people were affected by disasters every year. The loss in terms of private, communityand public assets has been astronomical. At the global level, there has been
considerable concern over natural disasters. Even as substantial scientific and material
progress is made, the loss of lives and property due to disasters has not decreased. In
fact, the human toll and economic losses have mounted. It was in this background that
the United Nations General Assembly, in 1989, declared the decade 1990-2000 as theInternational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction with the objective to reduce loss of
lives and property and restrict socio-economic damage through concerted international
action, especially in developing countries.
Key words: Disaster, Management, Law, Ministry, Policy

Introduction
The term ―Natural Disaster‖ means a natural disaster is an event that is caused
by a natural hazard and leads to human, material, economic and environmental
losses, which exceed the ability of those affected to cope. For example:
Earthquakes, floods, landslides, etc. Objective of this paper is to analyses
various environmental laws in relation to different phases of disastermanagement in different countries of the world with special focus on Indian
environmental legislation. National legislation taking example of Constitutional
provisions, Common laws, statutory laws, customary laws and International law(treaty and conventions)Taking example of India, environmental laws can also
be broadly grouped Laws on environment protection and conservation, Laws on
pollution and waste management, Laws on safety and emergency
preparedness. India‘s National Disaster Management Act, 2005.
Natural disasters affect all nations. However, in lesser developed nations
natural disasters cause disproportionate impact, killing thousands andthreatening the livelihoods of those who survive. Many nations lack the81knowledge, capacity and resources to deal with natural disasters. After adisaster the public sector is often paralyzed by damaged infrastructure andunable to cover the costs of emergency and relief efforts, let alone
reconstruction work. Lack of overall risk planning and investment in physicalresilience measures, with too much focus on post-disaster response, leads toincreased loss of life, suffering and damage, People in poor countries are
generally more exposed to natural disasters, particularly through a higher
dependency on agriculture and increased vulnerability to the naturalenvironment. However, these countries are not capable of protecting
themselves, due to lower levels of physical and financial preparedness partly
due to low income and insurance penetration. Insurance penetration is high indeveloped countries. In lesser-developed countries, the availability of insurance
is limited and premiums are often not affordable. With less coverage, impacts
from natural disasters can derail economic growth. Other subdivisions
integrated with natural disaster management laws are described.
Natural disasters affect all nations. However, in lesser-developed nations
natural disasters cause disproportionate impact, killing thousands andthreatening the livelihoods of those who survive. Many nations lack theknowledge, capacity and resources to deal with natural disasters. After adisaster the public sector is often paralyzed by damaged infrastructure andunable to cover the costs of emergency and relief efforts, let alone
reconstruction work. Lack of overall risk planning and investment in physicalresilience measures, with too much focus on post-disaster response, leads toincreased loss of life, suffering and damage, People in poor countries are
generally more exposed to natural disasters, particularly through a higher
dependency on agriculture and increased vulnerability to the naturalenvironment. However, these countries are not capable of protecting
themselves, due to lower levels of physical and financial preparedness partly
due to low income and insurance penetration. Insurance penetration is high indeveloped countries. In lesser-developed countries, the availability of insurance
is limited and premiums are often not affordable. With less coverage, impacts
from natural disasters can derail economic growth. Other subdivisions
integrated with natural disaster management laws are described.
Disaster Management - Indian Legal Provisions
In 2005, India passed its Disaster Management Law known as the Disaster
Management Act, 2005 which came in to force on 23.12.2005. The Act
establishes a National Disaster Management Authority and other authorities atvarious levels to coordinate their activities in disaster management. The Act
defines "disaster management" [Section 2(e)] means a continuous andintegrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and implementing82

measures which are necessary or expedient for mitigation or reduction of risk ofany disaster or its severity or consequences; [Section 2(e) (ii)] preparedness todeal with any disaster; [Section 2(e) (iv)] rehabilitation and reconstruction[Section 2(e) (viii)]. The Act interalia deals with the provisions regarding
protection of human rights by virtue of providing specific guidelines withreference to minimum standards of relief to be provided to persons affected bydisaster as recommended by the National Authority, which shall include theminimum requirements in relation to shelter, drinking water, medical andsanitation [Section 12]. This is a distinct feature of the Disaster Management
Act, 2005. These legal provisions are considered to be the sacrosanct
legislative measures as the intent of the legislature in enacting this Act is toprovide for the effective management of disasters and to uphold the humanrights of the disaster affected people. The Disaster Management Law is a legal
umbrella of the country‘s disaster management implementation that includes adevelopment based approach which ensures better protection of human rights
of individuals during disaster situations.
Co-Environmental legislation have been contributing to risk reduction
aspects of disaster management and now are emerging to be relevant fordisaster preparedness, relief and recovery strategies due to growing recognitionof ecosystem functions, livelihood issues, water and sanitation, waste
management and environmental health issues, within the DRR agenda ingeneral, and in particular, while integrating climate-change adaptation. A list oflaws and policies for environmental protection in India is given in: Laws andPolicies for environmental Protection in India Acts:• The Indian Forest Act, 1927
• Factories Act, 1948
• Factories Amendment Act, 1987
• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
• Forest (Conservation), Act, 1980
• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
• Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
• The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
• Biological Diversity Act 2002
• Forest Rights Act, 2006 (Ministry of Tribal Affairs)• The Cultural Heritage Conservation Bill 2010
• Mine and Mineral Act 2010
• National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
Rules
• The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
• Manufacture, Use, Import, Export and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms,
83

Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells Rules, 1989
• Emergency Preparedness, Planning and Response to Chemical Accidents
Rules, 1996
• Dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from coal or lignite based thermal
power plants on land, Rules, 1999.
• Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998
• The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules,1989• Environment (siting for industrial projects) Rules, 1999
• The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) (Amendment) Rules, 2000
• The Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000
• Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Trans-boundary) Rules, 2008
• Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010
• Guidelines for diversion of forests lands for non-forest purposes under theForest (Conservation) Act, 1980
• Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) (Amendment) Rules, 2011
Notifications• Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification (revised 2011)• EIA Notification 1994 (revised 2006)
Policies• National Forest Policy, 1988
• National Water Policy, 2002
• National Agricultural Policy, 2000
• National Environment Policy 2006
• National Disaster Management Policy, 2009
Other Laws
Disaster Management Act, 2005. (Recognizes damage /destruction ofenvironment as disaster) Law relating to land use zoning, land acquisition, landpooling, resettlement and rehabilitation also have provisions for environmental
protection.
Few examples of Case law, guiding laws, standards and codes Case laws
Judgments and directives of the courts, while deciding on a case involving
environmental concern, right or violation, are important contributions toenvironmental jurisprudence and become part of environmental law forreference in future litigation. These also contribute to the development ofenvironmental law and induct the process of amendments in specific contexts.
Court‘s decision on ‗The right to live in a healthy and balanced environment‘ (incases, viz. Association Para la Protection de Medio Ambientey Educacion
Ecologica ‗18 de Octubre‘ v Aguas Argentinas S.A. & others, Federal Appellate
84

Tribunal of La Plata (2003); Kattan, Alberto and Others v. National Government,
Juzgado Nacional de la Instancia en lo Contencioso administrative Federal. No.
2, Ruling of 10 May 1983, La Ley, 1983-D, 576) are examples of case laws. The
clashing interests of forests and agriculture set the stage for Sibaji Waiswa v.
Kakira Sugar Work Ltd (High Court of Uganda, Jinja, No. 6/2001). While themain suit over the Butamira Forest reserve was pending, respondent entered
the disputed forest reserve, uprooted trees and routinely destroyed seednurseries, resulting in an irreparable damage to the environment. The Court
held that an award of damages alone could not adequately compensate for the
alleged environmental damage (Shelton and Kiss, 2005).
Institutional Mandate for Right to Rehabilitation
The role of law in disaster management is prima facie concerned with theenforceable right of a disaster victim to rescue, relief and rehabilitation. The
Constitutional concern for social justice is to accord justice to all sections of thesociety by providing facilities and opportunities to remove handicaps anddisabilities from which the poor are suffering and to secure dignity of theirperson. The Indian Constitution declares that India is a welfare state, i.e., astate that promotes the general welfare of the people. Especially after the
Maneka Gandhi Case [AIR 1978 SC 597], courts have expanded the scope of‗life‘ and ‗personal liberty‘ under Article 21. The Supreme Court has alsointerpreted the words ‗procedure established by law‘ to include both theprocedural and substantive legal requirements of fairness, justness andreasonableness. Article 21[―No person shall be deprived of his life or personal
liberty except according to procedure established by law.‖], which guarantees
the protection of life and personal liberty, is the repository of all important
human rights. From this, the Supreme Court has deduced an affirmative
obligation on the part of the state to preserve and protect human life. Right tolife being the most important of all human rights implies the right to live without
the deleterious invasion of pollution, environmental degradation and ecologicalimbalances. (S.Shanthakumar, Introduction to Environmental Law (Wadhwa &Co, Nagpur 2007).
A collective reading of judgments will lead to the logical conclusion thatthe right to rescue, relief and rehabilitation is a fundamental right guaranteed
under Article 21. (B.J.Diwan vs. State of Gujarat, 2001) The doctrine of parens
patriae is the inherent power and authority of a legislature to provide protection
to the person and property of persons and property non sui juris, such as minor,
insane and incompetent persons. The doctrine of parens patriae meaning‗father of the country‘ was applied originally to the king and is used to designate
the state referring to the sovereign power of guardianship over persons underdisability. The concept of parens patriae is explained as the right of the85

sovereign and imposes a duty on the sovereign, in public interest, to protect
persons under disability who have no rightful protector. The courts in India haveapplied this doctrine in several cases. Therefore it is construed that, under thedoctrine of parens patriae the state is obliged to render adequate relief andrehabilitation to the victims of disaster. It is often reiterated that dispute reprisaland protection of human rights need to be treated as an integral part of thedisaster management exercise, after a disaster, the enforceable right of thepeople to get the relief and rehabilitation needs to be recognized.
Rights Based Approach: A Core of Disaster Management Law
In this scenario it is imperative to integrate human rights and other international
legal tools laying an inclusive value framework for establishing conditions
that restore the dignity of the victims and protect their rights. A rights based
approach is not an add on in later stages of disaster management, but should
constitute the very core of management practices. This will enable response
planners to address systemic injustices that contribute to continuing poverty andsocial unrest. Disaster management programmes need to be informed of theinternational legal standards pertaining to key aspects of disaster response
including human rights, the rights of vulnerable groups such as women,children, etc. While existing human rights obligations already require nation,states to take measures to mitigate the risks of natural or man-made disasters,
it is important to recognize that failing to take feasible measures that would
have prevented or mitigated the consequences of foreseeable disasters
amounts to a violation of the right to life and therefore incurs the responsibility ofthe state under international law. These human rights standards play a criticalrole in empowering actual as well as potential survivors of natural disasters to
demand necessary measures to prevent deaths by the state. For humanitarianagencies they highlight the relevance of a rights-based approach to disastermanagement.
The World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction was held at
Yakohama in Japan in May, 1994 adopted the Yakohama Strategy for a Safer
World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation.
As pointed out in the session by the U.N. Under-Secretary-General for
Humanitarian Affairs, ―Earthquakes and cyclones will happen. There is nothing
we can do about that, but we can be prepared for them when they do strike.
Disaster reduction can take place at any point in the process which we calldisaster. It can comprise prevention and preparedness, relief and development
as well as measures to reduce the effects of such disasters.‖ (―Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations andCommunities to Disasters,‖ Extract from the final report of the World
Conference on Disaster Reduction (A/CONF.206/6). The outcome of the86conference affirms that the impact of natural disasters in terms of human andeconomic losses has risen and society has become more vulnerable to suchdisasters over the past two decades, earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, tidal
waves, droughts and other natural events had killed some million people andinflicted injury, displacement and misery on countless more. It was pointed outthat environmental protection as a component of sustainable development
which is an imbibed feature of human rights of individuals is imperative in theprevention and mitigation of natural disasters.
Conclusion
Many laws has been enacted by Indian parliament since implementation ofIndian constitution regarding disaster management laws, especially in the last
decade but the Indian people still not aware yet so now it is necessary that only
law cannot be sufficient but it is also necessary that we people get awared
regarding this so that goal can be achieved.
References
1. Diwan, S. & Rosencranz, A. (2001). Environmental Law and Policy in India.
Mumbai.
2. Gupta, A. K. (2010). Policies, Strategies and Options for Disaster Risk
Reduction.
3. Gupta, A. K. and Yunus, M. (2004). Indian and WSSD (Rio+10) Johannesburg:
Issues of National Concern and International Strategies. Current Science,87(1): 37-43.
4. Gupta, A. K., Misra, J. ,& Yunus, M. (1999). Environmental-health Assessmentof Thermal Power Project within the Scope of EIA and Risk Analysis: Guide
view . In Proceedings of National Seminar on Energy & Environment,
Lucknow, July 1999, pp 86-95.
5. Gupta, A.K., Kumar,A., Misra, J.,& Yunus, M. (2002b). EIA & Disaster
Management: Principles, Methodological Approach & Application.
6. Misra, J., & Yunus, M. (2002 a). Environmental Impact Assessment andDisaster Management: Emerging Disciplines of Higher Education.
7. Practice. In R. Srivastava and D. P. Singh (eds.), Environmental Education.
Anmol Publication, New Delhi.
8. Tripathi and Tripathi. Dynes R. (2004). Expanding the Horizon of Disaster
Research. Natural Hazards Observer.
9. Y. C. Tripathi & G. Tripathi (2004) Bio-resources & Environment. Campus
Books International, New Delhi.

87Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 88-98

10
TEMPERATURE VARIABILITY IN INDIRA GANDHI CANAL AREA :PRE AND POST FIVE YEARS ANALYSIS

Nazneen Ahmed
JRF, CSRD, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Abstract: Water is a life sustaining natural resource. Land and water are prime
components of environment. Protection, conservation and optimum utilization of thesebasic resources is essential for successful and sustainable agriculture in the arid
ecosystem. Availability of canal water through Indira Gandhi Canal has been proved amajor factor for changing entire ecology and dimensions of socio-economic
development of this desert region. Large-scale intensive canal irrigation in this arid tract
has brought revolutionary alteration in the physical and cultural environment of thiscanal region. The considerable changes in the conditions of micro-climate, soil andmoisture conditions, landuse and cropping patterns, biological status and quality of lifeof the inhabitants have been observed. The subsistence dry farming of rainfed crops
has been replaced by commercial irrigated agriculture of cash crops. Therefore, in thepresent article an effort has been made to study the impact of canal irrigation in thisdesert ecosystem.
Key words: Land and Water, IGNP, Canal, Command Area

Introduction
Indira Gandhi Canal is generally referred as "Life line of the Thar Desert" and toa large extent it is correct because it supplies the most important life sustaining
element, i.e., water. Indira Gandhi Canal, was previously known as theRajasthan Canal. It is one of the largest canal systems of India. The project was
launched on 31, March, 1958. Indira Gandhi Canal originates in Punjab atHarike barrage. The water is supplied by Bhakra Nangal Dam. Planned lengthof the canal is 9060 km. Construction work of the canal system has been
carried out in two stages. The command area of stage-I lies in Ganganagar &Hanumangarh districts and northern part of Bikaner district. The command areaof Stage-II extends from southern Bikaner, Churu, Jaisalmer, Barmer toJodhpur districts.
Irrigation in Stage-I are started in early 1970s whereas irrigation watersin Stage-II was supplied in mid 1980s. The introduction of canal irrigation has
transformed the ecology, economy and society of the Thar desert. Irrigation inThar desert added water vapour in the atmosphere which has transformed the88regional climate to a significant extent. As we know that water vapour is an
important green house gas and addition of this gas through evaporation leads toadditional greenhouse effect and absorption of solar radiation. Water vapour
lowers the surface temperature directly by condensation and evaporation andindirectly by cloud formation, convection, precipitation etc. As we know that therole of water vapour in modifying the climate of a region is very significant.
Therefore, there is a need to study the impact of irrigation on "Thar Desert".
This research article attempts to study temperature variability in canal area bycomparing the pre and post years of irrigation with reference to temperature.
For this purpose, two stations (Ganganagar and Jaisalmer) of Indira Gandhi
Canal Project were selected from the Stage-I and II respectively.
The second aim is to know the extent of temperature variations in both
stations and this is the reason for selection of two stations from two stages(Stage-I received water in 1970s and stage-II in mid-1980s). Before the study of
impact of canal irrigation on temperature variability in Indira Gandhi Canalregion three important related studies are reviewed. The study "Direct Human
Influence of Irrigation on Atmospheric Water Vapour and Climate" done by
Boucher O., Myhre G. et. al. (2004) discussed the importance of water vapour
in modifying climate of the region. According to them human activity significantly
increase the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere especially irrigation.
Objective of this study is to determine the significance of irrigation onwater vapour and climate. Five different methods have been used to estimate
the influence of irrigation on atmospheric water vapour and radiation field.
These methodologies include laboratoire de Me' te' orologie Dynamique (LMD)
and General Circulation Method (GCM). Results of the experiments say that theamount of water vapour in atmosphere is increasing globally. Increase in water
vapour is largest near to the surface and the intensity of water vapour increase
declines as one moves higher in atmosphere. The results also reveal that water
vapour has cooled irrigated continental regions upto 0.8K. There has been adecrease in global lapse rate of 0.03K in lower layers and warming of upper
layers of similar magnitude. Results have also shown the fact that addition of
extra water vapour in dry, hot region have contributed to an increase inprecipitation at a regional scale which is compensated by a decrease inprecipitation in other regions through some mechanism which could be related
to convection. This research study also questions the applicability of radiative
forcing concept.
Conclusions drawn in the study are : (i) water vapour from irrigation has
negative climate sensitivity (ii) human can influence atmosphere water vapour
content directly through irrigation and vegetation changes. The results of the89

study are correct and the conclusions drawn are also very relevant but theauthors in this research work does not consider change in vegetation coverwhich is always accompanied by irrigation and this point has been accepted in
the study. The study entitled "Effects of Global Irrigation on the Near Surface
Climate" taken up by William J. Sacks, Benjamin J. Cook et. al. (2009)
introduced the concept of changing land use management and its effect inclimate change. Among several land management practices irrigation affects
the climate the most. The reason given by them is that irrigation has cooling
effect near irrigated areas, which modifies the regional climate. The approach of
the study is global.
Objective of the research study is to estimate the effect of irrigation on
global climate. Realistic amount of irrigation has been used to calculate theeffects on surface water and energy balance. Data source used is global
irrigation map, which is based on census data from Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United States. Methodology used for the research is (CLM)
Community Land Model and Community Atmospheric Model (CAM). The
experiment was performed using these models to compare global stimulation inareas with and without irrigation. Offline experiments were done with CLM toknow the sensitivity of results to timing and spatial extent of irrigation.
The results show that irrigation effects daily maximum temperature morethan the daily minimum temperature. It was also found that, irrigation has its
impact more on dry regions in comparison to wet regions in terms oftemperature. A decrease of 0.8K was recorded in US and South East Asia
whereas an increase in temperature in Northern America was observed due tothe development of Aleution Low. Authors have compared their study todifferent other studies and have included all possible sources of errors whichshow depth of the understanding of the concept.
In last segment it is concluded that irrigation has negligible effect, if wetake worldwide view. However, irrigation has significant effect in some irrigatedregions especially dry regions during day time and in the season of heavy
irrigation. Effect of irrigation depends strongly on both areas and volume ofirrigation and it is the most important conclusion drawn in the study. Results
obtained are also correct and logical in the research paper. The research study
entitled "The Impact of Agricultural Intensification and Irrigation on Land
Atmosphere Interactions and Indian Monsoon Precipitation - A Mesoscale
Modelling Perspective" done by Douglas E.M., Beltran A. et al. (2009)
emphasized role of human activities in altering the pace of climate change bychanging landuse pattern. The area of research is Indian subcontinent.
Objectives of the paper are to determine the impact of land use change and90

irrigation. Methodology used in the research is Regional Atmospheric Modelling
System version 4.3. To know the effects of irrigated agriculture land on land
atmospheric interactions, authors have devised three land cover data sets (a)Pre agriculture (POT) (b) Rainfed agriculture (CRP) and (c) Irrigated agriculture(IRR). Five day period (16-20 July, 2002 was taken to study the impacts of land
surface changes related to agriculture intensification and irrigation. The
modelled precipitation was overestimated in some areas, therefore, preagricultural land cover scenario (POT) was used as a baseline to compare themodel output from POT and other scenarios.
The results revealed that irrigation played a major role in suppressing
surface energy as compared to the role played by changed land use pattern.
The results of the south Asia model domain suggested statistically significant
decline in mean sensible heat flux between potential and irrigated agriculturalscenarios. Changes in heat fluxes and sensible heat fluxes were also recorded.
Sensible heat for the state of Punjab and Haryana declined where irrigation is
widely practiced. Irrigation cooled the surface temperature of the region andincreased the precipitation of the area by compensating the moisture of otherregions. The authors concluded that agricultural changes including irrigation
modifies climate. These regional changes in temperature should be used forbetter weather forecasting.
Objectives
1. To determine the effects of canal irrigation on temperature in two stations
namely Jaisalmer and Ganganagar on monthly basis and to see
departure from normal temperatures.
2. To determine the extent of temperature variations in stage-I andstage-II command areas.
3. To compare and, if possible, analyze the trend of temperature in post
and pre five years of irrigation.
Database and Methodology
For this research paper data of "Indian Daily Weather Reports" were collectedby IMD (Indian Meteorological Department) for the time period 1963 to 1967
and 1996 to 2000 of maximum temperature. Analysis of these data was done bystatistical techniques of mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation.
Analysis
The study of Indira Gandhi Canal Project area reveals that if we compare thetemperature of different months of Ganganagar for the years 1963-67 and1996-2000 (Table 1 and 2) and it is observed that there has been decrease insurface maximum temperatures for the months of January, February, March,91

June, and November. This could be explained, as these are the months whenirrigation is practiced widely. Irrigation releases water vapour by evaporation,
which cools the surface temperatures. However, increase in temperature wasalso recorded for the months of April, May, September, October, July, Augustand December. For the months of April, May, July, August, September andOctober, it could be explained that these months observe no irrigation andhence no evaporative cooling of the surface (Table 1 and Fig. 1).
Though cultivation is done in summers but these crops survive in rainwater and there is no need of extra water. However, the increasing trend of
temperature in December could not be explained because irrigation is done inthis month also. Mean of both time periods suggests that there is decline intemperature for years 1996-2000, because of irrigation (Table 1 and 2). Data
analysis of Ganganagar station indicates that there is a general trend of
decreasing temperature in 1996-2000, if we compare temperatures of both thetime periods. For the months of April, September, October and December,there is an increase in temperature for the period 1996-2000 as compared to
1963-67 (Table 1 and 2, Fig. 1). Further data analysis indicates that April,
September and October are those months when irrigation is not practiced in
Ganganagar.

92

Table 1 : Maximum & Normal Temperature and Departure of Temperature from Normal (1963-67 and 1996-2000)
I.G.N.P. Stage-I Ganganagar
1963
Month
Jan

1964

1965

1966

1967

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep
21.8 21.1 0.7 17.5 21.1 -3.6 24.0 21.1 2.9 24.9 21.1 3.8 21.6 21.1 0.5 20.3 21.1 -0.8 21.6 21.1 0.5 20.5 21.1 -0.6 17.3 21.1 -3.8 18.5 21.1 -2.6

Feb 26.1 24.2 1.9 22.5 24.2 -1.7 24.9 24.2 0.7 26.6 24.2 2.4 27.2 24.2 3.0 23.7 24.2 -0.5 24.6 24.2 0.4 23.7 24.2 -0.5 24.4 24.2 0.2 21.3 24.2 -2.9
Mar 28.5 29.9 -1.4 31.8 29.9 1.9 30.8 29.9 0.9 30.7 29.9 0.8 28.1 29.9 -1.8 27.5 29.9 -2.4 28.3 29.9 -1.6 27.5 29.9 -2.4 30.8 29.9 0.9 30.2 29.9 0.3
Apr35.0 36.5 -1.5 36.9 36.5 0.4 32.7 36.5 -3.8 35.9 36.5 -0.6 35.1 36.5 -1.4 37.0 36.5 0.5 32.9 36.5 -3.6 37.0 36.5 0.5 40.1 36.5 3.6 39.8 36.5 3.3

May 38.3 40.6 -2.3 39.3 40.6 -1.3 39.3 40.6 -1.3 40.8 40.6 0.2 40.3 40.6 -0.3 40.5 40.6 -0.1 38.4 40.6 -2.2 42.2 40.6 1.7 42.0 40.6 1.4 43.1 40.6 2.5
Jun

42.1 41.9 0.2 41.8 41.9 -0.1 42.5 41.9 0.6 41.5 41.9 -0.4 42.3 41.9 0.4 39.2 41.9 -2.7 39.2 41.9 -2.7 41.8 41.9 -0.1 40.2 41.9 -1.7 41.4 41.9 -0.5

Jul

40.2 38.5 1.7 35.8 38.5 -2.7 38.0 38.5 -0.5 39.8 38.5 1.3 38.2 38.5 -0.3 38.6 38.5 0.2 38.5 38.5 0.0 38.6 38.5 0.1 39.2 38.5 0.7 37.9 38.5 -0.6

Aug 35.5 37.2 -1.7 36.5 37.2 -0.7 37.9 37.2 0.7 37.3 37.2 0.1 36.6 37.2 -0.6 36.4 37.2 -0.8 35.6 37.2 -1.6 39.0 37.2 1.8 37.9 37.2 0.7 38.1 37.2 0.9
Sep 36.0 36.6 -0.6 36.8 36.6 0.2 38.5 36.6 1.9 34.6 36.6 -2.0 36.3 36.6 -0.3 37.4 36.6 0.8 37.3 36.6 0.7 36.0 36.6 -0.7 38.9 36.6 2.3 37.7 36.6 1.1
Oct35.0 35.1 -0.1 35.3 35.1 0.2 36.3 35.1 1.2 35.1 35.1 0.0 34.6 35.1 -0.5 33.4 35.1 -1.7 27.8 35.1 -7.3 34.3 35.1 -0.8 36.4 35.1 1.3 38.0 35.1 2.9

Nov 26.3 29.2 -2.9 29.1 29.2 -0.1 30.9 29.2 1.7 39.1 29.2 -0.1 28.6 29.2 -0.6 29.6 29.2 0.4 26.1 29.2 -3.1 30.2 29.2 1.0 31.2 29.2 2.0 30.6 29.2 1.4
Dec 21.5 23.3 -1.8 22.8 23.3 -0.5 24.2 23.3 0.9 23.9 23.3 0.6 20.7 23.3 -2.6 24.1 23.3 0.8 17.3 23.3 -6.0 21.6 23.3 -1.7 25.1 23.3 1.8 25.5 23.3 2.2
Mean 32.2 32.8 -0.7 32.2 32.8 -0.7 33.3 32.8 0.5 34.2 32.8 0.5 32.5 32.8 -0.4 32.3 32.8 -0.5 30.6 32.8 -2.2 32.7 32.8 -0.1 33.6 32.8 0.8 33.5 32.8 0.7

Source : IMD, New Delhi

93

I.G.N.P. Stage-II Jaisalmer
1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

Month
Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep Max Nor Dep
Jan

25.4 23.6 1.8 21.2 23.6 -2.4 26.4 23.6 2.8 26.5 23.6 2.9 23.2 23.6 -0.4 23.2 23.6 -0.4 23.9 23.6 0.3 23.7 23.6 0.1 23.0 23.6 -0.6 24.2 23.6 0.6

Feb

30.1 27.3 2.8 26.5 27.3 -0.8 28.2 27.3 0.9 29.5 27.3 2.2 30.2 27.6 2.9 27.1 27.3 -0.2 28.4 27.3 1.1 26.3 27.3 -1.0 26.6 27.3 -0.7 26.0 27.3 -1.3

Mar

32.8 32.7 0.1 35.8 32.7 3.1 32.9 32.7 0.2 32.3 32.7 -0.4 30.8 32.7 -1.9 31.5 32.7 -1.3 30.9 32.7 -2.1 31.5 32.7 -1.2 33.9 32.7 1.2 33.2 32.7 0.5

Apr37.4 38.0 -0.6 39.5 38.0 1.5 35.0 38.0 -3.0 36.4 38.0 -1.6 36.3 38.0 -1.7 39.1 38.0 1.07 36.6 38.0 -1.4 39.5 38.0 1.5 40.8 38.0 2.8 41.2 38.0 3.2

May

41.0 41.5 -0.5 43.0 41.5 1.5 40.2 41.5 -1.3 42.1 41.5 0.6 41.2 41.5 -0.3 40.7 41.5 -0.9 39.8 41.5 -1.8 42.7 41.5 1.2 40.3 41.5 -1.2 41.7 41.5 0.2

Jun41.7 40.8 0.9 38.8 40.8 -2.0 40.8 40.8 0.0 40.1 40.8 -0.7 41.1 40.8 0.3 39.6 40.8 -1.2 39.2 40.8 -1.7 41.7 40.8 0.9 38.9 40.8 -2.0 41.2 40.8 0.4

Jul40.4 37.5 2.9 37.0 37.5 -0.5 38.0 37.5 0.5 38.7 37.5 1.2 38.4 37.5 0.9 37.0 37.5 -0.5 38.7 37.5 1.2 38.0 37.5 0.5 38.0 37.5 0.5 36.8 37.5 -0.7

Aug37.0 36.2 0.8 36.8 36.2 0.6 36.6 36.2 0.4 37.1 36.2 0.9 35.9 36.2 -0.3 37.4 36.2 1.2 36.0 36.2 -0.2 38.4 36.2 2.2 34.5 36.2 -1.7 36.8 36.2 0.6

Sep36.8 36.4 0.4 36.9 36.4 0.5 38.0 36.4 1.6 37.2 36.4 0.8 36.5 36.4 0.1 38.0 36.4 1.6 37.1 36.4 0.7 36.8 36.4 0.4 37.4 36.4 1.0 37.4 36.4 1.0

Oct36.8 36.0 0.8 35.9 36.0 -0.1 37.8 36.0 1.8 30.3 36.0 -5.7 36.1 36.0 0.1 35.8 36.0 -0.2 31.5 36.0 -4.5 35.1 36.0 -0.9 37.2 36.0 1.2 38.8 36.0 2.8

Nov30.8 30.9 -0.1 30.7 30.9 -0.2 32.4 30.9 1.5 30.3 30.9 -0.6 31.5 30.9 0.6 30.1 30.9 -0.8 27.7 30.9 -3.2 31.0 30.9 0.0 32.8 30.9 1.9 30.3 30.9 -0.6

