SCIENTIFIC OPPORTUNITIESENABLED BY HUMAN EXPLORATIONBEYOND LOW-EARTH ORBITAN ISECG SCIENCE WHITE PAPER

1ABOUT ISECGSpace agencies participating in the International Space Exploration
Coordination Group (ISECG) are discussing an international approach forhuman and robotic space exploration to achieve broad societal, intellectualand economic benefits. This document is a White Paper of scientificopportunities enabled by the presence of humans, and their supporting
infrastructure, as they explore the Solar System, as documented in ISECG’s
Global Exploration Roadmap. The Science White Paper informs the evolutionof the Global Exploration Roadmap. It was developed by ISECG agencies
together with a Science Advisory Group, including representatives from theinternational science community and reflecting the views and inputs froman open interaction with this community.
ISECG was established to advance the Global Exploration Strategy byproviding a non-binding forum where space agencies share their objectives
and plans, and explore synergistic concepts. ISECG agencies are committed
to the development of non-binding products that enable participating
agencies to take concrete steps toward partnerships that reflect a globally
coordinated exploration effort.

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pag. 4

CHAPTER 1:

pag. 7

Introduction

CHAPTER 2:

pag. 11The Scientific Imperative –Overarching Science Themes

CHAPTER 3:

pag. 13

Humans to a Gateway
in the Lunar Vicinity

CHAPTER 4:

pag. 17

Humans to the Lunar Surface

CHAPTER 5:

pag. 23

Humans to a Near-Earth Asteroid

CHAPTER 6:

pag. 29

Mars – The Horizon Goal

CHAPTER 7:

pag. 31

Conclusions

APPENDIX 1:

pag. 32

Selected International Science andStrategy Documents

APPENDIX 2:

pag. 34

Science Advisory Group3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

infrastructure can support CubeSats and small
satellites by providing services such as deployment
and communication relay. It can facilitate remotecontrolled robotic exploration on the lunar surface.
It can also be used for investigations in areas suchas astronomy, fundamental physics, collecting
interplanetary materials, and heliophysics.

The Global Exploration Roadmap reflects acoordinated international effort to prepare for space
exploration missions beginning with the International
Space Station and continuing to the lunar vicinity, theMoon, asteroids and Mars. These missions are partof an exploration endeavour available for pursuit by
all space agencies, on their own or in collaboration
with others. Human exploration drives innovationand economic expansion, addresses space andterrestrial challenges to improve life on Earth, andinspires people around the world. Integral to thesebenefits are scientific investigation and discovery.

The Lunar Surface: Scientific investigations,
including collecting the right samples, on the Moon
will improve our understanding of the origin andevolution of the Earth-Moon system, and of terrestrial
planets in general. The Moon has experienced manyof the geologic processes that have shaped theterrestrial planets in our Solar System (e.g. impact
cratering, volcanism, tectonics, etc.). We can date
impact events and decipher the impact flux for the
Earth-Moon system over geologic time to better
understand its role for the evolution or extinction of lifeon Earth. The lunar soil and subsurface also provide a
historical repository of the Solar System’s evolution.
Human presence could permit the emplacementof delicate surface instrumentation on the lunar
surface. Indeed, the far side of the Moon is uniquein that it is “radio quiet”, offering the opportunity forsensitive radio astronomy measurements that lookback in time to the earliest moments of the Universe.
Investigating the physiological response to working
in reduced gravity on the lunar surface could help
prepare for keeping humans healthy on the surfaceof Mars, whilst providing new insights into a range ofhuman health issues for Earth.

The Scientific Imperative: Space exploration will
result in scientific discoveries that have significancenot only to the international science community but
to humanity as a whole. Opportunities for scientificdiscovery associated with exploration missions arebroadly captured in two themes: “Understanding Our
Place in the Universe” and “Living and Working inSpace”.
• Understanding Our Place in the Universe: This
theme is about discerning the physical nature of
the Universe around us and our place within it.
We want to understand the Earth-Moon system,
asteroids and Mars and how they formed anddeveloped. We will conduct new observations of
the cosmos, including our own Earth. Finally, we
will attempt to understand the formation and theevolution of life.
• Living and Working in Space: This theme isreflecting the drive for humans to extend ourreach into space, which also provides importantscientific and technological advances to improve
life on Earth. We want to learn more about howhumans safely explore the Solar System, andreduce risks that humans face in space. We also
want to learn about the local resources in ourplanetary neighbourhood, and how explorers
can maximise the use of what we find around us.

Near-Earth Asteroids: Near-Earth asteroids exhibit
considerable diversity within their population and they
have witnessed events and conditions throughout thehistory of the Solar System. The presence of humans
will permit placement of complex instruments on
the asteroid surface, as well as the ability to sample
surface and subsurface sites to obtain informationon the ancient history of the Solar System whichlarger, evolved planetary bodies have lost. Carefully
chosen samples by a trained explorer can also help
us to better understand the thousands of meteorites
we already have available for study by scientists,
providing geologic context to meteorites that haveformed much of the paradigm for the origin of the
Solar System. We will also work to better understandthe internal structures of Near-Earth Asteroids, avital part of the puzzle needed in order to develop
mitigation strategies for addressing threats from an
Earth-bound asteroid.

The Next Step Beyond Low-Earth Orbit: The vicinityof the Moon is the ideal location as the next stepin the expansion of human space activity from theInternational Space Station leading to investigationsof the Moon, asteroids, and Mars. This deep
space environment enables testing and validationof habitation systems and related operations
techniques, while remaining close enough to Earthas we learn to manage exploration mission risks.
Increasingly longer duration missions to a habitatin the deep space environment enable study of theinterplay of radiation, microgravity and isolation
on human health valuable for future spaceflight tomore distant destinations, notably Mars, as wellas health research applicable back on Earth. The

Mars: Mars is the shared horizon goal driving
sustainable human exploration. Mars has the greatest
similarity to Earth in past and current planetaryprocesses, and may have the best record of whenlife started in our Solar System and of catastrophic
change in planetary evolution. Our robotic missions

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have shown that Mars has significant water that ispromising for the possible existence of life (past and/or present) and supporting humans. Exploration ofMars will result in answers to profound scientific andphilosophical questions such as: How did life start inour Solar System? Did life exist on Mars and does itexist today? What can we learn about Earth’s past andfuture by studying Mars? Building on over 50 yearsof robotic-enabled science and eventually, sample
return, human explorers on the surface of Mars willbe critical to reveal the subtleties needed to answer
these complex and fundamental questions. Humans
will make possible intelligent sampling in geologic
context, iterative environmental field investigations
and sample preparation/analyses in a habitat-basedlaboratory. Humans will advance a multi-disciplinary
set of scientific objectives, such as investigations
into astrobiology, atmospheric science, medicine,and geoscience.

observations, thus returning the best samples
to address specific science and explorationquestions. In addition, human missions typically
return larger amounts of samples per flight.

The Value of Human Explorers for Science:
Human exploration brings the human element to theforefront of scientific discovery, bringing flexibility,
adaptability,
experience,
dexterity,
creativity,
intuition, and the ability to make real time decisions.
This was demonstrated by the Apollo missions to thelunar surface. While some science objectives can beachieved by suitably implemented robotic missions,many are greatly facilitated by a human presence,and some may even be wholly impractical otherwise.
••

Humans are uniquely capable of installing,
maintaining, upgrading, and troubleshooting
problems with complex scientific equipment,
as historically exemplified with the Hubble
telescope servicing missions.

•

Humans can often achieve tasks faster thanrobots and act intelligently in exploratory science.

•

As demonstrated by Apollo and on theInternational Space Station, humans are uniquein their ability to recognize and to adapt their
response to new observations or serendipitous
discoveries.

In addition to scientific benefits, gaining operational
experience in deep space or on a planetary surface isextremely beneficial for the later exploration of moredistant targets, such as Mars.
Humans have long looked to the stars and asked,“What is out there?” Exploration, investigation, andscientific discovery are essential elements in thehistory of humanity, and the same will be true in our
future. Human exploration missions significantly
increase the potential for scientific discovery at the
lunar vicinity, the Moon, asteroids, and Mars.

