Intercultural Experience, Relationships andCommunicative Competence
Andrew Reimann
Abstract
Empathy, flexibility, and the ability to make meaningful connections are essential
communication strategies for bridging cultural differences and accepting others. This report will
describe cross-cultural experiences and strategies for raising awareness of relationship building as animportant communication tool. A key focus will be discussions on problems of identity, cultural
obstacles, and challenges involved with intercultural relationships.
As educators in Japan, we need to prepare learners to interact with different cultures.
Language teachers are in a unique position to be able to use their experiences to develop empathy,intercultural awareness, flexibility, and the ability to negotiate meaning across differences. Global
language learning necessitates fostering multiple competencies, a flexible perspective, and amultilevel awareness to make meaningful, cross-cultural connections. Four models of interculturalcommunication and relationship building will be discussed and considered to gauge how they can beapplied to improving the overall intercultural experience both domestically and abroad. Thesemodels will be related to responses from 12 expatriates living in Japan who were surveyed regarding
their experiences in various relationships, for the purpose of understanding the intricacies ofintercultural relationships and subsequent strategies for communication across cultures.
Abstract
異文化体験、関係、コミュニケーション能力
共感、柔軟性、そして人と人との有意義なつながりを育む力は、文化の違いの架け橋としても、他者を理解するためにも欠かせないコミュニケーション戦略である。この報告書では、異文化体験と、大切なコミュニケーションツールの１つとしての人間関係を築く意識向上の方法について述べる。主な焦点
は、異文化間コミュニケーションに関わるアイデンティティー、文化的な障害、そしてタブーにまでも目を向け、それらの問題を討議することである。

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日本における教育者として、私たちは、様々な異なる文化に触れる機会を学習者に与えてあげる必要がある。言語教師は、自身の経験を用いて、共感する心、異文化意識、柔軟性、そして文化の違いを越えた意味の交渉をする力を持たせることができる唯一の立場にある。国際語を学ぶことは、有意義な文
化間のつながりを持つために、複数の能力、柔軟な考え方、そして多層な認識の育成を必要とする。異文化間コミュニケーションと人間関係の構築の 4 つのモデルを、国内外における全ての異文化体験の促
進にどのように応用できるかについて探るために論じて検討する。
I. Introduction
The following relates models of intercultural communicative competence and international
exchange to different sojourners experiences abroad. The purpose is to gain a deeper, more objective
or systematic understanding of intercultural relationships, which could be applied to language
learning in order to help learners become more effective communicators. Empathy, flexibility, andthe ability to make meaningful connections are essential communication strategies for bridging
cultural differences and accepting others. Learners who possess these skills, are invariably better
equipped to communicate effectively, and interact appropriately across cultures. Roberts, Byram,
Barro, and Street（2001）contend that intercultural communication “is always a cultural process andthat communication in a foreign（and in some contexts, a second）language involves mediating andestablishing relationships across cultures”（p.7）. This report describes how cross-cultural experiencesor critical incidents can be understood and applied to raising awareness of relationship building as afundamental communication tool. A key focus will be on problems of identity, cultural obstacles, andchallenges involved with intercultural relationships. As Piller and Takahashi （2006） note, manysuccessful learners were in, or desired to be in, an intercultural relationship without fully
understanding the communication issues that went beyond language. Ward （1996） describedintercultural contact and communication as a major, stressful life event, which should be understoodcarefully in order to prevent or reduce negative psychological or emotional effects. Spencer-Oately
and Franklin （2009） identify research conducted in ʻIntercultural Interactional Competenceʼ,establishing measurable variables for effective communication. One study highlights essential factors:（1）“
the ability to deal with psychological stress;（2）the ability to communicate effectively; and（3）the ability to establish interpersonal relationships”（p. 56）. A second project determined interculturalcommunicative competence are correlated to empathy and bilingualism（p. 57）.
As educators in Japan, we need to prepare learners to interact with different cultures. How
can teachers develop empathy, intercultural awareness, flexibility, and the ability to negotiate
meaning across differences? Can we apply our skills and experiences to help learners use relationship− 18 −