Dec

26.2 25.4 0.8 24.3 25.4 -1.1 24.6 25.4 -0.8 25.9 25.4 0.5 22.4 25.4 -3.0 25.7 25.4 0.3 22.3 25.4 -3.2 27.7 25.4 2.3 27.3 25.4 1.9 27.5 25.4 2.1
34.7 33.9 0.8 33.9 33.9 0.0 34.2 33.9 0.4 33.9 33.9 0.0 33.6 33.9 -0.2 33.8 33.9 -0.1 32.6 33.9 -1.2 34.4 33.9 0.5 34.2 33.9 0.4 34.6 33.9 0.7

Source : IMD, New Delhi

94Fig. 1 : Departure of Temperature from Normal (1963-67 and 1996-2000)
I.G.N.P. Stage-I Ganganagar
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

I.G.N.P. Stage-II Jaisalmer
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Jan

Feb
1963

Mar
1964

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

1965

1966

1967

1996

1997

95

Sep
1998

Oct
1999

Nov
2000

Dec

Table 2: Indira Gandhi Canal Project Area Stations : Temperature
Departure from Normal Temperature (in C)MonthsJanuary
February
March
April
May
June
July
AugustSeptember
OctoberNovember
DecemberAverage

Stage-I : Ganganagar
1963-67
1996-2000
0.86
-1.46
1.26
-0.67
0.08
-1.04
-1.38
0.64
-1.00
-1.54
0.14
0.07
-0.14
0.19
-0.1
0.85
-0.44
-1.12
-0.16
0.35
-0.4
-0.59
-0.68
-0.29
-0.151-0.29

Stage-II : Jaisalmer
1963-67
1996-2000
0.94
0.002
1.6
-0.428
0.22
-0.58
-1.08
1.44
-0.48
-0.3
-0.714
1.0
0.19
-0.48
0.41
0.68
0.94
-0.62
-0.30
0.24
0.55
-0.72
0.68
0.20
0.05

Source : IMD, New Delhi

This shows that temperature in time frame from 1996-2000 have become
more unstable. But if we compare the results of Ganganagar and Jaisalmer wecome to know that Ganganagar shows more unstable temperature because
value of coefficient of variation is high in both the cases. The reason is that
irrigation started 15 years before in Ganganagar as compare to Jaisalmer(Table 3). Data Analysis for Ganganagar Station shows that there has been
deviation from normal temperatures for the period 1996-2000. In 1963-67, thetemperatures were more near to the normal temperatures but for period 19962000 the values are high. This shows the impact of irrigation on increasing
variability of temperature (Table 2 and 3).
Table 3 : Indira Gandhi Canal Project : Maximum and Normal
Temperatures (C) (1963-67 and 1996-2000)
Month
1963-67
January
21.96
February
25.46
March
29.98
April
35.12
May
39.6
June
42.04
July
38.4
August36.76
September
36.44
October
35.26
November
28.8
December
22.62

Ganganagar
1996-2000
Normal
18.51
21.1
21.28
24.2
30.22
29.9
39.79
36.5
43.06
40.6
41.24
41.9
40.36
38.5
38.57
37.2
37.98
36.6
33.98
35.1
29.55
29.2
22.71
23.3

Source : IMD, New Delhi

96

Jaisalmer
1963-67 1996-2000
24.54
23.602
28.90
26.87
32.92
32.11
36.92
39.43
41.50
41.02
40.50
40.08
38.50
37.68
36.68
36.61
37.08
37.34
35.38
35.69
31.14
30.35
24.68
26.08

Normal
23.60
27.30
32.70
38.00
41.50
40.80
37.50
36.20
36.40
36.00
30.90
25.40

For the months of February, April and December the values are near tonormal. The reason behind this trend cannot be explained. The study of
Jaisalmer station indicates that the half of the months is showing values ofdeparture greater for 1963-67 and half for 1996-2000. However, average ofboth time periods shows that 1996-2000 values are more near to the normal(Table 2-4 and Fig. 2). To determine the extent of temperature variations
coefficient of variation has been calculated. The coefficient of variation of
Jaisalmer for years 1963-67 came out to be 16.02% and for the years 19962000, it was 16.78%.
Table 4 : Results of Trendline Analysis(a) I.G.N.P. Area Stage-I Ganganagar Station
MonthsJanuary
February
March
April
May
June

1963-67
Nature of
Sign
slope
GentleGentleGentleGentleModerate
Very lessPositive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive

July
Very Less
AugustGentleSeptember
Very Less
October
Less
NovemberModerate
DecemberLess
Source : IMD, New Delhi

Positive
Positive
Negative
Negative
Positive
Negative

1996-2000
Nature of slope
Moderate
Steep
Steep
GentleSteep
3C difference (moderate
to steep)
GentleModerate (2C)
GentleModerate
Steep

Sign
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive(b) I.G.N.P. Area Stage-II Jaisalmer Station
Months1963-67
Nature of slope
Sign
January
Very Less
Positive
February
Less
Positive
March
Steep
Negative
April
Steep
NegativeMay
Almost negligible
Negative
June
Almost negligible
Positive
July
Less or gentle
Negative
AugustLess
Negative
September
Very Less
Negative
October
GentleNegative
November
GentlePositive
DecemberModerate
Negative
Source : IMD, New Delhi

97

1996-2000
Nature of slope
Sign
GentlePositive
Moderate
Negative
Steep
Positive
Moderate
Positive
Moderate
Positive
GentleNegative
GentleNegative
GentleNegative
GentleNegative
GentleNegative
Moderate
Positive
Steep
Positive

The coefficient of variation of Ganganagar for year 1963-67 came out tobe 19.78% and for year 1996-2000 it was 21.95% suggesting that maximum
temperatures over the period of time have become more unstable. For both
stations Jaisalmer and Ganganagar trendline shows gentle to moderate trend in
1963-67 and moderate to high in 1996-2000 (Table 2 and 4).
Conclusion(i) Temperature near the surface decreases on the application of irrigation
due to evaporative cooling.
(ii) Irrigation modifies the climate and this can be seen in the variability oftemperatures. The coefficient of variation of Ganganagar and Jaisalmer
both shows the unstable maximum temperature for period 1996-2000.
On comparing both the stations we deduct that in Ganganagar where
irrigation started much earlier the variability of temperature was more
pronounced in comparison to Jaisalmer.
References
1. Boucher O., Myhre G., Myhre A. (2004) : "Direct Human Influence of Irrigation
on Atmospheric Water Vapour and Climate", Climate Dynamics, Volume 22,
Issue 6-7, pp. 597-603.
2. Douglas, E.M., Beltran-Prezekurat A., Niyogi, D., Pielke, R.A., Sr. Vorosmarty,
C.J. (2009) : "The Impact of Agricultural Intesification and Irrigation on Land
Atmosphere Interactions and Indian Monsoon Precipitation - A Mesoscale
Modelling Perspective", Global & Planetary Change, Volume 67, Issue 1, pp.
117-128.
3. Indian Daily Weather Reports, IMD.
4. William J. Sacks, Benjamin J. Cook, Nikolaus Buenning, Sameul Levis, Joseph
H. Helkowski (2009) : "Effects of Global Irrigation on Near Surface Climate",
Climate Dynamics, August, 2009, Volume 33, Issue 2-3, pp. 159-175.

98

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015 Page 99-107

11
SUSTAINABILITY OF TOURISM ACTIVITY IN LADAKH REGION
Malvika Poonia
Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography,
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Anamika Poonia
Research Scholar, Centre for Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Abstract: Ladakh is a region in Jammu and Kashmir state of India, being a cold desert,
situated in Himalayas known for its natural as well as cultural and religious heritage,
opened for tourism in 1974, with a tourist arrival of 527 the first year, Tourist arrival has
been recorded 1,78,042 (ending October, 2011) in 2011. Fast Increase in tourists‟
inflow has left the region highly susceptible to environmental and cultural damage. The
paper tries to find out if there is participation in Ecotourism ("Responsible travel tonatural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local
people") so as to support sustainable tourism, by assessing the local perception about
positive and negative impacts of tourism since its start. Primary survey is base ofanalysis in this paper, which covers more than 400 households, spreading to different
parts of Ladakh, each of them situated near a major tourist destination, i.e. Mulbekh,
Chushot, Choglamsar, Hunder, Spangmik and Hanu Yokma. Thereby, paper presents
two viewpoints for better understanding, as a tourist and another is of the local
residents. Sustainability has been assessed by taking into account the nature andextent of socio-environmental impact of tourism as perceived through generalobservations and local perceptions, to come out with some real time solutions forsustainability of tourism activity in the region. Ecotourism can be followed by tourists,
and trip organizers and entrepreneurs can guide them to adopt sustainable tourism
practices.
Key words: Ladakh, Tourism activities, Sustainability, Ecotourism.

Introduction
The quality of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential totourism. However, tourism's relationship with the environment is complex. It
involves many activities that can have adverse environmental effects. Many ofthese impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as
roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels,
restaurants, shops, golf courses and marinas. The negative impacts of tourism
development can gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it
depends. On the other hand, tourism has the potential to create beneficial
99

effects on the environment by contributing to environmental protection andconservation. It is a way to raise awareness of environmental values and it canserve as a tool to finance protection of natural areas and increase theireconomic importance.
Most of the literature talks about physical impact of tourism activity intourist destination area. Depending on the destination and the type of tourism
activity, the impact of tourism varies from place to place. For example tourist
incursion in coastal areas will have different impact then in hilly areas. Thereby
to be specific this study focuses on one of the cold desrt of India, which is least
explored but with due course of time, number of tourists are increasing. The
cold deserts of India include Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Lahaul, Spiti,
Kinnaur and Bharmour in Himachal Peadesh, pockets of northern Uttaranchal
and Sikkim. Ladakh has been the home of many cultures – the Dards, theMongols, the Tibeto-Burmans, all shut out from the external world. It lay in its
seclusion for many decades until the Zojila Pass was opened and tourism
allowed sometimes in 1960. Any culture which remained in seclusion over along period opened to the world faces challenges. Since summer Ladakh has
been experiencing the flow of thousands of tourists every year. This
uncontrolled mass tourism affects the social behavior, religious settlements andtradition as well as culture of the people. Tourism affects the society in many
ways for example Demonstrative effect, Homogenization, Contact effect,
Xenophobia, Autochthonic change and cultural confrontation.
Jean Michaud (1991) analyzed tourism activity in the region. According
the study, social effects of tourism on the emergence of enterprises in Ladakh,
India. In this case, the article deduces touristic entrepreneurs profit from theiractivities and how they organize to protect their interests. The relevance of theformal/informal economic sectors approach is questioned, and somebroadening of the analysis is proposed on grounds of cultural and political
economy. For reasons of methodological strategy, Michaud J. have chosen to
integrate the question of tourism into a historical account of Ladakh's economy
and development, rather than trying to fit Ladakh into the general problem of
tourist development. This assuming that an approach which takes history into
account is more methodologically sound than the other alternative. Mountaintourism in developing countries is becoming a growing environmental concern
due to extreme seasonality, lack of suitable infrastructures and planning, andinterference with fragile ecosystems and protected areas. Another study byDavide Geneletti and Dorje Dawa (2009), devoted to assess the adverse
environmental impacts of tourism, and in particular of trekking-related activities,in Ladakh, Indian Himalaya. The proposed approach is based on the use of100

Geographical Information System (GIS) modeling and remote sensing
imageries to cope with the lack of data that affect the region.
Research Gap- Based on available studies it can be observed that mostof the studies accept the activity of tourism is increasing at a much faster rate in
Ladakh. Thereby, this mountainous ecosystem which is so fragile,
environmentally as well as culturally is getting affected by it. Studies are there
which are analyzing the impact of this tourism activity. But need is to come out
with more empirical studies which depicts the impact from the prism of local
people, how they feel about their environment and culture being affected by
tourism. At the same time there is also need of finding out the experience andobservation of tourists, are they satisfied or not, are they following theecotourism in the region.
Statement of Problem
Ladakh, the Cold desert of India, although less inaccessible is turning into amajor hub of tourists, is facing consequences of tourism activity in the region.
To check the negative impact of this activity on local environment and culture,
this study deals with the present status and need and approach which isneeded to be followed by tourists as well as locals to experience sustainable
tourism.
Methodology
Analysis is based on primary survey which was done by asking questions tolocal people in Mulbekh, Chushot, Choglamsar, Hunder, Spangmik and Hanu
Yokma. 400 households were asked questions related to tourism activity in theirarea. Whole study is based on this sample population. Along with local
perception self observation and visual interpretation has been done as a tourist
to ladakh.
Analysis
When one talk about the purpose of visit, what one wishes to analyze is the kindof activities that follow a tourist‘s arrival, his stay, and departure. Each andevery tourist comes with a specific purpose; how he will be treating the place
depends on what he has come here for. Some purposes are totally selfcentered like leisure, recreation, scenic beauty etc. which will definitely involvesome sort of negligence from the tourist‘s behalf. When a tourist has come to aplace to make himself happy, he will do everything to accomplish that, without
caring so much about the after-effects of it.

101

Purpose to Visit
16%

8%

9%
Leisure17%

Academic
Scenic Beauty
50%

More than one purpose
Other purposes

In Ladakh, 50 percent tourist come to behold its scenic beauty, 8 percent
for leisure and around 17 percent for more than one purpose which usually
includes both leisure and scenic beauty, adventure and recreation combined
etc. It is obvious that these tourists will be less bothered about the vulnerabilityof the region, they won‘t think twice before throwing out plastic bottles, chips
and biscuits‘ wrappers, poly-ethane bags etc. and why should they….they havecome here to have a good time, not to disturb their mood about theenvironmental issues. They have spent huge amount of money and believe thatthey have helped the local economy. However, on the other hand, there arealmost 9 percent tourists coming for academic purposes. The tourists coming
for academic purposes are from different parts of the world, as well as India.
They bring out the vulnerability of the region in front of the whole world,suggesting various measures, Ladakh is a favorite research field amonggeomorphologists, geologists etc. The scholars who are working on the socialand cultural aspect of the region try to show the spirit of Ladakh people, theirsurvival skills, traditions and customs, way of life, language, clothing etc. whichshows that the precious social and cultural legacy of Ladakh region needs to bepreserved. The government should encourage research work in the region byissuing financial grants, fellowships etc.
Tourist activities in Ladakh
Major tourist activities include, Snow-boarding, Skiing, river rafting, visitingwater-falls, visiting monasteries, camel safari, bonfire and DJ parties andshopping.

102

Local Employment in Tourism
34%
Not engaged in Tourism
activities
66%

Employed in Tourism

The above diagram shows the participation of locals in tourism activities.
Out of the total households interviewed, about 66 percent households have atleast one family member employed in tourism, whereas only 34 percent are notdirectly engaged in tourism activities, although, a lot of them admit being
dependent on tourism indirectly. This shows that the local population, especiallythe people residing near a tourist destination are in one way or the otherbenefitting from the tourism industry. But what matters is the kind of tourism
activity they are involved in, which in turn shows the level of earning, job
sustainability, seasonality of employment etc. The diagram below shows thepercentage of people engaged in specific tourism activities.