Humans can efficiently and intelligently selectand collect samples from a diverse range of
localities. Trained explorers will also provide a
broader geological context due to integrated

5

image courtesy of NASA6

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Scope
Since its emergence over 50 years ago, space
exploration has garnered significant governmental
support across the world and established a profoundlegacy for all humankind. The resulting advances inscience and knowledge have delivered invaluable
improvements to the quality of life on Earth. Propelledby ongoing technology investments in the public andprivate sectors, the next steps include opportunities
for human exploration beyond low-Earth orbit. The
rapid progression of technologies and capabilities
has enabled human and robotic explorers to generate
even more new expertise and perspectives about ourplace in the Universe. The exploration of space is anengine of innovation and inspiration, and science
continues to be an important part of this endeavour.

System incrementally leading to exploration ofMars. The collaborative missions envisioned in the
Global Exploration Roadmap will contribute to theachievement of many of these investigations, andparticipating agencies will determine the specificnature of scientific activities undertaken. This paper
focuses on the science enabled by the near-termtargets for human exploration: a gateway in the lunar
vicinity, the lunar surface, and asteroids. A detailed
study of science enabled by humans to Mars is leftto a future white paper.
This paper discusses science enabled by thepresence of humans and facilitated by the
infrastructure associated with human exploration.
The latter often enables “opportunistic science” bypermitting measurements that would otherwise beless practical and/or affordable, and indeed might
not occur. Additionally, the presence of humans may
represent the capability to service or upgrade these
instruments.

The International Space Exploration Coordination
Group (ISECG) is examining a global approach forhuman and robotic space exploration that maximises
societal, intellectual and economic benefits. The
status of this work is documented in the ISECG Global
Exploration Roadmap and the ISECG white paper,“Benefits Stemming from Space Exploration”. The
Global Exploration Roadmap reflects a coordinatedglobal effort to prepare for collaborative space
exploration missions beginning with the International
Space Station (ISS) and continuing to the vicinity of
the Moon, the lunar surface, asteroids and Mars.

The scientific opportunities presented in thisdocument reflect the collective views of a science
community representing a variety of nations andscience disciplines.
An international Science
Advisory Group closely linked to organizational
structures of national agencies was chartered by
ISECG to lead this engagement. The group requested
inputs broadly, in coordination with the International
Council for Science’s Committee on Space
Research (COSPAR) Panel for Exploration, NASA’s
Solar System Exploration Research Virtual InstituteThis document highlights opportunities for scientificinvestigation related to humanity’s greatest
questions, created as humans explore the Solar

Figure 1: From the earliest civilisations to the present day, it has always been part of human nature to explore the unknown.
Throughout history, exploration has led to new scientific discoveries and transformed our way of living (Image courtesy of ESA)

7

(SSERVI), the European Science Foundation, andISECG participating agencies.

The lunar vicinity, often referred to as cislunar space,is the strategy’s next phase beyond low-Earth orbit.
This region of deep space enables testing andaffirmation of exploration capabilities and operations,in an environment near Earth that fosters experiential
learning of the risks and challenges of spaceflight.
The lunar vicinity is also an appropriate staging postfor exploration missions to the Moon, asteroids andMars. A driving objective for lunar vicinity missions isvalidation of the habitation capabilities that will keep
humans safe and productive for the long duration
missions beyond the Earth-Moon system, where thedeep-space environment is dangerous and there
are limited options for timely return to the Earth’s
surface in case of emergency. The current strategy
calls for astronaut missions of increasing length
conducted at a platform in the lunar vicinity. Internaland external volume and services will be available toscience payloads. This infrastructure will also feature
a communications relay terminal for interaction withassets on the lunar surface or in Earth-Moon space.

Space agencies maintain individualized processes
for defining the highest priority science questions fortheir specific programmes or communities. These
approaches often include substantial and extended
interactions with relevant science communities,
resulting in a report that guides science exploration
direction for a set time-period. This document does
not refer to any single agency publication, nor define
the scientific priority of specific activities; it draws
from and builds upon the significant scientific reviews
and individual agency interactions demonstrated in
the reports listed in Appendix 1.
Global Space Exploration – the ISECG Global
Exploration Roadmap
The ISECG Global Exploration Roadmap highlights
participating agency efforts to prepare for humanand robotic exploration of worlds that may someday
support a continuous human presence. Sustainable,
affordable, productive, and safe human explorationof the surface of Mars is a long-term, internationallyshared objective that shapes the Global Exploration
Roadmap. The pathway to the horizon goal ofMars informs capability evolution and technology
investments, enabling human journeys to multiple
destinations outlined further in the paper. We
acknowledge that these targets (including Mars) offer
various merits and benefits, and their prioritization
may differ across agencies.

Human missions to the lunar surface could be enabled
by a lunar lander that uses such cislunar infrastructure,
while many robotic lander missions may also choose
to go directly to the lunar surface.. A limited campaignof human missions to the lunar surface can contributeto addressing the highest priority science andexploration goals and allow agencies to advance anddemonstrate capabilities needed for future missions(e.g., sampling and curation techniques, planetary
protection protocols, dust mitigation technologies,
rover tests, development of human-robotic synergies ina hostile environment, etc.). Surface support systems,
such as pressurized rovers, can be positioned prior
to crew arrival by cargo lander or relocation of assets
during crew missions to the surface.

The Global Exploration Roadmap is a synergistic
human and robotic space exploration roadmap
that recognises the criticality of increased interplay
between human and robotic missions, and supports
the partnerships needed to implement human
exploration missions beyond low-Earth orbit. This
international and cooperative vision encourages
multiple partners to play key roles, meet their national
objectives, and achieve individual and sharedscientific priorities. The strategy commences with
low-Earth orbit activities including ISS utilisation andexpands into the Solar System, eventually leading tohuman exploration of the Red Planet. The GER reflects
a step-wise journey that advances critical humanspace exploration capabilities to accomplish a rangeof science and exploration objectives with humancrews. The first steps of this integrated strategy are
the focus of this paper, including missions within
the near-term planning horizon. Space agencies
currently are formulating these programmes anddeveloping the necessary infrastructure for future
implementation. Human mission planning will relyon direct observations acquired by robotic missions(“ground truth”), and create opportunities to leverage
the unique contributions of human and robotic
explorers.

Missions further into the Solar System will follow,
and may include missions to asteroids in their native
orbits, Venus orbit and flyby, and to the Mars system,
including its moons, Phobos and Deimos, prior tosending humans to the surface of Mars. If a NearEarth asteroid becomes a threat, a mission to deal
with that issue might be possible with the capabilities
demonstrated in the lunar vicinity. These deepspace missions are not specifically addressed in the
Global Exploration Roadmap for several reasons.
New advanced technologies can be expected to beavailable in the next decade. In addition, discoveries
made during earlier missions will likely influencesubsequent plans and missions.
This Science White Paper purposely focuses on thescientific opportunities of space explorations beyond
low-Earth orbit. However, it needs to be understoodand clearly articulated, that these activities are notassumed to compete against or to replace robotic
science missions undertaken under space science8

programs or fundamental and applied research in low
Earth orbit. Research under microgravity and otherqualities of the space environment is expected tocontinue well beyond the lifetime of the International
Space Station with excellent potential for benefits tosociety, however, those activities are not subject of
discussion in this particular document.

complex equipment. Examples include: (a) longrange surface rovers and drilling equipment insupport of sample collection; (b) the establishmentof complex geophysical networks to probe theinterior and astrophysical observatories; (c)equipment for manipulating and characterizing
the geotechnical properties of the regolith, and;(d) collection of repetitive, geographically-spaced
data (e.g., geologic mapping).

Value Added by Human Scientific Exploration
The Apollo programme demonstrated that humanson the lunar surface brought human cognition to theforefront of scientific discovery. Although the pursuitof many science objectives is feasible with suitablerobotic missions, a human presence greatly enhances
the process for some activities and becomes whollynecessary for others. Human crews bring additional
flexibility, adaptability, experience, motivation,and sampling ability to certain missions that canbe impractical to replicate with an entirely robotic
telepresence. Specifically, renewed exploration witha human-robotic partnership presents the following
scientific advantages over solely robotic missions:•

Sample Selection and Collection: Humans canperform efficient and sophisticated collection ofsamples from more diverse localities, broader
geographical areas, and greater physicalproperties than possible through purely robotic
means. Apollo revealed that suitably trained
astronauts equipped with surface mobility are
significantly more efficient at sample selection
and collection. Additionally, it is likely thathuman missions can return a greater quantity ofgeological samples.

