The Asian Biomass Handbook
Ａ Guide for Biomass Production and Utilization

Support Project for Building Asian-Partnership forEnvironmentally Conscious Agriculture, Entrusted by
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries

The Japan Institute of Energy

This handbook was editied as a part of a project entrusted by the Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry, and Fisheries, Japan, with the help of Asia Biomass Association.

Preface
It is a great pleasure and honor for me to give some words for this Biomass Handbook. In
2002 we had already published Biomass Handbook in Japanese edition with the help of morethan 60 contributors who are distinguished specialists in this field. This time English
version has been issued with the cooperation of scientists and engineers of Asian countries in
addition to domestic contributors.
As we are aware, negative impacts of global warming has been remarkably coming out.
Carbon dioxide discharged from fossil fuel combustion has been accumulated in theatmosphere as far as we consume coal, petroleum, and natural gas. On the other hand, it isclear that the life of fossil fuels is limited, for example, the life, the ratio of reserve divided by
the production, of petroleum, coal, and natural gas will be about 41, 160, 65 years, respectively.
I believe that we are at the gateway to the new age independent on the fossil fuels and biomass
is a key resource to open up a new vista of the future.
Biomass means, in general, a substantial amount of bioorigin resources which can be utilized
in the form of energy and materials. Wood, grass, marine algae, micro algae, agricultural
wastes, forestry wastes, and municipal wastes fall into this category. Energy crops are one ofpromising biomass which could make energy plantation possible in a large scale, though it has
not yet been commercialized at the present.
One of the strong countermeasures to suppress carbon dioxide emission is the introduction ofrenewable energies. Renewable energies mean biomass, photovoltaics, geothermal, wind,hydro, tidal, and wave energies. How does differ biomass from other renewable energy?
Biomass forms own body by photosynthesis. The concentration of carbon dioxide in theatmosphere remains unchanged as far as carbon dioxide, which is emitted by combustion of
biomass after energy utilization, is refixed by, for example, reforestation. It is called thecarbon neutrality of biomass. Energy which replaces fossil fuels can be derived from the cycle,that is, biomass combustion, carbon dioxide emission, and carbon dioxide refixation. Thus,
the carbon dioxide emission can be reduced by replacing fossil fuels by biomass.
Biomass is only organic or carbonaceous among renewable energies. In other words,
ethanol, methanol, dimethyl ether, and hydrocarbons can be produced only from biomassamong renewable energies. It has the same meaning that biomass can be transportable andstorable in the form of material. It should be emphasized that wind , photovoltaic, tidal, wave,
and geothermal energy can produce heat and power but not chemicals and fuels. However,carbon dioxide emitted from biomass utilization will be accumulated irreversibly into theatmosphere in a similar manner with fossil fuel utilization unless otherwise reforestation ismade. Sustainable forestry management is essential to the long and stable supply of bioenegy.
This Biomass Handbook deals with the characteristics and resources of biomass,
thermochemical and biochemical conversion of biomass, andsystem development ofsustainability. However, the most important aspect is the contribution of many specialists ofAsian countries, that is, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Korea Malaysia,
Myanmer, Philippines, Singapore, Taipei Chinese, Thailand, Viet Nam. I should like toappreciate all the people who contributed this Handbook. Also I appreciate the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries which gave an opportunity to enable us to issue thisHandbook by financial support.
January 2008
Editor-in-chief
Shinya Yokoyama

Editors
Yokoyama, Shinya
Matsumura, Yukihiko
Associate Editors
Ando, Shotaro
Sakanishi, Kinya
Sano, Hiroshi
Minowa, Tomoaki
Yamamoto, Hiromi
Yoshioka, Takuyuki

Advisory Board
Kitani, Osamu
Saka, Shiro
Shirai,Yoshihito
Yamaji Kenji
Contributors
Abe, Toshimi
Amano, MasahiroAndo, Shotaro
Arai, Yoshiaki
Cai, Yimin
Chollacoop, Nuwaong
Elauria, Jessie Cansanay
Fukui, Hisatomo
Fujii, Shigeo
Fujino, Junichi
Hada, Kenichiro
Hirata, Satoshi
Kamide, Mitsushi
Kawamoto, Sumire
Kitani, Osamu
Lee, Tin-Suk
Liang, David Tee
Liu, Dehua

The University of Tokyo, Japan
Hiroshima University, Japan

National Agriculture and Food Research Organizaition, National
Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
Lab. ofico de Global-Energi-Sistemo, Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan
Nihon University, Japan

Nihon University, Japan
Kyoto University, Japan
Kyushu Institute of Technology, JapanThe University of Tokyo, JapanThe Chugoku Electric Power Co. Inc., Japan
Waseda University, Japan
National Agriculture and Food Research Organizaition, National
Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, Japan
Meidensya Corporation, Japan
National Agriculture and Food Research Organizaition, National
Institute of Livesstock and Grassland Science, Japan
National Metal and Materials Technology Center, NSTDA,
ThailandUniersity of the Philippines Los Banos, Philippines
Kajima Corporation, Japan
Takuma Co., Ltd, Japan
National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan
Mizuho Information & Research Institute, Inc., Japan
Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd, Japan
Hokkaido Industrial Research Institute, Japan
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Japan
Nihon University, Japan
Korea Institute of Energy Research, Korea
Nanyang Technological University Innovation Center, Singapore
Tsinghua University, China

Malaykham, Bouathep
Man, Tran Dinh
Matsuto, ToshihikoMatsumura, Yukihiko
Miura, Masakatsu
Minowa, Tomoaki
Mohamad, Ali Hassan
Nakagawa, Hitoshi
Nakamata, Keiichi
Nivitchanyong, Siriluck
Ogi, Tomoko
Osada, Takashi
Panaka. Petrus
Saiki, Takashi
Saka, Shiro
Sakai, Masayasu
Sano, Hiroshi
Sawayama, Shigeki
Shiau, Tzay-An
Shirai, Yoshihito
Sovanna, Toch
Suzuki, Tsutomu
Sekiguchi, Shizuo
Takahashi, Masayuki
Tonosaki, MarioTomari, Miyuki
Topaiboul, Subongkoj
Yagishita, Tatsuo
Yagita, Hiroshi
Yamamoto, Hiromi
Yamamoto, Kazutaka
Yamamoto, Susumu
Yokoyama, Shinya
Yoshioka, Takuyuki

Ministry of Energy and Mines, Laos
Institute of Biotechnology, VAST, Vietnam
Hokkaido Universty, Japan
Hiroshima University, Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
University Putra, Malaysia
National Institute of Agrobiogical Science, Japan
Hokuestu Paper Mills, Ltd, Japan
National Metal and Materials Technology Center, NSTDA,
ThailandNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
Nationa Agriculture and Food Research Organizaition, National
Agricultural Research Center for Hokkaido Region, JapanPT Gikoko Kogyo, Indonesia
Japan Alcohl Association, Japan
Kyoto University, Japan
Nagasaki Institute of Applied Science, Japan
Lab. ofico de Global-Energi-Sistemo, Japan
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
National Taiwan Ocean University, Taipei Chinese
Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan
Ministry of Industry Mines and Energy, Cambodia
Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan
Lion Corporation, Japan
Kochi University, Japan
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Japan
Biomass Industrial Society Network (BIN), NPO, Japan
National Metal and Materials Technology Center, NSTDA,
ThailandNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan
Nippon Institute of Technology, Japan
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Japan
Nationa Agriculture and Food Research Organizaition, National
Food Research Institute, Japan
Okayama Universty, JapanThe University of Tokyo, Japan
Nihon University, Japan

Contents
1. Benefit of biomass utilization ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 1
1.1 Benefit of biomass ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 1
1.1.1 What is biomass? ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 1
1.2 Characteristics of biomass ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 3
1.2.1 General scope ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 3
1.2.2 Renewable ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 3
1.2.3 Carbon neutral ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 4
1.2.4 Sustainable agriculture ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 4
1.3 How to use biomass ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 6
1.3.1 General scope ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 6
1.3.2 Conversion and utilization ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 7
1.4 Benefit of biomass utilization････････････････････････････････････････････････ 8
1.4.1 General scope ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 8
1.4.2 Oil depletion ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 9
1.4.3 Global warming ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 9
1.4.4 Improving standard of living ････････････････････････････････････････････ 10
1.4.5 Increasing farmers’ income ･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 10
1.4.6 Energy security ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 11
1.4.7 Foreign currency ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 11
2. Biomass resources ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 12
2.1 Classification of biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 12
2.1.1 Definition of biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 12
2.1.2 Definition of biomass (energy) in Law ････････････････････････････････････ 12
2.1.3 Characteristics of biomass energy ････････････････････････････････････････ 13
2.1.4 Biomass categories ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 13
2.1.5 An Example of biomass categorization (in terms of use and application) ････ 13
2.2 Availability of biomass ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 15
2.2.1 Estimation of potential for waste biomass ････････････････････････････････ 16
2.3 Biomass composition ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 20
2.3.1 Overview of biomass composition ････････････････････････････････････････ 20
2.3.2 Typical biomass components ･････････････････････････････････････････････ 21
2.3.3 Constituent analyses of representative biomass types･･････････････････････ 22
2.4 Biomass energy content ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 24
2.4.1 Indicators of biomass energy content ･････････････････････････････････････ 24
2.4.2 Heating values of various kinds of biomass ･･･････････････････････････････ 25
2.4.3 Estimating heating value by calculation ･･････････････････････････････････ 27
2.5 Carbon cycle ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 28
2.5.1 Global carbon budget ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 28
2.5.2 Carbon cycle in forest ecosystem ･････････････････････････････････････････ 29
2.5.3 Carbon cycle model ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 30
2.6 Woody biomass ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 31
2.6.1 Types of woody biomass material and its characteristics ･･･････････････････ 31
2.6.2 Growth rate････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 32
2.6.3 Woody biomass resources ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 34

2.7 Herbaceous biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 34
2.7.1 The herbaceous biomass means ･･････････････････････････････････････････ 34
2.7.2 C3 species and C4 species ････････････････････････････････････････････････ 35
2.7.3 Primary production and existing amount of herbaceous biomass ････････････ 37
2.7.4 Switchgrass ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 37
2.8 Sugar and starch crops ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 40
2.8.1 General scope of sugar and starch crops ･･････････････････････････････････ 40
2.8.2 Cassava ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 42
2.8.3 Sugarcane ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 43
2.9 Oil producing biomass ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 44
2.9.1 What is oil producing biomass? ･････････････････････････････････････････ 44
2.9.2 Production method of fat & oil ･･･････････････････････････････････････････ 45
2.9.3 Production volume of oil producing biomass ･･･････････････････････････････ 45
2.9.4 Bio-diesel fuel ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 46
2.9.5 Oil palm ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 46
2.9.6 Coconut ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 47
2.9.7 Jatropha ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 50
2.10 Aquatic plant biomass ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 52
2.10.1 What is aquatic plant biomass? ･････････････････････････････････････････ 52
2.10.2 Productivity ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 53
2.10.3 Current practical resource utilization ･･･････････････････････････････････ 53
2.10.4 Standing stock of biomass resources ････････････････････････････････････ 55
2.11 Agricultural residues ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 56
2.11.1 Types and features of agricultural residues ･･････････････････････････････ 56
2.11.2 Volume of production ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 56
2.11.3 Bio-energy potential of the world ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 57
2.12 Wooden residuals ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 58
2.12.1 Characteristics and environmental significance ･･････････････････････････ 58
2.12.2 Residuals from wood industries ･････････････････････････････････････････ 59
2.12.3 Residuals from wood utilization ････････････････････････････････････････ 61
2.12.4 Technologies of energy utilization ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 61
2.13 Animal waste ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 62
2.13.1 What is animal waste? ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 62
2.13.2 Characteristics of animal waste ････････････････････････････････････････ 62
2.13.3 Production of animal waste ････････････････････････････････････････････ 63
2.13.4 General treatment and usage of animal waste ･･･････････････････････････ 64
2.13.5 Animal waste value and total amount in the world ･･･････････････････････ 65
2.14 Sewage sludge ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 65
2.14.1 What is sewage sludge? ････････････････････････････････････････････････ 66
2.14.2 Types and characteristics of sewage sludge ･･････････････････････････････ 66
2.14.3 Utilization of sewage sludge ････････････････････････････････････････････ 67
2.15 Municipal solid waste ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 68
2.15.1 Methane recovery in landfills ･･･････････････････････････････････････････ 68
2.15.2 Biogasification (methane fermentation) ･････････････････････････････････ 69
2.15.3 Incineration with energy recovery ･･････････････････････････････････････ 70
2.15.4 Refuse-derived fuel production and power generation ･････････････････････ 70

2.15.5 Pyrolysis ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 71
2.16 Black liquor ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 72
2.16.1 Black liquor ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 72
2.16.2 Process of black liquor generation･･･････････････････････････････････････ 72
2.16.3 Characteristics and significance of black liquor ･･････････････････････････ 74
2.17 Food processing waste ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 75
2.17.1 Potential of food processing waste ･･････････････････････････････････････ 75
2.17.2 Baggase ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 76
2.17.3 Corn cob ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 77
2.17.4 Molasses ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 79
3. Physical conversion of biomass ･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 81
3.1 Firewood ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 81
3.1.1 General scope ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 81
3.1.2 Firewood supply ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 82
3.1.3 Utilization of firewood ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 84
3.2 Pelletizing ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 85
3.2.1 What are pellet and palletizing? ･････････････････････････････････････････ 85
3.2.2 Characteristics of pellet and CCB ････････････････････････････････････････ 87
3.2.3 Fundamental test for briquetting ････････････････････････････････････････ 88
3.2.4 Energy efficiency ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 89
3.3 Particleboard production ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 90
3.3.1 Particleboard ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 90
3.3.2 Particleboard production and Consumption ･･･････････････････････････････ 90
3.3.3 Particleboard manufacture ･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 90
3.3.4 Use of particleboard for material recycling ････････････････････････････････ 92
3.3.5 Statistics of woody biomass including wood-based panels･･･････････････････ 92
3.3.6 Application in Asia ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 93
4. Thermochemical conversion of biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 94
4.1 Combustion ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 94
4.1.1 General scope ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 94
4.1.2 CHP ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 96
4.1.3 Co-Firing ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 97
4.2 Gasification ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 100
4.2.1 Definition･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 100
4.2.2 Classification of gasification method ････････････････････････････････････ 100
4.2.3 Examination of biomass material properties ･････････････････････････････ 101
4.2.4 Gasification agent ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 101
4.2.5 Fundamental phenomenon of biomass gasification ･･･････････････････････ 102
4.2.6 Characteristics of gasification product gas ･･･････････････････････････････ 103
4.2.7 Gasification equipment and a practical example ･･････････････････････････ 103
4.3 Pyrolysis ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 104
4.3.1 What is pyrolysis? ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 104
4.3.2 Characteristics of pyrolysis ･････････････････････････････････････････････ 105
4.3.3 Reactors at laboratory scale ････････････････････････････････････････････ 105
4.3.4 Reactors at R&D ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 106
4.3.5 Products ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 106

4.3.6 Status of technology ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 107
4.4 Carbonization ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 107
4.4.1 What is carbonization? ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 107
4.4.2 Characteristics of carbonization ････････････････････････････････････････ 107
4.4.3 Reactions in carbonization ･････････････････････････････････････････････ 108
4.4.4 Energy efficiency of carbonization ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 109
4.4.5 Products of carbonization ･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 110
4.4.6 Status-quo of the technology ････････････････････････････････････････････ 110
4.5 Hydrothermal gasification ････････････････････････････････････････････････ 111
4.5.1 What is hydrothermal gasification? ･････････････････････････････････････ 111
4.5.2 Characteristics of hydrothermal gasification ････････････････････････････ 111
4.5.3 Reactors for hydrothermal gasification ･･････････････････････････････････ 112
4.5.4 Energy efficiency of hydrothermal gasification ･･･････････････････････････ 112
4.5.5 Products of hydrothermal gasification ･･･････････････････････････････････ 113
4.5.6 Status-quo of the technology ････････････････････････････････････････････ 113
4.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction ････････････････････････････････････････････････ 114
4.6.1 What is hydrothermal liquefaction? ･････････････････････････････････････ 114
4.6.2 Characteristics of hydrothermal liquefaction ･････････････････････････････ 114
4.6.3 Reaction scheme of hydrothermal liquefaction ･･･････････････････････････ 114
4.6.4 Product oil from hydrothermal liquefaction ･･････････････････････････････ 115
4.6.5 Energy efficiency of hydrothermal liquefaction ･･･････････････････････････ 115
4.6.6 Status-quo of the technology ････････････････････････････････････････････ 116
4.7 Biodiesel production ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 116
4.7.1 What is biodiesel production? ･･･････････････････････････････････････････ 116
4.7.2 Characteristics of biodiesel production ･･････････････････････････････････ 117
4.7.3 Reactors for biodiesel production ････････････････････････････････････････ 117
4.7.4 Energy efficiency of biodiesel production ･････････････････････････････････ 118
4.7.5 Status-quo of the technology ････････････････････････････････････････････ 118
5. Biochemical conversion of biomass ･･････････････････････････････････････････ 120
5.1 Biomethanation ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 120
5.1.1 What is biomethanation? ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 120
5.1.2 Feature of biomethanation ･････････････････････････････････････････････ 120
5.1.3 Mechanism of biomethanation ･･････････････････････････････････････････ 120
5.1.4 Current status ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 122
5.2 Ethanol fermentation ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 123
5.2.1 General scope ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 123
5.2.2 Ethanol fermentation of saccharine materials ････････････････････････････ 124
5.2.3 Ethanol fermentation of starch ･････････････････････････････････････････ 126
5.2.4 Ethanol fermentation of lignocellulosics ･････････････････････････････････ 127
5.3 Acetone-butanol fermentation ････････････････････････････････････････････ 129
5.3.1 What is acetone-butanol fermentation? ･･････････････････････････････････ 129
5.3.2 Characteristics of acetone-butanol fermentation ･･････････････････････････ 129
5.3.3 Reactions of acetone-butanol fermentation ･･･････････････････････････････ 129
5.3.4 Energy efficiency of acetone-butanol fermentation ････････････････････････ 130
5.3.5 Products of acetone-butanol fermentation ･･･････････････････････････････ 130

5.4 Hydrogen fermentation ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 132
5.4.1 What is hydrogen fermentation? ････････････････････････････････････････ 132
5.4.2 Characteristics of hydrogen fermentation ････････････････････････････････ 132
5.4.3 Reactions of hydrogen fermentation ･････････････････････････････････････ 132
5.4.4 Energy efficiency of hydrogen fermentation ･･････････････････････････････ 133
5.4.5 Products of hydrogen fermentation ･･････････････････････････････････････ 134
5.5 Lactic acid fermentation ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 135
5.5.1 What is lactic acid fermentation? ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 135
5.5.2 Lactic acid bacteria ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 135
5.5.3 Biomass resources for lactic acid fermentation ･･･････････････････････････ 136
5.5.4 Utilization of unused biomass from palm oil industry ･････････････････････ 136
5.5.5 Lactic acid fermentation from kitchen garbage ･･･････････････････････････ 137
5.5.6 Purification of lactic acid ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 137
5.6 Silage ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 138
5.6.1 What is silage? ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 138
5.6.2 Silage making ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 139
5.6.3 Silage fermentation････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 139
5.6.4 Roll bale silage ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 140
5.6.5 Technological actuality ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 140
5.7 Composting ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 141
5.7.1 What is composting? ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 141
5.7.2 Basic principles of composting ･･････････････････････････････････････････ 141
5.7.3 Basic elements of composting ･･･････････････････････････････････････････ 141
5.7.4 Current composting technology ･････････････････････････････････････････ 142
6. System development for sustainability ･･････････････････････････････････････ 144
6.1 Fundamentals of LCA ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 144
6.1.1 Outline of life cycle assessment ･････････････････････････････････････････ 144
6.1.2 Goal and scope definition･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 145
6.1.3 Lifecycle inventory analysis(LCI) ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 145
6.1.4 Lifecycle impact assessment (LCIA) ･････････････････････････････････････ 146
6.1.5 Interpretation ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 148
6.2 Energy efficiency ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 149
6.2.1 Energy consumption for biomass cultivation and harvest･･････････････････ 149
6.2.2 Energy consumption of pretreatment for energy conversion of biomass ･････ 150
6.2.3 Energy efficiency comparison between biomass energy and fossil fuel ･････ 151
6.3 Carbon dioxide emission and environmental impact ･････････････････････････ 153
6.3.1 CO2 emission of biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 153
6.3.2 Comparison between biomass power generation and the other ･････････････ 154
6.3.3 Environmental impact of biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 156
6.4 Economical evaluation of bioenergy ････････････････････････････････････････ 157
6.4.1 Cost of bioenergy ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 157
6.4.2 Bioenergy resource cost ････････････････････････････････････････････････ 157
6.4.3 Biomass technology conversion cost ･････････････････････････････････････ 158
6.4.4 Secondary energy cost ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 159
6.5 Other evaluation ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 160
6.5.1 Standard of living ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 160

6.5.2 Farmers’ income ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 161
6.5.3 Energy security and foreign currency････････････････････････････････････ 162
6.6 Problems to be considered ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 163
6.6.1 Biodiversity (An example of a palm-oil production) ･･･････････････････････ 163
6.6.2 Land use competitions ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 165
6.7 Energy models ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 166
6.7.1 Outline of energy models ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 166
6.7.2 Typical energy model ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 166
6.7.3 DNE21 model ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 167
6.7.4 GLUE model ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 167
6.7.5 Land use competitions in GLUE model ･･････････････････････････････････ 168
7. Biomass situation in Asian countries ････････････････････････････････････････ 169
7.1 China ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 169
7.2 Korea ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 171
7.3 Myanmar ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 174
7.4 Laos ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 177
7.5 Brunei Darussaalam ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 179
7.6 Indonesia ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 182
7.7 Cambodia ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 186
7.8 Malaysia ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 189
7.9 Philippines ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 194
7.10 Singapore ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 197
7.11 Thailand ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 198
7.12 Vietnam ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 201
7.13 Japan ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 203
7.14 Taipei,Chinese ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 205
8. Examples for biomass utilization ･･･････････････････････････････････････････ 207
8.1 Small-scale biomethanation ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 207
8.1.1 What are biomethane and biomethanation? ･･････････････････････････････ 207
8.1.2 Situation of biomethane in China ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 207
8.1.3 Characteristics of small-scale biomethanation････････････････････････････ 208
8.1.4 Process of small-scale biomethanation ･･･････････････････････････････････ 208
8.1.5 Energy supply of small scale biomethanation ････････････････････････････ 209
8.2 Large scale biomethanation ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 209
8.2.1 Outline of large scale biomethanation ･･･････････････････････････････････ 209
8.2.2 Large-scale anaerobic digestion systems ･････････････････････････････････ 210
8.2.3 Examples of large-scale anaerobic digestion systems ･･････････････････････ 211
8.3 Jatropha plantation ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 213
8.3.1 Jatropha cultivation ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 213
8.3.2 Propagation method ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 214
8.3.3 Jatropha biodiesel ･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 214
8.4 Power generation from rice husk･･･････････････････････････････････････････ 217
8.4.1 Power producer promotion in Thailand ･･････････････････････････････････ 217
8.4.2 Biomass power plant in Thailand ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 217
8.4.3 Gasification technology for rice husk ････････････････････････････････････ 218

8.5 Ethanol production ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 219
8.5.1 What is a good source for ethanol production? ････････････････････････････ 219
8.5.2 Lignocellulosic biomass feedstock for ethanol in Thailand ･････････････････ 219
8.5.3 R&D pioneer work on processing ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 220
Appendix ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 223
A1. Tokyo declaration on Asian biomass ･･･････････････････････････････････････ 225
A2. Kyoto protocol ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 239･･････････････････････････････････････････ 293
A3. Statistics on Asian countries
A4. Unit conversion ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 294
A5. Atomic weight ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 310
A6. Thermodynamic properties ･･･････････････････････････････････････････････ 314
A7. Heating values of fossil fuels and lifetime ･･････････････････････････････････ 318
A8. APEC framework ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 319
A9. Each country’s targets ････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 320
A10. Related histories ････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 322
A11. Each country’s language ･････････････････････････････････････････････････ 323
A12. Related books ･･････････････････････････････････････････････････････････ 324

Part 1. Benefit of biomass utilization
1.1 Benefit of Biomass
1.1.1 What is biomass?
Generally biomass is the matter that can be derived directly or indirectly from plant which isutilized as energy or materials in a substantial amount. “Indirectly” refers to the products
available via animal husbandry and the food industry.

Biomass is called as “phytomass” andis often translated bioresource or bio-derived-resource.

The resource base includes hundredsof thousands of plant species, terrestrial and aquatic, various agricultural, forestry andindustrial residues and process waste, sewage and animal wastes. Energy crops, which makethe large scale energy plantation, will be one of the most promising biomass, though it is not
yet commercialized at the present moment.

Specifically biomass means wood, Napier grass,

rape seed, water hyacinth, giant kelp, chlorella, sawdust, wood chip, rice straw, rice husk,
kitchen garbage, pulp sludge, animal dung etc. As plantation type biomass, eucalyptus, hybrid
poplar, oil palm, sugar cane, switch grass etc. are included in this category.
According to Oxford English Dictionary, it was in 1934 that the term ”biomass” appeared
first in the literature.

In Journal of Marine Biology Association, Russian scientist Bogorov

used biomass as nomenclature. He measured the weight of marine plankton (Calanus

finmarchicus) after drying which he collected in order to investigate the seasonal growthchange of plankton.

He named this dried plankton biomass.

Biomass is very various and the classification will be reviewed in 2.(1). Biomass specificallymeans agricultural wastes such as rice straw and rice husk, forestry wastes such as sawdust
and saw mill dust, MSW, excrement, animal dung, kitchen garbage, sewage sludge, etc.

In thecategory of plantation type, biomass includes wood such as eucalyptus, hybrid poplar, palm tree,sugar cane, switch grass, kelp etc.
Biomass is renewable resource and the energy derived from biomass is called renewableenergy. However, biomass is designated as new energy in Japan and this naming is a legal term
peculiar to our country.
April of 1997.

Law concerning promotion of the use of new energy was enforced inThough biomass was not approved as one of new energies at this moment,-1-

Asian Biomass Handbook

biomass was legally approved when the law was amended in January of 2002.
According to the Law, power generation by photovoltaics, wind energy, fuel cell, wastes, andbiomass as well as thermal use of waste are designated as new energy.

Legally new energy isprovided by the law what should be the production, generation, and utilization of petroleum
alternatives,

what is insufficiently infiltrated by the economic restriction, and what is

specially prescribed in order to promote the use of new energy by the government ordinance.
In foreign countries, biomass is usually called and designated as one of renewable energies.
Many studies have suggested that biomass-derived energy will provide a greater share of theoverall energy supply as the price of fossil fuels increase over the next several decades. The useof biomass a source of energy is very attractive, since it can be a zero net CO2 energy source,
and therefore does not contribute to increased greenhouse gas emission. It is carbon neutralityof biomass, which is precisely described in 1.(2).

The combustion of biomass energy results inthe emission of CO2, however, since nearly all of the carbon in the fuel is converted to CO2, justas it is during the consumption of fossil fuels.

The zero net CO2 argument relies on theassumption that new trees, or other plants, will be replanted to the extent that they will fix any
CO2 released during the consumption of biomass energy.

This may well be true for theproperly managed energy plantations, but is not likely to pertain in many developing countries
where most of the biomass energy is obtained from forests which are not being replanted, atleast not to the same degree that they are being harvested.
The widespread expansion of biomass energy use may result in significant concerns about
availability of land, which may otherwise be used for food production, or other commercial use
such as timber production.

Recent reports showed that a wide range of estimates of futurebiomass energy potential, ranging from the current level of approximately 42 EJ to nearly 350
EJ close to the current level of total energy production by the year 2100.

Consequently, it isdesired that biomass energy should be wisely utilized in accordance with the food or valuable
material production as well as environmental preservation.
Biomass is quite various and different in its chemical property, physical property, moisture
content, mechanical strength etc. and the conversion technologies to materials and energy arealso diversified.

Researches which make it possible to develop cost effective andenvironmentally friendly conversion technologies have been done to reduce the dependence on
fossil fuels, to suppress CO2 emission, and to activate rural economies.

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1.2 Characteristics of Biomass
1.2.1 General scope
Biomass resource can be utilized substancially in endless number of times, on the basic railof carbon circulation by photosynthetic process. On the other hand, a fossil resource is limited
to a transitory use in principle. Additionally the irreversal emission of CO2 caused by fossil
combustion gives serious influence on global climate (Fig. 1.2.1). R.= resource.

┌←――――plant―――←――┐⇙☀[Biomass R.]→(use)→CO2(･･→Atmospheric CO2）

[Fossil R.]→(use)→CO2(･･→Atmospheric CO2)→ CO2 accumulation/air

Fig. 1.2.1. Comparison of biomass and fossil system on Carbon cycling.
But the words “renewable” and “sustainable” are not always same meaning. The recycling
power of plants is founded on a very delicate base of ecosystem.
The conditions for the bio-system are, maintaining the balance of harvest vs.growing speed,
and the environment protection of the farming land. If not, long term sustainability of thebiomass system will be fading out.

1.2.2 Renewable
There are two kinds of energy resource: (1)exhaustible resource (=stock type) and(2)renewable resource(flow type; such as solar-,wind-, hydraulic power and biomass). A flow
stock is infinitely large, but it should be limitted within a given period of time. Excessive
utilization such as a deforestation cannot sustain a renewable production system. Biomass has
both types of resources.
(A) Flow type Biomass. The net primary productivity 170 Gt/yr (about 7 times as much as
world energy demand)(B) stock type Biomass. Mainly in forest; 1800 Gt (about 80 times as much as world energy
demand/yr)
Biomass consumption (C) has two variations, putrefaction and utilizing consumption. In-3-Asian Biomass Handbook

natural forest, there are nearly equall amounts of growing and the putrefaction, theequilibrium (A)=(C)would be established.
(A) Flow-biomas→(B) Stock-biomas

170 Gt/y→(C) Putrefaction or useful consumption

1800 Gt（variable）

Although we cannot realize (C)>(A), it is capable to get a bigger share of biomass utilizationin the distribution among (C), by our policy and technology.

1.2.3 Carbon neutral
Biomass fuel also emits CO2 by the combustion.

But people permit a CO2 indulgence forbiomass､ because of the CO2 absorption during the growing process.
That is, [CO2 emission] = [CO2 fixation by the growing process]. However, coal also has abiomass-originated history, the carbon is circulating in long term, several hundred million
years.

Then under the consideration of term of CO2-repayment, CO2 immunity rate should be

estimated.
Just after the biomass combustion, none can pay back its CO2.

Therefore, it is estimatedthat a temperate forest (about 25 years for regeneration time) aquires [CO2 immunity rate=1],
as a standard. At subpolar forest, the regeneration time =100 years case, the immunity rate
becomes [25/100＝0.25]. In the case of brown coal (the origin was 25 milion years before), thisimmunity rate is only 1 ppm. So fossil fuel has no hope to get the effective CO2 indulgence.

1.2.4 Sustainable agriculture
At the fuel production from biomass resource, much energy input (Ef) from outside isnecessary for the producing process. In addition, a part of biomass becomes biomass waste (Ew)
(Fig. 1.2.3). For a energy production system, [Ez-Ef-Ew] should be higher than zero at least.

Ez:

the gained bio-fuel energy.
[Biomass Eo] →（production process）→[Bio-fuel Ez][Fossil,electric Ef]→┘└→[Biomass waste Ew]

Fig. 1.2.3. Biomass energy balance for the income and expense.

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Total energy yield in this system is shown as Ez/[Eo＋Eｆ], if the value is lower than 0.5, thebiomass is merely auxiliary fuel. But even small part of biomass can contributes to new energy
system if energy balance ratio (products/invested fossil fuel) is over than 1, in the case ofcoal-biomass mixed combustion generation. When biomass waste can substitute a fossil fuel inthe system, the Eｆ is so decreased that the energy balance ratio is much improved. The typicalsuccess example is found at cane sugar industry which uses bagasse as an alternative fossil
fuel. Biomass production system with inferior energy balance ratio often loses its
casrbon-neutral sustainability. In agriculture, production of grain and potatoes, the energybalance ratio is about 1.5～5 (neglected man-power calculation), while lower than 0.5 in almost
vegetables that is on loss-making railroad line. In this point, forestry is more excellent thanagricultural crops because of a little cultivation energy.
(a) Man-power investment.

Inceasing of man-power is often able to cut down a fossil and/or

electric energy consumption, causing an improvement of apparent energy balance ratio.
However, man-power and fossil energy has a trade-off relation. Energy unit for man-power isestimated by 0.073 toe/yr/man (biological standard)～1 toe/yr/man (total life consuming). Labor
intensive production often gives a faked saving energy system.
(b) Cycling of N,P,K.

N (nitrogen), P (phosfer), and K (kalium) are main components offertilizer. They so often disappears by exploitative production that a recycling system isnecessary to hold N,P and K in soil. At a woody thermal power station, it is necessary to return
the ash for sustaining P and K. Component N cannot stay in the ash, so another N-supply routeis indispensable to restore the system. Exceptionally, traditional forestry need not any fertilizer
because there is sufficient nitrate-N from rain. But future energy forestry will demandN-fertilizer because the N-balance will collapse.
(c) Conservation of biodiversity.

Biodiversity is often fragile by enhancing a biomass

production according to the uniformity, the large scale farm, and the intensive process.

For

example, mixed cropping like agroforestry, is hopeful to have a sustainable soil conservation.

Further information
Sano,H.in “Biomass Handbook”, Japan Institute of Energy Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, pp.311-323. (inJapanese)
UN Energy “Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for Decision Maker”, 2007.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

1.3 How to Use Biomass
1.3.1 General scope
For the utilization of biomass, a raw biomaterial is selected among various kinds of biomass
by taking into consideration of its utilization purpose, demand and availability. Then, the raw
material is converted to new material or energy.
Biomass as bioresource comes mainly from plants and their debris. Animals andmicroorganisms as well as their organic matters are also important. Many species of plants areuseful as biomass. Land biomass mainly consists of herbal biomass from major farm crops, andwoody biomass from forest. Many of them are cultivated, converted and utilized for specificpurposes. Aquatic biomass from oceans, lakes and rivers can also be cultivated in such a caseas kelp. Biomass which is cultivated on farm land or felled from forest for specific purposes iscalled virgin biomass, whereas the discarded biomaterials in production, conversion andutilization processes are named waste biomass and used for other purposes. For example,
bagasse which is the waste of sugarcane processing is used as excellent fuel for the sugar
extraction and ethanol distillation processes. Utilization of waste biomass is also important foravoiding the conflict of bioenergy utilization with food and feed. Bagasse is also considered as
one of the major raw materials for “the second-generation biofuel”.
Transportation and storage of biomass
is not easy because of its bulkiness anddegradation. It is, therefore, reasonable touse biomass in the areas where it isproduced. For this reason, biomass is usedin or nearby regions where biomass supply
and demand are balanced. However, whenbiomassisconverted

into

more

transportable form like densified pellet or
liquid fuels, it can be utilized in distantregions.
Biomass can be used either as materials
orenergy.

Biomassisutilizedasdiversified materials such as food, feed,

Fig. 1.3.1. Cascade use and recycling of biomass.

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fiber, feedstock, forest products, fertilizer and fine chemicals. Utilization as energy in the formof biofuels occurs on the final stage and biomass is decomposed into carbon dioxide or methaneand emitted in the air.

The diversified use can be called ”8F Use” of biomass.

Biomass can be used stepwise like a cascade as its quality is degraded.

Fig. 1.3.1.

illustrates examples of cascade use of food to feed and then to fertilizer.
Food waste can be treated into good feed. Feed changes into livestock manure which can befermented into methane. The digested sludge can be used as fertilizer.

Forest products suchas wood from pulled down houses can be utilized as particleboard or pulp, and as the final step,
it can be converted into energy through the combustion of bio-solid fuel.
Recycling is made for paper, fiber, some feedstock and wood products as shown withround-arrows in Fig. 1.3.1.

So far as biomass is used as material, its carbon is kept in thematerial and does not emit any greenhouse effect gas contributing to reduce the ill effect of
global warming.

1.3.2 Conversion and utilization
There are many conversion technologies available for changing the quality of biomass tomatch its utilization purposes. They are physical, chemical and biological techniques. Fig. 1.3.2
illustrates typical conversion technologies.
Physical conversion includes milling, grinding and steam explosion to decompose thebiomass structure for increasing its surface areas to accelerate chemical, thermal or biologicalprocesses. It also covers separation, extraction, distillation etc. for obtaining useful ingredientsof biomass as well as densification, drying or moisture control for making biomass moresuitable for transportation and storage. Physical conversion technologies are also often used forthe pretreatment to accelerate the main processes.
Chemical conversion includes hydrolysis, partial oxidation, combustion, carbonization,
pyrolysis, hydrothermal reactions for decomposing biomass, and also synthesis, polymerization,hydrogenation for constructing new molecules or reforming biomass. Generation of electrons inoxidation process of biomass can be used for fuel cells to generate electricity.
Biological conversion is mainly composed of fermentation processes such as ethanol
fermentation, methane fermentation, acetone-butanol fermentation, hydrogen fermentation,and enzymatic treatments which will play more important role to bring the second-generation
bioethanol on the practical stage. Application of photosynthesis and photolysis processes will be
important to improve biomass systems.

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Combustion

heat

of

biomass is converted tomechanical power by
means

of

such

heat

cycles as Otto cycle (forgasoline engine), Diesel
cycle (Diesel engine),
Rankine cycle (steam
engine), Brayton cycle(gas turbine) and others.
Electric generator withelectromagnetic
induction is used toconvertmechanicalFig. 1.3.2. Various conversion and pretreatment technologies.

power into electricity.
Such pretreatments as separation, extraction, milling, grinding, moisture regulation etc. areoften performed before the main conversion processes.
box in which biomass is put

Fig. 1.3.2 illustrates so-call-ed a magicon the bottom and converted by using various techniques tomatch its utilization purpose.
Evaluation of the conversion processes is done in terms of product quality, energy efficiency,
yield and system economy.
Planning of conversion and utilization system should take the following items into
consideration: fluctuation of biomass supply, means and cost of transportation & storage,
managing organization and rules which are in harmony with the relevant regulations, as wellas the economy of the total system.

1.4 Benefit of Biomass Utilization
1.4.1 General scope
Though energy from biomass is generally not cost-competitive with fossil fuels under current
technology and market conditions in many of developed economies, the production of biomass-8-

Asian Biomass Handbook

for materials and energy will produce a variety of benefits.

These benefits vary from case tocase, however, some noticeable ones include, among others, offsetting greenhouse gas
emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels, creating jobs and income thorough thedevelopment of a new industry and the utilization of locally produced raw materials, andenhancing energy security by reducing dependence on imports.

Yet, the values of thesebenefits are far less understood than biomass and bioenergy production costs.

Assessing thesebenefits will provide a more comprehensive picture about the overall competitiveness ofbiomass and bioenergy, offering implications for bioenergy development and policy formulation.

1.4.2 Oil depletion
Forests and coal resources were in abundance and were sufficient to meet energy demands.
However, as human creativity exceeded expectations, producing a more efficient energy
technology based on coal and then on oil was needed.
World ultimate conventional oil reserves are estimated at 2000 billion barrels.
daily consumption of oil equals 71.7 million barrels.

The global

It is estimated that around 1000 billion

barrels have already been consumed and 1000 billion barrels of proven oil reserves are left in
the world (Asifa and Muneer, 2007).

The price of petrol and other fuels will rocket withpotentially disastrous economic consequences unless people have moved to alternatives to fossil
fuels.

Increased use of biomass will extend the lifetime of diminishing crude oil supplies.

For instance, Carpentieri et al. (2005) shows the important environmental advantages ofbiomass utilization in terms of reduction of natural resource depletion, although an improved
impact assessment methodology may better highlight the advantages due to the biomass
utilization.

1.4.3 Global warming
Globally, increase in emission rates of greenhouse gases, e.g., CO2, present a threat to theworld climate.

As an estimate in the year 2000, over 20 million metric tons of CO2 were

expected to be released in the atmosphere every year (Saxena et al., in press).

If this trend

continues, some extreme natural calamities are expected such as excessive rainfall andconsequent floods, droughts, and local imbalances.

Biomass is a carbon neutral resource in its

life cycle and the primary contributor of greenhouse effect.

Biomass is the fourth largest

source of energy in the world after coal, petroleum, and natural gas, providing about 14% of theworld’s primary energy consumption (Saxena et al., in press).
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Biomass is being considered as
Asian Biomass Handbook

an important energy resource all over the world.
In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy consumption, several policy
alternatives such as emission taxes and tradable emission permits have been proposed.

These

mitigation policies are likely to enhance the competitive advantage of biomass energy overfossil fuels as the former can displace CO2 emissions from the latter.

However, it is wellunderstood that the conversion of biomass to bioenergy requires additional energy inputs, mostoften provided in some form of fossil fuel. The life cycle energy balance of a biomass compared
to conventional fossil fuel should be positive, but depending on the processing choices, thecumulative fossil energy demand might, at times, only be marginally lower or even higher thanthat of liquid fossil fuels.

Bioenergy systems should be compared to conventional fuel ones

from a point of view of a life cycle basis, or using LCA.

1.4.4 Improving standard of living
Since agriculture is of much importance for the economies under development, it is desirable
that sustainable agriculture leads to improvement of farmers’ standard of living as well as
their income.

Education of people is important, since the literacy rate in the rural area ofdeveloping countries is expected to be not so high.

In this sense, it is important to supply

proper information on this technology to the farmers.

What is important for the biomass

utilization for farmers to be effective is the accessibility of the biomass plant or biomasscollecting site from farmers.

Even if farmers possess or produce biomass feedstock, it isnothing if they do not have access to the sites where it can be made use of.

1.4.5 Increasing farmers’ income
There are mainly two ways to support farmers (The Japan Institute of Energy, 2007).
is to supply energy so that they have the access to useful fuels.

One

In Thailand, small-scalebiomethanation provides cooking gas to farmers, so they need not to buy propane gas forcooking.

This support to farmers is also effective for sustainable agriculture due to the

reduction of fossil fuel utilization.

The other support is by cash.

When they grow feedstockfor ethanol production and sell it at a higher price, they can get money for buying electricity.
Since those who use ethanol as fuel are richer compared to farmers, this mechanism can beconsidered as ‘redistribution of wealth.’-10-

Asian Biomass Handbook

1.4.6 Energy security
The economies of all countries, and particularly of the developed countries, are dependent on
secure supplies of energy.

Energy security means consistent availability of sufficient energy

in various forms at affordable prices.

These conditions must prevail over the long-term ifenergy is to contribute to sustainable development.

Attention to energy security is criticalbecause of the uneven distribution of the fossil fuel resources on which most countries
currently rely.

The energy supply could become more vulnerable over the near term due to thegrowing global reliance on imported oil.

Biomass is a domestic resource which is not subject toworld price fluctuations or the supply uncertainties as of imported fuels.

1.4.7 Foreign currency
There are opportunities for developing countries to get foreign currency by exporting
bioenergy.

In the case of cassava production in Thailand, for instance, the cassava production

for food and that for ethanol are balanced now.
carefully determined.

However, the future use of cassava should be

In the future, the amount of cassava production for ethanol may

increase, while it is often said that bioenergy utilization may be in conflict with food production,i.e., the international growing demand for ethanol may threaten the stability of domestic
supply of food.

Further information
Asifa, M.; Muneer, T. Energy supply, its demand and security issues for developed and emerging
economies, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 11, 1388-1413 (2007)
Carpentieri, M.; Corti, A.; Lombardi, L. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of an integrated biomass
gasification combined cycle (IBGCC) with CO2 removal, Energy Conservation and Management, 46,
1790-1808 (2005)
Saxena, R.C.; Adhikaria, D.K.; Goyal, H.B. Biomass-based energy fuel through biochemical routes: A
review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (in press)
The Japan Institute of Energy. “Report on the Investigation and Technological Exchange Projects
Concerning Sustainable Agriculture and Related Environmental Issues,” Entrusted by the Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (Fiscal year of 2006) (2007)-11-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Part 2. Biomass resources
2.1 Classification of biomass
2.1.1 Definition of biomass
As stated in Chapter 1.1, “What Is Biomass?,” the word “biomass” consists of “bio” + “mass”,
and originally used in the field of ecology simply referring to amount of animal and plant.
After the oil shocks, the meaning of the word was widened beyond ecological field and came toinclude the meaning “biological resources as energy sources”, since it was vigorously proposedthat alternative (new) energy sources should be promoted. There is still no strict definition of
biomass, and the definition differs from one field to another. From the perspective of energy
resources, a common definition is “a general term for animal and plant resources and thewastes arising from them, which have accumulated in a certain amount (excluding fossil
resources)”. Accordingly, biomass encompasses a wide variety including not only agricultural
crops, timber, marine plants, and other conventional agriculture, forestry, and fisheries
resources, but also pulp sludge, black liquor, alcohol fermentation stillage, and other organic
industrial waste, municipal waste such as kitchen garbage and paper waste, and sewage
sludge. Because some countries do not classify municipal waste as biomass, care is needed in
the use of statistical data.

2.1.2 Definition of biomass (energy) in Law
As an example of definition in law, Japanese case is shown below. On January 25, 2002, theLaw on Special Measures for Facilitating the Use of New Energy Sources (New Energy Law)
was partially amended, and biomass was for the first time recognized as a new energy source inJapan. Fig. 2.1.1 shows the position of biomass among other “new energies”. Formerly, biomass
had been considered as merely a kind of renewable resources, but the amended law now sees it
as an independent category of new energy. However, some wastes, such as paper waste, foodwaste, demolition waste, and black liquor, are considered to be recyclable resources as wellaccording to circumstances, and they are not strictly classified.

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Fig. 2.1.1. Definition of biomass energy in Japan.

2.1.3 Characteristics of biomass energy
Up to the 19th century, biomass in the form of firewood and charcoal was the main source ofenergy, but these were replaced by coal and oil in the 20th century. In the 21st century, however,biomass shows signs of being revived because of the following characteristics: it is renewable, it
is storable and substitutive, it is abundant, and it is carbon neutral.

2.1.4 Biomass categories
There is no established way of categorizing biomass, which is defined differently according to
the field; categorization changes depending on the purpose and application. Generally there
are two ways to categorize biomass: one is biological categorization based on types of existingbiomass in nature (such as categorization according to ecology or type of vegetation), and theother is based on the use or application as resources. The latter is highly significant in terms ofmaking effective use of energy (resources).

2.1.5 An example of biomass categorization (in terms of use and application)
An example of biomass categorization appears in Fig. 2.1.2. In this categorization, biomass
includes not only the conventional product and waste from agriculture, forestry, and fisheries,
but also plantation biomass. Categorization according to source is important for designing
biomass usage systems.

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Fig. 2.1.2. Biomass categorization (in terms of use and application).
Moisture content is a major factor to consider when using biomass, especially as energy.
Because moisture content is defined differently in each field, care is needed in reading
indications of moisture content. In the energy field, moisture content is often defined as follows.
(moisture content) = (moisture weight) / (total weight) × 100 [%](2.1.1)(total weight) = (biomass dry weight) + (moisture weight)(2.1.2)Using this definition, moisture content never exceeds 100%. In the forestry and ecology fields,
moisture content is often defined as follows:(moisture content) = (moisture weight) / (biomass dry weight) × 100 [%](2.1.3)As a rule, this handbook employs Eq. (2.1.1) for definition of the moisture content. Biomass
comprises natural macromolecular compounds such as cellulose, lignin, and proteins, andmany kinds of biomass have high moisture content, because the origin of biomass is livingorganisms. Fig. 2.1.3 shows the moisture content of various biomass types. There is a wide
range, from biomass types like dry wood and paper waste with about 20% moisture content, tothose with over 95% moisture content, such as microalgae, fermentation residue, and sludge.
For the purpose of energy conversion, one must choose a process adapted to the moisture-14-

Asian Biomass Handbook

content.

D ry w o o dEffective heating value [MJ/kg]

20

P u re o rg a n ic
(a s h fre e )20% ashD rys lu d g e

10

R aw w ood
M u n ic ip a l
w a s te50%ash

L im ita tio n o f
c o m b u s tio n

Sewages lu d g e
80% ash0

H e a t c a p a c ityof ash
100%
ash

-1 0

L a te n t h e ao f w a te r

F e rm e n ta tio nre s id u e
R a w s lu d g e

0

0 .5

1

M o is tu re c o n te n t [k g /k g -w e t]

Fig. 2.1.3. Relation of moisture contents and heating value.

Further information
Ogi, T. in “Biomass Handbook”, Japan Institute of Energy Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, pp.2-6 (in Japanese)

2.2 Availability of Biomass
The earth has a huge stock biomass covering wide regions including forests and the ocean.
The total biomass of the world is 1,800 billion tons on the ground and 4 billion tons in the ocean,
and a comparative amount of biomass exists in the soil. The total biomass on the ground is33,000 EJ on the energy basis, which corresponds to 80 times or more of the annual energy
consumption of the world.
However, some part of the biomass is used as food by living things including humans, and-15-

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also for uses other than foods, which are necessary for the human living. Therefore, it isimportant to estimate quantity of biomass resources, which can be used for energy source.

2.2.1 Estimation of potential for waste biomass
Waste biomass includes wastes and residues discharged from our living. Quantity of thisproduction is now referred to as “waste biomass production”. Waste biomass has a variety ofuses, not only for energy but also for feed or fertilizer. On the other hand, biomass currently not
being utilized but convertible to energy is referred to as "energy potential of biomass."
In this section, a method of estimating the quantity of resource will be shown, referring towaste biomass generated in association to production in agriculture, forestry, and livestockindustry(a) Amount of waste biomass production
It is necessary to know the waste biomass production to estimate current stock of waste
biomass, but it is difficult to know the amount of waste biomass production in each country andregion of the world. Therefore, the waste biomass production is often estimated typically by
assuming ratio of waste production relative to the biomass resources production. An example ofthe parameters for the estimation of waste biomass production is shown in Table 2.2.1 Notethat these parameters are generalized on the global basis, and that it is desirable to set
parameters adapted to each region, in a study of a limited region.
Fig. 2.2.1 shows the current stock of waste biomass estimated using the above parameters by
the following procedure;• Amounts of production of agricultural waste and forestry waste were estimated byadjusting agricultural (2000) and forestry (1999) productions using statistics of the FAO,
multiplied by ratio of waste production.
• Amount of production of livestock waste was estimated by determining the number of headof livestock (2000), and using amount of dung per head.
• The current stock of biomass was estimated based on waste biomass production multiplied
by a coefficient of energy conversion.
The current stock (annual value) of waste biomass was estimated as approximately 43 EJ
for livestock biomass, approximately 48 EJ for agricultural biomass, and approximately 37 EJ
for forestry biomass, totals approximately 128 EJ.

Approximately 22 EJ of dung of cattle

accounts for the largest part of resources, which is followed by an approximately 20 EJ of log
residue.

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Table 2.2.1. Parameters used for estimating waste biomass production andamount of resources
Ratio of waste
production (t/t)

Biomass species

Coefficient of energy
conversion (GJ/t)

Rice

1.4

16.3

Wheat

1.3

17.5

Maize (corn)

1.0

17.7

Roots and tubers

0.4

6.0

0.28

17.33

Cattle1.10 (t/y/head)

15.0

Swine

0.22 (t/y/head)

17.0

Poultry

0.037(t/y/head)

13.5

Horses0.55 (t/y/head)

14.9

Buffaloes and camels

1.46 (t/y/head)

14.9

Sheep and goats

0.18 (t/y/head)

17.8

Industrial logs

1.17

16.0

Fuel logs

0.67

16.0

Wood waste

0.784

16.0

Sugarcaneleaves)residue

(tops

and

*dung production rate, dry tons basis-17-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Rice
Wheat
Maize
Roots and tubers
Sugar cane residue (tops and leaves)
BagasseCattleSwine
Ponltry
Horses
Buffaloes
CamelsGoats
Sheep
Industrial logs
Fuel logs
Wood waste

Fig. 2.2.1. Amount of biomass residue in the world.

(b) Energy potential of waste biomass
Part of current stock of waste biomass has already been used for other applications, so that it
may supposedly be difficult to efficiently recover the complete mass, and to reuse it as anenergy source, even if it is reserved unused.

For example, some of rice straw is used as feed

for livestock at present. It may be almost impossible to collect dung of cattle in pasture, and it
is not always possible to completely collect dung of cattle even if they are fed as being tried.
Whenever current stock of biomass quantity is estimated, it is necessary to consider such
availability, so that energy potential of the waste biomass is given as a portion actuallyavailable as an energy source out of the entire current stock.

Ratios of availability proposed

by Hall et al. are shown in Table 2.2.2.

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Table 2.2.2. Biomass species and availability ratio of energy
Biomass species

Availability ratio ofenergy (%)

Agricultural waste

Rice, Wheat, Maize, Roots and tubers,
Sugarcane (crop residue)

25

Livestock waste

Cattle, Sheep and Goats, Swine, Horses,
Buffaloes and Camels, Poultry

12.5

Industrial log

75

Fuel log

25

Wood waste

100

Forestry waste[Hall et al., 1993]

Energy potential of waste biomass estimated using ratio of availability is shown in Fig. 2.2.2.
The largest portion of the energy potential of waste biomass (annual value) is contributed byforestry waste biomass, which accounts for approximately 22 EJ on the worldwide basis.
Especially, log residue accounts for approximately 15 EJ, which is about two-thirds of the waste
forestry biomass, and accounts for as much as approximately 36% of the total biomass
resources. There is approximately 15 EJ of agricultural waste biomass on the worldwide basis.
The individual items of the agricultural biomass in concern exist to as much as 1.5-3.5 EJ on
the average.

On the other hand, livestock biomass is about 5.4 EJ on the worldwide basis,

where the largest contribution is approximately 2.8 EJ of cattle dung.

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Rice
Wheat
Maize
Roots and tubers
Sugar cane residue (tops and leaves)
BagasseCattleSwine
Ponltry
Horses
Buffaloes
CamelsGoats
Sheep
Industrial logs
Fuel logs
Wood waste

Fig. 2.2.2. Availability of biomass residue in the world.

Further information
FAO (The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), FAO Statistical Database,(http://www.fao.org/)
Hall, D. O. et al. (1993), “Biomass for Energy: Supply Prospects”, In: Renewable Energy, Johansson, T. B.
eds., pp.594, Washington, Island Press.

2.3 Biomass Composition
2.3.1 Overview of biomass composition
There is a wide variety of biomass, and composition is also diverse. Some primary
components are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, starch, and proteins. Trees mainly consist ofcellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and so herbaceous plants, although the component
percentages differ. Different kinds of biomass have different components: grains have muchstarch, while livestock waste has many proteins. Because these components have different-20-

Asian Biomass Handbook

chemical structures, their reactivities are also different. From the standpoint of energy use,
lignocellulose biomass, which consists mainly of cellulose and lignin such as trees, exist inlarge amounts and have great potential.

2.3.2 Typical biomass components(a) Cellulose
A polysaccharide in which D-glucose is linked uniformly by β-glucosidic bonds. Its molecular
formula is (C6H12O6)n. The degree of polymerization, indicated by n, is broad, ranging fromseveral thousand to several tens of thousands. Total hydrolysis of cellulose yields D-glucose (amonosaccharide), but partial hydrolysis yields a disaccharide (cellobiose) and polysaccharides
in which n is in the order of 3 to 10. Cellulose has a crystalline structure and great resistance toacids and alkalis. Fig. 2.3.1-a shows the structural formula of cellulose.
(b) Hemicellulose
A polysaccharide whose units are 5-carbon monosaccharides including D-xylose andD-arabinose, and 6-carbon monosaccharides including D-mannose, D-galactose, and D-glucose.
The 5-carbon monosaccharides outnumber the 6-carbon monosaccharides, and the averagemolecular formula is (C5H8O4)n. Because the degree of polymerization n is 50 to 200, which issmaller than that of cellulose, it breaks down more easily than cellulose, and many
hemicelluloses are soluble in alkaline solutions. A common hemicellulose is xylan, which
consists of xylose with 1,4 bonds. Figure 2.3.1-c shows the structural formula of xylan. Other
hemicelluloses include glucomannan, but all hemicelluloses vary in amounts depending on tree
species and the part of the plant.
(c) Lignin
A compound whose constituent units, phenylpropane and its derivatives, are bonded
3-dimensionally. Its structure is complex and not yet fully understood. Figure 2.3.1-d shows aconstituent unit. Its complex 3-dimensional structure is decomposed with difficulty by
microorganisms and chemicals, and its function is therefore thought to be conferring
mechanical strength and protection. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are universally foundin many kinds of biomass, and are the most plentiful natural carbon resources on Earth.
(d) Starch
Like cellulose, starch is a polysaccharide whose constituent units are D-glucose, but they
are linked by α-glycosidic bonds. Owing to the difference in the bond structures, cellulose is notwater-soluble, while part of starch (see Figure 2.3.1-b) is soluble in hot water (amylose, with a-21-

Asian Biomass Handbook

molecular weight of about 10,000 to 50,000, accounting for 10%–20% of starch) and part is not
soluble (amylopectin, with a molecular weight of about 50,000 to 100,000, accounting for
80%–90% of starch). Starch is found in seeds, tubers (roots), and stems, and has a very highvalue as food.

(e) Proteins
These are macromolecular compounds in which amino acids are polymerized to ahigh degree. Properties differ depending on the kinds and ratios of constituent aminoacids, and the degree of polymerization. Proteins are not a primary component ofbiomass, and account for a lower proportion than do the previous three components.
(f) Other components (organic and inorganic)
The amount of the other organic components vary widely depending on specie, but there arealso organic components with high value, such as glycerides (representative examples include
rapeseed oil, palm oil, and other vegetable oils) and sucrose in sugarcane and sugar beet. Other
examples are alkaloids, pigments, terpenes, and waxes. Although these are found in small
amounts, they have very high added value as pharmaceutical ingredients. Biomass comprisesorganic macromolecular compounds, but it also contains inorganic substances (ash) in trace
amounts. The primary metal elements include Ca, K, P, Mg, Si, Al, Fe, and Na. Substances andtheir amounts differ according to the feedstock type.

CellulosStarch sugar chaineXylan sugar chain

Lignin structure unit (phenylpropane

Fig. 2.3.1. Chemical structures of major biomass components.

2.3.3 Constituent analyses of representative biomass types
Table 2.3.1 presents representative compositions of major biomass types. Although there are-22-

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exceptions, the main components of terrestrial biomass in order of amount from high to low arecellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and proteins. Aquatic biomass has different compositions.
While Table 2.3.1 shows plant biomass, Table 2.3.2 gives the compositions of sludge and otherwaste biomass types with high moisture content. Tables 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 use a different
composition classification. Cellulose and lignin in Table 2.3.1 are represented by fiber in Table
2.3.2, while hemicellulose in Table 2.3.1 comes under carbohydrates in Table 2.3.2.
Table 2.3.1. Typical chemical analyses of representative biomass (Part 1)
Category ofbiomass

Woody

(wt%)

MarineFreshwater

Herbaceous

Waste

Giant brown
kelp

Water
hyacinth

Bermudagrass

Cellulose

4.8

16.2

31.7

41.3

65.6

Hemicellulose

—

55.5

40.2

32.9

11.2

Lignin

—

6.1

4.1

25.6

3.1

Mannitol

18.7

—

—

—

—

Alginin

14.2

—

—

—

—

Crude protein

15.9

12.3

12.3

2.1

3.5

Ash

45.8

22.4

5.0

1.0

16.7

Total*

—

112.5

93.3

102.9

100.1

Hybrid poplar Refuse-derived
fuel (RDF)* Totals may not necessarily be 100 because each component was measured with a different
method.

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Table 2.3.2. Typical chemical analyses of representative biomass (Part 2: Waste biomass withhigh moisture content).
(wt%)
Feedstockbiomass

Alcohol
Alcoholfermentation fermentation
stillage
stillage(rice)(sweet potato)

StarchsludgeMicroalgae(Dunaliella)Aquatic(Waterhyacinth)

SewageSludgeMoisturecontent

76.7

88.6

82.2

78.4

85.2

76.7

Ash a)

1.3

4.4

23

23.6

19.6

16.4

b)
Fat

8.3

1.8

0.7

20.5

2.5

12.9

Protein

56.5

28.5

59.6

63.6

24.4

42.3

Crude fiber

2.1

11.9

5.4

1.2

20.6

18.1

Carbohydrates

33

57.8

34.3

14.7

52.5

26.7

b)
C

47.9

47.3

44.6

53.3

47.6

51.4

H

6.7

7

7.2

5.2

6.1

7.9

N

7.5

4.2

9

9.8

3.7

6.5

O

37.9

41.5

48.2

31.7

42.1

40.7

a) Based on dry weight.
b) Based on organic content.

Further information
Ogi, T. in “Biomass Handbook”, Japan Institute of Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, PP.12-15 (in Japanese)

2.4 Biomass Energy Content
2.4.1 Indicators of biomass energy content
In order to establish biomass energy systems, the energy content of each type of biomass
feedstock should be determined at first. Heating value is often used as an indicator of theenergy that biomass contains. Heating value is the amount of heat generated when a substance-24-

Asian Biomass Handbook

undergoes complete combustion, and is also called the heat of combustion. Heating value isdetermined by the ratio of components and the kinds and ratios of elements (especially carbon
content) in biomass.
(a) Higher and lower heating value
Biomass comprises organic substances composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
and when it is completely combusted, it produces water and carbon dioxide. The generated
water and water vapor contain much latent heat that is given off upon condensation. The
heating value which includes latent heat is the high heating value (HHV), while that fromwhich latent heat is subtracted is the low heating value (LHV).
(b) Available heat
Heating value Q0 is the amount of heat that arises from complete combustion per unit
material under standard conditions. Actual biomass contains much moisture and ash, whichmust be taken into consideration when energy is producing. Merely evaluating low heating
value is inadequate as an indicator whether biomass in its natural state will sustain
combustion. The energy to raise ambient air to the temperature that maintains the fire and theendothermic energy of ash should also be taken into account. The heat amount that takes theminto account is the available heat, and is expressed with this equation:
Available heat Q = Q0 (1 − w) − 1000 w − [flue heat absorption] − [ash heat absorption](w: moisture content)
Fig. 2.1.3. uses values calculated for available heat Q at 900°C. A positive (+) value foravailable heat Q is the condition for combustion to occur.

2.4.2 Heating values of various kinds of biomass
Table 2.4.1 gives the data for moisture content, organic matter content, ash content, andheating value of representative types of biomass.

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Table 2.4.1. Typical analyses and heating values of representative types of biomass, coal, andpeat.
Moisturecontent*[wt%]

Organic
matter[dry wt%]

Ash**
[wt%]

High heating
value[MJ/dry-kg]

Cattle manure

20—70

76.5

23.5

13.4

Activated biosolids

90—97

76.5

23.5

18.3

Refuse-derived
fuel(RDF)

15—30

86.1

13.9

12.7

Sawdust

15—60

99.0

1.0

20.5

Herbaceous

Sweet sorghum

20—70

91.0

9.0

17.6

plant

Switch grass

30—70

89.9

10.1

18.0

Giant brown kelp

85—97

54.2

45.8

10.3

Water hyacinth

85—97

77.3

22.7

16.0

Eucalyptus

30—60

97.6

2.4

18.7

Hybrid poplar

30—60

99.0

1.0

19.5

Sycamore

30—60

99.8

0.2

21.0

Paper

3—13

94.0

6.0

17.6

Pine bark

5—30

97.1

2.9

20.1

Rice straw

5—15

80.8

19.2

15.2

Coal

Illinois bituminous

5—10

91.3

8.7

28.3

Peat

Reed sedge

70 —90

92.3

7.7

20.8

Category
Waste

Aquatic plant

Woody plant

Derivatives

Biomass* Moisture content is determined from the weight loss after drying for at 105°C underatmospheric pressure.
** Ash content is determined from the weight of residue (metal oxides) left after heating at about
800°C.

Moisture content differs considerably depending on the kind of biomass, for example, 3% in
paper and 98% in sludge. With most biomass types, water content exceeding two-thirds makes
the available heat negative (–). Therefore, even if the heating value of the biomass itself is high,if it has a high moisture content in its natural state, it is not suitable for combustion. For
example, water hyacinth and sewage sludge have high heating values, when they are dried, butmoisture content is about 95% at the sampling, and they are unsuitable for combustion
actually.

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Total organic matter is left when the ash content subtract from total dry matter. Because thevalue of ash as energy is zero, a large amount of organic matter means a higher heating value,
which is desirable as an energy source. Additionally, organic substances have different heating
values depending on the kinds and ratios of their constituent elements (see 2.3 Biomass
Composition). Table 2.4.2 presents the elemental analysis results and heating values ofrepresentative biomass types and other organic fuels. Because biomass contains more oxygen
and less carbon and hydrogen than coal or petroleum, it has a lower heating value per unit
weight. Woody and herbaceous biomass types have carbon contents of 45%–50% and hydrogencontents of 5%–6%, giving them an H:C molar ratio of about 2, with little variation. This isbecause they are affected by their composition, the main components of which are cellulose andlignin.

Table 2.4.2. Typical elemental compositions and heating values of representative types ofbiomass, coal, and peat.
Energy source Cellulos
Giant
Water Livestoc
Sludg
Bitume
Pine
RDF
Peat
n
e
brown kelp hyacinth k wastee
Carbon [wt%]

44.44

51.8

27.65

41.1

35.1

41.2

43.75

52.8

69.0

Hydrogen [wt%]

6.22

6.3

3.73

5.29

5.3

5.5

6.24

5.45

5.4

Oxygen [wt%]

49.34

41.3

28.16

28.84

33.2

38.7

19.35 31.24

14.3

Nitrogen [wt%]

—

0.1

1.22

1.96

2.5

0.5

3.16

2.54

1.6

Sulfur [wt%]

—

0

0.34

0.41

0.4

0.2

0.97

0.23

1.0

Ash [wt%]

—

0.5

38.9

22.4

23.5

13.9

26.53

7.74

8.7

17.51

21.24

10.01

16.00

13.37

12.67 19.86 20.79

28.28

Heating value[MJ/dry-kg]

With respect to moisture content and other properties, elemental analysis results were all obtainedin dried condition.

2.4.3 Estimating heating value by calculation
Heating values of biomass types shown in Tables 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 were all measured.
Attempts are being made to estimate heating value by calculating it from information such as
the values obtained by elemental analyses of the materials. A number of equations have been
proposed, one of which is given here.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

High heating value (HHV) [MJ/dry-kg] = 0.4571 (%C dry standard) － 2.70

Table 2.4.3 compares the heating values calculated with this equation and those obtained bymeasurement. Except for sludge, biosolids, the results coincide closely.