Employment Opportunities
20%

35%

Accomodation Related
Transportation Related

25%

Labourers
20%

Service Providers

The pie-chart above shows that out of the people employed in tourism
industry, 35 percent of them are in accommodation related business. There are
two aspects to this, the demand side and supply side. Demand for big hotels is
lesser and for cheap accommodations is more, because other expenses are103already too much, like special clothing for places cold like Ladakh, hiring avehicle for the whole trip, hiring a trekking guide and other everyday
expenditure. The supply side says that the big hotels can‘t function in places
like Ladakh, because tourist inflow is seasonal, the climate is extreme, in which
only locals know how to survive, the maintenance cost of the hotel will be too
high, and the hotels might experience heavy losses being in competition withthe local guest-houses, motels and restaurants. That is the reason there are a
lot of motels, guest-houses which the households are running very efficiently.
One more thing is that when tourists go to Ladakh they are not going tostay at one or a few places, instead they are going to travel a lot and visit many
places on the go. Transportation is very crucial as tourist destinations are
situated further from each other; therefore, tourists have to travel to far
distances. They need vehicle to hire, and because the locals can drive muchbetter in these mountains, so they need to hire a driver also. Consequently we
see that 20 percent of the locals employed in tourism industry earn their income
through transportation related businesses. The roads are well maintained during
the summer season, but the passes are closed during winter, which also marks
for the seasonality of employment. Vehicles which are hired on rent include
sports utility vehicles (SUVs), all terrain vehicles (ATVs), Motorbikes, Bi-cycles
mainly. As the pie-chart tells us, 20 percent of the locals dependent on tourism
industry earn their living by providing various services to national andinternational tourists, there are tour guides, trekking guides, yoga instructors,
river rafting instructors, help desks, cook, cleaners etc. The remaining 20
percent, accounts for laborers employed in every kind of business in tourism
industry. They earn lesser but they usually undertake two or more jobs tocompensate. Therefore, it is obvious that job opportunity scenario in ladakh‘stourism industry is pretty varied and diversified.
Impact Assessment of Tourism
As we know, tourism is a new thing for a lot of remote areas of Ladakh, due tothe increased connectivity by various transport means, increased publicity, anda greater than before, interest of tourists in adventurous trips etc. has led to thepresent scenario. Although, it is good news, but still it is a wide known fact that
Ladakh region is vulnerable to both environmental discrepancy as well as
cultural infiltration. Therefore, the impact of tourism in the region is studied bytaking into account two aspects:
 Impact on Environment
 Impact on Culture

104Impact of tourism on Environment
Tourism activities, in its due course of time do affect environment of thedestination. The damage, first of all, will be measured after some time, andsecond of all, it might not be reversible at all. Therefore, what matters is that,the locals should realize what is bad for their natural environment, what is
simply unacceptable, what activities they should not all the tourists to carry out,
even after the lure of big money. Because, let‘s face the facts, it‘s the people
that are the biggest protectors of their home, not the government or the NGOs.

Impact of Tourism on Environment

49%

51%

Tourism not affecting
Environment
Tourism having a negative
impact on Environment

The locals were asked about, whether the tourism activities taking place,negatively affect their environment. The responses were a mix, almost 51
percent respondents don‘t think that tourism affects environment, these aremainly the locals engaged in and earning from tourism. Since they are
dependent, they think that any measures taken to conserve the environment will
put more curbs on the diversity of activities going on here, which will in turnaffect their income. While on the other hand, almost 49 percent respondents
think that the tourists affect their natural environment in more than one manner.
According to them, tourists coming here have no idea about the vulnerability of
the region. It is said that hilly and mountainous areas are susceptible to loudnoise; therefore, the danger of displacement, rock fall, avalanches is also
increased. Surface and ground water sources are not spared either, surface
water sources like rivers and lakes are polluted by throwing garbage, rocks,
waste, and excreta in them. Some people wash their cars and bikes in the riverwater, some people urinate and others throw food etc. in them, Ladakh is a cold
desert, rainfall is close to zero, in such case the locals abstain from bathing
daily, they even use dry toilets, but the tourists are provided with showers inbathrooms and toilets with flush, putting strain on the groundwater resources of105

the region. These practices are so not in tune with the idea of eco-tourism.
Forget about conservation, tourists are further damaging the nature in morethan one manner, which is not even recognized let alone banned by the locals
that accompany the tourists. It is the duty of the guides, drivers, and restaurant& guest-house owners to sensitize tourists and prevent them from doing any
such stuff.
Impact of Tourism on Culture
Ladakh is part of the Tibetan Buddhist culture. Home to the famous Hemis
gompa, and many more monasteries this place is obviously threatened by theoutside cultures coming from different parts of India and the world. Although,the culture and the traditions here are very ancient, they are deeply rooted in
the society but still the younger generation is very much exposed to theinfiltrations. Alcohol and drugs consumption, late night DJ parties, bike racing
and car racing, cheating and using unfair means, abusive language are just theminute part of the dirt coming from the outsiders, there is so much more thatcan put the easy-going local youth, in-conflict with the local culture, which might
result in them migrating, or trying to be someone else, blindly trying to fit inamong the foreigners, becoming ashamed of their culture, their family. All of it inturn might result in the loss of a rich, peace loving religion-culture, at least in
India.

Impact of Tourism on Culture

37%
Tourism not affecting Culture
at all63%

Tourism having positive or
negative impact on Culture

Although, people responding in favor of the question (whether tourism
has some impact on culture?), had mixed perception about the positive or thenegative impact of tourism on culture. Out of these total 63 percent of thembelieving that tourism activities have at least some impact on culture, more thanhalf believe that there is a negative impact and rest think that it has a positive106impact on their culture and religion. According to some respondents, it is a goodthing that despite being situated in the remotest part of India they still get to see
and observe other cultures from up-close. In the process of interaction, they
always end up learning a few things which is beneficial to them in keeping up
with the fast pacing world. Not only that, the increasing tourism activities are
not totally damaging, the government and other organizations have started toprovide certain kinds of amenities and connectivity, transportation facilities,
shops, markets etc. have registered their presence which is only beneficial tothe community.
Conclusion
The conclusion can be drawn on the basis of this whole analysis thatsustainable tourism activities have not yet bloomed to their fullest. Local
community is still deprived of the benefits of tourism activity in their region.
Although local communities have established guest houses in their houses but
depending on satisfactory need of tourists, they have switched towards
unsustainable practices, like using flush in toilets which are supposed to be Arid
toilets depending on the lack of water. Region is still like a dream world formany tourists with less money. Region still remains inaccessible for most of thepart of the year. To practice ecotourism in the region, need is to continue withlocal practices and to avoid acculturation. The activities of tourism are not at allin tune with the concept of eco-tourism. There is need of, tourists‘ as well as
local community‘s sensitization about Eco-tourism activities.
References
1. Davide Geneletti, Dorje Dawa, Environmental impact assessment of mountaintourism in developing regions: A study in Ladakh, Indian Himalaya,
Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Volume 29, Issue 4, July 2009,
Pages 229–242.
2. Jina, Prem Singh (1994) Tourism in Ladakh Himalaya, Indus Publishing
Company, New Delhi
3. Kaul, Sridhar, Kaul, H.N., Ladakh Through the Agges: Towards a new Identity.
4. MICHAUD J. A historical account of modern social change in Ladakh (IndianKashmir) with special attention paid to tourism, International journal ofcomparative sociology, 996, vol. 37, no3-4, pp. 286-300 (1 p.1/4).
5. Michaud, Jean (1991) A social anthropology of tourism in Ladakh, India, Annalsof Tourism Research, Volume 18, Issue 4, 1991, Pages 605–621.
United Nations Environment Programme, Environment for development,
available
atwww.unep.org/resourceefficiency/
Business/Sectoral
Activities/Tourism/FactsandFiguresaboutTourism/ImpactsofTourism/Environme
ntalImpacts.

107

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015 Page 108-114

12
URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATION IN JAIPUR CITY DURING LASTDECADE: AN ECOLOGICAL OVERVIEW
Anoop Dutt Shukla
Research Scholar,
Dept. of Geography, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur
Email: anoop.shukla2009@gmail.com
Abstract: There is always feel a relationship between human and environment fromthe beginning of his race on the earth and it‟s a burning topic in present era and it
creates a questionnaire of so many allusions and always needs to study and restudy.
This research topic as „Urban Infrastructure Development and Environmental Changes
in Jaipur Region: An Ecological Overview‟ stands for a good result or outcome whenhuman and environment affect by fast growing urbanisation. The more we do, the more
we gain; always fit to a worldly person and he always deface the development ofenvironment and nature from his acts towards development. In today‟s time,urbanisation means development and it is being a part of our society andexcessiveness of urbanisation affects the life and environment. This study about Jaipur
is also based on the same fact and it‟s a need of today and clearly states thatexperiments, surveys and research should be done on present status of men andenvironment relationship on the present speed of urbanisation.
Key words: Urban, Environmental development, Ecology, Pollution

Introduction
Jaipur, the ‗symphony in pink‘, is the land of superlatives where breath-taking
beauty and rich art and culture blend superbly. Until the eighteenth century,
Amber served as the capital of the Kachwaha clan of the Rajputs. However, due
to its inaccessible tract on the Aravali hills, it was unable to meet the demandsof a growing population. Sawai Jai Singh in 1727 decided to move his capital tothe plains, 11 km south of Amber. Jaipur, situated in northwest part of India,
was founded in 1727 A.D. and was named after its founder Sawai Jai Singh.
Jaipur City was planned and executed in coordination with Sawai Jai Singh II, insuch a manner that a substantial part of the city developed within seven years
of its foundation. It nestles amidst the Aravali ranges and surrounded by rugged
hills on three sides, each crowned by a formidable fort, while the city is studded
with grand palaces, majestic mansions, and gracefully landscaped gardens andparks. It is perhaps the first planned city of India and was laid with great
precision based on principle of 'Shilpa Shastra', the ancient Hindu treatise on108

architecture. The city was built in the form of a rectangle divided into blocks or
Chowkries, with roads and avenues running parallel to the sides.
In 1863 city of Jaipur was dressed in Pink to welcome Prince Albert,
consort of Queen Victoria. The colour became an integral part of the city and itcame to be known as ‗The Pink City‘. In 19th and 20th centuries, the city‘s
population spread beyond its walls. After ascendance to the throne in 1922 by
Man Singh II, civic buildings like the secretariat, schools, hospitals, and otherpublic buildings were built. The municipality was reorganized in 1926 and a newmunicipal act was prepared in 1929. After independence in 1947, Jaipur
merged with the states of Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, and Bikaner to become thegreater Rajasthan in 1949. Under the State Re-Organization Act in 1956, Jaipur
became the capital of the state of Rajasthan. Post-independence, planneddevelopment of the city was taken up after the city became the capital ofRajasthan. Though the city has grown into a modern metropolis and a throbbingcommercial centre, it is a visitor‘s delight and caters to the needs of each formof tourism, ranging from historical, culture, adventure, sports, entertainment,
shopping, business, conventions, and conferences. The City is part of theGolden Tourism Triangle of Agra, Jaipur, and Delhi and on the average
attracting 3000 tourist per day. Jaipur is also a renowned handicraft centre andis also known for producing exquisite gold jewellery enamelled or inlaid with
precious or semi-precious stones, blue pottery, carvings on wood, stone andivory, block print and tie and dye textiles, leather articles, handmade paper, andminiature painting.
Methodology
Generally we use a methodology to get the best results of the study and for theproper planning of the resources which are scattered unqualified. Here we use
the Historical method and Participatory Urban Implementations (PUI) method inthis study. By the use of these methodologies we look out the history of
infrastructure development of that study area and by the use of PUI, we
generally communicate with the localities and administration.
Urbanisation in Jaipur city
Jaipur district is one of the 33 districts in the State of Rajasthan in western
India. The city of Jaipur, which is Rajasthan's capital and largest city, is also the
district headquarters. The district is situated in the North Eastern part ofRajasthan State. It is located between the North latitudes of 26º-23' N to 27º-51'
N and East longitudes 74º-55' E to 76º-50' E. It is bounded by Sikar district inNorth- West, Alwar district in the North East, Dausa in East, Tonk in South,
Ajmer in South West and Nagaur in West. The district has an area of 11151
Sq.Km. and occupies 3.3% area of the state. It ranks 9th in comparison to the109other districts of the Rajasthan in terms of the area. The district imbibes 2131
villages, of which 2077 are inhabited and 57 are uninhabited.
Jaipur being the capital of Rajasthan is the focus of socio economic,
cultural, and political activities of the state. The city‘s transport needs are mainly
met by a well-developed transport network system, based on ring and radial
pattern, large fleet of buses like the Rajasthan State Road Transport
Corporation (RSRTC).The majority share of travel needs of Jaipur commuters is
met by road based transport systems. Jaipur is a medium sized city with apopulation of about 3.07 million (2011) spread over an area of 474 squre km.
Jaipur region is situated in north eastern part of Rajasthan. Jaipur region
comprising of area under Jaipur Development Authority includes Jaipur city,
Amber, Sanganer and towns and settlements of Bassi, Shivdaspura & Chandlai,
Bagru, Chomu, Achrol, Jamwa Ramgarh and Contiguous areas. The present
Jaipur region, for the preparation of the Master Development Plan 2025, covers
the villages included in the Schedule I of JDA Act 1982, as per notifications
listed below:








Urban area notification issued under Raj. U.I. Act-1959 vide notification
F1 (6) TP/72 dated 9.10.1972 covering 132 revenue villages, including
Jaipur city into notified urban area limit.
The Jaipur Development Authority was established with Jaipur city,
Sanganer, Amber, Bagru, Chomu, Bassi and 335 villages of Jaipur,
Sanganer, Amber, Jamwa Ramgarh, Bassi and Chaksu Tehsils vide
notification dt. 12.10.1982.
153 villages were included in the Jaipur Region vide notification F7 (22)UDH/3/87 dated 25.10.1997 and 17 villages were included being
nonexistent vide notification F7 (22) UDH/3/87 dated12.9.1996
247 villages were included in the Jaipur region vide notification F7 (22)UDH/3/87 dated 1.10.2007.