•

Development of Geologic Context: Humans
can develop large-, medium- and small-scale
context in real time. Understanding the geologic
history of a given field area is key to intelligent
sample collection, particularly when selecting fordiversity. The Apollo Program illustrated the valueof humans on planetary surfaces in this regard.
Similarly, observational studies of asteroids andlaboratory studies of meteorites have shown thatthe surfaces of near-Earth asteroids experience
continued mixing of often diverse materials.
Consequently, determining the geologic history ofa given area and using that information to conduct
intelligent sample selection will be the key toreturning optimal samples related to specificscientific questions. The cognition of trained
human explorers adds real-time observation,knowledge synthesis, and decision-making thatare beyond current robotic capability and key to
exploring planetary surfaces and enabling new
discoveries.

•

Surface Experiments and Equipment Maintenance:
Humans are uniquely capable of maintaining,
upgrading, evaluating, and repairing large and•Large-Scale Exploratory Activities: This includes
those activities that may be required to locate,
identify, and sample important but rare and/or
buried geological materials. Human presence on
the surface makes these types of activities far
more efficient. Lunar examples include possible
mantle outcrops, buried lava flows, impact-melt
sheets, paleoregolith layers, possible ‘exotic’materials derived from the Earth and otherterrestrial planets, and lunar volatile deposits.

•

Feedforward Activities: Anticipatory in nature,these actions occur in response to changes in our
understanding of the exploration risks, challenges,
and elements that result from near-term missions.
Gaining operational experience on a planetary
surface is essential for later exploration of moredistant targets (e.g., the martian moons Phobos
and Deimos, and the surface of Mars).

•

Serendipitous Discoveries: Human beings are
uniquely able to recognize new observations or
phenomena and adapt their responses, even tounanticipated, immediate, or novel situations.
Relevant examples include the discoveries of“seatbelt rock” during Apollo 15 and orange soilon Apollo 17. Both of these instances were key
to enabling critical discoveries that increased
our understanding of the age and nature of lunar
volcanism, as well as volatile contributions tolunar magma genesis and crustal evolution.

Figure 2: Artist impression of human lunar surface infrastructure.
(Image courtesy of ESA)

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Figure 3: One particular value of humans for planetary surface science is the ability to emplace and to service delicate scientific instruments.
The Apollo missions brought important science packages to the lunar surface that were deployed by the astronauts and continued to deliver
high-value science well beyond the human surface mission. (Image courtesy of NASA)10

CHAPTER 2: THE SCIENTIFIC IMPERATIVE –OVERARCHING SCIENCE THEMES
maximum scientific return from human missions to
Mars. Necessary intermediate steps include robotic
exploration programmes with strong scientific andexploration content, such as a robotic Mars sample
return mission, that has been identified as a highscience priority.

The search for knowledge is an essential partof why humans explore. Scientific exploration
addresses overarching questions that society seeks
to answer:- “Where did we come from?”, “Are wealone in the Universe?”, “What will happen to us
in the future?”, “How far can humans safely travelin space?”. This search for knowledge is best
achieved by a combination of humans and robots
acting synergistically, because exploration without
humans lacks important societal perspectives. In
addition, many scientific objectives depend on thepresence of humans in space, which requires themto live and work in extreme environments. Drivers
for human exploratory missions include scientific,
technological, cultural and economic aspects. Above
all, the search for habitability and the possibility oflife beyond Earth is one of the intellectual driving
forces in the endeavour to explore our Solar System.

The Global Exploration Roadmap offers remarkable
opportunities for science. In some cases, theproposed exploration location is the ideal location
for that science, in others the existence of theinfrastructure associated with the human missions
permits investigations for science per se as well as forachieving new understanding of the implications andapplications of science for future exploration. Given
the significant logistic and mass constraints, science
associated with deep space missions will likely befocused on the essential scientific research thatcannot be performed in any current platform on ornear Earth. For example, applied human physiology,
fundamental studies of life science processes, andtesting of life support equipment all depend on a
range of test conditions, and require experimentation
across different platforms.

The Global Exploration Roadmap and this White
Paper focus on the first steps on a sustainable
pathway to Mars; namely, the Moon and Near-Earthasteroids. Therefore, a vision for an international
Solar System exploration venture should prepare
for the long-term global endeavour with the horizon
goal of sending humans to Mars. This paper willaddress how exploration of the Moon and asteroids,
specifically with scientific discoveries and findings
enabled by human exploration, helps to prepare theIn this paper, we describe the science associatedwith deep space missions using the following twothemes, “Understanding Our Place in the Universe”,
and “Living and Working in Space”.

Habitable Zone of Earth’s Solar System

Figure 4: A key topic of the science that will be enabled by human exploration into the solar system is connected to the co-evolution oflife with the planetary environment and life sciences. The current exploration destinations where humans can go are within the so-called
habitable zone of Earth’s solar system, i.e. the orbital distance from the Sun where the environmental conditions allow for liquid water to exist
on the planetary surface. (Image courtesy of ESA)

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Understanding Our Place in the Universe
This theme covers a multitude of scientific disciplinesthat collectively will further understanding of thephysical nature of the Universe and our place within
it. It includes the Earth-Moon system and near-Earthasteroids, and their formation and development.
Overarching questions include “How did the terrestrial
planets and asteroids form and evolve?” and “Howdoes life evolve with its planetary environment?”“How do we sustain life outside Earth?” Addressing
both of these questions may also provide important
advancements in scientific and technologicalknowledge that can improve life on Earth. This theme
encompasses both science and engineering. We
want to learn more about how humans are physicallyable to explore the Solar System, and reduce risks
that humans face in space. We also want to use
scientific results to determine how explorers will use
local resources, to maximize the use of what we findaround us by “living off the land”. This would be a shift
from the current paradigm of taking everything withus from Earth. Additionally, these resources have highintrinsic scientific value. The key disciplines involvedin this theme include human physiology, behaviour
and performance, life sciences, planetary geology,
astrobiology and engineering sciences related to life
support and spaceflight.

This effort will feature new observations of thecosmos and Earth as well as research to understandthe building blocks for the evolution of life. Key
disciplines include astronomy, planetary geology andgeophysics, solar physics, life sciences, medicine,
psychology, space physics, astrobiology, and manyothers.
Note that these distinct scientific themes andexploration goals are intricately interconnected; justas science and exploration enable and support one
another.

The next three chapters describe the international
science community’s priorities in relation to themissions described in the Global Exploration
Roadmap. Although it is possible that these missions
may not achieve all of the priority objectives, they
demonstrate the richness of the scientific potentialof each step and will inform future human mission
planning efforts. These mission themes are presented
in the order that they are most likely to occur.

Living and Working in SpaceThis theme combines many scientific topics
associated with humanity’s drive to extend its reachfurther into the Solar System. Overarching questions
include: “How do we become a spacefaring species?”

image courtesy of NASA

Figure 5: The International Space Station is a fitting example of an international human exploration endeavour that enables world-classscientific research.

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CHAPTER 3: HUMANS TO A GATEWAY IN THE
LUNAR VICINITY
Building on the achievements of the International
Space Station, the vicinity of the Moon is a potential
next step leading to sustainable human explorationof the Moon, asteroids, and Mars. Although any
deep space environment presents significant
challenges when compared with low-Earth orbit
missions, the Moon’s close proximity to Earth canenable development of the techniques and advanced
capabilities needed for further human explorationof the Solar System. Stable orbits in this regionof space will be used for staging and long-term
support of capabilities such as reusable human lunar
landers and spacecraft for Mars exploration. The
infrastructure in the lunar vicinity will offer numerous
opportunities for scientific benefit based on readily
available resources, crew interaction and an ideal
vantage point for the study of deep space, the Sun,
the Moon, and Earth.

leverage this capability, and this chapter introduces
several potential opportunities.