Table 2.4.3. Comparison of the measured and calculated heating values of biomass.
Feedstock biomass

High heating value:measuredHigh heating value:calculated

Cellulose

17.51

17.61

+0.59

Pine

21.24

20.98

–1.23

Giant brown kelp

10.01

9.94

–0.70

Water hyacinth

16.00

16.09

+0.54

Cattle manure

13.37

13.34

–0.19

Biosolids

19.86

17.30

–12.90

Bitumen

28.28

28.84

+1.98

Error

[%]

Further information
Ogi, T. in “Biomass Handbook", Japan Institute of Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, PP.16-19 (in Japanese)

2.5 Carbon Cycle
2.5.1 Global carbon budget
Carbon on the earth is stored in the atmosphere, oceans, biosphere and lithosphere andcarbon components are exchanged among these stores in gas phase (CO2), and in organic or
inorganic phase. According to the IPCC 4th Assessment Report, 2007, the global fossil-fuelemission including fossil-fuel use and cement industry is 6.4 GtC/yr in 1990s, and emission byland use changes is 1.6 GtC/yr. On the contrary, the estimated accuracy of net land and ocean
uptakes are 2.6 GtC/yr and 2.2 GtC/yr, respectively. The net carbon balance of the atmosphere-28-

Asian Biomass Handbook

in 1990s is 3.2 GtC/yr (=8.0−2.6−2.2) as shown in Table 1. These values of carbon balances havebeen assessed thorough comparative check of many results related carbon cycle. The global
fossil-fuel emissions of CO2 and the net carbon balances of the atmosphere are now rather wellestablished, the others in the Table 2.5.1 are less accurate. And also, there are carbon cycles in
the land and ocean-biosphere, the net carbon balances are related to the activities of them. The
status of carbon cycle in each store is controlled by forest management and climatic changes.
The Kyoto Protocol, which accounts for offsetting reduced targets of CO2 emission by carbon
sequestration in forests through forest management, became effective in February 2005. The
rules for the effective management have focused attention on the role of the terrestrial
biosphere in global scale carbon cycles. Therefore, accurate data are required for carbon stocks
and cycle over various terrestrial ecosystems. However, uncertainty remains about the change
in carbon stock from forest management and the response of the ecosystem CO2 exchange toclimate change.
Table 2.5.1. Global carbon budget. by convention, CO2 fluxes leaving the atmosphericreservoir.
(i.e. “CO2 sinks”) have a negative sign. Numbers in parentheses are ranges.
Units: GtC/yr. NA: No information available to separate. (IPCC 4th
assessment report, 2007）
1980s

1990s

2000-2005

Atmospheric increase

3.3±0.1

3.2±0.1

4.1±0.1

Emissions (fossil fuel + cement)

5.4±0.3

6.4±0.3

7.0±0.3

Ocean-atmosphere flux

−1.8±0.8

2.2±0.4−2.2±0.4

Land use change flux

1.3

1.6

NA

(0.3 to 2.8)

(0.5 to 2.8)

−1.6

−2.6

(−4.0 to 0.3)(−4.3 to -1.0)

Residual land sinkNA

2.5.2 Carbon cycle in forest ecosystem
Global amounts of carbon in forest ecosystems are 330 GtC in the forest biomass and 780
GtC in the soil after Dixson et al., 1994. Furthermore, uptake of carbon in net by forest
ecosystem is regulated photosynthesis and respiration controlled by meteorological and-29-

Asian Biomass Handbook

ecophysiological characteristics of forest trees and understorey vegetation. Amount of carbon
storage in the forest ecosystem classified into vegetation above ground, vegetation below
ground, litter and woody debris, and also organic carbon in the soil. Forests and soils containthe largest stocks of organic matter globally, and organic carbon in the soil has a potential torelease more CO2 by increasing soil respiration and to increase atmospheric high concentrationof CO2 under the warm condition in the future. The trunk of tree is useful for timber and part oftimber are reserved in the houses for long time. Plant growth can be stimulated by increased
atmospheric CO2 concentrations and nutrient deposition (fertilization effects). However, in thefield studies, the fertilization effect is not clear for forest ecosystems.

2.5.3 Carbon cycle model
For the proper management of carbon budget in the future, land-ecosystem models that are
truly useful for ecosystem monitoring and carbon budget evaluation are inevitably required. To
extrapolate the results based on ground-observation data in a spatial and a temporal scale,more studies will be required to develop satellite remote sensing and statistical ecosystemmodels. Using a land-use model and land-ecosystem carbon cycle model, we can predict thefluctuations in carbon balance caused by human activities (i.e. terrestrial carbon management)
and climate change in the future. And also, we can conduct the assessment of carbon
management potential.
By Oikawa and Ito, a process-based carbon cycle model (Sim-CYCLE) was developed andvalidated with observational data at many measurement sites. The changes of carbon balancesand stocks from present to future condition (after 70 years under twice time of CO2
atmospheric concentration and higher air temperature by 2,1℃) was estimated using the
Sim-CYCLE model. As shown in Fig.2.5.1 (T. Oikawa, 2002), carbon stocks in soil andvegetation of land-ecosystem will increase from 642.3, 1495.1 GtC at present to 835.1, 1559.0
GtC in the future, respectively.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Atmospheric CO2(Concentration ３５０
７５０

１５００

（Air Temp. ＋２．１℃）

GPP

NPP

AR

１０２．６

５５．４

４７．２

１４１．４

７４．８

６６．６

Vegetation
６４２．３

７００ｐｐｍｖ）

NEP

HR

０．０

５５．４

１０．１

６４．７

８３５．１

Soil
１４９５．１

１５５９．０（GtC)

Fig. 2.5.1. The changes of carbon balances and stocks from present to future condition(after 70 years under twice time of CO2 atmospheric concentration and higher air
temperature by 2,1℃) estimate by Sim-CYCLE model. (T. Oikawa, 2002)

Further information
Dixson, R.K., Brown,S.A., Solomon, A.M., Trexler, M.C. and Wisniewski, J., Carbon pools and flux ofgrobal forest ecosystems. Science 263,185-190 (1994)
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007: A report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Oikawa, T. Land ecosystem response to global warming (in Japanese), Suuri-Kagaku, 2002, No.470，
78-83.

2.6 Woody Biomass
2.6.1 Types of woody biomass material and its characteristics
Forest industry provides woody biomass material as by-products such as logging residues
and as main-products which is cut directly from trees and forests. The planted forests areusually thinned out to maintain the growth space among stumps.

These thinning trees are

expected to utilize for biomass energy materials, because they have no commercial values andleave in a stand after thinning operation.

A cutting cycle in the temperate zone is around 50

to 100 years and wood residues of 0.36 m3 blanches and 0.22 m3 stumps are left after producing
1 m3 logs.

These residues are utilized for modern and traditional biomass energy source inmany countries.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Woodfuel accounts for about 53 percent of total round wood produced in the world.

Howeverwoodfuel accounts for only several percent in industry countries at present, tough industry
countries used to depend on woodfuel until 1960s.

In Japan case, hardwood forests locatednear rural communities used to be main resources for fuelwood and charcoal. Nowadays
hardwood forests have not been utilized as woody resources, because hardwood timber value ischeaper compared with softwood. Though hardwood forests have not industrial values so far,they have high potential to provide renewable energy sources to mitigate global warming.
Aside from this, fast growing species, such as willow (Salix), poplars (Populus), and birch(Retula), have been planted to produce biomass energy materials.

2.6.2 Growth rate
The use of woody biomass energy has grown in importance as part of the efforts to reduce
dependence on non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels.

Though woody biomass

release carbon into atmosphere when it is burned to produce energy, replanted trees absorb thesame amount of carbon from atmosphere into the forest ecosystem through photosynthesis
which is in proportion to the growth rate of tree species.

The growth rate is depended on

temperature, precipitation, soil characteristics and other environmental factors.
the growth rate is low in boreal zone and high in tropical zone respectively.

In general

Fast growing

species such as eucalyptus (Eucalyplus), poplar and Acasia manngium in Southeast Asia
capture from 5 to 15 ton carbon per hector annually.

Whereas Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica),

one of representative plantation species in Japan, captures carbon from 2 to 3.5 ton per hector
annually.
The growth of forest biomass shows high rate in the early stage and fall down with getting
mature.

Table 2.6.1 expresses how man-made forest stores carbon in their biomass.

Hardwood forests located close to rural communities in Japan used to be the main source toprovide fuel wood.

Table 2.6.2 shows annual increment of these forests.

If we focus on only

quantity and do not care timber quality, it is reasonable to adopt cutting rotation at the
maximum annual increment which is generally younger than regular timber harvestingrotation.

-32-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Table 2.6.1. Accumulated biomass carbon of manmade forest.
Biomass weight

Table 2.6.2.

age

age

(ton/ha)

10

13.5

20

59.2

30

105.8

40

145.9

50

172.0

60

189.5

70

198.0

80

203.0

90

206.5

100

208.6

Accumulated biomass carbon of hardwood forest.
Biomass weight

Mean annual increment(ton/ha)(ton/ha)

10

18.3

1.8

20

41.6

2.1

30

59.9

2.0

40

74.0

1.9

50

85.2

1.7

60

93.7

1.6

70

100.0

1.4

80

104.9

1.3

90

109.2

1.2

100

112.0

1.1

-33-

Asian Biomass Handbook

2.6.3 Woody biomass resources
According to the FAO statistics, total forest area is 4 billion ha, corresponding to an averageof 0.62ha per capita.

This forest area accounts for one-third of total global land.

However,deforestation is a significant problem and 13 million ha of forest land has annually disappeared.
On the other hand, China and India have aggressively expanded new plantation every year,
then net loss of world forests area in the period of 2000-2005 is estimated at 7.3 million ha peryear.

In addition to deforestation, there are about 1.6 billion ha of degraded forests.

It isimportant to rehabilitate degraded forests for global environment and sustainable development.
If woody biomass is limited to stem biomass, there is 350 billion tons of dry-biomass in theworld forest ecosystem.

One third of dried woody biomass is existed in South America.

The area of forest plantation is 140 million ha and has increased by about 2.8 million ha
annually in the period of 2000-2005.

Forest plantations in tropical countries consist primarilyof introduced species which growth rates are 15-50 m3 per year of Eucalyptus grandis, 14-25 m3
of Acacia mearnsii, 12-35 m3 of Pinus radiate, and 20-50 m3 of Pinus caribaea.
growth rates are three times of Japanese species for forest plantation.

These annual

The forest plantations

in tropical countries have a big potentiality to provide woody biomass with short rotation andlow costs.

Though a large-scale of forest plantation is sometimes criticized for poor

biodiversity, forest plantation can be harmonized timber production operation with other forest
function and services if it will be well managed under a concept of sustainable forest
management.

This concept usually requests forest managers to take care not only forest

plantation but also natural forest with indigenous species.

Further Information
FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, FAO, 2006
FAO, Forest Resources Assessment 1990, 7, FAO, 1995

2.7 Herbaceous Biomass
2.7.1 The herbaceous biomass means
Herbaceous biomass includes grasses and legumes growing on grasslands. It includes underutilized wild species as well as cultivated forages with higher forage quality. Broadly speaking,-34-

Asian Biomass Handbook

food crops, such as rice, wheat, maize, and sugarcane represent sources of herbaceous biomass.
By-products or residues, such as rice straw, are also considered herbaceous biomass; however,their use as herbaceous biomass is dependent on quality issues. Bamboos (Phyllastachys spp.)
and sasas (Sasa spp.) are considered gramineous woody-type biomass species. Tropical grasses
grow faster than trees and produce higher biomass in a shorter period. Grasses are classified
into annual species, which include many cereals, and perennial species, which include many
forage grasses. Legumes consist of shruby, viny, and wood-types, of which the two former types
are considered herbaceous biomass. An important component of legumes is their ability to fix
nitrogen in symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria located in root nodules. It is economicallynecessary that a reduction in the use of chemical nitrogen fertilizers will be a component ofbiomass production. By rotating or sowing a mix-culture of forage and leguminous species inbiofuel production pastures, the application of nitrogen fertilizer can be minimized. Publishedbiomass production of leguminous species is 8-17 t/ha/year for alfalfa (Medicago sativa) intemperate Aichi Prefecture and 5-19 t/ha/year for tropical legumes in the subtropical Ishigaki
Island. This production level is much lower than that for tropical grasses.

2.7.2 C3 species and C4 species
Growth rates of plants are regulated by the photosynthetic ability and a multitude ofenvironmental factors. Grasses are classified into C3 species and C4 species based on theirunique photosynthetic pathway. It is important to note the anatomical differences in leaf andbundle sheath cells that occur between C3 and C4 grasses. Typically, the optimum lightintensity for C4 species is ca. 50,000-60,000 lux and is twice that for C3 species (15,000-30,000
lux). The highest photosynthetic efficiency of the C4 species generally reaches at hightemperature and high light intensity which is characteristics of tropical regions. The C4 species,
however, cannot maintain their high photosynthetic efficiency under low light intensity andlow temperature. Table2.7.1 shows that napiergrass recorded a yield of 85 t/ha/year and theyield of sugarcane is 64 t/ha/year, with a mean of 232 kg/ha/day, and 176 t/ha/day, respectively.
The yield of sugarcane and guineagrass in subtropical regions is 50 t/ha (140 kg/ha/day) andthat of some tropical grasses is 25-30 t/ha (50-80 kg/ha/day). Since forage grasses generally
exhibit rapid regrowth and persistency, they are utilized for low-input and sustainable biomass
production. As one example, “Natsuyutaka” guineagrass has attained 40 t/ha (all are dry
matter weight in the report) on a seven-year average in subtropical Ishigaki Island, Okinawa.
In temperate regions, winter-hardy tropical grasses such as bermudagrass and bahiagrass-35-

Asian Biomass Handbook

produce 20-30 t/ha/year (50-80 kg/ha/day) but go dormant in winter. On the other hand,temperate grasses produces 15-26 t/ha/year (40-70 kg/ha/day) but go dormant in summer. A
primary advantage in utilizing perennial C3 or C4 grasses for biomass production is that lessmaintenance is required and stands can persist for 5-10 years producing stable amount ofbiomass following stand establishment.

Table 2.7.1. Biomass of perennial gramineous forages.
DM yield（t/ha/y）Species

Daily DM
(kg/ha)site

C4 species
Napiergrass

84.7

232.1

Puerto Rico

Guineagrass3

51.1

140.0

Ishigaki, JP

Sugarcane

49.5

135.6

Okinawa, JP

C3 species
Perennial ryegrass

26.6

72.8

New ZealandOrchadgrass

22.0

60.3

New Zealand

Tall fescue

15.0

41.1

Kumamoto, JP

Timothy

15.0

41.1

Hokkaido, JP

Table 2.7.2. Biomass of annual gramineous crops.
DM yield(t/ha)

Total
Days

Daily DM
(kg/ha)C4 species
Sorghum

46.6

210

221.9

California

Sorgum (green A)

28.8

190

151.6

Nagano, JP

Maize

34.0

140

245.7

Italy

Maize

27.2

104

261.5

Ohita, JP

19.2

134

221.9

Iwate, JP

14.3

219

65.3

Ibaraki, JP

Oat

16.4

193

85.0

Hyogo, JP

Rye

15.6

195

80.0

Tochigi, JP

Annual ryegrass

14.8

230

4.3

Chugoku,JPSpecies

C3 species
Rice (Akihikari)
Wheat(Akiba-komugi)

-36-

Site

Asian Biomass Handbook

In the annual C4 species, such as maize, exhibiting superior seedling vigor following
germination can produce a rangeing, respectively from 13-34 t/ha to 132-260 kg/ha/day in 5
months. These yields are comparable to that of perennial napiergrass. These data suggest thatthe highest yield in tropical regions is achieved in the summer of temperate regions by using
these C4 crops. Although rice is C3 plants, it can compete with C4 species and produce highamount of biomass in temperate regions. However, winter cereals, such as wheat, annual
forages, can produce lower yields per day, but can be cultivated during the winter month.

2.7.3 Primary production and existing amount of herbaceous biomass
Existing biomass of tropical savanna is lower than that of tropical rainforest. The primary
production of the tropical savanna, which has rich rhizosphere and the grasses vigorously growunder heavy grazing of animals, is similar to that of tropical rainforest, whose rhizosphere isshallow, of poor quality. As such, tropical savanna greatly contributes to the reduction of CO2
when compared to tropical rainforest1. As advancements in fermentation and gasification
techniques, the utilization of herbaceous biomass as a biofuel, has attracted much attention.
Annual production of herbaceous by-products is estimated at 18.95 million tons (Mt) from ricestraw and husks, 1.90 Mt from barley and wheat, 0.5 Mt from sugarcane. Furthermore,estimated data of forage production of 40 t/ha in 560,000 ha of abandoned fields, 40 t/ha in
79,000 ha of abandoned paddy field, 5-20 t/ha in un-utilized land comes to 32.08 Mt. The totalof available herbaceous biomass comes at least to 53.43 Mt/year in Jpan. But these are utilized
partly for forages of cattle now.

2.7.4 Switchgrass(a) What is switchgrass?
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) is a perennial
tropical grass (C4 species) native to the Great Plainsof the USA. The indigenous people of the region saw
and called prairies consisting of switchgrass “Oceanof grass”.

The plant height is ca. 90-150 cm, the leaf

blade length is 15-45 cm, the width is 0.6-1.3 cm, withshort rhizomes. Switchgrass exhibits adaptation torelatively wet and fertile soils and is also tolerant of-37-

Fig. 2.7.1. Switchgrass Trial(USDA-ARS, El Reno, OK, USA,
courtesy of Dr. B. Venuto）
Asian Biomass Handbook

both drought and flooding conditions.

Annual dry matter yields are ca. 15 t/ha (Some data

exhibit nearly 30 t/ha) and as with most forage species, its nutritious value lessens after theflowering. Seed yield is ca. 230 kg/ha from broadcasted stands and ca. 690 kg/ha fromrow-seeded stands. The 1,000-seed weight ranges 1.07-1.22 g.
(b) Advantages of switchgrass as a raw material for biofuel production
In the USA, Switchgrass has attracted the interest as a raw material for bioethanol
production through cellulosic fermentation. The dry matter yield, however, is mostly similar toor less than some temperate and tropical forage grasses, it will not be very useful to use thisgrass for biofuel production in Japan. For example, if ca. 16t/ha of hay is harvested and 300 L ofethanol is produced from 1 t of hay, based on the price of raw materials, the cost of producing 1
gallon of ethanol from switchgrass is estimated at 0.51-0.89 USD, which is lower than the costof 0.7-1.21 USD utilizing corn. This report suggests that the potential conversion of ca. 33
million ha of pasture, typically consisting of poorer soils and utilized for the production of a low
quality hay crop for horses, to corn would lead to dramatic increases in soil erosion. If, however,switchgrass is sown to this area, ca. 520 million tons of hay can be produced and bypass the soil
erosion problem caused by an annual corn crop. This point is very important for the USA,
which maintains vast pasturelands and has a need to establish a cultivation system of
perennial forage grasses, such as switchgrass, for biofuel production.
Once switchgrass pastures are established, a low-input, sustainable cultivation system forbiofuel production may be practical. This system would be similar to the system in Japan thatutilizes Miscanthus for a similar purpose. One deficit of the species is its seed dormancy.
Seedlings germinate irradically and more than 1 year may be required to achieve a full stand.
(c) Cultivar of Switchgrass
Some cultivars developed in the USA are explained below.
(1) Alamo
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and Texas Agriculture Experiment Station (AES) selectedfrom collection in Texas, and released in 1978. It is a “lowland type”, flowers 1 or 2 month later
than cv. Blackwell, taller, wider leaves with medium saline tolerance and high productivity. It
grows well on all soil types with 630 mm or more annual precipitation, from Iowa to Florida.
(2) Blackwell
The SCS in Kansas developed this cultivar from single plant collected in Blackwell, OK andreleased it in 1944. It is an “upland type” of medium height with rather large stems, good inseedling vigor, high in forage production, and grows well on wide range of soil types with 500-38-

Asian Biomass Handbook

mm or more annual precipitation in Kansas, Oklahoma, southern Nebraska and north Texas.
(3) Cave-In-The-RockThe SCS and Missouri AES developed from the collections of Cave-in-the-Rock, IL andreleased in 1973. It is a “lowland type” with high seedling vigor, resistance to lodging anddiseases. It is tolerant to flooding and drought and grows well in Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri.
(4) Dacotah
The SCS and Northern Great Plains Research Laboratory selected 10 plants from collectionsof North Dakota and released the cultivar in 1989. It flowers 27 days earlier than cv.
Forestburg, 45 days earlier than cv. Blackwell and cv. Pathfinder. It is shorter in height andexhibits high drought tolerance. It grows well in North Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana.
(5) Forestburg
The SCS in North Dakota and Northern Great Plains Research Laboratory developed thiscultivar from collections obtained near Forestburg, ND and released in 1987. It has superior
winter hardiness and persistence, seed production ability, and is of earlier maturity than othercultivars.

Forage production at northern latitude exceeds that of cv. Dacotha, cv. Nebraska 28.

It grows well in Montana, North and South Dakota, and Minnesota.
(6) Kanlow
The Kansas AES developed this cultivar from collections in Oklahoma and released in 1963.
It is a tall and productive “lowland type”, especially adapt to lowlands where excess water
problems occur; it also performs well on upland sites where soils are not too thin or dry.
(7) Pathfinder
The Nebraska AES originally released this cultivar as “Type-F” from a polycross and progeny
test of collections in 1967. It is a late-flowering “highland type”, winter-hardy, vigorous, leafy,
and resistant to rust and drought. It grows well in Nebraska and adjacent areas.
(8) Shelter
The SCS in New York developed this cultivar from collections made in West Virginia and it
was released 1986. The cultivar exhibits thicker stems and fewer leaves than the othercultivars with the exception of cv. Kanlow. It is taller and flowers earlier by 7-10 days than cv.
Blackwell but exhibits less seedling vigor during the 1st year of establishment. It grows well ina wide region ranging from the East Coast to Arkansas in the central USA.
(9) Trail Blazer
Nebraska AES developed this cultivar from collections made in Nebraska and Kansas andreleased in 1984. It is a “highland type” exhibiting both higher forage value and yield, flowers-39-

Asian Biomass Handbook

at the same time of cv. Blackwell. It grows well in central Great Plains and eastern states.
Additional released cultivars not described are: cv. Sunburst, cv. Caddo, cv. Summer etc.

Further information
Long, S.P. et al. (eds.): Primary productivity of grass ecosystems of the biosphere, 1-267,Chapman & Hall
(1992)
Nakagawa, H.: Development and cultivation of forage grasses and crops for clean bio-methanol
production to keep gobal environment, Farming Japan Vol. 35-2:22-31(2001)
Nakagawa H. and Momonoki T.: Yield and persistence of guineagrass and rhodesgrass cultivars on
subtropical Ishigaki Island, Grassland Science, Vol. 46, pp. 234-241 (2000)
Sakai, M., and Nakagawa H.: A new biofuel towards 21st century, The Chemical Daily Co. Ltd., (inJapanese), pp. 1-197
Burnhart, S., Management guide for the production of switchgrass for biomass fuel in Southern Iowa,
http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1710.pdf, (2003)
Nakagawa, H., Forage crops in tropics, Association for International Cooperation of Agriculture andForestry, Tokyo (in Japanese) (1998)
United States Department of Agriculture, Grass varieties in the United States, CRC Press, Boca Raton.
(1995)
Vogel, P. K., Energy production from forages (or American Agriculture – back to the future), Journal of

Soil and Water Conservation, Vol. 51, No. 2, 137-139. (1996)

2.8 Sugar and Starch Crops
2.8.1 General scope of sugar and starch crops
Starch and sugar can be fermented to biofuel such as ethanol, but fibrous saccharides such as
cellulose and hemicellulose in the residual waste cannot easily be hydrolized to fermentablecarbohydrates such as glucose.
Primary starch crops are rice (Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima), potato (Solanum

tuberosum L.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.), corn (maize; Zea mays L.), wheat(Triticum L.), barley (Hordeum spontaneum C. Koch (wild-type two-rowed barley); H. vulgare L.
(six-rowed barley); H. distichum L. (two-rowed barley)), cassava (bitter cassava, cassava,
manioc, manihot, sweet-potato tree, tapioca, tapioca plant, yuca; Manihot esculenta Crantz),-40-

Asian Biomass Handbook

and sago palm (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.).

As primary sugar crops, sugar cane (Saccharum

officinarum L.) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris var. altissima) are widely known.
Yields of three primary cereals (corn, wheat, and rice) are increasing up to 725, 6.33, and6.06 million tons, respectively, with a sum of 1,963 million tons, which is about 86% of total
cereal production of 22.74 million tons (2004), being realized by novel cultivars anddevelopment of cultivation technology (Fig. 2.8.1).

However, due to limitations of theconventional technologies, further extension of cultivation area will require novel technology
such as genetic modification to cold-, drought-, or halo-resistant cultivars. Production of sugar
cane has been increasing up to 1,332 million tons (2004), while that of sugar beet has beenaround 200 million tons (Fig. 2.8.2). Total production of sugar and starch crops (4,572 million
tons (2004)) contributes to the high nutritional intake (2,808 kcal/capita/day (2003)) for 6,370
million population in the world (2004). However, around 800 million people, mainly inpopulation explosion area of Asia and Africa, are still suffering from starvation. Therefore, it
should be morally criticized if the crops would be further used as “non-food” energy crops. We
have to increase the amount of the foodstuffs by increasing the cultivation area and crop yields
with novel technology such as genetic modification, while promoting cultivation of energy crops
and developing new technology to convert crop wastes to biofuel.

300

200

800

600

400

200

100

2003

2000

1997

1994

1991

1988

1985

1982

1979

1961

year
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002

1976

0

0

1973

400

1000

1970

500

1200

1967

production(million ton)
生産量（百万トン)

600

sugar cane
サトウキビ
テンサイ
sugar beat
その他砂糖生産型作物
the other sugar crops

1400

1964

700

1600

トウモロコシ
corn
コムギ
wheat
イネ
paddy rice
potatoジャガイモ
キャッサバ
cassava
オオムギ
barleyカンショ
sweet potato
ソルガム
sorghum
ヤムイモ
yam
オートムギ
oat
ライムギ
rye
タロイモ
taro
ソバ
buckwheatproduction(million ton)
生産量（百万トン)

800

年
year

年
year

Fig. 2.8.1. World production of starch crops.
Fig. 2.8.2. World production of sugar crops.
(ref. FAOSTAT: http://www.faostat.fao.org/default.aspx）-41-

Asian Biomass Handbook

2.8.2 Cassava
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a woody shrub and widely cultivated in tropical andsubtropical regions in the world. In 2006, total production of the world was 226 million tons in
18.6 million ha of harvested area. The biggest cassava producer is Nigeria and followed by
Brazil, Thailand and Indonesia (Fig. 2.8.3). The yield of cassava in Thailand is ranked first andabout 21 ton/ha averaged over whole 1.1 million ha of harvested area (Fig. 2.8.4).

25

Nigeria, 18.7%

Harvested area (M ha)

Statistics

20

5

a
go
l

na

et
na
m
Vi

An

G
ha

C
on
go
M
oz
am
bi
qu
e

sia

ila

on
e
In
d

Th
a

ria

Fig. 2.8.3. World leading countries of
cassava production in 2006.

nd0

ThailandMozambiqueVietnamBraz
il

BrazilCongo
AngolaBrazil, 13.1%

10

ig
e

Nigeria
Indonesia
Ghana

Thailand, 9.6%

15

NIndonesia,

Yield per hectare (ton/ha)

Fig. 2.8.4. Harvest area and yield of
cassava.

Cassava is propagated by stem cutting, which is planted on a soil in a vertical and inclined
position. It can grow well even on an infertile soil and is tolerant of drought. Starch-richtuberous root is harvested by hand around 12 months after planting, but it can be harvested as
early as 8 months or as late as 24 months. Starch content of tuberous root in Thailand is about
25%. In Thailand, yield of cassava gradually increases mainly due to the consistentdevelopment of better varieties (Fig. 2.8.5). Currently, Rayong 9 with up to 30 ton/ha yield has
been distributed since 2006.
Tuberous roots of most varieties contain cyanide and it should be removed by soaking
cassava flour. Cassava has been used as a staple source of carbohydrate for humanconsumption in many tropical countries, as an ingredient in animal feeds, and as a source ofstarch. Bio-ethanol production from cassava starch is developing. Cassava production ofThailand in 2007 was 27 million tons and the flow chart (Fig. 2.8.6) shows the breakdown of
cassava applications in food, feed and fuel.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Production (M ton)/
Yield (ton/ha)

30

Production
Yield per hectare
Planted area

3.0

25

2.5

20

2.0

15

1.5

10

1.0

5

0.5

0

0.0

Planted Area (M ha)

Cassava in Thailand

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Year

Fig. 2.8.5. History of cassava statistic in
Thailand.

Fig. 2.8.6. Uses of cassava in Thailand.

2.8.3 Sugarcane
Sugarcane is a tall perennial grass and cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regionsof the world for sugar production. It belongs to genus Saccharum and most commercial
varieties are hybrid with S. officinarum. In 2006, total sugarcane production of the world was
1,392 million tons in 20.4 million ha of harvested area. The biggest sugarcane producer is
Brazil and followed by India, China, Mexico and Thailand (Fig. 2.8.7). The yield of sugarcane in
Thailand is about 49.4 ton/ha averaged over whole 0.97 million ha of harvested area (Fig.
2.8.8).

Fig. 2.8.7. World
leading
countries
sugarcane production in 2006.

of

.S
.A
U

sia

lia
st
ra

on
e
In
d

m
bi
a

Au

kis
ta
n

ol
o

C

nd

U.S.A

Pa

Indonesia

ico

Australiaila

ColombiaTh
aPakistanaThailandex

Mexico

hi
n

China

M

India

ia

BrazilBraz
il

India, 21.8%

Harvested area (0.1M ha)
Yield per hectare (ton/ha)C

Thailand,3.7%
Mexico,China, 6.8%
3.9%

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

In
d

Statistics

Brazil, 35.2%

Fig. 2.8.8. Harvest area and yield ofsugarcane.

Stem cutting with buds is used for planting. Sugarcane is C4 plant with high photosynthesis-43-

Asian Biomass Handbook

ability. Optimal temperature is between 20 and 35 ℃ and minimum requirement of rainfall is
1,200 mm/year. Stalks of sugarcane are harvested 9 to 14 months after planting by hand or byharvester. Once planted, sugarcane can be harvest several times, because new stalks, called
ratoons, come from stubble. Top of sugarcane removed at harvest is used as animal feed insome areas. Over the past ten years of sugarcane cultivation in Thailand, sugarcane production
unpredictably varies due to the weather
Sugarcane in Thailand

By-products from sugar mill are bagasse,cakemolasses.

(sugarjuice

Approximately,

residue)
1

ton

4.0

and

70

3.5

of

60

3.0

50

2.5

40

2.0

30

1.5

20

1.0

10

0.5

0

0.0

Production (M ton)/
Yield (ton/ha)

filter80

Production
Yield per hectare
Planted areasugarcane gives 105 kg of sugar, 500 kg ofwater, 280 kg of bagasse, 30 kg of filter
cake and 55 kg of molasses. Bagasse is asqueezed fibrous residue and usually fed

Planted Area (M ha)from year to year (Fig. 2.8.9).

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

back into the boiler to generate steamYear

within the sugar mill. It makes sugar millFig. 2.8.9. History of sugarcane statistic in
Thailand.

self-sufficient in energy. Filter cake istypically used as fertilizer. The mostvaluable by-product is molasses, which canbe further processed to ethanol or monosodium glutamate. About the half of sugarcane
produced in Brazil are used to produce ethanol. Ethanol, which is made from not only molasses
but also sugar juice, is blended with gasoline (gasohol) for transportation fuel. At the moment,
sugarcane is the most economically and environmentally advantageous crop for bio-ethanol
production.

2.9 Oil Producing Biomass
2.9.1 What is oil producing biomass?
Oil producing biomass produces and accumulates fat & oil in its seed or fruit meat. The main
component of fat & oil is tri-ester of fatty acid and glycerin.

Fat & oil is widely used as food,industrial raw material and bio-diesel production as an alternative for mineral diesel oil.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Examples of oil producing biomass are as follows;(a) Soybean (Glycine max Merrill）
USA, Brazil, Argentina and China are the main production country. Soybean oil contains
oleic acid (20-35%), linoleic acid (50-57%) and linolenic acid (3-8%). It is widely used as edible
oil and raw material for paints and varnish as an un-drying oil.
(b) Rape (Brassica campestris L）
Rape is cultivated in wide area from Asia to Europe because it can grow even in the cold
district. Main production countries are China, Canada, India, Germany and France.

Rape

seed oil expressed from rape seed contains oleic acid (55-59%), linoleic acid (21-32%) andlinolenic acid (9-15%). It is mainly used as food such as frying oil and salad oil.
(c) Palm Tree (Elaeis guineenis Jacq）
Main production countries are Malaysia and Indonesia. Palm tree has the highest oil
productivity in oil producing biomass because palm fruits can be harvested several times in ayear.

Palm oil expressed from palm fruit contains saturated fatty acid such as palmitic acid(35-38%) and Stearic acid (3-7%), and it is used not only in food industry but also in detergent
industry.

2.9.2 Production method of fat & oil
For the fat & oil isolation from seed/fruit expression process or solvent extraction process isapplied.
(a) Expression process
Used for high oil content seed such as rapeseed by rough crashing by roll mill, flaking,heating at 75-85℃ and expression by expeller.
(b) Solvent extraction process
Applied for low oil content seed such as soybean by extraction with hexane.

2.9.3 Production volume of oil producing biomass
World oil seed and fat & oil production (2005/06) are summarized in the following table.
Production volume of palm fruit was calculated by the palm oil production volume and oilcontent in palm fruit.

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Table 2.9.1 World oil seed and fat & oil production (2005/06, million ton)

Oil seed
production
Fat & oilproduction

SoybeanRapeseed

Sunflower

CoconutPalm
kernelPalm

Others

Total

220

43

30

5.3
(Copra)9.4

180(Fruit)

78.3

566

34.8

17.7

10.5

3.3

4.1

35.2

16.3

121.9

2.9.4 Bio-diesel fuelFatty acid methyl ester produced by the trans-esterification of fat & oil with methanol has
the similar physical properties as mineral diesel oil in terms of heating value, viscosity, cetane
number etc,. and it is used as bio-diesel fuel (Diesel oil alternatives).
As raw materials for bio-diesel production, rapeseed oil in EU, soybean oil in USA and palm
oil in Asia are mainly used. In EU nation’s, bio-diesel has been spreading since 2002 and its
consumption reached to 4 million ton in 2005.

2.9.5 Oil palm
The oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis) originated from West Africa.
Malaysia as an ornamental plant.

It was first introduced toIn 1917, the first commercial planting took place inTennamaran Estate in Selangor, laying the foundations for the vast oil palm plantations andpalm oil industry in Malaysia.

Later in the 1960s, the government introduced land settlement

schemes for planting oil palm as a means to eradicate poverty for the landless farmers andsmallholders.

Now the oil palm plantations in Malaysia are largely based on the estate

management system and small holders scheme.

Today, more than 4 million ha of land in

Malaysia is under oil palm cultivation producing 16 million tons of palm oil in 2006.
Oil palm is a crop that bears both male and female flowers on the same tree.

Each tree

produces 12-20 bunches per year (normally referred as fresh fruit bunches, FFB) weighing
between 10-20 kg with more than 1000 fruitlets per bunch. Each fruitlet is spherical or
elongated in shape.

Generally the fruitlet is dark purple or almost black and the colour turns

to orange red when ripe.

Each fruitlet consists of a hard kernel (seed) inside a shell(endocarp) which is surrounded by the fleshy mesocarp.

The oil palm produces two kinds onoil; crude palm oil from the mesocarp, and palm kernel oil from the kernel or seed.

The trunksof young and adult plants are wrapped in fronds which give them a rather rough appearance.
The older trees have smoother trunks apart from the scars left by the fronds which havewithered and fallen off.

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Oil palm trees start to bear fruits after 3 years old. Their most economic life is between 5-15
years, although palm trees continue to bear fruits until 25-30 years old. After that they are tootall (up to 20 m in height), generally they are fallen down for replantation with new trees or
new clones.

In Malaysia, the trees planted are mainly the tenera variety, a hybrid between

the dura and pisifera.

The tenera variety yields about 4 to 5 tons of crude palm oil (CPO) per

ha per year and about 1 ton of palm kernels.

The oil palm is most efficient, requiring only 0.25

ha to produce one ton of oil in comparison to soybean, sunflower and rapeseed which need 2.15,
1.50 and 0.75 ha, respectively.

2.9.6 Coconut(a) Plant taxonomy
The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belongs to Plant Kingdom under Magnoliophyta Division,
Class Liliopsida, Order Arecales, Family Arecaceae and Genus Cocos.

(b) Origin
There are two contrasting views on to the origin of coconut. One is that it originated in
America as several species in the genus Cocos are found only in America and the occurrence of
coconuts in America antedates recorded history.

On the other hand, others said that coconut

originated in Asia as shown by the discovery of nuts of Cocos species in the Pleiocene deposit inNorth Auckland, New Zealand, the presence in Southeast Asia of a greater range of coconut
varieties than in America and other reasons (Banzon, 1982).
(c) Description
Early Spanish explorers called it coco, which means "monkey face" because the threeindentations (eyes) on the hairy nut resembles the head and face of a monkey. Nucifera means"nut-bearing." The coconut palm is generally described as a perennial tree. The coconut palm
has long trunk of the tree, and several stems or leaves come from upper trunk, with green
foliage, inconspicuous white flowers, and brown fruits. The greatest bloom is usually observedin the indeterminate, with fruit and seed production starting in the year round and continuing
until year round. Leaves are retained year to year. The coconut palm has a moderate life span
relative to most other plant species and a moderate growth rate. At maturity, the typicalcoconut palm will reach up to about 20 m high.
(d) Ecology
Coconut is a sun-loving plant requiring sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis and raising the-47-

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temperature of the air. It grows best at a mean temperature of 27oC and is sensitive to lowtemperatures. It is also observed that coconut does best at rainfall of 1,300 to 2,300 mm per
year. It may even do well at 3,800 mm or more if the sol has good drainage. It does very well in
humid climate. The best soil for coconut is a deep mellow soil such as sandy or silty loam or clay
with granular structure.
(e) Fruiting
Different varieties come to bear fruits at different ages. The dwarf varieties start bearing
fruits in 3-4 years after planting while the tall varieties start at 5-7 years. The complex ofsunlight, rainfall and temperature result in periodicity of yield in the different months of theyear. Results of studies showed that the heavier yields are obtained in March to June.
(f) The fruit
A coconut fruit is actually a one-seeded drupe. On the outside is the "husk", which is initiallygreen but turns brown after being picked and dried. Inside the outer coat of the fruit lies themesocarp, which is packed with vascular bundles. This fiber is called the "coir" and is used formaking mats and rope. What we buy in the grocery store is the "stone" of this drupe, which has
a hard "shell," the endocarp, and the seed, which is inside of the shell. The shell is used forcontainers and is widely employed by artisans to make ornaments and decorations. The thinseed coat is the next, and then there are the white flesh or “copra” and “coconut milk.” Both the
copra and the milk are the endosperm of this seed. Yes, coconut is unique among plants inhaving copious liquid endosperm, which bathes the young embryo. Initially the milk is fairly
sweet and the copra is thin, but as the seed matures, the liquid is converted into solid
endosperm rich in oils (triglycerides). The solid endosperm, copra, is harvested, dried, and thenpressed to release the oil, widely used for chief ingredients of shampoo and hair conditioners.
(g) Product forms of coconut
Coconut is called the tree of life because of its many uses. Primary coconut products include
coconut oil, desiccated coconut, fresh coconut, and copra (dried mature coconut meat).

Themajor coconut products produced in the Philippines are copra, copra cake, coconut oil,desiccated coconut, fresh young coconut and coconut coir.

From this list, desiccated coconut,“buko” fresh young coconut meat and coconut oil are the most in demand products in foreign
markets.
Of the estimated 14 million nuts produced in the country per annum during 2001-2005,
about 90% is processed into copra.

Annual copra production is estimated at two million MT.

The remaining portion (10%) of the total coconut production is devoted to the manufacture of-48-

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desiccated coconut (5%) and other coconut products namely coconut milk, “buko” and forhousehold purposes.

Out of the total amount of copra produced, 62% is processed into crude

CNO – 60% of which goes to exports while 40% is left for domestic consumption.

Copra cakeor meal which is the by-product of copra production constitutes the remaining 34%.
Processing of coconut products produces other products such as detergent, bath soaps,
shampoo, cosmetics, margarine, cooking oil, confectionery, vinegar, and nata de coco.

Coconut

intermediates include oleochemicals such as fatty acids and fatty alcohols
Recently, crude coconut oil is transformed into cocomethyl esther or more popularly known ascocobiodiesel. Throughout the conversion process, two by-products are generated namely copra
meal and glycerin(h) By-products of coconut
The major coconut by-products are coconut shell, coconut husk and coconut fronds. Coconut
shell can be converted to activated carbon while coconut husk can be processed to produce
coconut shell charcoal, coconut coir, and coir dust.
The following discussions are referring to the combination of the three prominent coconut
by-products: coconut husks, coconut shells and coconut fronds.
The amount of residue generated annually in a country is equal to the product ofresidue-to-product ratio (RPR) value for any specific residue and the annual production of thecrop or product.

RPR values for major crops are given in Table 2.9.1.
Table 2.9.1. Residue-to-product ratios (RPR).
Agricultural Residues

RPR

Coconut shells

0.15

Coconut husks

0.33

Coconut fronds

0.33

Table 2.9.2 shows the heating values of common coconut residues used in the industry.

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Table 2.9.2. Heating Values of coconut residues.
Type of Coconut residue
Coconut shell
Coconut shell charcoal
Coconut husk charcoal

Heating Value, Kcal.kg
4.436 (I. Cruz)
6,540 (Lozada)
6,320 (Lozada)(i) Uses of coconut residues
Coconut shell is consumed mostly by commercial establishments for energy purposes due toits high heating value. Major users of coconut shells are by restaurants or food processors
owners. Coconut shell is also used for drying of crops like copra and rubber. Other energy usesof coconut shells are in the ceramic industry and in heating.
Most of the coconut husk is used in drying of copra using the traditional method called“tapahan”. The rest of the coconut husk is used as fuel in bakeries, drying of fish, pottery,ceramics, brick making and in commercial food preparation.
Coconut frond is used as fuel for drying copra while others are in restaurants, bakeries, fishdrying and others.

2.9.7 Jatropha
The genus name Jatropha derived from the Greek

iatrós (doctor) and trophé (food) which implies
medicinal uses.

Jatropha curcas L. belonging to the

Euphorbiaceae or spurge family.

Curcas purgans

Medic. Vernacular/common names: English- physicnut, purging nut; Thailand - sabudam; Indonesia jarak pagar; Chinese - yu-lu-tzu; the Philippines túbang-bàkod; Brazil - mundubi-assu; Tanzania makaen. By definition, it is a perennial small tressor large shrub which can reach a height of up to 6 m.
Fig. 2.9.1. Important parts of the
Jatropha Curcas: a－flowering
branch, b－bark, c－leaf veinature,d－pistillate flower, e－staminate
flower, f－cross-cut of immature
fruit, g－fruit, h－longitudinal cutof fruits;

Source: Physic nut, Joachim
Heller, IPGRI. p.11.

The plant, originating in Central America, is mainly
grown in Asia and in Africa, where it is known as
Pourghère. It is cultivated in the tropics and semi
tropics as a living fence. The seeds, however, are toxic
to humans and many animals, and this species is a

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resistant to a high degree of aridity and as such does not compete with food crops. It can growwithout protection and can be used as a hedge to protect fields and farmer housings. Jatropha,
the wonder plant produces seeds with an oil content of 37%. When the seeds are crushed, theresulting jatropha oil can be processed to produce a high-quality biodiesel fuel (between 30-35%
of oil yield can be produced from one kg of seeds) without being refined and can be applied to a
standard diesel engine.
also insecticide.

The by-products are press cake a good organic fertilizer, oil contains

Glycerine byproducts from biodiesel production offer a valuable additional

income stream to refiners.
Other uses :Leaves - The young leaves may be safely eaten, steamed or stewed.

Cooked with goat meat,

they are said to advantageously counteract its smell.
Flowers - As honey plants.
Nuts - Sometimes roasted and eaten, although they are purgative.
candlenuts when strung on grass.

They can be burned like

Used as a contraceptive in South Sudan.

Seed - The oil has been used for illumination, soap, candles, the adulteration of olive oil, andmaking Turkey red oil. Turkey red oil, also called sulphonated (or sulfated) castor oil, is the
only oil that completely disperses in water.
Jatropha oil.

It is made by adding sulfuric acid to pureIt was the first synthetic detergent after ordinary Soap, as this allows easy use

for making bath oil products. It is used in formulating lubricants, softeners, and dyeing
assistants.

The seeds in particular area are very appreciated by the population as food once

they have been boiled and roasted. It is unclear if this is due to the existence of a non-toxic
variety of Jatropha in Mexico and Central America, or if the seeds become eatable once
processed by cooking.

It is also similarly reported that Jatropha seeds are edible once theembryo has been removed.

Again it may be so because of these seeds coming from a local
non-toxic variety.
Roots - Their ashes are used as a salt substitute.

It

can be used to kill molluscs, and has been listed for
homicide, piscicide, and raticide as well.
Bark - Used as a fish poison.
Latex - Strongly inhibits the watermelon mosaic
virus.
Sap - It stains linen.
Fig. 2.9.2. Flower of Jatropha.

Sometimes used for marking.

Shrub - Mexicans grow the shrub as a host for the lac-51-

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insect, which is used in medicine as hepatoprotective and anti-obesity drug. Used for erosion
control.

Further information
Banzon, J. A.; Velasco, J. R. Coconut: production and utilization. (1982)

2.10 Aquatic Plant Biomass
2.10.1 What is aquatic plant biomass?
Aquatic plant biomass is produced in freshwater and marine environments and has somepotential human uses.

Most current aquatic plant biomasses include seed plants, seaweeds

and micro-algae, which are mostly produced naturally as well as some with man-made culture
production.
Seed plant biomasses in freshwater are a water plant (Eichihornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms)
and duckweeds.

E. crassipes native to Brazil grows actively at 18-32 oC but shows no positive

growth above 34 oC and below 0 oC.

No duckweed species including about 30 species recorded

has been selected as biomass utilization yet.
Within 60 species belonging 13 genera of 3 families (Hydrocharitaceae, Zosteraceae andCymodoceaceae) as marine seed plants (sea grasses) in the world, eel grass (Zostera marina L.)
and related species distributing at middle and high latitudes attract mostly for biomass uses
(Hartog, 1970).
Algae include multi-cellular macro-algae (seaweeds) and unicellular micro-algae(phytoplankton).

Seaweed inhabits, mostly in seawater and active biomass utilization ismade with 220 species of red algae, 88 species of brown algae and 27 species of green algae inthe world（Indergaard, 1982).
Micro-algae are distributed widely both in fresh- and marine waters although species aredifferent. Current attractive species for biomass are green algae belonging Chlorella,

Scenedesmus and Dunaliella and blue green alga of Spiriluna in freshwater. Selected strainsare cultured artificially for biomass uses, and some freshwater strains are cultured in seawater
after acclimation treatment.

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2.10.2 Productivity
Productivity of E. crassipes was recorded as 11-23 kgFW (fresh weight)/m2.year (0.5-1.2
kgDW (dry weight)/m2.year) during growing season in Japan, and reached 21.1 kgDW /m2.year
under sufficient light and nutrients. Eel grass productivity is 0.3-0.8 kgDW/m2.year (120-320
gC/m2.year), and that of Thalassia reached 5 gDW/m2.day during 8 months in Florida, U.S.A.
Red alga, Hypnea, had productivity of 12-17gDW/m2.day in outdoor tank (Slesser and Lewis,1973). Productivity of micro-algae is 2-10 gDW/m2.day in outdoor tank on average, andincreases to 500 gDW/m2.day under the optimum condition.

2.10.3 Current practical resource utilization
E. crassipes containing all essential amino acids supplies excellent livestock feed such as pig
and chicken although heavy metals absorbed in the plant has to be eliminated for practicalapplications.

For energy uses, 373 m3/tonFW bio-gas containing 60-80% methane and ca.

5,300 kcal/m3 for burning calorie was obtained by anoxic fermentation of E. crassipes. Since E.

crassipes contains 3.2% of nitrogen, 0.7% of phosphorus and 2.8% of potassium in total DW,
applications for fertilizer and soil amendment agent are now under considered.
Eeel-grass biomass is used as a part of feed of sea pig and manatee in aquaria.

Technology

of artificial cultivation of eel-grass has not been established yet.
Seaweed biomass has been widely used in the world (Table 2.10.1).

Yearly harvesting of

attractive seaweeds is ca. 1.3 M (million) tonsFW for brown algae and ca. 0.81 M tonsFW for
red algae.

Most of them are natural, and artificial cultivation has increased recently.

Seaweeds have been used for dried feed, human food, fertilizers, soil amendment agent and soon.

Useful materials contained in seaweeds such as unique polysaccharides, iodine and so on

are used for raw materials for extracting the useful substances (Indergaard, 1982).

Kelp

contains alginic acid in 13-45% of DW which is used for producing foods, medicines, cosmetics,
dyes, paints, paper manufacturing, interior finishing materials, lubricating oil and so on. Some
red algae contain agar and agar-like carrageenan.

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Table 2.10.1. Yearly yield of seaweed production and potential productivity in the world.
(x103 tons FW、Michanek 1975 (referred from Indergaard 1982)

Area
Yearlyyield

Red algae

Brown algae

1971-73

1971-73

Potential
productivity

Yearlyyield

Potential
productivity

18 Arctic sea

-

-

-

-

21 NW Atlantic

35

100

6

500

27 NE Atlantic

72

150

208

2,000

31 W central Atlantic

-

(10)

1

1,000

34 E central Atlantic

10

50

1

150

37 Mediterranean, Black
Sea

50

1,000

1

50

41 SW Atlantic

23

100

75

2,000

47 SE Atlantic

7

100

13

100

51 W Indian

4

120

5

150

57 E Indian

3

100

10

500

61 NW Pacific

545

650

825

1,500

67 NE Pacific

-

10

-

1,500

71 W central Pacific

20

50

1

50

77 E central Pacific

7

50

153

3,500

81 SW Pacific

1

20

1

100

87 SE Pacific

30

100

1

1,500

Total

807

2,610

1,301

14,600Regional numbers represent the FAO classification of world oceanic regions.

Micro-algae contain high percentages of protein reaching 50-70% of DW.

Variousutilizations of health care supplements, raw materials for extracting pigments such as
carotenoids and phycobilins, and vitamins, and feed for aquatic organism are now in businessfor micro-algae.

Due to micro-size and low biomass concentrations in natural, micro-algal

biomass is prepared by artificial cultivation in tank, pool or channel on land in low or middle-54-

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latitudes suitable for year round cultivation.

A business model has been proposed to culture

filter feeder sea shells fed micro-algae cultured by nutrient rich deep seawater (Roels et al.,1979).

2.10.4 Standing stock of biomass resources
Actual standing stock of E. crassipes and duckweeds has not been estimated yet.

Since E.

crassipes is actively propagating due to acceleration of eutrophication in various places of low
latitudes particularly serious in Africa where large rivers are dammed by the plant, attractive
biomass utilization is urgently required.
Standing stock of biomass of natural sea grass bed is 0.1-0.5 kgDW/m2 on average reaching
to 2 kgDW/m2 in a dense community.

Sea grass bed is decreasing due to environmental

changes and land reclamation in the world, and then artificial maintenance and recovery
techniques are under challenged.

Assuming 0.3 kgDW/m2 of average density and 90% ofwater content of eel grass, it is expected more than a few 10 Mtons of eel grass biomass in theworld.
According to the estimates based upon natural seaweed resources by Jensen (1978, afterIndergaard, 1982), demand of alginic acid is 50,000 tons per year which requires 1.30 MtonsFW
of seaweed.

Yearly demands of carrageenan, agar, “nori”, “wakame” and kelp are 30,000,

20,000, 35,000, 30,000, 250,000 tons, respectively, and required seaweeds for respective thoseare 0.40, 0.50, 0.40, 0.20 and 2.00 MtonsFW.
requirements made in the late 1970s.

These are 1.1-3.0 times compared to the

In addition, there are several M tonsFW to several 10

M tonsFW of seaweeds requested for seaweed meal, chemical industry, energy uses and highpurity chemical industries, respectively.

In order to meet with these large requirements ofseaweed, a large increase of seaweed production is requested essentially in coastal areas aswell as open seas in the future.

Further information
Hartog, C. den. Seagrasses of the world. North Holland, Amserdam. pp.275 (1970)
Indergaard, M. The aquatic resource. In Biomass utilization (ed. W. A. Cote) Plenum Press, New York,
pp.137-168 (1982)
Mann, K. H. Ecology of coastal waters: a systems approach. Univ. Calif. Press, pp.322. (1982)
Roel, O. A.; Laurence, S.; Farmer, M. W.; Hemelryck, L. Van. The utilization of cold, nutrient-rich deep
ocean water for energy and mariculture. Ocean Mangement, 5,199-210 (1979).
Slesser, M. and C. Lewis. Biological energy resources. E. & F. N. Spon Ltd., London (1979)-55-

Asian Biomass Handbook

2.11 Agricultural Residues
Agricultural residue refers to residue produced in fields or farm during harvesting and otheractivities.

As energy resources, available agricultural residue includes those from cereals,

rhizomic crops, and sugarcane.

In addition, there is a huge amount and variety of vegetable

residues could be produced that would not be considered as energy resources because it isdifficult to collect them efficiently on a large scale.

2.11.1 Types and features of agricultural residues(a) Rice and wheat
Residues from rice and wheat are mainly exemplified by chaff and straw.
generally refers to those derived from rice.

Of these, chaff

This is because wheat chaff never drops inharvesting, and it can be processed without being removed.

Rice chaff is almost uniform inshape and size, and is suitable for processing and transportation.

Rice chaff, however, has a

hard structure and less suitable for fermentation, due to its large amounts of lignin and silica(SiO2). Most rice chaff is used as fuel for combustion.

However, the silica contained in ricechaff as much as 10 to 20 wt%, which may damage incinerators during combustion, raisingsome considerations on its practical use.

On the other hand, straw similarly contains lignin,silica and so forth, but may be more fermentable than the chaff, and it is used as energy
sources both for combustion and fermentation.
(b) Corn and rhizomic crops
Corn residues are discharged not only as residues in fields (leaves, stems, etc.), but also as
corncobs after processing.

Kernels of corn are abundant in starch, and it is used for ethanol

production through fermentation in the USA.
Rhizomic crops may have leaves and stems as residues.
(c) Sugarcane
All parts of sugarcane other than the stems, such as cane tops (top portion with only a low
sugar content), leaves and roots, are removed before the stems are transported to the sugar
mill, leaving them as residues in the fields.

2.11.2 Volume of production
Although modes and volume of production of agricultural residues may differ by production-56-

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areas, rates of production of residues relative to crop yield are reported as 140% for rice, 130%
for wheat, 100% for corn, and 40% for rhizomic crops (Hall et al., 1993).

In this literature, therate of production of sugarcane residue derived from stems, leaves and tops produced in thefields during harvesting is reported as 28% relative to the crop yield.
Annual production of agricultural residues estimated by determining production of each crop
based on the FAO statistics (2000), and using the above-described rates of production ofresidues is shown in Fig. 2.11.1.

About 3 billion tons of agricultural residues in total are

produced around the world, in which rice residue accounts for a largest production of 836
million tons.

Residue of rhizomic crops amounts 272 million tons, and wheat and corn

residues, which not produced very much in Japan, amounts 754 and 591 million tons,
respectively.

Bagasseバガス
6%
6%
Sugarcaneサトウキビ残余
residue
12%
12%

米残余
Rice
residue28%
28%

Production of

世界における

農産廃棄物発生量
agriculturalresidues
3,002（百万トン）

根茎作物残余Rhizomiccrops9%residue
9%of the world

麦残余
Wheat
residue25%
25%

トウモロコシ残余
Cone residue
20%
20%

Fig. 2.11.1. Production of cereal residues and bagasse.

2.11.3 Bio-energy potential of the world
World's bio-energy potential of the agricultural residue in 2000 is shown in Table 2.11.1.
These values were estimated based on production of residues multiplied by energy conversion
factor, availability factor and so forth (Hall et al., 1993).
Rice residue was found to be as largest as 3.4 EJ, followed by bagasse and wheat residue asmuch as 3.3 EJ, respectively.

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Table 2.11.1. Bio-energy potential from agricultural residues.
Bio-energy potential (PJ/y)Rice residue

3,407

Wheat residue

3,299

Corn residue

2,614

Rhizomic crops residue

407

Sugarcane residue

1,550

Total

11,277

Further information
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Statistical Database, FAO Statistical
Database, (http://www.fao.org/)
Hall, D. O.; Rosillo-Calle, F.; Williams, R. H.; Woods, J. “Biomass for Energy: Supply Prospects”, In:
Renewable Energy, Johansson, T. B. eds., (1993) pp.594, Washington, Island Press.

2.12 Wooden Residuals
2.12.1 Characteristics and environmental significanceWood-based carbon from sustainable forestry, in which the amount harvested is less than orequal to the amount of growth, circulates in forests, human communities, and the atmosphere.
Wood from sustainable forestry is called “carbon neutral” as it will not cause a rise of carbon
dioxide concentration in the atmosphere.

Fossil fuel consumption for forestry production isless than in agriculture or fisheries, and less energy is used for producing wooden products likesawn timber or wooden buildings than for producing steel products etc.
wood utilization could contribute to carbon dioxide reduction.

The promotion of

However, only 30% of tree

biomass carbon can be stocked in final wood products like wooden buildings.

Thus, it isimportant to achieve a balance between resource saving through material-recycling and fossil
fuel saving by consuming wooden residuals for energy.
Densities of wood and wooden composites vary from 0.2 to 1.0 g/cm3, and the weight of
low-density wood can vary by up to 3-fold, depending on moisture content conditions.

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most cases, wood statistics are listed using volume as the unit.

Average oven dry density ofwood used in Japan is estimated to be 0.42 g/cm3. Carbon content is 0.5. However, sometimes acarbon content value of 0.45 is used for wooden composites like particle board or medium
density fiber board, which contain 10% weight ratio of adhesives, as a wood-derived portion.

2.12.2 Residuals from wood industries
Types and moisture content of wood residuals from wood processing plants like sawmills or
plywood mills can vary widely. Larger residuals are chipped and sold for pulp or woodcomposites like log slabs from sawmills or peeled cores from plywood mills.

Smaller residuals

like bark, sawdust, planer dust, or veneer residuals are utilized as livestock bedding in nearby
farms, as boiler fuel in the mill, or as compost.

Only 7% of the estimated 12 million m3 of wood

residuals produced in 2005 was uselessly burned or otherwise wasted.
In large scale mills, even zero emission production is possible by recycling residuals forelectric power generation or steam for wood drying.

But for small sawmills without drying

facilities or precut mills, a residuals utilization system such as a small-scale roundaccumulation system, must be established. Recently, wooden pellet production from bark or
sawdust, which is easy to handle and has higher energy density, has been increasing.

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Fig. 2.12.1. Wood flow in Japan.
Table 2.12.1. Shipment of wooden primary products to utilization sectors(1,000m3) (2005).

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2.12.3 Residuals from wood utilization
In the 2005 estimates, 22 million m3 of residuals were produced in the construction,
furniture, transportation, and civil engineering sectors. Residuals from civil engineering
include trees felled during construction works.
Only 10% of residuals were recycled as materials; 1.6 million m3 for particle board etc., and
0.8 million m3 for pulp.

The “Construction Recycle Law” mandates that construction-derived

wood wastes from construction and civil engineering sectors are to be separated and recycled.
In 2005, an estimated 62.8% of the 15 million m3 of residuals produced is recycled in some way,mostly, for energy generation, except for the volume reducing by incineration.
In the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, the rise of petroleum prices has given
many industries like power plants, steel mills, cement mills, and paper mills added incentive tostart wooden residuals for energy production. Recycling companies also benefit easily, because
they can collect a disposal fee for residuals from wood utilization.

The objectives of the“Construction Recycle Law” will undoubtedly be achieved, and there may even be a shortage ofwood residuals.
Material-recycling for conserving resources must have top priority.

However, residuals withadhesives or paint cannot be used for pulp chips, and almost no waste wooden boards arematerial-recycled.

Also small or composite wooden residuals, which cost much to bematerial-recycled, should be crushed and used as fuel chips.

So, more than half of wood

residuals could be energy-recycled without wasting, which in turn could reduce fossil fuelconsumption by more than 1 million tons-C.

2.12.4 Technologies of energy utilization
Except for felled trees from civil engineering projects, the moisture content of residuals fromwood utilization is considered to be 15% in dry base.
fuel chips is relatively high.

Energy efficiency of direct burning as

There is also the possibility of gasification for electric power

generation or for production of gas or liquid fuels.

On the other hand, further consideration isnecessary to utilize residuals from wood industries for energy production, because the moisture
content may be nearly 100% in dry base and there are many types of residuals. Sawdust andbark, which requires little powdering energy, can be used as wood pellets.
The Japanese government is aiming to produce 2 million kL of bioethanol from wooden
residuals by 2020.

Lignin encloses cellulose etc. in the cell walls of wood, so saccharification-61-

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and fermentation are difficult without pre-processing.

There is an opinion that automobiles

should be powered by electricity rather than liquid fuel in future.

Further information
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport Japan: Investigation of construction byproducts
2005(2006) (in Japanese)
Mayu Takagi, Hachiro Takeda, Takeshi Okano: Trends in the carbon transferred from forests to the
populated area of Japan –Estimates from timber supply and demand statistics-, Wood Industry,62(8), 354-357(2007) (in Japanese)
Mario Tonosaki, Yuko Tsunetsugu, Masayuki Ozawa, Kenji Hanaoka: Wood utilization for Japanese
forestry, Journal of the Japan Institute of Energy, 84, 973-979(2005) (in Japanese)

2.13 Animal Waste
2.13.1 What is animal waste?
Livestock feces and urine are the major animal waste products and the amounts of livestock
feces and urine account for the greatest portion of domestic organic waste in Japan. The feces
and urine contain many easily degradable organic materials and many nutrient materials,
such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The quantity and quality of feces and urine are very different
depending on the kind of livestock, weight, feed, amount of drinking water, breeding system,season, and livestock conditions. According to their characteristics, feces and urine areprocessed and stored or used by suitable methods. Other animal waste products include
slaughterhouse residue and other by-products of meat processing.

2.13.2 Characteristics of animal waste
Table 2.13.1 shows the amount of standard excretion for major livestock types.

The amountof feces and urine excreted from each type of livestock is calculated under the conditions ofstandard feed conditions according to animal type and body weight. Generally, cow manure hasa high carbon content (C/N ratio: ratio of carbon and nitrogen contents), but there are manyorganic materials that are relatively difficult to degrade, and poultry manure includes highconcentrations of nutrient chemicals, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and also
contains many types of organic matters that are relatively easy to decompose. The category-62-

Asian Biomass Handbook

“waste” in slaughterhouse residue includes substances that are not suitable as foods (inedible
visceral, bone, fat, blood, skin, and feathers.

Table 2.13.1. The amount of standard excretion for major livestock.
Livestock type

Dairy Cattle
Beef cattle

Pig
Layer
Broiler

Total weight(kg/head/d)
feces urine total
45.5 13.4 58.9
29.7
6.1 35.8
17.9
6.7 24.6
17.8
6.5 24.3

lactatingnon-lactating
heifers
Breeding cows
(under 2year old)
Breeding cows
20.0
(2year and older)
Dairy breeds
18.0
Fattening pig
2.1
Sow
3.3
Chick
0.059
Adult
0.136
Adult
0.130

Nitrogen(gN/head/d)
feces urine total
152.8 152.7 305.5
38.5 57.8 96.3
85.3 73.3 158.6
67.8 62.0 129.8

Phosphorus(gP/head/d)
feces urine total
42.9
1.3 44.2
16.0
3.8 19.8
14.7
1.4 16.1
14.3
0.7 15.0

26.7

62.7

83.3 146.0

15.8

0.7

16.5

7.2 25.2
3.8
5.9
7.0 10.3
0.059
0.136
0.130

64.7
8.3
11.0
1.54
3.28
2.62

76.4 141.1
25.9 34.2
40.0 51.0
1.54
3.28
2.62

13.5
6.5
9.9
0.21
0.58
0.29

0.7
2.2
5.7
-

14.2
8.7
15.6
0.21
0.58
0.29

6.7

2.13.3 Production of animal waste
Based on the data shown in Table 2.13.1, the annual production of livestock waste inJapan was calculated to be 60.7 million tons of feces and 27.7 million tons of urine(Table 2.13.2). Livestock waste in Japan contains 670 thousand tons of nitrogen and
108 thousand tons of phosphorus. Those amounts are very large considering that theamounts of nitrogen and phosphorus used as chemical fertilizer in Japan are 480
thousand tons and 250 thousand tons, respectively. Statistics for the total amount ofslaughterhouse residue are not available, but the quantity (about 1.5 million tons) is
less than 2% of the total amount of animal waste.

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Table 2.13.2. The annual production of livestock waste in Japan.
Type

Number(Thousand)Livestock Waste (thousand tons)
Feces

Urine

Total

Organic materials, N and P in Waste(thousand tons)
Organic matter Nitrogen Phosphorus

Dairy Cattle

1,683

21,206

6,261

27,4673,424.2

134.9

18.8

Beef Cattle

2,805

18,9906,872

25,862

3,452.5

130.9

15.9

Pig

9,724

7,857

14,58622,443

1,644.3

151.5

32.3

Layer

174,550

7,698

7,698

1,154.6

154.0

29.3

Broiler

104,950

4,975

4,975

746.2

99.5

11.4

88,444

10,421.9

670.8

107.6

Total

60,72527,7192.13.4 General treatment and usage of animal waste
Dr. Haga (National Agriculture and Food Research Organization) summarized the main
systems used for treatment of major livestock waste in Japan (Fig. 2.13.1). According to theresults of an investigation by the Agricultural Production Bureau of the Livestock Industry
Department, solid parts of manure were just piled or operated by a simple composting process
and liquid parts of manure were stored and used on their own fields as fertilizer in most dairy
cattle and beef cattle farms. In the case of pig breeding, composting with a forced aeration
system was the main method used for processing of solid parts and wastewater purification
systems were used on most farms for treatment of liquid parts. Moreover, after drying
treatment, layer and broiler manure is sold and used in other farms in many cases. Generally,
dairy and beef cattle farmers have their own land for cultivation but pig and poultry farmers do
not. This is thought to be the major reason for the differences in livestock waste treatments.
The slaughterhouse residue and other by-products of meat processing are treated by a process
called “rendering”, and most of them are used as edible fat and oil, feed, or an industrial source.