In present scenario, as population grow up day by day and seeing thiswe need the same fluency in development. For a good development we have toprogress in different areas as in education, health, infrastructure, environment,
market facilities and so many things. Jaipur, the capital of Rajasthan, known
from many titles, covers so vast rural areas with its urban development andinfrastructure and with this fact we see the government bodies as JDA,
Municipal Corporation, NGOs, plays an important role to maintain its
environment, ecology and heritage also. There are many building and shopping
malls situated in Jaipur, names as Gaurav Tower (GT), Crystal Palm,
entertainment paradise (EP), Raisar Plaza, India‘s first world trade park (WTP),
Mahindra SEZ, and much more infrastructure has developed in last ten years as
110

Sanganer international airport, proposed Disawar bus stop, Jaipur metro, many
bridges and underpasses, national highways and state highways. With thisinfrastructure, we always decline the greenery, agricultural lands and the naturalenvironment of a city. It also happens in Jaipur. How can we sustain
environment and resources with fast growing infrastructure and land utilization?
This is the question which generally stands in front of us. For the answer wehave to see both the things parallel. As our one hand indulge in developing
infrastructure as buildings, malls, cinema halls, four or six lane roads and thesecond one is in maintaining and creating new environmental regions. As in
Kulish Smriti forest, Central Park, Jawahar Circle and so much small parks has
been developed in every colonies & sectors and the roads with both sides green
belts as JLN marg and with this nature and natural sites or green region are
also situated nearby region of the city as Jhalana forest. Galta forest andNahargarh hill forest and so other outsider green areas.
The government and the people who are free and retired from their jobs
and environmentalists give their time and management skills and funds tomaintain, to sustain, to restore, to recycle, to reproduce, to rearrange thethinking and plans which are needed for controlling man‘s encroachment inenvironment and natural regions. There are many policies and plans are madefor maintaining heritage look of Jaipur and its natural environment not at thecost of decline in development and rearranged infrastructure. Both the things
can come on the same track if a mankind thinks to do so and apply all the rightplans and proper resources.
Infrastructure Development
Administratively, Jaipur district is a part of Jaipur division. The district is divided
into 13 tehsils namely, Amber, Chomu, Jamwa Ramgarh, Shahpura, Viratnagar,
Kotputli, Dudu, Phagi, Phulera, Bassi, Chaksu, Sanganer and Jaipur. It also
comprises an equal number of development blocks. As the district has a State
capital, hence Jaipur has the Legislative Assembly, Secretariat, State level
offices of maximum Government departments along with divisional and districtlevel offices.
With elevation in status for Jaipur as a Counter-Magnet Area (CMA), thestate government has already started working on plans to be submitted before
the National Capital Region Planning Board. A slew of proposals which include
sewerage treatment, drainages and industrial development will be taken up on apriority basis. The NCRPB gives loans to develop basic infrastructure incounter-magnet towns. For sewerage and water supply facilities, the board
provides 15% grant of total investment and remaining funds are provided asloans payable in 15 years. The rate of interest charged for such loans are from111

7-8%. Officials claim that the intention of NCRPB to bring Jaipur under CMA isto provide more funding to the city. Counter-magnet towns are identified as
those which can be developed as alternative centres of growth and attract
migrants to them, rather than Delhi. Promoting growth of counter-magnet towns
is the principal component of the strategy, so as to reduce both migration andpopulation explosion in the Delhi metropolitan area. Currently there are nine
CMAs including Jaipur. Hisar and Ambala in Haryana, Gwalior in MP, Patiala in
Punjab, Bareilly and Kanpur in UP, Dehradun in Uttarakhand, Kota in Rajasthan
are among others falling under such category. The main advantage of declaring
counter-magnet cities are that they grow as potential economic centers. Theredevelopment gets the major thrust. Also, Jaipur will now get preference inprojects for road transport and highways, railways and communication andinformation technology. These ministries will make concentrated efforts inimproving the transport and communication linkages in these counter magnet
areas in a planned manner within a specified time frame. However, the experts
claim that Jaipur will have to work hard in reaping the benefits attached with thestatus of CMA. It is a welcoming step. Elevated status of Jaipur will help indevelopment of urban infrastructure. Benefits are available and we should beready for it," said VS Vyas, deputy chairman, state planning board.
Demographic Condition and Environmental Status Analysis
This analysis is needed to reach on a proper result or outcome about therelationship of human and environment. It may be called an ecological overview
on the study area. Demographic conditions and environmental status both arestudied together here.Jaipur district has shown an increase in the population
over the past decades. In the last decade there was a growth of +35.06%,
which has fallen to +26.19%, this decade.
Table1 : Decadal Population Growth of Jaipur District and city region
Year
Population
Population
GrowthRural
Urban (%)
increase
rate %(%)
1961
1522591
67.90*
32.10*
1971
1993463+470872+30.9364.19*
35.81*
1981
2786816+793353+39.8057.66*
42.34*
1991
3887895+1101079+39.5154.36*
45.64*
2001
5251071+1363176+35.06
50.64
49.36
2011
6626178+1375107+26.1949.59
50.86
Source: Derived from Census of India* excluding District Dausa. In 1992, Jaipur was then re-constituted with the creation of Dausa district.

The above table shows the decadal growth trend of the district. In 1961,
the population of the district was 15.2 lakh which is now 66.26 lakh. The
decadal growth rate of population ranges 30.9% to 39.8%, with an average112annual growth rate of 3.6%. However the population increase of last decade is
not so much different from its nearly decade but the decadal growth rate showsmuch difference, it may be the good thing but not to be happy.
In 1961, the level of Urbanisation was 32% which has increased to 49%
in 2001 and little increased to 50% in 2011. The national average ofurbanisation is 32%. The increased level of urbanisation in the district is on
account of the Jaipur city which is a primate city and also the major employment
provider for the State of Rajasthan, besides, the Jaipur region covers almost 1/3
part of the district. Graphical representation of decadal urban population growthof Jaipur district is presented here-

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

Urban %
Rural %

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

2011

Centrality index is computed to determine the centrality score values,
which are worked out by taking into account various functions performed andservices. Five decades census data are used for this present research work.
Biological Diversity
There are a number of wetlands and sanctuaries in Jaipur and Dausa district
which are rich in biodiversity. There are however very small in size ranging to a
maximum of 6 sq.km area. They do play a vital role in retaining the biodiversity,
flora and fauna of the region. This includes all lands classed as forest under
any legal enactment dealing with forests or administered as forests, whether
state-owned or private, and whether wooded or maintained as potential forest
land. The area of crops rose in the forest and grazing lands or areas open for
grazing within the forests remain included under the forest area. District ofJaipur has 355 villages which have some forest cover. Out of these villages, 69
villages have forest cover greater than 50% of the total village area. There are
23 villages with forest area more than 75% of the village areas.
113

Conclusion
The critical and unavailable facilities are analyzed for the region spatially tocertain the needs and proximity of things for enhancing the life and way to live
life. These are considered important for the revolutionary changes in therelationship with ecology and life of the villagers and urban habitats and as
essential requirements to improve the quality of life in these areas. An analysisof these requirements has been done to arrive at the depressed areas. There isalways need to do work in sustainability of life and environment. Because of
decadal growth in population the pressure on resources of city is increasing day
by day so we must take some consurtive administrative decisions for sustaiable
development of this city region.
References
1. Chakrabarti, Ranjan (ed), Does Environmental History Matter: Shikar,
Subsistence, Sustenance and the Sciences, Kolkata: Readers Service, 2006
2. Chakrabarti, Ranjan (ed.), Situating Environmental History (New Delhi:
Manohar, 2007
3. Cronon, William (ed), Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, New
York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1995
4. David, A. & Guha, R. (eds). Nature, Culture, Imperialism: Essays on theEnvironmental History of South Asia. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1995
5. Rajan, Ravi S., Modernizing Nature: Forestry and Imperial Eco-Development,
1800-1950 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006
6. Singh, Savindra, Environmental Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad,
India, 2008
7. www.rajforest.nic.in

114

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 115-127

13
MODELING THE WATER COST : CASE STUDY OF GREAT MAN MADE
RIVER AUTHORITY

Mohamed Omar Kumati
Data, Studies and Researches Head Section
Great Man-Made River Authority, Benghazi, Libya
Email : kumati1974@yahoo.com
Abstract: Libya, like its neighbours, depends on groundwater for the majority of its
water supplies. However, most comes in the form of fossilised water from aquifers
deep in the desert, through the Great Man-Made River Authority (GMRA). The world‟slargest Pre-stressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe (PCCP) project is owned and operated by
the Great Man Made River Authority. Since it conception in 1984 the project has grown
to include almost 4000 km of large-diameter pre-stressed concrete pipe. Eventually
over 6.0 million m3 of water will be conveyed every day from aquifers in the desert tothe coast in 4m diameter PCCP. This paper provides an overview of the project to dateand it will conduct the cost analysis study by treating capital costs as sunk value,
without interest rates.
Key words: Water Shortage Problem, GMRP, PCCP, Groundwater, Sunk Value

Introduction
Description of GMRA
The North African state of Libya is in one of the driest regions of the world withan annual rainfall ranging from just ten millimeters to 500 mm. Just five percentof the entire area of Libya exceeds 100 mm annually. Evaporation rates arealso high, ranging from 1,700 mm in the north to 6,000 mm in the south. To
overcome the serious shortages of water and avert an impending crisis, ascheme was devised to convey high quality ground water from aquifers deep in
the Saharan Desert to the coast were over 90% of the population live. These
vast water basins were discovered during the exploration for oil. Water is
extracted in well fields and conveyed to the coast through four-meter diameterpre-stressed concrete cylinder pipes. Because of the size of the pipes and theamount of water they convey over thousands of kilometers, the scheme became
known as The Great Man Made River Project. Phase I or the Sarir-Sirt/TazerboBenghazi (SS/TB) conveyance of the project consists of two lines and involves
conveying two million cubic meters of water per day, from well fields in Sarir andTazerbo to end reservoirs at Sirt and Benghazi (Fig. 1). The total length of PCC
115

pipes used is 1900 kilometers, the majority being four meters in diameter. The
system is designed to ultimately carry a flow of 3.5 million cubic meters per day
in the future, with the additional water being drawn from a well field at Kufra.
This phase is complete and under operation. Phase II of the Great Man Made
River Project involves conveying two million cubic meters of water from well
fields at East Jabal Hasouna and North East Jabal Hasouna to Tarhouna andTripoli. Two hundred eighty-seven production wells at the East Jabal Hasounawell field will produce 1.4 million cubic meters of water per day and 153
production wells at North East Jabal Hasouna will produce a total of 0.6 million
cubic meters per day. The Gardabiya-Sedada system will link Phases I and II,
enabling bi-directional flow This phase is complete and under operation. Futurephases include:

The Kufra-Tazerbo System, which will add 1.5 million cubic meters per day
to the Phase I conveyance from 285 wells in Kufra. This phase is currently
being under construction.
 Jaghboub-Tobruk System, which will supply Tobruk and the eastern coastof Libya with 50 million cubic meters per year of water for domestic use
from 47 wells in Jaghboub. Exploratory wells are currently being drilled in
Jaghboub to determine the optimum location of the well-field. This phase iscurrently being under study.
 Gedames-Alzawia System, which will have a total production of 90m cubic
meters per year from 144 wells in Gedames. This phase is currently being
under construction.
The project will ultimately convey over 6 million cubic meters of water per day
through mainly 4-meter diameter pipes [1].
Figure 1. Map of the Great Man Made River Project116

Libyan Water Resources
Water is a valuable commodity and its scarcity is becoming an ever-increasingproblem worldwide. In North African countries in particular, water supply islimited, the quality is deteriorating and there is an ever-widening gap between
availability and increasing demands. All these factors make it imperative serious
action is taken now, both to avoid an impending shortage and also to avoid
disputes and international conflicts over trans-boundary water resources. The
Libyan authorities were aware from a very early stage of the impending watercrisis in Libya and in the North African region generally and decided to
implement its own national solution. The Great Man-made River scheme—thefirst two phases of which were completed in 1991 and 1996 involves conveying
high quality water from groundwater in the southern basins to coastal regions
where the country‘s main domestic, agricultural and industrial demands need tobe met. Libya is one of the driest regions of the world with an annual rainfall
ranging from just 10-500 mm. Only 5% of the entire area of Libya exceeds
100mm annually as shown in Fig. 2. Evaporation rates are also high, ranging
from 1,700 mm in the north to 6,000mm in the south.
Figure 2. Annual average precipitation in Libya – only 5% of thecountry receives more than 100 mm/year

Feasibility Studies
Ground water is the primary source of freshwater, accounting for 96% of total
Libyan demand. Studies have shown that aquifer replenishment to the coastal
aquifers is 500 million m3/year, which is small compared with the everincreasing rate of consumption, which is currently 4.7 billion cubic meters per
year. As a result of excessive abstraction, seawater intrusion has taken place inthe coastal aquifer with a marked increase in salinity reaching over 7,000 parts
117per million in the Tripoli region. To overcome this deficiency in supply, there has
been a concerted effort to develop additional sources of water including, among
others, surface water which contributes 2.3% to the total demand, desalination
1.4%, and water treatment 0.7%.
Subsequent investigations have proved the reserves available anddefined the limits of a number of potentially vast aquifers at Kufra, Sirt, Murzuk
and Hamadah. Aquifers with water levels laying at depths of less than 100
metres below ground surface were recharged by torrential tropical rain,
particularly in the period 38,000 to 14,000 years ago. Each of these basinscontains reserves amounting to 3000 km3 of economically extractable fossil
water. The aquifers targeted in these basins are mainly the phreatic type withhigh ‗storativity‘. Storativity is defi ned as the amount of water released or added
to aquifer storage through a vertical column of aquifer having a unit
crosssectional area, due to a unit amount of decline or increase in average
hydraulic head. Feasibility studies showed that the cost of abstracting
groundwater from the Libyan southern basins and conveying it to the northern
region compared favourably with other options, see Fig. 3, resulting in theconception of the Great Man-Made River Project in 1984. A recent in-housestudy by the Data, Studies and Researches Centre of the Great Man Made
River Authority estimates that the unit cost of water will be US$0.28/m 3 when allphases finally become operational [2 & 3].
Figure 3. Analysis of the quantity of water

Desalination 0.79 m3

Pipeline from South Europe to Tripoli 0.74m3

Transportation by ships 1.05 m3

Great Man Made River Project 9.00 m3
0

2

4

6
m3

8

10
0

Statement of Problem
Groundwater, which constitutes about 0.6% of the world water reserve, isdefined as water concealed in underground reservoirs originated mostly fromrain as a renewable source. If man in one day with his modern technology could
benefit from falling rain waters on earth, which is potable and suitable for all118

uses with minimum treatment, the world water shortage problem could be
resolved radically. Although water sciences, in general, and hydrology, inparticular, are so developed, groundwater resources are still considered as an
unseen resource as compared to surface water resources, especially in two
ways:a) Quality: the change that could occur in quality is normally expected andhardly predicted.
b) Quantity: due to the complication of the nature and engineering ofunderground reservoirs, the scientific estimation of these waters does notaccurately assure its disappearance and deepening.
The phenomenon of seawater intrusion is a manifestation of thedeterioration of water quality of many groundwaters and a proof of thecontinuance contact of ground reservoirs underneath. The management ofdifferent water resources and treatment of water for specific usage would mean
the proper evaluation and utilization of these resources taking into account thefollowing:
1) Resource expected life: what is its life span, how could it be managed
properly, and its basic participation in resolving the water shortage problem.
2) Resource suitability: for the different uses and the required treatment for
certain use in case its quality is degraded.
3) Resource cost analysis: in order to be utilized fully in comparison withothers.
Hence, groundwater is a natural un-renewable resource, like other water
resources, it should be utilized and managed wisely, its consumption
rationalized, and it should be preserved and conserved by sound scientificmeans. In this regard, Libya is endowed with two great water resources:a) Groundwater resource located in underground reservoirs under the desert
in the southern regions,b) Seawater resource located in the coast, which is considered to be thelongest (~1900 km) on the Mediterranean, in the northern regions.
In order for these two resources to be utilized fully in an integrated
manner that takes into account the previous considerations, in addition to:4) Water local exploitation: which advocates the utilization of water resources
locally in a manner that provides the development of the local surrounding
and considers the costs of transport and distribution of these water asfollows:- Development of coastal regions domestically, agriculturally, andindustrially (desalination is worthier).
- Development of desert regions in a similar manner (GMRA is worthier).
In the framework of conserving these two resources, a comprehensive national
plan should be implemented. Here is a citation of some of the features:
119

Environmental dimension: It means that the proper cautious utilization of
any resource should not neglect environmental issues, such as:- For desalination: Air and water pollution and conservation of marine life
should be considered.
- For GMRA: Avoid severe depletion of groundwaters which might cause
the cracking and sliding of earth surfaces. It is worth mentioning that theconsumption of groundwaters should not exceed the safe yield
parameter which is defined by Kongling and Bank [4 & 5] as the yearlywater consumption rate that takes into account the following:o Protection of water rights in the specified region without violation(consideration 4 water local exploitation),o The consumption should not exceed the yearly feed rate of thereservoirs,
o The consumption should not lower the water level more than theallowed economical rate of pumping,o The consumption should not lower the water level to the extent ofpermitting seawater or polluted water intrusions.
 Developmental dimension: which means that the wise utilization of any
resource should take into account human development plans as referred toin consideration 4.
 Economical dimension: It advocates that the ideal utilization of any resource
should consider economical cost such as:- For desalination: Efforts and research should continue to lower the costsof desalination until it becomes suitable for domestic, agricultural, andindustrial applications.
- For GMRA: Its economical competitive cost should not exceed the costof other resources due to deterioration of its quality and rising need fortreatment, the quick lowering of water level, or the need to deepen thewells, hence, increase of the pumping cost.
 Quality dimension: In other words, it means that the secure and safe
utilization of any resource should abide by the requirements mandated byhealth standards, human rights, and suitability for domestic, agricultural,and industrial applications.
In this paper, the cost analysis required to transport GMRA water from south tonorth is presented, where the capital costs are considered as sunk value.
Theoretical Development
The most important cost analysis studies which expressed in Table 1 conductedprior to this study [6 & 7], to calculate the cost of 1 m 3 of water produced by
GMRA. The common objection to the previous studies is their lack of using
mathematical models, which are very vital to such studies for checking any
inconsistency and discrepancy, future predictions, simulation and forecasts,
urgent recalculations, comparative testing with other resources, and decision
making for the planners.