The GER envisions assembling this human-tended
infrastructure and conducting a series of extendedduration crewed missions including a potential Mars
mission simulation, as preparation for missions
beyond the Earth-Moon system. ISECG agencies arecontinuing to engage the broad scientific community
in identifying specific investigations well-suited to

Figure 6 illustrates several orbits that a gateway could
occupy (or deployable instruments could reach) in
addition to the Earth-Moon Lagrangian (EML) points.
Each orbit provides certain advantages. For example,
EML2 orbits provide direct access to the unexplored
lunar far side while simultaneously being visible from
Earth for communications.

The term “lunar vicinity” encompasses a variety oflunar orbits as well as the Earth-Moon Lagrangian
points. The proposed gateway will be capable ofmoving among such locations based on various
science and utilisation goals.
One scenario involves a crew traveling to thegateway and conducting scientific experiments that
benefit from its current location before returning toEarth. The uncrewed gateway would then move toa new location with a different selection of scientificopportunities for future crew visits. It is likely that theinitial gateway will not be permanently occupied. As
will be discussed in this chapter, the gateway offers
scientific opportunities even when uninhabited.

Orbit Type
Orbit Period Lunar (or L-Point)		Amplitude Range

Distant Retrograde Orbit
Earth-Moon L2 HaloNear-Rectilinear Halo Orbit (NRHO)
Elliptical Lunar Orbit (ELO)
Low Lunar Orbit (LLO)~14 days
8 to 14 days
6 to 8 days
~14 hrs~2 hrs

70,000 km
0 to 60,000 km (L2)2,000 to 75,000 km
100 to 10,000 km
100 kmE-M Orientation
Equatorial
Dependent on size
Roughly Polar
Equatorial
Any inclination

DRO

Earth

L1

ELO

LLO

L2
x

y

L2 HaloFigure 6: The ability of a gateway to move among possible
lunar orbits or orbits around Lagrangian points enables
additional science opportunities. The orbits include
Distant Retrograde Orbit (DRO), Near Rectilinear Halo
Orbit (NRHO), Low Lunar Orbit (LLO) and Elliptical Lunar
Orbit (ELO), as well as a Halo orbit around EML2.

z

13

NRHO

image courtesy of NASA modified by ESA

New science data also can be acquired before thegateway reaches the Moon, or during crew transit
to the gateway. During the journey from Earth orbit
to the Moon, experiments can be conducted on
phenomena affected by distance from the Sun,
Earth or the Moon, and changes in the radiation
environment with passage through the Van Allenbelts. Examples include experiments that:
•
•
•
•
•
•

through better characterization of the proposed
landing site. Such operations can also achievescience objectives, such as returning a sample
from the Moon’s South Pole Aitken Basin. Thisis recognized as a high scientific priority andconducting a human-assisted sample return
mission using the gateway would permit efficient
selection of carefully chosen samples to return. A
mission where the samples come from the lunar
surface to the gateway, and return with the crew,
could potentially result in an increased amountof returned sample, compared to a purely
robotic mission. While lunar telepresence canbe conducted from Earth, the latency is an orderof magnitude lower (<0.5 seconds versus ~5
seconds) which enables streamlined operations inaddition to other potential benefits. For example,
the Moon’s permanently shadowed regions(PSRs) have high scientific and exploration value,
but are difficult to explore due to extremely low
temperatures. A rover investigating a PSR will
have limited time to conduct operations, andthe very low latency enabled by control from a
gateway could significantly maximize the results.
It is generally accepted that a latency of less thanhalf a second permits “real time” operations, i.e.
the latency does not affect activities. Low-latency
teleoperated robots can also install scientificinstruments on the lunar surface. For example,
advanced mission scenarios for exploring theCosmic Dawn epoch of the Universe could beaccomplished with the deployment of a low radio
frequency telescope on the lunar surface. In
addition to the science that could be achieved bytele-operation of a rover on the Moon’s surface,
another benefit is maximizing the efficiency ofthe human-robotic partnership. One example
of potential tele-presence in future human
exploration is operation of rovers on the surfaceof Mars, controlled by humans in martian orbit oron one of the martian moons Phobos or Deimos.

Monitor lunar exosphere evolution of the entire
Moon through a monthly cycle
Quantify impact flashes through the lunar night
Monitor human physiology and biomedical
changes as the habitat or vehicle moves outside
the Earth’s magnetic field
Install cosmic dust/micrometeorite collectors
Target the trajectory to facilitate a lunar eclipse of
the Sun to study coronae/Sun compositions thatare not distorted by Earth’s atmosphere
Monitor Earth exosphere (geocorona) in the
far UV which extends halfway to the Moon,
attempting to estimate radiation pressure and its
accurate extension that could change with solar
activity.

Understanding Our Place in the Universe
The next steps that humans and robots take into
the Solar System show great promise for significant
technological advancement, scientific discovery,
and cultural/societal impact. Crews living andworking in close proximity to the Moon will provide
unprecedented opportunities for lunar exploration
through the application of human-robotic partnership.
Such a programme will use the Moon as a test bed
for future collaboration on asteroids and Mars, thus
reducing risk and increasing operational expertisefor missions far away from Earth. These activities
will enhance our understanding of the Moon, theUniverse, and the human experience by advancing
scientific knowledge across multiple scientific fields.
This compelling rationale for the exploration of thelunar surface is described further in Chapter 4:
Humans to the Lunar Surface.

•

Lunar Surface Science Using Telepresence:
Telepresence requires that a human operator
controls the actions of a remotely operated
robot. The teleoperation of robotic assets on the
lunar surface by humans from a gateway would
permit very low-latency robotic control that could
significantly enhance exploration of the Moon.
Initially, telepresence provides the opportunity to
conduct new science before sending humans toa planetary surface, which has implications for
future human Mars missions. Tele-operations
also allow human presence at sites that are
too difficult or dangerous for humans to visit inperson. Tele-operation of agile robotic precursor
missions to scout and prepare sites identified
for human surface operations could reduce risk

image courtesy of NASA
Figure 7: Low latency tele-robotics offers a range of new scientificopportunities. One example is a concept where a crew on the
deep space habitat would use a rover on the lunar surface tocollect high-value samples that are launched to the habitat, andthen returned with the crew. Preparatory work for such a concept
is advanced by the METERON activities on ISS.

14

As well as the advantages of low latency, a
key operational aspect is learning to factor inincreased crew autonomy. As the opportunities
to communicate with Earth decreases, the crew’s
ability to make real-time decisions takes on
increased importance. The experience learned
from tele-operations from a gateway around theMoon will improve the science return from similar
activities on Mars.

studied in the environment of space radiationand fractional gravity in a crewed platform.
Comparison of radiation biology experiments
on ISS and the lunar vicinity, as well as groundbased research, can provide insights leading
to the identification and validation of protective
countermeasures. Science results from studying
the combination of radiation, fractional gravity
and altered atmosphere will complement theexperience gained from more than 50 years of
microgravity research in LEO. It will improve
our understanding of adaptive responses inastronaut bone, muscle, cardiovascular, andneural systems as well as which changes in space
are reversible upon return to Earth. Furthermore,
the effects on medicines and the nutritional valueof certain foods is critical data that will informfuture mission planning. In preparation for future
exploration missions, it is crucial to understandthe fundamental effects on human physiology
and performance of prolonged exposure toradiation and the habitat environment aboard
deep space transit vehicles and the fractional
gravity (between 1g and microgravity) of finaldestinations. Studying these effects in humans
or model organisms in a deep space habitat
environment (which cannot be replicated on Earthor ISS), would improve designs for biomedical
and countermeasure equipment, labs, tools,
habitats and associated hardware, thus realising
significant health risk reductions.