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Livestock type

Breeding type

Usage of bedding
materials

Taking out system formanure (Type of barn)

Characteristics ofmanureused(separation type)barn cleaner or manuallyfeces + bedding
materials (solid)

stall barn(individual
feeding)

wastewater (liquid)
not used(mixture type)slotted floor barn, gravity
flow channel barn

mixture of feces andurine(slurry)

usedloaderfeces + bedding
materials (solid)

not usedslotted floor barn

mixture of feces andurine(slurry)

not used

free stall barn,loose barn

mixture of feces andurine(slurry)flat floor(small number ofgroup feeding)used(relativery
abundant)

bedded pack barnfeces + bedding
materials (solid)slotted floor(groupfeeding)

not usedslotted floor barn

mixture of feces andurine(slurry)stall barn(individual
feeding)usedscraper or manuallyfeces + bedding
materials (solid)

flat floor(group feeding)usedbedded pack barn

not usedflush

wastewater (liquid)

slotted floor(groupfeeding)used(separation type)

scraper or dung belt

feces + bedding
materials (solid)

not used (separation
type)

slotted floor barn

mixture of feces andurine(slurry)

not usedscraper or dung belt

feces (solid)

Dairy cattle

free barn(group feeding)Beef cattle

wastewater (liquid)Pig

feces + bedding
materials (solid)

wastewater (liquid)

cage systembarn(individual feeding)wastewater (liquid)
Poultry

cage system (layer)usedscraper or dung belt

feces (solid)

flat floor(broiler)used / not used

loaderfeces (solid)

Fig. 2.13.1. Major breeding type and characteristics of manure of each livestock type.

2.13.5 Animal waste value and total amount in the world
To calculating the value of livestock waste as resources, consideration should be given to its
value as 1) a source of plant nutrition (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.), 2) a source of organic
compounds with favorable effects on crop growth and 3) a source of energy. Because of thedifferences in breeding conditions, it is difficult to accurately calculate the amount of nutrientssuch as nitrogen and phosphorus in manure of all livestock throughout the world. Based on
FAO statistics, total amount of nutrients in manure of all livestock in the world is estimated to
be about 140-150 times greater than those in Japan.

2.14 Sewage Sludge-65-

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2.14.1 What is sewage sludge?
Sewage sludge is defined in this text as the solid matters discharged from an activatedsludge wastewater treatment facility as the result of aerobic wastewater treatment.

Thesewage sludge, which is usually a mixture of settleable matters in sewage and reproduced
microorganisms, is high in organic contents that are possibly considered as reusable biomass.

2.14.2 Types and characteristics of sewage sludge
The standard activated sludge process is depicted in Fig. 2.14.1 as a typical aerobic
wastewater treatment process.

SewagePrimary settler

Aeration basin(Biological treatment tank)

Final settler

Effluent

Return activated sludge

Primary sludge

Excess sludge
Sewage sludge
Mixed sludge

Fig. 2.14.1

Basic standard activated sludge process

In the activated sludge process, settleable matters contained in in-coming sewage areremoved in the primary settler and withdrawn as raw sludge.

The sewage is then introduced

to aeration basin(s) where the sewage is mixed with return activated sludge, aerated andvigorously agitated.

The mixture of sewage and return activated sludge in the aeration basin

is usually called mixed liquor.

Most of the organic pollutants are removed from a liquid phaseby bio-adsorption and eventually decomposed by microbial assimilation of the activated sludge.
The mixed liquor is then introduced to the final settler where suspended solids (activatedsludge) are settled and withdrawn as return activated sludge.

A portion of return activatedsludge is discharged from the facility as excess sludge and its quantity is approximately
equivalent to the amount of microbes reproduced in the aeration basin.

The sewage sludge iseither a mixture of the raw sludge and the excess sludge, or each of the sludges discharged
separately.
The discharged sewage sludge is thickened and dewatered, and is subjected to the final
landfill disposal or recycled after an intermediate treatment such as incineration or-66-

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gasification-melting.

Typical treatment/disposal processes for sewage sludge are shown in Fig.

2.14.2.

①Sewage sludge

Thickening
Anaerobic
digestion②Sewage sludge

Disposal
Recicling

Dewatering
Sundrining

Thickening

Dewatering

Composting
Composting
Dryness
Desiccation

Recicling

Dewatering

Incineration
Melting

Disposal
Recicling

Anaerobic
digestion③Sewage sludge

Thickening
Anaerobic
digestion

Fig. 2.14.2. Typical treatment process of the sewage sludge.

2.14.3 Utilization of sewage sludge
With various degrees of treatments including anaerobic digestion, dewatering, drying,incineration and/or melting, the sewage sludge is recycled and utilized as shown in Fig. 2.14.3.

Ornamentation
Tile

Constructio
Construction
nmaterialmaterial

Block

Aggregat
AggregateeBase course
material

Water
permeable block

Horticultua
Horticultual
lsoil
soil
Solid
fuel

Soil
conditioner
Cementmaterial

Subgradematerial(Melting)
Fertilizer

Soilconditioner(Incineration)(Dewartering)Electricit
ElectricityyHeating
fuel(Anaerobic digestion)
Sewage sludge

Fig. 2.14.3. Example of sewage sludge recycling.

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By anaerobic digestion treatment, organic fraction of the sewage sludge is degraded byanaerobic microbes and converted to biogas.

Since the biogas mostly consists of methane andcarbon dioxide, it can be used as fuel for a gas engine or a gas boiler to generate electricity
and/or steam/hot water, which, in turn, can be used at the wastewater treatment facility.
By-products of dewatering, incineration or melting treatment of sewage sludge can beutilized as a fertilizer/soil conditioner in agricultural applications, or as construction materials
such as aggregates, tiles and water-permeable blocks in civil engineering applications.

Rapid

expansion of recycling and utilization of the by-products of sewage sludge treatments is
expected to continue in the future.

Further information
Japan Sewage Works Association: Sewage facilities planning, policy and explanation (second part) 2001,
pp.15-47, Japan (2001) (in Japanese)
Japan Sewage Works Association: Sewage facilities planning, policy and explanation (second part) 2001,
pp.335, Japan (2001) (in Japanese)
Japan Sewage Works Association: Japan Sewage Works 2005, pp.141, Aikosha (2005) (in Japanese)
The Japan Institute of Energy: Biomass Handbook, Ohmsha, pp.70-72, Ohmsha (2002) (in Japanese)

2.15 Municipal Solid Waste
The major biomass components in municipal solid waste (MSW) are food waste and paper,and thus biological (2.15.1 and 2) or thermal processes (2.15.3 and 5) are used to recover energy
from the biomass fraction.

2.15.1 Methane recovery in landfills
In landfills containing organic waste, anaerobic biodegradation of biomass produces methanegas because oxygen diffused from the atmosphere is consumed near the landfill surface.
Landfill gas can damage nearby plant growth and even cause neighboring buildings to explode.
Therefore, gas control methods including flaring have been implemented since the 1960s. In
large-scale landfills, vertical wells are installed to pump out the gas, which is used on-site forpower generation or sold as fuel. Average gas recovery rates range from 120 to 150 m3/ton ofdry MSW, equivalent to a heating value of 2500 MJ/ton (the methane concentration of landfill-68-

Asian Biomass Handbook

gas is around 55%). Since the late 1990s, many American studies have investigated “bioreactor
landfill,” in which moisture content is controlled to maximize biodegradation. Bioreactors also
increase the rate of gas generation and consequently the rate of energy recovery.
In contrast, landfill gas is not recovered in Japan for two reasons: landfills contain little
organic content due to the common practice of incineration, and landfills are aerated throughthe use of a semi-aerobic landfill structure, in which natural convection is allowed to form an
aerobic zone around leachate collection pipes below the landfill. The Chuo-Botahei landfill inTokyo Bay does recover methane, but its annual power generation (averaged over 20 years) is
3000 MWh, enough power for only 850 households.

2.15.2 Biogasification (methane fermentation)
Biogasification, a technology for recovering methane gas from organic matter in an anaerobic
reactor, is also referred to as “anaerobic digestion.”treat organic wastewater.
million tons/year).

This process was developed in the 1980s to

In 1997, 90 facilities operated worldwide (total throughput is 3.5

Japan has 12 facilities to treat human waste and food waste, and 3 of thesetreat only food waste. Fig. 2.15.1 illustrates the main processes of biogasification. Low solid
concentrations (6 to 10%) are treated using a “wet system,” while high solid concentrations (25to 40%) are treated using a “dry system.” Treatment systems are also classified by their
dominant microorganisms: methophilic (used at 30 to 40°C) or thermophilic (used at 50 to60°C).

Fig. 2.15.1. Process flow of biogasification.

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2.15.3 Incineration with energy recovery
MSW produces a heating value about one-third that of coal heat, and can burn attemperatures as high as 1000°C. When the combustion gas is cooled to between 200 and 300°C
by gas control equipment, energy can be recovered by a boiler system. While even small-scale
incinerators commonly reuse waste heat for heating and hot water supply, large-scale facilities
can use high-temperature steam for power generation. In 2005, more than 60% of MSW
incinerators reused hot water, and 20% generated power.
However, on average, MSW incinerators have a power generation efficiency of only 10%,much lower than coal power plants. They cannot be highly efficient because steam
temperatures must remain low to prevent corrosion at temperatures of 320°C or higher;
economic incentives are also low due to the low price of generated electricity and the high cost
involved in generating power.
An incinerator of the 600 ton/day class can provide central heating service for 1000 to 1500
households.

However, this is usually impossible because MSW incinerators are generally

located far from residential areas. To increase energy efficiency, waste management systems
should be incorporated into city planning.

2.15.4 Refuse-derived fuel production and power generation
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is fuel recovered from waste. It includes a wide range of fuelincluding gas and oil, but usually refers to shredded waste from which incombustibles havebeen removed.

In Japan, RDF was first produced from uniform commercial waste, such as

plastics or paper, and in the late 1980s, RDF production began to include household waste.
Produced after a series of processes including separation of incombustibles, drying, shredding,and palletizing, RDF can be easily stored and transported, and therefore has been selected as
an alternative method of incineration in small- and medium-sized cities. After problems related
to dioxins limited RDF use as fuel for small-scale boilers, regional RDF power generation (inwhich RDF produced in member municipalities is used in a central power plant) became apromising option when decentralized small-scale incineration was not possible.
Compared to unprocessed waste, RDF provides a higher heating value and uniform
composition, and yields improved power generation efficiency. Five RDF power generation
plants have been in operation since 2001 in Japan. They were expected to yield throughput of
160 to 310 tons/day, power generation efficiency of 20 to 30％, and output of 3000 to 20,000 kW.

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However, a RDF storage tank exploded at one plant in 2003, and extensive surveys revealed
that similar accidents were not rare; a considerable fraction of RDF is now being sent tolandfills. As of 2003, 43 RDF production facilities were in operation or under construction, but
this technology has been discredited in Japan due to its poor safety record. The United Statescurrently has 15 large RDF incinerators in operation, but in that country, RDF contains only
shredded combustible waste, termed “fluff RDF” (or coarse RDF).

2.15.5 Pyrolysis
In the late 1990s, problems related to dioxin motivated incinerator manufacturers to develop
a pyrolysis (or gasification) system in addition to a melting system. Solid waste is heated ataround 500°C in a scarce- or low-oxygen atmosphere, and the resulting combustible gas andsolid residue is burned at between 1200 and 1500°C to melt ash. This process was expected toyield benefits such as low dioxin emission, high power generation efficiency, and recycling
molten slag, and 77 facilities were in operation by 2005. However, recent studies have foundthat these facilities require high consumption of supplemental fuel and electricity, and produce
a low slag recycling rate. To minimize these drawbacks, the first part of the pyrolysis-melting
system is used as carbonization. The product, char, can be used as a charcoal alternative, soil
conditioner, and powdered coal for blast furnaces.

In contrast, in the European Union,pyrolysis is used as an alternative technology for energy from waste, but its target is pyrolysis
gas.

Further information
R.Stegmann, “Landfill gas utilization: An overview” in Landfilling of waste: Biogas (ed.T.H.Christensen,
R.Cossu, R.Stegmann), E&FN SPON (1996)
Tadashi Abe, “Beikoku ni-okeru Gomi-hatsuden no Hatten”, Waste Management Research7(4) 、305-315(1996) (in Japanese)
Hideaki Fujiyoshi, “Toshi-gomi no Tanka-nenryo-ka Shisetsu”, ENERGY, 57-59 (2001-4) (in Japanese)
Shigeo Shikura, Hideki Harada, “Toshi-haikibutsu no Kenkisei-shoka”, Waste Management Research
10(3)、241-250(1999) (in Japanese)
Website of Tokyo-to, http://www2.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/tyubou/ (in Japanese)
Toru Furuichi, Norio Nishi (ed), “Biocycle”, Kankyo-Shinbunsha (2006) (in Japanese)
Tsukasa Kagiya, “RDF Hokanji no Hatsunetsu to Kongo-no Taio”, Kankyo-Shisetsu 94, 48-55 (2003) (inJapanese)“RDF Hatsuden-shisetsu o Kaku to-suru Gomi-shori Koiki-ka ni Kadai”, Kankyo-Shisetsu 94，42-47-71-

Asian Biomass Handbook

(2003) (in Japanese)
Hideaki Fujiyoshi, “Gasu-ka Yoyu-ro no Unten Kanri to Kaizen Jirei”, Kankyo-Gijutsu-Kaishi 129，86-99(2007) (in Japanese)

2.16 Black Liquor
2.16.1 Black liquor
Black liquor, a mixture of organic wastes, is made from a wood as a by-product during the
production of chemical pulp. And it’s routinely burned as a liquid fuel in a recovery boiler in apulp mill. Approximately 1.5 tones of black liquor are produced in the manufacture of 1 tone ofpulp. Generally, a calorimetric heat value of black liquor is 12.6 MJ/kg and its energy is mainly
used for pulp and paper making process.

2.16.2 Process of black liquor generation
There are a number of different processes which can be used for separating of the wood fibers.
And their produced pulp is mainly divided into 2 types. One is mechanical pulp which ismanufactured by a grinding process. The other is chemical pulp which is manufactured by acooking process where the cellulose fibers are cooked out from the wood. Black liquor is
produced during the cooking process. In this chapter, details of black liquor generation are
described in terms of the kraft process so that the kraft process is nowadays the main stream
for pulping (Fig. 2.16.1).
Wood, the raw material of paper, is composed by wood fibers which consist of cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin which is an integral part between the fibers. The ratio of cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin is approximately 55: 20: 25.
The process to extract lignin from a wood chip by means of decomposition anddissolubilization is called cooking process. In the kraft process, Na2S and NaOH are added as achemical to cook and the mixture is heated to 140 - 170℃ and it keeps several hours. Although
it’s important not to damage to the cellulose and the hemicellulose fibers during the process,indeed, a part of the cellulose and most of the hemicellulose fibers are decomposed anddissolved. Generally, the half of the organic materials in the wood turns to pulp and the otherturns to black liquor.

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Solar Energy
CO2 in the air

Combustion CO2

ForestNa2S,NaOH
Wood Chip
Chemicals
Recovering Process

Pulp and Paper Making Process

Cooking Process
Na2S, Na2CO3
EnergyWashing Process
Recovery Boiler(Electric, Steam)

Unbleached kraft Pulp
Black Liquor
Bleaching Process

Bleached kraft Pulp

Paper Making Process

Paper

Fig. 2.16.1. The main stream for pulping.
Black liquor contains decomposed and dissolved lignin, hemicellulose, and Na and S. Afterthe cooking process, the concentration of black liquor is usually 15 to 20%. Then the liquor isconcentrated to approximately 70 to 75%. Finally, it’s burned in a boiler called recovery boiler.
As for a hard wood chip, 1 tone of the pulp turns to 1.5 tons of black liquor. Generally, acalorimetric heat value of black liquor is 12.6 mJ/kg.
During the process, melted Na and S which were contained in the liquor are extracted andthen dissolved into hot water. After that, they’re reproduced to Na2S and NaOH in thecausticizing process, and then used in the cooking process again. On the other hand, separated
wood fibers turn to pulp through the washing process and the bleaching process. Finally,they’re used as a raw material of paper.

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2.16.3 Characteristics and significance of black liquor
As described, burning black liquor in a recovery boiler is a process to get energy. At the sametime, it reproduces the chemicals for pulp production. It’s necessary to use black liquor in a
kraft pulp manufacturing plant. Therefore, all kraft pulp plants have a process to burn black
liquor.
2.0 tones of black liquor are produced as a by-product from 1 tone of a hard wood pulp or 1.5
tones of a soft wood pulp. Generally, almost all amount of black liquor is used as biomassenergy. The production of the kraft pulp in Japan is about 9,000,000 tones a year and14,000,000 tones of black liquor are produced during the process. And the amount of the liquor
is equal to 4,710,000 kiloliters of crude oil in terms of energy.
In 1999, the production of chemical pulp in the world was 119,000,000 tones. In consequence,the production of black liquor was calculated to be about 200,000,000 tones. And it’s equal to60,000,000 kiloliters of crude oil (Table 2.16.1).
Pulp and paper industry in Japan and Asian countries has been using planted woods as amaterial of pulp in these days and the production has been increasing. The industry is able tobe developed by means of producing both material and energy from sustainable forest
management which produces the resources for pulp. The utilization of black liquor is surely thefoundation for the management.
Now that the utilization of black liquor is limited to the energy source in pulp and paper
mills, however, various kinds of materials are produced such as lignosulfonic acids by dividing
lignin from black liquor and nucleic acids by culturing of the yeast using sugars in the black
liquor. It’s expected that biorefinery of black liquor utilization will be more and more developedin the future.

Further information
Keiichi Tsuchiya, Makoto Iwasaki, Tadanori

Table 2.16.1. The pulp production.
(1000 tones)
1989
1994
1999

Oihata, Yoshihiro Sakaguchi, Keiichi
Tushiya,

“Pulp

and

Paper

Technology

CompleteWorld

113,803111,304

119,260

Book, Vol. 2 Kraft Pulp”, 11-20, 185-223

Europe19,381

20,21922,502(1996) JAPAN TAPPI (in Japanese)

North America

58,05362,714

61,934

Asia

17,49013,755

17,252Latin America

5,517

7,527

9,652

Manufacturing

JAICAF Edition, “World Forest White Paper1997”, JAICAF (in Japanese)-74-

Asian Biomass Handbook

JAPAN TAPPI Energy Committee, “Survey on Energy Consumption in the Pulp and Paper Mills inJapan Part 1”, 55, 573-591 (2001) JAPAN TAPPI (in Japanese)JAPAN TAPPI Edition “Pulp and Paper technical handbook”, 105-136 (1971) JAPAN TAPPI (inJapanese)
Yuuichi Hayase, “Seishi-koujou kara-no Fukuseigenryou ”, 50, 1253-1259, Thermal and Nuclear PowerEngineering Society (in Japanese)
Masahiro Kitazume, “Sekai no Kami Parupu”, 8-15, September (2000) Kami-Parupu (in Japanese)
Keiichi Nakamata, “Kami to Shinrin no Kakawari”，Global Environmental Policy in Japan the 1st report,
1-9 (1999) Chuo University Press (in Japanese)

2.17 Food Processing Waste
2.17.1 Potential of food processing waste
In this chapter, the example of Thailand is given to show the utilization of food processing
waste.

As one of the agricultural based countries, food industry sector plays an important rolein Thai economy and also is worth a great fraction of Thai export value each year.

The

processing of food and its related commodity often involves thermal, mechanical and chemicaltreatment, which reluctantly poses environmental problems on proper treatment of the foodprocessing waste.

Broadly, food processing waste can be categorized into two types, according

to its physical states, namely solid and liquid wastes.

Solid waste varies from empty oil palm

bunches, baggase, rice straw/stubble/husk, waste from cassava starch factory and corncob.
On the other hands, liquid waste mainly comes from any food processing that involves washing,cleaning, extracting with water or any other solvents.
Conventionally, solid wastes have often been thrown back into the boiler in order to generatesteam for the plant processing itself or power generation.

With biomass technology likegasification, solid wastes find higher efficiency conversion to energy than simply uncontrolledburning.

On the other hand, since liquid wastes are regulated for environmental concern,processing plants are required to install wasted water treatment system.

Often such system

is of an anaerobic digestion technology, from which biogas can also be produced and used asenergy source in the plants.
From the Ministry of Energy evaluation back in 2000, the first nine industries of highpotential for biogas production are of cassava, sugar, palm oil, canned seafood, frozen product,-75-

Asian Biomass Handbook

slaughterhouse, canned pineapple, carbonated soda and liquor, respectively.

Recentinvestigation on the wasted water from cassava, sugar, oil palm, canned pineapple and ethanol
plants to assess the biogas potential was conducted by TRF (http://www.trf.or.th).
are shown in Table 2.17.1.

The results

Cassava plant has the highest potential to produce biogas, morethan twice the runner-up ethanol plant.

Some reasons for seemingly low potential of biogas

production in certain industries are the better management of waste water treatment system
and also better by-product utilization.

Table 2.17.1 Potential biogas production from different industries.
Industries

Biogas data in 2005
Production(Mm3/y)Energy equiv.
(ktoe/y)Cassava344

167

Ethanol149

Oil palm

MWeEnergy substituted by biogas
Plant capacity(GWh/y)%Plantcapacity

Fuel oil equiv.
(ML)

57

413

82.2

158

97

20.5

179

100

69

84

39

14

100

82.2

39

Cannedpineapple

13

6

3.7

16

50

6

Sugar

4.2

0.7

3.6

5

27.4

0.3

Total

594.2

309.7

98.8

713

272.3

Source: TRF (Thailand Research Fund) final project report, 2007
Remarks: Fuel oil equivalent is calculated based on methane content in biogas with the following
conversion factors: 1 m3 of CH4 = 33.8 MJ, 1 m3 of biogas = 0.46 L of fuel oil equiv. = 1.2 kWh2.17.2 Baggase
Baggase is the fibrous solid waste produced after stalks of sugarcane are crushed to extract
sugar juice in the sugar mill. Typically, about 25-30% of sugar cane production is baggase,contributing to about 10.9-22.3 Tg/year (Mt/year) from the sugarcane production of 43.5-74.3
Tg/year (Mt/year) over the period between 1998 and 2007 in Thailand.

Currently, almost all of

baggase from the sugar mills in Thailand are used up as biomass fuel to generate energy
partially for the sugar processing within the mills, leaving negligible amount for otherapplications.

As shown below, more than half of grid biomass power plant in 2007 uses

baggase as the fuel.
Since 1994, there are 37 SPPs (Small Power Producers) and VSPPs (Very Small Power-76-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Producers) operating on baggase with installed capacity over 780 MW with almost 300 MW ofwhich are sold back to the grid.

The recent rapid increase in the baggase power plants are due

to governmental strong support on electricity generation.

Bagasse Power Plants in Thailand
800

3%
5% 4%
Electricity (MW)15%

Capacity (MW)
700

53%
16%

Sold to Grid (MW)

600
500
400
300
200

BagasseRice husk
Para wood waste
Eucalytus bark
MSW

Rice husk/Eucalytus barkBlack liquor
Palm oil residue
BiogasRice straw

100
0
1994

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

Year

Fig. 2.17.1. Breakdown of biomass power
Fig. 2.17.2. History of baggase power plants
plants by fuel type in 2007.
in Thailand.
Source: Adapted from Energy for Environment Foundation (http://www.efe.or.th)
Furthermore, baggase can only be used to produce other value-added products likebiodegradable food container (as shown below) and particle board.

The baggase residue & ashfrom power plants can also be compressed to make a construction brick that weighs 3.2
kg/brick, sustains 80-90 kg/cm2 load and costs only 4 Baht/brick (compared to typicalconstruction brick of 5.8 kg, 70 kg/cm2 strength and 8 Baht/brick cost).

Fig. 2.17.3. Biodegradable food container from baggase fiber.

2.17.3 Corn cob
Even though corn or maize is not one of the most economic crops in Thailand, there has been
an increasing utilization of corn cob in power generation and solid fuel in order to achievezero-waste philosophy in corn processing industry.

The figure below shows the 2006

production of maize around the world, where USA is accounted for almost half of the world-77-

Asian Biomass Handbook

production and also with the highest yield in the world.

Although China has a similar amountof land for maize plantation to USA, the lower yield in China makes its production only half of
the USA figure.

30

Harvested area (M ha)
Yield per hectare (ton/ha)

25

USA, 48.9%
Statistics

Thailand, 0.7%20
15

MexicoIndonesia

0Fig. 2.17.4. World leading countries in maize
production in 2006.

Ita
ly
Ca
na
da
Th
ai
la
nd

BrazilFranceThailand

In
di
a
Ar
ge
nt
in
a
Fr
an
ce
In
do
ne
sia

China
Argentina
Canada

5

Ch
i

USA
India
Italy

China, 25.5%

USA

Brazil, 7.8%

na
Br
az
il
M
ex
ico

10

Fig. 2.17.5. Harvested area and yield ofmaize in 2006.

For the past 10 years in Thailand, the yield has been gradually increasing but not fast enoughto compensate the decreasing plantation land, resulting in a decreasing maize production, as
shown in Fig. 2.17.6.

In 2006, the yield is 411 g/m2 (4.11 t/ha) averaged over whole 9,000 km2(0.9 million ha) harvested area.

Most of maize production in Thailand goes to food and feedindustry; both of which corn cob is left as solid waste in the plants.

In 2006, 33 Gg (0.33 Mt) ofcorn cob is reported, where 200 Gg (0.2 Mt) comes from the lower North part in Thailand
especially Phetchabun (76 Gg (0.076 Mt)), Tak (35 Gg (0.035 Mt)) and Nakorn-sawan (33 Gg
This corn cob is usually dried

before putting in the boiler to generate steam
for power generation, e.g. 10 MW power
generation

unit

in

the

ethanol

plant

Pornvilai International Group Co.
Another value-added product for corn cob
is corn charcoal, where corn cob is firstheated to about

900-1000oC

palletized with proper binder.

before being
Then, thefinal drying at 120oC for 12 h is conducted to

5.0

Plant area (M ha)/Production (Mton)/Yield (ton/ha)(0.033 Mt)).

4.5
4.0
3.5
Planted area
Production
Yield per hectare

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Year

Fig. 2.17.6. History of maize statistic in
Thailand.

obtain charcoal with less than 5% moisture.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

2.17.4 Molasses
Molasses is a by-product of sugar processing from sugarcane.
remains after sugar has been extracted from sugar juice.

This black thick syrup

In Thailand, sugar industry is

closely regulated by OCSB (Office of the Cane and Sugar Board) via the Cane and Sugar Act of
1984.

The OCSB has an important role in ensuring fair distribution of the revenue between

the sugar mills and sugarcane growers.

80

4.00

70

3.50

60

3.00

50

2.50

40

2.00
1.50

30
20

Sugarcane
Molasses

1.00
0.50

10
0
1998

Molasses (M Tons)

Sugarcane (M Tons)

Sugarcane & Molasses

0.00
2000

2002

2004

2006

Year

Fig. 2.17.7. Sugarcane plantation (green) andsugar mills (red) in Thailand.

Fig. 2.17.8. Production of sugarcane andmolasses in Thailand.

As shown above, about 10,000 km2 (1 million ha) of sugarcane plantation area (green) isclustered in four regions (spanning 49 provinces) showing all 45 sugar mills (red).
molasses production strongly depends on sugarcane production.

The

In general, 1 Mg (1 t) of

sugarcane would yield molasses by about 45-50 kg, and 1 Mg (1 t) of molasses can be processedto produce 260 dm3 (L) of ethanol.
of molasses is produced.

For 60 Tg (Mt) of sugarcane production in 2007, 3 Tg (Mt)

Of this 3 Tg (Mt), 1 Tg (Mt) is used among liquor, yeast, cooking

sauce, MSG (mono sodium glutamate), vinegar and animal feed industries while 2 Tg (Mt) canbe used to produce ethanol totaling about 520 dam3/year (million L/year) or 1.4 dam3/d (million
L/day).
Initially, Ministry of Energy required licensing for a fuel ethanol plant but later on it was not
required.

At the moment, there are 7 total fuel ethanol plants (6 from molasses/sugar and 1

from cassava) operating at the capacity about 1 dam3/d (million L/day).

About 12 more plants

are currently being constructed with half using cassava as a feedstock.

The total additional-79-

Asian Biomass Handbook

capacity is 1.97 dam3/d (million L/day).

This drive for ethanol capacity building is a result of

the governmental initiative on using 10% ethanol-blended gasoline or so-called “gasohol E10”
for both 91 & 95 octane rating.

Recently, gasohol E20 (octane rating of 95) or 20%

ethanol-blended gasoline will be commercially available at selected gas station from January 1,
2008 onwards.
For molasses export market, Thailand has recently become the largest molasses exporter(value at $41.6 M in 2004), where the second and third largest are USA and Guatemala.
About 37% of the export goes to ASEAN countries, and other 53% goes to other countries in
Asia.

Other molasses exporting countries nearby are Philippines, Indonesia and Australia.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Part 3. Physical conversion of biomass
3.1 Firewood
3.1.1 General scope
Firewood is a classic energy source, and is still important household energy source in many
developing countries.

In the latter half of the 20th century, firewood was deprived of many

uses by petroleum, but firewood production occupies more than half of the harvested wood, andfirewood covers 14% of the world energy consumption, and 36% of the energy consumption in
the developing countries.
However, in some regions, the amount of wood is decreasing with the increasing population,and they have to travel far to get firewood.
cooking.

They have troubles even for getting firewood for

In Asian countries, most of the forestry wood has difficulties in use, due to thetroubles encountered for transporting wood from the forest of high slope area.
For the left side of Fig.1, which is the supply side of firewood from raw wood to the furnace,
what matters now is not the amount of the resource, but the energy and cost for thetransporting the wood from the forest.

When external energy supply for this transportation*e and energy available from the product firewood E have the relationship
∑*e

＞ E,

this system fails to be a net energy producing system.

This aspect is also very important forthe case where chipping or palletizing is made so that the fuel is easily handled at the furnace.
*e transportation,etc.
┌→[E]→cooker or heating
Raw wood ―――――――――――→ stove ―――→ [flue gas]*e drying,cutting,etc.
└---―→[ash]Fig.3.1.1. Material- and energy-flow around stove in firewood system*e :energy supply from outside,
E :useful energy
For the right side of Fig. 3.1.1, which is the user of the firewood, what matters is the low
energy efficiency of the old heating devices similar to traditional kitchen stoves.
In addition, hygiene of the indoor air is to be considered when small stoves are used that-81-

Asian Biomass Handbook

often accompanies with incomplete combustion.

The problems of soot, carbon monoxide (CO),tar, Non-methane volatile organic matter (NMVOC), and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH,
carcinogen) are pointed out.
Ash content of the firewood is lower than that of coal by one order, but ash removal isimportant from the view point of mass balance, although it usually does not cause a serious
problem.

Ash of wood has high content of potassium, which is an important fertilizer, andreturn of ash to the forest is essential for the sustainability of the system.
Herbaceous plants have higher ash content than wood by 5-20 times, and ash treatment is alarge problem for production of artificial firewood from straw, husk, and bagasse.
Heating values of plant is about 20GJ/t-dry for various woody biomass (half of heating valueof oil), and mostly decided by its water content.

Woody biomass is not suitable fortransportation of long distance due to its bulkiness.

This is why utilization of firewood near

the forest is insisted.

3.1.2 Firewood supply
The potential of firewood supply is discussed here.

According to FAO (Food and Agriculture

Organization), forest area of the world is 39,500 km2 (3.95 Gha) and decreasing gradually(-0.2%/year).

Although the primary growth rate of forest is estimated to be more than 5.1

km3/year (5.1 billion m3/year), annual lumber production is as small as 1.6 km3/year (1.6 billion
m3/year) for industrial use, and 1.8 km3/year (1.8 billion m3/year) for fuel use. Even if forestry
area is constant, artificial forest with high growth rate is increasing gradually, and supply
increase with mild development of economy can be met.
For lumber production, production of forest residue and thinning wood is accompanied with.
If proper development is made for transportation of these biomass, supply potential largely
increases. However, transportation from steep mountain that is often found in Japan and Asian
countries leads to very large value ofeffectively utilized.

*e-1 in Fig. 3.1.2, and the woody biomass cannot be

The value of *e-1 is expected to increase with distance proportionally, andincrease with the slope with the exponent value of 2 to 3, but has not been studied in detail.
The bulk density largely affects the transportability.

Packing factor is 1/4-1/3 for twigs, 1/2

at maximum for chip, and 0.6 for pellets.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

*e-1 transp.
*e-2 transp.
┌→[E]
Raw wood ――――→ village ―――――――――→ stove*e-3 gathering, ↓ *e-4 drying,*e-5 cutting ↑Factory ―――processing―――→┘
Fig.3.1.2. Material- and energy-flow before stove in firewood system*e1、*e 2、*e 3･･･ :energy supply from outside,
An experiment was made by a Japanese NPO to transport woody biomass from high-slope
land forest to the foothills using a slider as shown in Fig. 3.1.3.
for the thin wood, for the slope of around 20o.

Successful result was obtainedThis system requires no mechanical power, andapplicable to the sloped region.

(injector)(Mt.)（vilage）
Collector⇒ ⇒ [woods]
Fig.3.1.3. Carrying-out system for mountain- fire woods
To convert raw wood to firewood, it is cut into the length of less than 50 cm, because of thefurnace dimension. The improve the easiness of burning, change its form to have an aspectratio of 10-20 by cutting into pieces so that surface area is increased.

These requirement istroublesome, and recently, artificial firewood produced by pelletizing the crashed wood into aform of cylinder with empty core is developed (Ex: Ogaraito, See Chap. 3.2 Pelletizing).

Orderis given for some forms of woody biomass fuel in terms of high specific surface area andimprovement in handling as follows, but higher treatment requires higher consumption of theprocess energy (*e-4、*e-5) and results in higher cost.
Raw wood ＞ fire wood ＞ chips, briquette ＞ pellet
Water content of firewood is 50% for raw material, and 15-30% for air-dried firewood. Bothare combustible, but latent heat of water (2.26 MJ/kg-water) is lost.

Generally, when watercontent exceeds 2/3, the fire gets extinguished because the remaining heat is not sufficient toachieve the flame temperature.

Drying of firewood consumes process energy, but part ofwhich can be partly recovered by the increase in the heat of combustion.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

3.1.3 Utilization of firewood
Firewood can be used with simple equipment, but the mode of combustion changes as shown
below.

Char combustion is 10-20% of the whole combustion.

Drying→dry-distillation → flame combustion → char combustion(～150℃,endothermic)(250～400℃,endothermic) （main combustion） (solid combustion）
When air supply is in shortage, hazardous tar is produced in the dry-distillation stage.

At

the stage of flame combustion, CO and soot (carbon particles) are produced, and part of tar isconverted into carcinogenic PAH by pyrolysis.

To prevent these pollutant from getting in theflue gas shown in Fig.3.1.4, high temperature and oxygen content is to be maintained by using
air amount a little bit in excess from stoichiometry.
For safe combustion of firewood, air ratio of 1.25-1.4 is usually employed.

When the air

ratio is too high, the flame is diluted, and the flame temperature is lowered, thus, supplying
excess air as secondary air is recommended.

A device to place combustion catalyst over theflame is available commercially, which aims at achievement of complete combustion even at the
air ratio close to 1.0, but gas flow is deteriorated, and yearly exchange of the catalyst is needed.

Fuel woods →Fig.3.1.4[E]→cooker↑ └→ heating
stove ―――→ [flue gas] ―→（chimney）└→ ash pan ---―→[ash] ---→ fertilizer

Material- and energy-flow after stove in fire wood system*e1、*e 2、*e 3･･･ :energy supply from outside,

At the upper part of Fig.4 is shown the use of heat.

For air conditioning, heat loss can besmall, but for cooking, effective use of heat is not always easy because heat transfer to the pot
is needed.

Development of an apparatus that works as both cooking stove and room heater

requires elaborate work.
Generally, the top part of the stove, where the highest temperature is available, is used forcooking.

For hot water supply which does not need boiling, lower temperature part is

assigned.

Further Information-84-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Japan, Ed. (2006)：”Shinrin ringyono shorai yosoku”,
p.31, p.411（in Japanese）.
H. Sano, H., J. Soc. Mec. Eng. (2005), 108(1045), pp.926-927.（in Japanese）.
Ogi, T. in ”Biomass Handbook”,Japan Institute of Energy Ed.,Ohm-sha,2002,p.5 and p.16 (in Japanese)

3.2 Pelletizing
3.2.1 What are Pellet and Pelletizing?
Pelletizing is to compress the materials into the shape of a pellet. A large range of different
raw materials such as solid fuels, medicine, feed, ore, and more are pelletized. On the solid fuel,we call them the wood pellet, ogalite(wood briquette), coal briquette or composite fuel. The
wood pellet shown in Fig. 3.2.1(a) is made of wood waste such as sawdust and grinding dust. A
diameter of a pellet is 6-12 mm, a length is 10-25mm. Figure (b) and (c) show a large size pellet(wood briquette and rice husk briquette). A diameter of briquette s 50-80 mm, and a length is
300 mm. Figure (d) shows CCB that is a kind of the Composite fuel of Coal and Biomass. We
call it Biobriquette.

(a)Wood pellet
Japan(b) OgaliteJapan(c) Rice husk briquette
Nepal(d) CCBJapan

Fig. 3.2.1. Various types of briquette.

(a) Wood pellet
Apart from a rice husk briquette, wood pellet and wood briquette are produced in thefollowing manufacturing processes.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

(1) drying process
Generally the original moisture content of wood is about 50%. It is necessary to dry the raw
materials to moisture content 10-20% in order to obtain the optimum pulverizing andpelletizing conditions. Big particle size of raw material should be dried with the rotary kiln,
and small particle size of raw material should be dried with the flash dryer.
(2) pulverizing process
The raw materials should be pulverized in accordance with size of the pellet. In case of wholewood or large size wastes, the raw materials should be crushed before drying process in orderto prepare the moisture content uniformly. This process is needless in case of the raw material
is rice husk.
(3) pelletizing process
Pelletizer consists of feeder, roller, dies as shown in Fig. 3.2.2-3.2.3.

Fig. 3.2.2 shows theschematic drawing of pelletizer for wood pellet. This type of pelletizer is the most popular in
the world. Fig. 3.2.3 shows the schematic drawing of briquetting machine for wood briquetteand rice husk briquette.
(4) cooling process
Because the pellet of manufacture right after is high temperature and contains muchmoisture, it needs to cool off.
(5) screening process
Low quality pellets are removed in this process. They are utilized as energy for drying.

hopperrollcutterheatingunit

dicescrew feeder
ring dicepellets

Fig.3.2.3. Briquetting machine for wood

Fig. 3.2.2. Pelletizer for wood pellet.

and rice husk briquette.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

(b) CCB (Composite fuel of Coal and Biomass;Biobriquette)
In the second oil crisis, CCB was developed
as kerosene substitute fuel in Japan. CCB is ascrew feeder

kind of composite fuel of coal (<2 mm) andbiomass (<2 mm) that is produced by the highhopperpressure briquetting machine as shown in Fig.
3.2.4. The fundamental raw materials mixing
ratio of CCB is coal 70-90%, biomass 10-30%
by the weight. When coal includes sulfur
content,slakedequivalence

ratio

lime

or

1-2

is

lime

stone

added

as

of
a

desulfurizer. Coal can be utilized from aroll tire

lignite to smokeless coal, and wood waste,agricultural waste and something like thatcan be utilized as biomass. Because biomass is

Fig. 3.2.4. Briquetting machine for CCB.

mixed with coal and the combustion efficiency
of fuel is high, ignitability and flammability is good, there is a little emission of smoke, theeffect of energy saving is high. In particular the reduction of the carbon dioxide is easy so that
CCB includes 10-30% of biomass.

The sulfurous acid gas of 50-80% can be reduced by adding

a desulfurizer with fuel The technology of CCB is one of the clean coal technology andtransferred to many countries as alternative fuels production technology of firewood, kerosene
and charcoal In particular, the technical support requests for energy saving, reduction ofcarbon dioxide and prevention of acid are increasing rain from China.

3.2.2 Characteristics of pellet and CCB(a) Wood pellet
Characteristics of the wood pellet which compared with wood tip and fire wood are as follows;
handling, igniting and burning are easy, shape and characteristics of fuel are uniformly, there
is a little emission of harmful gas during burning, transportation efficiency is high, energy
density is high.
(b) CCB
CCB includes 10-30% of biomass. Generally biomass has the defect that heat quantity is low.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

On the other hand, it has superior characteristics such as good ignitability, good flammability,
little smoke emission, low ash content. These characteristics are not in coal and make theutilizing of low quality coal possible. These characteristics make the use of low-grade coalpossible.

3.2.3 Fundamental test for briquetting(a) Wood pellet
It is thought that the factors that affect on pelletizing condition are pressure, temperature,compression time, particle size of raw materials, moisture content and chemical composition ofwood. As for the boundary condition on pelletizing, it is not clear yet. It is actual that pellet is
produced on the basis of experience of operator. It is different with a kind of wood material, but
the experience value of pelletizing pressure and temperature is 70MPa and 100-150 degrees.
However, there is no doubt that lignin, glucide and pectin play as a binding agent.
(b) CCBWe use a high pressure roll type briquetting machine for production of CCB. Tablet tests arecarried out to obtain the optimum blending ratio of the raw materials and indispensable as apreliminary step in briquette manufacturing. The blended material is compressed to tablet of
25 mm diameter. A steel ball with a diameter of 20 mm is placed on a tablet and the ball isforced down onto the tablet until the tablet breaks. The breaking strength is measured as thecriteria of quality. Fig. 3.2.5 shows the breaking strength of the tablets prepared from coal andbiomass. The breaking strength becomes increasingly higher as the content of the biomass
increases. Heating the raw materials under briquetting is an effective way to increase thebreaking strength. Fig. 3.2.6 shows that a higher temperature of molding increases thebreaking strength of tablet. This is attributable to the enhancement of the plastic deformationof the biomass by heat. The blending ratio of coal and biomass that achieves a breaking
strength of briquette of 1 kN is 20% of biomass content and molding temperature 50 degrees.
Based on these results, the standard blending ratio of coal and biomass is determined. When a
CCB was produced with high pressure roll press machine, the shearing stress occurs between
roll tire and raw materials, and raw materials is heated in about 70-80 degrees. Therefore
heating control of raw materials is not done in briquetting process.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

2.0
bri quetting
tem perature

Breaking strebgth (kN)

Breaking strength (kN)

●：50℃
○：80℃

1.5

1.0

0.5

20.0

25.0

30.0

br ique tti ng
te mper atu re△ ： 20 ℃● ： 50 ℃○ ： 80 ℃

1.0

0.5

0

Biomass content (weight %)

0

100

200

300

Compressing pressure (MPa)Fig.3.2.5 Effect of biomass content

Fig.3.2.6 Effect of compressing pressure

3.2.4 Energy efficiency
In China, the effects of CCB use for an economy and an environment are estimated asfollows; As for the consumption of coal decrease 20%, because CCB includes a biomass of 20%.
And, by improvement of flammability of fuel, about 25% heat efficiency becomes higher than apresent coal boiler. When CCB were consumed 1,000,000 t/year in China, it is estimated that
400,000 t/year of coal consumption, 5,000 t/year of smoke emission and 15,000 t/year of sulfur
dioxide are decreased.

Further Information
Johanson, J. R. ;The Use of Laboratory Tests In The Design and Operation of Briquetting
Presses, Proceedings, IBA, 13, 135(1975)
Maruyama, Coal-wood formed fuel Binder effect of woody materials, Hokkaido Industrial ResearchInstitute, No.279, 183(1980)
Maruyama, Briquetting characteristics of coal-wood composite fuel, Report of Hokkaido Industrial
Research Institute, No.282,195(1984)
Groring, D. A. I.;Thermal Softening of Lignin, Hemicellulose and Ceullulose, Pulp Paper Mag., T-517～
527(1963)
The Japan Institute of Energy, Biomass Handbook, p224-228(2002)-89-

Asian Biomass Handbook

3.3 Particleboard Production
3.3.1 Particleboard
Composition board has many names and definitions. Particleboard is a general term for apanel manufactured from lignocellulosic materials (usually wood), primarily in the form of
discrete pieces or particles, as distinguished from fibers, combined with synthetic resin or othersuitable binder. The particles are bonded together under heat and pressure in a hot press by aprocess in which the entire interparticle bond is created by the added binder; other materials
may be added during manufacture to improve certain properties (ASTM D 1554). Classificationof particleboard varies, depending on country. For example, Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)A 5908 classifies particleboard into five categories on the basis of: 1) surface condition, 2)
bending strength, 3) adhesive, 4) formaldehyde release amount, and 5) flame resistance.
Fiberboard is a general term for a panel manufactured from lignocellulosic fiber. This chapter
does not cover fiberboard.
Products made from comminuted woody materials in the shape of fiber, shavings, andparticles can be made from woodworking waste, noncommercial or low-value wood, andagriculture waste. Bark, forest slash, and industrial waste can be included in the products. The
manufacture of composition board is a conversion of previously unused natural resources touseful products. Thus, particleboard production is considered a technology for recycling woody
cellulosic biomass resources for sustainable forestry.

3.3.2 Particleboard Production and Consumption
There are 16 factories that manufacture particleboard in Japan (April, 2006). In October,
2006, total domestic production was 1,234,000 m3 and imported particleboard production was
391,000 m3. Of this total (1,625,000 m3), 60% was used for furniture and 37% was used forconstruction. To meet the goals of Japanese laws for recycling 60 % dismantled construction
wood, 61% of raw materials for wood composite panel manufacturing was from dismantled
waste in 2005.

3.3.3 Particleboard Manufacture
The process of particleboard manufacture is shown in Fig. 3.3.1. The first stage of the process-90-

Asian Biomass Handbook

is manufacturing raw particles from the mixture of waste wood, which is described as “particle
formation process.” Dismantled construction wood and industrial waste wood are processed on
different lines in the particle formation process. Several processes are performed for reducing
bulk wood to chip size and eliminating foreign materials. Raw materials are sent to a shear
crushing machine for initial size reduction, metal is removed by magnets, and the material isthen further reduced in a hammer crusher. Material is screened and sorted by airflow,
eliminating sand and concrete. The remaining raw material is sent through a search-coilmagnetometer, which eliminates non-metal foreign materials. The second stage of the process
is to manufacture board from the raw particles created by the first process. To obtain uniformly
thick particles, a ring flaker is used for particle size reduction. the particles are then dried andscreened. Energy for the drying kiln is often supplied by burning dust produced in the plant.
The particles are classified by size prior to blending them with adhesive. Separate surface andcore blenders are used for three-layered particleboards. The blended furnish is moved to thethree mat formers, hot-pressed, cured, and sanded. Nondestructive testing is sometimes
performed to eliminate products that include defects, such as blisters. After sanding, products
are inspected for shipping.

Fig.3.3.1. Particleboard Manufacturing Process. Courtesy
of Saito, Y., Tokyo Board Industries, Co., Ltd.

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3.3.4 Use of Particleboard for Material Recycling
Particleboard manufacture is a valuable process for recycling woody waste that mightotherwise be landfilled or burned. The process permits blending recycled materials with fiberfrom other sources to achieve specific properties. For example, limiting shorter recycled
elements to the core and using longer elements from other sources on the surface can improvestrength. Particleboard manufacture is a mature industry in Japan, but there areopportunities for improving the efficiency of the process. As oil prices continue to increase, thecosts for transportation, adhesives, and energy for plant operation continue to increase.
Particleboard manufacturers must compete with other industries for woody raw materials.
Some recent policies that focus on woody biomass for energy make the situation even worse.
The Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery started a comprehensive program focusing
on agricultural woody biomass resources, with clear goals for: 1) education, 2) technology
development of transportation fuel such as bio-ethanol, 3) promotion and networking of local
societies that use biomass resources, 4) research and development of technologies for using
woody biomass and other potential natural resources, 5) initiatives for using biomass products
and promoting recycling, and 6) technology transfer to other Asian countries. Most
particleboard industries that use local woody wastes intend to improve efficiency by increasing
their use of recycled material and supplementing energy for plant operation by burningmaterial that is unsuitable for manufacturing particleboard.

3.3.5 Statistics of Woody Biomass Including Wood-Based Panels
Wood biomass includes bark, sawdust, and cut-offs from lumber, veneer, plywood, andengineered wood products. The total amount of woody biomass use in Japan was 10,782,000 m3
in 2006. Almost all of this (10,197,000 m3 (95%)) was used as a biomass resource, while the rest
was discarded. Woody biomass is classified as: 1) wood chips, 4,408,000 m3 (43%); 2) fuel,2,330,000 m3 (23%); 3) livestock bedding materials, 2,256,000 m3 (2 %); 4) compost or soil
improvement materials, 580,000 m3 (5.7%); and 5) wood-based panels such as particleboard
258,000 m3 (2.5%). Fuel (2,330,000 m3) is classified as: 1) energy for operating drying kilns(1,550,000 m3), 2) electric power (595,000 m3), and 3) energy for manufacturing pellets (46,000
m3).

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3.3.6 Application in Asia
Kenaf grows faster than wood and is considered an environmentally friendly material.
Panasonic Malaysia developed an environmentally friendly system for manufacturing kenaf(Hibiscus cannabinus) particleboard. The process decreased pollution, thus conserving
Malaysia’s rich coral reef ecosystem. The technique for manufacturing kenaf board was
originally developed in cooperation with Kyoto University using kenaf grown in China. In 2005,
Panasonic succeeded in developing a process for growing kenaf in Malaysia that was suitable
for manufacturing high quality kenaf particleboard. This process produces 30% waste, but thefiber is burned to provide electric power for the manufacturing plant and the ash is returned tofields to fertilize kenaf (see http://panasonic.co.jp/ism/kenaf/index.html).

Further Information
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) Standard. D 1554 Standard Terminology Relating toWood-Base Fiber and Particle Panel Materials. (2001)
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A 5908. Particleboards. (2003)“Field survey on use of woody biomass,” Statistic Department, Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fishery. (2006)
Statistics

of

Ceramics

andConstruction

Materials,

Ministry

of

Trade

and

Industry,

ISBN:9784903259192. (2006)
Thomas M. Maloney, Modern Particleboard. ISBN 0-87930-063-9. Published by Miller Freeman
Publications Inc. (1977)
Walter T, Kartal S.N, Hang W.J, Umemura S, Kawai S. Strength, decay and termite resistance oforiented kenaf fiberboard. J Wood Science, 53(6) 481-486 (2007)
S. Kawai, K. Ohnishi, Y. Okudaira and M. Zhang. Manufacture of oriented fiberboard from kenaf bast
fibers and its application to the composite panels. The 2000 International Kanaf Symposium,
p.144-148, Oct. 13-14, Hiroshima (2000)
K. Ohnishi, Y. Okudaira, M. Zhang, and S. Kawai. Manufacturing and properties of oriented medium
density fiberboard from non-wood lignocellulosic fibers I. Mokuzai Gakkaishi, 46 (2) 114-123 (2000)(Japanese)
S. Suzuki. The state of the arts on current timber structures. V: The state of the arts on reuse and recycleof wooden structures. Journals of the Society of Materials Science, Japan, 53 (4) 465-470 (2004)(Japanese)-93-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Part 4. Thermochemical conversion of
biomass
4.1 Combustion
4.1.1 General scope(a) What is combustion?
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction accompanied by large heat generation andluminescence, and is a phenomenon in which the reaction is spontaneously continued by theheat generated by the reaction. When using biomass as fuel, the heat-generating oxidation
reaction, where carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, combustible sulfur, and nitrogen contained inbiomass react with air or oxygen, is known as combustion, industrially. Combustion processproceeds by gas phase reaction, surface reaction, or both, following processes such as fusion,
evaporation, and pyrolysis. In actual combustion reaction, complicated phenomena such as
evaporation, mixture, diffusion, convection, heat conduction, radiation, and luminescenceadvance complexly at a very high velocity. Gas fuel burns directly in gas phase as premix
combustion or diffuse combustion. Liquid fuel burns as inflammable gas in gas phase after
surface evaporation, which is called evaporation combustion., Heavy oil etc. burns inevaporation combustion but decomposition combustion also proceeds, where decomposing thefuel portion occurs by the produced heat.
(b) Forms of combustion
The combustion forms of direct combustion of biomass, which is in solid form, include
evaporation combustion, decomposition combustion, surface combustion, and smoldering
combustion. In evaporation combustion, the fuel containing simple component and molecular
structure with comparatively low fusing point fuses and evaporates by heating, and reacts withoxygen in gas phase and burns. In decomposition combustion, gas produced from thermal
decomposition by heating (H2, CO, CmHn, H2O, and CO2) reacts with oxygen in gas phase, forms
flame, and burns. Usually, char remains after these forms of combustion and burns by surface
combustion. Surface combustion occurs in the case of the component composed of only carbon-94-

Asian Biomass Handbook

containing little volatile portions such as charcoal, and oxygen, CO2, or steam diffuses to pores
existing inside or on solid surface of the component, and burns by surface reaction. Smoldering
combustion is the thermal decomposition reaction at temperature lower than the ignition
temperature of volatile component of the reactive fuels such as wood. If ignition is forced tosmoke or temperature exceeds ignition point, flammable combustion occurs. In industrial
direct combustion of biomass, decomposition combustion and surface combustion are the main
forms of the combustion.
(c) Combustion method
Industrially, combustion surplus air is supplied in addition to the theoretical amountrequired for biomass combustion. If surplus air rate is too high, it causes decrease in
combustion temperature and thermal efficiency. As the combustion method of biomass, grate
combustion (fixed grate and moving grate), fluidized bed combustion, rotary hearth furnace
combustion, and burner combustion are used. The features of each combustion method areshown in Table 4.1.1.
Table 4.1.1 Combustion type and feature of biomass
Combustion
Combustion typeFeaturesmethodFixed
bed Horizontal/Inclined
Grate is level or sloping. Ignites and burns as
combustion
grate
surface combustion of biomass supplied to grate.
Water-cooling grate
Used in small-scale batch furnace for biomass
Dumping gratecontaining little ash.
Movingbed Forward moving grate Grate moves gradually and is divided into
combustion
Reverse moving grate combustion zone and after-combustion zone. Due to
Step grate
continuous ash discharge, grate load is large. The
Louver grate
combustion obstruction caused by ash can be
avoided. Can be applied to wide range of fuels fromchip type to block type.
Fluidized bed Bubbling
fluidized Uses sand for bed material, keeps fuel and sand incombustion
bed combustion
furnace in boiling state with high-pressure
Circulation fluidized combustion air, and burns through thermal storage
bed combustionand heat transmission effect of sand. Suitable forhigh moisture fuel or low grade fuel.
Rotary hearth Kiln furnace
Used for combustion of high moisture fuel such as
furnaceliquid organic sludge and food residue, or large
combustion
waste etc. Restricted to fuel size on its fluidity.
BurnerBurnerBurns wood powder and fine powder such as
combustion
bagasse pith by burners, same as that for liquid
fuel.

(d) Application
The combustion of biomass is the simplest use of biomass to obtain heat, and is widely usedbecause experiences of fossil fuel technology can be applied, because generation of NOx, SOx,

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HCl, and dioxin is low, which is the advantage of biomass combustion, and because
flammability is excellent. Combustion heat is used for power generation and heat production byrecovering heat through heat transfer media such as steam and hot water using boilers andheat exchangers. In district heat supply and in energy centers of industrial complexes,
cogeneration fueled by waste wood and agricultural waste is widely used. There are many
power plants and heat utilization plants regardless of scale using paddy husk, bagasse, waste
wood, oil palm waste and poultry chicken droppings, etc. as fuels.

Further information
Fujii, S. in “Baiomasu Enerugino Riyo, Kenchiku, Toshi Enerugi Sisutemuno Shingijutsu", Kuuki Chowa
Eisei Kogakkai Ed., 2007, pp.212-218 (in Japanese)
Mizutani, Y. in "Nensho Kogaku", 3ed., Morikita Shuppan, 2002, pp.169-181 (in Japanese)

4.1.2 CHP(a) What is CHP?
Production of electricity and heat from one energy source at the same time is called
Combined Heat and Power (CHP). Because the energy efficiencies are higher than the cases to
produce only electricity, attention is paid to CHP by the viewpoint of effective use for energy.
(b) Energy conversion in CHP
To generate electricity from biomass, the energy of the biomass is changed into the kinetic
energy, the dynamo is turned by it, and the electrical energy is obtained. The main method ofchanging the energy of the biomass into the kinetic energy is as follows; 1) Steam is made byheat of combustion of the biomass and the steam turbine is turned, 2) The combustible gas ismade by pyrolysis or microbial degradation of biomass and the gas engine or the gas turbine isturned using the gas. In any case, the heat obtained by the combustion is converted into thekinetic energy. As all thermal energy cannot be converted into the kinetic energy, a part of theheat is discharged. The energy efficiency of the biomass utiliazation can be improved if thisheat is collected and supplied with the electricity. The CHP has the advantage of raising theenergy conversion efficiency in this way.
(c) Possibility of a large-scale plant
CHP can be applied even in a large-scale power plant. The reason for locating a thermal
power plant and a nuclear plant near the coast or the big river is to use a large amount ofseawater or river water to throw away heat. On the other hand, there is a case to sell the heatthat occurs from the power plant to the nearby factories. It would be desirable to consider heat-96-

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supply when a large-scale power plant is planned.
(d) Applicability of factories and housing complexes
The CHP facilities can be designed and be set up in a factory or a housing complex according
to the demand for the electric power and heat. There are various specifications for the obtained
heat from the steam of high temperature and high pressure to the warm water. The collections
and supplies of the heat are easier at low temperature and low pressure. The steam and the hotwater can also be supplied by combining the CHP facilities with the existing boiler. When thebiomass is used as fuel, the generation efficiency decreases when the scale of the facilities getssmaller. In case of the boiler and turbine processes, the scale of 2,000 kW or more in electrical
output is necessary and in case of the gasification and gas engine process, the scale of 50 kW or
more in electrical output is also necessary.
(e) Examples
An example of the small-scale CHP facility using woody biomass is shown below. In thisfacility, the wood scrap from the factory is used as fuel, pyrolysis and gasification is performed
and electricity, hot air, hot water and cold water are supplied to the factory. The process flow
diagram is shown in Fig. 4.1.1.
Fuel
Gasifier

Gas cleaner

Generator
Gas engine

Electricity
ExhaustHot air for heating

Ash

Silo

Heat exchanger
Absorption chiller
Cold water for air-conditioning

CharcoalHeat exchanger

Hot water for air-conditioning

Fig. 4.1.1. Outline flow diagram of a small CHP using woody biomass
Gross power output of electricity is 175 kW and net power output is 157 kW. Heat outputs are
174 kW (150 Mcal/h) as hot air (67oC), 116 kW (100 Mcal/h) as hot water (80oC) and 70 kW (60Mcal/h) as cold water (7oC). The energy efficiency in the facility can be raised by using heat thatis originally thrown away as exhaust and cooling water.

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4.1.3 Co-Firing(a) What is co-firing?
Co-firing refers to the technology whereby biomass is fired with fossil fuels at thermal power
stations and so on. The advantage of this technology is that, simply by making some minor
revisions to existing equipment to enable biomass treatment, it becomes possible to firebiomass in highly efficient large-scale combustion facilities. Here, an introduction is given to
research and development of coal and woody biomass co-firing technology that has been jointly
implemented by The Chugoku Electric Power Co., Inc., Hitachi Ltd. and Babcock-Hitachi K.K.
(b) Goals
Upon burning around 5-10% of woody biomass in a coal fired power station (hereafter the
proportion of mixed fuel is shown in terms of the calorific base), they aimed to secure stable
operation and to clear environmental standards while at the same time minimizing any
reduction in generating efficiency. Aiming for generating efficiency equivalent to approximately
40% the level in the existing coal fired power station, they held the reduction in efficiency at
the sending end to within 0.5% when the mixed fuel firing rate was 5% (and within 0.8% whenthe mixed fuel firing rate was 10%).
(c) Feedstock
Based on component analysis of pine, cedar, cypress and bamboo, etc., woody biomass has
greater volatile content than coal (bituminous coal), its fuel ratio (ratio of fixed carbon content
to volatile matter content) is approximately 1/10 of that of coal, and its ash content is low. Upon
conducting tests in a small hammer mill, etc., grinding power consumption for woody biomass
was at least 10 times higher than that for the same weight of coal and simultaneous grinding
testing of coal and woody biomass revealed that the grindability of coal is reduced a lot whenthe mixing ratio of wood is increased.
(d) Process flow
Figure 4.1.2 shows the flow diagram of the biomass pretreatment equipment. The woody
biomass consisted of thinned timber and bamboo chips procured from the Chugoku region witha size of no more than 50 mm and water content of 50wt%. The chips were crushed to a size
suitable for drying (no more than 20 mm) and dried to a water content of 20% or less. Next, twotypes of pulverizer were combined to regulate the pieces to a top size of 1~5 mm, and thematerials were blown into the furnace by fixed quantity feeder. The mixed fuel firing rate was a
maximum of 15%. Two types of burner were used: a coaxial coal and biomass mixed burner anda biomass dedicated burner (separately installed).

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Bag
house
Stack

BurnerHopper5 m3

HopperBiomass inlet
FeederFurnace

1m3
CycloneFeederHeaterHopperCrusher

BlowerPulverizer-1

Switcher

Drier
FeederPulverizer-2

Fig. 4.1.2 Schematic of the Pretreatment Flow(e) Results
Figure 4.1.3 shows some of the test results. As the proportion of mixed fuel was increased,
the unburned matter and relative value of NOx fell in both the coaxial burner and separately
installed burner. The reduction in the unburned matter indicates that mixing of the highly
volatile biomass caused the ambient temperature to rise and the combustion efficiency of thefuel itself to increase. The rate of decline in NOx was lower than the value forecast from therate of decline in the N content of fuel .
8

1 .2

Relative Nox (-)

UBC in ash (%)

Forecast from the fuel N

1 .0
0 .8
0 .6

Combustion test value

Co-axial burner

0 .4

Separate burner
Wood type : pine(moisture21%，-2mm)

0 .2

5

10

15

4

Co-axial burner
Separate burner
Wood type : pine(moisture21%，-2mm)

2

0
0

6

20

Biomass co-firing ratio (%)

0
0

5

10

15

20

Biomass co-firing ratio (%)

Fig. 4.1.3 Mixed Fuel Firing Test Results-99-

Asian Biomass Handbook

(f) Efficiency
Based on the results of the combustion tests, the basic equipment and system composition in
the case of application to the existing coal fired power station (selecting three units of 75-500
MW) was examined and the power generating efficiency and generating cost were assessed.
Factors that cause the mixed fuel firing to affect power generating efficiency are thought to bechanges in boiler efficiency and auxiliary power. In the case where thinned wood chips having
water content of 30% and chip size of 50 mm or less following natural drying of the forest land,
etc. are introduced to the power station, this wood is converted to crushed biomass of 20%
water content and 2-mm particle size following pulverization and conveyance, and this iscombusted in the boiler, whereas the unburned matter of ash is lower than in the case of firing
only coal, the boiler efficiency drops slightly due to the water content of the woody biomass. As
for auxiliary power of the plant, from the pilot test findings and based on estimation of thecrushing power in the case where a two-stage shock crusher is used, the drop in overall sending
end efficiency is 0.44% and 0.77% when the proportion of mixed fuel is 5% and 10% respectively,
and these values are within the respective targets of 0.5% and 0.8%. Furthermore, uponcomparing costs between woody biomass-only firing (10 MW) and mixed fuel firing, since themixed fuel firing was less expensive than dedicated firing (11.3 yen/kWh), the superiority of
mixed fuel firing was confirmed.

4.2 Gasification
4.2.1 Definition
The process to convert biomass solid raw material into fuel gas or chemical feedstock gas(syngas) is called gasification or thermochemical gasification.

4.2.2 Classification of gasification method
Gasification methods are classified according to combinations of conditional factors shown in
Table 4.2.1..

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Table 4.2.1 Classification of Gasification Method
Classification
Conditional factor
Gasification pressure Normal pressure (0.1-0.12 MPa), High pressure (0.5-2.5 MPa)
Low temperature (700oC and below), High temperature (700 oC and
Gasification
above),
temperature
High temperature decomposition (ash fusion point and above)
Air, oxygen, steam and combination of them, carbon dioxide for
Gasification agent
particular time
Direct gasification (heat generation from reaction of partial
Heating
gasification raw material and oxygen)(Temperature zone
Indirect gasification (heating raw material and gasification agent byformation)
external heat)
Fixed bed, flow bed, circulating flow bed, entrained bed, mixing bed,
Gasifier types
rotary kiln, twin tower, molten furnace

4.2.3 Examination of biomass material properties
Examination of biomass material properties is necessary before planning gasification.
(a) Element analysis
Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), nitrogen (N) and chlorine (Cl) are observed
through element analysis (HCN coder etc.). Excessive sulfur and/or chlorine can cause
corrosion of plant equipment. The abbreviated molecular formula CnHmOp can be determinedby obtaining the mol ratios for carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). For biomass consistingof grass and wood, n=1.2-1.5 and p=0.8-1.0 when m=2.
(b) Ash composition and fusion point
The ash softening point, fusion point and flow point are to be measured in both oxidizing andreducing atmospheres.

Problems with plant equipment occur more easily when the fusion

point temperature is low.
(c) Technical analysis
Technical analysis is to be performed on raw material biomass to determine surface moisture,
inherent moisture, volatile matter content, fixed carbon content and ash content, as well as
high and low calorific content. These material property values are essential for gasification
analysis.

4.2.4 Gasification agent
In order to convert solid biomass into inflammable gas, a substance to promote the chemical
reaction is necessary. This substance is called the gasification agent, and mainly air (N2, O2),
oxygen (O2), H2O, or CO2 are applied as an appropriate mixture. Air (only O2 reacts) and O2-101-

Asian Biomass Handbook

generate heat by oxidation, and increased O2 decreases the effective amount of inflammablegas.

4.2.5 Fundamental phenomenon of biomass gasification
Fundamental gasification processes are as follows:(a) Evaporation of surface moisture
Surface moisture evaporates from the raw material at the water boiling point (depends onpressure). Inner moisture remains when the raw material is large.
(b) Evaporation of inherent moisture
Following surface moisture evaporation, inherent moisture evaporates at 110-120℃.
(c) Volatilization
Thermal decomposition of biomass begins at 200-300℃, and CO, CO2, H2 and H2O arevaporized as gas. Thermal decomposition is a heat generating reaction which is a characteristic
phenomenon of biomass CnHmOp).
(d) Volatilization and gasification reaction
The temperature is raised further during volatilization, and the volatile matter of thelightweight hydrocarbons (CxHy: where x and y are integers of at least 1; a low value of x
indicates lightness and a high value of x indicates heaviness) is transformed into heavy CxHy
with a high boiling point. Subsequently, the CxHy reacts with the gasifying agent for conversion
to lightweight molecule clean gas, although tar and soot can form when diffusion of thegasifying agent is slow and the CxHy condenses.
(e) Char gasification
Following volatilization of the volatile content in the raw material biomass, the fixed carbon
and ash become char, and the char is heated to the surrounding temperature. The subsequent
reaction with the gasifying agent transforms the carbon into CO and CO2. However, in cases
where the gasifying agent contains excess steam and the surrounding temperature is over
750℃, a wet gas reaction occurs (C+H2O ( CO+H2) producing gas composed mainly of CO, CO2
and H2.
(f) Char residue
The reaction rate of the wet gas reaction is slow, and char residue can easily form. The formationof tar, soot and char tends to reduce efficiency, as well causing equipment trouble.

