INDEFINITE THETA FUNCTIONS OF TYPE (n, 1) I: DEFINITIONSAND EXAMPLESLARRY ROLEN

1. Classical theta functions
Theta functions are classical examples of modular forms which play many roles in
number theory (e.g., the counting of representations of integers as sums of squares),physics (e.g., as solutions to the heat equation), and geometry (e.g., they can be used toshow that one cannot “hear the shape of a drum”). The most primitive example, due
to Jacobi, is the following (where q := e(τ ) := e2πiτ for τ ∈ H):
X 2qn .
θ(τ ) :=n∈ZTheorem. The function θ(τ ) is a modular form of weight 1/2 (cf. Exercise 1 below).
Sketch of Proof. The main idea is to apply Poisson summation, which states that if F
denotes the Fourier transform, then for sufficiently nice real-valued functions f ,XXf (n) =(F(f ))(n).
n∈Zn∈Z

This can be applied to θ by noting that showing a transformation equation of a holomorphic function on the upper half-place is equivalent, by the Identity Theorem, to showing
it holds on the positive imaginary axis. The second critical observation in this case is2
the well-known fact that the Gaussian e−πx is its own Fourier transform.
We can extend this very simple example of a modular form in many ways. Firstly, inthe theories of elliptic functions and q-series one encounters the important two-variable
Jacobi theta function (here ζ := e(z) for z ∈ C)
X2
ϑ (z; τ ) :=(−1)n q n /2 ζ n .
n∈ 12 +Z

This is a Jacobi form of weight 1/2 and index 1/2, again transforming with a multiplier
on SL2 (Z).
Analogous constructions can be given for quadratic forms in several variables. To
describe these, let Q : Zr → Z be a positive-definite, integral quadratic form for r ∈ N,and let B(x, y) := Q(x + y) − Q(x) − Q(y) be the associated bilinear form.
12LARRY ROLEN

Theorem (Hecke, Schoenberg, Eichler, Zagier). For any a ∈ Zr , the functionXΘa (z; τ ) :=q Q(n) ζ B(n,a)
n∈Zr

is a Jacobi form of weight r/2 and index Q(a) on a congruence subgroup of SL2 (Z).
To show this, one uses a generalized version of Poisson summation which applies toarbitrary lattices, such as Zr . Note that the condition of positive-definiteness is critical;
indeed, |q Q(n) | = e−2πvQ(n) (where τ = u + iv), which will rapidly decay as |n| → ∞ ifand only if Q(n) is positive in all directions.
Another way we can generalize our theta functions is to allow additional functions
inside the summation. This anticipates generalizations necessary to discuss Zwegers’
mock modular forms, and the claimed modularity properties will follow by our subsequent discussions of the proof of Zwegers’ results on indefinite theta functions. Forexample, we can consider theta functions associated to spherical polynomials. To describe these, for any quadratic form Q, consider its associated symmetric matrix A, forwhich Q(X) =: 21 hX, AXi (h·, ·i is the usual inner product on Rr ). Then the Laplacian
associated to Q is the differential operator
D∂∂ E∆Q :=, A−1.
∂x∂x
After diagonalizing Q, this P
is the usual Laplacian on Rr with respect to the coordinatesystem with which Q(x) = rj=1 x2r . A homogenous polynomial P of degree d for which∆Q P = 0 is called a spherical polynomial. Then, one has the associated theta function
XΘQ,P (τ ) :=P (n)q Q(n) .
n∈Zr

It turns out, as we shall see, that this is a modular form of weight r/2 + d.
2. Restricted theta functions
Broadly speaking, the final type of generalization of theta functions we consider, whichis the most complicated, is when we sum over only part of a lattice instead of over a fulllattice like Zr . There are two main reasons one may want to do this: the sum over thewhole lattice may be 0 (and hence uninteresting), or it may be divergent. The first case,which often arises from summing theta functions twisted by odd Dirichlet characters, isfrequently of interest in combinatorics. In this case, one can try to recover an interesting
object by summing over only half of a lattice. The resulting partial theta series werestudied by Rogers, who showed, for example, thatX  −12  n2 −1 X (−1)n q n(n+1)2
ψ(q) :=q 24 =,n(−q)
nn≥0n≥0INDEFINITE THETA FUNCTIONS OF TYPE (n, 1) I: DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