Living and Working in SpaceThe establishment of a gateway in the lunar vicinity isa potential next step in expanding human presence
beyond low-Earth orbit. Such infrastructure in the
deep space environment will enable science andtechnology demonstrations that help keep the
astronauts healthy on longer duration missions into
the Solar System. New scientific discoveries canalso be expected. Examples of the science enabled
by missions to a lunar gateway include:•

Understanding the Effects of Deep Space
Radiation, Reduced Gravity and Closed
Habitat Environments: A gateway offers aunique opportunity to study the harmful effectsof the deep space radiation environment on
human physiology, plant physiology, and themicrobiome of the spacecraft environment. The
effects of lower total pressure, lower oxygen
concentration, and higher carbon dioxide
concentration that might be found in future
exploration vehicles and habitats can first be

Six rodent cages attached tothe microgravity compartment

Japanese Experiment Module“KIBO” of ISS

Centrifuge-equippedbiological experiment
facility in KIBO

Six rodent cages attached tothe centrifuge which produces
artificial gravity
Figure 8: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) newly developed mouse habitat cage units that can be installed in the centrifuge-equipped biological experiment facility in the Japanese Experiment Module (“Kibo”) of ISS. The facility provides both microgravity (g)and artificial gravity environments. Earth’s gravity (1 g), the Moon’s gravity (0.16 g) and Mars’ gravity (0.38 g) on the bottom floor of the cage
can be mimicked by the rotating the centrifuge at 77, 31 and 48 rpm, respectively. In the first mission conducted in 2016, 12 mice werelaunched, divided into two groups of 6 mice each, and housed under g or artificial earth-gravity (1 g). After 35 days of habitation in ISS, allmice were returned to the Earth in a live condition (image courtesy of JAXA).

15

Additional Science Opportunities:
The existence of the gateway infrastructure (i.e.
instrument-hosting with power and communications
capability that also can accommodate greater mass
than small satellites) may facilitate high-quality
scientific activities in many disciplines. The following
examples leverage the infrastructure to obtainknowledge through “opportunistic science” activities
which otherwise might be too costly or low priority to
implement using standalone automated spacecraft.

•

•

•

A reusable lander staged at an orbital gateway
could potentially offer routine access to the lunar
surface. Ultimately, utilisation of lunar resources
could provide fuel for such a capability, greatly
reducing the associated logistics. Regular crewed
and robotic missions to the lunar surface would
permit exploration of a wide variety of scientificallynoteworthy locales. Examples of such lunar surface
science are described in the next chapter.

Observation post for monitoring Earth’s
environment: A gateway in the lunar vicinity
could serve as a scientific outpost to conduct fulldisk synoptic observations of Earth over a rangeof phases. Such observations could provide
information useful for environmental studies.
Studies of Earth can also inform the design of
instruments for detecting life on exoplanets.

The growing body of experience in low-Earth orbit- particularly on ISS - has led to new scientificinvestigations that leverage ISS as a research outpost
in space. Similarly, when a gateway has been installedin the lunar vicinity, new and previously unanticipatedutilisation opportunities may be identified.

Construction and servicing of large telescopes:
A gateway’s human crew could construct
telescopes that are larger than those that mustbe launched fully assembled. Additionally, futuretelescopes could be designed to move between
their primary orbits and the lunar vicinity using
modest amounts of fuel. Such functionality would
allow these telescopes to be moved to EML2
for humans to repair or enhance (e.g. swap out
instruments), before the telescope returns to its
ideal observing location.

•

Fundamental physics: The gateway would permit
experiments that further our understanding of
aspects of fundamental physics. Examples include
the study of galactic cosmic rays and particle
physics (from outside the Earth’s magnetosphere),tests of general relativity, and long baseline
experiments for quantum mechanics.

•

Collecting planetary material: Several missions
have collected non-surface planetary material
for return to Earth for analysis. Experiments
conducted in a gateway could collectinterplanetary and interstellar dust over long
periods of time by deploying collectors on theoutside of the habitat. Moreover, addressing the
lunar dust environment with microbalances andoptical cameras will be key to understandingnear-Moon conditions.

•

Heliophysics: The lunar region is immersed in aplasma environment whose fields have significant
influence on the terrestrial environment. A stable
platform at in the lunar vicinity affords longterm global viewing of Geospace (radiation
belts, plasmasphere, equatorial and polar cap
ionosphere), the Sun and in-situ observationsof the particles and fields that will advanceour understanding of the Sun-Earth system.

A platform for astronomical observations:
A gateway in the lunar vicinity permits certain
astronomical observations.

Conclusions
A gateway in the lunar vicinity is a potential next
step in expanding the capabilities for humans
to explore beyond low-Earth orbit, and provides
many opportunities for scientific discovery. The
presence of humans in the lunar vicinity will enable
the development of technologies and proceduresthat reduce risk to human missions deeper into the
Solar System. We can explore the lunar surface,
including regions too difficult to explore withhumans, with robots tele-operated from a gateway,
yielding significant scientific benefits across multiple
disciplines. We can learn efficient low-latency human/robotic operations in a planetary environment with
relevance to future Mars missions.
Understanding the deep space environment’s
radiation and reduced gravity effects on humanphysiological systems is essential to keeping humans
safe and healthy as we venture further into the Solar
System. The gateway could add the ability to study
the interplay of radiation, microgravity, fractional
gravity, and isolation. The value of data obtained
under these circumstances to future mission planningcannot be overstated. It is also important to learn
how the effectiveness of drugs, and the nutritional
value of foods, degrade with time in this deep spaceenvironment.
The infrastructure of a gateway in the lunar vicinity
could also be leveraged for a wealth of opportunisticscience including astronomy, fundamental physics,
interplanetary materials collection, and heliophysics.

16

CHAPTER 4: HUMANS TO THE LUNAR SURFACEThe Moon is a cornerstone for Solar System scienceand exploration. Its proximity to Earth, coupled with
reduced gravity and natural resources make it an
ideal location to prepare humans and machines forventuring farther into space. It is a natural nearby
test bed for reducing risk in sending humans farther
into the Solar System. A new era of human lunar
exploration will be able to make use of global
remote sensing datasets and detailed imagery thatwill reduce risk and maximise the science returnassociated with sending humans to the lunar surface.
As a repository of Solar System history and as avantage point from which to observe the Earth andthe Universe, it also has great potential as a basefor fundamental scientific research that would also
inform future space exploration.

lost due to continued geologic activity. Moreover,
the Moon’s surface preserves a record of the inner
Solar System environment (e.g. impactor flux fromsmall body migrations, as well as solar and galactic
processes) that nearly coincides with the age of the
Solar System. This accounting of Solar System history
gives considerable astrobiological significance to the
Moon’s geologic past, as it provides clues to early
conditions on Earth during which life arose and its
continued habitability through time. Furthermore, theMoon preserves the impact record of the early Solar
System and provides insights into the frequency ofmajor events over time, such as the environmentdisrupting asteroid strike that led to the mass
extinction of non-avian dinosaurs and many otherspecies. No other place in the inner Solar System canprovide similar information about the timing and typeof impacts during its primordial phases. Comparing
impact histories of large asteroids provides clues
for understanding the material delivery and mixing
from the outer Solar System to the rocky planets. In
particular, the polar regions of the Moon may havepreserved traces of cometary and meteoritic impact
material rich in organic matter and volatiles – thebuilding blocks of life.

In addition to scientific benefits, human lunar
exploration will also contribute to the wider
exploration goal to enhance the prospects forhumans to live and thrive in space while reaping
associated societal benefits. The Moon’s resources
can potentially facilitate sustainable long-duration
missions, dramatically increasing the science
returns while reducing costs and demonstrating the
exploration-enhancing nature of in-situ resource
utilisation (ISRU) strategies.