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4.2.6 Characteristics of gasification product gas
Gasification generally adopts the direct gasification method with partial combustion of raw
material to raise the temperature. Raw materials are mainly wood chips and corn stalks. Most
gasification furnaces use normal pressure and a direct gasification process. To keep thereaction temperature at 800℃ and above for direct gasification, air, oxygen and steam (asappropriate) are required for the gasification agent. For this purpose, approximately 1/3 of theoxygen required for complete combustion (known as the oxygen ratio) is supplied, with partial
combustion (partial oxidation) causing gasification. The calorific value of product gas depends
on the percentage of inflammable gas (CO, H2, CxHy) contained. Generally, gas can be divided
into low calorie gas (4-12 MJ/m3), medium calorie gas (12-28 MJ/m3) and high calorie gas(above 28 MJ/m3). For the most part, direct gasification of biomass yields low calorie gas. Fig.
4.2.1 presents composition of the product gas from rice straw when steam and oxygen is
employed as gasifying agent. The ratio between the calorific content of the biomass and that ofthe product gas (at room temperature) is called cold gas efficiency.

4.2.7 Gasification equipment and a practical example
Here is shown a fixed bed gasifier, based on the combustion or gasification of solid fuel, andfeaturing a comparatively simple structure and low equipment cost. Fig. 4.2.2 shows a concept
diagram of the gasifier. Wood chips of about 2.5-5 cm are generally used as the raw material.
They are supplied from the upper feed port, and layered in the furnace. The gasifying agent (air,H2，CO，CH4，C2+，CO2 Cold Gas Efficiency(vol%)（%）

oxygen, steam or a mixture thereof) is supplied from the bottom in a rising flow (some systems〔Note〕 C2+ means C2H4，C2H6，C3H8
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
C2+
80
CO2
CH
4

Biomass Supply(Wood Chips Approx. 5cm)

Product Layer
Volatalization &Decomposition Layer

60

Ash Layer

20
0Char Layer

CO

40

H2
0

0.25 0.50 0.75
[O2] / [C] Mol Ratio

1.00

Fig. 4.2.1 Changes in product gas
compositiondue
tooxygen ratio

AshDrying and Tar
Removal
～250℃
Volatile Content
Gasification
250～800℃
Char Gasification
800～1000℃

Product Gas

Gasifier Main Unit
(insulated walls)

Char Combustion
1000～1200℃

Rotary Fire Grate

Gasification Agent(Air, Oxygen and Steam)Fig. 4.2.2 Concept diagram of a fixed bed gasifier-103-

Asian Biomass Handbook

use a descending flow). The gasification reaction proceeds from the bottom towards the top.
From the bottom upward, individual layers are formed due to the changes accompanying
gasification of the raw material, in the order of ash, char, volatilized and decomposed material,and product.

The product gas is obtained at the top.

Further information
Kawamoto, H. in “Baiomasu, Enerugi, Kankyo”, Saka, S. Ed., IPC, 2001, pp.240-244 (in Japanese)
Sakai, M. in “Baiomasu, Enerugi, Kankyo”, Saka, S. Ed., IPC, 2001, pp.409-421 (in Japanese)
Takeno, K. in “Baiomasu Enerugi Riyono Saishin Gijutsu”, Yukawa, H. Ed. CMC, 2001, pp.59-78 (inJapanese)
Sakai, M. “Baiomasuga Hiraku 21 Seiki Enerugi”, Morikita Shuppan (1998) (in Japanese)
Yokoyama, S. “Baiomasu Enerugi Saizensen”, Morikita Shuppan, 2001, pp.87-95 (in Japanese)

4.3 Pyrolysis
4.3.1 What is pyrolysis?
Biomass is consisted mainly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

The photosynthesis andpyrolysis can be simply described as the following formulas,

Pyrolysis:-(C6H12O6)m
Biomass

Heat (500 ~ 600 °C)(H2+CO+CH4+…+C5H12)↑+(H2O+…+CH3OH+CH3COOH+…)+C
Gas
LiquidChar(4.3.1)Light-(C6H12O6)m + 6mO2↑
Photosynthesis: m(6CO2+6H2O)
Carbon dioxide & water
Biomass
Oxygen-104-(4.3.2)Asian Biomass Handbook

Water soluble
distillate

ice

He
av
y

l os
llu

shows the composition changing during pyrolysis.

easCarbonizedresidue

Charcoal

Lignin4.3.2 Characteristics of pyrolysis

etc.

ue
sid

residue is char in the yield of 10 to 25%.

G

reWeight fraction

Solid

dis
till
ate

Gas

decomposed with temperature increase.

Ce
llu
lo
se

tile
la
vo
nNo

The cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are

H2O, methanol,
acetic acid,phenol,etc.
Guaiacol, eugenol, etc.

Liquid productFig. 4.3.1

mHe

cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.

(Wood vinegar) (Tar)The main chemical components of biomass are(Residue weight) / (initial weight) [wt%]During pyrolysis, moisture evaporates at first

Temperature
Low(Room temperature)(- 110°C), and then hemicellulose is decomposed

High

Fig. 4.3.1

Composition changing during
pyrolysis.

reaches 500°C, the reactions of pyrolysis are almost finished.

Therefore, at the heating rate of(200- 260°C), followed by cellulose (240-340 °C)
and lignin (280-500 °C).

When temperature

10°C/s, the pyrolysis finishes in 1 min, while it finishes in 5 s at 100°C/s.

Higher heating rate

results in the more rapid generation of vapor product, increasing pressure, shorter residence
time of vapor product in the reactor, and higher liquid yield; named fast pyrolysis or flash
pyrolysis.

Dynamotive (Canada) and BTG (Netherlands) have developed fast pyrolysis

reactors, which show high liquid yield of 60 to 80%.

Since heat conductance of wood is0.12−0.42 W/(m K), which is around 1/1000 of copper, heat transfer is important for fastpyrolysis, and the milling to small particles is required.

4.3.3 Reactors at laboratory scale
Thermobalance is most commonly used at laboratory for the fundamental study.

Very small

amount of sample, around a few mg to 10s mg, is heated up from room temperature to thedesired temperature at the desired heating rate to measure the weight changing.

However, it

is difficult to recover the products.
A few g to 10s g of sample is used at laboratory scale rector to recover the products.
bath or molten salt bath are used as the heater for the batch type reactor.
heater is usually used for the continuous reactor.

Sand

Infrared rays

At these reactors, mass balance and productanalysis are studied.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

4.3.4 Reactors at R&D
NREL, USA, has developed a vortex reactor, in which wood particle slides on the hot reactor
wall by the circled hot gas flow.

By the revolution, fresh surface is always appeared on thewood particle, and then the flash pyrolysis is realized.

BTG, Netherlands, has developed arotary corn type reactor, in which hot sand is used as the heat transfer medium and the sandfluids by the centrifugal force of the rotated reactor.
Many type of fluidized bed (FB) reactor have been developed by Dynamotive-RTI,
Pasquali-ENEL (Italy), Ensyn,(Canada), RedArrow-Ensyn (USA), Union Fenosa-Waterloo(Spain), VTT (Finland), etc.

The small particle of wood is introduced in FB with hot gas or hotheat transfer medium, and it is rapidly pyrolyzed for high liquid yield.

Since smooth feedingof the wood particle is difficult, tar trouble occurs easily.
AIST, Japan, had developed the pyrolysis using microwave.
inside, and big size wood, log, is directly used.

Microwave can heat wood fromThe same result is obtained as the flash

pyrolysis of 200°C/s. Bigger size is better for the energy efficiency, and around 1.4 MJ (0.4kWh) is used for the completed pyrolysis of 1-kg wood.

In addition, in this pyrolysis, tar

trouble is small.

4.3.5 Products
The liquid, gas and char are obtained by pyrolysis.

The liquid has high moisture fromoriginal moisture (8-40%) and produced water(14-17%), and it is a mixture of water and polarorganics.

Its higher heating value is around12.5-21 MJ/kg.

The relationship between theviscosity and heating value of the liquid is shown
lower viscosity and lower heating value.

In

addition,

any

the

Condensation point

Higher moisture content results inliquid isunstable,and

improvement is required.

Heating value

in Fig. 4.3.2.

The pyrolysis gas has much CO2, and CO, H2,
C1-5 hydrocarbon as combustible gas.

The char

has the higher heating value of 32 MJ/kg, and it
is suitable as a feedstock for activated carbon.

-106-

Kinematic viscosity

Fig. 4.3.2

The relationship between theviscosity and heating value ofpyrolysis liquid.

Asian Biomass Handbook

However, all of the char is usually used as heat resource for the pyrolysis system.

4.3.6 Status of technology
The pyrolysis liquid can not be mixed with the transportation fuel, and any improvement isrequired.

There is tar trouble, but the know-how to operate the rector is not opened.

To getliquid at high yield, rapid heating and cooling are needed, and heat loss and recovery is an
important issue.

Merit and demerit should be considered.

Further information
Miura, M. in “Biomass Handbook”, Japan Institute of Energy Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, pp.106-115 (inJapanese)
Miura, M.; Kaga, H.; Sakurai, A.; Takahashi, K. Rapid pyrolysis of wood block by microwave heating, J.

Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 71, 187-199 (2004)

4.4 Carbonization
4.4.1 What is carbonization?
Carbonization is the method or technology to obtain charcoal as the main product by heatingsuch solid biomass as wood, bark, bamboo, rice husks, etc. at 400-600°C in the almost orcomplete absence of air or oxygen. It can afford tar, pyroligneous acid, and combustible gases as
by-products. In case of discrimination from ‘dry distillation’ aiming at the recovery andutilization of liquid products, ‘charcoal making’ is used as the terminology. Carbonization
customarily means charcoal making, although it is the general term including dry distillation.

4.4.2 Characteristics of carbonization
Carbonization is a classical energy conversion means of biomass, similarly to combustion.
While the main objective is increase in the calorific value of the solid product charcoal, it has
two sides of liquefaction and gasification. As liquefaction means corresponding to ordinary
pyrolysis (see Chapter 4.3), commercial operation was early examined together with highpressure (direct) process (Chapter 4.6). However, the obtained tar (oil) was in a low yield (<30%) with poor quality (high viscosity, high oxygen content, low heating value, low pH, etc.), sothat the process was given up after the appearance of rapid pyrolysis (Chapter 4.3) yielding a-107-

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large quantity of oil. As gasification means (Chapter 4.2), it is inferior to current processes in
the production of combustible components, due to lower reaction temperature. In theutilization of product gas for generation, a considerable amount of tar must be removed.
Nevertheless, carbonization that has industrial advantages of inexpensive apparatus and easy
operation is still important for cheaply producing solid fuels with high heating value. The
features making a certain proportion of organic carbon stably fixed and the features making
the volume of municipal wastes, garbage, sewage sludge, cow dung, etc. effectively reduced
contributes to the control of CO2 emission and serves as a practical measure to dispose ofvarious wastes, respectively.

4.4.3 Reactions in carbonization
Carbonization reactions are basically the same as pyrolytic reactions in an inert gas likenitrogen. For wood, after most water is evaporated at below 200°C, three main constituents ofcellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are decomposed to produce liquid fraction and gaseous
fraction, consisting mainly of CO and CO2, at 200-500°C, thereby occurring a rapid weightdecrease. In this region, each wood constituents undergo dehydration and depolymerization torepeat intermolecular and intramolecular fission and re-bonding, and the resulting low
molecular weight fragments are cracked into liquid and gaseous products, whereas highmolecular

weightfragments

formedbycondensationarecharredtogetherwith

non-decomposed portion. Although the weight loss becomes smaller at above 500°C,
polycondensed aromatic carbon increases with the evolution of H2 to reach about 80% C in charup to 700°C. By further increasing the temperature, the polycondensed carbon structuredevelops to increase the content of C without prompt production of H2. The overall scheme ofcarbonization is represented in Fig. 4.4.1. This signifies that product distribution depends on
both steps of the decomposition of ‘melt’ resulted from wood constituents into gas, liquid, andsolid fractions (first stage) and subsequent decomposition of the liquid fraction (second stage),and the ratio of rate constants for first stage to that for second stage. The distribution is also
influenced by moisture and size of feed,heating rate, operating temperature, etc.
The latter three are particularly important,and the yield of liquid (tar) is increased withdecreasing the size and increasing the rate.
Fig. 4.4.1. Modified Broide-Shafizadeh scheme-108-

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Higher temperature makes the yield of charcoal lower and that of tar higher at below 500°C.
Pressure is likewise important, and the yield of tar becomes higher at the lower value.

4.4.4 Energy efficiency of carbonization
Continuous carbonization of a mixture of pine barkand sawdust by Tech-Air pyrolysis system (Fig. 4.4.2)
is described as an example. This is an internal heat
supply process with a vertical fixed bed reactor. The
raw material is fed at the top of the reactor after
reducing the initial moisture of 25-55% to 4-7%. Heatfor carbonization is provided by partial combustion of
the feed with air introduced from the bottom of thereactor. Charcoal produced is drawn out with a screwfrom another bottom section, while the product vapor
passes through a cyclone where fine solid particles are
removed to enter a condenser for tar (oil) recovery. The
non-condensable gas is then combusted in a burner,
and the discharged gas (204-316°C) is used for drying

Fig. 4.4.2. Tech-Air pyrolysis system

the raw material. The reactor temperature that isvariable from 430° to 760°C is so controlled as to allow the heating value of the pyrolytic gas tohave the energy necessary for drying the feed. Table 4.4.1 summarizes product distribution andtwo process efficiencies, which are defined as Net Thermal Efficiency (NTE, %) calculated as[{heating value of products - heat of process (gas for drying)}/heating value of raw material] x100, and Energy Benefit Ratio (EBR, %) obtained as [energy of products/energy consumed] x
100, respectively, in terms of energy
Table 4.4.1. Product energy yields and process efficiency

for the maximum yield of eachproduct.

Because

of

no

great

difference for all of the operations,the optimal conditions are decided byquality, use, cost, and so on forcharcoal and oil.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

4.4.5 Products of carbonization
In Japan, charcoal is widely used as soil improver, fodder, moisture conditioner, etc. bymaking use of the adsorption capacity (so-called ‘charcoal for new uses’), in addition to solid
fuel for cooking and heating. For liquid products, low boiling point fraction, pyroligneous acid,is on the market as agricultural materials, deodorant, etc. In contrast, high boiling point
fraction, tar, has a limited practical utilization, like creosote as medicine. In a laboratory scale,the production of phenolic resin adhesive, the recovery of wood preservatives, conversion into
electroconductive carbon, etc. has been reported. The use of gas fraction is a supplementary
fuel for process.

4.4.6 Status-quo of the technology
A variety of reactors in scale and shape are developed in response of the diversification ofmaterial, and they are commercially operated, although the current system does not greatly
differ from the earlier one. Nickel-catalyzed carbonization of wood at 900°C, which was
conducted in a laboratory scale to obtain a functional carbon with conductivity and liquid phaseadsorption in concurrence with hydrogen-rich gas, has attracted considerable attention.

Further information
Bridgwater, A. V.; Bridge, S. A.: “Biomass Pyrolysis Liquids Upgrading and Utilization”, Bridgwater, A.
V., Grassi G., Eds., Elsevier Applied Science, 1991, p. 22,
Lede, J. Reaction temperature of solid particles undergoing an endothermal volatilization. Application to
the fast pyrolysis of biomass, Biomass Bioenergy, 7, 49-60 (1994)
Pomeroy, C. F. “Biomass Conversion processes for Energy and Fuels”, Sofer, S. S., Zaborsky, O. R. Eds.,
pp. 201-211, Plenum (1981)
Suzuki, T.; Miyamoto, M.; Luo, W.-M.; Yamada, T.; Yoshida, T. in “Science in Thermal and Chemical
Biomass Conversion”, Vol. 2, Bridgwater, A. V.; Boocock, D. G. B., Eds., CPL Press, 2006, pp. 1580-1591
Suzuki, T.; Suzuki, K.; Takahashi, Y.; Okimoto, M.; Yamada, T.; Okazakik N.; Shimizu, Y.; Fujiwara, M.
Nickel-catalyzed carbonization of wood for coproduction of functional carbon and fluid fuels I., J. Wood

Sci., 53, 54-60 (2007)-110-

Asian Biomass Handbook

4.5 Hydrothermal Gasification
4.5.1 What is hydrothermal gasification?
Hydrothermal gasification is treatment ofHydrothermal condition
Pressure[MPa]biomass in hot compressed water, usually
above 350oC and above 20 MPa to obtain
combustible gas.

Figure 4.5.1 shows phase22.1

diagram of water, where gas-liquid equilibrium

Ice

Hydrothermal condition is

located around the critical point.

Water

0.1013612 Paline starts from the triple point and ends at thecritical point.

Supercriticalwater

Critical
point

Steam

100 374

Triple point 0.01

When both

Temperature [oC]

Fig. 4.5.1. Phase diagram of watertemperature and pressure is higher thancritical temperature and critical pressure, respectively, the state is called supercritical water,and gasification in supercritical water is called “supercritical water gasification”.

This hotcompressed water enjoys high reactivity, and when biomass is placed in this water, it is gasified
by hydrolysis and pyrolysis reactions.

4.5.2 Characteristics of hydrothermal gasification
Hydrothermal gasification is suitable for wet biomass treatment.

When wet biomass is to

be gasified, usual thermochemical gasification is not employed due to its high moisture content.
Hydrothermal gasification, on the other hand, uses water as reaction medium, and thus wet
biomass can be treated without costly, energy-consuming drying pretreatment.

Since

reactivity of water is high under these conditions, hydrothermal gasification enables quick andalmost complete gasification of biomass.

Biomethanation is employed to obtain methane gas

from wet biomass, but usually it takes a few weeks for the reaction to complete, and treatmentof unreacted fermentation sludge and waste water can be a large problem.
long as a few weeks results in bulky reactor.

Reaction time as

Fermentation sludge can be converted tocompost, but when sufficient land is not available for the use of the compost, it is just a waste to
be treated.

In hydrothermal gasification, reaction is completed in a few minutes at longest,

and almost complete gasification is possible when reaction condition is properly adjusted.
Sometimes, addition of catalysts such as alkali, metal, or carbon catalysts enhances thereaction.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

4.5.3 Reactors for hydrothermal gasification
To investigate the reactions taking place in hydrothermal gasification, tube-bomb reactors ofthe volume of several mL and autoclaves are often used.

However, when you want to develop

a commercial plant, a continuous reactor such as is shown in Fig. 4.5.2 is a must.

Biomass is

fed to the reactor at a high pressure, and then heated to the reaction temperature.

In thereactor, biomass is gasified under hydrothermal condition, and the effluent is cooled down to
the room temperature.

Heat released at this time is recovered by the heat exchanger, andused to heat up the feedstock.

After reaching the room temperature, the effluent isdepressurized to atmospheric pressure, and the product gas is recovered.

The continuous

reactor is needed because of the large amount of heat needed to attain the hydrothermal
condition.

This heat sometimes matches the heat of combustion of the biomass to be gasified,

and thus heat recovery using a heat exchanger is needed.
recovery.

Only flow reactors allow this heat

In Fig. 4.5.2, heat balance for the ideal case is also shown.

Combustion heat ofbiomass is maintained in the product gas while heat required to attain hydrothermal condition
is recovered so that no heat is added from outside during gasification operation.

In practice,

the efficiency of the heat exchanger cannot be unity, and endothermic reaction results innecessity of additional heat supply to the reactor.

4.5.4 Energy efficiency of hydrothermal gasification
For the ideal process as shown in
Fig. 4.5-2, the energy efficiency ofhydrothermal gasification is unity.

Biomass 20 kg (400 MJ)
Water
80 kg (0 MJ)

Biomass 400 MJ
Water
280 MJ

noted

since

SCWG reactor

misunderstandingthat

energy600℃, 25 MPa

efficiencyhydrothermal

This

is

to

be
of

gasification is low due to the large
amount of heat required to attainhydrothermal condition.

Whenheat recovery is properly made, aProduct gas 400 MJ
Water
0 MJ

Product gas 400 MJ
Water
280 MJ

Fig. 4.5.2. Heat balance of hydrothermal gasification.

high energy efficiency is possible.
Energy efficiencies higher than 70% including electricity and heat loss at the heat exchangers
have been shown by a detail process calculation.
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Asian Biomass Handbook

4.5.5 Products of hydrothermal gasification
The product gas is automatically separated from liquid phase when the reactor effluent iscooled down to the room temperature.

Tar free gas is available, which is a benefit over usual

thermochemical gasification of biomass.
and methane.

The main component is hydrogen, carbon dioxide,

Due to the water-shift gas reaction the yield of carbon monoxide is negligible.

The high temperature, low pressure, and dilute feedstock favors high hydrogen content.

Theheating value of the product gas depends on reaction condition, and usually varies from 12 to
18 MJ/m3-N.

4.5.6 Status-quo of the technology
Many reports on experiment with laboratory scale reactors exist.

There are three pilot

plants in operation: Energia Co. plant in Japan; VERENA Plant in Germany; and TEES
Process in USA.

The capacity ranges from 1 to 2.4 t-wet/d.

including chicken manure, corn silage, and cheese whey.

Feedstocks tested are many

No commercial plants have been

built mainly due to the high plant cost at present.

Further information
Antal, M. J., Jr.; Allen, S. G.; Schulman, D.; Xu, X. D.; Divilio, R. J. Biomass gasification in supercriticalwater, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 39, 4040-4053 (2000)
Elliott, D.C.; Hart, T.R.; Neuenschwander, G.G. Chemical Processing in High-Pressure Aqueous
Environments. 8. Improved Catalysts for Hydrothermal Gasification, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 45,3776-3781 (2006)
Kruse, A.; Henningsen, T.; Sinag, A.; Pfeiffer, J. Biomass gasification in supercritical water: Influence ofthe dry matter content and the formation of phenols, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 42, 3711-3717(2003)
Matsumura, Y.; Minowa, T.; Potic, B.; Kersten, S. R. A.; Prins, W.; van Swaaij, W. P. M.; van de Beld, B.;
Elliott, D. C.; Neuenschwander, G. G.; Kruse, A.; Antal, M. J. Jr. Biomass gasification in near- andsuper-critical water: Status and prospects, Biomass Bioenergy, 29, 269-292 (2005)
Xu, X.; Matsumura, Y.; Stenberg, J.; Antal, M. J., Jr. Carbon-catalyzed gasification of organic feedstocks
in supercritical water, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 35, 2522-2530(1996)
Yu, D.; Aihara, M.; Antal, M.J., Jr. Hydrogen production by steam reforming glucose in supercriticalwater, Energy Fuels, 7, 574-577 (1993)-113-

Asian Biomass Handbook

4.6 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
4.6.1 What is hydrothermal liquefaction?
Hydrothermal liquefaction is pyrolysis in hot compressed water of around 300°C and 10 MPa.
Biomass is converted into gas, liquid and solid, like common pyrolysis in gas phase.

The light

tar fraction, such as pyroligneous, can be dissolved in water, and the heavy tar fraction can beobtained in the mixing with char.

That is, products are gas, aqueous, and oily material.

4.6.2 Characteristics of hydrothermal liquefaction
Since hydrothermal liquefaction proceeds
in water, drying process of feedstock is notneeded.

374oC
Critical point

Gasification

300oC

Liquefaction

Carbonization

200oC

Liquidization

Hydrolysis

100oC
Boiling point

Extraction

Therefore, it is suitable for highmoisture content biomass, such as aquaticbiomass, garbage, organic sludge, and so on.
In addition, many kinds of reaction canoccur at different reaction temperatures,and many application is possible.

Fig.

Fig. 4.6.1. Reactions which occur in the
hot-compressed water

4.6.1 shows the reactions which occur in the
hot compressed water.

At around 100°C,

aqueous soluble fraction is dissolved, and extraction is applicable.

At above 150°C, hydrolysis

occurs, and biomass polymers, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, protein, and so on, aredegraded into monomer.

At around 200°C and 1 MPa, solid like biomass is changed to slurry(liquidization), and oily product, however, is not obtained.

At severer condition of 300°C and

10 MPa, liquefaction occur, and oily product is obtained.

When reaction condition is changed

such as reaction time or catalyst, main product can be changed to char (hydrothermal
carbonization).

At around critical point and with catalyst, biomass can be gasified (seeChapter 4.5).

4.6.3 Reaction scheme of hydrothermal liquefaction
Fundamentally, hydrothermal liquefaction is pyrolysis, and therefore degradation andpolymerization occur.

Simple reaction scheme is shown in Fig. 4.6.2.

At first step, biomass

can be degraded into water-dissolved materials.

Then the water-dissolved materials are-114-

Asian Biomass Handbook

polymerized to form oil.

When reaction is prolonged, the formed oil is polymerized into char.
Gas
degradation

Water-dissolved
OilChar
materials
degradation
polymerization
polymerization

BiomassFig. 4.6.2. Simple reaction scheme of liquefaction

4.6.4 Product oil from hydrothermal liquefaction
Properties of obtained oil by liquefaction are shown in Table 4.6.1.

The reaction was

conducted without reducing gas, such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and with alkali
catalyst for wood and without catalyst for sewage sludge.

The obtained oil has oxygen content

of around 20 wt%, and therefore, its higher heating value is lower than that (around 42 MJ/kg)
of heavy oil from petroleum.

In

addition, its viscosity is very high.

Table 4.6.1. Properties of obtained oil by liquefaction

The obtained oil from wood has much

Biomassamount of acid fraction, and it can

Elemental composition [wt%]corrode and polymerize during storage.

Wood

Sewage sludge

Carbon72

71

Hydrogen

6

9

On the other hand, the obtained oil

Nitrogen-6

from sewage sludge has nitrogen

Oxygen22

16

originated from protein, and NOx

H/C

1.00

1.52

treatment is needed at its combustion.

Higher heating value [MJ/kg]

29 - 30

33 - 34

Viscosity [mPa.s]> 106

103 - 104

Aschemicalfraction,

pyridine

derivative, pyrazine derivative, and amid compounds are detected.

If they can be separate,they might be used as chemicals.

4.6.5 Energy efficiency of hydrothermal liquefaction
The energy yield (= calorie in the obtained oil / calorie in the feedstock biomass) is around70%.

As for energy efficiency of hydrothermal liquefaction process, the effective calorie of theobtained oil almost balances or is surplus a little with the required heating energy of feedstock
biomass from room temperature to reaction temperature.

The moisture content affects itstrongly, and at below around 85% of moisture content, it is calculated that the process can-115-

Asian Biomass Handbook

produce energy.

4.6.6 Status-quo of the technology
There are many reports on laboratory scale and pilot scale, and no commercial plants havebeen built.

About pilot scale R&D, US Bureau of Mines had developed PERC process and US

DOE had developed LBL process in 1960 to 1970s, NIRE and Organo Co. in Japan had
developed a sewage sludge liquefaction plant in around 1990, and Biofuel Co. and Shell Co. in
Netherlands had developed HTU process in around 2000.

Further information
Appell, H. R., et al., Converting organic wastes to oil, Bureau of Mines Report of Investigation,
7560, (1971)
Dote, Y., et al., Analysis of oil derived from liquefaction of sewage sludge, Fuel, 71, 1071-1073(1992)
Ergun, S., Bench-scale studies of biomass liquefaction with prior hydrolysis, U.S. DOE Report

LBL-12543 (1982)
Goudriaan, F., et al., Thermal efficiency of the HTU-processes for biomass liquefaction,

Progress in Thermochemical Biomass Conversion, 1312-1325 (2001)
Minowa, T., et al., Cellulose decomposition in hot-compressed water with alkali or nickel
catalyst, J. Supercritical Fluid, 13, 243-259 (1998)
Ogi, T., et al., Characterization of oil produced by the direct liquefaction of Japanese oak in an
aqueous 2-propanol solvent system, Biomass & Bioenergy, 7, 193-199 (1994)
Suzuki, A., et al., Oil production from sewage sludge by direct thermochemical liquefaction
using a continuous reactor, Gesuido Kyokaisi, 27, 104-112 (1990) (in Japanese)

4.7 Biodiesel Production
4.7.1 What is biodiesel production?
Compared with other biomass resources, oils and fats are high in heat capacity, and theirmajority is liquid at an ambient tempreture. Although these characteristics are preferable for
automobile fuel, viscoelasticity (>30mm2/s at 40oC) and flash point (>300oC) are so high that it
cannot be used without modification. Therefore, by traseseterifying triglyrides of the oils and-116-

Asian Biomass Handbook

fats, its viscoelasticity and flash point are reduceed respectively down to 3~5mm2/s and 160oC
which would be appropriate with cetane number of 50-60 to substitute for the diesel fuel. This
fatty acid methyl seter is called biodiesel fuel (BDF).

4.7.2 Characteristics of biodiesel production
Biodiesel is low in SOx, dark smoke and particulate matters, compared with diesel.
Therefore, its exhausted emission is relatively clean. Additionally, there exists an advantage tokeep carbon balance on the earth due to its biomass-derived product. Furthermore, it contains
oxygen as an ester to be 11% low in heat capacity. However, due to its lubricity and less darksmoke emission, biodiesel is almost comparable to diesel in practical engine performance.

4.7.3 Reactors for biodiesel production
For biodiesel production, transesterification is applied for vegetable oils (Reaction 4.7.1) inwhich triglycerides, the esters of glycerin with fatty acids, and free fatty acids exist. Generally,oils are mixed with methanol using alkali catalyst such as potassium hydroxide or sodiumhydroxide, and its mixture is stirred at 60-70oC for 1 h. After the reaction, the lower and upper
portions are phase-separated with glycerin in the lower and estrified products in the upper
which is washed to be fatty acid methyl esters as biodiesel. Since free fatty acids are containedin the waste oils, they can react with a catalyst to produce saponified products (Reaction 4.7.2),
thus reducing the yield of biodiesel.

CH2- COOR1│
CH - COOR2│
CH2- COOR3+R3COOCH3

CH2-OH│CH - OH│
CH2-OHFatty acid methyl esters

Glycerin

R1COOCH3
Alkali catalyst+

Triglyceride

3CH3OH

MethanolR2COOCH3

R’COOH+

KOH

R’COOK+

Fatty acid

Alkali catalyst

Saponified product

H2O

Reaction 4.7.1

Reaction 4.7.2

Water

R1, R2, R3, R’; Hydrocarbon residues

Due to such a disadvantage of the alkali catalyst method, it is reported that free fatty acids
are first esterified by acid catalyst, followed by alkali catalyst method. As non-catalytic
methods, ion-exchanged resin catalyst method, lipase catalyst method and supercritical-117-

Asian Biomass Handbook

methanol method are proposed. In addition, to promote efficiency of esterification, the two-stepsupercritical methanol method is also proposed by hydrolyzing triglycerides with subcriticalwater followed by esterification of fatty acids with methanol in its supercritical state (Reactions
4.7.3 and 4.7.4, Fig. 4.7.1). This process is the only one to handle the low-grade waste oils with
1
R1COOH2- COORwaterCHandhighfatty acids into high-grade
biodiesel.

R3COOH

CH2-OH│CH - OH│
CH2-OH

Subcritical water

Fatty acids

Glycerin+R’COOCH3│
CH - COOR2│
CH2- COOR3+

Triglyceride
R’COOHFatty acid+R2COOH

3H2O

CH3OH

Supercritical methanol+

H2O

Fatty acid methyl ester

Reaction 4.7.3

Reaction 4.7.4

Water

R1, R2, R3, R’; Hydrocarbon residues

Methanol

Methanol/Water
Vaporizer
Vaporizer

Oils
Hydrolysis

Esterification

Water
High-pressurepump

Re-esterification

Phase
separator

BDF

MethanolOil phase(fatty acid)

Water phase (glycerin)
Back-pressure regulator

Fig. 4.7.1. Two-Step supercritical methanol process adopting the re-esterification step.

4.7.4 Energy efficiency of biodiesel production
Transesterification of triglycerides and esterification of fatty acids are both exothermic
reactions but their heat capacity is small. In alkali catalyst process, energy to increase thesystem to 60-70oC, energy for a methanol, and energy for the whole reaction process are
essential. Futhermore, additional enrgy is required after the reaction for purifying the glycerin
as a by-product. In the biodiesel production with 2.2 kg/s (70,000 t/year) capacity, energy
efficiency is reported to be 62% on higher heating value basis.

4.7.5 Status-quo of the technology
Biodiesel production has been commercially developed in Europe and North America, andtheir production is mainly based on alkali catalyst method. However, for the low-grade waste-118-

Asian Biomass Handbook

oils, a combined process with acid catalyst has been developed with their own non-disclosed
technologies. Due to the limited raw materials in Japan, new development of the technology
will be expected to handle the low-grade waste oils to be converted into high-quality biodiesel.

Further information
Ban, K.; Kaieda, M.; Matsumoto, T.; Kondo, A.; Fukuda, H. Whole cell biocatalyst for biodiesel fuelproduction utilizing rhizopus oryzae cells immobilized within Biomass Support Particles, Biochem Eng

J, 8, 39-43 (2001)
Boocock D.G. Biodiesel fuel from waste fats and oils: A process for converting fatty acids andtriglycerides, Proc. of Kyoto Univ Int’l Symp. on Post-Petrofuels in the 21st Century, Prospects in the
Future of Biomass Energy, Montreal, Canada, 171-177 (2002)
Kusdiana, D.; Saka, S. Two-step preparation for catalyst-free biodiesel fuel production; hydrolysis andmethyl esterification, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 115, 781-791 (2004)
Mittelbach, M.; Remschmidt, C. Biodiesel, The comprehensive handbook, Boersedruck Ges. m.b.H,
Vienna, Austria, 1-332 (2004)
Saka, S. “All about Biodiesel”, IPC Publisher, 2006, pp.1-461 (in Japanese)
Sekiguchi, S. in “Biomass Handbook”, Japan Institute of Energy Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, pp.138-143 (inJapanese)-119-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Part 5. Biochemical conversion of biomass
5.1 Biomethanation
5.1.1 What is biomethanation?
“Methanefermentation”

or“anaerobic

digestion”

isusuallyusedtoindicate“biomethanation”. Biomethanation is a complex microbial process in which organic compounds
are degraded into methane and carbon dioxide by variety of anaerobes. This biogas has a low
heating value of 20-25 MJ/m3-N (5,000～6,000 kcal/m3-N) and can be used for fuel after
desulfurization of hydrogen sulfide. Biomethanation is used as a technique of biofuel recovery
from biomass and treatment of waste biomass. Fermented residue can be used for liquid
fertilizer and raw material of compost.

5.1.2 Feature of biomethanation
First of all, organic compounds are decomposed to organic acid or hydrogen by variety ofanaerobes. At the final stage, acetate or hydrogen and carbon dioxide are converted to methane.
Biomethanation takes place under anaerobic conditions, especially, methanogens require
absolute anaerobic conditions for methane production. Biomethanation is a microbiologicalprocess; therefore, this process proceeds under normal temperature and pressure.
Biomethanation can be applied for variety of biomass compared with ethanol fermentation due
to activities of complex microflora.

5.1.3 Mechanism of biomethanation
When organic compounds are maintained at 5-70℃ and neutral pH under anaerobic
conditions, spontaneously biomethanation will happen. Biogas is often produced fromunderground of landfill. Kitchen garbage and sewage sludge have been used as substrates ofbiomethanation. Organic wastewater from food factory containing sugars and starch has been
also used as substrate for biomethanation.
Biomethanation is composed of hydrolysis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Fig. 5.1.1-120-

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Kitchen garbage, Sewage sludge, Livestock waste, Wastewater
Polysaccharides (cellulose), Proteins, Fats
Fermentative bacteria
Sugars, Amino acids, Fatty acids, Glycerol
Acetogenic bacteria
Acetate, Hydrogen＋Carbon dioxide
Methanogens

Anaerobic conditions

Methane＋Carbon dioxideFig. 5.1.1 Schematic diagram of biomethanation
indicates an outline of biomethanation.

Polysaccharides are decomposed to monosugars,

proteins are to amino acids, and fats are to fatty acids and glycerol. Fermentative bacteria arefor example Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium spp. Sugars and amino acids are decomposed toacetate and propionate by acidogens. Finally, methanogens convert acetate or hydrogen andcarbon dioxide to methane. Acidogenesis is a complex process in which microflora of anaerobes
collaboratively decomposes organic compounds to low molecular organic acids. Acetate, lactate,
succinate, ethanol, butanol, acetone and etc. can be produced from glucose by acidogens. In
wastewater treatment, 70% of methane is produced from acetate, and 30% is produced fromhydrogen and carbon dioxide. Formula of acetoclasic reaction is as follows;
CH3COOH→CH4+CO2
Formula of hydrogenotrophic reaction is as follows;
CO2+4H2→CH4+2H2O
Methanogens are anaerobes which can grow using acetate or hydrogen and can produce
methane. Representative methanogens are Methanobacter spp. and Methanosaeta spp.
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Methanogens are killed by exposure to oxygen; therefore, methane formation requires obligate
anaerobic conditions. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that methanogens are placed in Archaeagroup, distinguished from eukaryote and prokaryote. Methanogens can only use hydrogen,formate, acetate, 2-propanol, 2-buthanol, methylamine, methanol, methylmercaptan toproduce methane.

5.1.4 Current status
Biomethanation is commercialized for food waste, cattle waste, sewage sludge, andwastewater. European countries have developed biomethanation technology. Biogas plants
have been gradually increasing in Japan. The reaction takes place at high, moderate, or low
fermentation temperature, and organic content classifies biomethanation into wet and dry
fermentation. High temperature systems reveal high gasification performance compared withother temperatures. Disadvantageous points of biomethanation are low digestion ratio, lowremoval ratios of ammonium and phosphate, long treatment time, and necessity of heat.
Fermented effluent and residue should be recycled for agriculture as an organic fertilizer sincetreatment cost is high. Technological developments is being conducted to overcome theseissues.
Unsuitable materials

Kitchen garbage

Decomposer
Selection
Reserve tank

BiogasDesulfurizer

Methanefermentation tankGas holder
Liquid fertilizer,
Compost,Wastewater

Heat

Gas engine
Cogeneration
Electricity・heatFig. 5.1.2. Biomethanation flow of kitchen garbage.

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Further information
Ahring, B. K., “Biomethanation I”, Springer, (2003)
Nagai, S.; Ueki, K., “Anaerobic microbiology”, Youkenndou, (1993) (in Japanese)
Speece, R. E., “Anaerobic biotechnology for industrial wastewaters”, Archae Pr, (1996)

5.2 Ethanol Fermentation
5.2.1 General scope
In ethanol fermentation saccharine materials like glucose, fructose, and sucrose aremetabolized by yeast strains through glycolysis pathway (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway) to
produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in anaerobic condition (Eq. (5.2.1)).

In this reaction two

molecules of ATP are generated from one molecule of glucose and are used as energy for growthof yeast cells.

Mankind has long known and utilized ethanol fermentation for brewery ofalcohol drinks, manufacture of fermented food, bakery and so on for several thousands years.
In the medieval period, people came to know how to make distilled liquor. Ethanol became
available in the field of various chemical industries, beverage and food industry, medical use,
as well as fuel, since great progress was achieved with technologies of fermentation anddistillation in 19-20th century.

Large amount of fuel ethanol has been produced from corn in

the USA and from sugar cane in Brazil for the purpose to alternate fossil fuel and to prevent
global warming, particularly after two times of oil crisis in 1970’s.

Extensive research anddevelopment are undergoing in the world on technologies for ethanol production from various
cellulosic materials which are available in large amount and do not compete with foodutilization.
C6H12O6 →100 g

2C2H5OH
51.14 g＋2CO248.86 g(5.2.1)Ethanol fermentation is a biological reaction at room temperatures and under atmosphericpressure.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the yeast which is widely used for industrial and fuelethanol production, and has excellent ethanol fermenting ability and ethanol tolerance. Yeast
strains produce 51.14 g of ethanol from 100 g of glucose according to Eq. (5.2.1).

In thisreaction nearly 50% weight of glucose is lost as carbon dioxide, but about 91% of energy-123-

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contained in glucose (2.872 MJ/mol) is retained in ethanol.

Therefore, ethanol fermentation isan excellent biological process to convert biomass to liquid fuel ethanol.

Yeast cells were firstisolated from beer as pure cultures in 1883 in Denmark and a great deal of work were carriedout on their metabolic pathway of ethanol fermentation.

S. cerevisiae can ferment manysugars including glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, sucrose, maltose, except pentoses likexylose and arabinose. Pichia stipitis and Pachysolen tannophilus are known as yeasts capableof fermenting pentoses, but they are not so tolerant to ethanol as S. cerevisiae is.

Strainimprovement research to construct strains of S. cerevisiae having pentose fermentability isundergoing in many laboratories.
Next to S. cerevisiae, Zymomomas mobilis is excellent bacterium to ferment a limited rangeof sugars of glucose, fructose and sucrose to ethanol.

Fermentation yield and fermentation

rate of Z. mobilis are supposed to be better than those of yeast S. cerevisiae, but Z. mobilis is
not so tolerant to ethanol as S. cerevisiae is. Zymobacter palmae, isolated in 1980’s in Japan,
has ethanol fermenting ability similar to that of Z. mobilis and its genome base sequence has
been determined recently.

Strain improvement of Z. mobilis and Z. palmae regarding pentose

and mannose fermentation has been successfully made in Japan.

Pentoses are contained atrelatively high concentration in hard woods and herbaceous plants, and mannose is acharacteristic component of soft woods.
DNA recombinant strains of Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum having
ethanol fermenting ability have been constructed through biotechnology.

Other ethanol

fermenting bacteria like hetero-lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus), cellulose degrading

Clostridium bateria, and anaerobic thermophilic bacteria Themoanaerobacter have been
known so far, but they can produce ethanol at relatively low concentration and with byproducts
like organic acids.

Therefore, these bacteria are considered difficult for the industrial use atleast for the present.

5.2.2 Ethanol fermentation of saccharine materials
Saccharine materials used for ethanol production at a large scale are juice and molasses ofsugar cane and sugar beet.
sugar crystallization.

Molasses is a byproduct which is concentrated mother liquid after

Sugar concentration of molasses is around 50% and contains glucose,fructose and sucrose as main sugar components.

These saccharine materials are goodsubstrate for ethanol fermentation by yeast and Zymomonas.

A lot of cane juice is used forethanol production in Brazil and India.

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Popular ethanol fermentation process in Brazil is continuous or semi-continuous
fermentation process called Melle-Boinot process in which yeast cells are recovered from beer
through centrifuge and recycled to fermentation tank after sterilization of contaminatedbacteria with dilute sulfuric acid at pH 3.

Ethanol fermentation at high concentration of yeast

cells can make beer containing 6 to 8 % of ethanol from cane juice (11-17% sugar concentration)
in about 15 h of fermentation period.

Molasses is used for fermentation after two-times

dilution or mixing with cane juice or beet juice.
When fermentation yield is 82% (based on total sugar), and sugar concentration of molasses
is 55%, the amount of molasses required to produce 1 m3 (kL) of 95% ethanol is 3.3 t-wet.
Unique saccharine materials are milk whey and citrus molasses. In dairy industry of New
Zealand, for example, a large amount of milk whey containing about 4% lactose is discharged.
They use the waste whey for ethanol fermentation to recover value-added byproduct and to
reduce BOD.
A large amount of citrus peel is discharged in citrus juice manufacture.

Secondary juice

from citrus peel containing about 8% sugar and bitter components is concentrated to citrus
molasses of sugar concentration of over 40% for ethanol production.

water

decantermolassessulfuric acidcentrifuge
yeast cellslurryfilterbeer
juice
dilution tankacid treatment
vessel

mash

beer
tank

to distillation
process
fermentor

fermentor

waste water fromtank washing

Fig. 5.2.1. Ethanol Fermentation by Melle-Boinot Process (Saiki, 2007).

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5.2.3 Ethanol fermentation of starch
Starch is a polymer of glucose in which glucose units are linked with each other via α- 1,4and α-1,6 linkages.

Starchy materials are first hydrolyzed to glucose using amylase enzymes(Eq. (5.2.2)).

molecular weight(C6H10O5)nn(162.14)
100 g

＋

nH2O
n(18.02)
11.11 g→nC6H12O6n(180.16)
111.11 g(5.2.2)

Starchy materials are first cooked at temperatures between 100 and 130oC and thenhydrolyzed to glucose by using α-amylase and gluco-amylase.
A large amount of ethanol is produced from corn in USA and from sweet potato in China.
Low temperature cooking procedure for ethanol production from sweet potato which was thepractice in Japan until 1990's is described below.

Raw sweet potato is first crushed byhammer-mill, cooked at 80-90 oC for 60min, added with α-amylase to liquefy starch and to
reduce viscosity, and then cooled to temperature of about 58oC.
to glucose in two hours of hydrolysis by gluco-amylase.
adjusted at about 15%.

Liquefied starch is hydrolyzed

Glucose concentration of mash is

Fermented beer of about 8 vol% ethanol is obtained after four days ofbatch-wise fermentation at 30-34oC.

When starch value of raw sweet potato is 24.3% (27%glucose equivalent), and fermentation yield is 92%, the amount of raw sweet potato required to
produce 1 m3 (kL) of 95% ethanol is 6.03 t-wet.

Fuel ethanol is produced mostly from corn in USA.

In a wet mill process corn is immersed

in dilute sulfite solution, fractionated into starch, germ, gluten, and fiber.

Starch fraction ishydrolyzed to glucose by the amylases after cooking and then fermented by yeast.

One of the

popular fermentation process is a continuous fermentation process with several fermentation
tanks connected in series in which yeast cells are recycled via centrifuge resulting in highfermentation rate.
plants.

Traditional batch-wise process is also the practice in some of ethanol

Final ethanol concentration of fermented beer is 8 to 11 vol% on average.

process of corn to ethanol conversion is indicated in Figure 5.2.2.

Wet-mill

When starch value is 63%(70% glucose equivalent), and fermentation yield 90%, the amount of corn necessary to produce
1 m3 (kL) of 95% ethanol is about 2.4 t-wet.

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corn
sulfite immersion

CSL

wet mill

germ, fiber
glutenstarch milk
cookingα-amylase
cooling

glucose isomerase

gluco-amylase
glucosehigh fructose syrup

fermentation

yeast
beer

distillation

stillagecorn gluten feed

95％ ethanol
azeotropic distillation,or PSAabsolute ethanolFig. 5.2.2. Production process of ethanol and high fructose syrup from corn.
(Modified from (Elander, 1996))

5.2.4 Ethanol fermentation of lignocellulosics
Lignocellulosic biomass is generally composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (Table
5.2.1).

Before ethanol fermentation, biomass has to be pre-treated with acid or alkali, and/orwith cellulases to be hydrolyzed into sugar solution.
Table 5.2.1. Compositions of Various Biomass (%).
cellulose
hemicellulose
Soft wood
43
28
Hard wood
43
35
Rice straw
38
25
Office paper
69
2

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lignin29
22
12
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Asian Biomass Handbook

(a) Concentrated Sulfuric Acid Process
The process of Arkenol Co. Ltd. (USA) was modified and improved in NEDO project between
2001 and 2005.

Concentrated sulfuric acid is sprayed on to wood chips (moisture of about15%) which is then kneaded well at room temperature.
cellulose is decrystallized.

During the kneading the structure ofConcentration of sulfuric acid is then adjusted at 20 to 30% byadding water, and the wood material is kept at around 90oC for 10 to 15 min for hydrolysis.
After solid fraction is removed through filtration, sugar components are separated from theacid on ion-exchange chromatography.

Sugar solution containing hexoses and pentoses arefermented by yeast or Zymomonas strains genetically modified.

Sulfuric acid is concentrated

again to reuse.
(b) Dilute Sulfuric Acid Process
Hemicellulose fraction is degraded into sugars composed of mainly pentose and some hexoses
through first dilute sulfuric acid (0.5-1.0%) treatment at 150-180oC, and at about 1 MPa (10atm).

Residual fraction containing cellulose and lignin is again treated with similar

concentration of the dilute acid at 230-250oC and at 3-5 MPa (30-50 atm) to produce glucose.
Sugar yield in first and secondary treatments are reported to be about 90%, and 50-60%,
respectively.

In the ethanol plant of “Bioethanol Japan Kansai” (Osaka, Japan), which has

been operated since January, 2007, sugar solution only from hemicellulose fraction of wood isreported to be converted to ethanol through fermentation by genetically modified E. coli.
In the United States, research groups including NREL have been challenging to improve
cellulase activity for industrial use in dilute sulfuric acid process.

Their target is, reportedly,

to start production of bioethanol from biomass like corn stover in 2013.

Further information
9th Alcohol Handbook, Japan Alcohol Association Ed., Gihodo Shuppan Co. Ltd, 1997
Elander, R. T.; Putsche, V/ L/, in Handbook on Bioethanol, Wyman, C. E. Ed., Taylor & Francis Pub. 1996,
pp329-350
Saiki, T.

in Biomass Handbook, Japan Institute of Energy Ed., Ohm-sha, 2002, pp157-165, (inJapanese)
Saiki, T.; Karaki, I.; Roy, K.,in CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering, Vol.V, Energy and Biomass

Engineering, Kitani, O. Ed., American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1999, pp139-164
Saiki, T., in Bioethanol Production Technology, Japan Alcohol Association Ed., Kogyochosakai 2007,
pp75-101. (in Japanese)
Yamada, T., in Bioethanol Production Technology, Japan Alcohol Association Ed., Kogyochosakai 2007,-128-

Asian Biomass Handbook

pp102-126. (in Japanese)

5.3 Acetone-Butanol Fermentation
5.3.1 What is acetone-butanol fermentation?
Aceton-butanol fmentation is a reaction in which acetone and butanol are produced fromglucose using Clostridium, a strictly anaerobic bacterium.

Further, ethanol is also produced.

Therefore, acetone-butanol fermentation is also called as ABE fermentation.

Clostridium iswidely distributed in soil, and secretes amylase, xylanase, protease and lipase out of cells.
There are two types of strain in acetone-butanol fermentation.

One is Weizmann-type which

produces butanol from starch, and the other is Saccaro-type which produces butanol fromsucrose.

5.3.2 Characteristics of acetone-butanol fermentation
Acetone-butanol fermentation has a long history and is industrialized technology.
Acetone-butanol fermentation was utilized to produce acetone as a raw material of smokelesspowder in WWI and butanol for fuels of fighter planes in WWII.

After WWII, acetone-butanol

fermentation fell out of use due to development of petroleum chemistry.

Recently, butanol isreviewed as biofuel.

5.3.3 Reactions of acetone-butanol fermentation
The strains of bacteria utilized for industrial production of butanol were acetone-butanol
producing bacteria and butanol-isopropanol producting bacteria which produce butanol andisopropanol, a reduced product of acetone.

The reaction pathway is shown in Fig. 5.3.1.

Glucose is decomposed to pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, and acetoacetyl-CoA via EMP pathway, andfinally acetone, butanol, isopropanol and ethanol are produced.

The stoichiometrical equationof acetone-butanol fermentation is shown in Eq. 5.3.1.
95C6H12O6

60C4H9OH + 30CH3COCH3 + 10C2H5OH + 220CO2 + 120H2 + 30 H2O(5.3.1)

In acetone-butanol fermentation, butanol is gradually accumulated and cause production-129-

Asian Biomass Handbook

inhibition at more than 3 kg/m3 (g/L) of the butanol concentration.

When the production

inhibition occurs, the growth of bacteria cells, consumption of substrates, and accumulation of
products are suppressed.

Final concentration of butanol reaches about 30 kg/m3 (g/L). After

fermentation, the culture solution is distilled and products are separated by the difference intheir boiling points, e.g. acetone (BP 56.3°C), ethanol (BP 78.3°C) and butanol (BP117°C).

5.3.4 Energy efficiency of acetone-butanol fermentation.
From Eq. 5.3.1, 60 mol butanol (170 MJ), 30 mol acetone (54 MJ), 10 mol ethanol (14 MJ) and
120 mol hydrogen (34 MJ) are produced from 95 mol glucose (273 MJ) in acetone-butanol
fermentation.

Almost all energy in glucose can be moved to butanol, acetone, ethanol andhydrogen.

5.3.5 Products of acetone-butanol fermentation
Acetone-butanol fermentation was industrialized for supply of raw materials of smokelesspowder and fighter planes.
industry.

Presently, acetone and butanol are synthesized in petroleum

Biofuels, renewable gasoline or diesel additives are now paid much attention

throughout the world.

Butanol can be added to both gasoline and diesel fuels and has moreaffinity for gasoline than ethanol.

Therefore, butanol will be promising biofuel.

Further information
Crabbe, E.; N-Hipolito, C.; Kobayashi, G.; Sonomoto, K.; Ishizaki, A., Biodiesel production from crude
palm oil and evaluation of butanal extraction and feel properties, Process Biochim., 37, 65-71 (2001)
Ishizaki, A.; Michiwaki S.; Crabbe, E.; Kobayashi, G.; Sonomoto, K.; Yoshino, S., Extractiveacetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation using methylated crude palm oil as extractant in batch
culture of Clostridium saccharoperbutyl acetonicum N1-4 (ATCC13564), J. Biosci, Bioeng., 87,352-356 (1999)
Lee, T. M.; Ishizaki, A.; Yoshino, S.; Furukawa, K., Production of aceton, butanol and ethanol from palm
oil waste by N1-4, Biotechnol. Letters, 17, 649-654(1995)-130-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Fig. 5.3.1. Reaction pathway of Asetone-Butanol fermentation.

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5.4 Hydrogen Fermentation
5. 4. 1 What is hydrogen fermentation?
Anaerobic fermentation is a reaction in which anaerobic microorganisms oxidatively
decompose organic materials to get energy under anaerobic conditions.

We call fermentative

reactions in which hydrogen is the final product as hydrogen fermentation.

In hydrogen

fermentation, some organic materials and alcohols are produced with hydrogen.

Althoughfinal electron acceptor is oxygen or inorganic materials in respiration, oxidatively degradedorganic materials and carbon dioxide etc. from substrate materials are final products infermentation.

For example, final products are ethanol and carbon dioxide from glucose during

ethanol fermentation. While ATP synthesis is coupled with electron transfer chain in
respiration, ATP is produced in reactions at substrate level in fermentation.

Energy gained

from fermentation is smaller than that from respiration for the same amount of substrate.

5.4.2 Characteristics of hydrogen fermentation
The role of hydrogen production is to regulate oxidation-reduction level in bacterial cells by
converting excess reducing power to hydrogen.
utilize such hydrogen.

There are bacteria which can take in and

In order to increase hydrogen yields, the reverse reactions consuminghydrogen should be suppressed.

Generally, it is needed to treat waste water from hydrogen

fermentation, since hydrogen fermentation includes the production of some organic materials.

5.4.3 Reactions of hydrogen fermentation
Hydrogen-producing bacteria are classified into 2 types by the difference in reaction
enzymes.

One is bacteria with hydrogenase, and the other with nitrogenase.

Hydrogenase: 2H+ + X2-

H2 + X

Nitrogenase: 2H+ + 2e- + 4ATP

(5.4.1)H2 + 4ADP + Pi

(5.4.2)

X: electron carrier, Pi: inorganic phosphate
As shown in above reactions, hydrogenase catalyzes a reversible reaction of evolution anduptake of hydrogen.

On the other hand, the reaction by nitrogenase needs energy (ATP).

anaerobic fermentation, the reaction by hydrogenase is mainly investigated.
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In

Representative

Asian Biomass Handbook

hydrogen fermentation reactions are as follows:

C6H12O6 + 2H2O
C6H12O6

2CH3COOH + 2CO2 + 4H2

ΔG0’ = -184 kJ(5.4.3)

CH3CH2CH2COOH + 2CO2 + 2H2

ΔG0’ = -257 kJ(5.4.4)

Figure 5.4.1 shows the pathway of hydrogen fermentation.

Hydrogen is formed fromhydrogenase via both NADH and ferredoxin, via only ferredoxin, or via formate-lyase.

Inhydrogen fermentation, hydrogen is produced from oxidative decomposition of organic
substrates.
water.

Therefore, hydrogen fermentation is utilized as treatment of wastes and waste

In such cases, the following treatment such as methane fermentation or activatedsludge method is needed, since hydrogen fermentation accompanies the production of organic
acids.

The reaction rate of hydrogen fermentation is fast compared with methane

fermentation.

It may be promising pre-treatment method of methane fermentation.

Fig.5.4.1. Pathway of hydrogen fermentation

5.4.4 Energy efficiency of hydrogen fermentation
Since hydrogen fermentation accompanies organic acids production, it is needed to consider
total system combined subsequent treatment methods such as methane fermentation.

Inhydrogen fermentation, 4 mol of hydrogen is theoretically produced from 1 mol of glucose (Eq.
(5.4.3)).

When subsequently formed acetate is utilized for methane fermentation andconverted to methane, the reaction is shown as follows:
2CH3COOH

2CH4 + 2CO2

(5.4.5)-133-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Total reaction of hydrogen-methane two-stage fermentation is shown as follows:
C6H12O6 + 2H2O

3CO2 + 4H2 + 2CH4

(5.4.6)The sum of high heat value of these products is 2.924 MJ (2,924 kJ).

On the other hand, in

only methane fermentation, the reaction is shown as follows:
C6H12O6

3CO2 + 3CH4

(5.4.7)

High heat value of the product from Eq. (5.4.7) is 2.671 MJ (2,671 kJ).

It is obvious fromthese results that the energy yield of hydrogen-methane fermentation increases 10% comparedwith that of only methane fermentation.

5.4.5 Products of hydrogen fermentation
The product gas evolved from hydrogen and methane fermentation might be utilized to fuelcells which have higher energy conversion efficiency than those of gas turbine and gas engine.
Methane from methane fermentation has to be converted to hydrogen for fuel cells.
CH4 + 2H2O

CO2 + 4H2

ΔG0’ = 253 kJ(5.4.8)Since Eq. 5.4.8 is an endothermic reaction, supply of energy is needed to proceed the reaction.
Generally, methane gas is converted to hydrogen gas under nickel catalysts at 650-750°C.

On

the other hand, in hydrogen fermentation, energy yield is higher than that of methane
fermentation and the catalytic conversion of methane is not needed to provide hydrogen gas tofuel cells.

Further information
Noike, T.; Mizuno, O., Hydrogen fermentation of organic municipal wastes, Water Sci. Technol., 42,
155-162(2000)
Rachman, M. A.; Nakashimada, Y.; Kakizono, T.; Nishio, N., Hydrogen production with high yield andhigh evolution rate in a packed-bed reactor, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 49, 450-454(1998)
Tanisho, S.; Tu, H.-P.; Wakao, N. Fermentative hydrogen evolution from various substrates byEnterobacter aerogenes, Hakkokogaku, 67, 29-34(1989)-134-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Taguchi, F.; Yamada, K.; Hasegawa, K.; Taki-Saito, K.; Hara, K. Continuous hydrogen production by

Clostridium sp. No.2. from cellulose hydrolysate in an aqueous two-phase system, J. Ferment.
Bioeng., 82, 80-83(1996)
Ueno, Y.; Otsuka, S.; Morimoto, M.; Hydrogen production from industrial waste-water by anaerobic
microflora in chemostat culture, J. Ferment. Bioeng., 82, 194-197(1996)

5.5 Lactic Acid Fermentation
5.5.1 What is lactic acid fermentation?
Lactic acid has alcohol (OH) and carboxylic (COOH) sites inside the molecule. Since it
includes chiral carbon, it has two chiral isomers, D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid. Recently,
demand of poly-lactate, a biomass plastic, is increasing, and demand of lactic acid is also
increasing as a raw material of poly-lactate. Then the lactic acid with almost 100% of the
optical purity is strongly requested. Generally, lactic acid is produced by chemical syntheses orby microbial fermentations. In the chemical syntheses, a method using hydrolysis oflacto-nitrile is usually adopted, yielding D-lactic acid and L-lactic acid half by half of which theoptical purity is nul. Thus lactic acid for the production of poly-lactate is always produced byfermentation. Lactic acid can be produced by either bacteria or fungi. Here the lactic acidfermentation with bacteria is focused on.

5.5.2 Lactic acid bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria produce a lot of lactic acid from several types of sugars. They are
gram-positive rod-type or spherical bacteria which can grow under an anaerobic condition.
They show no mobility and negative in a catalatic reaction. They form no spores. They use only
sugars as an energy source to yield lactic acid, and convert more than 50% of the consumed
sugars. There are the following four groups in the bacterial species to satisfy theabove-mentioned conditions: Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus.
Lactic acid bacteria can grow with higher growth rates and produce lactic acid with higher
productivities. Since they request a lot of nutrients including amino acids and vitamins, thecomposition of the fermentation broth is not simple. We can classify lactic acid fermentation
into two groups, homo-lactic acid fermentation and hetero-lactic acid fermentation. In the-135-

Asian Biomass Handbook

homo fermentation two moles of lactic acid and two moles of ATP can be produced from one
mole of mono-saccharides with almost 100% of the lactic yield. On the other hand, in the hetero
fermentation, lactic acid and other compounds are produced; it is classified into two groups: 1)
one yielding lactic acid, ethanol and carbon dioxide. 2) one yielding one mole of lactic acid and1.5 moles of acetic acid from one mol of mono-saccharides. Lactic acid bacteria possess both D
type and L type or either D type or L type of lactate-dehydrogenases. Thus D-lactic acid and(or) L-lactic acid can be produced by the bacteria. Most of lactic acid bacteria has enzymes
which racemize the produced lactic acid, affecting the chiral quality of lactic acid. Lactobacillus

rhamnosus can produce only L-lactic acid with almost 100% of the optical purity, which is used
as a raw material for the poly-lactate production.

5.5.3 Biomass resources for lactic acid fermentation
Glucose is a major substrate for lactic acid fermentation, which is usually obtained byhydrolysis of starch. Starch is now obtained from crops. However, we sometimes worry about
competition between energy or materials and food, as claimed in the ethanol production frombiomass resources. Thus soft cellulosic biomass like rice husk which has been currently not
used is expected for biomass resources. Anyhow such unused biomass has less quality and thatis why it has not yet been used. Then some conditions must be considered for its utilization infermentation. First, constant and stable supply of the biomass is required. Next, sugars should
be obtained easily with energy as least as possible. Of course, more effective and sophisticatedtechnology for the fermentation is needed, and moreover, it is also important to solve the issues
accompanied by transportation and storage of biomass in terms of energy, cost, etc.

5.5.4 Utilization of unused biomass from palm oil industry
Palm oil is one the three major vegetable oils in the world. It can be harvested throughout ayear only around the equator. In the mill operation to produce oil, more than 10 Tg (Mt) ofunused biomass is obtained as business as usual. Since the palm oil mills are very large, morethan a few tens Gg (thousand tones) of uniform unused biomass can be collected constantly
throughout a year. Moreover, the replanting season of oil palm trees is arriving currently and alarge amount of oil palm trunks shall be wasted. Recently, it was found that there exists a lot of
glucose inside the trunks and that glucose syrup can be easily obtained by pressing them likesugarcane processing.

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5.5.5 Lactic acid fermentation from kitchen garbage
Japan is a narrow country and has higher
population density. That is why we cannot use a
simple dumping method for the garbage treatment
in Japan. Thus we have around two thousand
incinerators for burning the garbage. Every day,garbage is collected in the incinerators and burned
to get heat energy, part of which is used for power
generation. Therefore, unused steam with lower
pressure is available. Kitchen garbage comprises

Fig.5.5.1 Lactic acid yield from lactic acidfermentation with kitchen garbage

30% in the total garbage in Japan. Especially, kitchen garbage from business sectors including
supermarket and convenience stores can be easily separated form the others. Japanese kitchen
garbage should be a good resource for sugars because half of the solid in the kitchen garbage iscomposed by starch, even though the compositions of the kitchen garbage should be changed
every day. Then kitchen garbage contains a variety of nutrients including vitamins and it isgood for the lactic acid fermentation. Fig.5.5.1 shows the lactic acid yield from kitchen garbage
in the lactic acid fermentation after enzymatic treatment with glucoamylase using

Lactobacillus rhamnosus. Generally, kitchen garbage contains 80% of moisture and indicatingthat around the 10% of the lactic acid yield shown in the figure should be quite high.

5.5.6 Purification of lactic acid
Lactic acid for poly-lactate is requested to guarantee not only quite high optical purity but
also its quite high purity as lactic acid. In lactic acid fermentation, any higher class purification
technology to yield pure lactic acid is required because the fermentation broth contains avariety of compositions. Usually distillation technology is adopted for this purpose: In the
purification of lactic acid from fermented kitchen garbage, butyl-lactate is separated by
distillation after esterification of lactic acid with butanol. Moreover, ammonia can be recoveredin the estirification reaction, which can be again used for pH adjustment in the fermentation.
However, in this process more energy would be required to remove water to encourage theesterification reaction. When the energy would be supplied from fossil resources, it is neither
ecologically nor economically suitable. Utilization of unused heat energy form incinerators
should be an acceptable solution.

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Further information
Morichi, T. Physiology and metabolism of lactic acid bacteria: Biseibutsu 6(1), 27-34 (1990) (in Japanese)
Sakai, K.; Murata, Y.; Yamazumi, H.; Tau, Y.; Mori, M.; Moriguchi M.; Shirai, Y. Selective proliferation oflactic acid bacteria and accumulation of lactic acid during open fermentation of kitchen refuse withintermittent pH adjustment: Food Science and Technology Research, 6, 140-145 (2000)
Hassan, M. A.; Nawata, O.; Shirai, Y.; Nor’Aini A. R.; Phang L. Y.; Ariff, B. A.; Abdul Karim, M. I. A
Proposal for Zero Emission from Palm Oil Industry Incorporating the Production of
Polyhydroxyalkanoates from Palm Oil Mill Effluent: Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan, 35(1) 9-14 (2002)
Sakai, K.; Taniguchi, M.; Miura, S.; Ohara, H.; Matsumoto, T.; Shirai, Y. Novel process of poly-L-lactate
production from municipal food waste: Journal of Industrial Ecology, 7(3, 4), 63-74 (2004)
Mori, T.; Kosugi, A.; Murata, Y.; Tanaka, R.; Magara, K. Ethanol and Lactic Acid Production from Oil
Palm Trunk: Proceedings of Annual meeting of the Japan Institute of Energy, 16, 196-197 (2007) (inJapanese)

5.6 Silage
5.6.1 What is silage?
Silage is now the most commonly preserved cattle and sheep feed in many countries. It is
produced by the controlled fermentation of crops with high moisture. Silage is a fermented andstored process which ensilages with forage crops and grasses in a silo (Fig. 5.6.1). The types ofsilo in which the farmer may choose to ferment their crop are greatly varied. For convenience,commercial silos can be classified into the main categories: stack or clamp without retaining
walls, tower, bunker, vacuum, plastic sausage and roll bale. Compared with the hay, the feedintake, digestibility and nutritive value of silage are excellent. Silage can be made of manyother by-products of field crops and food, and other materials.