120This paper suggests two models: The first model predicts the behavior of operation and maintenance costwith respect to water production.
 The second model predicts the behavior of consumed electrical power costwith respect to water production.
The study will prove the success of the two models in predicting empirical dataobtained from the operation experience for the project.
Table 1 : Previous cost analysis studies for GMRA in Dinar/m³
Date

Stage

1/1/1993

First stage

15/5/1994

18/11/1996

1/1/2003

First stage
Sarir
Saris+Taz
erbo
Kufra+SarirFirst stage
First stage
Secondstage
Secondstage

Production(m3/d)
Maximum
production
2,000,000
1,800,000
1,600,000
1,780,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
1,780,000
1,700,000
2,000,000
2,100,000
2,500,000

Calculation
authority
Milod G.
Elhasia

Re.
No.

Salem Bazina

16

Daniel P.
Loucks andPhilippe
Pallas

15

17

Costs
(Dinars)
Construction
O&M costs
Total
0.082
0.087
0.018
0.104
0.05–0.13

GMRA
0.046
0.036
0.082

Details
Istethmar
0.029
0.019
0.048

Marafeg
0.021
0.033
0.054

0.06–0.13
0.10–0.22

Mohamed A.
ElDarrat, Adel
Bakir andBasher O.
Elsalah

0.379
0.335
14

0.430
0.336

First Model Development [8 & 13]
Analysis of operation-maintenance cost data with water production, Table 2,
Fig. 4. Looking at the values of operation and maintenance cost (C) in dinar andwater production (W) in m3, an attempt was made to model this behavior byusing linear, logarithmic, and power mathematical models, which resulted in
adopting the following model:
C = a + b (W)(1)

Eq. (1) is a simple linear model, where the parameters are determined by fitting
the data points to the model equation using least square analysis method. This
resulted in the following empirical equation:
C = ( 5,754,240 ) + ( 0.059406751 ) W

(2)

121

MillionsFigure (4) : The relationship between the different costs (in Dinars):(a) capital cost, (b) operation and maintenance cost, (c) electricity cost vs.
yearly water production in m3
140

Capital Cost
120
Operation and Maintenance Cost

Cost (Dinar)

100

80

60

Electricity cost x 10

40

20

0
-97

103

303

503

703

903

1,103

1,303

1,503

1,703

Millions

Yearly Water Production

The prediction was so good that the correlation coefficient reachedapproximately 96%. The model was applied to the period of gained experience
between 1993–2005; in addition a few years were included up to 2011 to reachsteady state of maximum production in order to: Predict the remaining period of more than 50 years, andCompensate for the fluctuation occurred in the first three years which showednegative values
Second model development [8 & 13]
Analysis of consumed electrical power (E) in MWh with respect to waterproduction, Table 2, Fig. 4. Analysis of the data points for the period 1995–2004
resulted in a similar linear model as shown below:
E = ( 1750 ) + ( 0.00089 ) W(3)The correlation coefficient is approximately equal to 98% which proves the goodprediction of the model and was capable of estimating the values for the period
1995–2005 and up to 2053.

122

Table (2) : Values of water production (W) in m³,operation and maintenance cost (C) in Dinars, cost of m3 of water (Cw) in
Dinar, consumed electrical power (E) in MWh, consumed power per m3 (e), cost of electricity in Dinar (C e) per m3 according to
GECOL, and their equivalent values (W′, C′, C′ w, E′) calculated by suggested models. Calculated model parameters: firstmodel: a = 5,754,240.317, b = 0.059406751, R =0.9590, W- = 491,656,364, C- = 34,961,948, Cw- = 0.07; second model: d =1750, f = 0.00089, R = 0.0791, W- = 217,623,732, E- = 195,512, e- = 0.8984
O&M cost(Dinar)

Water production, W (m3)
Year

1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2020
2030
2040
2051
2053

Cost of m3 of water (Dinar)

Consumed electrical energy (MWh)Consumed
power/m3(KWh/m3)

Cost of electricity(Dinar)Real (W)

Model (C)Real (W)

Model (C)Real (W)

Model (C)Real (W)

Model (C)

Error%eCe

25,156,778
70,559,826
81,211,731
111,895,989
193,174,027
197,171,813
206,027,410
216,785,617
223,233,339
280,727,780
315,405,683
350,603,934
403,560,044
663,935,992
749,954,207
920,002,602
1,209,650,401
1,535,071,740
1,587,342,010
1,587,342,010
1,587,342,010
1,587,342,010
1,587,342,010
1,587,342,010-96,861,723-47,945,159-55,335,319-3,322,241
027,050,677
13,713,155
93,670,184
202,937,652
282,652,263
318,184,132
348,457,613
323,160,881
525,375,782
576,432,847
626,071,801
708,624,929
1,291,755,075
1,337,182,342
1,363,809,833
1,409,481,471
1,651,881,198
1,969,467,152
2,439,834,094
2,592,533,124
1,857,556,899

2,905,974
2,466,949
5,556,877
7,361,233
6,568,894
11,318,882
17,810,107
22,516,762
24,656,526
26,454,975
24,952,179
36,965,109
39,998,243
42,947,132
47,851,346
82,493,213
85,191,900
86,773,752
89,486,956
103,887,136
122,753,886
150,096,858
159,768,212
116,105,662

0
7,248,723
9,945,970
10,578,765
5,754,240
12,401,618
17,230,082
17,467,577
17,993,659
18,632,770
19,015,808
22,431,366
24,491,467
26,582,481
29,728,432
45,196,521
50,306,584
60,408,606
77,615,641
96,947,866
100,053,073
100,053,073
100,053,073
100,053,073
100,053,073
100,053,073

0.12
0.03
0.07
0.07
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.11
0.10
0.06
0.06
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.07

-0.15
-0.18
-3.18
0.46
1.26
0.19
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.05

0
0
66,95293,651
170,073
175,897
189,466
199,650
208,794
281,194
287,194282,247-

24,14864,57374,057
101,377
173,743
177,302
185,187
194,766
200,506
251,697
282,572
313,911361,060
592,887
662,473
820,876
1,078,764
1,368,504
1,415,042
1,415,042
1,415,042
1,415,042
1,415,042
1,415,042

9.6
7.6
2.1
0.8
2.3
2.5
4.0
14.1
1.6
10.1
-

0.95990.91520.91190.90600.89940.89200.89880.89840.89820.89660.89590.89530.89470.89300.89340.89230.89180.89150.89150.89150.89150.89150.89150.8915

772,736
2,066,443
2,369,823
3,244,089
5,559,703
5,628,072
5,925,678
6,230,939
6,416,262
8,054,417
9,042,302
10,044,662
11,554,086
18,972,635
21,200,306
26,269,386
34,520,519
43,792,527
45,283,693
45,283,693
45,283,693
45,283,693
45,283,693
45,283,693

123Results and Discussion
Influence of Production Efficiency in Cost Analysis
Looking at the theoretical studies of the data analysis showed the following:
1. Operation and maintenance cost is not considered constant, but isdependent directly on water production as illustrated in Eq. (2).
2. Electrical power consumption is not considered constant, but is dependent
directly on water production as illustrated in Eq. (3).
3. Only construction cost is considered constant because it is calculated withthe assumption that the capital costs are considered as sunk value, without
including interest rate.
Hence, assuming these costs to be constant is trivial and resulted in themiscalculations of water costs related to production efficiency. In order tocorrect this error, the calculations were reiterated on the following basis:
1. Conducting the cost analysis for full production with 100% efficiency on a
yearly basis using Eqs. (2) and (3).
2. Calculating the effect of production efficiency by evaluating the value of thiswater of decreased efficiency as follows:a. Calculating operation and maintenance cost for the water resulted fromefficiency difference between 100% and the lower one, then adding thiscost to the 100% efficiency.
b. Doing the same calculations for the electrical power consumed as in (a).
3. Calculating the total cost considering: Constant construction cost.
 Cost resulted from the decrease in efficiency.
Table 3 presents these calculations which can be compared with the results
obtained from previous studies in Table 4 that assumed constant values andexhibited lower values due to the following:
1. It was only proportional to the decrease in efficiency, while the present
analysis considered the effects of decrease in production and efficiency andtheir influence in the increase of costs of m3.
2. Assuming operating-maintenance cost to be constant meant thedevaluation of this water which was not produced due to decrease inefficiency.
3. It did not neglect the influence electrical power cost of this water, although
its effects value was negligible.

124

Table 3: Summary of the cost of m3 of GMMR water in Dinars for the two stages with different production efficiencies
Description
Designed capacity of water production for
the two stages, m³
Water quantity resulted from difference inefficiency between 100% and lower, m 3
Constant construction costs (Libyan
Dinars)Operation and maintenance cost
Electrical power cost
Sum of operational costs
Total costs
Total costs per m3
Operational cost per m3

Production
efficiency
100%

Production
efficiency 70%

Production
efficiency 50%

Production
efficiency 30%

7,875,000,000

55,125,000,000

39,375,000,000

23,625,000,000

023,625,000,000

39,375,000,000

55,125,000,000

7,462,959,539

7,462,959,539

7,462,959,539,000

7,462,959,539,000

4684
2173
6857
7,462,966,397
0.18180.0871

1409
652
2061
2,061,305,561
0.3546
0.1245

2345
1086
3431
3,431,305,561
0.45850.1542

3281
1521
4802
4,801,504,389
0.70090.2903

Table 4: Variations of the cost of m3 of water according to production efficiency as calculated by the River Committee

Description
Total cost of water per m3
Operational cost per m3

Production
efficiency
70%
0.271
0.110

125

Production
efficiency 50%

Production
efficiency 30%

0.379
0.154

0.632
0.257

Conclusion
The result of this study conclude that water management and cost analysis ofwater resources in Libya should concentrate on the following issues:






The importance of mathematical models in the correct evaluation of water
resources in Libya from the point of view of comprehensive feasibility
studies.
The continuous evaluation of the different water resources necessitates themost ideal utilization of these resources in a constructive, neutral, correct,
and scientific way.
Emphasis on the integration policy for the utilization of these resources inorder to resolve the growing water shortage problem.
When using these resources, an account of successful human development
plans must be implemented to afford health, comfort, and prosperity forhumans.
Then the controlling factors in the wise management for these resourcesare:- The different uses: domestic, agricultural, and industrial, requires specificregulations that control the quality of these resources, and the needed
treatment to make it fit.
- The use of any resource should not disturb the environment and its
conservation.
- These resources should compete for their good utilization in order tolower their cost for the different uses.

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2. A.A. Elhassadi and M. Hosni, Ground water salinity increase in the Green
Mountain Region – a threatening phenomena, Scientific Symposium on
Drinking and Waste Water Treatment, 1990.
3. A.A. Elhassadi and N. Hassan, Evaluation of demineralization units in North
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4. A.A. Elhassadi, Report on the Selection of the Most appropriate Desalination
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1991.
5. Abdulsalam Eljahawy : Libyan National Plan to Resolve Water Shortage
Problem in Great Man Made River Project, 2006
6. Adam Kuwari, Water Mining: the Great Man-Made River, Libya, proceeding of
ICE, Civil Engineering 159, Pages 39-43, Paper 1482, 2006.
7. D.K. Todd, Ground Water Hydrology. 2nd ed., J. Wiley, 1980.
8. Daniel P. Loucks and Philippe Pallas, Report on estimation study of production
alternatives costs in collaboration with UNESCO organization, 1996.
9. Desalination Markets 2005–2015. Global Water Intelligence, 2004.
10. G.A. Fleischer, Capitol Allocation Theory. Appleton, 1967.
11. Great Man-Made River Authority, Previous Cost Analysis Studies, Libya, 1993.
12. M. Selawai, Ground Water: Theory and Practice. Libya Dar for Publication,
Distribution, and Advertisement, 1986.

126

13. Milod G. Elhasia, Study about Great Man Made River Authority with title : The
pricing of the Great Man-Made River Authority‘s water for agriculture, industry
and drinking, 1993.
14. Mohamed A. ElDarrat, Adel Bakir and Basher O. Elsalah, Report on the costs ofthe project water compared the costs of water desalination, 2003.
15. Omar Essamin and Mark Holly: The role of Acoustic Monitoring in theManagement of the World Largest Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe Project,
2005.
16. Report on Calculating the Cost and the Price for GMRA Project‘s Water. Decree123, 2005.
17. Report on Calculating the Cost and the Price for GMRA Project‘s Water, 2005.
18. Salem Bazina, Study presents to Great Man Made River Authority with title :The pricing of the Great Man-Made River Authority‘s water for agriculture,industry and drinking, 1994.

127

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015 Page 128-134

14
THE STATUS OF MEDICAL FACILITIES IN THE TRIBAL AREAS OF
CHHATTISGARH(With special reference to Primitive Tribes)
Mahesh Shrivastava
Head, Dept. of Economics, Govt. BSBA College,
Dongargaon, Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh
Abstract: To assess the developmental status of any society, one has to peep in to thehealth, education, income and capacity of the production of that state. According toWorld health Organization, health is a combination of biological, psychological andsocio-cultural status of a person. Good health is a primary need of any society and it
has been declared as our fundamental human right by WHO. The term “health” is not
only related to the medical security, but it also includes the unified overall developmentof a society which comprises of social, cultural, economic, educational and politicaldevelopment. It also deals with the health, economic, political and religious customs ofa society. Any society can be developed only by developing the educational andmedical facilities. In addition to these, economic conditions also played a vital role.
Key words: Health, Education, Tribal Area, Human Right

Introduction
The state of Chhattisgarh was newly formed on 1. Nov.2000. According to thecensus 2011 the total population of the state is 2,55,45,198 and the total tribal
population is 78,22,902. Out of the total population of the state, 30.06%
population consists of tribes. The number of these tribal groups is 31 (42 inundivided M.P.). Out of these tribal groups, 5 tribes have been declared as theprimitive tribes by the government of India, as per the survey made by―Chhattisgarh Primitive Tribal Research and Training Centre, Raipur‖ in 20052006, the total population of these five tribal groups in state is 1,46,423 andtotal number of families of primitive tribes in the state is 34,203 and among
them. These are - Hill Korwa, Kamar, Birhor, Baiga and Abujamria. The tribalgroups in the state, who have been given the status of special backward classby the government of india, reside in the following regions –128

S.No.

Table 1: Distribution of Primitive tribes in Chhattisgarh
Name of primitive tribes
Residing

1.

Abujhmaria

Bastar, Kanker and Dantewada,

2.

Baiga

Bilaspur, Kawrdha, Korba, Durg

3.

BirhorRaigarh, Jashpur, Sarguja,

4.

Hill Korwa

Jashpur, Sarguja, Korba

5.

Kamar

Dhamtari, Gariaband, Mahasamund

Source : C.G. Tribal Research and Training Untitute, T.K. Vaishnav, 2008.