Specific, top-level science objectives that would be
addressed by a programme of human lunar surface
exploration include the following:

The lunar poles are a noteworthy option for initial
exploration activities because they remain unexploredand can yield new scientific insights and samples.
Logistically, several locations offer abundant solar
energy (near continuous sunlight) and proximity to water
ice and other volatiles that can increase understandingof inner Solar System volatile delivery and perhaps thebuilding blocks for life. In addition, these deposits could
become a significant resource for facilitating human
missions beyond the Earth-Moon system.
Understanding Our Place in the Universe
A programme of lunar surface exploration will
advance our understanding of the wider universe andour place within it, by advancing scientific knowledge
in numerous fields. These include planetary geology,
geochemistry and geophysics, astrophysics andcosmology, astrobiology, life sciences (including
human physiology, psychology, and medicine),materials science, and fundamental physics.
From a planetary science perspective, the primaryscientific importance of the Moon lies within its ancientsurface, forming the foundation of our understandingof how rocky planets formed and evolved. It preservesa record of the earliest geological evolution that more
complex bodies (e.g. Earth, Venus and Mars) have
17•

Planetary evolution: The Moon enlightens us
about the primary differentiation (i.e. formationof compositionally distinct layers) of rocky
planets. The small size of our Moon, coupledwith knowledge gained from the Apollo program,shows that much of its interior heat was lost
approximately three billion years ago. Thus,a majority of the primary differentiation of theMoon has been preserved. Therefore, ourunderstanding of how terrestrial planets andother smaller rocky bodies form and evolvecan be significantly enhanced through detailed
global lunar investigations. This should include
sampling of ancient crust/mantle material andglobal geophysical investigations that will define
the interior structure and composition of theMoon and its geologic evolution.

•

Samples of new rock types: Orbital lunar
missions have identified surface rock types thatare not part of the existing sample collection.
Our understanding of the origin and evolution of
the Moon will be greatly advanced by collecting
representative, previously un-sampled lunar
lithologies. For example, samples of the lunar

mantle are not definitively present in current
catalogue but may be found on the far side of
the Moon and isolated outcrops associated with
impact basins of the Moon’s near side. Sample
return can provide orders of magnitude morescience value than in situ analysis, demonstratedby Apollo 15 samples that were analysed by newtechniques in 2008. The new analysis discovered
the presence of water (and other volatiles) in the
lunar interior for the first time.

•

Volcanic processes: Volcanic products fromdifferent geologic ages will provide information
about the evolutionary history of the lunar interior.
Detailed sampling of such products can be used
to understand the preserved initial stages ofterrestrial planet evolution. Our understandingof Earth and Mars has broadened to include themagma oceans concept that was developed
based on Apollo 11 samples, demonstrating
the application of lunar science to general
solar system processes. Investigations of lunar
volcanic processes will provide knowledge
on various eruption styles, dates and duration
periods, helping us to better understand thenature of the lunar interior, thermal history, andextraterrestrial-volcanism in general.

•

Earth-Moon impact flux. The Moon preserves
the impact record of the inner Solar System andprovides insights into the impacts on terrestrial
planets that have caused mass extinction events.
Sampling materials from areas of different geologic
ages will provide important information about the
populations of impactors that shaped the inner
Solar System, providing the volatile and organic
materials needed for the emergence of life.

••

and improve model age-dating of all planetary
surfaces. The absolute cratering record of theMoon, derived from the crater density of the lunar
surface combined with ages of lunar samples, hasbeen extrapolated to Mars in order to determine
the age of its surface. In addition, understanding
the lunar cratering record is key to understanding
the evolution of the asteroid belt, which also
informs us on the early formation of the inner andouter Solar System planets.

•

Origin of life: How did life originate? The Moon
could help in unlocking this mystery. The recordof Solar System history gives the Moon’s geologic
history considerable astrobiological significance,
as it provides clues to conditions on the early
Earth under which life became established on
our planet and its continued habitability throughtime. Investigation of lunar polar ices could reveal
the inventory of organic molecules that may
have been delivered to the Earth-Moon system
by asteroids/comets and were subsequently
trapped and preserved in permanently shadowed
regions, and/or formed and evolved as a result ofradiolysis in polar ices by galactic cosmic rays.
Such exogenic organic molecules are of great
astrobiological interest, and are thought to occur
on icy bodies in the outer Solar System and on
interstellar dust particles. However, the lunar
poles are the closest locations to obtain samples
and investigate these astrobiological possibilities.

•

Cratering processes. Detailed in situ study ofstructure and morphology over various crater
sizes and target materials will define the impact
process and its effects on multiple scales, which
can then be applied to distant and inaccessible
Solar System objects. Large impact craters andbasins develop extensive impact melt pools,
some of which contain sub-lunarean caverns(as can volcanic lava flows in mare regions).
These caverns represent subsurface sampling
opportunities and also potential habitats forextended human visits.

Volatiles: Delivery of volatiles from externalsources is also critical for planetary surface
evolution. Current knowledge indicates that the
lunar poles may contain a record of the flux andcomposition of volatiles delivered to the inner
Solar System (including Earth). Through in situ
studies and sample return of ices and icy regolith,compositional data would enable evaluation ofthese external sources and delivery mechanisms
for the first time. In situ measurements would
also facilitate determination of the properties
and variability of the tenuous lunar atmosphereand the migration of lunar volatiles to polar cold
traps. Additionally, rock samples from lava flows
and subsurface caverns may contain information
about volatiles that are endogenic to the Moon.

•

Absolute age determination: Lunar exploration has
the potential to revolutionize our understandingof the impact cratering rate and record in the
inner Solar System. This can occur through thecollection, return, and dating of samples froma wider range of cratered surfaces and impactgenerated materials than possible with theApollo and Luna missions. This will constrain thebombardment history of the inner Solar System,•

Solar and galactic evolution: The evolution of
the Sun and the Milky Way galaxy is a subject
primarily restricted to theoretical modelling.
Analysis of the Moon’s surface could contain“snap shots of ground truth” that confirm datacollected or derived from direct observations andconstrain such theoretical models. For example,
ancient lunar regoliths lodged between lava
flows will preserve historic records of the solar
wind and galactic cosmic rays.
Astronomical observations: The Moon presents18

a unique opportunity for powerful new radio
astronomical observations. The radio-quiet far
side of the Moon is the ideal location to conduct
radio observations of the early Universe. In
addition, astronomical instruments on the
lunar surface would be well-suited to study the
Earth’s magnetosphere and heliosphere, andtelescopes located on the near side of the Moon
could conduct long-duration observations of
the Earth as an analogue for studying extrasolar
Earth-like planets. Studies of galactic cosmic
rays from the lunar surface are another possible
astronomical application, as their particle flux
rate beyond Earth’s magnetosphere increases
compared to equivalent rates in low-Earthorbit. For the past several centuries, seminal
astronomical discoveries have occurred withnew observing capabilities. These developments
can be unpredictable—however, observing thecosmos from the Moon offers potential for futurescientific serendipity.

•

Fundamental physics: The distinctive lunar
surface environment, coupled with infrastructureof lunar exploration is a possible platform
for fundamental physics activities. These
could include tests of general relativity andgravitational physics (via Earth-based lunar laser
ranging using sensitive, new-generation cornercube reflectors on the near side lunar surface),and tests of quantum entanglement over large
baselines (e.g. between Earth and the Moon).
The Moon offers an advantageous platform forstudies of galactic cosmic rays and neutrinos.
Neutrino interactions with the lunar regolith mightallow radio Cerenkov studies of non-standard
neutrino-nucleon interactions or neutrinos fromastrophysical sources.

Figure 9: Among the multitude of science activities that will be enabled by human exploration of the lunar surface, impact cratering offers abreadth of topics. The research will increase understanding of the impact flux in the inner Solar System (including the cadence of extinction
events) and the physics of the impact cratering process (which is not possible on Earth due to active geology and weather). This image shows
an artist impression of the Kaguya/SELENE spacecraft above the cratered Moon. (image courtesy of JAXA)

Living and Working in Space
Human operations on the lunar surface will significantly
contribute to the objective of establishing humanity
as a permanently space-faring species. Many of theresulting discoveries made, technologies refined, andtechniques developed will be applied to future efforts
to send humans beyond the Earth-Moon system,and some may also benefit human society on Earth.

Examples of “applied” scientific and technologicalbenefits of lunar exploration include:•

19

Contributing to human health and medical
benefits on Earth: Experiments conducted on the
ISS have shown that physiological responses tomicrogravity can mimic those associated with arange of human conditions—like osteoporosis

and, perhaps most significantly, aging. Observing
human adaptation to prolonged exposure to
fractional gravity is critical for monitoring healthand safety during lunar missions, and offers
significant insights into vestibular disorders, aging,and disuse pathology. In addition, experiments incell and organismal biology within the fractional
gravity and high-radiation environment of thelunar surface will provide insights into impactsof gravity on fundamental biological processes.
Finally, humans on the Moon enable the study ofthe interplay of radiation, variable gravity, teameffectiveness and isolation.