Fig. 5.6.1. Forage cutting (left) and stack silo (right).

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5.6.2 Silage making
Silage originated in ancient Egypt. The silage research on the fermentation mechanism has
been made rapid progress in the 20th century. Silage can be prepared from forage crops andgrasses at the optimum stage of growth with suitable moisture content, about 50% to 70%. The
forage material is collected, chopped into about 10- to 20-mm lengths and packed into silo.
Current mechanical forage harvesters are used to collect and chop the forage material, anddeposit it in trucks or wagons. These forage harvesters can either be tractor-drawn or
self-propelled. Harvesters blow the silage into the wagon via a chute at the rear or a side of themachine. The inoculants of LAB were used for high quality silage making (Fig. 5.6.2).

Fig. 5.6.2. Cell form (left) and inoculant (right) of lactic acid bacteria “Chikuso 1”

5.6.3 Silage fermentation
The preservation of forage crops as silage depends upon the production of sufficient acids toinhibit the activity of undesirable microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. The epiphytic
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that naturally present on forage crops convey sugar into lactic acid in
the ensiling process. It is well established that LAB play an important role in silage
fermentation. LAB is a major component of the microbial flora which lives in various types offorage crops. The LAB commonly grow with other plant-associated microorganisms during
silage fermentation, and they generally define the fermentation characteristics of silage. Moist
dairy farm silage is based on natural lactic acid fermentation. The epiphytic LAB transform thewater-soluble carbohydrates into organic acids during the ensiling process. As a result, the pH
is reduced and the forage is preserved.
However, when the silo is opened and aerobic conditions prevail at feeding time, the silage issubject to aerobic microbial growth and is therefore potentially unstable. Furthermore, thedeteriorated silage increases in dry matter loss and reduces in the nutritional value. Generally,
the well-preserved silages are considered to be more liable to aerobic deterioration than poorly--139-

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fermented silages and some aerobic microorganisms can be harmful to the health of livestock.
Therefore, the prevision of aerobic deterioration is an important task in making silage.

5.6.4 Roll bale silage
Roll bale is another form of stored forage. Grass is cut and baled while it’s still fairly wet. If it
is too wet , it can’t be baled and stored the same as hay. Thus, the proper moisture content forroll bale silage making is around 60 to 70%. The bales are wrapped tightly with 6 layers of
0.025-mm thick plastic film on a bale wrapper. The material then goes through a limited
fermentation in which short chain fatty acids are produced to protect and preserve the forage.
This method has become popular on some farms. In Japan, the roll bale silage preparation
method of fresh rice straw was developed (Fig. 5.6.3), and the animal feed production frombiomass resources is expected to make the best use of roll bale technology.

Fig. 5.6.3 Roll bale silage making (left) and wrapping (right) of rice straw.

5.6.5 Technological actuality
In recent years, the amount of silage conserved as roll bales has increased dramatically, andthis system of making silage is now widely practiced in Japan and other countries. Today, the
new silage inoculant of LAB and new types of chopped roll baler for silage making of corn andforage paddy rice were developed. The research of unused biomass resources for silage making
of crops and food by-products are advanced in Japan.

Further information
Abe, A.,The best use manual of food circulation resource, Science Forum. (2006)
Cai, Y., Silage, Dairy Japan (2004)
McDonald, P.;Henderson, N.;Heron, S.,The Biochemistry of Silage, 2nd ed., Chalcombe Publications(1991)-140-

Asian Biomass Handbook

5.7 Composting
5.7.1 What is composting?
Compost is a mixture of biodegradable organic matter such as straw, husks, tree bark,animal waste products and organic animal/plant matter (excluding sludge and fish organs)that are accumulated or mixed, and decomposed by heat.

However sludge and fish organs

may be considered compost if properly processed.

5.7.2 Basic principles of composting
Composting is the process of accumulating, mixing and aerating organic matter todecompose them with aerobic bacteria inside the material, evaporate the moisture generated
by the heat from decomposition, and sterilize or make the harmful microbes or weed seeds
inactive, to render the compost mixture safe and hygienic.
process.

Figure 5.7.1 shows the composting

Composting offers the advantages of: (1) being easy to handle by hygienically-mindedusers since it eliminates noxious odors and the sense of handling biological waste products, (2)producing nutrients including the correct amount of elements for safe and high quality
fertilizer for soil and crops, and (3) contributing to create a society that recycles its resources.

Moisture
Evaporation
Fermentation heat
Easily biodegradableorganic matter

Decomposition

Not easily
biodegradable organic
Inorganic matter

Fermentation

Moisture
Easily biodegradableorganic matter
Not easily
biodegradable organic
Inorganic matter

Microorganism
Compost material

CompostFig. 5.7.1. Concept image of composting process.

5.7.3 Basic elements of composting
Composting is basically made up of (a) preprocessing, (a) fermentation processing, and (c)-141-Asian Biomass Handbook

product forming processing.
(a) Preprocessing
Preprocessing requires equipment for adjusting factors such as the moisture and organic
matter, particle sizes, and aeration to make compost with the desired properties. Whenstarting the composting, the moisture must usually be adjusted between 55 to 70 % andgood aeration must be provided.

This preprocessing includes additive methods (additionof adjustment materials such as shell, husks, sawdust, and chips), return methods(returning the product compost and mix with composting feedstock), and drying methods(drying using external energy).
(b) Fermentation
Fermentation requires a fermenting tank, aeration equipment and hydrolysis equipment.
The fermentation tank decomposes organic matter and emits heat to raise the temperatureof material accumulated in the fermentation tank so that conditions to produce safe andhygienic compost is attained by raising the temperature of the entire compost material to
65°C or higher and maintaining that temperature for 48 h or more.

Fermentation

methods are broadly grouped into accumulation methods and mechanical return methods.
In the accumulation methods, materials such as compost, adjustment materials, andreturned compost are accumulated on the floor and then repeatedly turned as needed witha shovel loader, etc.

In the mechanical return method, an agitating device having amaterial loading slot and drainage slot for mixing the material is installed on the upperside wall of the fermentation tank.

The aeration equipment maintains the material at a

uniform aerobic state and provides ventilation to make the moisture evaporate from thematerial simultaneous with causing fermentation.

The hydrolysis equipment supplies

water to the material to ensure continued aerobic fermentation since microbial activity inthe material ceases when the moisture in the material falls below 40%.
(c) Product forming process
The product forming process includes mechanical sorting and bagging/packing equipment
for enhancing the product value and making the product compost easier to handle.

Otherfacilities may include deodorizing equipment as part of environmental measures.

5.7.4 Current composting technology
Table 5.7.1 shows main materials usable in composting.

Husk and woody materials have a

low biodegradable material index so their decomposition takes time but are effective for-142-

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improving soil and can be used in combination with other materials to produce high quality
compost.

Raw garbage contains many materials impossible to ferment such as plastic, metal,

and glass and also requires thorough sorting and the right preprocessing.

Sludge may require

special measures for dealing with heavy metals, etc.
Among the recycling technologies of composting, biogas, drying, carbonization, livestock feed,
and incineration, composting can use vaious kinds of materials and offers significant
advantages in terms of technology and distribution.

However, amount and period of the

product demand are limited, and some regions have excess compost stocks.

Future production

efforts will require elaborate quality control, composting of all material produced in a region,and regional consumption of the entire amount produced in those areas.

Further information
Japan Livestock Industry Association Ed., Composting Facility Design Manual(2003) (in Japanese)
Japan Organics Recycling Association Ed., Composting Manual(2004) (in Japanese)
Livestock Industry’s Environmental Improvement Organization Ed., Livestock Dung Process Facility –Machine Setup Guidebook (compost processing facility version) (2005) (in Japanese)

Table 5.7.1. Comparison of materials available for composting and other recycling technologies(Japan Organics Recycling Association 2004).
Material
Name

Type

Composting

BiogasDrying Carbonization

Cattle dung◎○
Cattle dung/urine○◎
Dairy cow dung◎○Livestock Dairy cow dung/urine△◎
Pig dung◎○
Pig dung/urine△◎
Chicken dung◎◎
Garbage Raw garbage◎◎
SludgeDehydrated sludge
◎
◎
◎
Crop
Rice husks◎
residue
Paddy straw◎
Sawdust
○
Bark
◎
Wood
Pruning waste
○
Chips
◎
Note: ◎: Matches category ○: Usable △: Usable after preprocessing

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◎
△
○
◎
△
◎
◎

Livestock
Incineration
feed

△
△
○

◎
○
○
◎
◎
◎
◎
◎

Asian Biomass Handbook

Part 6. System development forsustainability
6.1 Fundamentals of LCA
6.1.1 Outline of life cycle assessment
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) address the environmental impact of the target product orservice throughout their life cycles; so called “from the cradle to the grave”, and measures theamounts of resources consumption and the emissions of all the stages from raw material
acquisition through production, use, end-of-life treatment and final disposal (inventory
analysis), then evaluating the impact based on the results of the inventory analysis (impact
assessment).
International standard (ISO-14040) provides “Principles and framework” of LCA.

ISO-14040

defins LCA as “LCA is one of the techniques being developed to better understand and address theimpacts from products, both manufactured and consumed, including possible impacts associatedLife cycle assessment framework
Goal
and scope
definition

Inventory
analysis

Direct applications:Interpretation-Product development
and improvement-Strategic planning-Public policy making-Marketing-OtherImpactassessment

Fig. 6.1.1. Phases of a LCA.

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with”. ISO-14040 also clearly shows the four phases for conducting LCA: “Goal and scope definition”,“Inventory analysis”, “Impact assessment”, and “Interpretation” (Fig. 6.1.1).

6.1.2 Goal and scope definition
In this phase, the practitioner of LCA defines the product system to be studied and clarifies
the goal. For instance, assume that an "influence for global warming of a refrigerator" isdefined as the evaluation target. According to the goal, LCA practitioner decides the emissions
to be measured and the boundary to be evaluated. The target to be studied in LCA is originally"a function" of the product. For example, it is a function to "cool a thing in the storage" if it is "arefrigerator". Therefore, the same "function” such as same volume, same durability year is tobe set when different models of refrigerator are compared. Moreover, when conducting LCA, it
is difficult to cover everything in the process related to the target product or service. The
process, whose contribution level is low in comparison with the goal of LCA, is excluded from astudy (cut-off). A so-called cut-off criteria is used to decide to be excluded from the process.
There is no general rule to cut-off because an important process can be different if the goal of
study is different. It is fundamental that scope is consistent with the goal of the LCA.

6.1.3 Lifecycle inventory analysis (LCI)
The inventory analysis is a phase of life cycle assessment involving the compilation andquantification of inputs and outputs for a product throughout its life cycle within the boundary(product system) determined from the goal of the study.
Firstly, the practitioner of inventory analysis needs to collect the data related to
manufacturing, use, and final disposal of a targeted product. These data are generally called“Foreground data” and they should be collected by the practitioner of LCA.
The next data to collect are the input-output data for production of raw materials used to
produce the product (including primary or secondary material), and for generation of electricity
needed to utilize the product, etc. These data are generally called “Background data”. It isdifficult for the practitioner of LCA to collect the background data, and usually the backgrounddata is quoted from research papers or past LCA case studies. When LCA practitioner refers tosome data, it is necessary to check the consistency because the emissions for the combustion ofheavy oil or the electricity generation may be different from literature to literature. Relation of
foreground data and background data is shown for Fig. 6.1.2.

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Foreground Data (LCA Practitioner)
Use

Manufacturing

Disposal

Materials
Electricity
Mining

Fuels

Background Data (Existing Database)Fig.6.1.2 Foreground data and background data
In an inventory analysis, the following two items may be controversial: “System boundary”
and “Allocation”. System boundary determines which unit processes shall be included within
the LCA. The selection of the system boundary must be consistent with the goal of the study
and important process must not be excluded in the system boundary. When any of two or moreproducts come from the same unit process, “Allocation” is required. Allocation means
partitioning the input or output flows of a process or a product system between the products
under study and other by-products. In general, the inputs and outputs are allocated based on
the weight ratio of the products. However, when the market values of the products are quite
different, the inputs and outputs might be allocated in a proportion that reflects economic
value.

6.1.4 Lifecycle impact assessment (LCIA)
The impact assessment on LCA consists of three parts: classification, characterization andtotal evaluation. At the phase of classification, the resource consumption or emissions areclassified to the impact categories based on the potential environmental impacts.
Table 6.1.1 shows the default environmental impact categories list of the Society of-146-

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Table 6.1.1. Inpact categories list of SETAC-Europe.

A. Input related categories (“resource depletion or competition”)
1. abiotic resources (deposits, fund, flows)
2. biotic resources (funds)
3. land

glob
glob
loc

B. Output related categories (pollution)
4. global warming
5. depletion of stratospheric ozone
6. human toxicological impacts
7. ecotoxicological impacts
8. photo-oxidant formation
9. acidification
10. eutrophication (incl. BOD and heat)
11. odour
12. noise
13. radiation
14. casualties

glob
glob
glob/cont/reg/loc
glob/cont/reg/loc
cont/reg/loc
cont/reg/loc
cont/reg/loc
loc
loc
reg/roc
loc

Pro Memoria: Flows not followed up system boundary
input related (energy, material, plantation, wood, etc.)
output related (solid waste, etc.)

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)-Europe that is the academic society leading
LCA studies. It is necessary to be clear which environmental categories are studied, dependingon the “Goal and Scope definition”. At the phase of characterization, each assigned LCI data for
an impact category is multiplied by a “Characterization Factor” (quantifiable representation of
an impact category) and the output is shown as a numerical indicator, “Category Indicator”.
Fig. 6.1.3 shows a general procedure of impact assessment, taking global warming andozone layer depletion as an example. The numerical value expressing potential environmental
impacts of emissions, like "Global Warming Potential (GWP)", is often used for theCharacterization Factor. It is to be noted that ISO-14040 defines that “classification andcharacterization” are mandatory elements but “normalization, grouping and weighting” areoptional elements. Although it is possible for a practitioner to make indexes based on carbon
dioxide or chlorofluoro-carbon in such impact categories as "global warming" and "ozone layer
depletion", but they decided that to integrate these different environmental impacts and to
make a single index for decision making is not possible.

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Impact Assessment
Classification
Inventory
kg/system

CO2
CH4
N2O
CFC-11
CFC-113abcdeCharacterization
Global Warming Characterization factor
GWP

Point

1.0
24.5
310.0
4000.05000.01.0×a
24.5×b310.0×c
4000×d5000×eCategory
Indicator
total

Ozone layer Depletion

Valuation(Weighting)

ODP
1.0
1.07

Point
1.0×d
1.07×etotal

Normalization
Normalization

Fig. 6.1.3. General Procedure of Impact Assessment.

6.1.5 Interpretation
In LCA, practitioner may reach different results depending on the scope of the study, systemboundaries and allocation procedures being taken in LCI and choice of characterization factors
in LCIA. The influence of these procedures on the result has to be discussed in the phase of"interpretation". In many cases of current LCI, results of emissions and resource consumption
are expressed by a single numerical value. However, each process data is suffering frommeasurement error and estimation error. In the ISO standard, it is necessary to evaluate data
quality using the techniques to determine the effect of data error such as “sensitivity check"and "uncertainty analysis", when the practitioner undertakes interpretation.

Further information
SETAC ”Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment A code of Practice”, 1993
SETAC “Towards a Methodology for Life Cycle Impact Assessment”,1996-148-

Asian Biomass Handbook

6.2 Energy Efficiency
When biomass is used as an energy source, not only energy efficiency of conversion
technology, but also life cycle energy efficiency and environment load must be considered as is
described in the preceding chapter. In other words, it is necessary to evaluate lifecycle stages ofbiomass: production, preprocessing, and energy conversion (Fig. 6.2.1).

Plantation
Grading, Fertilizer,
Harvesting, Collect

Energy Conversion
Transport

DryingChipping

Power Generation
Gasification
Liquefaction

EnergyBiomass Residue
Biomass Production

Pre-Processing

Energy Conversion

Fig. 6.2.1. Life Stages of Biomass Energy Conversion.

6.2.1 Energy consumption for biomass cultivation and harvest
The assumption as shoen in Table 6.2.1 is set, although growth quantity and caloric value ofbiomass depend on tree types and/or local meteorological conditions.
Table 6.2.2-Table 6.2.4 obtained from references shows energy required for tree planting,describing electricity as primary energy based on power generation efficiency (38.1%) in Japan.
Table 6.2.4 shows the inventory of afforestation for pulp production in Brazil, which can beconsidered as an example of biomass energy production technology.
The growth rate is a value per each unit area and depends on intervals between trees. For
Brazilian case, plenty of human work (task) reduces energy consumption. Energy efficiency ofbiomass production can be found by comparing calorific value of Table 6.2.1 and energy
consumption of Tables 6.2.2- 6.2.4.
For example, North American case shows that 1.4 MJ of energy (about 7.4%) is consumed to
produce biomass which has 18.8 MJ of caloric value per unit mass.

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Table 6.2.1. Features of tree.
Tree
Growth rate [t-dry/ha/year]
Calorific value [MJ/kg-dry]
Carbon content

North America
Poplar10
18.8
0.5

Indonesia
Acassia
7.5
16.7
0.5

BrazilEucalyptus
5.8
18.8
0.5

Table 6.2.2. Planting energy in North America.

Grading

Diesel Oil[MJ/kg-dry]

Natural Gas[MJ/kg-dry]

0.014

-

Electricity[MJ,kWh/kg-dry]-

Total[MJ/kg-dry]
0.014

Fertilizer

0.024

0.281

0.073

0.00780.378

Pesticide

0.029

0.010

0.005

0.00060.044

Machinery

0.017

-

-

0.017

Harvest

0.731

-

-

0.731

Transport

0.240

-

-

0.240

Total

1.055

0.291

0.079

0.0083

1.425

Table 6.2.3. Planting Energy in Indonesia.
Diesel Oil[MJ/kg-dry]

Natural Gas[MJ/kg-dry]

Electricity[MJ,kWh/kg-dry]

Grading

0.367

-

-

Fertilizer

0.032

0.375

0.073

0.0078Pesticide

0.039

0.013

0.005

0.0006

Machinery

0.225

-

-

Total
[MJ/kg-dry]
0.367
0.480
0.057
0.225

Harvest

0.225

-

-

0.225

Transport

0.408

-

-

0.408

Total

1.296

0.388

0.079

0.0083

1.763

Table 6.2.4. Planting Energy in Brazil.
Diesel Oil[MJ/kg-dry]

Natural Gas[MJ/kg-dry]

Electricity[MJ,kWh/kg-dry]

Grading

0.024

-

-

Fertilizer

0.047

0.225

0.092

Pesticide

0.050

-

-

0.050

Machinery

-

-

-

0.000

Harvest

0.035

-

-

0.035

Transport

-

-

-

Total

0.156

0.225

0.092

Total
[MJ/kg-dry]
0.024

0.0097

0.364

0.000
0.00970.473

6.2.2 Energy consumption of pretreatment for energy conversion of biomass
For biomass utilization, pretreatment such as transportation from plantation site, crushing(tipping), and drying are required.

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Although each conversion technology requires particular chip size and moisture content ofbiomass, Table 6.2.5 shows an example (transportation energy, crushing energy, and drying
energy). To calculate the transportation energy, it was assumed that 5 t-dry biomass wastransported by the track whose maximum load is 20 t and fuel mileage is 3 km/L. The crushingenergy was obtained from the reference. Drying energy was calculated, assuming that biomass
is dried till water content becomes 20% from 50%, considering approximately 20% heat loss inaddition to the evaporation heat.
When transportation distance is 30 km, preprocessing energy is 75 MJ/t-dry (3.6%) for
transportation, 0.786 MJ/t-dry (0.037%) for milling and 2,032 MJ/t-dry (96.4%) for drying
respectively. This shows that energy consumption in transportation stage is relatively small on
this assumption. Energy consumption in drying stage would be reduced by natural drying or
drying with waste heat.
Table 6.2.5. Energy Consumption on Pretreatment.
Energy Consumption
Transportation (Truck)

Diesel Oil

2.5 MJ/t-dry/km

Crushing Energy

Electricity

0.0832 kWh/t-dry2)

Drying Energy

Heavy Oil

2,030 MJ/t-dry

6.2.3 Energy efficiency comparison between biomass energy and fossil fuel
Energy consumptions to produce 1 MJ energy were compared between biomass and fossil
fuel (coal) (Table 6.2.6). For both cases, the transportation stages from production site toutilization site are omitted for simplification.
Fig. 6.2.2 shows energy consumption and CO2 emission of biomass and fossil fuel respectively,
then the part of ①+② and ①'+②' indicate the boundary here. In the case of biomass, ①+②
means energy consumption for the stage of afforestation, crushing, and drying. Coal mining
data were obtained from the data of Australia.
Fig. 6.2.3 shows the results of comparison. Energy consumptions of biomass production in
North America, Indonesia and Brazil are 0.182 MJ/MJ-biomass, 0.200 MJ/MJ-biomass and
0.132 MJ/MJ-biomass, respectively, and energy consumption of coal production is 0.008
MJ/MJ- coal. The result shows that biomass production process requires much larger energy
than coal production process in order to obtain equivalent energy.
On the LCA, energy consumption evaluation target is determined based on the use of
exhaustible energy resources. So biomass energy consumption is not counted as energy-151-

Asian Biomass Handbook

consumption, if the biomass is obtained from sustainable afforestation. In addition to thisenergy consumption for production, 1 MJ of exhaustible energy resource is consumed at energy
usage stage for coal. As a result, life cycle energy consumption becomes lower for biomass thanfor fossil fuel.
Table 6.2.6. Energy Consumption of Coal Mining.
EnergySourceOpen-CutMiningUnderground
MiningElectricity

kWh/t-coal

9.61

19.4

Diesel Oil

Kg/t-coal

4.158

0.6639Gasoline

Kg/t-coal

0.013270.0113

Biomass Energy
CO2④

CO2①

Plantation

Energy ①

CO2②

Pre-Processing

CO2③

CO2④

Transport

Use (Combustion)

Energy ②

Energy ③

CO2① ’

CO2② ’

CO2

MiningDressing

Transport

Fossil Fuel Energy

Energy ①’

Energy ② ’③’

CO2④ ’Use (Combustion)

Energy ③’

Fig. 6.2.2. Energy Consumption and CO2 Emisssion image on Biomass and Fossil Fuel.

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Combustion
MiningDryingCrushing
Planting

0.10

0.20

0.08

1MJ

0.15

1MJ

0.06

0.10

0.04

0.05

0.02

+

CO2 Emission [kg-CO2/MJ]

Energy Consumption [MJ/MJ]

0.25

+

0.00

0.00
North America

Indonesia

BrazilOpen-CutMiningUnderground
MiningFig. 6.2.3. Comparison Between Biomass and Coal on Energy Consumption and CO2

Further information
Turhollow, A.F. and R.D. Perlack, Biomass and Bioenergy, 1(3), pp.129-135, 1991
NEDO, “Investigation of forest from a viewpoint of global environment (the 2nd) (a case study ofplanting)”, NEDO-GET-9603, 1996 (in Japanese)
Yokoyama, S., “Eucalyptus Plantation in Brazil, Resources and Environment”, Shigen to Kankyo,
pp.431-436, 1996 (in Japanese)
IEEJ (Institute of Energy and Economics in Japan), “Life Cycle Inventory Analysis of Fossil Energies inJapan, IEEJ, 1999 (in Japanese)

6.3 Carbon Dioxide Emission and Environmental Impact
6.3.1 CO2 Emission of biomass
On energy evaluation of biomass in the preceding paragraph, light oil, natural gas andelectricity are consumed for planting stage; electricity for crushing stage; heavy oil for drying
stage. And light oil, gasoline (light oil equivalency), electricity are consumed for coal mining.
Evaluating CO2 emission to consume energy such as light oil, heavy oil, gasoline and naturalgas, it is necessary to consider CO2 emission from combustion and production processes of-153-

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them. The power resources composition should be considered to evaluate CO2 emission ofelectricity consumption. It was assumed that CO2 emission according to production process ofthese energy was equal to those of Japan, and the emission factors were obtained from LCA
results (Table 6.3.1) (Tahara 1997, Tahara 1998).
CO2 emissions of biomass and coal are obtained by multiplying CO2 emission factor, toenergy consumption about biomass production (Fig. 6.2.1). The CO2 emission of biomass
production is 0.0130 kg-CO2/MJ-biomass. The CO2 emissions of open-pit and underground coalmining are 0.00053 kg-CO2/MJ- coal, 0.00039 kg-CO2/MJ- coal respectively and both of them
become 0.091 kg-CO2/MJ-coal with consideration burning(combustion) stage. It was assumed
that the forest would absorb the CO2 emission (CO2 ④) from biomass combustion as shown in
Fig. 6.2.2.
Table 6.3.1. Unit CO2 Emission of Various Energy in Japan.
CO2 Emission
Diesel Oil

0.0715 kg-CO2/MJ

Heavy Oil

0.0746 kg-CO2/MJ

Gasoline

0.0715 kg-CO2/MJ

LNG

0.0516 kg-CO2/MJ

Electricity

0.4378 kg-CO2/kWh

6.3.2 Comparison between biomass power generation and the other
Biomass generation technology is compared with the other generation technology (coal fired,oil fired, LNG fired, hydropower, ocean thermal energy conversion, photovoltaic). The biomass
power generation is defined as the scale that can manage as much as biomass grown by 30km2
afforestation in North America, Indonesia, and Brazil. Annual quantity of sending end
generation and power station scale of each power station are shown in table 6.3.2.
The CO2 emission per 1kWh of each generation plant can be found dividing the sum of CO2
emission on power station construction and operation (fuel burning and maintenance repair) by
the amount of total generated energy, assuming durability year of each generation plant. The
durability of all power stations was defined as 30 years here.
Table 6.3.3 and Fig. 6.3.1 show each plant CO2 emission based on LCA. While facilities ofbiomass power generation have a similarity to thermal power generation by fossil fuel, CO2
emission per unit electricity of the biomass generation has a drastic reduction because CO2
emission on the biomass combustion is not counted. About CO2 emission, biomass power-154-

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generation is a highly competitive technology to the other renewable energy generation.
Table 6.3.2. Plant Scale of Various Power Generation Station.
Annual Generation[kWh/y]Plant Scale[MW]

6.08 × 109

1000

Uchiyama et al. , 1991

Oil Fired6.17 × 10

91000

Uchiyama et al. , 1991

LNG Fired6.34 × 109

1000

Uchiyama et al. , 1991

Hydropower

3.93 × 107

10

Resources Council,
1983

OTEC (2.5MW)

8.76 × 106

2.5

Resources Council,
1983

OTEC (100MW)

5.70 × 108

100

Tahara et al., 1993

1.18 × 10

710Inaba et al., 1995

8.64 × 10

610Inaba et al., 1995

1.04 × 10

9

197

Tahara et al., 1998

1.65 × 10

894

Tahara et al., 1998

5.98 × 10

8114

Tahara et al., 1998

Type of Generation
Coal Fired

Photovoltaic （ Indonesia ）Photovoltaic （Japan ）Biomass Fired （ North America ）Biomass Fired （ Indonesia ）Biomass Fired （ Brazil ）References

Table 6.3.3. Unit CO2 Emission of Various Power Generation.
Unit CO2 Emission

Type of Generation[kg-CO2 /kWh]Coal Fired

0.916

Oil Fired

0.756

LNG Fired

0.563

Hydropower

0.017

OTEC (2.5MW)

0.119

OTEC (100MW)

0.014

Photovoltaic （Indonesia）

0.148

Photovoltaic （Japan）

0.187

Biomass Fired（North
America）

0.081

Biomass Fired（Indonesia）

0.119

Biomass Fired（Brazil）

0.024

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Co
al
Fi
re
d
O
il
Fi
re
d
LN
G
Fi
H
re
yd
d
ro
po
we
OT
r
EC
(2
.5
O
M
TE
Ph
W
C
ot
)
(1
ov
0
ol
0
ta
M
ic
W
)
（I
P
Bi
nd
ho
om
on
to
vo
es
as
ia ）
lta
sF
i
c
ire
（
d
Ja
（N
pa
Bi
n)
or
om
t
h
as
A
s
me
Fi
re
ric
d
a）
Bi
（
In
om
d
as
on
s
es
Fi
ia）
re
d
（B
ra
zil
）

Unit CO2 Emission [kg-CO2/kWh]

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

Fig. 6.3.1. Unit CO2 Emission of Various Power Generation.

6.3.3 Environmental impact of biomass
CO2 emission has been focused on as only one environmental impact of biomass. But it isnecessary to consider the emission of other greenhouse gases such as CH4 and N2O in biomass
production. Land use of biomass production is also key effect to environment.
In addition, the competition with food might be considered as derivative environmental impact
in the case of cultivation type of biomass.

Further information
Tahara, K. et al. “Evaluation of generation plant by LCA-Calculation of CO2 payback time “, Chemical
Engineering, 23(1), pp.88-94, 1997 (in Japanese)
Uchiyama, Y. and H. Yamamoto, “Impact of Generation Plant on Global Warming”, Central Res. Inst. ofElectric Power Industry report Y91005, 1992 (in Japanese)
Science and Technology Agency resource survey society, “Natural energy and generation technology”,
Taisei Publishing co. Ltd, 1983 (in Japanese)
Tahara, K. et al., “Role of ocean thermal energy conversion in the issue of carbon dioxide”, Macro Review,
6, pp.35-43, 1993 (in Japanese)
Inaba, A, et al, “Life cycle assessment of photovoltaic power generation system, Energy and Resources”,
16(5), pp.525-531, 1995
Tahara, K., et al. “Life Cycle Assessment of Biomass power Generation with Sustainable Forestry
System” 4th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies (GHGT-4) 1998, 9,Interlaken, Switzerland-156-

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6.4 Economical Evaluation of Bioenergy
6.4.1 Cost of bioenergy
Cost of Bioenergy can be disaggregated into 3 stages: resource cost, conversion technology
cost, and secondary energy cost at consumer end.
Resource cost consists of not only cost of resource but also 1) opportunity cost (the value if
biomass was used as material or food), 2) waste management cost for appropriate disposal, and
3) environment cost (environmental impact of biomass production).
Conversion technology cost is dependent on type of biomass input, type of technology, timeframe of evaluation, and other factors.
Secondary energy (electricity, heat, fuel, and other forms that are converted from biomass
resources) cost is calculated as summation of resource cost and conversion technology cost.
It is necessary to evaluate the cost of bioenergy with the latest information relating to energy
cost, land use competition, available bioenergy technologies, externality of environment, andother aspects.

6.4.2 Bioenergy resource cost
Bioenergy resource consists of raw material, plantation bioenergy, and residue biomass(discharge during biomass conversion and consumption process). When raw material such as
wood and food are converted into bioenergy, opportunity cost is incurred. Environment cost is
estimated based on impacts on local land use change, biodiversity and aspects. Biomass residue

Oil

Human Feces

Livestock manure

Sugarcane Residue

Wood Scrap

Sawmill Residue

Industrial Roundwood
Residue

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10

Energy Crop

Biomass Cost($/GJ)

can be negative when appropriate waste management of biomass is implemented.

Fig. 6.4.1 Biomass Cost.

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Bioenergy resource cost can be expressed by the following equation:[bioenergy resource cost] = [supply cost] + [opportunity cost] + [environment cost] - [disposal
cost]
Modern wood fuel and wooden chip have higher cost due to their good quality as material andopportunity cost. Cereal residues also have higher cost due to transportation and stock.
Plantation cost is essentially high. Residue bioenergy can be available at negative cost due towaste management.

6.4.3 Biomass technology conversion cost
Traditional biomass is directly used as wood or charcoal. Modern biomass is consumed as
useful energy carrier such as electricity, liquid fuels, and gaseous fuels. There are several typesof conversion technologies such as electricity generation (steam generation, integrated
gasification generation), pylorysis, and fermentation (anaerobic digestion generation, ethanol
production).
Generation cost of biomass integrated gasification was evaluated as follows. Installation cost
was projected to be 2102 $/kWe (capacity 75 MWe, efficiency 36％) in 1997 , 1892 $/kWe(capacity 100MWe, efficiency 37％) in 2000, 1111 $/kWe (capacity 110 MWe, efficiency 45％) in
2030 (price in the year of 1996). But still it is in experimental stage in 2001. Another evaluation
estimates installation cost to be 1221 $/kWe with 100 MWe capacity (1990 price). Annual
expenditure (as a portion of annualized installation cost and operation cost) is assumed to be
12%.
Fig shows bioenergy conversion cost of typical technologies. Though cost of fermentation
technology is higher than others, it can be moderated to include waste management cost of
livestock manure. Technology cost for steam generation, integrated gasification generation,and pylorysis is expected to be cheaper due to technology development and deployment, but it
is uncertain. Cost of co-firing generation is the additional cost to reform existing coal fired
plant.

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Pylorysis Methanol(Indirect)
Cellulose Fermentation

Pylorysis Methanol(High Pressure-Oxygen)

Pylorysis Methanol(Low Pressure-Oxygen)

Coal Fired
Generation

Anaerobic Digestion

Co-fired Generation(Additional Cost)
Integrated Gasification
Generation(1997)
Integrated Gasification
Generation(2030)

Steam Turbine
Generation(1997)
Steam Turbine
Generation(2000)

Plant Cost($/kW-output)

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

Fig. 6.4.2 Plant Cost.

6.4.4 Secondary energy cost
Secondary energy (converted into electricity, heat, and liquid fuels using biomass resources
through appropriate conversion technologies) cost is calculated. Annual installation cost is
calculated based on the following assumptions: 1) interest rate is 5%, 2) lifetime is 30 years (20years for pyrolysis and fermentation generation), 3) annual expenditure is 12% (10% forfermentation generation, 17% for pylorysis, 27% for ethanol fermentation). This analysis showsthat integrated gasification generation is promising if it is well developed as predicted.
Pyrolysis is also promising if its technology cost can reduce in the future. Furthermore, the cost
evaluation includes uncertainty. Resource cost depends on local situation and technology cost is
subjective to technology RDD. Therefore, for practical use, it is necessary to analyze theGeneration Cost ($/kWh)bioenergy cost based on the latest information.
0.15

Steam Turbine
Generation(1997)

0.1
0.05
0
-15

-10

-5

-0.05

0

5

-0.1
-0.15

10

Steam Turbine
Generation(2000)
Co-fired Generation(Additional cost)
Integrated Gasification
Generation(1997)
Integrated Gasification
Generation(2030)
Anaerobic Digestion

Biomass Resource Cost($/GJ)

Fig 6.4.3 Biomass Cost (Generation).
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Further information
Yamamoto, H., et al., “Economic Analysis of Bioenergy Utiliztion Technologies”, The 18th Energy
Systems, Economics, and Environmental Conference, pp..233-238, 2002 (in Japanese)
DeMeo, E.A., “Renewable energy technology characterizations”, Technical Report TR-109496, ElectricPower Research Institute (EPRI) and U.S. Department of Energy, 1997
OECD, “Projected cost of generating electricity update 1998”, 1998

6.5 Other Evaluation
6.5.1 Standard of living
Since agriculture is of much importancefor the economies under development, it isdesirable

thatsustainableagriculture

leads to improvement of farmers’ standardof living as well as their income.

In thissection, a small-scale biomethanation plantin a rural area of Thailand is taken up as
an example.

A small farm gave animal

manurefeedstockasforanaerobic

digestion.

Manure from 5 cows was

feedstock.

Product biogas was used forcooking.

Fig. 6.5.1. Fermentation reactor under construction.

It was expected to be sufficient for 3-times cooking for 1 hour for a daily basis.

In

this sense, the small-scale biomethanation is desirable since the farmers can use the cattle
manure in their own farm, and the product gas can be used for their own purpose.

Utilizationof the fermentation residue as fertilizer resulted in the recycling, reducing the amount ofchemical fertilizer.

It is usual for the Thai farmers to use chemical fertilizer that is notsustainable, and the product compost from this biomethanation plant is helpful to switch tosustainable agriculture.

As a result, the plant achieved the local recycling of cattle manure asenergy (biogas) and material (compost).
was the increase in farmers’ hygiene.

Another good aspect of this biomethanation plant

The number of flies reduced after introduction of theplant.
The plant investigated in 2006 was the only one under operation, and other two were under-160-

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construction (Fig. 6.5.1).
technology.

The reason for this should be the farmers’ ignorance on thisDuring the discussion with Thai people, it was pointed out that education ofpeople is important.

In the rural area of Thailand, the literacy rate is not high.

Actually, theinvestigated plant was a demonstration one fully supported by the local government to showneighbors the effectiveness of the biomethanation plant.

In this sense, it is important to

supply proper information on this technology to the farmers.
What is important for the biomass utilization for farmers to be effective is the accessibility ofthe biomass plant or biomass collecting site from farmers.

Even if farmers possess or produce

biomass feedstock, it is nothing if they do not have access to the sites where it can be made useof.

6.5.2 Farmers’ income
By the use of the plant described above,
the farmer did not need to pay 350 bahts amonth (100 bahts = 2.85 US$, as ofDecember 2006), which was the cost of
propane gas.

This was a fair amount for a

farmer’s family, and they said that they
were happy with the reduction of this cost.
The fermentation residue was placed in a
bag by 30 kg and sold at 12 bahts per bag.
The system was quite simple, and the plant
could be fabricated by villagers in 9 days.

Fig. 6.5.2. Ethanol production plant in Thailand.

The material cost 5,000 bahts and total cost was

7,400 bahts, so the economic payback period was 21.1 months.

A person from the local

government who knew the know-how could help the farmer for building.

The means to makethe process economically feasible is simple structure and free labor to help each other in thevillage.

The materials are cheap.

No special skill was needed for operation, the main body ofoperation is farmers themselves, and this reduces the labor cost.

The simplicity results in nonecessity of operation person or labor cost, and farmers themselves can construct the plant.
Incidentally, income of farmers living around an ethanol production plant in Thailand isdiscussed here (Fig. 6.5.2.).

The plant is planning to construct a 100,000-L/day ethanol plantand its feedstock is assumed to be cassava.
stable than that of molasses.

It is because the market price of cassava is rather

The farmers could not get income when the plant used molasses-161-

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since the plant paid to sugar production factories.

Therefore, the plant thinks that increase in

the ethanol production from cassava will make cassava cultivation more attractive and people
in rural area remain.

The unit price of cassava chips is now 3.7 bahts/kg.

In order to sellcassava to the plant, farmers have to chip and dry (below 18% of water content) for
pretreatment.

Considering this, they can earn 1 baht/kg and this profit is quite attractive for

them.
There are mainly two ways to support farmers.
the access to useful fuels.

One is to supply energy so that they have

In Thailand, small-scale biomethanation provides cooking gas tofarmers, so they need not to buy propane gas for cooking.

This support to farmers is also

effective for sustainable agriculture due to the reduction of fossil fuel utilization.
support is by cash.

The other

When they grow feedstock for ethanol production and sell it at a higher

price, they can get money for buying electricity.

Since those who use ethanol as fuel are richer

compared to farmers, this mechanism can be considered as ‘redistribution of wealth.’

6.5.3 Energy security and foreign currency
Production of bioenergy is expected to improve domestic energy security.

On the other hand,

there are opportunities for developing countries to get foreign currency by exporting bioenergy.
Here describes the commitment to bioenergy production by the Thai government briefly.
At the time of December 2006, the unit price of ethanol was 23.50 baht per liter, which isdetermined by the Ministry of Energy, Thailand.
ethanol fuel from cassava.

The production capacity of the 6 plants will be 702 million L/year,

demanding 4.13 million ton/year of cassava.
Asia.

In Thailand, 6 plants are licensed to produce

Thailand is the largest exporter of cassava in

The average annual production is 20 million ton/year: About 8 million ton for domestic

starch consumption; Another 8 million ton (cassava chips) for export; The remaining 4 million
ton can be used for ethanol.
are balanced now.

Therefore, the cassava production for food and that for ethanol

Cultivated area of cassava is about 1 million ha.

The expansion ofagricultural land is prohibited, but farmers can grow a different crop if allowed by thegovernment.

In the future, the amount of cassava production for ethanol may increase, while

it is often said that bioenergy utilization may be in conflict with food production, e.g., theinternational growing demand for ethanol may threaten the stability of domestic supply of food.
Even the cassava production for food and that for ethanol are balanced in Thailand now, thefuture use of cassava root should be carefully determined.

Moreover, the market price of

cassava heavily declined before, so financial support by the government to farmers will be-162-

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necessary in some instances.

Further information
The Japan Institute of Energy. “Report on the Investigation and Technological Exchange Projects
Concerning Sustainable Agriculture and Related Environmental Issues,” Entrusted by the Ministryof Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (Fiscal year of 2006) (2007)

6.6 Problems to be Considered
6.6.1 Biodiversity (An example of a palm-oil production)(a) The summary of a palm-oil production
About biomass utilization, the palm oil production gives an urgent serious to biodiversity in
Malaysia and Indonesia, now.
Malaysia and Indonesia account for about 85% of the palm oil production in the world. In
Malaysia, a large scale plantation began to be suddenly developed in 1960’s.

An Indonesian

government put out the policy said becoming the world’s largest production country of palm oil,and production including the construction of a large scale plantation was begun in 1980’s. From1990 to 2002, the oil palm plantation areas increase about twice in Malaysia and more than 3times in Indonesia.
As the development of the oil palm plantation, very large land need for the operation of oil
mill (the scale of Southeastern Asian typical plantations is 10,000-25,000 ha), and there are a
lot of things that the forest is destroyed in creation. About 87% of the deforestation in Malaysia
from 1985 to 2000 is considered to be the oil palm plantation development, and it is said byIndonesia that at least 70% of the plantation cleared a forest. Furthermore, the oil palm
plantations are developed more and more around the buffer zone such as the national parks,
and the biological important area.
(b) Palm oil production and biodiversity
The palm oil plantations are overlapped the low land in tropical rain forests where hold thehighest biodiversity on the earth, as it were, located the “Hot Spot” where is "the area that is on
the verge of the destruction though to hold the high biodiversity on the earth scale". This area
is a little habitation area of the orangutan, Sumatra tiger, Borneo elephant, rhinoceros,-163-

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Malaysian tapir and so on. Development of the oil palm plantations is the biggest menace forthe rare tropical rain forests in Southeast Asia.
It’s said 80-100% of mammal, reptiles and birds disappear as developing the plantations in
the tropical forest. According to the investigation of Miura et al., more than 400 kinds of wild
animals were found out in a natural forest or second growth, but the plantations after cut down
all forest and cultivating only palm oil, less than 10 kinds were found.(see below)

Fig. 6.6.1. Comparison of the appearance frequency of the wild animal used an
automatic imager （in Malaysia）(c) Other impacts due to the palm oil production
In Indonesia, though the control to the illegal felling is strengthened, the authorities permit
easer to fell to develop the oil palm plantation. Some are considered to fake the authorities toget permissions of illegal felling. Furthermore, at the time of development, field firing isfrequently illegal and as the result peat layer is fired. Then the very large area is disappeared
and there is bad influence for the ecosystem. And CO2 is produced at two billions tons per yearthat exceeds Japan’s emission. This is a big cause of the climate change.
In addition described above, development of the oil palm plantations bring the injustice of
local people impacts on economy, culture and social instability such as indigenous people
depending on the forest as well as biological diversity disappearance. After the operation of theplantations started, there are problems of the pollutions of soil and river by pesticide andchemical fertilizer, soil erosion, such as the labor problems low wages, pesticide damage, childlabor, illegal workers, water pollution by waste fluid and residual substance or methane
outbreak and so on.

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6.6.2 Land use competitions
The limit of biomass resources human beings use becomes obvious. Therefore, it is expectedthat competitions between of biomass uses such as food, material, and energy will become
severe; consequently land use competitions between forest, arable land, pasture, and otherlands will become severe, too.
(a) Competitions between forest, arable land, pasture, and other lands.
Forests have decreased by activity of human beings for long years. The forest area in theworld has decreased by 1.2 billion hectares since 1700. Especially, the forest area of North
Africa and the Middle East, and China decreased below half. In the same period the arable
land in the world increased by 1.2 billion hectares. In the same period, the pasture in the world
decreased a little by 70 million hectares. Thus, in the historical view point, the deforestation
was caused by the increase of arable land. Conversely, the deforestation area was converted toarable land.
Concerning land use change after 1950, deforestation in developed regions has been stopped
and forest areas in Western Europe and North America increase reversely. On the other hand,in developing regions such as tropical regions, China, and Middle East, deforestation continues.
The reasons are conversion to arable land and pasture and un-sustainable slash-and-burnfarming, etc.
The deforestation in the developing regions causes not only a regional environmental
destruction but also global environmental problem of CO2 emission. In addition, in regions inhigh population density and industries in high speed such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan,
the arable lands are decreasing. This is because in those regions land demands for housing andfactory increase and the agriculture is not competitive in the global agriculture markets. In
Japan the arable land decreased by 10% from 5.0 million hectares to 4.6 million hectares
between 1976 and 1991. In South Korea, the arable land decreased by 6.6% in the same period.
(b) Competition between food production and energy crop production
On arable land, energy crops are also producible besides food. In countries where surplus
arable land is available such as the United States and Brazil, they could use the surplus arable
land for energy crop production rather than for fallow field.

Especially, in those countries in2006 to 2007 when the oil price hits the historical record, they produce energy crops andproduce biofuel such as bioethanol and bio-diesel (BDF). In the United States they produce
bioethanol from corn on a large scale. In Brazil they produce bioethanol from sugarcane on alarge scale. In addition, BDF is produced from vegetable oil such as rapeseed oil and palm oil.

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However, since arable lands are limited, the production of energy crops reduces the arable
land where food crops are producible. It is pointed out that excessive production of energy crop
may lead to food shortage. In addition, it is explained in 6.7.5 that the competition between
food production and energy crop production is handled in an energy model.

Further information
BIN (Biomass Industry Network) et al., “Bio-nenryo Riyo ni kansuru Kyodo Teigen”, 2007 (in Japanese)
The Japan Institute of Energy, “Biomass Yogo Jiten”, Ohmsha, 2004 (in Japanese)
Yamaji, K. et al., “Bioenergy”, Myosin Shuppan, 2000 (in Japanese)

6.7 Energy Models
6.7.1 Outline of energy models
An energy model is a mathematical model that expresses energy systems. Since energy systems
including primary energy production, energy transportation, and energy conversion arecomplicated, it is difficult to get intuit insight about the desired energy system. Using the energy
model they can analyze an economic energy systems and energy structure in the future.

An energy model is divided into two kinds that are a simulation type and an optimized type.
The simulation type is a type that assembles energy system composition in the future
deductively from the initial condition of the energy system and various kinds of exogenous
assumptions such as future population and economic growth rates.
The optimization type is a type that uses mathematical optimization technique and finds the
optimal energy system under exogenous constraints. The typical optimal standards areminimization of energy system cost and maximization of total consumption in the society. The
typical exogenous constraints are energy resource constraints and data of energy conversion
technologies.

6.7.2 Typical energy model
Energy models that are used for policy study about energy and environment were developed
as following orders. First, energy models that focus on specific energy technologies that aregigantic technologies to need long-term development plan and huge cost such as nuclear-166-

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technologies.
Since latter half of 1980's when global warming is important topic, energy models that
include overall energy systems and CO2 emission have been developed. The first energy modelthat focused on policy study about global warming is Edmonds-Reilly model developed in the
United States that is a simulation type model. ETA-MACRO and DICE model developed in the
United States are typical optimization model that evaluate global energy, economy, andenvironment. In addition, GLUE model developed in Japan is a typical model that evaluates
global bioenergy supply potential considering land use competitions and overall biomass flows.

6.7.3 DNE21 model
DNE21 model is an optimization model that was developed for assessment of technologies
that mitigate global warming. DNE21 model is based on the NE21 (New Earth 21) model thatwas developed for numerical analysis of "New Earth Plan" announced in 1990 by Japanese
government. DNE21 is dynamic model that minimizes inter-temporal energy systems cost in
the world. In the model the world is divided into 10 regions and global energy systems till 2100
are analyzed. In the model bioenergy conversion technologies are analyzed in detail.

6.7.4 GLUE model
GLUE model is the abbreviation of global land use and energy model and was developed inJapan. The model that is a simulation model is a typical model that evaluates bioenergy supply
potential in present and in the future. In the model, biomass demand is calculated by data ofbiomass demand per capita and population. Biomass supply potential is calculated by data ofarable land area and arable land productivity. In the model the biomass demand and thebiomass supply potential are compared and the surplus arable land and the energy crop supply
potential produced on the surplus arable land are calculated. In addition, the model evaluates
supply potential of biomass residues discharged from processes of biomass flows such as
production, processing, consumption, disposal, and recycling.
The recent version of GLUE model is an optimization type and evaluates not only bioenergy
supply potential but also biomass utilization technologies.

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6.7.5 Land use competitions in GLUE model
In a GLUE model, the surplus arable land considering land use competitions is calculated asfollows. Biomass demand is calculated from population and food demand per capita. Biomass
supply potential is calculated from land areas for biomass production and the biomass
productivity of the land areas. Then, surplus arable land considering land use competitions is
calculated from the biomass demand and the biomass supply potential.
The details of the calculation about land use competitions are as follows. First, animal fooddemand produced from cereal feed is calculated from animal food demand minus fish supply
minus animal food supply from pasture. Cereal demand is calculated from the cereal feeddemand plus cereal demand for vegetable food. The land demand for cereals is calculated fromthe cereal demand divided by cereal productivity. The land for energy crop production is
calculated from the total land for cereal production minus the land demand for cereal
production. If the total land for cereal production is smaller than the land demand for cereal
production, food shortage occurs and the land for energy crop production is zero.
Consequently, in a GLUE model it is assumed that the highest priority in the land use
competitions of arable land is the land use for vegetable food production. The next is the land
use for feed production that is converted to animal food. The last is the land use for energy
crops production. In order to enlarge the total calorie supply, it is assumed that priority is given
to supply of vegetable food over supply of animal food.

Further information
The Japan Institute of Energy, “Biomass Yogo Jiten”, Ohmsha, 2004 (in Japanese)-168-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Part 7. Biomass situation in Asian
countries
7.1 China
7.1.1 Background
With rapid economic development, energy demand increases rapidly also in China. China's
total energy consumption already occupies the second place in the world. Fig.1 shows the trendsof China's oil consumption and net imports from 1990 to 2006. Since 1993 when China becamea net import country of petroleum, the dependency of petroleum upon import increased from
7.6% in 1995 to 47.0% in 2006. It is forecasted that in 2020 the petroleum consumption andimport in China will amount to 450 million tons and 250 million tons, respectively, with 55%
dependency of petroleum upon petroleum import. It’s expected that transportation willcontribute the most oil consumption growth in future. Compared to the transportation oil
consumption in 2000 which accounts for about 1/3 of the total petroleum consumption, it isforecasted that the ration will rise to 43% and 57% by 2010 and 2020.

Fig. 7.1.1. Trends of China's oil consumption and net imports from 1990 to 2006

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7.1.2 Situation of biofuels development in China
Because of the insufficient fuel supply and the requirements for energy saving and pollutants
emissions reduction, China national government pays more and more attentions to researchand development of bio-fuels. The People's Republic of China Renewable Energy Law wasissued in 2005.
Ethanol gasoline project started in 2001 in China. There are only four plants permitted by
the government to produce food based fuel ethanol. The governments’ supports play animportant role on simulating the ethanol gasoline development in China, especially at theinitiation stage of the ethanol gasoline demonstration by preferential policies like incentives.
The incentives include: 1) The excise tax of denatured fuel ethanol (5%) is free. 2) The
value-added tax of denatured fuel ethanol is imposed first, and then given back to the ethanol
provider. 3) The price of denatured fuel ethanol sold to the petroleum companies which are also
the blending operators is (0.9111*manufacturer's price of 90# gasoline). While the market
prices of all kinds of E10 (90#, 93# or 97#) are the same as 90#, 93# or 97# gasoline. 4) An
allowance is paid to the ethanol provider. These incentives will be executed until 2008. Now
ethanol gasoline has been used in 9 provinces and the total consumption was 1.54 million tons
in 2006. However, to ensure the food safety, no more food based fuel ethanol plants are
permitted by the China national government any more. In the future, non-food feedstockincluding cassava, sweet potato, sweet sorghum and lignocellulose are potential for fuelethanol production. A 200 000 tons/year fuel ethanol plant with cassava as feedstock in
Guangxi province has been permitted by the government and is expected to start up soon. The
four exiting fuel ethanol plants are encouraged to use non-food feedstock too.
There are more than 10 biodiesel plants in China. The amount of production is about 100 000
tons/year. <Biodiesel Blend Stock (BD100) for Diesel Engine Fuels> was issued in May 2007.
But there is not yet regular policy for biodiesel sales like fuel ethanol. Some biodiesel are fornon-engine utilization. One problem of biodiesel development in China now is the feedstock
supply. China needs to import more than 6 million tons edible oil per year. It is impossible touse edible oil such as soybean oil and rape seed oil for bio-diesel production. Now most biodiesel
plants in China are using waste oils as feedstock. However, with the development of biodiesel,
the price of waste oils is higher and higher. Woody oils are getting more and more attentions.
The“national bioenergy-directed forest construction program” and “Woody feedstock

plantation plan for biodiesel during 11th Five-Year plan” were issued by State Forestry
Administration of China, which indicate that 400 000 hectares of Jatropha curcas will be-170-

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planted in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou and Chongqing provinces; 250 000 hectares of Pistacia
Chinensis will be planted in Hebei, Shanxi, Anhui and Henan Provinces; 50 000 hectares ofCornus Wilsoniana will be planted in Hunan, Hubei and Jiangxi Provinces; 133 333 hectares of
Xanthoceras Sorbifolia will be planted in Inner Mongolia, Liaoning and Xinjiang provinces.

7.1.3 Conclusion
With the rapid economic development, the great insufficiency of energy supply has become
the “Bottleneck” of sustainable development in China. Currently the important issue to besolved is to accelerate the development of biomass energy so as to relieve the pressure ofresources and the environment. Moreover, as a responsible country, China should take theinternational responsibility to save energy and reduce pollution discharge. Hence, the biomassenergy industry is promising with a fairly bright future in China. At present, the biomassenergy consumption is 8% of the total fuel consumption. According to “Mid and Long Term
Development Plan of Renewable Energies” issued on September 4th 2007, the percentages ofbiomass energy consumption will increase to 10% by 2010 and 15% by 2020. By 2010, annual
consumption of non-grain based fuel ethanol shall reach 2 million tons, and that of biodiesel
shall reach 200 000 tons in China; by 2020, annual consumption of fuel ethanol shall reach 10
million tons, and that of biodiesel shall reach 2 million tons in China.

7.2 Korea
7.2.1 Amount of biomass resources in Korea
Major biomass resources available in Korea are organic wastes and the agriculturaland forest residues. The potential and recoverable amounts of biomass for energy
utilization are summarized in Table 7.2.1. According to the data in Table 7.2.1, the total
amount of biomass resources available in Korea is about 80 million ton, only 30% of thepotential biomass resources are currently utilized for energy production.

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Table 7.2.1. Biomass resources in Korea.
Resources

Potential, x 103 Mt/ year

Recoverable, x 103 Mt/ year

Forest residues

7,830

1,300

Agricultural residues

16,0004,900

Food waste

5,100

5,100

Municipal waste

1,600

260

Animal wastes

47,000Sludge

2,500

280

Total
S.C. Park et al. (2007).

7.2.2 Policies and Mansatories
New and Renewable Energy Promotion law enacted in 2002 approves bioenergy as arenewable energy and supports its implementation. The total exemption of excise duty is now
available for biodiesel used as motor fuel. The current excise duty of diesel is about $0.5/L. All
Korean oil refineries should mix a certain amount of biodiesel in their diesel oil products (Table
7.2.2).
Table 7.2.2. Mandatory target for the biodiesel implementation (KMOCIE, 2007).
Year

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Biodiesel content in diesel, ％

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

7.2.3 Targets
For bioenergy, the following targets have been set up by Korean Ministry of Commerce,
Industry and Energy (KMOCIE) in 2002 (Table 7.2.3).

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Table 7.2.3. Targets for bioenergy implementation in Korea.
Year

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Heat, x 103toe

236

277

283

472

477

483

489

679

Power, x GWh

1232

1848

2465

3081

3383

3697

4000

4313

7.2.4 Other activities- Biodiesel
Severe air pollution over the big cities in Korea also helps the introduction of biodiesel in thetransport sector because biodiesel blended fuels may reduce the emissions of the air pollutantsfrom vehicles. Demonstration supply of BD20 had been started in Seoul Metropolitan and
Chonbuk Province from May 2002 and lasted by June 2006. During the period of thedemonstration supply, several important works have been done to resolve the controversial
issues like the feasibility of BD20 as a motor fuel, the preparation of the biodiesel fuelspecification and the establishment of distribution infra for the biodiesel blended fuels. After ayear work, the draft for the standards having 16 specification parameters was made. The
figures taken in the standards are virtually same to those of the European standards, EN14214.
Actual fleet tests also have been done with BD5 and BD20 prepared with the biodiesel whichmeets the Korean biodiesel standards for two years. Through the fleet tests, BD20 was found to
be not suitable for the passenger cars. In the meanwhile, no troubles have been observed withthe use of BD5. So KMOCIE prepared a new biodiesel distribution system and enforced it from
July of 2006 (Figure 1). According to new plan, all Korean oil refineries should buy 100,000 kl
biodiesel /year and mix them into their diesel products and supply the blended diesel to all gas
stations. As a result, all diesel oils sold in Korea contain about 0.5% of biodiesel. BD20 isallowed to supply only to captive fleets which have their own gas pumps.
With the strong support of Korean Government on biodiesel implementation, the biodiesel
business is getting active. The stable supply of raw material is going to be an important issue.
Various activities are under way to secure the stable supply of feedstocks for biodiesel
production. The activities include the demonstration cultivation of winter rapeseed todetermine the feasibility of mass production of canola domestically and Jatropha plantation insome Southeast Asian countries..

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Fig. 7.2.1. New biodiesel distribution infra in Korea.

7.3 Myanmar
The land area of Myanmer is 690,00 km2 (1.8 times as large as Japan), and it is the larges
country in the continental South-East Asia.

Its population is 52 million, and its climate

belongs to tropical monsoon except northern region.
biodiversity is unique and precious.

Thus, its nature, biosystem, andMyanmer also enjoys plentiful resources such as rice,

forestry resources, and mineral resources.

About 70% of the working population belong toagricultural sector and occupies 60% of GDP, and industrial sector contributes to GDP by only
10%.

Politically, after the World War II, the democratic system was achieved for a while, but

the National Congress was ceased by the Coup d'etat in 1996, and the nation in under militaryadministration since then.

It is politically unclear, and economic problems remains, thus

being one of the poorest country in the world.

There are no laws enforced related withbiomass, but all residue is used because of the lack in material and fuel.

Mill residue is used

as fuel, and livestock and food waste is used as fertilizer, leaving no residue.

In a sense,

biomass utilization is well made due to the poverty society.
Two interesting examples in terms of rice husk utilization were found during the onsite
inspection. Electricity shortage, incomplete infrastructure, and shortage in fossil fuel resulted
in employment of rice-husk steam boiler and steam piston engines (made in Germany, 1925)
were driving the rice-cleaners (about 600 places).

However, the thermal efficiency of thesteam boiler is very low, and consumption of the rice husk is large, the number is decreasing.

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Another example is the driving of small-scale rice cleaners by rice-husk gasifier and gas
engine, which is spreading recently.

All the gasifiers are domestic, and of the down-draft type.

The rice husk is supplied from the top, and the ash is removed from the bottom. The otherelements are combination of water scrubber, filter, and gas engine, and the product of Myanmar.
Second-hand Japanese diesel engines (bus and truck) are modified to gas engines byexchanging injection nozzle with ignition plug.

The output of the most gasifiers is 20-50 kW.

Typically, 20 kW is produced by rice husk supply of 30 ㎏/h.

About 100 of this type ofgasification and power generation system were used in 2000, and it is estimated that 300 wereused in 2005.

The gasifier-power generation plant produced by the company under the

Ministry of Commerce, Myanmar has electric output capacity of 140-160 kW.

The system isequipped with a down-draft gasifier, water-cooling jacket at the bottom section of the furnace,
and ash removal system.

The product gas is washed with a water scrubber and stored in a gas

tank before being supplied to the gas engine.

The pamphlet says that this system is sold at

about 350 kJPY (The prices of commodities is 1/100 of that in Japan).

The composition of the

product gas is shown in Table 7.3.1.
Table 7.3.1 The composition of the gas produced from rice husk.
Carbon dioxide
12.6 ％
Carbon monoxide
17.9 ％
Nitrogen57.0 ％
Oxygen0.9 ％Hydrogen8.8 ％Methane1.9 ％Others0.9 ％Production of the gasifier is conducted in a ironworks with several employees, butstandardization of the parts is made, and they have some stocks of the parts.

Myanmar still

has many regulations, and biomass and other residues are needed to be used due to the lack incommodities and fuels.
generation.

Bagasse produced from the sugar mills are used for self power

Rice husk and charcoals are used for various purposes, and no residues areavailable. One of the private rice mills strongly desired to improve the rice husk boiler andsteam engine to achieve higher efficiencies.
Recently, private rice mills are gradually getting busy due to the policy of liberating the
economy, although it is for the limited area.

The shortage in electricity and fossil fuels willcontinue, and it is expected that the small-scale gasifier and gas engine system will be used

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more and more for driving rice mill and other devices.

Presently, production and introductionof biofuels are not yet made, but Myanmar has a large area and good climate and possesses
high potential of producing forest resources and plantation crops.

In long term, potential toproduce bioethanol and biodiesel is as promissing as Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
The proper form of biomass utilization differs from case to case depending on the natural,social, and economic conditions, and thus elaborate planning is needed.

To collect the latest

information for this purpose, collaboration office between universities and other sectors isdesirable. This kind of collaborative network among university, academic organization, NPO,and international organization will encourage the utilization of small-scale biomass.
Myanmar is a Buddhist country has a high level of education (the rate of school attendance:
96.56%, the literacy rate: 93.3%).

The economic development may be late among ASEAN

countries, but for its development foreign universities and academic organizations can be alarge help.

Further information
Myanmar Ministry of Information. Myanmar: Building a Modern State(2004)
Myat

Thein.

EconomicdevelopmentofMyanmar,InstituteofSoutheast

Asian

Studies,

Singapole(2004)
San San Rice Husk Gasifier. San San Cooperative Ltd., No. 279, Shwegondine Road. BahanTownship,
Yangon, Myanmar(2005)
The paddy husk gas generating plant. Myanmar Agricultural Produce Trading(MAPT). Ministry ofCommerce, Yangon Division, Mingalartaungnyunt Township, Yangon(2003)
Makoto Hoki, Hideto Mashimo, “Tonan Ajia shokokuni okeru baiomasu riyono doko”, J. Jpn. Inst. Energy,
submitted. (in Japanese)
United Nations, Statistic Division, “Sekai tokei nenkan”, Hara Shobo (2005). (in Japanese)
Shin-ichi Yano, “Ajiani okeru bioennryo seisan riyono tenboto sansokendeno seizo gijutu kaihatsu”,
Kankyo Gijutsu, 36(12), 7-12 (2007). (in Japanese)-176-

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7.4 Laos
Lao PDR is a mountainous country with a population of about 5.6 million, over 80% of which
lives in rural areas and is engaged in rice-based agriculture and harvesting of forest products.
The narrowly based economy is one of the least developed in Asia with an approximate percapita Gross National Product of around US$ 500 per annum ( 2006 )The Main Economic in Laos is from the Agriculture , Forestry, Power Generation, Mining,
Small industries and agriculture is 42.2 % of the Gross Domestic Product , while the Industry
is31.5 % , Services 25.4 % and Import duties 0.9 % ( in 2006 ) .
Lao PDR is endowed with significant indigenous energy resources for electricity generation.

Hydropower is the most abundant and cost-effective form. The energy resources range fromtraditional energy source such as fuel-wood to coal and hydropower. The forest areas which
cover about 40 % of total land are a potential source for substantial traditional energy supplies.
The Lao power sector is in the good progress stage as 54.1 % of the population having accessto electricity in 2006 . but the main energy consumption in Laos comes from fuelwood forcooking .
In order to meet the government target for the increasing the households electrification
ration to be

70 % of total households in 2010 and 90% in 2020 , the Government set up thePower Sector Policy :1. Maintain and expand an affordable, reliable

and sustainable electricity supply in Lao

PDR to promote economic and social development;
2. Promote power generation for export to provide revenues to meet GOL development
objectives;
3. Develop and enhance legal and regulatory framework to effectively direct and facilitate
power development; and4. Strengthen institutions and institutional structures toclarify responsibilities,

strengthen commercial functions and streamline administration
In order to meet those targets and Policies , now a day there are more than 50 MOU for thehydropower development with the capacity from 5 – 1080 MW

and 6 projects are underconstruction , if we look on those hydropower development plan , we could see that there are-177-

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many waste wood in the reservoirs need to be clear and if we have the good technologies andinvestment capital then we could construct biomass cogeneration projects in Laos .
Lao PDR import 100 % fossil fuels , at the present there are 3 companies to conduct thesurvey for the natural gas and oil and it takes about 10 years for getting all information and forthe production of natural gas and oil ( if feasible ) , for reduction of import fuel and highefficiency fossil fuel consumption , the government of Laos also support the biofuel as biodiesel
from the Jatropha and palm oil and bioethanol from the sugarcane .
After the government announced for promotion of biofuel , the are some companies started
the business by plantation of Jatropha to produce the bio diesel , the biggest investor is Kolao
Farm company, their target is plant the Jatropha 40.000 hac , the factory is underconstruction , it is far from the Vientiane Municipality about 70 km .
The second company is LaoBiodiesel company just started the construction of the factory inChampasak province on 10 March 2008

and their plantation is 100 hac for the Jatropha .

There are two companies to invest on the palm oil , the first one in Champsak province withthe plantation of 25 hac , this company started in 2006 and the second one in Bolikhamsay
province with the plantation of 20 hac this company started in 2006 .
The other companies to invest on Jatropha for biodiesel are small plantation .
Under Lao – Thai cooperation of Energy sector , the Ministry of Energy of Thailand give one
set of Biodiesel production equipment from Jatropha to Ministry of Energy and Mines for thedemonstration .
The Promotion of biodiesel is much more popular than biothethanol because the investment
cost and the technology of bioethanol is high and now there is only one small existing of sugar
factory in Laos, there other two factories are under construction in Savannaketh province .

Because of there is no any document for the promotion of biofuel in Laos , the department ofElectricity , Ministry of Energy and Mines requested New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization ( NEDO ) , Representative Office in Bangkok to support the financeto hire the Lao Institute of Renewable Energy in Laos ( LIRE ) to conduct the survey anddrafted the recommendation for the Strategy and Policy for the Promotion of Biodiesel in Laos .
The target of the government to reduce the fossil fuel consumption 5 % by promotion of
biodiesel production .
The details of Strategy and Policy will be developed more ..