Intercultural Experience, Relationships and Communicative Competencebuilding to become better communicators? Global language learning necessitates fostering multiplecompetencies, a flexible perspective, and a multilevel awareness to make meaningful, cross-culturalconnections. Relating the experiences of several teachers, international business professionals andconsultants to some key models and stages of cultural competence and adaptation, this report aims
to apply this knowledge, insight and understanding towards producing learners who are flexible,
adaptable and empathetic communicators. Four models of intercultural communication andrelationship building will be discussed and considered to gauge how they can be applied to improving
the overall intercultural experience both domestically and abroad. These models were selected
because they represent a chronological evolution of contemporary thought regarding interculturalcommunication and cross-cultural interaction. They are also examples of the diversity of perspectives
in thinking about human relationships, cultural differences, communication styles and the challenges
that occur when interacting with others who are different from ourselves or have conflicting
expectations or common sense. These models will be related to responses from 12 expatriates living
in Japan who were surveyed regarding their experiences in various relationships, for the purpose ofunderstanding the intricacies of intercultural relationships and subsequent strategies forcommunication across cultures.
II. Method
To better understand the practical, context specific and personal aspects of intercultural
relationships, 12 expatriates living in Japan were surveyed and interviewed regarding theirexperiences in intercultural relationships. Participants countries of origin included Canada, UnitedStates, Australia, New Zealand, India, China and Tanzania. Their length of residence, outside of theirhome countries, ranged from 2 to 35 years. Each participant reported experience in intercultural
relationships which included a mix of professional, friendship, romantic or familial connections.
Participants were also asked to describe their reasons for coming to Japan, the nature of theirintercultural relationships and elaborate on any difficulties or experiences that may be attributed to
cultural differences. These responses were recorded, analysed and related to the 4 models ofintercultural communication.
Outcomes of cross-cultural contact
In order to quantify objectively describe the abstract, ambiguous and complex nature of crosscultural contact, Ady（1995）created six categories that can be used to analyse the outcomes of suchinteractions more empirically. These will be referred to as benchmarks for considering relevant− 19 −

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models of communicative competence. These models can then be related to individual experiences
and critical incidents involving cultural differences to raise cultural awareness and a deeper
intercultural understanding. Categories for analysing cross-cultural encounters can for this purpose
be described as follows:1）Satisfaction: General satisfaction with life, situation or interaction（Dunbar, 1992）.
2）Adaptability: Emotional changes over time（Oberg 1960, Bochner, Lin and McLeod, 1980）.
3）Acceptance: Social networks, engagement, interaction, acceptance or investment with local
culture（Bochner, McLeod and Lin, 1977）.
4）Stress: psychological difficulty, inability to connect with local culture or build relationships（Ward, 1996）.
5）Integration: Transition strategies, ability to pass as a local（Black,1990）.
6）Success: adapting and effectively internalising the values and ideals of the culture, culturalcompetence（Bochner, 1986）.
These six stages transcend or are included in some form in the models described in thisreport. In this way they are a useful reference point to understand cultural, individual, social andcommunicative differences in relationship building. Aspects of these six stages will be used to analyseand discuss cross-cultural experiences and critical incidents in relation to each of the relevant models.
III. Stages of Culture Shock, Oberg, K.（1960）, Ward, Bochner, Furnham（2001）
Description
One of the earliest models depicting intercultural contact, was initially proposed to describe
what happens when sojourners spend extended periods of time in a foreign or unfamiliar culture.
The model works on the premise that people tend to prefer interacting, communicating or engaging
with those who have similar values, beliefs, expectations, traits or background with themselves.
Although opposites attract and we can become interested or curious over individual and culturaldifferences, over the long term, these often, create communication difficulties of some form or
another. The original model proposed by Oberg（1960）described this transition as the stages ofculture shock usually illustrated as a ‘W’ curve.（See below）− 20 −

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Figure 1: Cultural Adjustment Stages, Oberg（1960）
1）Honeymoon: Romantic, exciting, fascinating
2）Negotiation: Disillusion, frustration, anger and anxiety3）Adjustment: Developing a ‘normal’ positive attitude
4）Adaptation: Becoming bicultural

These were further expanded and elaborated by Ward, Bochner, Furnham（2001）to include amore comprehensive measure of the effects of time on emotions and ultimate feelings towards thehost culture, the sojourners home culture as well as changes to self esteem. For this purpose, threeelements or stable outcomes were added. （A） Negative acceptance, where the sojourner has
resigned themselves to the everyday challenges of living in another culture, （B） bicultural
adaptation, in which both cultures are equally familiar and there is no difficulty with interaction and（C）total integration where the culture has been completely synthesised to the point that the visitor
has become ‘more Roman that the Romans.’
Experience
In the case of expatriates living in Japan, most of the participants surveyed stated that theyremained in either a perpetual negotiation or adjustment phase even after several years living inJapan. Some examples of these include forms of daily perceived ‘micro-aggressions’ or smalltransgressions meant to be polite, curious or a from of relationship building, yet were taken as
frustrating in their oversimplification, essentialism or othering. Examples of these include always
being asked: Can you use chopsticks? Can you eat sushi? or Where are you from?
Another group described ‘foreigners’ who had become more Roman that the Romans by overadapting and over-compensating elements of the local culture. Examples of this included the hyper
use of overly polite language, demonstrating a deep and comprehensive knowledge of obscurelanguage or dressing in traditional clothes that would generally be considered a rare or unusual
custom. This overcompensation seemed to stem from a deep resentment or trauma of being an− 21 −