The above table makes it clear that all the five Primitive tribes of
Chhattisgarh are scattered almost equally throughout the state. One one hand
the Abujhmaria reside in the southern part of the state; district Bastar, Kanker,
and Dantewadaof the state, on the other hand the Baigas are found in thecentral region (District Bilaspur, Kawrdha, Korba, and Durg). Similarly theKamar tribe lives in Dhamtari, Gariaband and Mahasamund District. The Birhorand Hill Korwas are found in the northern region District Raigarh, Jashpur,
Sarguja,
According to Baiga Vikas Abhikaran Kawardha, the total population andsex ratio of Baiga tribe in the state is:Table No. 2: Sex Ratio in Baiga Tribe
Male

Percentage

FemalePercentage

Total Percentage

34250

50.94%

32991

49.06%

67241

100%

Source: Baiga Vikas Abhikaran, Distt. Kawardha (C.G.), 2004-05

The table reflects that the Baiga tribe is the largest tribe found in
Chhattisgarh. The number of Baigas in the state is 67241 and the percentage ofmale and female is 50.94% and 49.06% respectively.
Objective of the Study
The following objectives have been determined to examine the healthcondition of primitive tribes in Chhattisgarh and the situation of medical
programmes being run by government1. What is the health condition of Primitive tribe in Chhattisgarh ?
2. Which type of health programmes are being run by the Government ?
3. How much the Government health centres have been sucssesfull inproviding them medical services ?
4. What are the social conventions that hinder their health condition directly
or indirectly?
5. What is the situation of its implementation.

129

Review of Literature
There has been a vast literature on the subject of Tribes. But most of theavailable literature on the subject are basically Anthropological, Sociological,
Economical, Geological and Ethnological in character and describe various
aspects of Tribal life, culture, religion etc. In other words, they have madeextensive studies in the field of social-cultural patterns of life. Economists, too,have studied their economic problems and evaluated the programs and projects
meant for the development of Scheduled Tribes.
In the context of Indian Tribes, T.C.Hudson in his book ‗The Primitive
Culture of India‘ (1922), has traced the complex historical evolution of various
tribes of India. J.H.Hutton has further analysed their conditions in his book
‗Primitive Tribes‘ (1941). Stephen Fuchs has written a comprehensive accountof the aboriginal tribes of the Indian sub-contnent in his book ‗The Aboriginal
Tribes of India‘ (1973). E.T. Dalton in his book ‗Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal‘(1872) has provided an account of the tribal societies of north-eastern state.
B.S. Guha has discussed the racial affinities of the Indian Aborigine‘s different
perspective in his book ‗The Aborigine Races of India‘ (1951). P.N. Sengupta
has studied the the consumption nutrition pattern of the aborigines in his book‗The Aborigine- Their Nutrition and Welfare‘ (1959). L.P.Vidyarthi in his book‗Rise of Anthropology in India‘ (1978), has produced valuable studies on thesocio-economic organization of Indian tribes. G.S. Ghurye has depicted thehistoric development of the Indian Tribes and made a chronicle of the tribal
development since Independence in his book ‗The Scheduled Tribes‘ (1963).
N.K. Ambastha has studied the education system vis-à-vis the income
and expenditure pattern of the tribes in his book ‗A Critical Study of the Tribal
Education‘ (1969). N.K. Bose has discussed the socio-cultural features of the
Indian Tribes in his book ‗Tribal Life in India‘ (1971). A.R. Basu in his work
‗Tribal Development Programs and Administration of India‘ (1985), opines thatdevelopment strategy and tribal communities has to be in tune with thedevelopment strategy of the nation. S.C. Dubey in his book ‗Tribal Heritage ofIndia‘ (1977) has examined the changing pattern of socio-cultural organizationof the tribes.
B.D. Sharma investigates into the impact of socio-cultural practices on
the economic developments of the tribe in his book ‗Tribal Development –Concept and the Frame‘ (1978). K.S. Singh, ‗Tribal Society in India‘, 1985
studies the Tribal society of India in an Anthropological perspective. A. Kumar,‗Tribal culture and Economy‘, 1986
has attempted to analyze and interpretthe sociocultural and economic structure of the Mal Paharia in the light ofregional geographical complex. S. B. Saha, ‗Tribes of Tripura‘, 1986 presents a

130

graphic account of the distribution of various tribes in Tripura. He also studies
their regional pattern of cultural and social perspective. T.S. Das, ‗Life
Style:Indian Tribes‘, 1987 studies the genre de vie of the Indian tribes ininstitutional perspective. R. Prasad, ‗A Cultural Ecology and Tribal Dynamic‘,
1988 simply studies the cultural ecology vis-a-vis the reciprocity of various
tribes and also analyses various indices of colour blindness amaong the tribel
population of Gujarat. The rate of blindness varies from 0.70 among the bill to
8.96 among koli. B.C. Roy, ‗Tribals of Orissa‘, 1989 has edited a book which
consists of analysis of various tribes of Orena, their society and culture. But
none of the work could claim to be empirical in nature. P.A.Sinha, ‗Religious lifein Tribal India‘, 1989 discusses the various spatial aspects of Religious life at
the DudhKharia, an important tribe of the Gumla district.
D.K. Behera and M.Parida, ‗Problems and Treatment of the Aged Among
the Plain –Bhuiyans of Orissa‘, 1990 in their paper make an humble attempt to
examine the problems and treatment of the aged among the plain-Bhuiyans ofOrissa. The paper is a study of Koira block of Sundragarh, a tribal predominatednorthern district of Orissa and Bhuiyans constitute the largest tribe of thisblock.A. K. Holder, ‗Aging among the Bedia of Ramgarh hill Range‘, 1990 has
provided general account of economic and health condition of the Bedia ofRamgarh hill range. S. Dasgupta, ‗Role of Forest on the Socio-cultural life of the
Birjia-Some observation‘, 1992 has highlighted in his paper how the forest plays
role in Birjia‘s life and also their closeness or affinity or dependence on forest.
The above mentioned studies make it evident that definitely the studies
have been done on the primitive tribes, but they all have focused on Bihar,
Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal. There has been very less research on thePrimitive tribes of Chhattisgarh. Some studies have been done, but they arefrom Social – Economic and Anthropological point of view, but not about healthcondition.
Present health condition of the Primitive tribes in Chhattisgarh
While collecting the data of the diseases, for the purpose of health study, it isfound that in Primitive Tribes, they suffer mainly from malaria, typhoid, skindisease, anemia, diahrria, filaria and leprosy etc. The main causes of these
diseases, found wereTable 3: Name of the Main Disease and Cause
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Name of Disease
Skin-Disease
Diarrhoea, Jaundice
Typhoid
Malaria
Mal-Nutrition

Cause
Unhygienic life style.
Consumption of impure water
Lack of cleanness
Outbreak of Mosquitoes
Intake of low Calorie in foodSource: Chhattisgarh Schedule Tribe Research and Training Centre, Raipur, (2004-05).

131

The above table shows that the Baigas of Chhattiagarh are mainly
suffering from five type of diseases. The causes of these diseases are also
given. For example the cause of skin-disease is their Unhygienic life style andDiarrhoea, Jaundice is due to the consumption of the impure water etc.
Previously, the Primitive tribes used to live in the hills and forests where thedoctors and medical facilities could not reach. So they were compelled to get
the treatment from local Baiga or Gunia with local herbal medicines. Even
today, in some remote regions, which are still away from modern medical
facilities, the traditional remedial methods like- Casting out evil spirits by themeans of charms and worshipping of Gods and Goddess etc., are prevalent.
The specialists in these fields are going door to door in various villages andtreat the ailing persons. But they have to go ultimately go to the doctor for someserious diseases. The present status of treatment is given below Table 4: Preoriti of Treatment in Tribal Areas of Chhattisgarh
S.No.
Nature of treatment
Percent
1.

Domestic Treatment

09.9

2.

Baiga Gunia

49.3

3.

Harbel Medicines

14.05

4.

Qualified Doctors

26.61

Total

100.00Source: Chhattisgarh Schedule Tribe Research and Training Centre, Raipur, 2008. Vol. 4

It is clear from the table that whenever Baigas fall sick, 49.39% of them
prefer to go to Baiga- Gunia for treatment; thereafter 26.61% Baigs go to thequalified doctors for treatment where as 14.05% Baigas prefer Herbal
Medicines and 09.95% Baigas believe in Domestic Treatment for them.
The Status of Government health Programmers in tribal Regions
The Government welfare schemes are being run in this region. Many Primary
Health Centre ( PHC) Programs are running in these areas and trained healthworkers (NMA) are being appointed. The status of health programmes in thisregion is given below-

Population
112594

Table 5 : Medical Facilities in Tribal Areas
No. of Villages No. P.H.C. Centers
No. of N.M.A s
1176
26.2 %
41.14%

Source: Chhattisgarh Schedule Tribe Research and Training Centre, Raipur, 2008. Vol. 4

It is clear from the above table that although the Government is runningmany programs for providing health facilities to the tribals, still the efforts being
done are not at all sufficient in comparison to the population .The primary132

Health centers have been established only in 26.2% areas .Moreover NMAs arelimited in only 41.14% villages. The number of doctors and health workers werealso very few in number.
Suggestions
After evaluating these programs, it can be said that the Government is making
policies for the speedy development of the tribal but still development of tribal in
Chhattisgarh state remains a distant dream. The primitive tribes remainprimitive. Health services are not within the reach of the tribes. Literacy among
the tribes is at a low level. Female literacy among them is negligible. A mere
stepping up of investment without bringing out any structural change in theinstitutional framework causes utter failure of the programmes in many cases.
The causes of failures may be due to:1.
It is very essential to study the socio-cultural background and healthculture, related to the health of the tribes.
2.
The tribes should be given knowledge regarding health and nutrition byarranging Health Education Camps in those areas. Documentary films,
based on health education and physical education should be shown inthe schools as well as to the villagers.
3.
There is a need for establishing more training centers for tribal nurses,
midwifes, compounders and health workers.
4.
The efficient herbal vaidyas of tribal areas should be identified and thisknowledge should be preserved and handed over to the youths byorganizing Herbal Medicine Training Programmers.
5.
The facility of pure drinking water should be provided in tribal regions.
6.
There should be special allowances and promotion provisions alongwith well furnished homes, electricity, telephone and vehicle facilities forthe doctors and nurses.
7.
The mobile dispensaries should be introduced in these remote areas.
8.
As the tribes are related to the herbal medicines for centuries, theAyurvedic dispensaries should also be established.
9.
Some special health programmers should be organized on somespecific recurrent diseases in these tribal regions.

Conclusion
As a healthy mind lives in a healthy body, it is very important that the tribes
should remain healthy for their overall development. A healthy mind along witha healthy body is the first condition of a working population. The area of
Chhattisgarh where the Primitive Tribes are residing is affected with lots of
diseases like; Guitre (Ghengha) and Malaria, especially in the rainy season.
Moreover, due to ignorance and unavailability of clean water, they are also133

affected by the skin diseases. Although the Government provides them free
medical checkups and medicines from the health services, but due to a limited
number of health services, they can‘t get full benefited by it. In addition to this,the number of health employees is also less in comparison to the population of
the region.
Since the literate tribes prefer to go to the qualified doctors, it is also
recommended that the literacy rate of them should be increased. There shouldbe special health awareness camps in the rainy season, when cholera or
malaria are spread in these areas. If it is essential, Anganbadi workers shouldbe trained for spreading gamaxin in the affected Tribal villages, distribution ofchlorine should be made available in the affected regions. Mobile Medical
Vehicles should be introduced so that they can provide medical facility to thetribes living in the remotest areas. They should be encouraged to use handpumps, instead of ponds for drinking water, because most of the time, polluted
water is the main cause of the epidemics.
References
1. Shrivastava Mahesh ―The Effect of Government Programmes on the
Economic Status of Baiga Tribes in Chhattisgarh.‖ Unpublished Project
Report for U.G.C. New Delhi, 2011.
2. Vaishnav,T.K. ―Chhattisgarh ki Adim- Janjatiyan Tribal Research andTraining Centre, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, 2007.
3. Vaishnav,T.K. ―The Scheduled tribes of Chhattisgarh, Tribal Research andTraining Centre, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,2008.
4. Vanya Jati, Bharatiya Aadim Jati Sevak Sangh, New Delhi,Jan. 2010, Vol.58.
5. Vikas Yojnayen, Scheduled Cast and Scheduled tribe department C.G.Govt.
Raipur. 2004-05.

134

Journal of Global Resources

Volume 1 (No.1)

July 2015

Page 135-144

15
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE
Sunil Kumar Verma
Lecturer in Geography,
Govt. Lohia PG College, Churu (Raj.)
Email: kurbarasunil@gmail.com

Abstract: Biodiversity is the establishment of life on earth and one of the mainstays offeasible advancement. The wealth and mixed bag of life on earth makes conceivable
the environment benefits on which we depend: clean water, nourishment, sanctuary,
medication and attire. Situations rich in biodiversity are strong when stricken bycharacteristic debacle. The greater part of this is of specific significance for the poorest
natives of our reality. The individuals who live on just a couple of dollars a day needbiodiversity to meet their fundamental needs. Without the preservation andmaintainable utilization of biodiversity, we won't attain to the Millennium Development
Goals.
Key words: Agricultural Biodiversity, Ex Situ Conservation, In Situ Conservation, Plant
Genetic Resources, Sustainable Development, Practical Farming.