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7.5 Brunei Darussaalam
7.5.1 General scope
Brunei has large amount of fossil fuel resources such as oil and natural gas, and obtains
half of its GDP by exporting these resources to enjoy good economy.

Thus, they do nothave interest in biofuel development so much.
Meanwhile, the land area is small (5,770 km2), and agricultural land is very small, thus
most of the food is imported.
self-supply rate of food.

National development plan always aims at improvement ofHowever, since its independence in 1984, governmental sector wasdeveloped and stable high-income jobs are available, which lead to the people’s removalfrom agriculture.

In general, agriculture is stagnant, and its productivity within total

GDP is only 2.7%.

7.5.2 Natural conditions of Brunei
The whole country area belongs to the tropical climate.

The tropical rain forest occupies

80% of the national land (4,690 km2).

Seventy per cent of the forest is virgin, and half ofwhich is environmentally preserved.

The land is roughly divided into eastern and westernregions, and the eastern region, Templon River basin, is undeveloped forest except seaside, andforms a vast national park.

Most of the population lives in the three district in the westernregion.
Agricultural productivity of Eastern Asia countries including Brunei is low compared to themonsoon region.

Tropic soil easy loses nutrition salts, and is not suitable for agriculture.

Leaves and cut trees are soon decomposed by microbes and termites, leaving no humus behind.
Additionally, as the effect of heat and water, soil components other than aluminum oxide andiron oxide are easily washed away, and the soil is barren.

In the rain forest, the nutrition to

support the forest is collected not by the soil, but by the trees and plants at the canopy.
Small scale agriculture includes dry rice cropping in the forest in the mountain region andrice cropping at the terraced paddy field.

For short term, taros are produced by slush andburn agriculture to use the nutrition collected by the forest biomass, but this destroys theforest, which is the main nutrition collector, and the soil nutrition is used up in 2 years, andafter that the land becomes barren.
At the low wet land where the washed nutrition is stored, Sago palm plantation is-179-

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possible.

Swamp forest arises at this kind of land.

This swamp forest is composed oftrees with low height, and the plants grows only by single layer.

This leads to good supplyof light, but since the oxygen in soil lacks, humus decomposition is prevented, and peat isformed.
pad.

Thus, even if agricultural field is made, the surface begins to sink soon to form

Agriculture is difficult in this region.

At the seaside exists mangrove forest at the brackish water region where seawater iscomes and goes with low and high tide.

The soil of this forest is strongly acidic due to theroot acid that mangrove root secrets.

This land cannot be used for slush and burnagriculture, and was barren in terms of agriculture.

It was not until 20th century that it

got used for fish breeding.

7.5.3 Policy of Brunei
In the 7th 5-year plan (1996―2000年 ) included activation of agriculture to improveself-supply rate of various agricultural product, but the rate stays only 20%, making biofuel
development very difficult.
The plan proceeds study to improve the culturing technology and production system thatfits the natural condition of the country so that food demand increasing year by year shouldbe met.

It proceeded introduction of new technologies such as water cultivation, andextending of agricultural area.

For proceeding water cultivation, half of the expenseneeded for the tools and fertilizer were supported.
new land-developing zone in 2000.

The Ministry of Agriculture approved

They are for production of vegetables (50 ha), fruits(500 ha), and livestock (100 ha).
The effort to improve self-supply rate of food is taking its effect.

In 2004, production of

eggs exceeded 100 million eggs/year, and chickens exceeded 13 million, achieving almost
100% of self-supply rate.

(Note most of the feed is imported.)

However, self-supply rateof other food is still low: tropical vegetables 53%, milk 13%, beef 3.85, goat 3%, other crops
2%, rice 1%.

The agriculture has to be much more developed.

7.5.4 Characteristic biomass products
Sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) is characteristic to this region.

It produces large amountof starch.
Sago palm production is distributed from Southeast Asia to Oceania.

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classified as sago district with Celebes Island and the Moluccas.

This is the district where

sago starch supplies several tens of per cent in the main starch supply.
Sago palm belongs to palm family, but is a unique angiosperm because starch can beobtained from its trunk.

After 16 years from plantation, or 10 years under good conditions,

it forms trunk with a diameter of 40-60 cm, and height of 12-15 m and stores high purity ofstarch inside in preparation for flowering and fruition.
breeding, and the tree dies, leaving seeds behind.

All of this starch is used for

The tree is cut down just before

flowering when the starch amount is the most, and the trunk is cut in the length less than 1m.

The trunk has a skin which is several centimeters thick.

It is cut vertically, and thepith of starch which is held by the fibers inside is taken out.

Starch is obtained byloosening the pith, washing it with water, and removing the fiber with a net, as
precipitation in the water.

In this way, 300-500 kg-wet (100-150 kg-dry) of starch isavailable form one mature tree.
The advantage of sago plantation is the easiness of the job and large amount of starchobtained with small labor.

Sago palm can be cultivated with the peat soil, which most of

the plant cannot grow with, and sago plantation does not deteriorates the soil.

Sago is themost suitable plant for the seaside of the rainforest region.
Production of ethanol from sago starch is technically easy, but the self-supply rate of theregion is very low, and production of starch for biofuel is not practical.

Further information
Sano,H.in ”Biomass Handbook”,Japan Institute of Energy Ed.,Ohm-sha,2002,p.37.(in Japanese)”Baiomasu yogo jiten”、Japan Institute of Energy Ed.,2006,p.178.(in Japanese)-181-

Asian Biomass Handbook

7.6 Indonesia
Indonesia has a wide range ofindigenous energy resources such asoil, natural gas, coal, hydro-power,
geothermal, solar and also biomass.
However,Indonesia

still

has

a

problem that until now the use of
primary energy in the energy mix isstill unbalance. A large portion of oilinSource : Sony, 2007

energymix

stilldominates

domestic consumption, about 52%

Fig 7.6.1. Biofuel for fossil
substitution (2010)

fuelrespectively, followed by Natural Gas,
Coal, Hydro Power and Geothermal.

The utilization of Biofuel itself is still very low. In order to balance the final energy mix and toalternate oil as the largest contributor of energy, the Government of Indonesia has set out thatin 2025, Biofuel is expected to contribute at least 5% of

National Energy Mix.

As a mid –term goal, in 2010 Biofuel is targeted to take part as a source of energy in household andcommercial sector, transportation and power plant sector. Biofuel will substitute the role of oil.
It can be seen in the diagram (Fig. 7.6.1). For transportation sector, Biofuel in form of
Bioethanol will contribute to 1.85 million kL of transportation energy mix, Biodiesel 1.24
million kL and Bio-oil 4.8 million kL respectively by 2010. Together, the summary of Biofuel
will reach 10% of energy mix, only in transportation sector. For the household and commercial
sector and power plant, Biofuel will be utilized in form of Biokerosene and Bio-oil or Pure
Plantation Oil.
The high potential for biofuel feedstock in
Palm Oil

Indonesia is provided by varies biofuel feedstock

BIODIESEL
Jatropha curcasthat can be developed. Palm oil and Jatropha aredeveloped as feedstock for biodiesel, meanwhile

Cassava
BIOETHANOL
Sugarcanecassava and sugar cane are utilized as feedstock
7

Fig. 7.6.2. Biofuel Feedstock.

forbioethanol(Fig.7.6.2).

However,asmentioned before, Indonesia is also opened for-182-

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the development of other biofuel feedstock such as corn, sago palm, sugar palm and sweetsorghum for bioethanol and coconut for biodiesel, depends on region’s bioenergy potential. The
potential land for special biofuel zone has been determined by the Government and is shown in
Fig. 7.6.3.

No

Location

Indonesia biomass resources are mainly from

Commodity

1

Pacitan – Wonogiri – Wonosari (Pawonsari)

Cassava2

Garut – Cianjur – Sukabumi Selatan

Cassava3

Lebak – Pandeglang

Jatropha4

Lampung – Sumsel – Jambi

Cassava, Sugarcane, jatropha,
Palm

5

Riau

Palm

6

Aceh

Cassava, Sugarcane, Jatropha7

KaltimJatropha, Palm

8

Sulsel – Sultra – Sulteng – Gorontalo

Cassava, Sugarcane,
Jatropha, Palm

9

NTB - NTT

Cassava, Jatropha

10

Maluku Utara

Sugarcane, Jatropha

11

Papua Utara and Irjabar

Palm

12

Merauke – Mappi – Boven Digul – Tanah
Merah

Cassava, Sugarcane,
Jatropha, Palm

forestry (as an important natural resource
because its tropical rain forest), estate crops,
agriculture crops and municipal (city) waste.
From estate crops, one the most importantbiomass resources (as well as for an energy
alternative) is Oil Palm plantation (Elaeis9

Fig 7.6.3.

ofsee

Potential land for special
biofuel zone.

gueneensis). Indonesia is the second largest
producing palm oil country in the world, after
Malaysia, (with the total land area of plantation

about 6 million hectares and Crude Palm Oil (CPO) production of 15 million tons in 2006,
Fig.

7.6.4.

Area

andproduction

Indonesia oil palm plantation) representing
18% of the world-wide production. The
Indonesian palm oil industry continues toexpand rapidly using large mills which
produce hundreds of tons of waste on a year
round basis. Considerable opportunity exists
in Indonesia and other countries to produce
significant quantities of biofuel, (for 100,000
tons of CPO will produce 100,000 tons of
biodiesel and 12,000 tons of glycerol), andsteam & electricity from the residual

Fig. 7.6.4. Area and production Indonesia oilpalm plantation.

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biomass while mitigating environmental impacts both locally and globally.
The palm oil residues generated from the palm oil production process are : fresh fruitbunches (FFB) or the oil palm fruit produce Crude palm oil (CPO) and Kernel palm oil (KPO)
which can be utilized to produce biodiesel or to generate steam and power.
The climate of Indonesia is also well-known for very suitable of sugarcane (Saccharum

officinarum). Indonesia is the richest country for sugarcane genetics and is believed as theorigin of the world sugarcane (Papua). At least 2 million hectares of land is suitable for canefield which scattered over Papua (majority), Kalimantan, Sumatera, Maluku and Java. By theappropriate planning, policy and development, it is very likely Indonesia in the future will
become one of sugar exporter countries and also as a bioethanol producer (similar to Brazil).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta), known as one of bioethanol feedstock is cultivated intensively
nowadays by the farmers especially in Lampung, Java and NTT regions. The cultivated area isaround 1.24 million hectares all over Indonesia and the production was 19.5 million tons in2005. The conversion of cassava to bioethanol is 6.5:1 or 1 ton of cassava will produce 166.6
liter of bioethanol.
Jatropha curcas (English Physic nut) - another biomass source for biofuel, unlike palm oil
andcassava, the seed and hence the oil is non-edible, so there is no competition between foodvs fuel.
During Japanese occupancy (1942-1945), planting of Jatropha is a compulsory for native
people. That’s why

Jatropha can still be found today in the eastern part of the islands, such as

NTT and NTB provinces.
Various local names had been given to Jatropha Curcas, such as : nawaih nawas (Aceh),jarak kosta (Sunda), jarak gundul, jarak cina, jarak pagar (Java), paku kare (Timor), peleng
kaliki (Bugis), etc.
Also, when the jatropha plantation is to be developed in the critical lands or barren lands has
two important steps that have been achieved, i.e. afforestation or replanting and theconservation efforts which will result of the improvement of local/regional environment. And
also the jatropha oil can be extracted and be used as fuel. Normally Jatropha seeds content
average of 1,500 liter of oil/ha/year, with the productivity of 5 tons per ha of dry seeds and theoil yield of 30%.
The R&D of Agriculture Institute, Department of Agriculture has identified about 19.8
million ha of land (see map above,orange color) from various provinces in Indonesia are-184-

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suitable for Jatropha curcas plantation, inwhich

14.277

million

ha

of

land

is

categorized as a very suitable and 5.534
million ha is suitable (green color). The
suitablelandisscatteredwithin31

provinces with the largest being in East
Kalimantan, South East Sulawesi, East
Java, South Kalimantan, Lampung , Papua
and West Irian Jaya provinces.

It isprojected that jatropha cultivation areas inIndonesia will achieve to 3 million ha by 2015. It is expected that jatropha oil as fuel will play
an important role in rural villages of Indonesia, so called “Energy Self Sufficient Villages”, andultimately to achieve poverty & jobless alleviation goals.
Of course Indonesia as a tropical country has many other biomass resources which can be
developed and utilized as energy resources such as coconut (Cocos nucifera), corn (Zea mays),sorgum (Sorgum bicolor L.), arenga pinnata, rubber (Hevea brasillensis), sunflower(Helianathus annuus), nipha (Nypa fruticans), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.),sago

(Metroxylon sp.) and many others.

Further information
Andi Alam Syah. Biodiesel Jarak Pagar. PT AgroMedia Pustaka. Jakarta. 2006.
Bambang Prastowo. Sustainable Production of Biofuel Crops.

Indonesian Center for Estate Crops

Research & Development. On Sustainable Aspect of Biofuel Production Workshop, Jakarta. June 21,
2007.
Joachim Heller. Physic nut. IPGRI. Germany. 1996.
Bambang Prastowo. Sustainable Production of Biofuel Crops.

Indonesian Center for Estate Crops

Research & Development. On Sustainable Aspect of Biofuel Production Workshop, Jakarta. June 21,
2007.
Paulus Tjakrawan. Indonesia Biofuels Industry. Indonesia Biofuels Producer Association (APROBI). On
Sustainable Aspect of Biofuel Production Workshop, Jakarta. June 21, 2007.
Rama Prihadana et al. Bioethanol Ubi Kayu : Bahan Bakar Masa Depan. PT AgroMedia Pustaka.
Jakarta. 2007.
Rama Prihadana & Roy Hendroko. Energi Hijau. Penebar Swadaya. Jakarta. 2007.
Soni S. W. Energy Generation Opportunities from Palm Oil Mills in Indonesia. 4th Asia Biomass-185-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Workshop. Kuala Lumpur, November, 2007.
Sudradjat H.R. Memproduksi Biodiesel Jarak Pagar. Penebar Swadaya. Jakarta. 2006.
Tim Nasional Pengembangan BBN. Bahan Bakar Nabati. Penebar Swadaya. Jakarta. 2007.
Wahono Sumaryono. Palm Complex Model : An integrated preliminary concept for sustainable

plantation and CPO-based industries. 4th Asia Biomass Workshop. Kuala Lumpur, November, 2007.

7.7 Cambodia
7.7.1 Biomass resources in Cambodia
Biomass resources such as wood and agricultural residues are abundant in Cambodia.

It isestimated that biomass fuel accounted for some 80% of the national energy consumption(MIME 2001) but biomass fuel used for power generation is limited for a few small-scale
projects and negligible amount among the total national power production.

Woody biomass

accounts for more than 95% of the biomass energy used in the country.
According to our initial survey, rice husk and some other agricultural residues, old rubber
wood occurred as the result of new planting and forest wood from plantations and managed
natural forests are high potential energy source for electricity generation.

The status of thosehigh potential biomass resources is described below:(i) Rice Husk: In 2003, rice was cultivated in 2.3 million ha of the field and 4.7 million ton was
produced (MAFF 2003).

The COGEN3 program which is funded by European Commission topromote the use of cogeneration in ASEAN countries has conducted a pre-investment study fora potential biomass-fired cogeneration project of 1.5MW electrical capacity at the Angkor
Kasekam Roongroeung rice mill just outside Phnom Penh .
(ii) Cashew Nuts Shell: The cashew Anacardium occidentale is a tree in the flowering plantfamily, Anacardiaceae.

Cashew nut is the single seed of the cashew fruit.

Cashew nuts trees

have been planted 37,140 ha in Cambodia (MAFF 2004) and the number of grower isincreasing. The production in Cambodia would be 14,000 t/yr.
(ii) Other Agricultural Residues: Bagasse is the residue of sugar processing from sugarcane.

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It represents 30% of total sugarcane weight.

Direct combustion power generating system has

been widely introduced to the sugar processing factory in the major sugar production countries.
Cambodia produced 330,649 t of sugarcane in 2003.

The production of cassava in 2003 was

330,649 t and the area of coconut farm was 27,054 ha.

The productions of coconut and cassava

residues are not known.

The peanut production in 2003 was 18,483 t.

Peanuts shells

represent approximately 30% of the total weight of the peanuts.
(iv) Woody Biomass from Forests : The 95% of population is dependent on woodfuel for cooking(NIS 1999) and the biomass energy covered 86% of the total national energy supply (ADB 1996).
The total fuel wood consumption was estimated about 6 million m3, while log production
estimated 1.5 million m3 in 1995 (World Bank and others 1995).
(v) Plantations: There are total 11,125 ha of forest plantations mainly with Acacia spp. andEucalyptus spp. in Cambodia (2003). The purpose of plantation of most case is production ofwood chip materials for export.
(vi) Tree Farming: Tree farming of fast growing species is an appropriate method of supplying
biomass for village level electrification.

Anlong Ta Mei Community Energy Cooperative inBattambang province, the only biomass electricity generation operating in practical manner in
Cambodia uses tree farming system for fuel supply.
(vii) Community Forestry: Community forestry (CF) is recognized as an important strategy tomanage the forest at sustainable manner in Cambodia.

The majority case of CF activity is

managing existing primary or degraded forest rather than reforestation by planting.

7.7.2 Current Biomass Electrification Used in Cambodia
There are biomass fuelled electricity generation facilities in Cambodia.
(i) Centre for Livestock and Agriculture Development (CelAgrid)
CelAgrid is the institute conducting various research on rural development mainly based on
agricultural technologies.
institute.

There are 17 academic staff and 40 students working in the

They purchased a 9 kWe (gross) biomass gasification electricity generation systemfrom Ankur Scientific (India) in September 2004. Center's currently conducting a research oncomparing different biomass such as coconut husk, cassava stem, mulberry stem and Cassia
tree for suitability and efficiency for gasification.

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(ii) Anlong Ta Mei Community Energy Project
Anlong Ta Mei village (Bannan District, Battambang Province) community energy cooperative
project is the only biomass electricity supply system operated profitable base rather thanresearch.

The project introduced a 9 kWe biomass gasification electricity generation system(same model as CelAgrid) and set up a mini grid.
fuel.

They use planted Leucaena branches for the

They started the operation in February 2005.

(iii) NEDO and Biogas Hybrid Power Generation ProjectIn December 2003, Japan’s NEDO completed the construction of a hybrid electricity generation
system consist of a solar photovoltaic (50 kW) and 2 x 35kWe duel fuel biogas engine near
Sihanoukville.

The biogas is extracted from cattle excrements from a farm.

The system iscurrently operating but the project is considered to be mainly a demonstration and research
venture and would not economically viable yet.

7.7.3 Wood and Other Biomass Use in Cambodia□

94 % of fuel wood is used directly as fuel,□

6 % of fuel wood is converted to charcoal,□

90 % of total fuel wood supply is consumed directly by households in rural areas,□

8 % of total fuel wood supply is used in other urban households,□

Less than 1 % of total fuel wood supply is used in industrial sector,□

Less than 1 % of total fuel wood supply is used in service sector□

The other biomasses such as wood, wood waste and rice husk are used by brick kilns,bakeries, and food processing,□Cane husk, palm branches and tree leaf are used by cane sugar and palm sugar
producers,□

Coconut branches, coconut husk and rice husk are used by rural households forcooking animal food,□Some rural households use coconut branches, palm branches, rice straw with cow
dung, rice husk and wood waste for cooking their food.

□

They use these biomasses for directly firing.

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7.8 Malaysia
In Malaysia, biomass resources are mainly from the palm oil, wood and agro-industries. Allof these residues come in many forms such as palm oil mill residues, bagasse, rice husks andwood/forest residues. Major sources of biomass come from the oil palm residues in the form ofempty fruit bunches (EFB), fibers, shells, palm trunks, fronds and palm oil mill effluent(POME). The energy content in each residue is different to each other. This is mainly because
the caloric value, moisture content and some other parameters that are different.
As shown in table below, the palm oil residues accounts for the largest biomass waste
production in the country. This is because the palm oil mill residues are easily available andare presently requiring cost effective means of disposal. Currently, most of these residues aredisposed of through incineration and dumping. A small portion is used as fuel for the mills' heatand power requirement in a very inefficient manner.
Table 7.8.1. Biomass and energy resource potential.
Quantity kton / yr

Potential Annual
Generation (GWh)

Potential Capacity(MW)

Rice Mills

424

263

30

Wood Industries

2177

598

68

PalmOil Mills

17980

3197

365

Bagasse

300

218

25

POME

31500

1587

177

Total

72962

5863

665

Sector

7.8.1 Biomass energy utilization in Malaysia
The abundant biomass resources coming mainly from its palm oil, wood and agro-industries
are used mainly to produce steam for processing activities and also for generating electricity.
Biomass fuels contribute to about 16 percent of the energy consumption in the country, out of
which 51 percent comes from palm oil biomass waste and 27 percent wood waste. Other
biomass energy contributors are from plant cultivations, animal and urban wastes. There are
currently about 400 palm oil mills in operation, which self generates electricity from oil palm

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wastes not only for their internal consumption but also for surrounding remote areas. Studies
also found that 75.5 percent of the potential biomass that can be harnessed in Malaysia is
unutilized and wasted.

7.8.2 Oil palm residues
The oil palm industry generates residues during the harvesting, replanting and milling
processes. The residue that comes from the milling processes are fruit fibers, shell and empty
fruit bunches (EFB). Other residues including trunks and fronds are available at theplantation area. Currently shells and fibres are used as boiler fuel to generate steam andelectricity for the mill’s consumption. The EFB is return back to the plantation for mulching.
This is only practiced in bigger plantations. For old palm oil mills, the EFB is burned in theincinerator to produce fertilizer. However, there are still palm oil mills disposing the EFB
through landfill method particularly the mills without enough plantations or estates.
Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is the wastewater discharged from the sterilization process,crude oil clarification process and cracked mixture separation process. The amount of POME
generated depends on the milling operation. For a palm oil mill with good housekeeping, it isestimated that 2.5 tonnes of POME are generated from every tonne of crude palm oil produced.
The average value for Malaysian palm oil mill is 3.5 tonnes for every tonne of crude palm oil
produced. The POME contains high chemical and biological oxygen demand, total solids andrequire a treatment system before it can be discharged to the environment. Biogas is generated
from the biological treatment of POME. The composition is mainly methane (60-70%) andcarbon dioxide (30-40%). The calorific value is between 4740-6560 kcal per Nm3 and theelectricity generation is 1.8 kWh/cm3 of biogas. Some plantations practice zero waste
management system.

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Table 7.8.2. Residue product ratio and potential power generation from palm oil
mill residues.
Type ofIndustry

Production
Year 2002(ThousandTonnes)Residue

Residue
Product
Ratio(%)

Residue
Generated(ThousandTonnes)Potential
Energy(PJ)

Potential
Electricity
Generation(MW)

59,800

EFB at
65%MC

21.14

12,640

57

521

Fiber

12.72

7,606

108

1032

Shell

5.67

3,390

55

545

Total Solid

16,670220

2098

POME @ 3.5m3 per ton
CPO or 65% of FFB)

38,870

Oil Palm

320

7.8.3 Paddy residues
There are two seasons of paddy planted in Malaysia. The main season refers to the period of
paddy planting from 1st of August to 28th February and off season covers the period of paddy
planting from 31st March to 31st July of the year. The total paddy planted areas for Malaysia inthe year 2000 was about 600,287 hectares and producing 2,050,306 tones of paddy. Malaysia is
about 65% self sufficient in rice supply and another 35% is imported from Thailand andVietnam. Paddy straw and rice husk are generated as biomass residue during the harvested
and milling processes. The paddy straw is left in the paddy field and the rice husk is generated
in the rice mill. Both of the biomass are discharged by landfill and open burning. Only a small
quantity of rice husk is used for energy generation and other application such as silica
production and composting.
It is assumed that only 2% of the rice husk is used for energy production. The balance istreated as landfill method. The paddy straw is usually burned in the open burning areas. The
amount of rice husk and paddy straw generated in future are dependent on the planted area,
the paddy yield and government policies on agriculture. The government plans to increase theyield from the existing rate to 10 metric tonne per hectare in the future. With this target value
more rice husk and paddy straw is available for biomass CHP plant.

The issue of solid

biomass is difficulties in transportation and handling due to very low density and abrasivenature of the material.

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Table 7.8.3. Residue product ratio and potential power generation from rice millresidues.
Type ofIndustry

Production
Year 2000(ThousandTonne)

Rice

2,140

TOTAL

Residue
Rice
Husk
Paddy
Straw

Residue
product
Ratio(%)

Residue
Generated(ThousandTonne)

Potential
Energy(PJ)

Potential
Power( MW )

22

471

7.536

72.07

40

856

8.769

83.86

1327

16.305155.932,140

7.8.4 Sugar cane residues
Basically in Malaysia, there are only 2 out of 5 sugar factories, which use sugar cane as raw
materials for refined sugar production. The other plants would use solely brown sugar as raw
materials for sugar production. The main objectives of the industry are for food security supply,
creation of jobs, development of industrial projects in rural areas and reducing foreignexchange.
Bagasse is the residue after sugarcane has been processed to remove the sugar juice. On
average, about 32 % of bagasse is produced from every tonne of sugar cane processed. The
amount of sugar cane processed in 2002 is about 1,111,500 tonnes. Thus, the amount of bagasse
produced is 355,680 tonnes. This bagasse is not wasted as it acts as a biomass residue fuel tothe boiler for its cogeneration plant. This saves the factory expenditure in boiler fuel oil andelectricity expenses.

At the current rate of usage, all of the bagasse is used as fuel for its cogeneration
plant. In fact there is insufficient bagasse for the sugar mills. Thus, they are buying
other biomass residues such as rice husk, wood off cuts and palm oil residues to be used
as fuel.

7.8.5 Wood residues
Total forest areas in Malaysia are about 5.9 million hectares. Only 1.29% of the total area isallowed for logging industry. The balance is mainly for permanent forest estate, forest
plantation, state land, and wildlife reserve and annual coupe for permanent forest estate. Woodindustries are mainly referred to the logging industry, saw milling industry, the panel productindustry (plywood, veneer, particle board, and medium density fibre board), the moulding-192-

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industry and the furniture industry. The forest industries are rapidly moving away frommanufacturing low value products to value added products. These industries generated
different type of biomass residues namely sawdust, off cut and wood barks. A waste
minimization program is implemented in the wood based industries due to shortage of tropicalwood supply. A value added such as particle board and finger joints are manufactured from thewood waste for the furniture industry.
The wood industries maximized the biomass residues into the value added products. The
residue such as off-cut from the saw mills is used as fuel for the kiln drying or sold as boiler
fuels. The middle portions of the log from the plywood and veneer mills are used as boiler fuels.
The remaining wastes are mainly the bark and the saw dust. In the isolated areas they areburned in the incinerator or boiler to produce heat.
The generation of biomass residues from the wood based industry is declined due to limited
supply of logs and maximization of residues into value added product. The biomass from theprocessing plants is used as fuel for their combined heat and power plant or sell to the potential
users such as brick manufactures. The chart below shows the estimated potential energy andelectricity from the waste generated from the saw mills, plywood and moulding plants.

7.8.6 Municipal solid waste (MSW)The Malaysian population has been increasing at a rate of 2.4 % per annum or about 600,000
per annum since 1994. With this population growth, the MSW generation also increases, whichmakes MSW management crucial. Currently, the MSW is managed mainly through landfill.
However, due to rapid development and lack of new space for it, the big cities and islands are
considering incineration to tackle this problem.

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Composition of Solid MSW in Malaysia
Commercial/
Institutional
16%

Industrial
24%

Construction
9%
Domestic
49%

Municipal
2%

Fig. 7.8.1. Pie Chart of Typical Malaysian MSW Composition.

Further information
Norasikin A. Ludin, Mazlina Hashim, M. Azwan Bakri. Country Report – Workshop on Information for
the Commercialisation of Renewables in ASEAN (ICRA). 25 – 27 August 2004
Biomass Resource Inventory Report, BioGen Project Pusat Tenaga Malaysia
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, The U.S. Department of Energy
BioGen News – Issue 2, November 2004
Economic Planning Unit, Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001 – 2005)
CDM Energy Secretariat, Pusat Tenaga Malaysia: www.ptm.org.my/CDM_website/

7.9 Philippines
7.9.1 Fundamental energy policy
The Philippine Energy Plan is focused on its primary goal of energy independence and power
market reforms.
As a major reform agenda of the Arroyo Administration, the objective of the energy
independence package is to reach an energy self sufficiency level of 60% by 2010 and beyond. To
realize this goal, five major strategies

have been identified and this includes

two major

strategies directly related to renewable energy (RE) to include biomass energy. The two major
strategies are the following: 1) intensifying renewable energy resource development and-194-

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increasing the use of alternative fuels.

7.9.2 Intensifying renewable energy resource development
In line with the government’s intensified efforts to promote RE development and use, thePhilippine Department of Energy (DOE) formulated the Renewable Energy Policy Framework
which embodies its objectives, goals, policies and strategies as well as programs and projects tofurther develop the RE sector within the perspective of the sector’s supply and demandprospects and its current stage of development. Specifically, the identified long-term goals are
the following: (i) increase RE-based generating capacity by 100 percent within the next ten
years; and (ii) increase non-power contribution of RE to the energy mix by 10 MMBFOE in thenext 10 years. Included in these goals is the increase in the contribution of biomass, solar andwind in power generation.
Resource Potential
Based on current projections of the Philippine Department of Energy (DOE), RE will
provide at least 40 percent of the country’s primary energy requirements for the next 10 years
beginning 2005. Other RE such as biomass, used mostly for non-power applications, willremain to be the largest contributors to the total share of RE in the energy supply mix with atleast 30 percent share. According to the Power Development Plan, biomass will provide 30 MW
capacity in 2007 and will increase to 55 MW in 2008.
Based on the study, “Power Switch and Strategies for Clean Power Development in thePhilippines”, the country has a potential resource capacity of 235.7 MW from bagasse resources.
Other studies as well, shows the potential of the country for several small 1-2 MW rice hull
fired power plants just like 1 MW rice hull fired power plant currently installed in the
Northern part of Luzon.

7.9.3 Increasing the use of alternative fuels
The government will continue to promote the use of alternative energy in the transport
sector particularly biofuels (i.e cocobiodiesel or cocomethyl esther, fuel ethanol and jatrophacarcus.)The President has signed into law RA 9367 or the Biofuels Law that mandates the use of
biodiesel and bioethanol nationwide.
At present, biodiesel is already being used nationwide at 1% of the total volume of diesel sold.

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This is in accordance with the provision of the Law that , three months after the approval of theAct, a minimum of 1% biodiesel by volume shall be blended into all diesel engine fuels sold in
the country. The country has 211.3 million liters per year capacity from 5 accredited biodiesel
producers.
Biodiesel requirement in 2007 is 41 million liters at 1% blend. 100% compliance nationwide.
Targets:
Within two years from the effectivity of the Act, the Philippine Department of Energy, may
mandate a total of 2% blend depending on the results of the study by the national Board
created under the Act. Provided that the ethanol and biodiesel blends conform to Philippine
National Standard. Two years from the effectivity of the Act, at least 5% bioethanol by volumeof the total volume of gasoline fuel sold and distributed by each and every oil company in the
country. Within four years from the effectivity of the Act, the Philippine Department of Energy,
may mandate a mimimum of 10% blend depending on the results of the study by the national
Board created under the Act.
Raw Material Requirement:
For bioethanol, supply of feedstock is initially from sugar based ethanol. With 880,000 liters
per day committed capacity from various plants. Other feedstocks considered are sweetsorghum and cassava. For biodiesel, is currently from coconut oil or CME but Jatropha is also
being considered.
Current feedstock yield: sugarcane has 23.98 million metric tons,
metric tons,

corn has 5.25 million

and cassava 1.64 million metric tons. Coconut oil production is 1.4 billion liters

per year (80% for export and 20% for local use).
Biodiesel requirement : 85 million liters

in 2008,

229 million liters in 2010 and 277

million liters per year in 2015.

Further information
Banzon, J.A. and J. R. Velasco, Coconut: production and Utilization, 1982
Philippine Energy Plan 2005-2014 (2006 Update)
Elauria, Jessie C., Policy and Actual Biomass Status in the Philippines. Paper presented during the
Biomass Asia Workshop held in Japan
Elauria, J.C., M.L.Y. Castro, M.M. Elauria, S.C. Bhattacharya and P. Abdul Salam (2005). Assessment of
Sustainable Energy Potential of Non-Plantation Biomass Resources in the Philippines. Volume 29.
September 2005. pp. 191-198.

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7.10 Singapore
Singapore has always enjoyed a reputation as a “Garden City” for being “clean and green”
due to its effective management of the urban environment and maintenance of the green space.
With a land mass of approximately 700 square km and population of 4.5 million, it has also
invested heavily on the environmental infrastructures such as waste water treatment andwaste disposal facilities.

Most recently, it has embarked on the recycling and reuse of thewater resources under a program called “Newater” which has become a model for many
countries to follow.
It is now 2008, energy security dominates international stage, crude oil price is nearing arecord high of over $100 US a barrel, global warming and climate change are now household
concerns.

Europe-led market demand for biofuels is all the rage.

Singapore claims to be theworld’s second largest petroleum refinery center with installed capacity of well over 1 million
barrels/d.

However, Singapore relies on the import of nearly100% of its raw energy supply.

This reliance on imported fossil energy necessarily subjects Singapore's economic andenvironmental sustainability to external factors that all energy importing countries must also
face.

These included global oil/gas market fluctuations; political instability of the oil

exporting countries; international protocol (Kyoto Agreement) to limit CO2 emission from fossil
energy use, as well as changes in public energy consumption patterns.
Government has encouraged development of clean, alternative energy programs such as the
Sinergy Program which provided a testbed for hydrogen based fuel cell vehicles since the 1990’s.
More recently, it has announced major R&D funding program on clean and renewable energy.
It has successfully attracted major investments for the manufacturing of solar-PV panels withthe announced capacity of 1,500 MWe per year, as well as a wafer manufacturing plant toprovide the mono-silicon materials needed for the solar cells.
On the other hand, private sector investors have taken advantage of Singapore’s strategic
location in the tropical SE Asia together with its well established infrastructures for crude oil
handling, storage, and refineries. Singapore is benefiting directly from its proximity to this richrepository of biomass resources.

In recent years, Singapore has attracted major foreign direct-197-

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investments in biodiesel production facilities.

All together, 6 biodiesel production projects

have been confirmed, with a total combined capacity of close to 2 million tonnes/per year andthe total investment dollars is close to S$2 billion.

All of these investments aim to bring in

crude plant/seed based oil from the region and refine them in Singapore.

A regional biofuels

analysis center is also being set-up to cope with the anticipated demand from all these
activities.
Domestically, Singapore generates about 650,000 Tonnes/year of biomass wastes which
includes food waste, wood/timber wastes and sludge/biosolids. Many of the woody biomass
comes from the thriving shipping/trans-shipping industry in Singapore where wooden pallets
are routinely disposed when they become unrepairable. Increasingly, the government ofSingapore, through the National Environment Agency (NEA) and private sector investors are
exploring opportunities for their energy recovery and utilisation.

Once plant has been built by

local investor to convert food waste to biogas, another diverts about 600 tonnes/d of municipal
solid waste (MSW) for recycling and reuse, of which about 300 tonnes/d of woody biomass areused as fuel for cogen.
wastes.

The third recovers energy and generates hot water from horticultural

Government is now encouraging more opportunities for diverting biomass waste fromthe incinerators and landfill sites.

It is expected that more private sector investment will see

the economic benefit for recovering energy from the biomass resources.
In summary, Singapore is in the forefront of bioenergy R&D, it is also racing ahead to explore
more sustainable 2nd and 3rd generation of biofuels technology and will likely to lead thecommercial developments of these renewable energy due to its pro-active government policies
for attracting investments.

7.11 Thailand
The Royal Thai Government launched a strategy to increase renewable energy share in theenergy mix since 2005. This was a cabinet resolution, binding all governmental agencies toharmonize policy direction to achieve the declared policy targets. In response to this policy
needs,

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development as follows.
1. Establish the independent organization to regulate electricity and natural gas
2. Foster energy security by recourse to His Majesty Sufficiency Initiatives
3. Promote efficient energy usage
4. Promote the development of renewable energy
5. Seek for appropriate pricing structure for energy
6. Establish clean energy development mechanism
7. Encourage private sectors and the public to contribute to policy making process.
Targets of Biomass-derived energy :The target set forth by the government is that Thailand must increase the share of
renewable energy in the final energy consumption from 0.5% in 2005

to 8% by 2011 (6,540

ktoe). The target for renewable share in the transportation fuel is 3% for biofuels i.e. bioethanol
use must be at leat

3 Million L/day and biodiesel must be

4.0 Million L/day by 2011. A target

for biomass-deriveded heat and steam is 4% equivalent to 3940 KTOE by 2011. A share of 1%
was set for electricity from renewable resources which is equivalent to 3251 MW by 2011. Dueto recent price increase of crude oil, an adjustment of the target has been announced by thegovernment to start implementing

E20 gasohol (20% blend of ethanol into gasoline) on

January 1st 2008 and B2 (2% blend of biodiesel into biodiesel) has been mandated since
February 1st, 2008. This implementation has made Thailand the first country in Asia to fullycommercialize both bioethanol and biodiesel blends all over the country.
DutiesThe policy targets and implementation milestones are reviewed and adjusted periodicallyand reported to the government by the National Energy Policy Committee.
Biomass utilization
At the end of 2007 more than 4000 service stations distribute E10 gasohol all over thecountry and all stations distribute B2 as mandated by the government.

B5 biodiesel blend is

now available in more than 3000 stations. Bioethanol used in December was
average.

Biodiesel used was 150 KL/day in for low-blend of 2-5%

600 KL/day in

before the mandatory

period. After the mandate of blending 2% biodiesel in all highspeed diesel, the use of biodiesel
jumped to above 1 million l./day level in February 2008. Renewable eletricity production-199-

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reached 2057 MWe and biomass-based heat and steam was 1840 KTOE in 2007.
Amount of biofuel production
Biodiesel Production is about 1,150 KL/day; production capacity is 2,185 KL/day. Bioethanol
Production is 700 KL/day (Feb.2008) and the production capacity is 1,150 KL/day.

Situation of biofuel introduction
Biofuel introduction is now accelerating in Thailand. Bioethanol-blended gasoline (E10) is
now reaching 6 ML/day out of 20 ML/day of total gasoline consumption and the bioethanol
blends(E10) gained a market share of 23% of all gasoline use at the end of 2007.
Biodiesel-blended diesel is now 3 ML/day out of 50 ML/day total diesel consumption in
December 2007. The consumption figure for Feb. 2008, the market for B5 was 5ML/day ofthetotal diesel market of 50 ML/day, the rest of the fuels were B2 blended as mandated by thegovernment.
Energy crops
For ethanol, 1-2 million tons of molasses are used as raw material (this is by-product fromsugar production which is about 5 million tons from 64 million cane production), another raw
material for ethanol is cassava, only 180,000 tons out of 26 million tons of cassava roots is used
for ethanol production. For biodiesel, about 100,000 tons of palm oil is used for biodiesel out of
1.5 million tons production in 2007. The use of palm oil for biodiesel in 2008 is expected toreach 300,000 tons levels.
Future prospects
Many new ethanol plants using both molasses and cassava will begin production in 2008; itis expected that by December 2008 the total production capacity will reach 8 Million litres /dayand Thailand can produce much more due to the surplus of raw materials for ethanol. As forbiodiesel, the government started to promote the new oil palm plantation with a target toincrease area by 200,000 acres/year for the next 5 years so that raw material will be sufficient
to meet the target for biodiesel production. By 2011, it is expected that Thailand will have 1.1
million hectares of oil palm plantation, at least half of the production will be used for bioenergy
production by 2011. In this respect, the bioenergy crop development in Thailand, given theappropriate policy

implementation, will be the new engine of growth to increase the income-200-

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for rural agricultural sectors.

It is also foreseen that co-operation among the Greater-Mekong

subregion in biomass energy areas will also enhance the significance of energy sufficiency
development in the region.
Successful examples
Thailand is today the only country in Asia to adopt bioenergy into the main consumer market
where both bioethanol and biodiesel blends are available in all region of the country.
Renewable electricity and heat/steam are also promoted in the industry and substantial
progress are being made to meet the target set by the government.
MTEC and NSTDA will focus on the R&D efforts to help the industry and the small andmedium enterprize to adopt and integrate bionergy into their respective energy production andutilization. The success of Thailand will be a good example for other countries in the region,
especially LPDR, Cambodia, Myanmar and Vietnam, to explore the ways forward with this new
developmental vehicle. It is expected that CDM mechanism and climate-change adaptation
schemes will become a significant developmental issue in the coming years.

7.12 Vietnam
7.12.1 Governmental policy
Project

No 177/2007/QD-TTg (Nov. 20, 2007) of Gov. for development of biofuels to 2015 andline of vision to 2025 and Gov. Strategy No 1855/QD-TTg (Dec. 27, 2007) for development of
National

Energy to 2020 and line of vision to 2050. The government approves a new andrenewable energy as 3, 5 and 11% to 2010, 2020 and 2050 respectively.
biomass introduction.

There are no duties for

Ministry of Industry and Trade; Ministry of Science and Technology;

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; Ministry of Natural Resources anfd
Environment.

7.12.2 Utilization of biomass
Availability, amount used, and how to use, for each biomass is listed below.

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Livestock waste: availability: Pig dung - 25.7 million tons/year; Cattle dung - 20.2 million
tons/year; Buffalo dung - 16.0 million tons/year; Municipal garbage - 6.4 million tons/year ,amount used 70-80% (compost; fertilizer; Biogas...
Food waste: availability not determined (animal feed)
Paper: consumpition 997,400t/year, amount used 70% (recylce)
Black liquor: availability not determined, amount used 40% (combustion)
Sawn wood: 3,414 thous. m³

Lumber-mill residue: amount used 100% (energy use)

Forestry residue: availability 1,648.5 thousand tons/year, amount used 0%
Non-edible portions of farming crops: availability: rice straws:76 Mt/year; rice husks 7.6
Mt/years; Bagasse2.5 Mt/year, amount used 20% (compost, animal feed, animal bedding
material, electrcity, Mushroom production...); 73,800 tons of used cooking oil; 60,000 tons of“Basa” fish oil (2005) now producing 10,000-tons/year
Amount of biofuel production is shown below.
Bioethanol
Feedstock: Casava, molasses, rice
Production:76.63 ML in 2006.
Biodiesel
Feedstock: waste cooking oil; Basa fish oil; rubber oil; Jatrofa
Prodution: R&D project"
Biofuel introduction has not been made, but by plan of Gov. to 2021 will be 100,000 t of E5 and50,000 t of B5 available on the market

7.12.3 Energy crops
Amount of production and utilization of energy crops are none, but in the future, introductionof 2 ethanol factories using cassava, each productivity of 100 ML/year (1 factory

produces

50ML/year using molasses and sugarcane) is planned.

7.12.4 Successful examples
40,000 family-size biogas digesters (1-50 m3) had been installed.

Development of newtechnology for biofuel production from agricultural residue is under way.

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7.13 Japan
7.13.1 Policy
New Energy Promotion Law (Jan. 2002) approves bioenergy as a "new energy", and supports
its introduction.

The council for energy in METI (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry)

publishes the target values for “new energy” at 2010; thermal use of biomass, 3.08 million kL
oil equivalent, and electricity production from biomass and wastes, 5.86 million kL oil
equivalent.

These values, however, have no duty.

The strategy for biomass utilization “Biomass Nippon Strategy” was published in cabinet(Dec. 2002).

The target values at 2010 were revised (Mar. 2006); biofuel for transportation,

0.5 million kL oil equivalent, utilization rate of unutilized biomass, 25%, number of “Biomass
Town”, 300 areas.

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishery approves municipalities thatutilize biomass based on the characteristics of the region as "Biomass Towns".

7.13.2 Status of biomass utilization
The status of biomass utilization in Japan is shown in Fig. 7.13.1.

Livestock waste is used

as compost etc., food waste as compost and animal feed, lumber-mill residue as energy andfertilizer, construction-derived wood residue as paper production, particleboard production,
animal bedding material, combustion etc., sewage sludge as construction material and compost,
non-edible portions of farming crops as compost, animal feed, animal bedding material etc.
paper waste as recycle and heat production, black liquor as combustion use.

Forestry residue

is not any used.
Bio diesel fuel from waste cooking oil is produced around 3,000 t/year.

Bio-ethanol

production is almost in R&D stage, and bio-ethanol is produced commercially 1,400 kL fromwaste wood in 2007.

Test sales of ETBE-mixed gasoline (3%-EtOH equivalent) and E3 juststarted in 2007.
Energy crops is not tried yet.

Introduction is limited due to the limited land and high laborcost, although test production of sugarcane and ethanol production is going on in Okinawa.

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7.13.3 Successful example
The First Energy Service Co., Ltd., commercially collects waste wood and produces electricity.
They established 3 power generation companies using waste wood; 10,000 kW at Iwakuni Wood
Power Co., Ltd., 11,500 kW at Shirakawa Wood Power Co., Ltd., and 12,000 kW at Hita Wood
Power Co., Ltd.

7.13.4 Other comments
Non

Further information
MAFF webpage: http://www.maff.go.jp/j/biomass/index.html
Utilization

Non-utilization

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

2002FY

100%

Livestock waste, 91Mt/year
Food waste, 19Mt/year
Lumber-mill residue, 6.1Mt/Year
Construction-derived wood residue,
4.8Mt/year
Sewage sludge, 76Mt/year
Forestry residue, 3.9Mt/year
Non-edible portions of farming crops,
13Mt/year
2005FY
Livestock waste, 89Mt/year
Food waste, 22Mt/year
Lumber-mill residue, 5Mt/Year
Construction-derived wood residue,
4.6Mt/year
Sewage sludge, 75Mt/year
Forestry residue, 3.7Mt/year
Non-edible portions of farming crops,
13Mt/year
Paper, 36Mt/year
Black liquor, 14Mt/year

Fig. 7.13.1. Status of biomass utilization in Japan.

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7.14 Taipei, Chinese
7.14.1 Policies, mandatories, and targets
One of the key tasks of energy policy in Taiwan is to stabilize energy supply to increaseenergy independence. The installed capacity of power generation from renewable energy isidentified to be 12% in total to enhance energy self sufficiency, and the target of 10% in total isset to be reached in 2010. Power generation from biomass and wastes is set to be the thirdlargest sources of renewable energy, which is 1.44% in total (741MW) in 2010. In order topromote the utilization of renewable energy, the “Renewable Energy Development Bill” hasbeen drafted and submitted to the Legislative Yuan for approval.
The application of biofuels to transportation sector is in growing trend in recent years. The
pilot project started by Environmental Protection Administration is to blend 20% of biodiesel(B20) to garbage truck from 2004. Since then, the Bureau of Energy proceeded thedemonstration project with four stages. Firstly, the Green Bus Project was started in 2006,
which 2% of biodiesel (B2) is blended to bus fleet operated by public sector. Secondly, test salesof B1 at gas station of Taoyuan county,
Chiayi city, and Chiayi county was started in 2007, which is called Green County Project.
Thirdly, the target of B1 sales at all gas station will be reached in July, 2008. Finally, the targetof B2 applied in nationwide area, which is estimated to be 100 dam3/year (100,000 kL/year) in
total will be reached in 2010.
The application of bioethanol was started in 2007, test sales of E3 at 8 gas station in Taipei
city is focused on official’s car, and private car is also encouraged to use. The target of E3 at all
gas station of Taipei and Kaohsiung city will be started in January, 2009. It is expected to use
E3 in nationwide area in 2011, which is estimated to be 100 dam3/year (100,000 kL/year) in
total.
Up to now, subsidizing for biomass utilization is still inevitable. The related mandatories arelisted below:
・

Measures for purchasing electricity from renewable energy sources

・

Measures for rewarding methane power generation in landfill

・Measures for subsidizing energy crop green bus projects

・Measures for subsidizing green county promoting projects

・Measures for subsidizing green official’s car pilot projects-205-

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Considering the area of farm to cultivate energy crops is limited, it is possible to importbiofuels from abroad. The “Petroleum Administration Act” should be revised to enhance themanagement of imported renewable energy, such as bioethanol, biodiesel etc.

7.14.2 Amount of resources
Up to now, most of biomass utilization in Taiwan is wastes and residues. The noticeable
items are listed below:
There are 24 municipal solid waste incinerators equipped with power generation facilities,

・and total capacity is 528.8 MW.
There are installed capacity of power generators utilizing biogas generated from 4 large・

landfills and some middle to small scale pig farms.
There are also some power plants using industrial and agricultural wastes, including・

bagasse, paper mill waste, plastic waste, rice hull and RDF-5 (Refuse Derived Fuel) etc.
The total capacity of these plants is around 67.5 MW.
In addition, the enforcement of recycling used frying oil was started in September, 2007 forenterprise. Household is also encouraged. The potential biodiesel product from used frying oil
is estimated to be around 80,000 kL/year.
In the near future, 80 km2 (8,000 ha) of rested cultivating farm is planned to cultivate energy
crops. The potential of farmland for cultivating energy crops could be 5,000 km2 (500,000 ha).
If seaweed could be cultivated around 100 km2 (10,000 ha) of seashore, the potential productof 150-300 dam3 (150,000-300,000 kL) biodiesel is expected.

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Part 8. Examples for biomass utilization
8.1 Small-Scale Biomethanation
8.1.1. What are biomethane and biomethanation?
Biomethane (sometimes referred to as "Biogas) is generated from organic materials as they
decay. The main component of biomethane is CH4 (55%-70%) and CO2 (25%-40%). Biomethane
can be used for cooking, lighting, heating, generating electricity and so on.
Biomethanation is the process of conversion of organic matter in the waste (liquid or solid) tobiomethane and manure by microbial action in the absence of air, known as "anaerobic
digestion."

8.1.2. Situation of biomethane in China
The annual quantity of waste in China is more than 150 million tons. The production anddisposal of large quantities of life and industrial waste without adequate or proper treatment
result in widespread environmental pollution. While some of these wastes can be collected andbiomethane is generated from anaerobic digesters where the manure decomposes. Especially insome far rural area where the transportation of electricity is expensive, biomethane is a good
way to provide energy for cooking, lighting and heating, etc.
Since 1950s, Chinese governments encouraged small-scale biomethanation using animal andagricultural waste as feedstock. Table 1 shows the rural biomethane development in China.
Till 2006, about 20 million families in rural area are using biomethane for cooking and lighting.
Annual consumption reaches 5 million standard coal equivalent. Subsidy of 2.5 billion RMB
from government is for small-scale biomethanation development, which means one small-scalebiomethanation can get subsidy of 800-1200 RMB. China nation government plans to build 30
million biomethane digesters in 2010 and 45 million biomethane digesters in 2020.

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Table 8.1.1. Survey of rural biomethane in China, 1991-2005.
Year

Biomethane digesters (million)

Annual output (billion m3)

1991

4.75

1.11

1995

5.70

1.47

1999

7.63

2.25

2001

9.57

2.98

2002

11.10

3.70

2003

12.89

4.58

2004

15.41

5.57

2005

18.07

7.06

8.1.3. Characteristics of small-scale biomethanation
In China, the area of small-scale biomethane digester is about 6-8 m2. Annual output is 300
m3. Cost of each biomethane digester is 1500-2000 RMB.
In spite of providing energy, biomethane in China also has the following characteristics: 1)
environment friendly. For an 8-10 m3 biomethane digester, dejecta of 5-8 pigs or 2000-3000
chickens can be used. 2) The residues in the digester can also be used for fertilizer. 3)
economically. It saves money of buying electricity or save labor of seeking firewood. And thewoods can be saved.

8.1.4. Process of small-scale biomethanation
The process of small-scale biomethanation includes feedstock collecting, pretreatment,
fermentation, treatment and purifying, storage and transportation, where the fermentation
digester is the main equipment. The digesters are required to be airtight and impervious tomake sure they are anaerobic. The temperature in the digester should be maintained at20-40℃. There should be enough manure in the digester. Appropriate water (about 80%)
content and pH (7-8.5) are required.
Batch fermentation and semi-continuous fermentation are usual technologies for small-scalebiomethanation. In batch fermentation technology, all the feedstock is added at the first. The
biomethane generates fast at the beginning and then decreases. This technology is easy for-208-

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management, but the biomethane generation rates are different. In semi-continuous
fermentation technology, 1/4 - 1/2 feedstock was added at the first. When the biomethane
generation slows down, more feedstock is added to make the biomethane generation work inorder.

8.1.5. Energy supply of small-scale biomethanation
Usually, the biomethane generation rate of digester is 0.2-0.25 m3/(m3.d). So annual output of
a 10 m3 digester is about 600 m3 biomethane. Usually, heat value of 1 m3 biomethanol isequivalent to that of 3.3 kg raw coal. As mentioned in previous, annual consumption of
biomethane reached 5 million standard coal equivalent in China. It is obvious that biomethaneplays an important role in rural energy supply.

Further information
http://www.cogeneration.net/BioMethanation.htm
Wang Haibo, Yang Zhanjiang, Geng Yeqiang. Analysis on the influence factors of rural household biogas
production in China. Renewable Energy Resources, Vol. 25 No.5 Oct. 2007: 106-109
http://www.biogas.cn/
Gao Yunchao, Kuang Zheshi, etc. Development progress and current situation analysis of the rural
household biogas in China, Guangdong Agricultural Sciences, 2006. 1: 22-27
Huang Fenglian, Zheng Xiaohong, etc. Actions and modes of household biogas for new rural area
construction in China. Guangdong Agricultural Sciences, 2007. 8: 114-116

8.2 Large Scale Biomethanation
8.2.1 Outline of large scale biomethanation
Anaerobic digestion has been in practical use for a long time.
had started as early as in around 1900.

Its industrial installations

Since then, the anaerobic digestion systems havebeen continuously improved and enlarged to treat a wide range of biomass wastes such as foodindustry wastewater/waste, garbage, livestock waste, night soil and sewage sludge among
others.

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8.2.2 Large-scale anaerobic digestion systems
A typical anaerobic digestion system in large-scale is depicted in Fig. 8.2.1.

The function ofeach unit process is described below.
Biogas utilization facility
Accumulation

Energy conversion

MethaneFermented liquor
fermentation
reactorFermented liquor
treatment facility

purification
BiogasPretreatment
facility

Feeding
storage tankFig. 8.2.1. A typical anaerobic digestion system in large-scale.
(a) Pre-treatment process
It is often required for an effective anaerobic digestion that the received biomass waste isconditioned in a pre-treatment process such as removal of foreign matters not suitable foranaerobic digestion, pulverization, dilution by water, thickening, and/or acid or alkali
treatment.

Some biomass wastes such as garbage, which is a mixture of various organic andinorganic matters, and, thus is not always consistent in its composition and properties, aresubjected to mechanical and/or magnetic separation in order to get rid of indigestible materials
such as metals and plastics.

The separated biomass waste is pulverized and added withdilution water to prepare waste slurry for the next unit process.
(b) Slurry storage tank
Prepared slurry is temporarily stored in a slurry storage tank for leveling dairy fluctuations
in both quality and quantity.

If the ambient temperature is suitable, microbial activities of

acidogens in the storage tank may increase.

If this occurs, accumulation of organic acids inthe slurry can cause a decrease in pH to as low as around 4. The slurry storage tank must be
designed to resist corrosion due to such low pH conditions.
(c) Methane fermenter (anaerobic digester)Three major functional microbial groups are active in the methane fermenter.

These threefunctions that take place sequentially are; hydrolysis, acidogenesis and methanogenesis.
final products of the reactions are methane and carbon dioxide.

The

The hydrolysis reaction isoften the rate-limiting pathway of an anaerobic digestion process on not-readily biodegradable
or recalcitrant biomass such as sewage sludge and ligneous biomass, whereas themethanogenesis is likely to be the rate-limiting pathway on readily biodegradable biomass-210-

Asian Biomass Handbook

such as garbage and starchy wastewater.

In order to establish an efficient anaerobic digestion

system, it is important to consider the rate-limiting pathway and to select the most suitable
reactor design for the properties of anticipated biomass waste.

For example, the overall rateof anaerobic digestion on readily biodegradable biomass waste heavily depends on the densityof active methanogens in the reactor, thus the reactor should be designed to maximize thedensity or mass of the methanogens within the system.
(d) Fermentation wastewater treatment
Fermentation wastewater discharged from the anaerobic digester usually contains highconcentrations of organic matters, nitrogen compounds and phosphorus compounds.

The

fermentation wastewater should be treated to reduce the concentrations of these pollutants tomeet the standards for final discharge to a receiving body of water or sewer system.

The most

typical fermentation wastewater treatment system is the activated sludge process with tertiary
treatment.
(e) Biogas utilization
Since most of the biomass wastes contain proteins (a source of nitrogen and sulfur) andsulfate salts, the biogas contains certain concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia.
The biogas produced from sewage sludge, which sometimes contains a considerable amount ofsilicones, may contain siloxanes as well.

Since these impurities can possibly cause damage tobiogas utilization facilities such as a gas engine, gas boiler, gas turbine and fuel cell, and/or
cause secondary air pollution, a biogas utilization unit process is often equipped with adesulfurization device and/or siloxane remover prior to the gas holding tank.

8.2.3 Examples of large-scale anaerobic digestion systems
Some of the typical implementations of large-scale anaerobic digestion systems are described
below.
(a) Sewage Sludge
Sewage sludge is a waste biomass which is discharged in large quantities from sewage
treatment facilities.

For a long time, anaerobic digestion has been one of the treatments on

sewage sludge to stabilize the sludge and reduce its volume.

The reactor design usuallyapplied to sewage sludge digestion is a completely mixed reactor design (Fig. 8.2.2).

A

contemporary anaerobic digester for sewage sludge is as large as 10,000 m3 in the effective
volume.

Typical design parameters include the operational temperatures of ambient (ca. 20

degC) to mesophilic (ca. 35 degC) range, and the relatively long retention time of 20 to 30 days.

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(b) Industrial organic wastewaterIndustrial wastewater containing readily biodegradable organic matters, but little solids,
such as the wastewater discharge from a beer brewery, the UASB (up-flow, anaerobic sludge
blanket) reactor design, which was originally developed in the Netherlands, is usually selected.
The UASB reactor design maintains a high density of anaerobic microorganisms in the form of
self-aggregated microbial "granules" that enables a high rate of anaerobic digestion.

(c) Organic wastes from food industries
Anaerobic digester designs which allow a high rate anaerobic digestion on readily
biodegradable biomass containing high concentrations of organic solids are being developed,
and some have already been in actual operation in recent years.

An example of such a new

design is the DAPR (down-flow anaerobic packed-bed reactor) design.

Many high-rate

anaerobic digestion facilities for food wastes and distillery wastes, incorporating the DAPR
design, have been implemented in Japan.

The largest facility as of writing has the design

capacity of 400 tons/day (Fig. 8.2.3).

Fig. 8.2.2.
(Northernplant)

Example of a large scale
sewage sludge anaerobic
digester.
second sewage treatment

Fig. 8.2.3.

Example
of
a
large
scale
biomethanation plant of food waste.
(Distilled spirit processing waste recycling plantof Kirishima Shuzo co. LTD.)

Further information
R.E.Speece: Anaerobic Biotechnology, Archae Press, pp.127, Tennessee (1996)
Japan Sewage Works Association: Sewage Facilities planning, policy and explanation (second part) 2001,
pp.384, Japan (2001)
J.B.Lier: Current Trends in Anaerobic Digestion; Diversifying from waste(water) treatment to re-source
oriented conversion techniques, 11th IWA World Congress on Anaerobic Digestion, 23-27 September-212-

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2007, Brisbane, Australia (2007)
Hisatomo Fukui and Motonobu Okabe: Distilled spirit processing waste recycling plant using
thermophilic dawn-flow packed-bed reactor, Gas fuel manufacture from biomass and its energy
utilization, NTS, pp.265-275, Japan (2007)

8.3 Jatropha Plantation
Jatropha

integrated

businessconsistsof

upstream and downstream activities. Upstream
activity includes jatropha nursery and jatrophaplantation. Down stream activity includes seeds
expelling process where crude jatropha oil resulted
can be used for biodiesel manufacturing, whereas
jatropha by product/waste (i.e. seed cake, seed shell,
glycerin) can be used to manufacture bio-fertilizer
and other applications. Both activities are known as
Fig. 8.3.1.

Fully integrated
jatropha business.

an environmental friendly products.

8.3.1 Jatropha cultivation
Cultivation of Jatropha is uncomplicated (Fig. 8.3.2).

Jatropha curcas can grow in wastelands/marginalareas and grows almost anywhere, even on gravelly,
sandy and saline soils. It can thrive on the poorest
stony soil and grow in the crevices of rocks withoutcompeting with annual food crops, thus filling an
ecological niche. Complete germination is achieved
Fig. 8.3.2. Jatropha plantation.
(Bambang P., 2007)

within 9 days. Adding manure during the germination
has negative effects during that phase, but isfavourable if applied after germination is achieved.

However, it is usually multiplied by cuttings, because this gives faster results thanmulti-plication by seeds. The flowers only develop terminally, so a good ramification (plants
presenting many branches) produces the greatest amount of fruits. Another productivity factor-213-

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is the ratio between female and male flowers within an inflorescence (usually about 1 female to
10 male flowers - more female flowers mean more fruits).

Jatropha curcas can grow at annual rainfall of 300 - 2,380 mm, with the optimum rain fallon 625 mm/year. The best time to start planting is in dry season or before the rainy season,with the annual average temperature is 20 - 28oC.

8.3.2 Propagation method
There are two propagation methods, i.e. Generative (seeding) and Vegetative propagation(cutting). For monoculer business, satisfactory planting widths are 2 x 2, 2.5 x 2.5 and 3 m x 3
m. This is equivalent to crop densities of 2,500, 1,600 and 1,111 plants/ha. However, plants
propagated by cutting show a lower longevity and posses a lower drought and disease
resistance than plants propagated by seeds. Only during its first two years does it need to bewatered in the closing days of the dry season. Ploughing and planting are not needed regularly,
as this shrub has a life expectancy of approximately
forty years. The use of pesticides and other polluting
substances are not necessary, due to the pesticidal
and fungicidal properties of the plant.
1 ha of jatropha plant normally will give yield to2,250 kg of seeds (Fig 8.3.3 Jatropha fruits & seeds)
and 750 kg of oil, hence the ratio of seed to oil is 3: 1.
Seed oil can be extracted either hydraulically using a
Fig. 8.3.3.

Jatropa fruits andseeds.

press or chemically using solvents, however, chemical
extraction cannot be achieved on a small scale basis.

8.3.3 Jatropha biodiesel
Esterification – Transesterfication known
as ‘estrans’ process (Fig. 8.3.4) has been

(1)

(2)

(3)

developed and patented by Prof. R. Sudradjat(2003). There are two stages in this process :1.

In this esterfication process, free
fatty

acid

(the

main

cause forbiodiesel acidity) is transformed to-214-

Fig 8.3.4. 3 grades estrans quality.

Asian Biomass Handbook

biodiesel (methyl ester).
2.

Triglyceride and fatty acid which are still bonded in triglyceride in the oil is converted
to methyl ester via transesterification. By this process, oil conversion to biodiesel(without glyceroyl) of 99.75% can be achieved.

Other feature of this process is the usage of methanol/ethanol reactant can be reduced to <20% and HCl catalyst can be substituted with solid catalyst from natural substance (FKS)
which is much cheaper and can be recycled.
From a production cycle, three grades estrans quality (Fig. 8.3.4) can be obtained : 1) Crude
Jatropha Oil (CJO) - as a substitution of kerosene or residue which can be used for direct
combustion; 2) Jatropha Oil (JO) - as diesel oil (ADO) substitution for engines with have low
rpm (such as portable generator set, tractor/bulldozer, etc.; 3) Biodiesel as fuel (automotive).
Fig. 8.3.5 shows the typical process diagram for jatropha biodiesel production from the seeds.
It can be seen, it involves washing, blanching and drying of seeds before proceeding into
peeling process. The resulted seed meat is grinded with a grinding machine, the grinded
powder is pressed by a hydraulic pressing machine (manual or electric). The crude jatropha oil(CJO) then can be extracted and the residue seed cake can be utilized for animal feedstock,biopesticides, etc.
The production of Jatropha Oil (JO) is
carried out by using a estrans reactor where
JO is heated at temperature between 50 –60oC. Methanol as a solvent (5%) is used and
HCl catalyst (10% v/v) is applied and then
mixed

them

together.

The

esterification

process will take 2 hours at 50oC. The mixture
will direct to a glycerol separator where theaging process will take 4 hours. The glycerol(white paste) will stay at the bottom part
whereas the top part JO can be extracted
and

feed

to

water

separator

andneutralization. In this water separator, JO isFig. 8.3.5.

Jatropha Biodiesel Process
Diagram.
(Source: R Sudradjat, 2006)-215-

rinsed twice by using demineralization water,thenneutralization is done by using 0.01%

of NaHCO3 and finally the deminineralization
Asian Biomass Handbook

using water is carried out again. The final product will be pumped out to the storage tank.
Biodiesel production : JO is fed into an estran reactor with the temperature of

50 – 60oC.

The mixture of methanol (10% v/v) and KOH catalyst (0.5% v/v) is then put into the reactor.
Stir properly during transesterification process for 0.5 – 1 hour and keep the temperature atabout 50oC. Separate the biodiesel from glycerol with the same procedure as JO making. Sameprocedure also for washing and neutralization process, but in here use 0.01% of CH3COOH
instead of

NaHCO3. Finally, the final product of Jatropha biodiesel is ready to be used as

diesel fuel (ADO) substitution. The characteristic of Jatropha biodiesel is shown Table below.
Table 8.3.1. Characteristic comparison of Jatropa Oil, Biodiesel CPO &Diesel Oil.

(Source : Soerawidjaja, Tatang H, 2005)
Parameter

Jatropha
Oil

Biodiesel
CPO

Diesel Oil(ADO)

Density (g/cm3)

0.92

0.87

0.841

Viscosity (cSt)52-

6 – 11.75

Cetane number

51

64

51

Flash point (℃)

240

182

50

Sulfur (ppm)

0.13

0.0068

1.2

Iodin number (mg iodin/g)

105.2 ± 0.7--

Acid number (mg KOH/g)

3.5 ± 0.1

0.5-

Calorific value (kcal/kg)

9,720

8,783

10,200-216-

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8.4 Power Generation from Rice Husk
8.4.1 Power producer promotion in Thailand
In 2007, Ministry of Energy (Thailand) has strongly promoted SPP (Small Power Producer:
10-90 MW) and VSPP (Very Small Power Producer: < 10 MW), in particular those using
biomass, with high grid buyback price of electricity and simple procedure for obtaining license
permit in order to cope with the energy situation.