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outsider; considered a ‘foreigner’ or ‘Gaijin” and not having a clear group of peers.
Application
The culture shock model can best be applied as an ongoing self evaluation of experiences in aforeign country. In this way sojourners can understand the emotions and challenges they areexperiencing and essentially avoid the negative feelings brought on by culture shock. If we are able
to interpret certain behavior with an open mind and view it as unintentional or non-hostile, then we
may also be able to create feelings of empathy and improve future interactions.
IV. Intercultural Communicative Competence, Byram, M.（1997）
Description
Byram （1997） proposed a comprehensive model outlining essential skills （saviors） for
integrating and communicating actively, appropriately and effectively in intercultural situations.
These included skills for increasing cultural knowledge, understanding, interaction, attitude andawareness. The four categories he describes represent the fundamental stages of becominginterculturally competent. These are as follows; knowledge （savoir）, socio-cultural competence（savoir faire）, attitude（savoir être）, understanding ʻʻthe other’’（savoir s’engager）. When applied
and related to different experiences, these categories allow us to understand and process, both thedifficulties and successes learners have when engaging with different cultures.
Experience
Several of the participants commented that when they entered a new culture one of the mostdifficult challenges was acting or communicating appropriately in unfamiliar situations. The role ofsilence in turn taking and gauging the pace and flow of conversation was a common source of
misunderstanding. In English, silence can signal a speaker has finished, can communicate shyness,lack of knowledge, disinterest, hostility, or a need for clarification. In Japanese however, the same
silence can mean thoughtfulness, consideration, respect, contemplation, or modesty. The subtle
nuances are quite different and can be the source of conflict and misunderstanding. Such important
aspects of language and culture can only be understood through experience and related objectively
to Byram’s concept of cultural knowledge.
Application
Language learners can benefit from using Byram’s framework both before and after engaging− 22 −

Intercultural Experience, Relationships and Communicative Competencein any form of intercultural interaction. Before contact with another culture, learners can consider
the competencies and relate them to expectations and potential problems in the foreign language.
Although these cannot possibly prevent miscommunication or culture shock they can serve as a
guide or initial pre-research activity, geared towards raising awareness about the target language
group in general. This has the added potential of lowering anxiety, reducing false expectations andpossibly eliminating preconceptions and stereotypes. After returning from an interculturalinteraction, language learners can use the framework to analyse, deconstruct and process theirexperiences. This also makes it possible to understand subjective experiences more objectively.
V. Intercultural Interactional Competence, Spencer-Oately and Franklin（2009）
Description
The Intercultural Interactional Competence model considers examples of intercultural
encounters from different disciplines such as anthropology, communication, psychology, marketing,management, and applied linguistics. The purpose is to apply diverse perspectives to understanding
what is involved in intercultural behavior or even in the process of becoming “intercultural”. The
major focus of this model is to explore differences in behavior and perceived misunderstandings on
effective intercultural interaction. For this a meaning transfer approach to interculturalcommunication is used and several subsequent strategies proposed. These include strategies for
dealing with psychological stress, communicating effectively and establishing interpersonal
relationships.
Experience
Reflecting on intercultural experiences objectively is an important part of raising awarenessand developing empathy. The multidisciplinary approach of the Intercultural Interactional
Competence model makes it possible to view a single event or interaction from a variety ofperspectives. Using an anthropological or ethnographic approach enables participants to deconstructand process their experiences. Some of the subjects interviewed found it useful to divide experiencesin terms of individuals, situations and outcomes in order to get a deeper understanding. At theindividual level, it is important to have some knowledge of the social expectations or relationship inorder to make sense of unfamiliar behavior. Individualist or collectivist, high or low power distance,or high or low context cultures, for example, will communicate abstract concepts such as status,
modesty, appreciation, disappointment or praise differently. Situational variables can also beprocessed and understood in this way. Formal and informal, casual or professional, tense or relaxed− 23 −