3Qj
where (a)n = (a; q)n := n−1j=0 (1 − aq ). One situation in which these series often arise isin the context of expanding Appell-type functions in terms of geometric series and thentaking coefficients of powers of ζ. For example, consider the product1C(ζ; q)(1)=:,−1(ζ q)∞ (ζq)∞(q)∞
1which by the Jacobi triple product is essentially η(τ )/ϑ(z; τ ), where η(τ ) := q 24 (q)∞ .
Here, the function C(ζ; q) turns out to be a two-variable generating function for cranks
of integer partitions, which Andrews and Garvan devised (solving a problem of Dyson)
to “combinatorially” prove the Ramanujan congruences for the integer partition function
modulo 5, 7, and 11. The ζ-Fourier coefficients of (1) have an important representationtheoretic interpretation. Namely, in 2001, Kac and Wakimoto showed that these areessentially the characters of irreducible highest weight s`(0|1)∧ -modules. This function
is essentially an Appell-Lerch sum, as the following classical identity shows (cf. Exercise4):(2)

n(n+1)(1 − ζ) X (−1)n q 2.
C(ζ; q) =(q)∞ n∈Z 1 − ζq nSettingiζ 1/2 q −1/24
C(ζ; q),η 2 (τ )(1 − ζ)a geometric series expansion in the range |q| < |ζ| < 1 computes the Kac-Wakimoto
characters (cf. Exercise 5):X
Φ(ζ; q) =:χ(r; τ )ζ n
Φ(ζ; q) :=n∈ 21 +Z

with
2(3)

(m+|r−1/2|+1/2)2
iq −r /2 X
2.
χ(r; τ ) = 3(−1)m q
η (τ ) m≥0

Such partial theta functions do have remnants of modularity properties, although of asomewhat more complicated nature. They are what are known as quantum modularforms, which we shall return to in the context of our applications to Maass waveforms
and knot theory in the fourth lecture. Essentially, these functions have modularityproperties “near” roots of unity on the boundary of the usual lower half-plane, which
can be seen as a type of “leaking” behavior from ordinary mock modular forms on
the upper half-plane. Many aspects of such connections are very mysterious. In thecase of ψ above, as Ramanujan knew, his mock theta functions have q-hypergeometricseries expressions which can be formally inverted by sending q 7→ q −1 . Although thisprocess yields non-unique answers (different representations of the same q-series insidethe unit circle invert to different functions outside the unit circle), the function ψ(q)4LARRY ROLEN

can essentially be obtained (as shown by Bringmann-Folsom-Rhoades) by inverting asuitable representation for Ramanujan’s third order mock theta function
X q n2f (q) :=.
(−q)2nn≥0For a discussion and hint for showing these claims about f (q) and ψ(q), see Exercise 3.
The other type of generalized theta function which we shall be interested in throughout
the remainder of my talks, is indefinite theta functions. These allow the quadratic form
to take negative values. As per Section 3 below, these also can be seen to arise fromgeometric series expansions of Appell-Lerch series like µ.
Returning to the general situation, call the type of a general non-degenerate form Q thepair (r −s, s) where r −s is the number of positive eigenvalues of the associated matrix A
and s is the number of negative eigenvalues. In other words, s is the maximal dimensionof a subspace of Rr on which Q is negative-definite. In this case, some powers of theform q Q(n) will become arbitrarily large in absolute value as n ranges over a full lattice.
Thus, we need to either insert appropriate prefactors dampening the growth of these
exponential terms (like the spherical polynomials above, but replaced with a suitable
decaying function), restrict the summation to part of a lattice, or some combinationof the two. We will later discuss what prefactors are allowed to preserve modularity,
but restricting to a piece of a lattice usually destroys modularity. However, as Zwegers
showed in the case of type (r − 1, 1) forms, this lack of modularity can be corrected toproduce a harmonic Maass form. His functions are defined as follows, where we now
restrict Q to be of type (r − 1, 1). First, we consider the cone (where c0 with Q(c0 ) < 0is fixed)
CQ := {c ∈ Rr : Q(c) < 0, B(c, c0 ) < 0}and consider the set of cusps (cf. Exercise 6 for a related discussion)
SQ := {c = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cr ) ∈ Zr : gcd(c1 , c2 , . . . , cr ) = 1, Q(c) = 0, B(c, c0 ) < 0} .
We then set C Q := CQ ∪ SQ , which serves as the compactification of CQ .
Definition 2.1. Let Q have signature (r − 1, 1) and let c1 , c2 ∈ C Q . Then the theta
function associated to Q with characteristic a, b is the seriesXΘa,b (τ ) = Θa,b,c1 ,c2 (τ ) = ΘA,a,b,c1 ,c2 (τ ) :=ρ(n; τ )q Q(n) e(B(n, b)).
n∈a+ZrHere,ρ(n; τ ) = ρcQ1 ,c2 (n; τ ) := ρc1 (n; τ ) − ρc2 (n; τ )with 
12
E B(c,n)v√if c ∈ CQ ,−Q(c)ρc (n; τ ) :=sgn(B(c, n)) if c ∈ SQ ,INDEFINITE THETA FUNCTIONS OF TYPE (n, 1) I: DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