Introduction
Biodiversity is being lost at an extraordinary rate. This, is genuinely
disintegrating the limit of our planet to manage life on earth. It is therefore thatworld pioneers going to the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
Johannesburg in 2002 consented to attain to, by 2010, a critical diminishment in
the rate of loss of biodiversity. This dedication was repeated at the 2005 World
Summit. The 2010 biodiversity target is currently completely incorporated into
the system of the Millennium Development Goals and, as an indication offurther backing, the universal group chose to proclaim 2010 the InternationalYear for Biological Diversity. As the world likewise concentrates moreconsideration on environmental change, the connections between
environmental change and biodiversity are additionally being enunciated. The
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment - a best in class evaluation of the world's
biological systems and the administrations they give - has distinguishedenvironmental change as one of the greatest reasons for our planet's loss of
biodiversity, alongside changing area utilization designs. What's more, the as oflate discharged report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change madeit completely clear that environmental change is genuine and will keep on135

influencing our lives and biological communities for a long time to come. Thoseeffects will incorporate the eradication of constantly expanding quantities of
species, further debilitating various effectively delicate biological systems.
It is convenient that the topic of the current year's recognition of theInternational Day for Biological Diversity is "Biodiversity and Climate Change".
Surely, the protection and supportable utilization of biodiversity is a fundamental
component of any procedure to adjust to environmental change. Mangrove
woods and other beachfront wetlands speak to a rampart against compellingclimate occasions and climbing ocean levels. As farming scenes get to be hotter
and drier, the differing qualities of animals and cereal harvests can furnish
ranchers with alternatives to adapt to new conditions. Woodlands, peatlands
and different biological systems add to sequestering carbon dioxide from theclimate, in this manner serving to moderate increments in nursery gas
emanations. Through the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the universal group is
focused on saving biodiversity and battling environmental change. The
worldwide reaction to these difficulties needs to move considerably more quickly
and with more determination at all levels - worldwide, national andneighborhood. For the purpose of present and future eras, we must attain to theobjectives of these milestone instruments.
To utilize biodiversity as a part of a reasonable way intends to utilize
common assets at a rate that the Earth can recharge them. It's an approach toguarantee that we address the issues of both present and future eras. As
human populace expands, so does the weight on biological systems, since wedraw steadily assets from them. Our biological foot shaped impression on theplanet is unsustainable and will get to be intolerable unless we change ourutilization designs and our conduct as a rule. Before, people have adjusted tochanging conditions by expanding benefit, yet now we have come to thefurthest reaches of the Earth's ability. Today our just choice is to oversee profit
and assets in a manageable way, decreasing waste wherever conceivable,utilizing the standards of versatile administration, and considering conventional
learning which adds to the support of biological system administrations.
Much of the time, conventional information has added to securing natural
life and biological communities and to guaranteeing a "characteristic parity".
Customary learning contains "information, developments and practices ofindigenous and nearby groups far and wide, created as a matter of factincreased over hundreds of years and adjusted to the neighborhood society andenvironment, which is transmitted orally from era to era", as per the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD). Customary learning is aggregately possessed

136

and takes the type of stories, tunes, fables, maxims, social qualities,
convictions, customs, group laws, nearby dialects and horticultural works on,
including the improvement of plant species and creature breeds. Article 8(j) of
the CBD calls for nations to regard, protect and look after learning,developments and practices of indigenous and nearby groups exemplifying
customary ways of life important to the preservation and feasible utilization of
biodiversity. Biodiversity preservation specialists should in this way guaranteethat the groups depending straightforwardly on common assets are included inprotection activities and assurance their dynamic support amid the entire
protection process. Some manifestation of group engagement is fundamental
for the achievement of any biodiversity preservation venture. There are
additionally numerous great cases of group monitored territories as far and wide
as possible. These destinations have been overseen by groups for eras for thereasonable utilization of regular assets, for example, therapeutic plants andwater springs, or actually for religious purposes. These locales might possibly
have government assurance or composed administration regulations. Thenagain, the group individuals have grown decently perceived and regarded
principles that are frequently stronger than any law and have been honed foreras. The final result is the preservation and reasonable utilization of assets. A
few administrations now lawfully perceive customary practices and regard
indigenous and neighborhood groups as the standard stewards of thebiodiversity.
An Evolving International Consensus
The significance of reinforcing environmental cognizance and flexibility as
fundamental conditions for both biodiversity preservation and supportableadvancement has pulled in developing consideration lately in an extensive
variety of protection and improvement flora. The World Summit on Sustainable
Development, which was held in Johannesburg in September 2002, received
the objective of securing by 2010 a noteworthy lessening in the current rate ofbiodiversity misfortune. In setting out how this can be attained to inside theconnection of practical improvement, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
required the advancement of 'national and territorial biological systems andhalls'.
The most vital biodiversity preservation instrument, the Convention on
Biological Diversity, likewise perceives the estimation of biological soundness
as a method for attaining to the Convention's three targets – the protection oforganic assorted qualities, the supportable utilization of its parts and thereasonable and evenhanded offering of the profits emerging out of the use ofhereditary assets. Despite the fact that the Convention itself does not determine
the accurate means by which these targets are to be accomplished, its

137executing instrument is attempting to advance the reinforcing of biologicalreasonability. For instance, in 2002 the Conference of the Parties to theConvention prescribed that, to ration woodland organic differences, 'biologicalpassages' ought to be produced on a national and local premise.
Concerning more extensive usage approaches, in 2000 the Conferenceof the Parties distinguished the Ecosystem Approach as the essential structure
for the execution of the Convention and suggested the utilization of its
standards. The Ecosystem Approach can be viewed as a methodology for theadministration of area, water and living assets that advances preservation andfeasible use in a fair way. At the heart of the methodology is the mindfulness
that, without the successful administration of environments, there can be no
financial improvement that creates feasible human and social welfare; similarly.
A key issue that these improvements raise is the ramifications of theConvention, the Ecosystem Approach and environmental systems for the focal
mainstay of biodiversity protection – the secured territory. This is a matter thatconcerns not just how preservation and improvement methodologies ought tobest be connected in regional terms. It has far more extensive ramifications, forexample, for law, institutional structures, the portion of stores, arranging
systems, neediness assumption, strategy incorporation and the part ofindigenous people groups. In any case, there are great purposes behindbelligerence that the two methodologies ought to be seen less as contenders
than as partners that, in the more drawn out term, will advantage from a
considerable level of collaboration.
Two focuses merit accentuating here. Initially, it is pass that ensured
range administration itself has experienced a transformation over the previous
decades. Today there is an expansive and developing mindfulness that theassurance of individual organic components –, for example, locales andundermined species – is by and large not succeeding in capturing the decreasein biodiversity. The conventional perspective that views secured regions as
islands of nature fenced off from a debilitating world is now viewed as very
restricted by a considerable extent of the ensured territories group. Second,
keeping in mind the end goal to reinforce their part in monitoring biodiversity,
stores are progressively being assigned and oversaw as frameworks of secured
territories. That is to say, the push of ensured region approach in numerous
nations or locales is moving towards the objective of guaranteeing theprotection of a delegate cluster of trademark environments and species
populaces. The consequence of these two advancements is that, inside theensured regions group, a wide mindfulness has emerged of the need to grasp

138

the environmental, social, monetary and social connection inside which secured
territories work as a method for enhancing their viability.
Biodiversity holds various qualities which incorporate direct (subsistence
and tradable) and backhanded (watershed insurance, supplement reusing,atmosphere regulation and numerous other environment administrations).
These assets regularly act as a monetary "cradle" supplying option organic
assets for the rustic and urban group. In any case,in recent time next to no of
the world's biodiversity stays unaffected by human movement. Loss of
biodiversity directly affects the solidness of the environment. This shows theinterest of pressing mediation to readdress the many negative effects of
biodiversity control, and move far from concentrating on transient additions, toanticipate those who are subsistence subordinate, or get pay from exchanging
biodiversity. Consequently it is vital to survey and analyses a methodologies forthe protection and manageable utilization of biodiversity for the profits of thegroup and the nature itself. The point of this paper is to survey diverse articles
identified with the preservation of biodiversity and selects the best alternatives
and methodologies that can help to keep up the capability of natural assets
while keeping the needs and yearning of the group. In this respect, taking into
account the site condition distinctive biodiversity conservation methodologies
were distinguished which include: in-situ protection, ex-situ preservation, aroundsitu protection and reciprocal protection. Preservation in view of the biodiversity
segments was additionally alternate methodologies used to dissect anddistinguish the fitting protection approach at a bigger scale. This segment based
biodiversity preservation methodology incorporates: the hereditary based
protection, species-based conservation, ecosystem-based preservation andscene level protection approach. From this union it has been learnt that, theenvironment methodology has been commented as the best approach for thepreservation of biodiversity. Because, ecosystem methodology is worked inview of (i) the use of investigative systems, (ii) individuals are an integral pieceof numerous biological communities, and (iii) utilizing versatile administration to
manage the unpredictable and element nature of environments. Thusly, due toits comprehensive nature, the environment methodology can possibly mainstream conservation into general human issues and utilized as the bestalternative for the protection and economical utilization of biodiversity
The gratefulness for rural biodiversity has developed and developed,
bringing about an expanding mindfulness that its valuation and utilization could
add to long haul protection and utilization. This sourcebook empowers activity
went for overseeing horticultural biodiversity assets inside existing scenes andbiological communities, in backing of the vocations of ranchers, fishers andanimals managers. The production is an aggregation of field-based encounters139

by researchers, advancement masters, scholastics, strategy producers andbenefactors as far and wide as possible; it comprises of three volumes: 1)
comprehension horticultural biodiversity, 2) fortifying neighborhoodadministration of farming biodiversity, and 3) guaranteeing an empowering
domain for agrarian biodiversity. It is intended for utilization by rustic
improvement experts and neighborhood executives, and also mentors andeducationalists.
Biodiversity is the level of variety of life. It is a measure of the mixed bagof living beings introduce in diverse biological systems. This can allude tohereditary variety, environment variety, or species variety (number of species)
inside a range, biome, or planet. Physical biodiversity has a tendency to be
most noteworthy close to the equator, which is by all accounts the aftereffect of
the warm atmosphere and high essential productivity. Biodiversity is notdisseminated uniformly on Earth. It is the wealthiest in the tropics. Marine
biodiversity has a tendency to be most noteworthy along coasts in the Western
Pacific, where ocean surface temperature is most noteworthy and in the midlatitudinal band in all seas. There are latitudinal slopes in species diversity.
Biodiversity for the most part has a tendency to group in hotspots, and has been
expanding through time yet will be prone to abate later on.
The most punctual proofs for life on Earth are graphite discovered to bebiogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old met sedimentary rocks found in Western
Greenland and mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone found inWestern Australia. Since life started on Earth, five noteworthy mass eliminations
and a few minor occasions have prompted extensive and sudden drops inbiodiversity. The Phanerozoic age (the last 540 million years) denoted a quick
development in biodiversity by means of the Cambrian blast a period amid
which the greater part of multi cellular phyla initially showed up. The following
400 million years included rehashed, enormous biodiversity misfortunes
delegated mass termination occasions. In the Carboniferous, rainforest
breakdown prompted an awesome loss of plant and creature life. The Permian–
Triassic eradication occasion, 251 million years prior, was the most noticeably
bad; vertebrate recuperation took 30 million years. The latest, the Cretaceous–
Paleocene termination occasion, happened 65 million years back and has
frequently pulled in more consideration than others in light of the fact that it
brought about the annihilation of the dinosaurs.
The "Protection" standard has changed in the most recent few decades
from the "uninvolved" approach that rejects individuals from the biodiversity
security regions (PA) to a comprehensive approach that includes both as wellas advances practical biodiversity for utilization somewhere else, since140biodiversity clients incorporate the neighborhood rustic groups, as well as far
away urban natives. Therefore, biodiversity-accommodating exercises must be
coordinated into both rustic and urban ways of life, to keep away from themystery in which the country poor are constrained to yield their survival needsof fuel, feed, fertilizer, sustenance, and so on. On the other hand, thetherapeutic plants exchange to meet the developing urban natural restorative
covetousness undermines species annihilation. Encouraging such acoordinated methodology obliges limit building of the country groups forprotection and manageable utilization of biodiversity, while that of the urbanpurchasers for impartial profit imparting. Such comprehensive instruction canadvance exercises that meet the triple main concern of biologicalmaintainability, monetary suitability and social value. Endeavors for such anincorporated, pragmatic instructive methodology are depicted in this note, toupgrade practicality of the employments of the provincial poor, and make urban
utilization sustainable.
Fair Trade for Sustainable and Equitable UseAdvancing provincial development for rustic restorative needs can decrease
harvest weight on wild assets insignificantly. In any case, it can't stay away fromthe danger of species termination owing to much higher urban business request
because of the quickly developing home grown restorative industry- including
skin and body care items coming about because of eagerness. Every town
utilizes around 15-20 therapeutic plants, and people healers think around 100200 species each. The aggregate number of species utilized therapeutically allover India is around 8,000. Around 800 are exchanged, suggesting high urban
interest, of which 600 of these are completely gathered from the wild while therest are either developed or foreign to some degree (Ved et al, 2003). Of these,
almost 300 i.e. half of the aggregate wild accumulations are of high protection
concern, due to high populace diminishment because of harvest weight andterritory misfortune, and may confront risk of termination eventually. The
eradication danger to these species can't be diminished by advancing
development of few species for provincial medicinal services. Businessdevelopment of species in high exchange interest may help in lessening theharvest weight of their wild populace, however may not help diminish thedrudgery of the provincial gatherers. Most therapeutic plants gatherers arelandless workers, who depend on products gathered from open grounds. They
may not land positions if the rich proprietors attempt development of species
prior assembled from nature. Developed species additionally regularly do nothave the restorative adequacy gotten from the wild source, created by regularstretch, for example, dry spell, irritation or microbial assault, and so on.
Therefore, there is constantly a higher request and cost accessible for the wild
sourced therapeutic items than the developed ones. Along these lines,

141

development alone can't tackle the issues of species termination or job
imbalance. Advancing economical collecting of the wild deliver and evenhanded
offering of its business advantage is irreplaceable.
At the UN Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio in June 2012,
world pioneers focused on the protection and feasible utilization of sea life
organic assorted qualities in zones past national purview (the high oceans). Our
examination of crevices in high oceans administration demonstrates that an
ideal model change to a more methodical methodology will be expected toshield high oceans biodiversity from mounting dangers. Experience fromphysical and waterfront regions demonstrates that a deliberate way toprotection arranging and administration can help to keep up environment
wellbeing and benefit while empowering maintainable utilization. Ourinvestigation further shows that the momentum lawful administration on the highoceans is deficient to understand these goals: administration establishments
have neither a satisfactory command for incorporated arranging nor thecapacity to viably organize crosswise over numerous administrations. We
distinguish key components for future high oceans administration and place thata two dimensional methodology is most guaranteeing: the advancement of anenhanced worldwide lawful administration that joins deliberate arranging and in
addition the development of existing and new local understandings andcommands. This joined methodology is destined to attain to the obliged
biological community based, incorporated and science-based administrationthat world pioneers at Rio recognized ought to support sea administration.
Exploration structures a piece of a continuum that ranges fromunadulterated and vital research through connected and formative stages toboundless use of the examination results.The MOFEC-Tropenbos program in
Kalimantan covers an extensive piece of this continuum; it has grown as amultidisciplinary way to issues in woods arrangement and administration. Thisissue introduction is a prominent peculiarity of the system. Again and again
research is directed in a vacuum, in a scientist's own particular thin field, anddoes not address significant approach issues. Numerous individual researchers,
research foundations and improvement orgs overlook the requirement forscience to add to the approach process and to address the issues or wishes ofall partners in the timberland. Specifically, there has been checked hesitance byfinancial and biophysical researchers to address issues on a multidisciplinary
and between disciplinary premises. Organic differing qualities and its protection
are crucial to the accomplishment of manageable utilization of tropical
downpour woodlands yet natural differences fluctuates between biologicalsystems, species, populaces, qualities and alleles; inspecting for biodiversity
must make note of variety due transient and geographic impacts. Test sizes142may be diminished by the recognizable proof of different markers including
species area connections, biological and financial pointer species, taxic
gatherings and practical gatherings. A scope of techniques for evaluation andobserving of biodiversity incorporate customary woodland stock and vegetation
investigation upheld by remote sensing procedures and late sub-atomic
systems.
Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Developmentin 1992 the significance of biodiversity and its protection has been generally
perceived (Heywood, 1995). The Convention on Biological Diversity perceives
that natural assets ought to be made unreservedly accessible for feasible
utilization subject to reasonable and impartial imparting of profits from theutilization of hereditary assets; this is frustrated with the need to perceive theprotected innovation privileges of the individuals who initially moderated an
asset or its data and of the individuals who work towards its hereditary change
and application. To embrace economical preservation of natural assorted
qualities and the astute utilization of hereditary assets, we require strategies forthe evaluation of organic differences and for its protection. We look to ration
organic differences for moral, stylish, environmental and monetary reasons
however every one of them need the fundamental data, perceiving that natural
assorted qualities itself alludes to biological systems, species, populaces,
genotypes and qualities.
Conclusion
Biodiversity preservation and maintainable improvement are two between
related limbs concentrating on social advancement, financial development andecological assurance on one side, and biological system protection on theother. Preservation incorporates the endeavors completed in ensured regions,for example, national parks and group saves, and in different territories with richand critical biodiversity where protection is not the principle center. It is in theserecent gainful scenes where manageability is required most. Practical farming,manageable fisheries and maintainable administration of characteristic assets
are the principle approaches for safeguarding these scenes for long haul social,monetary and environmental profits.
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