As of October 2007, there are more than 77

SPP and VSPP with installed capacity over
1,100 MW, half of which are sold back to thegrid.

8.4.2 Biomass power plant in Thailand
As shown in Fig. 8.4.1, biomass power
plants are all distributed throughout thecountry,

especiallynortheastern parts.

in

the

centraland

In term of the electricity

sold back to the grid, more than half of thepower plants use bagasse as the feedstock fuel,followed by rice husk/Eucalytus bark of 31%,
as shown in Fig. 8.4.2.

3%
5% 4%
15%

53%
16%

BagasseRice husk
Para wood waste
Eucalytus bark
MSW

Fig. 8.4.2.

Rice husk/Eucalytus barkBlack liquor
Palm oil residue
BiogasRice straw

Biomass Power Plants by Fuel
(Grid).

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Fig. 8.4.1.

Distribution of Biomass Power
Plant in Thailand
Source: adapted from Energy for
Environment Foundation(http://www.efe.or.th)
Asian Biomass Handbook

8.4.3 Gasification technology for rice husk
Despite many biomass power plants, some of them are still running at the low efficiency
using

conventionalburningtoproduce

a

steam

for

power

generation.

Hence,

thermo-mechanical conversion process like gasification technology can help solve the problem.
Rice husk is another attractive feedstock for biomass power plant due to its plentiful
availability from the rice mills, its small size and low moisture.

Recently, Ministry of Energy

has funded a project to demonstrate the feasibility of constructing the community biomass
gasification system (using rice husk) to Kasetsart University and Great Agro Co., Ltd.

This

project was initiated to foster Sufficiency Economy philosophy by His Majesty the Kind of
Thailand.

The system produces not only 80kW electricity but also heat and biomass ash for

fertilizer, as shown in Fig. 8.4.3.

The system design uses three-stage fluidized bed pyrolysis

and gasification, comprising of 5 main units: drying, pyrolysis, gasification, cooling system andengine/generator set, as shown in Fig. 8.4.4.

Fig. 8.4.3. Concept of Biomass
Gasification System.

Fig. 8.4.4. Units of Gasification System.

As shown in Fig. 8.4.5 and 8.4.6, the system was installed at Lamlukka Cooperative Rice Mill
& Paddy Center Market Co., Ltd for demonstration and test run for more than 360 hours.
With gas flow rate of 240 m3/hr (heating value at 4.5 MJ/m3) and rice husk consumption of 85
kg/hr, the overall gasification system efficiency is 92%.
consumption of rice husk generates 1 kW of electricity.
from the system is approximately 22 mg/m3.

In other words, 1.25 kg/hr

Furthermore, the residue tar volume

On the economic analysis, this 80kW system

requires a capital investment of ~3.9M Baht with the operating cost of ~1.79 Baht/unit.
Assume that the system produces the electricity at 460,800 unit/year, which substitutes theelectricity cost of 3 Baht/unit, the net profit is estimated to be 0.56M Baht/year with the-218-

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payback period of 7 year.

The next step would be the collaboration between MTEC and Great

Agro Co., Ltd to scale up the system to 1MW capacity.

Fig. 8.4.5. Flow Diagram of Gasification
SystemFig. 8.4.6. Test Run of the Complete Set

Further information
S. Nivitchanyong, Alternative Energy Cluster, National Metal and Materials Technology Center: MTEC
(siriluck@mtec.or.th)

8.5 Ethanol Production
8.5.1 What is a good source for ethanol production?
In Thailand, most existing commercial ethanol production plants use molasses as a feedstock
but with increasing new facilities to use cassava in the near future.

However, these twoenergy crops are still considered as food, which may interfere with the ‘food vs. fuel’ issue.
a result, more people are looking for alternative non-edible energy crops.

As

Among many others,

lignocellulose from various agricultural residues has received a great deal of attention,commencing the era of 2nd generation lignocellulosic bioethanol.

8.5.2 Lignocellulosic biomass feedstock for ethanol in Thailand
Each year in Thailand, agricultural industries generate millions of tons of various
lignocellulosic biomass feedstock known as agricultural residues, including rice straw, sugar-219-

Asian Biomass Handbook

cane bagasse, corn stover/fiber and wood chip.

Sugarcane and rice, mostly concentrated in the

North and Northeastern provinces, are the first two largest national agricultural productions(in weight) as shown in the table below.
Table 8.5.1.

The first four largest agricultural production in Thailand (2004).
Sugarcane

Rice

Cassava

Maize

Production (thousand tons)

64,97427,03821,4404,216

Harvested Area (thousand rai*)

7,009

63,709

6,608

6,810

Yield per rai (kilograms)

9,270

424

3,244

619

Source: Office of Agricultural Economics (2004)* 6.25 rai = 1 hectare

In general, these residues are inefficiently utilized, which most often, also causes
environmental problems.

Rice straw is considered wastes and disposed off through various

methods such as open-air burning (as shown in Fig. 8.5.1 and 8.5.2), dumping or animal
feeding.

A rather more attractive method to mange these abundantly available rice straws isthrough cellulosic ethanolFig. 8.5.1. Open-air burning causes air
pollution.

Fig. 8.5.2. Burning also causes soil
pollution.

8.5.3 R&D pioneer work on processing
Since lignocellulose is mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, it needs
additional pretreatment in order to get sugar monomer ready for the fermentation process.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Typical process requires SHF (Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation) of great complexity
involving

pretreatment,

fractionation,

delignification,hydrolysis

andfermentation.

Alternatively, pretreatment with proper steam explosion yields the hydrolysate, which can be
enzymatically digested and fermented in a single reactor via SSF (Simultaneous
Saccharification and Fermentation) method, as shown in Fig. 8.5.3, 8.5.4 and 8.5.5, involving
only the pretreatment and hydrolysis/fermentation steps.

The goal is to seek for theappropriate SSF that uses a commercially available cellulase enzyme and microorganism
available in Thai market.

Rice Straw
Solid Phase

Liquid Phase

LigninDelignification & Water wash
Cellulose
Fermentation

SugarsHydrolysis

Fermentation

SugarsEthanol

Ethanol

Fig. 8.5.3. Typical process of lignocellulosic ethanol production.

Fig. 8.5.4. Prototype of steam
explosion unit.

Source: C. Pomchaitaward et al, MTEC report (2007)
The steam explosion was applied to rice straw
Supunburi1™

showing

recovery

high

and

good

carbohydrate

ethanolconcentrations

obtained in a single reactor with minimal enzyme
and yeast supplementation.

A 150 g of dried ricestraw was steamed with pressure between 10 to
25 bar (with corresponding temperature 185 and
210 ℃ , respectively) for 5 minutes.

Highersteam pressure (or higher temperature) favored
hemicelluloses solubilization.

Fig.8.5.5. Exploded rice straw.

However, thestrong influence of steam pressure on the cellulose solubilization was not found.

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The optimum

Asian Biomass Handbook

pretreatment condition resulted in the production of a very small amount of sugar
decomposition products, which enabled an effective fermentation of sugars to ethanol.

In

conclusion, mild steam pretreatment condition at 15 bars for 5 minutes results the highesthydrolysis yield.
This process substantially reduces the complexity of the overall rice straw to ethanol
bioconversion, while simultaneously lowering the capital investment cost and time associatedwith the need for separate processes.

Furthermore, it significantly lowers environmental

impact due to less hazardous process chemicals and conditions involved.

Last but not least, it

provides an alternative for better energy efficiency in agricultural residue management.

Further information
C. Pomchaitaward et al, Feasibility Study of Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Materials via the
Steam Explosion Pretreatment, MTEC in-house project report 2007 (chaiyapp@mtec.or.th)
S. Nivitchanyong, Alternative Energy Cluster, MTEC (siriluck@mtec.or.th)-222-

Asian Biomass Handbook

APPENDIX
A1 Tokyo Declaration on Asian Biomass
A2. Kyoto Protocol
A3. Statistics on Asian Countries
A4. Unit Conversion
A5. Atomic WeightA6. Thermodynamic Properties
A7. Heating Values of Fossil Fuels and Lifetime
A8. APEC Framework
A9. Each Country's Targets
A10. Related histories
A11 Each country's language
A12 Related books-223-

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A1 Tokyo Declaration on Asian Biomass
A1.1 Tokyo Declaration on Asian Biomass
At the Biomass Asia Forum, which was organized mainly by the Ministry of Agriculture,
Fishery, and Forestry, Japan, Tokyo Declaration on Asian Biomass was adopted.

Thisdeclaration arranged the things to be considered and the direction of activities for theutilization of biomass in Asian countries based on the discussion in the forum.

Thedeclaration is as following.

Tokyo Declaration on Asian Biomass
Considering the increasing expectations held for biomass, the Biomass Asia Forum
adopts the following declaration for the effective utilization of Asian biomass resources.
1. The renewability and carbon neutrality of biomass resources should be recognized andthe utilization of biomass resources promoted.
2. When using biomass resources, the importance of sustainability should be emphasized
and reductions in carbon dioxide emissions properly evaluated.
3. The contribution of biomass resources to the activation of Asian industry and regional
economies should be recognized and appropriate measures taken to make the most of these
economic effects.
4. When using biomass resources, the possibility of creating a recycling society should be
discussed and appropriate measures for realizing such a society promoted.
5. The effectiveness of the development and introduction of appropriate technologies in the-225-

Asian Biomass Handbook

utilization of biomass resources should be recodnized and the development of related
technologies through appropriate support and subsidization promoted.
6. An association to promote biomass resource utilization, composed of members from Asian
countries, should be organized and should conduct self-supporting activities.
7. Utilization of biomass resources should contribute to the improvement of conditions in all
countries; thus biomass utilization that contributes to the solution of poverty, prevention ofenvironmental damage, suppression of disease, and realization of a better quality of life should
be promoted and policies for realizing such utilization pursued.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A1.2 Biomass Asia Workshop and Biomass Asia Forum
Structuring of a network for the purpose of sharing information among members related to
Asian biomass and developing mutual understanding is important.
this term.

There are two streams in

The one is Biomass Asia Forum, which was organized mainly by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry, and Fishery, Japan, and the other is Biomass ASEAN Project, which isproceeded mainly by the National Institute of Advanced and Industrial Science and Technology,
Japan (AIST), and Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Science (JIRCAS)
with the subsidies from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
Japan.

In the year of 2004, these two projects started independently, but soon it was noticethat both projects have similar goals, and it was decided to have a joint-workshop, which was
the 1st Biomass Asia Workshop, held in January, 2005, in Tokyo and Tsukuba, Japan.

In

December, 2005, the 2nd Biomass Asia Workshop was held in Bangkok, Thailand, and Biomass
Asia Forum was held in January, 2006 in Tokyo.

Through these workshops and forum, thesituation of biomass in Asian countries was studied, and the purpose of its effective use wasdiscussed.

Based on these concept, the network development was discussed at the 3rd Biomass

Asia Workshop in Novemer, 2006.

This flow is shown in Fig. 1.

The 4th Biomass Asia Workshop was held in November, 2007 in Shah Alam, Malaysia.

The

5th workshop is to be held in China.
To overview the trend of recent biomass activities, the program of the 4th Biomass Asia
Workshop is also shown here.

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Asian Biomass HandbookWS (Biomass ASEAN)

Forum (MAFF support)

2005.1

1st Biomass Asia Workshop
2005.12

2nd Biomass Asia Workshop
2006.1

Biomass Asia Forum2006.11

3rd Biomass Asia Workshop

Asian Biomass Association
Prep. Committee
Proposal

Organization for Asian Biomass
Fig. A1.2.1 Events regarding the networking on Asian Biomass utilization.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Fourth Biomass-Asia Workshop
Date: 20-22 November, 2007
Venue: Grand BlueWave Hotel Shah Alam
Perbandaran, Seksyen 14, 40000 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Day 1 (Nov. 20, 2007)
0830-0900 Registration
Opening Remarks
0900-0915 Tatsuo Katsura
Senior Vice President, AIST, on behalf of Representative of Biomass-Asia Research Consortium,Japan
0915-0930 Kunio Oguri
Deputy Director General,Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Research Council Secretariat,
MAFF, Japan
0930-1000 BreakSpecial Lecture
Chair: Zainal Abidin Mohd Yusuf （Vice President, SIRIM, Malaysia
1000-1030 Lignocellulose refinery system must be realized for global environment andeconomyKenji Iiyama
President, JIRCAS, Japan
1030-1100 Coffee BreakPlenary Lecture
Chair: Yasuyuki Yagi (Councillor, International Affairs Dept., AIST, Japan)
1100-1125 Food Security with Biofuels: FAO Perspective
Abdolreza AbbassianSecretary of the Intergovernmental Group on Grains, FAO, UN
1125-1150 Biomass for Energy Generation in Malaysia
Anuar Abdul Rahman
CEO of Pusat Tenaga Malaysia (PTM)
1150-1215 Biomass for Material Application
Peesamai Jenvanitpanjakul
Deputy Governor, Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research(TISTR),
Thailand
1215-1240 Policy and Legislation on Biofuel Utilisation
Datu Dr. Michael Dosim Lunjew
Secretary General, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities Malaysia
1240-1420 Lunch / Poster Session
Keynote Speech-229-

Asian Biomass Handbook

1430-1500 H.E. Dato’ Sri Dr. Lim Keng Yaik
Minister of Energy, Water and Communications, Malaysia
Future Prospect of Biomass Utilisation in Asian Countries
Chair: Masayuki Kamimoto (Research Coordinator, AIST, Japan)
1500-1525 Biomass-Asia Project-Second Stage: Research and Technological Development for
Sustainable Biomass Utilization in Asian Countries
Kinya Sakanishi
Representative of Research Core for Asian Biomass Energy, AIST, Japan
1525-1550 The Road Map of Chinese Biomass Energy Development
Haibin Li
Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion (GIEC),
Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), China
1550-1610 Coffee Break
1610-1635 Rice-Sugarcane Complex Model
Klanarong Sriroth
Associate Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart
University, Thailand
1635-1700 Palm Complex Model
Wahono Sumaryono
Deputy Chairman for Agroindustry and Biotechnology,
Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Indonesia- Panel Discussion Asian Partnership on Sustainable Environmentally Benign Biomass Production andUtilisation
Moderator: Yukihiko Matsumura (Professor, Hiroshima University, Japan)
1700-1830＜Panelists＞
China:The Development of Biofuels in China
Dehua Liu
Professor, Director of Institute of Applied Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Tsinghua University
Indonesia : Biofuel Development in Indonesia
Petrus Panaka
Professor, Project Development Advisor, PT Gikoko Kogyo Indonesia
Malaysia : Sustainable Biomass Production and Utilisation- Profit, People and Planet Mohamad Ali Hassan
Dean, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University Putra Malaysia (UPM)
Philippines: Non-fossil Energy
Luis F. Razon
Director, University Research Coordination Office, Associate Professor, Department ofChemical Engineering, De La Salle University
Thailand : Asian Partnership on Sustainable Environmentally Benign Biomass Production andUtilization
Nuwong Chollacoop-230-

Asian Biomass Handbook

National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC),
National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA)
Vietnam : Seaweed: Potential Biomass for Ethanol Production
Truong Nam Hai
Deputy Director, Institute of Biotechnology,
Vietnamese Academy of Science and Technology (VAST)
2000-2130 Reception
hosted by Dato’ Dr. Halim Man
Secretary General for Ministry of Energy, Water and Communications, Malaysia

Day 2 (Nov. 21, 2007)<Room 1>

Palm Oil Energy Complex Model
Chair:
Chen Sau Soon (SIRIM,Malaysia)
Tomoaki Minowa (AIST, Japan)
0900-0920 Palm Oil Industry in Malaysia
Dato' Dr. Choo Yuen May,
Deputy Director-General, Malaysian Palm Oil Board
0920-0940 Electricity Generation from Palm Oil Mills in Indonesia(extended abstract)
Soni Solistia Wirawan
Head of Institute for Engineeringand Technology System Design(Engineering Center), BPPT,
Indonesia
0940-1000 Palm Oil Energy Complex and CDM
Yoshihito Shirai
Professor, Graduate School of Life
Science and Systems Engineering,
Kyushu Institute of Technology,Japan
1000-1020 Potential of Oil Palm Trunk as a Source for Ethanol Production
Ryohei Tanaka
FFPRI, Japanco-authored by Yutaka Mori (JIRCAS)
Mohd Nor Mohd Yusoff (FRIM)
Othman Sulaiman (USM)
Shu Yoshida (Sojitz Machinery Corporation)
1020-1040 Coffee Break-231-

Asian Biomass Handbook

1040-1100 Biomass Plastics from Palm Oil Mill Effluent in Malaysia
Mohamad Ali Hassan
Dean, Faculty of Biotechnology
and Biomolecular Sciences,
University Putra Malaysia(UPM),
Malaysia
1100-1120 Co-firing of Biomass with Coal for Power Generation
Suthum Patumsawad
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Mongkut’s
Institute of Technology North
Bangkok (KMITNB), Thailand
1120-1140 Benchmarking of Biodiesel Fuel Standards for Vehicles in East Asia
Shinichi Goto
Director, Research Center for New
Biomass Technology ResearchCenter, AIST, Japan
1140-1200 Production of Second-Generation Biofuels from Palm Wastes
Shinichi Yano
Senior Research Scientist,
Biomass Technology ResearchCenter, AIST, Japan
1200-1220 Discussion<Room 2>

Utilisation of Agriculture and Wood Wastes
Chair :
Guangwen Xu (CAS, China)
Takahiro Yoshida (FFPRI, Japan）
Brazil: Brazilian Present and Future Ethanol Production - Biomass Ethanol Potential
Elba P.S.Bon
Associate Professor in Biochemistry,
Chemistry Institute,
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
Cambodia: Biomass in Cambodia
Lieng Vuthy
Deputy Director, Department ofEnergy Techique, Ministry ofIndustry, Mines and Energy
China: High Efficient Conversion of Cellulosic Process Residue into Middle-Caloric Gas-232-

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Guangwen Xu
Professor, Institute of Process Engineering, CAS
Indonesia: Agricultural and Wood Waste Potentials and Utilization in Indonesia
Unggul Priyanto
Director, Energy Resources Development Technology Center, BPPT
Japan: Biomass Refinery Systems -Case Studt at Miyako Island, JapanYoshiyuki Shinogi
Head, Laboratory of Farmland
Engineering, Department of Land and Water Resources, National Institute for RuralEngineering, NARO
1020-1040 Coffee Break
Laos: Brief Report of Biomass in LAO PDR
Bouathep Malaykham
Chief of Electric Power Management
Division, Department of Electricity,
Ministry of Energy and Mines
Myanmar: Anhydrous Ethanol Production
Su Su Hlaing
Lecturer of Department of Chemical
Engineering, Mandalay
Technological University
Philippines：Outlook of Biomass Industry in the Philippines
Ruby B. De Guzman
Supervising Science ResearchSpecialist Alternative Fuels andEnergy Technology Division,
Department of Energy
Thailand：Zero Waste Agriculture for Jatropha Plantation
Siriluck Nivitchanyong
Assistant Director, MTEC,
Alternative Energy Program Host,
NSTDA
Vietnam：Utilization of Agricultural and Wood Wastes in Vietnam
Tran Dinh Man
Deputy Director, Institute of
Biotechnology, VAST
Discussion
Moderator's Summary
Moderator: Yukihiko Matsumura(Hiroshima University, Japan)-233-

Asian Biomass Handbook

1220-1330 Lunch / Poster Session
For Sustainable Biomass Utilization
Chair: Yoshihito Shirai (Professor, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan)
1330-1355 Asia Biomass Community
Issei Sawa
Senior Manager, Liquid Biofuel, New Energy Business Unit, Mitsubishi Corporation, Japan
1355-1420 Financing for Biomass and Renewable Energy Projects
Mohd Nordin Che Omar
Manager of High Technology, representing Chairman of Bank Pembangunan Malaysia
1420-1445 Evaluation of Environmental Impacts of Biomass Utilisation by LCA
Masayuki Sagisaka
Deputy Director, Life Cycle Assessment Research Center, AIST, Japan
1445-1510 Improving Drought and Salt Stress Tolerance in Plants by Gene Transfer
Yasunari Fujita
Senior researcher, Biological Resources Division, JIRCAS, Japan
1530-1600 Coffee BreakWay Forward Session-Panel DiscussionModerator: Shinya Yokoyama (Professor, The University of Tokyo, Japan)
1600-1730 Moderator's Summary : Energy Situation in Asian Region＜Panelists＞
Haibin Li, China
Wahono Sumaryono, Indonesia
Kinya Sakanishi, Japan
Mohamad Ali Hassan, Malaysia
Peesamai Jenvanitpanjakul, Thailand
Tran Dinh Man, Vietnam
for the 5th Biomass-Asia Workshop
Closing Remarks
1730-1740 Masakazu Yamazaki
Vice President, AIST, Japan
1740-1750 Chen Sau Soon
Senior General Manager, Environment & Bioprocess Technology Centre
SIRIM, Malaysia
2000-2130 Workshop Dinner hosted by AISTDay 3 (Nov. 22, 2007)
Technical tour
1. Waste to Energy Plant, Banting
2. Biodiesel Palm Oil Mill, Labu
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A1.3 Asia Biomass Association
Based on the discussion on structuring of network, which is also clearly stated in the Tokyo
Declaration on Asian Biomass, setting of Asia Biomass Association was proposed at the
Biomass Asia forum.
This proposal is further based on the concept that conventional collaborative activities on
Asian biomass are based on programs supported by a specific budget, and when the program isover, the activity is also over, but that the network should be continued, and thus the network
should be free from specific budget.

For example, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, andFishery, Japan does not have the eternal budget for the Biomass Asia Forum.

The Ministry of

Education, Culture, Sport, Science, and Technology, Japan is supporting the Biomass ASEAN
Project only for three year.

The network so far built up should not be cancelled, but theactivities of the network are wanted to continue even when these budgets are over.

Thus,

structuring of the framework of the association was decided.
As the first step, a preparation committee was decided to be placed where the detail of the
network that allows voluntary based activities without any budget is discussed.

The name of

the network was decided to be Asia Biomass Association (tentative), and the following
fundamental policies were agreed.

-

The Asia Biomass Association should be a voluntary-based neutral and non-political group.

-

The association is composed of individual and group members, and has a steeringcommittee, management committee, and, when necessary, working groups.

-

Its activity is based on the membership fee, and the membership fee is decided by thesteering committee based on the GDP per capita of each country.

-

The least activities should be management of a mailing list and homepages.

When budget

is available, publication of brochure, organization of Biomass Asia Conference, and otheractivities by the proposal of other members should be made.
Members of the preparation committee is selected from the attendants of the Forum, one
from each of 9 countries including Japan, and as the chair, Dr. Shin-ya Yokoyama wasnominated.

The management of the preparation committee was undertaken by the researchgroup SETA, where Dr. Yokoyama is working as the International Steering Committee Chair.

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This preparation committee decided to officially start the Asia Biomass Association in March,
2008.

For this purpose, the following agreement was made.

Agreement of the Asian Biomass Association
1. This association should be known as the “Asian Biomass Association”, and abbreviated as“ABA”.

It is a framework network based on voluntary activities and shall be a neutral andapolitical association.
2. The purpose of this association is to achieve effective utilization of Asian biomass based on
the Tokyo Declaration on Asian Biomass.

For this purpose, the association manages its

homepage and the mailing list of the members.
3. The members of the association are a person or a group from Asian countries who areinterested in the purpose of this association.
4. This association has the following bodies.
Steering Committee
Management Committee
Working Groups
5. The Steering Committee is composed of representatives from Asian countries.
of the representatives is one for a country.

The number

The representative of a country is decided by the

discussion among the members of the country’s nationality.
6. The Organization Committee has a Chair who is selected by election among the members of
the committee.

The duration of the Chairmanship is 2 years, and re-election is limited to 2

times.
7. The Organization Committee nominates members of the Management Committee.

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8. The Organization Committee decides the activities of the association other than those shown
above, and entrusts it to the Management Committee, and other parties.

The Organization

Committee decides the place of the office of the Association.
9. The Organization Committee starts and terminates the Working Groups for the activities of
the association.
10. The Association Members includes personal members and group members.

The joining

and removal of a member needs approval by the Organizing Committee.
11. The membership fee is decided by the Organization Committee.
12. Amendment of this agreement requires the consent of 2/3 of its members.

The management of the mailing list and homepages were entrusted to Japan Institute ofEnergy.

The Steering Committee members from each country are shown inTable A1.3.1.

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Table A1.3.1 Steering Committee members
Country

Steering Committee member

Japan

Prof. Shin-ya Yokoyama*

Malaysia

Prof. Mohamad Ali Hassan

Philippines

Dr. Jessie Cansanay Elauria

Indonesia

Dr. Petrus Panaka

VietnamDr. Hai Nam Truong

China

Prof. Dehua Liu

ThailandDr. Paritud Bhandhubanyong

Korea

Dr. Jin-Suk Lee

TaiwanProf. Tzay-An Shiau

Laos

Mr. Bouathep Malaykham-238-

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A2. Kyoto Protocol
A2.1 The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The Parties to this Convention,
Acknowledging that change in the Earth's climate and its adverse effects are a common
concern of humankind,Concerned that human activities have been substantially increasing the atmosphericconcentrations of greenhouse gases, that these increases enhance the natural
greenhouse effect, and that this will result on average in an additional warming of the
Earth's surface and atmosphere and may adversely affect natural ecosystems andhumankind,
Noting that the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases
has originated in developed countries, that per capita emissions in developing
countries are still relatively low and that the share of global emissions originating indeveloping countries will grow to meet their social and development needs,
Aware of the role and importance in terrestrial and marine ecosystems of sinks and reservoirsof greenhouse gases,
Noting that there are many uncertainties in predictions of climate change, particularly withregard to the timing, magnitude and regional patterns thereof,
Acknowledging that the global nature of climate change calls for the widest possible
cooperation by all countries and their participation in an effective and appropriate
international response, in accordance with their common but differentiatedresponsibilities and respective capabilities and their social and economic conditions,
Recalling the pertinent provisions of the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on 16 June 1972,
Recalling also that States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and theprinciples of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources
pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the
responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause
damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction,
Reaffirming the principle of sovereignty of States in international cooperation to address
climate change,-239-

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Recognizing that States should enact effective environmental legislation, that environmental
standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental
and developmental context to which they apply, and that standards applied by somecountries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to othercountries, in particular developing countries,
Recalling the provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228 of 22 December 1989 on the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, and resolutions 43/53
of 6 December 1988, 44/207 of 22 December 1989, 45/212 of 21 December 1990 and
46/169 of 19 December 1991 on protection of global climate for present and future
generations of mankind,
Recalling also the provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/206 of 22 December 1989 on
the possible adverse effects of sea-level rise on islands and coastal areas, particularly
low-lying coastal areas and the pertinent provisions of General Assembly resolution
44/172 of 19 December 1989 on the implementation of the Plan of Action to Combat
Desertification,
Recalling further the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, and theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987, as adjusted andamended on 29 June 1990,
Noting the Ministerial Declaration of the Second World Climate Conference adopted on 7
November 1990,
Conscious of the valuable analytical work being conducted by many States on climate change
and of the important contributions of the World Meteorological Organization, theUnited Nations Environment Programme and other organs, organizations and bodiesof the United Nations system, as well as other international and intergovernmental
bodies, to the exchange of results of scientific research and the coordination ofresearch,
Recognizing that steps required to understand and address climate change will beenvironmentally, socially and economically most effective if they are based on relevantscientific, technical and economic considerations and continually re-evaluated in thelight of new findings in these areas,
Recognizing that various actions to address climate change can be justified economically intheir own right and can also help in solving other environmental problems,
Recognizing also the need for developed countries to take immediate action in a flexible
manner on the basis of clear priorities, as a first step towards comprehensive response
strategies at the global, national and, where agreed, regional levels that take into
account all greenhouse gases, with due consideration of their relative contributions to
the enhancement of the greenhouse effect,
Recognizing further that low-lying and other small island countries, countries with low-lying
coastal, arid and semi-arid areas or areas liable to floods, drought and desertification,-240-

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and developing countries with fragile mountainous ecosystems are particularly
vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change,
Recognizing the special difficulties of those countries, especially developing countries, whose
economies are particularly dependent on fossil fuel production, use and exportation,
as a consequence of action taken on limiting greenhouse gas emissions,Affirming that responses to climate change should be coordinated with social and economic
development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding adverse impacts on thelatter, taking into full account the legitimate priority needs of developing countries forthe achievement of sustained economic growth and the eradication of poverty,
Recognizing that all countries, especially developing countries, need access to resources
required to achieve sustainable social and economic development and that, in order for
developing countries to progress towards that goal, their energy consumption willneed to grow taking into account the possibilities for achieving greater energy
efficiency and for controlling greenhouse gas emissions in general, including throughthe application of new technologies on terms which make such an application
economically and socially beneficial,
Determined to protect the climate system for present and future generations,Have agreed as follows:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 1
DEFINITIONS*-------------------------------------------------------------------------------For the purposes of this Convention:
1. "Adverse effects of climate change" means changes in the physical environment or biota
resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on thecomposition, resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on theoperation of socio-economic systems or on human health and welfare.
2. "Climate change" means a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly tohuman activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is inaddition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
3. "Climate system" means the totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere andgeosphere and their interactions.
4. "Emissions" means the release of greenhouse gases and/or their precursors into theatmosphere over a specified area and period of time.

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5. "Greenhouse gases" means those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural andanthropogenic, that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation.
6. "Regional economic integration organization" means an organization constituted bysovereign States of a given region which has competence in respect of mattersgoverned by this Convention or its protocols and has been duly authorized, in
accordance with its internal procedures, to sign, ratify, accept, approve or accede to
the instruments concerned.
7. "Reservoir" means a component or components of the climate system where a greenhouse gas
or a precursor of a greenhouse gas is stored.
8. "Sink" means any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, anaerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
9. "Source" means any process or activity which releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or aprecursor of a greenhouse gas into the atmosphere.
* Titles of articles are included solely to assist the reader.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 2
OBJECTIVE-------------------------------------------------------------------------------The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that theConference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant
provisions of the Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in theatmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference withthe climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient toallow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production
is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable
manner.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 3
PRINCIPLES-------------------------------------------------------------------------------In their actions to achieve the objective of the Convention and to implement its provisions, theParties shall be guided, INTER ALIA, by the following:
1. The Parties should protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future
generations of humankind, on the basis of equity and in accordance with theircommon but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. Accordingly,-242-

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the developed country Parties should take the lead in combating climate change andthe adverse effects thereof.
2. The specific needs and special circumstances of developing country Parties, especially thosethat are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, and of thoseParties, especially developing country Parties, that would have to bear adisproportionate or abnormal burden under the Convention, should be given fullconsideration.
3. The Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize thecauses of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats ofserious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as areason for postponing such measures, taking into account that policies and measures
to deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at
the lowest possible cost. To achieve this, such policies and measures should take into
account different socio-economic contexts, be comprehensive, cover all relevant
sources, sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases and adaptation, and comprise all
economic sectors. Efforts to address climate change may be carried out cooperatively
by interested Parties.
4. The Parties have a right to, and should, promote sustainable development. Policies andmeasures to protect the climate system against human-induced change should beappropriate for the specific conditions of each Party and should be integrated withnational development programmes, taking into account that economic development isessential for adopting measures to address climate change.
5. The Parties should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic
system that would lead to sustainable economic growth and development in all Parties,
particularly developing country Parties, thus enabling them better to address the
problems of climate change. Measures taken to combat climate change, including
unilateral ones, should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable
discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 4
COMMITMENTS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their
specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances,
shall:(a) Develop, periodically update, publish and make available to the Conference of the Parties,
in accordance with Article 12, national inventories of anthropogenic emissions bysources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal
Protocol, using comparable methodologies to be agreed upon by the Conference of theParties;-243-

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(b) Formulate, implement, publish and regularly update national and, where appropriate,
regional programmes containing measures to mitigate climate change by addressing
anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases notcontrolled by the Montreal Protocol, and measures to facilitate adequate adaptation toclimate change;(c) Promote and cooperate in the development, application and diffusion, including transfer, oftechnologies, practices and processes that control, reduce or prevent anthropogenic
emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol in all relevant
sectors, including the energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste
management sectors;(d) Promote sustainable management, and promote and cooperate in the conservation andenhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of all greenhouse gases notcontrolled by the Montreal Protocol, including biomass, forests and oceans as well asother terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems;(e) Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change; develop andelaborate appropriate and integrated plans for coastal zone management, water
resources and agriculture, and for the protection and rehabilitation of areas,
particularly in Africa, affected by drought and desertification, as well as floods;(f) Take climate change considerations into account, to the extent feasible, in their relevantsocial, economic and environmental policies and actions, and employ appropriate
methods, for example impact assessments, formulated and determined nationally,
with a view to minimizing adverse effects on the economy, on public health and on thequality of the environment, of projects or measures undertaken by them to mitigate oradapt to climate change;(g) Promote and cooperate in scientific, technological, technical, socio-economic and otherresearch, systematic observation and development of data archives related to theclimate system and intended to further the understanding and to reduce or eliminate
the remaining uncertainties regarding the causes, effects, magnitude and timing ofclimate change and the economic and social consequences of various response
strategies;(h) Promote and cooperate in the full, open and prompt exchange of relevant scientific,
technological, technical, socio-economic and legal information related to the climate
system and climate change, and to the economic and social consequences of various
response strategies;(i) Promote and cooperate in education, training and public awareness related to climatechange and encourage the widest participation in this process, including that of nongovernmental organizations; and(j) Communicate to the Conference of the Parties information related to implementation, in
accordance with Article 12.

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2. The developed country Parties and other Parties included in Annex I commit themselves
specifically as provided for in the following:(a) Each of these Parties shall adopt national1 policies and take corresponding measures on the
mitigation of climate change, by limiting its anthropogenic emissions of greenhousegases and protecting and enhancing its greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs. These
policies and measures will demonstrate that developed countries are taking the leadin modifying longer-term trends in anthropogenic emissions consistent with theobjective of the Convention, recognizing that the return by the end of the present
decade to earlier levels of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and othergreenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol would contribute to suchmodification, and taking into account the differences in these Parties' starting points
and approaches, economic structures and resource bases, the need to maintain strong
and sustainable economic growth, available technologies and other individual
circumstances, as well as the need for equitable and appropriate contributions by eachof these Parties to the global effort regarding that objective. These Parties may
implement such policies and measures jointly with other Parties and may assist otherParties in contributing to the achievement of the objective of the Convention and, inparticular, that of this subparagraph;(b) In order to promote progress to this end, each of these Parties shall communicate, within six
months of the entry into force of the Convention for it and periodically thereafter, andin accordance with Article 12, detailed information on its policies and measuresreferred to in subparagraph (a) above, as well as on its resulting projected
anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases notcontrolled by the Montreal Protocol for the period referred to in subparagraph (a),with the aim of returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels theseanthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases not controlled
by the Montreal Protocol. This information will be reviewed by the Conference of theParties, at its first session and periodically thereafter, in accordance with Article 7;(c) Calculations of emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases for the
purposes of subparagraph (b) above should take into account the best available
scientific knowledge, including of the effective capacity of sinks and the respective
contributions of such gases to climate change. The Conference of the Parties shallconsider and agree on methodologies for these calculations at its first session andreview them regularly thereafter;(d) The Conference of the Parties shall, at its first session, review the adequacy of
subparagraphs (a) and (b) above. Such review shall be carried out in the light of thebest available scientific information and assessment on climate change and its
impacts, as well as relevant technical, social and economic information. Based on thisreview, the Conference of the Parties shall take appropriate action, which may include
the adoption of amendments to the commitments in subparagraphs (a) and (b) above.
The Conference of the Parties, at its first session, shall also take decisions regarding
criteria for joint implementation as indicated in subparagraph (a) above. A second
review of subparagraphs (a) and (b) shall take place not later than 31 December 1998,
and thereafter at regular intervals determined by the Conference of the Parties, until
the objective of the Convention is met;

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(e) Each of these Parties shall :i) Coordinate as appropriate with other such Parties, relevant economic and administrative
instruments developed to achieve the objective of the Convention; and(ii) Identify and periodically review its own policies and practices which encourage activities
that lead to greater levels of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases notcontrolled by the Montreal Protocol than would otherwise occur;(f) The Conference of the Parties shall review, not later than 31 December 1998, available
information with a view to taking decisions regarding such amendments to the lists inAnnexes I and II as may be appropriate, with the approval of the Party concerned;(g) Any Party not included in Annex I may, in its instrument of ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession, or at any time thereafter, notify the Depositary that it intends
to be bound by subparagraphs (a) and (b) above. The Depositary shall inform the othersignatories and Parties of any such notification.
3. The developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II shallprovide new and additional financial resources to meet the agreed full costs incurredby developing country Parties in complying with their obligations under Article 12,
paragraph 1. They shall also provide such financial resources, including for thetransfer of technology, needed by the developing country Parties to meet the agreed
full incremental costs of implementing measures that are covered by paragraph 1 ofthis Article and that are agreed between a developing country Party and theinternational entity or entities referred to in Article 11, in accordance with that Article.
The implementation of these commitments shall take into account the need foradequacy and predictability in the flow of funds and the importance of appropriate
burden sharing among the developed country Parties.
4. The developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II shall also
assist the developing country Parties that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse
effects of climate change in meeting costs of adaptation to those adverse effects.
5. The developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II shall takeall practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, the transfer of,or access to, environmentally sound technologies and know-how to other Parties,
particularly developing country Parties, to enable them to implement the provisions of
the Convention. In this process, the developed country Parties shall support thedevelopment and enhancement of endogenous capacities and technologies ofdeveloping country Parties. Other Parties and organizations in a position to do so may
also assist in facilitating the transfer of such technologies.
6. In the implementation of their commitments under paragraph 2 above, a certain degree of
flexibility shall be allowed by the Conference of the Parties to the Parties included in
Annex I undergoing the process of transition to a market economy, in order to enhance
the ability of these Parties to address climate change, including with regard to thehistorical level of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the-246-

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Montreal Protocol chosen as a reference.
7. The extent to which developing country Parties will effectively implement theircommitments under the Convention will depend on the effective implementation by
developed country Parties of their commitments under the Convention related tofinancial resources and transfer of technology and will take fully into account that
economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding
priorities of the developing country Parties.
8. In the implementation of the commitments in this Article, the Parties shall give fullconsideration to what actions are necessary under the Convention, including actions
related to funding, insurance and the transfer of technology, to meet the specific needs
and concerns of developing country Parties arising from the adverse effects of climatechange and/or the impact of the implementation of response measures, especially on:(a) Small island countries;(b) Countries with low-lying coastal areas;(c) Countries with arid and semi-arid areas, forested areas and areas liable to forest decay;(d) Countries with areas prone to natural disasters;(e) Countries with areas liable to drought and desertification;(f) Countries with areas of high urban atmospheric pollution;(g) Countries with areas with fragile ecosystems, including mountainous ecosystems;(h) Countries whose economies are highly dependent on income generated from the production,
processing and export, and/or on consumption of fossil fuels and associatedenergy-intensive products; and(i) Land-locked and transit countries.
Further, the Conference of the Parties may take actions, as appropriate, with respect to thisparagraph.
9. The Parties shall take full account of the specific needs and special situations of the least
developed countries in their actions with regard to funding and transfer of technology.
10. The Parties shall, in accordance with Article 10, take into consideration in theimplementation of the commitments of the Convention the situation of Parties,
particularly developing country Parties, with economies that are vulnerable to theadverse effects of the implementation of measures to respond to climate change. Thisapplies notably to Parties with economies that are highly dependent on income
generated from the production, processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil
fuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for whichsuch Parties have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives.

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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 5
RESEARCH AND SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------In carrying out their commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1(g), the Parties shall:(a) Support and further develop, as appropriate, international and intergovernmental
programmes and networks or organizations aimed at defining, conducting, assessing
and financing research, data collection and systematic observation, taking into
account the need to minimize duplication of effort;(b) Support international and intergovernmental efforts to strengthen systematic observationand national scientific and technical research capacities and capabilities, particularly
in developing countries, and to promote access to, and the exchange of, data andanalyses thereof obtained from areas beyond national jurisdiction; and(c) Take into account the particular concerns and needs of developing countries and cooperate
in improving their endogenous capacities and capabilities to participate in the efforts
referred to in subparagraphs (a) and (b) above.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 6
EDUCATION, TRAINING AND PUBLIC AWARENESS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------In carrying out their commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1(i), the Parties shall:(a) Promote and facilitate at the national and, as appropriate, subregional and regional levels,and in accordance with national laws and regulations, and within their respective
capacities:(i) The development and implementation of educational and public awareness programmes on
climate change and its effects;(ii) Public access to information on climate change and its effects;(iii) Public participation in addressing climate change and its effects and developing adequate
responses; and(iv) Training of scientific, technical and managerial personnel.
(b) Cooperate in and promote, at the international level, and, where appropriate, using existingbodies:-248-

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(i) The development and exchange of educational and public awareness material on climatechange and its effects; and(ii) The development and implementation of education and training programmes, including thestrengthening of national institutions and the exchange or secondment of personnel totrain experts in this field, in particular for developing countries.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 7
CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. A Conference of the Parties is hereby established.
2. The Conference of the Parties, as the supreme body of this Convention, shall keep underregular review the implementation of the Convention and any related legal
instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt, and shall make, within its
mandate, the decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of theConvention. To this end, it shall:(a) Periodically examine the obligations of the Parties and the institutional arrangements
under the Convention, in the light of the objective of the Convention, the experience
gained in its implementation and the evolution of scientific and technologicalknowledge;(b) Promote and facilitate the exchange of information on measures adopted by the Parties toaddress climate change and its effects, taking into account the differing circumstances,
responsibilities and capabilities of the Parties and their respective commitments
under the Convention;(c) Facilitate, at the request of two or more Parties, the coordination of measures adopted bythem to address climate change and its effects, taking into account the differing
circumstances, responsibilities and capabilities of the Parties and their respective
commitments under the Convention;(d) Promote and guide, in accordance with the objective and provisions of the Convention, thedevelopment and periodic refinement of comparable methodologies, to be agreed on by
the Conference of the Parties, inter alia, for preparing inventories of greenhouse gas
emissions by sources and removals by sinks, and for evaluating the effectiveness ofmeasures to limit the emissions and enhance the removals of these gases;(e) Assess, on the basis of all information made available to it in accordance with the provisionsof the Convention, the implementation of the Convention by the Parties, the overall
effects of the measures taken pursuant to the Convention, in particularenvironmental, economic and social effects as well as their cumulative impacts andthe extent to which progress towards the objective of the Convention is being-249-

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achieved;(f) Consider and adopt regular reports on the implementation of the Convention and ensure
their publication;(g) Make recommendations on any matters necessary for the implementation of theConvention;(h) Seek to mobilize financial resources in accordance with Article 4, paragraphs 3, 4 and 5, andArticle 11;(i) Establish such subsidiary bodies as are deemed necessary for the implementation of theConvention;(j) Review reports submitted by its subsidiary bodies and provide guidance to them;(k) Agree upon and adopt, by consensus, rules of procedure and financial rules for itself and forany subsidiary bodies;(l) Seek and utilize, where appropriate, the services and cooperation of, and information
provided by, competent international organizations and intergovernmental andnon-governmental bodies; and(m) Exercise such other functions as are required for the achievement of the objective of theConvention as well as all other functions assigned to it under the Convention.
3. The Conference of the Parties shall, at its first session, adopt its own rules of procedure aswell as those of the subsidiary bodies established by the Convention, which shall
include decision-making procedures for matters not already covered by decisionmaking procedures stipulated in the Convention. Such procedures may include
specified majorities required for the adoption of particular decisions.
4. The first session of the Conference of the Parties shall be convened by the interim secretariat
referred to in Article 21 and shall take place not later than one year after the date ofentry into force of the Convention. Thereafter, ordinary sessions of the Conference of
the Parties shall be held every year unless otherwise decided by the Conference of theParties.
5. Extraordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties shall be held at such other times as
may be deemed necessary by the Conference, or at the written request of any Party,
provided that, within six months of the request being communicated to the Parties by
the secretariat, it is supported by at least one third of the Parties.
6. The United Nations, its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency, as
well as any State member thereof or observers thereto not Party to the Convention,
may be represented at sessions of the Conference of the Parties as observers. Any bodyor agency, whether national or international, governmental or non- governmental,
which is qualified in matters covered by the Convention, and which has informed thesecretariat of its wish to be represented at a session of the Conference of the Parties as-250-

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an observer, may be so admitted unless at least one third of the Parties present object.
The admission and participation of observers shall be subject to the rules of procedure
adopted by the Conference of the Parties.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 8
SECRETARIAT-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. A secretariat is hereby established.
2. The functions of the secretariat shall be:(a) To make arrangements for sessions of the Conference of the Parties and its subsidiarybodies established under the Convention and to provide them with services as
required;(b) To compile and transmit reports submitted to it;(c) To facilitate assistance to the Parties, particularly developing country Parties, on request, inthe compilation and communication of information required in accordance with theprovisions of the Convention;(d) To prepare reports on its activities and present them to the Conference of the Parties;(e) To ensure the necessary coordination with the secretariats of other relevant international
bodies;(f) To enter, under the overall guidance of the Conference of the Parties, into suchadministrative and contractual arrangements as may be required for the effective
discharge of its functions; and(g) To perform the other secretariat functions specified in the Convention and in any of its
protocols and such other functions as may be determined by the Conference of theParties.
3. The Conference of the Parties, at its first session, shall designate a permanent secretariat
and make arrangements for its functioning.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 9
SUBSIDIARY BODY FOR SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVICE-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. A subsidiary body for scientific and technological advice is hereby established to provide the-251-

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Conference of the Parties and, as appropriate, its other subsidiary bodies with timely
information and advice on scientific and technological matters relating to theConvention. This body shall be open to participation by all Parties and shall be
multidisciplinary. It shall comprise government representatives competent in therelevant field of expertise. It shall report regularly to the Conference of the Parties on
all aspects of its work.
2. Under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties, and drawing upon existing competentinternational bodies, this body shall:(a) Provide assessments of the state of scientific knowledge relating to climate change and its
effects;(b) Prepare scientific assessments on the effects of measures taken in the implementation of
the Convention;(c) Identify innovative, efficient and state-of-the-art technologies and know-how and advise on
the ways and means of promoting development and/or transferring such technologies;(d) Provide advice on scientific programmes, international cooperation in research anddevelopment related to climate change, as well as on ways and means of supporting
endogenous capacity-building in developing countries; and(e) Respond to scientific, technological and methodological questions that the Conference of theParties and its subsidiary bodies may put to the body.
3. The functions and terms of reference of this body may be further elaborated by the
Conference of the Parties.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 10
SUBSIDIARY BODY FOR IMPLEMENTATION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. A subsidiary body for implementation is hereby established to assist the Conference of theParties in the assessment and review of the effective implementation of theConvention. This body shall be open to participation by all Parties and comprisegovernment representatives who are experts on matters related to climate change. It
shall report regularly to the Conference of the Parties on all aspects of its work.
2. Under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties, this body shall:(a) Consider the information communicated in accordance with Article 12, paragraph 1, toassess the overall aggregated effect of the steps taken by the Parties in the light of thelatest scientific assessments concerning climate change;(b) Consider the information communicated in accordance with Article 12, paragraph 2, in-252-

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order to assist the Conference of the Parties in carrying out the reviews required by
Article 4, paragraph 2(d); and(c) Assist the Conference of the Parties, as appropriate, in the preparation and implementationof its decisions.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 11
FINANCIAL MECHANISM-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. A mechanism for the provision of financial resources on a grant or concessional basis,including for the transfer of technology, is hereby defined. It shall function under theguidance of and be accountable to the Conference of the Parties, which shall decide on
its policies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria related to this Convention. Its
operation shall be entrusted to one or more existing international entities.
2. The financial mechanism shall have an equitable and balanced representation of all Parties
within a transparent system of governance.
3. The Conference of the Parties and the entity or entities entrusted with the operation of thefinancial mechanism shall agree upon arrangements to give effect to the above
paragraphs, which shall include the following:(a) Modalities to ensure that the funded projects to address climate change are in conformity
with the policies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria established by the
Conference of the Parties;(b) Modalities by which a particular funding decision may be reconsidered in light of thesepolicies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria;(c) Provision by the entity or entities of regular reports to the Conference of the Parties on its
funding operations, which is consistent with the requirement for accountability set
out in paragraph 1 above; and(d) Determination in a predictable and identifiable manner of the amount of funding necessary
and available for the implementation of this Convention and the conditions underwhich that amount shall be periodically reviewed.
4. The Conference of the Parties shall make arrangements to implement the above- mentioned
provisions at its first session, reviewing and taking into account the interim
arrangements referred to in Article 21, paragraph 3, and shall decide whether theseinterim arrangements shall be maintained. Within four years thereafter, theConference of the Parties shall review the financial mechanism and take appropriate
measures.
5. The developed country Parties may also provide and developing country Parties avail-253-

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themselves of, financial resources related to the implementation of the Convention
through bilateral, regional and other multilateral channels.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 12
COMMUNICATION OF INFORMATION RELATED TO IMPLEMENTATION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. In accordance with Article 4, paragraph 1, each Party shall communicate to the Conferenceof the Parties, through the secretariat, the following elements of information:(a) A national inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all
greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, to the extent its capacities
permit, using comparable methodologies to be promoted and agreed upon by the
Conference of the Parties;(b) A general description of steps taken or envisaged by the Party to implement the Convention;and(c) Any other information that the Party considers relevant to the achievement of the objectiveof the Convention and suitable for inclusion in its communication, including, if
feasible, material relevant for calculations of global emission trends.
2. Each developed country Party and each other Party included in Annex I shall incorporate inits communication the following elements of information:(a) A detailed description of the policies and measures that it has adopted to implement its
commitment under Article 4, paragraphs 2(a) and 2(b); and(b) A specific estimate of the effects that the policies and measures referred to in subparagraph(a) immediately above will have on anthropogenic emissions by its sources andremovals by its sinks of greenhouse gases during the period referred to in Article 4,paragraph 2(a).
3. In addition, each developed country Party and each other developed Party included in Annex
II shall incorporate details of measures taken in accordance with Article 4,paragraphs 3, 4 and 5.
4. Developing country Parties may, on a voluntary basis, propose projects for financing,including specific technologies, materials, equipment, techniques or practices thatwould be needed to implement such projects, along with, if possible, an estimate of all
incremental costs, of the reductions of emissions and increments of removals ofgreenhouse gases, as well as an estimate of the consequent benefits.
5. Each developed country Party and each other Party included in Annex I shall make its initialcommunication within six months of the entry into force of the Convention for that
Party. Each Party not so listed shall make its initial communication within three-254-

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years of the entry into force of the Convention for that Party, or of the availability offinancial resources in accordance with Article 4, paragraph 3. Parties that are least
developed countries may make their initial communication at their discretion. The
frequency of subsequent communications by all Parties shall be determined by the
Conference of the Parties, taking into account the differentiated timetable set by thisparagraph.
6. Information communicated by Parties under this Article shall be transmitted by thesecretariat as soon as possible to the Conference of the Parties and to any subsidiarybodies concerned. If necessary, the procedures for the communication of information
may be further considered by the Conference of the Parties.
7. From its first session, the Conference of the Parties shall arrange for the provision todeveloping country Parties of technical and financial support, on request, in compilingand communicating information under this Article, as well as in identifying thetechnical and financial needs associated with proposed projects and response
measures under Article 4. Such support may be provided by other Parties, bycompetent international organizations and by the secretariat, as appropriate.
8. Any group of Parties may, subject to guidelines adopted by the Conference of the Parties, andto prior notification to the Conference of the Parties, make a joint communication in
fulfilment of their obligations under this Article, provided that such a communication
includes information on the fulfilment by each of these Parties of its individual
obligations under the Convention.
9. Information received by the secretariat that is designated by a Party as confidential, in
accordance with criteria to be established by the Conference of the Parties, shall beaggregated by the secretariat to protect its confidentiality before being made available
to any of the bodies involved in the communication and review of information.
10. Subject to paragraph 9 above, and without prejudice to the ability of any Party to makepublic its communication at any time, the secretariat shall make communications by
Parties under this Article publicly available at the time they are submitted to theConference of the Parties.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 13
RESOLUTION OF QUESTIONS REGARDING IMPLEMENTATION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Conference of the Parties shall, at its first session, consider the establishment of amultilateral consultative process, available to Parties on their request, for the
resolution of questions regarding the implementation of the Convention.
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SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. In the event of a dispute between any two or more Parties concerning the interpretation orapplication of the Convention, the Parties concerned shall seek a settlement of the
dispute through negotiation or any other peaceful means of their own choice.
2. When ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to the Convention, or at any time
thereafter, a Party which is not a regional economic integration organization may
declare in a written instrument submitted to the Depositary that, in respect of any
dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the Convention, it recognizes
as compulsory ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any Party
accepting the same obligation:(a) Submission of the dispute to the International Court of Justice, and/or(b) Arbitration in accordance with procedures to be adopted by the Conference of the Parties assoon as practicable, in an annex on arbitration.
A Party which is a regional economic integration organization may make a declaration withlike effect in relation to arbitration in accordance with the procedures referred to in
subparagraph (b) above.
3. A declaration made under paragraph 2 above shall remain in force until it expires inaccordance with its terms or until three months after written notice of its revocation
has been deposited with the Depositary.
4. A new declaration, a notice of revocation or the expiry of a declaration shall not in any way
affect proceedings pending before the International Court of Justice or the arbitral
tribunal, unless the parties to the dispute otherwise agree.
5. Subject to the operation of paragraph 2 above, if after twelve months following notification
by one Party to another that a dispute exists between them, the Parties concerned
have not been able to settle their dispute through the means mentioned in paragraph
1 above, the dispute shall be submitted, at the request of any of the parties to thedispute, to conciliation.
6. A conciliation commission shall be created upon the request of one of the parties to thedispute. The commission shall be composed of an equal number of members appointed
by each party concerned and a chairman chosen jointly by the members appointed byeach party. The commission shall render a recommendatory award, which the parties
shall consider in good faith.
7. Additional procedures relating to conciliation shall be adopted by the Conference of theParties, as soon as practicable, in an annex on conciliation.
8. The provisions of this Article shall apply to any related legal instrument which the-256-

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Conference of the Parties may adopt, unless the instrument provides otherwise.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 15
AMENDMENTS TO THE CONVENTION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Any Party may propose amendments to the Convention.
2. Amendments to the Convention shall be adopted at an ordinary session of the Conference of
the Parties. The text of any proposed amendment to the Convention shall be
communicated to the Parties by the secretariat at least six months before the meetingat which it is proposed for adoption. The secretariat shall also communicate proposed
amendments to the signatories to the Convention and, for information, to the
Depositary.
3. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on any proposed amendment to theConvention by consensus. If all efforts at consensus have been exhausted, and noagreement reached, the amendment shall as a last resort be adopted by athree-fourths majority vote of the Parties present and voting at the meeting. The
adopted amendment shall be communicated by the secretariat to the Depositary, whoshall circulate it to all Parties for their acceptance.
4. Instruments of acceptance in respect of an amendment shall be deposited with the
Depositary. An amendment adopted in accordance with paragraph 3 above shall enter
into force for those Parties having accepted it on the ninetieth day after the date ofreceipt by the Depositary of an instrument of acceptance by at least three fourths of
the Parties to the Convention.
5. The amendment shall enter into force for any other Party on the ninetieth day after the dateon which that Party deposits with the Depositary its instrument of acceptance of thesaid amendment.
6. For the purposes of this Article, "Parties present and voting" means Parties present andcasting an affirmative or negative vote.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 16
ADOPTION AND AMENDMENT OF ANNEXES TO THE CONVENTION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. Annexes to the Convention shall form an integral part thereof and, unless otherwise
expressly provided, a reference to the Convention constitutes at the same time areference to any annexes thereto. Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 14,
paragraphs 2(b) and 7, such annexes shall be restricted to lists, forms and any other-257-

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material of a descriptive nature that is of a scientific, technical, procedural oradministrative character.
2. Annexes to the Convention shall be proposed and adopted in accordance with the procedure
set forth in Article 15, paragraphs 2, 3 and 4.
3. An annex that has been adopted in accordance with paragraph 2 above shall enter into force
for all Parties to the Convention six months after the date of the communication by
the Depositary to such Parties of the adoption of the annex, except for those Parties
that have notified the Depositary, in writing, within that period of their
non-acceptance of the annex. The annex shall enter into force for Parties whichwithdraw their notification of non-acceptance on the ninetieth day after the date on
which withdrawal of such notification has been received by the Depositary.
4. The proposal, adoption and entry into force of amendments to annexes to the Convention
shall be subject to the same procedure as that for the proposal, adoption and entry
into force of annexes to the Convention in accordance with paragraphs 2 and 3 above.
5.If the adoption of an annex or an amendment to an annex involves an amendment to theConvention, that annex or amendment to an annex shall not enter into force until
such time as the amendment to the Convention enters into force.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 17
PROTOCOLS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. The Conference of the Parties may, at any ordinary session, adopt protocols to theConvention.
2. The text of any proposed protocol shall be communicated to the Parties by the secretariat atleast six months before such a session.
3. The requirements for the entry into force of any protocol shall be established by that
instrument.
4. Only Parties to the Convention may be Parties to a protocol.
5. Decisions under any protocol shall be taken only by the Parties to the protocol concerned.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 18
RIGHT TO VOTE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------258-

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1. Each Party to the Convention shall have one vote, except as provided for in paragraph 2
below.
2. Regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall
exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of theirmember States that are Parties to the Convention. Such an organization shall not
exercise its right to vote if any of its member States exercises its right, and vice versa.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 19
DEPOSITARY-------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be the Depositary of the Convention and of
protocols adopted in accordance with Article 17.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 20
SIGNATURE-------------------------------------------------------------------------------This Convention shall be open for signature by States Members of the United Nations or of anyof its specialized agencies or that are Parties to the Statute of the International Courtof Justice and by regional economic integration organizations at Rio de Janeiro,
during the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, andthereafter at United Nations Headquarters in New York from 20 June 1992 to 19 June
1993.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 21
INTERIM ARRANGEMENTS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. The secretariat functions referred to in Article 8 will be carried out on an interim basis by
the secretariat established by the General Assembly of the United Nations in its
resolution 45/212 of 21 December 1990, until the completion of the first session of theConference of the Parties.
2. The head of the interim secretariat referred to in paragraph 1 above will cooperate closelywith the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to ensure that the Panel can
respond to the need for objective scientific and technical advice. Other relevantscientific bodies could also be consulted.

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3. The Global Environment Facility of the United Nations Development Programme, theUnited Nations Environment Programme and the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development shall be the international entity entrusted with theoperation of the financial mechanism referred to in Article 11 on an interim basis. In
this connection, the Global Environment Facility should be appropriately restructured
and its membership made universal to enable it to fulfil the requirements of Article
11.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 22
RATIFICATION, ACCEPTANCE, APPROVAL OR ACCESSION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. The Convention shall be subject to ratification, acceptance, approval or accession by States
and by regional economic integration organizations. It shall be open for accession fromthe day after the date on which the Convention is closed for signature. Instruments ofratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall be deposited with the Depositary.
2. Any regional economic integration organization which becomes a Party to the Convention
without any of its member States being a Party shall be bound by all the obligations
under the Convention. In the case of such organizations, one or more of whose member
States is a Party to the Convention, the organization and its member States shalldecide on their respective responsibilities for the performance of their obligations
under the Convention. In such cases, the organization and the member States shallnot be entitled to exercise rights under the Convention concurrently.
3. In their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, regional economic
integration organizations shall declare the extent of their competence with respect tothe matters governed by the Convention. These organizations shall also inform the
Depositary, who shall in turn inform the Parties, of any substantial modification in
the extent of their competence.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 23
ENTRY INTO FORCE-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. The Convention shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit of thefiftieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
2. For each State or regional economic integration organization that ratifies, accepts orapproves the Convention or accedes thereto after the deposit of the fiftieth instrumentof ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, the Convention shall enter into force
on the ninetieth day after the date of deposit by such State or regional economic
integration organization of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or-260-

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accession.
3. For the purposes of paragraphs 1 and 2 above, any instrument deposited by a regional
economic integration organization shall not be counted as additional to those
deposited by States members of the organization.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 24
RESERVATIONS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------No reservations may be made to the Convention.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 25
WITHDRAWAL-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. At any time after three years from the date on which the Convention has entered into force
for a Party, that Party may withdraw from the Convention by giving written
notification to the Depositary.
2. Any such withdrawal shall take effect upon expiry of one year from the date of receipt by the
Depositary of the notification of withdrawal, or on such later date as may be specified
in the notification of withdrawal.
3. Any Party that withdraws from the Convention shall be considered as also having
withdrawn from any protocol to which it is a Party.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ARTICLE 26
AUTHENTIC TEXTS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------The original of this Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian andSpanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary- General of
the United Nations.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized to that effect, have signed
this Convention.
DONE at New York this ninth day of May one thousand nine hundred and ninety- two.

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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------ANNEX I AND ANNEX II COUNTRIES
Annex I
Australia
Austria
Belarus*Belgium
Bulgaria*
CanadaCzechoslovakia*
Denmark
European Economic Community
Estonia*
FinlandFranceGermany
GreeceHungary*
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Latvia*Lithuania*
Luxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
NorwayPoland*Portugal
Romania*
Russian Federation*
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
TurkeyUkraine*United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
United States of America*Countries that are undergoing the process of transition to a market economy.
Annex II
Australia
Austria
Belgium-262-

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CanadaDenmark
European Economic Community
FinlandFranceGermany
GreeceIceland
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Luxembourg
Netherlands
New Zealand
NorwayPortugal
Spain
SwedenSwitzerland
TurkeyUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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A2.2 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change
The Parties to this Protocol,
Being Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, hereinafterreferred to as "the Convention",
In pursuit of the ultimate objective of the Convention as stated in its Article 2,
Recalling the provisions of the Convention,
Being guided by Article 3 of the Convention,
Pursuant to the Berlin Mandate adopted by decision 1/CP.1 of theConference of the Parties to the Convention at its first session,
Have agreed as follows:

Article 1
For the purposes of this Protocol, the definitions contained in Article 1 of the Convention shallapply. In addition:
1. "Conference of the Parties" means the Conference of the Parties to the Convention.
2. "Convention" means the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
adopted in New York on 9 May 1992.
3. "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" means the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change established in 1988 jointly by the World Meteorological Organization and the-264-

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United Nations Environment Programme.
4. "Montreal Protocol" means the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer, adopted in Montreal on 16 September 1987 and as subsequently adjusted and amended.
5. "Parties present and voting" means Parties present and casting an affirmative or negative
vote.
6. "Party" means, unless the context otherwise indicates, a Party to this Protocol.
7. "Party included in Annex I" means a Party included in Annex I to the Convention, as may beamended, or a Party which has made a notification under Article 4, paragraph 2(g), of theConvention.

Article 2
1. Each Party included in Annex I, in achieving its quantified emission limitation andreduction commitments under Article 3, in order to promote sustainable development, shall:(a) Implement and/or further elaborate policies and measures in accordance with its national
circumstances, such as:(i) Enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors of the national economy;(ii) Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases not controlled by
the Montreal Protocol, taking into account its commitments under relevant international
environmental

agreements;

promotionofsustainable

forestmanagement

practices,

afforestation and reforestation;(iii) Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change considerations;(iv) Research on, and promotion, development and increased use of, new and renewable formsof energy, of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of advanced and innovative-265-

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environmentally sound technologies;(v) Progressive reduction or phasing out of market imperfections, fiscal incentives, tax and duty
exemptions and subsidies in all greenhouse gas emitting sectors that run counter to theobjective of the Convention and application of market instruments;(vi) Encouragement of appropriate reforms in relevant sectors aimed at promoting policies andmeasures which limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal
Protocol;(vii) Measures to limit and/or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases not controlled by theMontreal Protocol in the transport sector;(viii) Limitation and/or reduction of methane emissions through recovery and use in waste
management, as well as in the production, transport and distribution of energy;(b) Cooperate with other such Parties to enhance the individual and combined effectiveness of
their policies and measures adopted under this Article, pursuant to Article 4, paragraph 2(e)(i),of the Convention. To this end, these Parties shall take steps to share their experience andexchange information on such policies and measures, including developing ways of improving
their comparability, transparency and effectiveness. The Conference of the Parties serving as
the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable
thereafter, consider ways to facilitate such cooperation, taking into account all relevant
information.
2. The Parties included in Annex I shall pursue limitation or reduction of emissions ofgreenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol from aviation and marine bunker
fuels, working through the International Civil Aviation Organization and the International
Maritime Organization, respectively.
3. The Parties included in Annex I shall strive to implement policies and measures under this
Article in such a way as to minimize adverse effects, including the adverse effects of climatechange, effects on international trade, and social, environmental and economic impacts on-266-

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other Parties, especially developing country Parties and in particular those identified in Article
4, paragraphs 8 and 9, of the Convention, taking into account Article 3 of the Convention. The
Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol may takefurther action, as appropriate, to promote the implementation of the provisions of thisparagraph.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, if it
decides that it would be beneficial to coordinate any of the policies and measures in paragraph1(a) above, taking into account different national circumstances and potential effects, shallconsider ways and means to elaborate the coordination of such policies and measures.