5Rz
2where E(z) := 2 0 e−πt dt.
We also have a Jacobi form version of Θa,b , given byX
Θ(z; τ ) = ΘA,c1 ,c2 (z; τ ) :=ρ(n + a; τ )e(B(n, z))q Q(n) .
n∈ZrTheorem (Zwegers). Assuming a few small (mainly convergence-related) conditions, if
Q has signature ((r − 1), 1), then the indefinite theta series Θ(z; τ ) is a vector-valued Jacobi form of weight r/2 on SL2 (Z), and the indefinite theta functions with characteristic
are pieces of vector-valued mixed harmonic Maass forms.
Remark. A brief discussion of vector-valued forms is given in Exercise 2.
Such mixed harmonic Maass forms are essentially sums of products of ordinary modular forms with harmonic Maass forms, and will be discussed in Professor Guerzhoy’slectures. Moreover, the shadows of the harmonic Maass forms in these decompositions
will be postitive-definite theta functions on (r − 1)-dimensional lattices (as we will discuss in the second lecture). It is only occasionally that all modular forms in these mixed
harmonic Maass decompositions are all essentially the same, meaning that they can bedivided out to yield ordinary harmonic Maass forms.
In the next lecture, we will discuss the proofs of these facts, and explain why special
functions like E arise, as well as how to compute the shadows of these functions as
discussed in the last paragraph.
3. Relation between Zwegers’ µ function and indefinite theta functions
The indefinite theta functions above can in fact be thought of as analogous to theAppell-Lerch series from Professor Kane’s lectures. For example, we can expand the denominator of Zwegers’ µ-function and find, after a little rewriting, the following expres1
sion of µ in terms of a type (1, 1) indefinite theta series. Namely, for 0 < yv1 , y2 −y+ 21 < 1v
(with zj = xj + iyj ), we have that1
ζ12τ +1(4)µb(z1 , z2 ; τ ) =ΘA,c1 ,c2 z1 , z2 − z1 +;τ ,2ϑ (z2 ; τ )2where A = ( 11 10 ), c1 = ( 01 ), c2 = ( −11 ) (cf. Exercise 7).
4. Exercises(1) Complete the proof of Theorem 1 above. Specifically, show thatθ(τ + 1) = θ(τ ), r12τθ −=θ(τ ).
4τi

6LARRY ROLEN(2) In general, modular forms on congruence subgroups can be shown to be components of vector-valued modular forms on the full modular group SL2 (Z). This isfrequently useful in computations. For example, it can be used to dramaticallydecrease the number of coefficients needed to check a “Sturm bound” to prove
identities between modular or mock modular forms. For a stunning applicationof this principal to the famous “Mock theta conjectures”, see Andersen’s paperwith arxiv identifier 1604.05294. The following example is meant to give you aflavor of what vector-valued modular forms look like, and is typical of examples
which Zwegers gave for many of his examples of mock theta functions.
Consider the theta function
X2
θ1 (τ ) :=(−1)n q n ,n∈Z

which can be shown to equalθ1 (τ ) =

η 2 (τ ).
η(2τ )

Now consider the vector-valued functionθ1 (τ )
 η2 (τ ) Θ(τ ) :=  η(τ /2)  .
η 2 (τ )η(τ /2+1/2)