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situations will impact communication based on similar social expectations and common sense.
Without carefully understanding the social situation, the protocols, unwritten rules, nonverbal
communication, voice infections and other nuances, negotiating or transferring meaning successfully
will be quite difficult and stressful. Finally, knowing the outcomes, purpose, goals, intentions orreasons for a certain behavior or communication are essential to interacting positively and effectively.
Misunderstanding or misinterpreting a gesture, nuance or event are the causes of most culture
shock, miscommunication or intercultural faux pas.
Application
The interactional model is perhaps one of the most practical, as it allows a careful and clear
empirical analysis of social interaction. Applying a multifaceted and multidisciplinary framework for
objective reasoning, allows students to consider issues deeply by researching or investigating areasof interest or concern, using an ethnographic method of inquiry. In this way, students can create
their own projects to explore and gather further information from cultural informants though either,surveys, interviews or participant observation. This type of project provides agency, independence
and a measure of control over variables that may otherwise be troubling or stressful. It also allows
learners to manage their intercultural interactions by building confidence, raising awareness andpromoting a deeper level of intercultural learning.
VI. Cultural Adaption Process, Frengos, T.（2016）.
Description
Experience is ultimately the most important tool in being able to integrate and interact
successfully and meaningfully with different cultures. The Cultural Adaption Process model makes
use of both negative and positive experiences in order to develop key insights and build importantskills such as resilience, discovering hidden strengths, overcoming adversity, persistence, leadership,
curiosity, open-mindedness, social intelligence, and humor. These qualities subsequently foster
positive emotions, confidence, self esteem and significantly impact the type and strength ofmotivation. As Frengos（2017）states in the introduction, “Life overseas can be hard but it can also
be a chance to grow, to become more resilient.” Using a framework to process, internalise andcategorise experiences, this model helps sojourners make sense of more complicated or confusing
interactions. This process can be summarised in the following steps outlined in the REAL integration
process（Frengos 2016）.

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REAL: Integration process from “What I do”（rewards）to “What I am”（values）
Rewards: adapt for job, friends, controlled motivation
Everyone else: ‘fit in’, don’t want to disappoint others, controlled motivation
Align: own values with new culture values
Love: finding values, beliefs and behavior to be appreciated in the new culture
Experience
Working in a different culture proposes its own unique challenges. Common values andexpectations tend to differ. Communication styles can be conflicting. Methods of praise, reward orappreciation are often unfamiliar and goals, protocols, procedures, group dynamics and working
styles in general can be completely opposite or strange. Many participants responded that without aclear means of comprehending workplace differences, these issues can lead to strong negative
feelings of depression, loneliness, frustration and unproductivity.
One participant working in a factory, was expected to be praised by their supervisor forsaving a project from failure when the senior manager had made a critical mistake. To their surprise
the whole team and even the person who made the error shared the praise, no one was singled out,
promoted or reprimanded. Without support or consultation with others and without external
feedback or empathy, they reported that this experience would have likely caused them to quit orseverely limit their motivation to work and do their best.
Another participant observed that when a piece of equipment, which was meant for specificproject tasks, was being used for general purposes, it was suddenly moved and made inaccessible toeveryone, without any explanation. These examples show how group dynamics, hierarchies andcommunication styles can differ greatly and consequently cause difficult feelings, that could haveserious consequences for professional relationships, worker moral and overall productivity. Processingthese experiences, to find your own place of being, feel comfortable or otherwise fit in, is an essential
first step in the transition from disillusion, resistance or hostility to acceptance, understanding andempathy.
Application
The strength of this model is in the fact that it applies not only to cross-cultural challenges
but to domestic difficulties as well. Every workplace has unique dynamics which can come into
conflict. Most students have had these experiences and can understand how personalities, egos orcommunication styles can impact relationships, motivation and productivity. Bullying, harassment,
apathy, overwork and general stress are cross-culturally common issues, that require empathy and− 25 −

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understanding to process and eliminate. Using the model and framework described here, students
can consider their own experiences, brainstorm ways to solve or prevent issues and then relatethese to potentially similar, cross-cultural scenarios.
VII. Conclusion
This report has considered four models of intercultural exchange, interaction, integration andcommunication which are useful in processing, understanding and improving relationships,
communicative competence and overall experiences with different cultures. Each model introduces adifferent measure of intercultural interaction and provides useful strategies or frameworks forcomparing, analysing and processing experiences. Using the classroom as a resource to bring forth
student’s diverse experiences, relate these to those of teachers and connect them to a framework ormodel for objective consideration, can have a profound impact on the nature of future encounters.
The main issues considered here were how learner agency and the ability to take initiative andcontrol over one’s experiences, could improve communication, enhance relationships and promotedeeper understanding and empathy, when engaging with others who are different. When students
are able to bring their own stories, experiences and issues to the classroom, their learning becomes
real, relevant and effective. This type of agency builds strong motivation and helps students process
and internalise abstract concepts that may otherwise remain trivial or forgettable. By understanding
the complex causes that result in cross-cultural conflict and miscommunication, students can develop
empathy and flexibility. which will greatly improve cross-cultural learning, integration and exchange.
The ultimate effect of this becomes apparent in improved relationships that transcend differences incommunication styles, values, expectations and common sense, making professional, personal andintercultural connections more meaningful, effective and rewarding. The final benefit is in the formof communicative competence. The goal of each model, and the end result of any positive
intercultural exchange experience, is improved communication. Students who have experienced
adversity, challenged their fears and anxieties and overcome obstacles, are better able to view theirexperiences positively and objectively. This further creates a deeper insight and appreciation fordiversity and a greater flexibility and tolerance for differences, ambiguity or conflict, all of which are
the essence of intercultural communicative competence.
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