Article 3
1. The Parties included in Annex I shall, individually or jointly, ensure that their aggregate
anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A
do not exceed their assigned amounts, calculated pursuant to their quantified emission
limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with theprovisions of this Article, with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by atleast 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.
2. Each Party included in Annex I shall, by 2005, have made demonstrable progress inachieving its commitments under this Protocol.
3. The net changes in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks resulting
from direct human-induced land-use change and forestry activities, limited to afforestation,
reforestation and deforestation since 1990, measured as verifiable changes in carbon stocks ineach commitment period, shall be used to meet the commitments under this Article of eachParty included in Annex I. The greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks
associated with those activities shall be reported in a transparent and verifiable manner andreviewed in accordance with Articles 7 and 8.
4. Prior to the first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol, each Party included in Annex I shall provide, for consideration by the-267-

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Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, data to establish its level of carbon
stocks in 1990 and to enable an estimate to be made of its changes in carbon stocks insubsequent years. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to thisProtocol shall, at its first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, decide upon modalities,
rules and guidelines as to how, and which, additional human-induced activities related tochanges in greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks in the agricultural soils
and the land-use change and forestry categories shall be added to, or subtracted from, theassigned amounts for Parties included in Annex I, taking into account uncertainties,
transparency in reporting, verifiability, the methodological work of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, the advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for Scientific andTechnological Advice in accordance with Article 5 and the decisions of the Conference of theParties. Such a decision shall apply in the second and subsequent commitment periods. A Party
may choose to apply such a decision on these additional human-induced activities for its firstcommitment period, provided that these activities have taken place since 1990.
5. The Parties included in Annex I undergoing the process of transition to a market economy
whose base year or period was established pursuant to decision 9/CP.2 of the Conference of theParties at its second session shall use that base year or period for the implementation of theircommitments under this Article. Any other Party included in Annex I undergoing the process oftransition to a market economy which has not yet submitted its first national communication
under Article 12 of the Convention may also notify the Conference of the Parties serving as themeeting of the Parties to this Protocol that it intends to use an historical base year or period
other than 1990 for the implementation of its commitments under this Article. The Conferenceof the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall decide on theacceptance of such notification.
6. Taking into account Article 4, paragraph 6, of the Convention, in the implementation of theircommitments under this Protocol other than those under this Article, a certain degree of
flexibility shall be allowed by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol to the Parties included in Annex I undergoing the process of transition
to a market economy.
7. In the first quantified emission limitation and reduction commitment period, from 2008 to-268-

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2012, the assigned amount for each Party included in Annex I shall be equal to the percentage
inscribed for it in Annex B of its aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissionsof the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A in 1990, or the base year or period determined inaccordance with paragraph 5 above, multiplied by five. Those Parties included in Annex I for
whom land-use change and forestry constituted a net source of greenhouse gas emissions in1990 shall include in their 1990 emissions base year or period the aggregate anthropogenic
carbon dioxide equivalent emissions by sources minus removals by sinks in 1990 from land-use
change for the purposes of calculating their assigned amount.
8. Any Party included in Annex I may use 1995 as its base year for hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride, for the purposes of the calculation referred to inparagraph 7 above.
9. Commitments for subsequent periods for Parties included in Annex I shall be established inamendments to Annex B to this Protocol, which shall be adopted in accordance with theprovisions of Article 21, paragraph 7. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of
the Parties to this Protocol shall initiate the consideration of such commitments at least sevenyears before the end of the first commitment period referred to in paragraph 1 above.
10. Any emission reduction units, or any part of an assigned amount, which a Party acquires
from another Party in accordance with the provisions of Article 6 or of Article 17 shall be added
to the assigned amount for the acquiring Party.
11. Any emission reduction units, or any part of an assigned amount, which a Party transfers toanother Party in accordance with the provisions of Article 6 or of Article 17 shall be subtracted
from the assigned amount for the transferring Party.
12. Any certified emission reductions which a Party acquires from another Party in accordancewith the provisions of Article 12 shall be added to the assigned amount for the acquiring Party.
13. If the emissions of a Party included in Annex I in a commitment period are less than its
assigned amount under this Article, this difference shall, on request of that Party, be added tothe assigned amount for that Party for subsequent commitment periods.

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14. Each Party included in Annex I shall strive to implement the commitments mentioned inparagraph 1 above in such a way as to minimize adverse social, environmental and economic
impacts on developing country Parties, particularly those identified in Article 4, paragraphs 8
and 9, of the Convention. In line with relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties on theimplementation of those paragraphs, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of
the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its first session, consider what actions are necessary tominimize the adverse effects of climate change and/or the impacts of response measures on
Parties referred to in those paragraphs. Among the issues to be considered shall be theestablishment of funding, insurance and transfer of technology.

Article 4
1. Any Parties included in Annex I that have reached an agreement to fulfil their commitments
under Article 3 jointly, shall be deemed to have met those commitments provided that their
total combined aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhousegases listed in Annex A do not exceed their assigned amounts calculated pursuant to theirquantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and inaccordance with the provisions of Article 3. The respective emission level allocated to each of
the Parties to the agreement shall be set out in that agreement.
2. The Parties to any such agreement shall notify the secretariat of the terms of the agreementon the date of deposit of their instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval of thisProtocol, or accession thereto. The secretariat shall in turn inform the Parties and signatories
to the Convention of the terms of the agreement.
3. Any such agreement shall remain in operation for the duration of the commitment period
specified in Article 3, paragraph 7.
4. If Parties acting jointly do so in the framework of, and together with, a regional economic
integration organization, any alteration in the composition of the organization after adoption ofthis Protocol shall not affect existing commitments under this Protocol. Any alteration in thecomposition of the organization shall only apply for the purposes of those commitments under
Article 3 that are adopted subsequent to that alteration.

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5. In the event of failure by the Parties to such an agreement to achieve their total combinedlevel of emission reductions, each Party to that agreement shall be responsible for its own levelof emissions set out in the agreement.
6. If Parties acting jointly do so in the framework of, and together with, a regional economic
integration organization which is itself a Party to this Protocol, each member State of that
regional economic integration organization individually, and together with the regional
economic integration organization acting in accordance with Article 24, shall, in the event of
failure to achieve the total combined level of emission reductions, be responsible for its level ofemissions as notified in accordance with this Article.

Article 5
1. Each Party included in Annex I shall have in place, no later than one year prior to the startof the first commitment period, a national system for the estimation of anthropogenic
emissions by sources and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by theMontreal Protocol. Guidelines for such national systems, which shall incorporate themethodologies specified in paragraph 2 below, shall be decided upon by the Conference of theParties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol at its first session.
2. Methodologies for estimating anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of
all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol shall be those accepted by theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties
at its third session. Where such methodologies are not used, appropriate adjustments shall beapplied according to methodologies agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties serving as themeeting of the Parties to this Protocol at its first session. Based on the work of, inter alia, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for
Scientific and Technological Advice, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol shall regularly review and, as appropriate, revise such methodologies
and adjustments, taking fully into account any relevant decisions by the Conference of theParties. Any revision to methodologies or adjustments shall be used only for the purposes ofascertaining compliance with commitments under Article 3 in respect of any commitment
period adopted subsequent to that revision.

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3. The global warming potentials used to calculate the carbon dioxide equivalence ofanthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases listed in Annex
A shall be those accepted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and agreed uponby the Conference of the Parties at its third session. Based on the work of, inter alia, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and advice provided by the Subsidiary Body for
Scientific and Technological Advice, the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol shall regularly review and, as appropriate, revise the global warming
potential of each such greenhouse gas, taking fully into account any relevant decisions by the
Conference of the Parties. Any revision to a global warming potential shall apply only tocommitments under Article 3 in respect of any commitment period adopted subsequent to thatrevision.

Article 6
1. For the purpose of meeting its commitments under Article 3, any Party included in Annex I
may transfer to, or acquire from, any other such Party emission reduction units resulting fromprojects aimed at reducing anthropogenic emissions by sources or enhancing anthropogenic
removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in any sector of the economy, provided that:(a) Any such project has the approval of the Parties involved;(b) Any such project provides a reduction in emissions by sources, or an enhancement ofremovals by sinks, that is additional to any that would otherwise occur;(c) It does not acquire any emission reduction units if it is not in compliance with its obligations
under Articles 5 and 7; and(d) The acquisition of emission reduction units shall be supplemental to domestic actions forthe purposes of meeting commitments under Article 3.
2. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol may, atits first session or as soon as practicable thereafter, further elaborate guidelines for the
implementation of this Article, including for verification and reporting.

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3. A Party included in Annex I may authorize legal entities to participate, under its
responsibility, in actions leading to the generation, transfer or acquisition under this Article ofemission reduction units.
4. If a question of implementation by a Party included in Annex I of the requirements referred
to in this Article is identified in accordance with the relevant provisions of Article 8, transfers
and acquisitions of emission reduction units may continue to be made after the question has
been identified, provided that any such units may not be used by a Party to meet its
commitments under Article 3 until any issue of compliance is resolved.

Article 7
1. Each Party included in Annex I shall incorporate in its annual inventory of anthropogenic
emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal
Protocol, submitted in accordance with the relevant decisions of the Conference of the Parties,
the necessary supplementary information for the purposes of ensuring compliance with Article
3, to be determined in accordance with paragraph 4 below.
2. Each Party included in Annex I shall incorporate in its national communication, submitted
under Article 12 of the Convention, the supplementary information necessary to demonstratecompliance with its commitments under this Protocol, to be determined in accordance withparagraph 4 below.
3. Each Party included in Annex I shall submit the information required under paragraph 1
above annually, beginning with the first inventory due under the Convention for the first yearof the commitment period after this Protocol has entered into force for that Party. Each such
Party shall submit the information required under paragraph 2 above as part of the firstnational communication due under the Convention after this Protocol has entered into force forit and after the adoption of guidelines as provided for in paragraph 4 below. The frequency ofsubsequent submission of information required under this Article shall be determined by the
Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, taking into
account any timetable for the submission of national communications decided upon by the
Conference of the Parties.

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4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shalladopt at its first session, and review periodically thereafter, guidelines for the preparation of
the information required under this Article, taking into account guidelines for the preparationof national communications by Parties included in Annex I adopted by the Conference of theParties. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol
shall also, prior to the first commitment period, decide upon modalities for the accounting of
assigned amounts.

Article 8
1. The information submitted under Article 7 by each Party included in Annex I shall be
reviewed by expert review teams pursuant to the relevant decisions of the Conference of theParties and in accordance with guidelines adopted for this purpose by the Conference of theParties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol under paragraph 4 below. The
information submitted under Article 7, paragraph 1, by each Party included in Annex I shall be
reviewed as part of the annual compilation and accounting of emissions inventories andassigned amounts. Additionally, the information submitted under Article 7, paragraph 2, byeach Party included in Annex I shall be reviewed as part of the review of communications.
2. Expert review teams shall be coordinated by the secretariat and shall be composed of experts
selected from those nominated by Parties to the Convention and, as appropriate, byintergovernmental organizations, in accordance with guidance provided for this purpose by the
Conference of the Parties.
3. The review process shall provide a thorough and comprehensive technical assessment of all
aspects of the implementation by a Party of this Protocol. The expert review teams shallprepare a report to the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to thisProtocol, assessing the implementation of the commitments of the Party and identifying any
potential problems in, and factors influencing, the fulfilment of commitments. Such reports
shall be circulated by the secretariat to all Parties to the Convention. The secretariat shall list
those questions of implementation indicated in such reports for further consideration by the
Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.

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4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shalladopt at its first session, and review periodically thereafter, guidelines for the review of
implementation of this Protocol by expert review teams taking into account the relevant
decisions of the Conference of the Parties.
5. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall,with the assistance of the Subsidiary Body for Implementation and, as appropriate, theSubsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, consider:(a) The information submitted by Parties under Article 7 and the reports of the expert reviews
thereon conducted under this Article; and(b) Those questions of implementation listed by the secretariat under paragraph 3 above, as
well as any questions raised by Parties.
6. Pursuant to its consideration of the information referred to in paragraph 5 above, theConference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall takedecisions on any matter required for the implementation of this Protocol.

Article 9
1. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shallperiodically review this Protocol in the light of the best available scientific information andassessments on climate change and its impacts, as well as relevant technical, social andeconomic information. Such reviews shall be coordinated with pertinent reviews under theConvention, in particular those required by Article 4, paragraph 2(d), and Article 7, paragraph2(a), of the Convention. Based on these reviews, the Conference of the Parties serving as themeeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall take appropriate action.
2. The first review shall take place at the second session of the Conference of the Parties
serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. Further reviews shall take place atregular intervals and in a timely manner.

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Article 10
All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their
specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, without
introducing any new commitments for Parties not included in Annex I, but reaffirming existingcommitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, and continuing to advance theimplementation of these commitments in order to achieve sustainable development, taking into
account Article 4, paragraphs 3, 5 and 7, of the Convention, shall:(a) Formulate, where relevant and to the extent possible, cost-effective national and, whereappropriate, regional programmes to improve the quality of local emission factors, activity data
and/or models which reflect the socio-economic conditions of each Party for the preparation andperiodic updating of national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals
by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, using comparable
methodologies to be agreed upon by the Conference of the Parties, and consistent with theguidelines for the preparation of national communications adopted by the Conference of theParties;(b) Formulate, implement, publish and regularly update national and, where appropriate,
regional programmes containing measures to mitigate climate change and measures tofacilitate adequate adaptation to climate change:(i) Such programmes would, inter alia, concern the energy, transport and industry sectors aswell as agriculture, forestry and waste management. Furthermore, adaptation technologies
and methods for improving spatial planning would improve adaptation to climate change; and(ii) Parties included in Annex I shall submit information on action under this Protocol,
including national programmes, in accordance with Article 7; and other Parties shall seek toinclude in their national communications, as appropriate, information on programmes whichcontain measures that the Party believes contribute to addressing climate change and its
adverse impacts, including the abatement of increases in greenhouse gas emissions, andenhancement of and removals by sinks, capacity building and adaptation measures;(c) Cooperate in the promotion of effective modalities for the development, application and-276-

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diffusion of, and take all practicable steps to promote, facilitate and finance, as appropriate, thetransfer of, or access to, environmentally sound technologies, know-how, practices andprocesses pertinent to climate change, in particular to developing countries, including theformulation of policies and programmes for the effective transfer of environmentally soundtechnologies that are publicly owned or in the public domain and the creation of an enabling
environment for the private sector, to promote and enhance the transfer of, and access to,environmentally sound technologies;(d) Cooperate in scientific and technical research and promote the maintenance and thedevelopment of systematic observation systems and development of data archives to reduce
uncertainties related to the climate system, the adverse impacts of climate change and theeconomic and social consequences of various response strategies, and promote the development
and strengthening of endogenous capacities and capabilities to participate in international andintergovernmental efforts, programmes and networks on research and systematic observation,
taking into account Article 5 of the Convention;(e) Cooperate in and promote at the international level, and, where appropriate, using existingbodies, the development and implementation of education and training programmes, including
the strengthening of national capacity building, in particular human and institutional
capacities and the exchange or secondment of personnel to train experts in this field, inparticular for developing countries, and facilitate at the national level public awareness of, andpublic access to information on, climate change. Suitable modalities should be developed to
implement these activities through the relevant bodies of the Convention, taking into account
Article 6 of the Convention;(f) Include in their national communications information on programmes and activities
undertaken pursuant to this Article in accordance with relevant decisions of the Conference of
the Parties; and(g) Give full consideration, in implementing the commitments under this Article, to Article 4,paragraph 8, of the Convention.

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Article 11
1. In the implementation of Article 10, Parties shall take into account the provisions of Article 4,paragraphs 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9, of the Convention.
2. In the context of the implementation of Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention, in
accordance with the provisions of Article 4, paragraph 3, and Article 11 of the Convention, andthrough the entity or entities entrusted with the operation of the financial mechanism of theConvention, the developed country Parties and other developed Parties included in Annex II to
the Convention shall:(a) Provide new and additional financial resources to meet the agreed full costs incurred bydeveloping country Parties in advancing the implementation of existing commitments under
Article 4, paragraph 1(a), of the Convention that are covered in Article 10, subparagraph (a);and(b) Also provide such financial resources, including for the transfer of technology, needed by thedeveloping country Parties to meet the agreed full incremental costs of advancing theimplementation of existing commitments under Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention thatare covered by Article 10 and that are agreed between a developing country Party and theinternational entity or entities referred to in Article 11 of the Convention, in accordance withthat Article.
The implementation of these existing commitments shall take into account the need foradequacy and predictability in the flow of funds and the importance of appropriate burden
sharing among developed country Parties. The guidance to the entity or entities entrusted withthe operation of the financial mechanism of the Convention in relevant decisions of theConference of the Parties, including those agreed before the adoption of this Protocol, shallapply mutatis mutandis to the provisions of this paragraph.
3. The developed country Parties and other developed Parties in Annex II to the Convention
may also provide, and developing country Parties avail themselves of, financial resources forthe implementation of Article 10, through bilateral, regional and other multilateral channels.

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Article 12
1. A clean development mechanism is hereby defined.
2. The purpose of the clean development mechanism shall be to assist Parties not included in
Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of
the Convention, and to assist Parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with theirquantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3.
3. Under the clean development mechanism:(a) Parties not included in Annex I will benefit from project activities resulting in certified
emission reductions; and(b) Parties included in Annex I may use the certified emission reductions accruing from suchproject activities to contribute to compliance with part of their quantified emission limitation
and reduction commitments under Article 3, as determined by the Conference of the Parties
serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
4. The clean development mechanism shall be subject to the authority and guidance of theConference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol and besupervised by an executive board of the clean development mechanism.
5. Emission reductions resulting from each project activity shall be certified by operational
entities to be designated by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties
to this Protocol, on the basis of:(a) Voluntary participation approved by each Party involved;(b) Real, measurable, and long-term benefits related to the mitigation of climate change; and(c) Reductions in emissions that are additional to any that would occur in the absence of thecertified project activity.

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6. The clean development mechanism shall assist in arranging funding of certified project
activities as necessary.
7. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at
its first session, elaborate modalities and procedures with the objective of ensuringtransparency, efficiency and accountability through independent auditing and verification ofproject activities.
8. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shallensure that a share of the proceeds from certified project activities is used to coveradministrative expenses as well as to assist developing country Parties that are particularly
vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change to meet the costs of adaptation.
9. Participation under the clean development mechanism, including in activities mentioned inparagraph 3(a) above and in the acquisition of certified emission reductions, may involve
private and/or public entities, and is to be subject to whatever guidance may be provided by the
executive board of the clean development mechanism.
10. Certified emission reductions obtained during the period from the year 2000 up to thebeginning of the first commitment period can be used to assist in achieving compliance in thefirst commitment period.

Article 13
1. The Conference of the Parties, the supreme body of the Convention, shall serve as themeeting of the Parties to this Protocol.
2. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Protocol may participate as observers
in the proceedings of any session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol. When the Conference of the Parties serves as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol, decisions under this Protocol shall be taken only by those that are
Parties to this Protocol.

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3. When the Conference of the Parties serves as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, any
member of the Bureau of the Conference of the Parties representing a Party to the Convention
but, at that time, not a Party to this Protocol, shall be replaced by an additional member to beelected by and from amongst the Parties to this Protocol.
4. The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shallkeep under regular review the implementation of this Protocol and shall make, within its
mandate, the decisions necessary to promote its effective implementation. It shall perform thefunctions assigned to it by this Protocol and shall:(a) Assess, on the basis of all information made available to it in accordance with the provisionsof this Protocol, the implementation of this Protocol by the Parties, the overall effects of themeasures taken pursuant to this Protocol, in particular environmental, economic and social
effects as well as their cumulative impacts and the extent to which progress towards theobjective of the Convention is being achieved;(b) Periodically examine the obligations of the Parties under this Protocol, giving due
consideration to any reviews required by Article 4, paragraph 2(d), and Article 7, paragraph 2,of the Convention, in the light of the objective of the Convention, the experience gained in its
implementation and the evolution of scientific and technological knowledge, and in this respectconsider and adopt regular reports on the implementation of this Protocol;(c) Promote and facilitate the exchange of information on measures adopted by the Parties toaddress climate change and its effects, taking into account the differing circumstances,
responsibilities and capabilities of the Parties and their respective commitments under thisProtocol;(d) Facilitate, at the request of two or more Parties, the coordination of measures adopted bythem to address climate change and its effects, taking into account the differing circumstances,
responsibilities and capabilities of the Parties and their respective commitments under thisProtocol;(e) Promote and guide, in accordance with the objective of the Convention and the provisions of-281-

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this Protocol, and taking fully into account the relevant decisions by the Conference of theParties, the development and periodic refinement of comparable methodologies for the effective
implementation of this Protocol, to be agreed on by the Conference of the Parties serving as themeeting of the Parties to this Protocol;(f) Make recommendations on any matters necessary for the implementation of this Protocol;(g) Seek to mobilize additional financial resources in accordance with
Article 11, paragraph 2;(h) Establish such subsidiary bodies as are deemed necessary for the implementation of thisProtocol;(i) Seek and utilize, where appropriate, the services and cooperation of, and information
providedby,competentinternationalorganizations

andintergovernmental

andnon-governmental bodies; and(j) Exercise such other functions as may be required for the implementation of this Protocol,and consider any assignment resulting from a decision by the Conference of the Parties.
5. The rules of procedure of the Conference of the Parties and financial procedures applied
under the Convention shall be applied mutatis mutandis under this Protocol, except as may beotherwise decided by consensus by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol.
6. The first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to thisProtocol shall be convened by the secretariat in conjunction with the first session of theConference of the Parties that is scheduled after the date of the entry into force of this Protocol.
Subsequent ordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol shall be held every year and in conjunction with ordinary sessions of
the Conference of the Parties, unless otherwise decided by the Conference of the Parties
serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol.

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7. Extraordinary sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties
to this Protocol shall be held at such other times as may be deemed necessary by the
Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol, or at thewritten request of any Party, provided that, within six months of the request being
communicated to the Parties by the secretariat, it is supported by at least one third of theParties.
8. The United Nations, its specialized agencies and the International Atomic Energy
Agency, as well as any State member thereof or observers thereto not party to the Convention,
may be represented at sessions of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of theParties to this Protocol as observers. Any body or agency, whether national or international,
governmental or non-governmental, which is qualified in matters covered by this Protocol andwhich has informed the secretariat of its wish to be represented at a session of the Conferenceof the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol as an observer, may be so
admitted unless at least one third of the Parties present object. The admission andparticipation of observers shall be subject to the rules of procedure, as referred to in paragraph
5 above.

Article 14
1. The secretariat established by Article 8 of the Convention shall serve as the secretariat ofthis Protocol.
2. Article 8, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the functions of the secretariat, and Article 8,paragraph 3, of the Convention on arrangements made for the functioning of the secretariat,
shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Protocol. The secretariat shall, in addition, exercise thefunctions assigned to it under this Protocol.

Article 15
1. The Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for
Implementation established by Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention shall serve as, respectively,-283-

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the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for
Implementation of this Protocol. The provisions relating to the functioning of these two bodies
under the Convention shall apply mutatis mutandis to this Protocol. Sessions of the meetingsof the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for
Implementation of this Protocol shall be held in conjunction with the meetings of, respectively,
the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and the Subsidiary Body for
Implementation of the Convention.
2. Parties to the Convention that are not Parties to this Protocol may participate as observers
in the proceedings of any session of the subsidiary bodies. When the subsidiary bodies serve as
the subsidiary bodies of this Protocol, decisions under this Protocol shall be taken only by thosethat are Parties to this Protocol.
3. When the subsidiary bodies established by Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention exercise theirfunctions with regard to matters concerning this Protocol, any member of the Bureaux of thosesubsidiary bodies representing a Party to the Convention but, at that time, not a party to thisProtocol, shall be replaced by an additional member to be elected by and from amongst theParties to this Protocol.

Article 16
The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, as
soon as practicable, consider the application to this Protocol of, and modify as appropriate, themultilateral consultative process referred to in Article 13 of the Convention, in the light of any
relevant decisions that may be taken by the Conference of the Parties. Any multilateral
consultative process that may be applied to this Protocol shall operate without prejudice to theprocedures and mechanisms established in accordance with Article 18.

Article 17
The Conference of the Parties shall define the relevant principles, modalities, rules andguidelines, in particular for verification, reporting and accountability for emissions trading.
The Parties included in Annex B may participate in emissions trading for the purposes of-284-

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fulfilling their commitments under Article 3. Any such trading shall be supplemental todomestic actions for the purpose of meeting quantified emission limitation and reduction
commitments under that Article.

Article 18
The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol shall, at its
first session, approve appropriate and effective procedures and mechanisms to determine andto address cases of non-compliance with the provisions of this Protocol, including through thedevelopment of an indicative list of consequences, taking into account the cause, type, degreeand frequency of non-compliance. Any procedures and mechanisms under this Article entailingbinding consequences shall be adopted by means of an amendment to this Protocol.

Article 19
The provisions of Article 14 of the Convention on settlement of disputes shall apply mutatis
mutandis to this Protocol.

Article 20
1. Any Party may propose amendments to this Protocol.
2. Amendments to this Protocol shall be adopted at an ordinary session of the Conference of theParties serving as the meeting of the Parties to this Protocol. The text of any proposed
amendment to this Protocol shall be communicated to the Parties by the secretariat at least six
months before the meeting at which it is proposed for adoption. The secretariat shall also
communicate the text of any proposed amendments to the Parties and signatories to theConvention and, for information, to the Depositary.
3. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on any proposed amendment to thisProtocol by consensus. If all efforts at consensus have been exhausted, and no agreement
reached, the amendment shall as a last resort be adopted by a three-fourths majority vote of
the Parties present and voting at the meeting. The adopted amendment shall be communicated-285-

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by the secretariat to the Depositary, who shall circulate it to all Parties for their acceptance.
4. Instruments of acceptance in respect of an amendment shall be deposited with the
Depositary. An amendment adopted in accordance with paragraph 3 above shall enter into
force for those Parties having accepted it on the ninetieth day after the date of receipt by the
Depositary of an instrument of acceptance by at least three fourths of the Parties to thisProtocol.
5. The amendment shall enter into force for any other Party on the ninetieth day after the dateon which that Party deposits with the Depositary its instrument of acceptance of the said
amendment.

Article 21
1. Annexes to this Protocol shall form an integral part thereof and, unless otherwise expressly
provided, a reference to this Protocol constitutes at the same time a reference to any annexes
thereto. Any annexes adopted after the entry into force of this Protocol shall be restricted tolists, forms and any other material of a descriptive nature that is of a scientific, technical,
procedural or administrative character.
2. Any Party may make proposals for an annex to this Protocol and may propose amendments
to annexes to this Protocol.
3. Annexes to this Protocol and amendments to annexes to this Protocol shall be adopted at an
ordinary session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to thisProtocol. The text of any proposed annex or amendment to an annex shall be communicated to
the Parties by the secretariat at least six months before the meeting at which it is proposed for
adoption. The secretariat shall also communicate the text of any proposed annex oramendment to an annex to the Parties and signatories to the Convention and, for information,
to the Depositary.

4. The Parties shall make every effort to reach agreement on any proposed annex oramendment to an annex by consensus. If all efforts at consensus have been exhausted, and no-286-

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agreement reached, the annex or amendment to an annex shall as a last resort be adopted by athree-fourths majority vote of the Parties present and voting at the meeting. The adopted
annex or amendment to an annex shall be communicated by the secretariat to the Depositary,
who shall circulate it to all Parties for their acceptance.
5. An annex, or amendment to an annex other than Annex A or B, that has been adopted inaccordance with paragraphs 3 and 4 above shall enter into force for all Parties to this Protocol
six months after the date of the communication by the Depositary to such Parties of the
adoption of the annex or adoption of the amendment to the annex, except for those Parties thathave notified the Depositary, in writing, within that period of their non-acceptance of the annex
or amendment to the annex. The annex or amendment to an annex shall enter into force forParties which withdraw their notification of non-acceptance on the ninetieth day after the dateon which withdrawal of such notification has been received by the Depositary.
6. If the adoption of an annex or an amendment to an annex involves an amendment to thisProtocol, that annex or amendment to an annex shall not enter into force until such time as theamendment to this Protocol enters into force.
7. Amendments to Annexes A and B to this Protocol shall be adopted and enter into force inaccordance with the procedure set out in Article 20, provided that any amendment to Annex B
shall be adopted only with the written consent of the Party concerned.

Article 22
1. Each Party shall have one vote, except as provided for in paragraph 2 below.
2. Regional economic integration organizations, in matters within their competence, shall
exercise their right to vote with a number of votes equal to the number of their member Statesthat are Parties to this Protocol. Such an organization shall not exercise its right to vote if anyof its member States exercises its right, and vice versa.

Article 23
The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall be the Depositary of this Protocol.

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Article 24
1. This Protocol shall be open for signature and subject to ratification, acceptance or approvalby States and regional economic integration organizations which are Parties to the Convention.
It shall be open for signature at United Nations Headquarters in New York from
16 March 1998 to 15 March 1999. This Protocol shall be open for accession from the day after
the date on which it is closed for signature. Instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval oraccession shall be deposited with the Depositary.
2. Any regional economic integration organization which becomes a Party to this Protocol
without any of its member States being a Party shall be bound by all the obligations under thisProtocol. In the case of such organizations, one or more of whose member States is a Party tothis Protocol, the organization and its member States shall decide on their respective
responsibilities for the performance of their obligations under this Protocol. In such cases, theorganization and the member States shall not be entitled to exercise rights under this Protocol
concurrently.
3. In their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, regional economic
integration organizations shall declare the extent of their competence with respect to thematters governed by this Protocol. These organizations shall also inform the Depositary, whoshall in turn inform the Parties, of any substantial modification in the extent of theircompetence.

Article 25
1. This Protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than
55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in
total for at least 55 per cent of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties
included in Annex I, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval oraccession.

2. For the purposes of this Article, "the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties
included in Annex I" means the amount communicated on or before the date of adoption of this-288-

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Protocol by the Parties included in Annex I in their first national communications submitted inaccordance with Article 12 of the Convention.
3. For each State or regional economic integration organization that ratifies, accepts orapproves this Protocol or accedes thereto after the conditions set out in paragraph 1 above forentry into force have been fulfilled, this Protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day
following the date of deposit of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
4. For the purposes of this Article, any instrument deposited by a regional economic integration
organization shall not be counted as additional to those deposited by States members of theorganization.

Article 26
No reservations may be made to this Protocol.

Article 27
1. At any time after three years from the date on which this Protocol has entered into force for a
Party, that Party may withdraw from this Protocol by giving written notification to the
Depositary.
2. Any such withdrawal shall take effect upon expiry of one year from the date of receipt by the
Depositary of the notification of withdrawal, or on such later date as may be specified in the
notification of withdrawal.
3. Any Party that withdraws from the Convention shall be considered as also having
withdrawn from this Protocol.

Article 28
The original of this Protocol, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and-289-

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Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of theUnited Nations.
DONE at Kyoto this eleventh day of December one thousand nine hundred and ninety-seven.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized to that effect, have affixed
their signatures to this Protocol on the dates indicated.

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Annex A

Annex B

Australia

Quantified emission limitation or
reduction commitment (percentage
of base year or period)
108

Austria

92

Belgium

92

Bulgaria*

92

Canada94

Croatia*
Czech
Republic*
Denmark

95

Greenhouse gases
Party

Carbon dioxide (CO2)Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Sectors/source categories
EnergyFuel combustion
Energy industries
Manufacturingindustries

92
92
92

Other sectors

Estonia*
EuropeanCommunity
FinlandOther

France92

Fugitive emissions from fuels

Germany

92

Solid fuels

Greece92

Oil and natural gas

Hungary*

94

Other

Iceland110

Industrial processes

Ireland

92

Italy

92

Japan

94

Latvia*92

Liechtenstein

92

Lithuania*

92

Luxembourg

92

Monaco92

Netherlands

92

New Zealand

100

Norway101

Poland*94

Portugal

92

Romania*
RussianFederation*
Slovakia*

92

and construction
Transport

Mineral products
Chemical industry
Metal production
Other production
Productionofhalocarbons

and sulphur hexafluoride
Consumption of halocarbons
and sulphur hexafluoride
Other
Solvent and other product use
AgricultureEnteric fermentation
Manure management
Rice cultivation
Agricultural soils
Prescribedburning

of

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92

92

100
92

Asian Biomass Handbook

savannas

Slovenia*

92

Field burning of agricultural

Spain

92

residues

Sweden92

Other

Switzerland
92
Ukraine*100
UnitedKingdomofGreat Britain
92
and Northern
IrelandUnited States
93
of America* Countries that are undergoing the process oftransition to a market economy.

Waste
Solid waste disposal on land
Wastewater handling
Waste incineration
Other

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A3. Statistics on Asian Countries
Representative statistic data of the Asian countries for which data was available is shownin TableA3.1.1.

Table A3.1.1 Statistics on Asian countries.

(As of 2003)

GDP

Population

Primary energy CO2 emission[GUSD]*1[M]*2

consumption[Mt-C]*4[Mtoe]*3
Brunei

5

0.3

3

2

168

215

118

91

Japan

4,876

128

517

336

Korea

586

48

205

124

Malaysia

99

25

54

41

Philippines

85

82

32

19

P. R. China

1,375

1,288

1,190

1,127

Singapore

93

4

22

14

Taipei, Chinese

314

23

98

69.6

Thailand

141

62

74

58

Vietnam

38

81

21

17

9,246

3,467

2,783

2,280

DarussalamIndonesia

Whole Asia
*1billion US dollar*2

million people*3

million ton oil equivalent*4

million ton as C

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A4. Unit Conversion
Literatures of biomass is found in many fields, and sometimes, unfamiliar units are used.
Since utilization of SI unit is recommended, SI unit is explained first, and then conversion withother units is explained in this part.

If you can read Japanese, books by Koizumi and Ebihara

are useful.

A4.1 SI Unit System
Utilization of SI Unit Systems was recommended at the International at the General
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960, and many countries including Japan officiallyemploys this unit system.

SI unit system is composed of seven base units, and derived units,

which are derived by combining these base units.
power of 10 to be multiplied to the base unit.

Table A4.1.1

It also employs prefixes to express integer

The following are the list of these units.

SI base units

Base quantity

Symbol (name)Base quantity

Symbol (name)

Lengthm (meter)

Thermodynamic
temperature

K (kelvin)Mass

kg (kilogram)Amount ofsubstancemol (mole)Times (second)

Luminous intensity

cd (candela)Electric current

A (ampere)-294-

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Table A4.1.2

Units for angles

Base quantity

Symbol (name)

Plane angle

rad (radian)

Solid anglesr (steradian)*1 To understand the concept of solid angle, consider the light emitted from aflash light.

How wide the light is emitted it the solid angle.

Considering a

sphere with radius R whose center is the light source, 1 sr of solid angle is thewideness of the light when the light forms area or R2 on the sphere.
*2 These units were originally supplementary units, but became derived units
in 1995.

Table A4.1.3 Representative SI derived units
Base quantity

Symbol (name)

Expression in terms of SI base
units

Force

N (newton)

m kg s-2

Pressure

Pa (pascal)

N m-2 = m-1 kg s-2

Energy, work

J (joule)

N m = m2 kg s-2

Power

W (watt)

J s-1 = m2 kg s-3-295-

Asian Biomass Handbook

TableA4. 1.4

SI prefixes

Symbol (name)FactorSymbol (name)Factorda (deca)101d (deci)

10-1

h (hector)

102

c (centi)

10-2

k (kilo)103

m (milli)

10-3

M (mega)106(micro)10-6

G (giga)109

n (nano)10-9

T (tera)1012

p (pico)10-12

P (peta)1015

f (femto)

10-15

E (exa)1018

a (atto)10-18

Z (zetta)1021

z (zepto)

10-21

Y (yotta)1024

y (yocto)

10-24*1 When possible, choose a prefix so that preceding number falls in 0.1-1000.

For example,

50 pm is recommended, not 0.05 nm.
*2 The base unit of mass is "kg", but the prefix is added to "g".

For example, 29 mg is used,not 20 mkg.
*3 To produce derived units formed from multiple units, only on prefix is used.
example, 20 kg/m2 is used, not 20 kg/m2.

For

The exception is “kg.” For example, 21 MJ/kg

is used, not 21 kJ/g.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A4.2 Unit conversion
Although using SI unit system is recommended, in the field of energy, traditional unit suchas “barrel” or “ton oil equivalent” are often used even today.

Conversion of unit is also needed

when reading old literature.
When a quantity in one unit is to be expressed in another unit, a conversion formula isneeded.

For example, temperature in oC TC is converted to temperature in K TK by thefollowing formula.

TK = TC + 273.15
When the conversion formula takes the form of the proportional equation, theproportionality constant is called conversion factor.

For example, in the conversion formula

to convert length in in (inch) to length in m (meter)

L m = 2.54 × 10 −2 L in ,the conversion factor is 2.54 × 10 −2 m/in .
To convert derived units formed from multiple units, substitute the original unit with thecorresponding conversion formulae.

For example, to convert 1 500 ft/h to a value in m/s,

1 ft = 3.048 × 10 −1 m and 1 h = 3 600 s are used as follows.

()()= (1 500 ) (3.048 × 10 ) (3 600) m/s

1 500 ft/h = 1 500 3.048 × 10 −1 m 3 600 s−1= 0.127 m/s
To convert an equation expressed in one unit system to the equation expressed in anotherunit system, substitute the conversion formulae to the variables in the equation.

For example,

when the following formula for water vapor pressure-297-

Asian Biomass Handbook

ln ( pTorr ) = 18.30363 −

3816.44
227.02 + TC

is to be converted to SI unit systems, the conversion forumulae

pTorr = 7.50062 × 10 −3 p Pa

TC = TK − 273.15
are substituted.

Then,

(

)

ln 7.50062 × 10 −3 p Pa = 18.30363 −(

3816.44
227.02 + (TK − 273.15))

ln 7.50062 × 10 −3 + ln p Pa = 18.30363 −(

3816.44
227.02 − 273.15 + TK

.44
) 227.023816− 273.15 + T

ln p Pa = 18.30363 − ln 7.50062 × 10 −3 −Kand finally,ln p Pa = 23.1964 −

3816.44− 46.13 + TK

is obtained.
In the following pages are shown the tables of conversion factors.
shows the same quantity.
3.9370E+01 and so on.

The horizontal line

Fortran expression is employed where 3.937×101 is expressed as

For example, the first line of the Table A4.2.1 means

1 m = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 in
Table A4.2.1 Conversion factors for length
m

ft

in

1

3.2808E+00

3.9370E+01

3.0480E-01

11.2000E+01

2.5400E-02

8.3333E-02

1

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A4.2.2 Conversion factors for area
m2

km2

a

ha

acre

mu (畝)*1

tan (反)*2

tsubo (坪)*3

11.0000E-06

1.0000E-02

1.0000E-04

2.4711E-04

1.5000E-03

1.0083E-03

3.0248E-01

1.0000E+06

11.0000E+04

1.0000E+02

2.4711E+02

1.5000E+03

1.0083E+03

3.0248E+05

1.0000E+02

1.0000E-04

11.0000E-02

2.4711E-02

1.5000E-01

1.0083E-01

3.0248E+01

1.0000E+04

1.0000E-02

1.0000E+02

12.4711E+00

1.5000E+01

1.0083E+01

3.0248E+03

4.0468E+03

4.0468E-03

4.0468E+01

4.0468E-01

1

6.0702E+00

4.0805E+00

1.2241E+03

6.6667E+02

6.6667E-04

6.6667E+00

6.6667E-02

1.6474E-01

1

6.7222E-01

2.0165E+02

9.9174E+02

9.9174E-04

9.9174E+00

9.9174E-02

2.4507E-01

1.4876E+00

1

2.9998E+02

3.3060E+00

3.3060E-06

3.3060E-02

3.3060E-04

8.1694E-04

4.9590E-03

3.3335E-03

1*1 Traditional Chinese unit.
*2 Traditional Japanese units: 1 cho (町) = 10 tan (反), 1 tan (反) = 10 se (畝).
*3 For the case of rice field and forest, 1 tsubo is called 1 bu (歩).

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A4.2.3 Conversion factors for massKgtshort tonlong ton(tn)(l.tn)

lb (pound)oz (ounce)kan(貫, Japanese)

11.0000E-03

1.1023E-03

9.8421E-04

2.2046E+00

3.5274E+01

2.6667E-01

1.0000E+03

11.1023E+00

9.8421E-01

2.2046E+03

3.5274E+04

2.6667E+02

9.0719E+02

9.0719E-01

1

8.9286E-01

2.0000E+03

3.2000E+04

2.4192E+02

1.0160E+03

1.0160E+00

1.1200E+00

12.2400E+03

3.5840E+04

2.7095E+02

4.5359E-01

4.5359E-04

5.0000E-04

4.4643E-04

11.6000E+01

1.2096E-01

2.8349E-02

2.8349E-05

3.1250E-05

2.7902E-05

6.2500E-02

17.5600E-03

3.7500E+00

3.7500E-03

4.1336E-03

3.6907E-03

8.2672E+00

1.3228E+02

1

Short ton is used in US.

Long ton is used in UK.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A4.2.4 Conversion factors for volume
m3

L

ft3

US gallon

UK gallon

bbl

koku (石)*111.0000E+03

3.5315E+01

2.6417E+02

2.1997E+02

6.2898E+00

5.5440E+03

1.0000E-03

13.5315E-02

2.6417E-01

2.1997E-01

6.2898E-03

5.5440E+00

2.8317E-02

2.8317E+01

1

7.4805E+00

6.2288E+00

1.7811E-01

1.5699E+02

3.7854E-03

3.7854E+00

1.3368E-01

1

8.3267E-01

2.3810E-02

2.0986E+01

4.5461E-03

4.5461E+00

1.6054E-01

1.2010E+00

12.8594E-02

2.5204E+01

1.5899E-01

1.5899E+02

5.6146E+00

4.2000E+01

3.4972E+01

18.8143E+02

1.8038E-04

1.8038E-01

6.3699E-03

4.7650E-02

3.9677E-02

1.1345E-03

1*1 Traditional Japanese units: 1 koku (石) = 100 sho (升).
*2 Sometimes, the amount of gaseous substance is expressed using the unit of volume with “N”.
the amount of substance in the gas of the stated volume at normal state (0oC, 1.013x105 Pa).

This amount corresponds to

For example, gas of 22.4 Nm3

corresponds to 1 kmol.
*3 For liter, “L” is recommended to distinguish from “I (capital i)” and “1 (one)”.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A4.2.5 Conversion factors for energy (1)JkWhkcalIT

KcalJPkL oilequivalentt oilequivalent12.7778E-07

2.3885E-04

2.3889E-04

2.5826E-11

2.3885E-11

3.6000E+06

18.5984E+02

8.6000E+02

9.2973E-05

8.5984E-05

4.1868E+03

1.1630E-03

11.0002E+00

1.0813E-07

1.0000E-07

4.1860E+03

1.1628E-03

9.9982E-01

1

1.0811E-07

9.9982E-08

3.8721E+10

1.0756E+04

9.2483E+06

9.2500E+06

19.2483E-01

4.1868E+10

1.1630E+04

1.0000E+07

1.0002E+07

1.0813E+00

1*1 Ton oil equivalent is abbreviated as TOE.
*2 To calculate the efficiency of process, especially when heat demand and electricity demand
are compared, the amount of electric energy is converted to the equivalent thermal energy bydividing it by power generation efficiency.

The efficiency used for this purpose should differ

from country to country, or depending on the case.

In Japan, governmental statistics employs

1 kWh = 9.42 MJ, assuming power generation efficiency of 38.1% for the case after 1971.

Table A4.2.6 Conversion factors for energy (2)
J

Btu

kgf m

ft lbfHP h

1

9.4782E-04

1.0197E-01

7.3750E-01

3.7417E-07

1.0551E+03

11.0759E+02

7.7810E+02

3.9477E-04

9.8066E+00

9.2948E-03

1

7.2324E+00

3.6693E-06

1.3559E+00

1.2852E-03

1.3827E-01

1

5.0734E-07

2.6726E+06

2.5331E+03

2.7253E+05

1.9710E+06

1

Btu stands for British thermal unit.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A4.2.7 Conversion factors for pressurePa

psi

kgf/cm2

atm

bar

Torr

1

1.4499E-04

1.0194E-05

9.8697E-06

1.0000E-05

7.5010E-03

6.8971E+03

17.0307E-02

6.8073E-02

6.8971E-02

5.1735E+01

9.8100E+04

1.4223E+01

19.6822E-01

9.8100E-01

7.3585E+02

1.0132E+05

1.4690E+01

1.0328E+00

11.0132E+00

7.6000E+02

1.0000E+05

1.4499E+01

1.0194E+00

9.8697E-01

1

7.5010E+02

1.3332E+02

1.9329E-02

1.3590E-03

1.3158E-03

1.3332E-03

1*1 1 Torr = 1mmHg.

Also expressed as torr, but since this unit is named after a person’s name

(Torricelli), capitalization is recommended.
*2 There are two expression of pressure: absolute and gauge.

The absolute and gaugepressures are expressed by adding A and G after the unit, respectivelyThe absolute pressure ismeasured from the absolute vacuum.
pressure.

The gauge pressure is measured from the atmosphericThus, the former is larger than the latter by 1 atm.

For example, 5 atmG = 6

atmA.

Gauge pressure
Absolute pressure
Atmospheric pressure

101.325 kPa

VacuumFig. 4.2.1 Absolute pressure and gauge pressure-303-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A4.2.8 Conversion factors for powerW

metric horseHP

kgf m/sft lb/sec

kcal/sec

power
1

1.3596E-03

1.3410E-03

1.0197E-01

7.3756E-01

2.3885E-04

7.3550E+02

19.8630E-01

7.5000E+01

5.4248E+02

1.7567E-01

7.4571E+02

1.0139E+00

17.6042E+01

5.5001E+02

1.7811E-01

9.8066E+00

1.3333E-02

1.3151E-02

17.2330E+00

2.3423E-03

1.3558E+00

1.8434E-03

1.8182E-03

1.3826E-01

1

3.2383E-04

4.1868E+03

5.6925E+00

5.6145E+00

4.2694E+02

3.0880E+03

1

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A4.3 Concentrations of alcohol and sugar
There exits various expression for the concentration of sugar and alcohol due to the tradition.
Ethanol production from sugar is an important technology for biomass use, but various units
are used from literature to literature.

Special caution should be taken when reading

literatures.

A4.3.1 Concentration of alcohol
The following units are used.
Molar concentraion: SI unit. Molar number of alcohol (ethanol) in 1 L of the solution.

The unit

is mol(-EtOH)/L(-solution). Sometimes it is expressed as “M”.
Molal concentration: SI unit. Molar number of alcohol in 1 kg of solvent.

The unit ismol(-EtOH)/kg(-solvent). Sometimes it is expressed as “m”.
Volumetric percentage: The ratio of volume of alcohol before mixing to the sum of the volumesof water and alcohol before mixing.

Because the volume decreases by mixing of water andalcohol, the volumes before mixing is employed as the base.
Proof (US): Used in US.

The unit is expressed as vol%.

The volumetric percentage is doubled.

Proof (British): Special measure with water being 100 proof under and pure alcohol being 75.1
proof over.

When the volumetric percentage is w, the value in this unit is (w/57.1)×100-100.

Namely, for the alcohol concentration of 57.1 vol %, the British proof is zero.

A4.3.2Concentration of sugar

Molar and molal concentration is defined in the same way as alcohol.

However, make clear

which sugar is stated; mol-glucose, total mole of sugars available for ethanol fermentation,
monomer only, or monomer equivalent for monoer, dimer, trimer, etc.
Weight percentage: percentage of weight of sugar in 1 kg of solution.

The unit is wt % ormass %.
Brix: The same as weight percentage.

However, this is not equivalent to the brix used as aunit of density.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A4.4 Temperature
Absolute temperatures and others are to be distinguished.

Absolute temperaturecorresponding to the Celusius temperature oC is K (kelvin), and that corresponding to the
Fahrenheit temperature oF is R (rankine).

Since they are not in proportional relation, thefollowing conversion formulae have to be used.

Table A4.4.1 shows the conversion formulae.

Table A4.4.1 Conversion formulae for temperature
Unit conversion

Conversion formulaeoC Æ K

TK = TC + 273.15

oC Æ oF

TF = 1.8 TC + 32

oC Æ RTR = 1.8 TC + 491.67

K Æ oCTC = TK - 273.15

K Æ oFTF = 1.8 TK-459.67

KÆRTR = 1.8 TK

oF Æ oC

TC = (5/9) (TF-32)

oF Æ K

TK = (5/9) (TF+459.67)

oF Æ RTR = TF + 459.67

R Æ oCTC = (5/9) TR -273.15

RÆK

TK = (5/9) TRR Æ oFTF = TR - 459.67-306-

Asian Biomass Handbook

A4.5 Heating values (See also Chap. 2.4)
Heating values are the amount of heat that is released when an organic compound iscompletely burned.

Depending on the state of product water, i.e. steam or liquid water, thevalue differs by the latent heat.

When the product water is in the form of steam, theheating value is smaller, and called lower heating value (LHV).

When the product water isin the form of liquid, the heating value is called higher heating value (HHV).

It is always to

be noted which heating value is used, and proper heating value should be used depending on
the situation.

These heating values are equivalent to the value of the change in enthalpy

for the corresponding combustion reaction, but with the changed sign.

The conversion

formula between these values are:

HHV [MJ/kg ] = LHV [MJ/kg ] + 20.3wH
where wH is the weight fraction of the hydrogen atoms in the organic compound.
When heating values of biomass whose water content is not zero is discussed, the following
are to be noted.
1. Is the heating value for dry weight or wet weight?
2. Is the latent heat of the contained water subtracted from the heating value or the latent
heat is neglected?
As for the item 1, the following section of “mass basis” should be consulted.

As for the item

2, when processes such as combustion is discussed, this latent heat cannot be practically
recovered, and usually subtracted from the beginning, but when process such as
biomethanation is discussed, this latent heat is neglected.
When the water content based on weight is ww [kg-water/kg-wet], the heating value fromwhich latent heat of the contained water is subtracted, HVnet [J/kg-wet], and the value where
this subtraction is not made, HVint [J/kg-wet] are related as:

HVnet = HVint − ww ΔH ww
where ΔH ww is the latent heat based on mass.

The value of ΔH ww is 2.443 × 106 J/kg - H 2O

at 25oC.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A4.6 Weight basis
When characteristic value of biomass per unit weight is discussed, the caution should bemade for the following:
1. Is the unit weight with water, or without?
2. Is the unit weight with ash, or without?
When the biomass with low water and ash contents such as dry wood is discussed, theeffect of this difference is small. However, when biomass with high water and ash contentssuch as sewage sludge is discussed, this effect is important.

The relation between values

based on dry weight xdb and that based on wet weight xwb are expressed as following, using
weight fraction of water ww .

x db =

p / m wb
x wb
p
p
=
=
=
mdb m wb (1 − ww ) (1 − ww ) (1 − ww )where, p is the physical value to be discussed, mdb and mwb are dry weight and wet
weight, respectively. Similarly, the relation between values based on weight free of ash xaf ,and that based on weight including ash, xwa , are expressed as following, using weight fractionof ash, wash .

x af =

p / m wa
x wa
p
p
=
=
=
maf
m wa (1 − wash ) (1 − wash ) (1 − wash )For example, when biomass with water content of 20 wt% is gasified, and gas production basedon wet weight is 0.75 m3 /kg - wet , gas production based on dry weight is:0.75= 0.9375 m 3 /kg - dry(1 − 0.2)-308-

Asian Biomass Handbook

A4.7 Other comments
In the engineering field in US, the symbol “MM” is sometimes used.

This corresponds to 106

from the fact that M expresses 1000 in Roman numeric system, and that 1000 x 1000 = 106.
For example, 500 MMG means 500 x 106 gallon = 500 million gallon.
When unfamiliar unit ending with M is found, it can mean some amount “per minute”.

For

example, 200 rpm means 200 revolutions per minute, 4 GPM means 4 gallon per minute, and
35 ccm means 35 cubic centimeters per minute.

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A5. Atomic weightA5.1 Atomic weight
Atomic weight is often needed in the calculation related biomass.
list of atomic weight.

Table A5.1.1 shows the

The values for C, H, O, N, S are often used.
Table A5.1.1 Atomic weight

Atomic number

Symbol of element

Element

Atomic weight[g/mol]1

H

Hydrogen1.00792

He

Helium

4.0026

3

Li

Lithium

6.941

4

Be

Beryllium

9.0122

5

B

Boron

10.811

6

C

Carbon12.0107

7

N

Nitrogen14.0067

8

O

Oxygen15.9994

9F

Fluorine

18.9984

10

Ne

Neon

20.1797

11

Na

Sodium

22.9897

12

Mg

Magnesium

24.305

13

Al

Aluminum

26.9815

14

Si

Silicon28.0855

15

P

Phosphorus

30.9738

16

S

Sulfur

32.06517

Cl

Chlorine

35.453

18

Ar

Argon

39.948

19

K

Potassium

39.0983

20

Ca

Calcium

40.078-310-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A5.1.1 Atomic weight (Continued)
Atomic number

Symbol of element

Element

Atomic weight[g/mol]21

Sc

Scandium44.9559

22

Ti

Titanium47.86723

V

Vanadium

50.9415

24

Cr

Chromium

51.9961

25

Mn

Manganese

54.938

26

Fe

Iron

55.84527

Co

Cobalt58.9332

28

Ni

Nickel58.6934

29

Cu

Copper

63.546

30

Zn

Zinc

65.39

31

Ga

Gallium

69.72332

Ge

Germanium

72.64

33

As

Arsenic

74.9216

34

Se

Selenium

78.96

35

Br

Bromine79.90436

Kr

Krypton

83.8

37

Rb

Rubidium85.4678

38

Sr

Strontium

87.62

39

Y

Yttrium

88.9059

40

Zr

Zirconium

91.22441

Nb

Niobium

92.9064

42

Mo

Molybdenum

95.94

43

Tc

Technetium

98

44

Ru

Ruthenium

101.0745

Rh

Rhodium

102.9055

46

Pd

Palladium106.4247

Ag

Silver

107.8682

48

Cd

Cadmium

112.41149

In

Indium114.818

50

Sn

Tin

118.71-311-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A5.1.1 Atomic weight (Continued)
Atomic number

Symbol of element

Element

Atomic weight[g/mol]51

Sb

Antimony

121.7652

Te

Tellurium

127.6

53

I

Iodine126.9045

54

Xe

Xenon

131.293

55

Cs

Cesium132.9055

56

Ba

Barium137.32757

La

Lanthanum

138.9055

58

Ce

Cerium140.116

59

Pr

Praseodymium

140.9077

60

Nd

Neodymium144.24

61

Pm

Promethium

145

62

Sm

Samarium150.3663

Eu

Europium151.964

64

Gd

Gadolinium

157.2565

Tb

Terbium

158.9253

66

Dy

Dysprosium

162.5

67

Ho

Holmium

164.9303

68ErErbium167.259

69

Tm

Thulium

168.9342

70

Yb

Ytterbium

173.0471

Lu

Lutetium

174.967

72

Hf

Hafnium

178.4973

Ta

Tantalum180.9479

74

W

Tungsten

183.8475

Re

Rhenium

186.207

76

Os

Osmium190.23

77

Ir

Iridium

192.217

78

Pt

Platinum

195.078

79

Au

Gold

196.9665-312-

Asian Biomass Handbook

Table A5.1.1 Atomic weight (Continued)
Atomic number

Symbol of element

Element

Atomic weight[g/mol]80

Hg

Mercury

200.5981

Tl

Thallium204.3833

82

Pb

Lead

207.2

83

Bi

Bismuth208.9804

84

Po

Polonium

209

85

At

Astatine

210

86

Rn

Radon

222

87

Fr

Francium

223

88

Ra

Radium

226

89

Ac

Actinium

227

90

Th

Thorium

232.0381

91

Pa

Protactinium

231.0359

92

U

Uranium

238.0289

93

Np

Neptunium

237

94

Pu

Plutonium

244

95

Am

Americium

243

96

Cm

Curium

247

97

Bk

Berkelium

247

98

Cf

Californium

251

99

Es

Einsteinium

252

100

Fm

Fermium

257

101

Md

Mendelevium

258

102

No

Nobelium

259

103

Lr

Lawrencium

262

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Asian Biomass Handbook

A6. Thermodynamic Properties
A6.1

Thermodynamic

properties

offundamental

chemicals
Heat release and heat absorption with chemical reaction or phase transition, and theextent to which a chemical reaction proceeds can be obtained using thermodynamics. In thischapter is shown part of the data needed for this calculation.

Detail can be found in Chemical

Handbook, a book by Ried et al., Steam Table, Chemical Engineering Handbook etc.

Forthermodynamic calculation, books by Atkins, Komiiyama (in Japanese), Yamaguchi (inJapanese), and other textbook on physical chemistry or chemical thermodynamics can be
consulted.

There is a book that collects thermodynamic data of general substances including

biomass.

A6.2 Standard enthalpy of formation, standard entropy,
and standard Gibbs free energy of formation
Table A6.2.1 shows the standard enthalpy of formation, standard entropy, and standard
Gibbs free energy of formation for chemical substances related to biomass.

“g”, “l”, and “s” forstate stand for gas, liquid, and solid, respectively.

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Table A6.2.1

Standard enthalpy of formation, standard entropy, and standard Gibbs freeenergy of formation for chemical substances related to biomass.
Standard
Substance

ChemicalformulaStateenthalpy offormation

Standard
Standard

Gibbs free

entropyenergy offormation[kJ mol-1][J mol-1][kJ mol-1]

Carbon monoxideCOg−110.53

197.67−137.17

Ethanol

C2H5OHl−277.1159.86−173.9Ethane

C2H6

g

−83.8

229.60−31.9

Ethene (Ethylene)

C2H4

g

52.5

219.56

68.4

Formic acid

HCOOH

l

−425.1131.84−362.6

GlucoseC6H12O6s−1273.3

N/A

N/A

Acetic acid

CH3COOHl−484.3158.0−388.9OxygenO2

g0205.140

HydrogenH2

g0

130.680

Carbon (graphite)

C

s

0

5.74

0

Carbon dioxideCO2g−393.51213.74−394.36

PropaneC3H8

g−104.7270.02

−24.2

Water

H2O

l

−285.8369.91−237.13

Water

H2O

g

−241.82

188.83−228.57

Methanol

CH3OH

l−239.1

127.19−166.8

Methane

CH4

g

−74.4

186.38−50.3

From Chemistry Handbook (Kagaku Benran).

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A6.3 Enthalpy change of transition for water, methanol,and ethanol
Table A6.3.1 shows the enthalpy change of transition for water, methanol, and ethanol.

Table A6.3.1

Enthalpy change of transition for water, methanol, and ethanol.
Transition

Temperature of transition

Enthalpy change ofattransition

1.013×105 Pa[oC][kJ/mol]

Water

s→l

273.15

6.01

Water

l→g

373.15

40.66

Methanol

l→g

337.9

35.27

Ethanol

l→g

351.7

38.6

From Chemistry Handbook (Kagaku Benran).

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A6.4 Enthalpy change of combustion
Table A6.4.1 shows the enthalpy change of complete combustion of chemical substances.
These values are for the case when liquid water is formed, and by changing the sign, higher
heating value for the substance is obtained.

These values can be calculated using data in

Table A6.2.1.

Table A6.4.1

Enthalpy change of combustion

Substance

State

Enthalpy of

Substance

State

Enthalpy of

combustion

combustion[kJ mol-1][kJ mol-1]

Carbon monoxideg-282.98

Acetic acidl-874.3Ethanoll-1367.6

Hydrogeng-285.83

Ethaneg-1560.7

Carbons-393.51(graphite)
Ethene (Ethylene)）g-1411.2

Propaneg-2219.2

Formic acidl-254.24

Methanoll-725.7

Glucoses-2803.3

Methaneg-890.7

From Chemistry Handbook (Kagaku Benran).

Some values are calculated by the author.

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A7. Heating Values of Fossil Fuels andLifetime
A7.1 Heating values of fossil fuels and lifetime
Table A7.1.1 shows the heating values of fossil fuels and lifetime.

Table A7.1.1

Heating values of fossil fuels and lifetime

Heating value

Petroleum

Coal

Natural gas

40

28

56

46

219

64

(representative)* [MJ/kg]

R/P ratio[year]*** These are representative values, and actual values differs largely depending on the
production site and treatment. These values are higher heating values.
** Reserve/Production ratio.

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A8. APEC Framework
A8.1 What is APEC?
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) is a forum that aims at sustainable development in
the Asia and Pacific region, and all main countries and regions participate with.

It started at

the ministerial conference in November, 1989 (Canberra, Australia), and has been organizing
top-level conferences since 1993.

Its main activities are liberation and harmonization of tradeand investment, and economical and technological collaboration in the region.

Table A8.1.1 APEC Countries
Australia

RussiaBrunei Darussalam*Singapore*

Cambodia

Taipei, Chinese

CanadaThailand*

Chili

United States of Amarica

Hongkong, Chinese

Vietnam*Indonesia*
Japan
Korea
Laos
Malaysia*
MexicoNew Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Peru
Philippines*
P. R. China* ASEAN Countries-319-

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A9. Each Country's Targets
A9.1 Each country's target for biomass introduction
Table A9.1.1 shows the target of biomass introduction for each country.

Table A9.1.1 Target of each country
Country

TargetCambodia

There are no targets.

Indonesia

Development of biofuel plantation in 5.25 M ha unused land. According toRoad Map Biofuel Development the Biofuel utilization (biodiesel,
bioethanol, bio-oil) will be 2% of national energy mix of 5.29 M kL by 2010.

Japan

Thermal use of biomass: 3.08 M kL, Elecricity production from biomass
and wastes: 5.86 M kL oil equivalent at 2010

Korea

Thermal use of biomass: 0.679 million kL, Elecricity production frombiomass and wastes: 0.367 million kL oil equivalent at 2011

Laos

Now the government drafting the policy and target for the biofuel
especially biodiesel from the Jatropha to mix with the fossil diesel to be B5
by the year 2012, B5 by the year 2015 and B15 by 2020. And For the
Ethanol is E10 by the year 2015 and E20 by the year 2020. These target isunder drafting of the document.

Malaysia

The target for electricity generation from renewable energy (including
biomass) is set at 350MWe in Peninsular Malaysia and 50MWe in Sabah-320-

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Table A9.1.1 Target of each country (Continued)
Country

TargetPhilippines

Two years from the effectivity of the Act, at least 5% bioethanol by volumeof the total volume of gasoline fuel sold and distributed by each and every
oil company in the country. Within four years from the effectivity of theAct, the Philippine Department of Energy, may mandate a mimimum of
10% blend depending on the results of the study by the national Board
created under the Act. Three months after the approval of the Act,aminimum of 1% biodiesel by volume shall be blended into all diesel engine
fuels sold in the country. Within two years from the effectivity of the Act,
the Philippine Department of Energy, may mandate a total of 2% blend
depending on the results of the study by the national Board created underthe Act. Provided that the ethanol and biodiesel blends conform toPhilippine National Standard.

P. R. China

Percentages of renewable energy consumption will be 10% by 2010 and
15% by 2020. By 2010, annual consumption of non-grain based fuelethanol shall reach 2 M tons, and that of biodiesel shall reach 200 000 tons
in China. By 2020, annual consumption of fuel ethanol shall reach 10 M
tons, and that of biodiesel shall reach 2 M tons in China.

Taipei,

1.Elecricity installed capacity of 741MW from biomass and wastes in 2010

Chinese

2.Biodiesel production : 100 thousand KL in 2010
3.Bioethanol production: 100 thousand KL in 2011

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A10. Related histories
A10.1 History related to Asian biomass
Table A10.1.1 shows the recent history related to Asian biomass.
Table A10.1 Time table on Asian biomass
2005.1

1st Biomass Asia Workshop (Tokyo and Tsukuba)

2005.12

2nd Biomass Asia Workshop (Bangkok)

2006.1

Biomass Asia Forum (Tokyo)

2006.11

3rd Biomass Asia Workshop (Tokyo and Tsukuba)

2007.3

Startup of Asia Biomass Association

2007.4

Laos joins Asia Biomass Association

2007.11

4th Biomass Asia Workshop (Shar Alam)-322-

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A11 Each country's language
A11.1 Each country’s language and greeting words
Table A11.1.1 shows each country’s language and greeting words.
Table A11.1.1 Language and “Hello” in each country
Country

Language“Good morning/ afternoon”

1.1.1
Bruneiバイオマスとは何か？
Darussalam Malay

Selamat pagi/ petang

バイオマス（Biomass）とは一般に、光合成により直接的あるいは間接的に生産され、エネ
Cambodia

Khmer

Arun suo sdei/ Tiveah suor sdei

ルギーあるいはマテリアル利用が可能なある一定量集積した生物起源の資源を意味する。
Indonesia
Bahasa Indonesia
Selamat pagi/ sinag
間接的という意味は、畜産業や食品工業から排出される資源を指す。バイオマスには何十万種という植物、すなわち陸生植物や水生植物、農業系残渣、森林系残渣、産業廃棄物、Japan
Japanese
Ohayo/ Kon’nichiwa
下水汚泥や動物の排泄物が含まれる。
Korea

KoreanAnnyunghaseyo/
Annyunghashimnikka

Laos

Lao

Sabaidee

Malaysia

Bahasa Melayu

Selamat pagi/ petang

Philippines

Filipino, English

Magandang umaga

P. R. China

Chinese

Nihao

Singapore

Mandarin, English, Malay, Hokkien Nihao

Taipei, Chinese

Chinese, Taiwanese

Nihao

ThailandThai

SawatdeeVietnamVietnamese

Xin chao-323-

Asian Biomass Handbook

A12 Related books
A12.1 Books in English
Knoef, H. Ed., “Handbook Biomass Gsification”, BTG Biomass Technology Group (2005)
Van Loo, S. and Koppejan, J. Eds., “Handbook of Biomass Combustion and Co-Firing”, Twente
University Press (2002)
Klass, D. L., “Biomass for Renewable Energy, Fuels, and Chemicals,” Academic Press (1998)

Boyle, G. Ed., “Renewable Energy Power for a Sustainable Future,” Oxford University Press(1996)

Wyman, C. E. Ed., “Handbook on Bioethanol: Production and Utilization”, Taylor & Francis(1996)
Kitani, O. and Hall, C. W. Eds., “Biomass Handbook”, Gordon and Breach Science (1989)
E. S. Domalski, T. L. Jobe, Jr., T. A. Milne, Eds., “Thermodynamic data for biomass materials
and waste components”, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1987)-324-

Asian Biomass Handbook

A12.2 Books in Japanese (in Japanese)
日本エネルギー学会「バイオマス用語事典」 オーム社 (2006)
坂志朗「バイオディーゼルのすべて」 アイピーシー (2005)
木谷収「バイオマスー生物資源と環境」 コロナ社 (2004)
小宮山宏ら編著「バイオマス・ニッポン―日本再生に向けて」 日刊工業新聞社 (2003)
日本エネルギー学会「バイオマスハンドブック」 オーム社 (2002)
湯川英明編「バイオマス―究極の代替エネルギー」 化学工業日報社 (2002)
横山伸也「持続社会へむけてバイオエネルギー最前線」森北出版 (2001)

坂志朗編著「バイオマス・エネルギー・環境」 アイピーシー (2001)
山地憲治、山本博巳、藤野純一「バイオエネルギー」ミオシン出版 (2000)
坂井正康「バイオマスが拓く２１世紀エネルギー

地球温暖化の元凶 CO2 排出はゼロにできる」

森北出版 (1998)
本多淳裕「バイオマスエネルギー : 生物系資源・廃棄物の有効利用」省エネルギーセンター (1986)
鈴木周一編「バイオマスエネルギー変換」講談社 (1983)
M.スレッサー, C.レウィス著 ; 須之部淑男, 増川重彦訳「バイオマス : 生物エネルギー資源」共立
出版 (1982)
山沢新吾編「バイオマスエネルギー」朝倉書店 (1982)
柴田和雄, 木谷収編「バイオマス : 生産と変換」上, 下, 学会出版センター (1981)-325-

Asian Biomass Handbook

A12.3 Books in Chinese (in Chinese)日本能源学会編、史仲平、華兆哲訳「生物質和生物能源手冊」化学工業出版社 (2007)

小宮山宏他編著、李大寅、蒋偉忠訳 「日本生物質総合戦略」 中国環境化学出版社 (2003)

中国農村能源年鑑編集委員会編 「中国農村能源年鑑 1997」 中国農業出版社 (1997)-326-

Asian Biomass Handbook