•

•

•

Understanding the physiological effects of
the lunar environment on human health withapplicability to more distant destinations: Studies
of human physiology in the reduced gravity,
high-radiation and dusty environment of thelunar surface will yield the knowledge required tosend crews safely to deep space Solar System
destinations. Lunar physiological researchwould supplement the knowledge accrued by
microgravity exposure on the ISS by adding
data at 1/6th g from which to investigate gravity
dose-dependence. Lunar gravity (1/6th Earth) is
an interim point between microgravity and Mars
gravity (~1/3rd Earth), providing opportunities tobetter understand the dose-dependence of livingorganisms’ need for gravity.
Understanding how non-human forms of life
adapt to, or can be protected from, the conditions
on extreme planetary surface environments:
Understanding how low-gravity, high-radiation
environments affect plants and microorganisms
is important due to the need for food and/or
bio-regenerative life support systems for future
space exploration. In addition, this aspect ofunderstanding is critical from the perspective of
the “human-microbiome” symbiotic relationshipthat is essential for maintaining multiple
physiologic functions.
Testing of Planetary Protection protocols: Lunar
operations may provide a relevant test-bed forplanetary protection research in ways that informfuture Solar System exploration. For example,
understanding the long-term survivability (andescape) of human-associated bacteria andviruses inside and outside structures on the lunar
surface could provide useful information about
facility designs for other planetary surfaces. The
Moon also presents an ideal environment fortest cleaning and repair protocols for removing
contaminants from instruments and sampling
devices, thereby minimizing the potential for“false-positive” results in experiments aimed at
detecting life on other planets.

20•

Identifying potential lunar habitats: Potential
locations for human habitats include areas ofsignificant scientific interest related to their
origin, evolution and physical properties. Such
areas include surface locations with relatively
high local magnetic field strength, floors ofpits within impact melt flows, and interiorsof subsurface caverns (e.g., lava tubes withskylights that can act as entrances). Subsurface
caverns could provide protection from daily
temperature fluctuations and the extreme spaceradiation environment, possibly making them
ideal locations for a permanent base. Suchfeatures exist on the Moon and on Mars, and thepracticality of utilizing them as habitats could
first be demonstrated on the Moon.

•

Learning how to “live off the land”: It is generally
understood that sustainable exploration of the
Solar System will be dependent on the use of
local resources. Human lunar surface scientificexploration will enable further evaluation of theresources on the Moon as potential reserves. The
investigations will help determine appropriate
methods for resource extraction and processing,and maximising their use to enhance human
exploration capabilities while reducing cost.
Those activities could synergistically enable
access to lunar samples for science, whilescientific investigations of polar ice deposits will
also reveal their potential as resources. Learning
to use local resources effectively ultimately
increases science returns because increased
ISRU activities allow crews to spend additionaltime conducting scientific activities.

•

Providing a test bed for human-robotic planetary
surface exploration: The proximity of the Moon
permits an assessment of human-robotic
partnerships/synergies in a harsh planetaryenvironment, as is discussed in Chapter 3.
Human-robotic partnerships and teleoperations
are of particular importance in terrestrial
applications for mining and resource extractionin polar or deep ocean environments andother remote locations. A synergistic approach
between robots and humans will be a key-factor
in efficiently exploring the Moon, asteroids, andother Solar System locations. The success ofthe human-robotic partnership requires soundknowledge for the development and applicationof the human-machine interface. The Moon
provides the opportunity to advance the science
underlying the design of ergonomically soundmachines to ensure exemplary performance at
distant destinations.

Figure 10: One of the most iconic images taken during the Apollo project was the “Earthrise” image acquired as the Apollo 8 command
module emerged from flying over the far side of the Moon. This “replica” image was acquired by the camera on NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter (image courtesy of NASA/Arizona State University).

21

Conclusion
Scientific investigations on the Moon will be vital
preparation for human visits to more distant solar
system destinations. In addition, the investigations will
improve our understanding of the origin and evolutionof the Earth-Moon system and terrestrial planets ingeneral. The Moon has experienced many of thegeologic processes that shape the diverse terrestrial
planets in the Solar System: Mercury, Venus, Earth,and Mars. These phenomena (i.e. impact cratering,
volcanism, and tectonics) can be studied on the lunar
surface to provide insights on the earliest history of the
Solar System including the formation and evolution of
the terrestrial planets.

Humans will also facilitate the placement of delicate
surface instrumentation on planetary surfaces. The
far side of the Moon is “radio quiet”, offering theunique opportunity for sensitive measurements ofthe earliest moments of the Universe.
Several life sciences questions pursued by human
exploration of the lunar surface will inform andfacilitate progress beyond the Earth-Moon system.
Long-duration human exposure to the fractional
gravity of the Moon may provide insight on a range ofhealth issues such as osteoporosis. It will also guidethe protection of astronauts during travel to Mars andextended stays on its surface. Similarly, efficient plant
growth in hostile (gravity/radiation) environments isimportant for sustained human exploration.
To become a truly space-faring-species, humans
must use local resources instead of launching all
support materials from Earth. The Moon is an ideal
location to learn how to “live off the land”, and polar
ice deposits present opportunities for synergisticscience and exploration investigations.

The geological complexity of the Moon necessitates
careful selection of samples for return to Earth in orderto address the plethora of scientific questions related
to the lunar surface. Sample return is a significant
scientific benefit of human exploration, and lessons
learned from the Apollo program include the use ofgeologically trained explorers for selecting the best
samples for analysis.

Finally, serendipitous discoveries make humansurface exploration such an exciting prospect
because so much will be learned that cannot be
predicted. The Apollo expeditions show numerous
examples of unplanned scientific discoveriesoccurring due to the sharp eye of a geologicallytrained astronaut.

An example of scientific study that can be advanced by
the analysis of new lunar material is the dating of impact
events, which will shed light on the impact flux for the
Earth-Moon system over geologic time. This will advancescientific knowledge of all planetary bodies as they aredated based on the lunar chronologic record, in addition
to various astrobiological ramifications, e.g. meteorite
impacts implicated in extinction events on Earth.

image courtesy of NASA22

CHAPTER 5: HUMANS TO A NEAR-EARTH
ASTEROID
Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs) present unique potential
to enable scientific and human exploration of the Solar
System. They can provide lessons for developing
human exploration capabilities and advancing
the scientific understanding of the formation andevolution of the Solar System. NEAs are bodies thathave witnessed events and conditions throughout
the history of the Solar System, often retaining
information that larger planetary bodies lost during
their evolution. NEAs also contain clues to biologicalhistory because they have a common pre-solar andearly nebular record, but also because asteroid
bombardment has been a significant part of planet
histories. NEAs essentially are time capsules of thewater and organic materials that may have playeda key role in the origins of life; and recorders ofprocesses ranging from the production of materials
that became parts of the Solar System, processes inthe earliest days of the solar nebula, and mechanisms
occurring today.

As of July 2017, 2092 of the currently known NEAs(~13%) are classified as accessible by NHATS,
offering at least one round-trip mission opportunity
between 2015 and 2040 with delta-V less than 12km/s and mission duration less than 450 days. All
missions to Mars (flyby, enter/exit orbit, or travel to/from the surface) either require more delta-V, longer
duration, or both.

NEAs also may provide crucial resources likewater that could enable novel robotic and human
exploration strategies in the future, and may
have economic potential. Additionally, advancing
knowledge of NEAs will enable humankind tobetter evaluate their potential hazard to Earth anddevelop mitigation strategies. The goals of planetary
defence complement those of scientific investigationand human exploration, allowing simultaneous
advancement of all three efforts. Human explorationof NEAs will be enabled by technologies developed
during the next decade. Such technologies could
eventually be applied to human exploration of themartian moons, which share many characteristics
with NEAs. This chapter discusses science enabled
by human exploration of asteroids in their native
orbits.
Accessible Near-Earth Asteroids
Over the past six years, NASA’s Near-Earth
Object Human Space Flight Accessible Targets
Study (NHATS) significantly increased the body ofknowledge about the accessibility of NEAs. NHATS
aims to identify all NEAs more astrodynamicallyaccessible than Mars, i.e. round-trip visits requiring
less total change-in-velocity (“delta-V”) and/or lessmission duration than round-trip visits to Mars. The
NHATS system automatically monitors NEAs andkeeps pace with updated orbit information and new
discoveries, with data publicly available at
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/nhats.