Show that this transforms as a vector-valued modular form of weight 1/2 on
SL2 (Z). Specifically, show that
1 00
Θ(τ + 1) = 0 0 ζ12  Θ(τ ),0 ζ24 0andΘ(−1/τ ) = τ  12i

0√
1/ 20√2 00 0 ,0 1

where ζn := e(1/n). Hint: Show, or use, the following identity:η(τ + 1/2) = ζ48

η 3 (2τ ).
η(τ )η(4τ )(3) In this problem, you will fill in the details of the partial theta/mock theta
ψ(q), f (q) example above, following Bringmann-Folsom-Rhoades (see the paperwith arxiv identifier 1109.6560). It can be shown (for example, in Fine’s famousINDEFINITE THETA FUNCTIONS OF TYPE (n, 1) I: DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

7book on “Basic hypergeometric series and applications”) that for |q| < 1, thefunction fe(q) is equal to f (q), whereX (−1)n+1 q nfe(q) := 1 +.
(−q)nn≥1This function also converges for |q| > 1; show that if we send q 7→ q −1 , we obtainfe(q −1 ) = 2ψ(q).
The same trick can be played for the definition of f (q) above, but instead oneobtainsn(n+1)
1 Xf (q −1 ) = 2ψ(q) −(−1)n q 2 .
2(−q)∞ n≥0(4) Prove (2). Hint: This can be done using partial fractions, and specifically, via
an application of the Mittag-Leffler theorem.
(5) Perform geometric series expansions directly to show (3).
(6) The reason that the set SQ is called the cusps can be seen in analogy with anisomorphism with the usual modular curve X0 (1). In this exercise, convince
yourself that the following details work. Take r = 3 and set Q(X, Y, Z) :=1(Y 2 − 4XZ). We choose our cone CQ to be the one containing c0 := (1, 0, 1)T ,2
and we compute
B([a, b, c], c0 ) = −2a − 2c.
In particular,
CQ = [a, b, c] ∈ R3 : b2 < 4ac, a + c > 0 .
We next show that CQ /R+ is isomorphic to H, where R+ acts on CQ by rescaling
the coefficients by positive reals. The map from CQ /R+ to H is constructedas√−b+ D
2follows: Given [a, b, c] ∈ CQ with D := b − 4ac = −1, the root 2a of Q(1, X)
gives the desired point in H. Now given a point τ = u + iv ∈ H, there is a uniquepoint in CQ with τ as a root and with discriminant −1, given by
1u u2 + v 2,− ,2v v
2v(note that the condition a + c > 0 is then satisfied automatically, since v > 0
implies that a, c > 0). This establishes that the map CQ /R+ → H is a bijection.
To realize this map as an isomorphism of metric spaces, we may naturally definea distance on CQ /R+ by setting
d ([a1 , b1 , c1 ], [a2 , b2 , c2 ]) := arccosh (−B ([a1 , b1 , c1 ], [a2 , b2 , c2 ])) .
Now if1
uj u2j + vj2[aj , bj , cj ] =,− ,2vjvj2vj
8LARRY ROLEN

for j = 1, 2, then we compute that(v2 − v1 )2 + (u2 − u1 )2arccosh (−B ([a1 , b1 , c1 ], [a2 , b2 , c2 ])) = arccosh 1 +,2v1 v2which is just the usual distance in the hyperbolic metric on H. We now discuss
the notion of cusps on our hyperbolic space. The cusps of CQ /R+ can then be
represented by
[a, b, c] ∈ Q3 : b2 = 4ac, a + c > 0 /Q+ .
In fact, this set maps to P1 (Q) under the same map we used to give the isomorphism CQ /R+ → H. Namely, this quotient space is the same as the set of binary
quadratic forms [a, b, c](X, Y ) = aX 2 + bXY + cY 2 with discriminant 0 and withtrace a + c = 1, so the corresponding root of such a quadratic form is equal to−b. Then given any α ∈ Q, the set of [a, b, c] which map to α is given by those2awhich solve the equations−bb2 = 4ac,= α,a + c = 1,2awhich is uniquely solved by setting
1−2αα2[a, b, c] =,,.
α2 + 1 α2 + 1 α2 + 1
The cusp at infinity corresponds to [a, b, c] = [0, 0, 1].
(7) Use geometric series and manipulation of the resulting expressions to show (4).