Figure 11: The nucleus of comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko wasimaged and investigated closely in recent years due to ESA’s
Rosetta mission and the Philae lander, provided by DLR and other
European partners. It revealed many new insights into the early
formation of our Solar System.( Image courtesy of ESA)23

To provide an example of known potential NEA
mission opportunities, there are 20 selected NEAs
from NHATS data that offer at least one mission
opportunity between the years 2020 and 2030.
The first 17 NEAs listed require less than 6 km/s
delta-V. For the 7 km/s delta-V range, a total of 62
NEAs would be included. For reference, a round-trip
mission to low lunar orbit requires approximately 5km/s delta-V, and a round-trip mission to the lunar
surface will need about 9 km/s delta-V.

•

Unique new samples: The world’s meteorite
collections are biased because they consist
entirely of material impacting Earth that wasstrong enough to survive the passage throughEarth’s atmosphere. Impacting Earth involves
exposure to its atmosphere, surface, andweathering processes, which can contaminate
any samples that remain intact. For example,
a meteorite was observed as a fireball in the
Tagish Lake area of Canada in early 2000, andsamples were collected within days of impact.
These were found to be pristine compared toother meteorite samples, and chemical analysis
revealed the meteorite to be “ultra-primitive”
with an abundance of organic materials including
amino acids. However, it was also discoveredthat the Tagish Lake meteorite had considerably
low density and contained weak material. An
estimated 97% of the meteorite was destroyed
during its descent, and samples collected a few
months after impact were found to have beensignificantly modified by chemical interactions
on Earth’s surface. Acquiring, preserving,
returning, and analysing material directly from anasteroid would provide new and unique samples
for scientific studies. In particular, samples fromprimitive, carbon-bearing bodies could provide
diversity not represented in current meteorite
collected samples, and include weak materials
such as direct regolith samples.

•

History of solar activity. The ability to sample thesubsurface of Solar System objects in multiple
locations will permit the study of solar evolution.
Asteroidal regolith is a complex mixture ofmaterials that are: indigenous to the asteroid;
blended from impacts, and; formed by interaction
with the solar wind, micrometeorites and thespace environment. The upper few metres of anasteroid’s regolith hold clues to these processes,
and might shed light on the evolution of the Sun.
Deep drill cores up to three metres in length could
provide a record of surface-space interactions
over millions of years. Although no comparable
drilling of an asteroid has been attempted, this
could be more feasible during a human mission.

•

Increase the value of current asteroid samples:
In addition to asteroid samples returned
by Hayabusa (from asteroid Itokawa) andsamples to be returned by the Origins, Spectral
Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security,
Regolith Explorer {OSIRIS-Rex} (Bennu) andHayabusa 2 (Ryugu), the world’s meteorite
collections contain tens of thousands ofsamples that span a wide range of materials
and processes. In the case of meteorites,
these samples are without geologic context.
For example, based on their composition we

Some of the science activities described in the rest of
this chapter require humans to visit particular types(known as taxonomies) of asteroids. Therefore, not
all of the science described here can be achievedat all asteroids. The taxonomy of the majority of theaccessible asteroids is unknown. However, future
survey telescopes will likely find and classify many
more achievable target asteroids.
Understanding Our Place in the Universe
Small bodies are exceptionally varied, as evidenced
by spectroscopic studies of surfaces and meteorites
derived from asteroids. From ice-rich comets andprimitive carbonaceous asteroids to differentiatedasteroids consisting of core, mantle and crust,investigation of these diverse classes of objects
through missions designed and equipped to exploit
their unique properties will reveal the range ofmaterials and processes of the early Solar System.
Additionally, the study of small bodies offers insights
into the dynamical evolution of the Solar System,and physical and chemical processes that havecontinued through present day. Specific, top-level
science objectives that would be addressed byhuman missions to asteroids include the following:•

Understand asteroid surface processes: Whilerobotic spacecraft are typically constrained
to resolution-limited mapping and single-site
sampling, human explorers can document the fullrange of materials on asteroids including exogenic
substances delivered by impacts. Asteroids thatare considered the most primitive are thought tohave remained primarily unchanged since theirformation more than 4.5 billion years ago, buteven these objects have been subject to potential
modification by heating and/or interaction withwater, and alteration of near surfaces by space
weathering. How these processes occur ona single asteroid is poorly known, as are thedetails of their resulting materials. In many cases,
meteorite groups once regarded as disparate may
be found to be closely related - perhaps even
originating from the same asteroid. The ability
to collect larger, macroscopic representative
samples, acquired with geologic context, willfurther understanding of the nature of theseprocesses in the early history of the Solar System.

24

geologic context for samples through deliberate
evaluation, selection, and collection, will enable
scientific analyses not currently possible.

can determine that some meteorites originatedfrom the Moon, but an exact location of whereon the Moon they were ejected remains unclear.
Human exploration of selected asteroids canprovide the ground truth that allows us to placemeteorites in the context of their parent asteroids
through reflectance spectroscopy and remoteobservations of chemistry and mineralogy,
thus vastly increasing the scientific value of thecurrent meteorite collections.

••

Provide an archive of samples with geologic
context for analysis on Earth: Carefully
documented samples returned by human
exploration of asteroids will provide a permanentarchive of materials for future scientists. Decades
after Apollo, new analytical techniques revealed
the importance of water in the evolution of theMoon. Similarly, robust asteroid samples are
essential for labour-intensive, high-precision
analyses of properties ranging from theabundance of solar wind implanted gases to the
Solar System age of formation. Unlike the current
robotically-secured samples, samples of known
spatial relationships and orientation will enable
new types of measurements (e.g., paleomagnetic
strength and orientation). Leveraging humancognitive abilities to obtain well-documented

Organic compounds and the origins of life:
NEAs can help unlock the age-old mysteryof how life took shape on this world. Primitive
NEAs represent the building blocks of the Solar
System’s terrestrial planets, and serve as time
capsules for the early materials that contributed
to Earth’s formation. Determining the inventoryof organic materials in these NEAs will provide
key insights into the availability of such materials
during the emergence of life on Earth. Manyorganic compounds are volatile and easily
destroyed by higher temperatures or contact
with water. Contamination from terrestrialorganic compounds can also occur rapidly anddiminish the science potential of samples. Thus,
while meteorites provide numerous samples
from asteroids, their study cannot fully address
this question due to damage and contamination
caused by Earth’s atmosphere and surface. The
ability to carefully select and collect samples
directly from primitive carbon-bearing asteroids,and preserve robust samples by protecting
them from contamination, would enable criticalscientific advancements.

Figure 12: Asteroids are remnants of the early history of our Solar System and provide many scientific clues to its formation. The above
images show different asteroids that were imaged by space probes in recent years. (Image courtesy of ESA)

25

Living and Working in SpaceThe human exploration of NEAs presents a unique
opportunity to study the space environment andutilise the resources of a diverse range of materials,
some of which are inaccessible on either the Earthor Moon. These materials may provide resourcesthat can be used to explore other asteroids as well
as exploration beyond low-Earth orbit and into the
Solar System. Examples of the benefits of a human
mission to an NEA include:

•

•

•

larger asteroids or piles of weakly consolidated
rubble formed by catastrophic fragmentationof earlier generations of asteroids. Deciphering
this macrostructure for individual asteroids is anelusive but essential part of understanding theirthreat to Earth and developing corresponding
mitigation techniques. A human exploration
mission could utilise a method that probes thedeep interior of an asteroid and provides insights
about its structure. The choice of technicalapproach to alleviating a potentially hazardous
impact may depend on whether the asteroid issolid, fractured, or a loosely consolidated rubble
pile.

Long-term instrument deployment to study theasteroid and space environment: A key advantageof the human exploration of asteroids is the ability
to attach critical, delicate instruments to an
unknown and unseen surface. These instruments
can enable key investigations like seismology of
the asteroid interior that requires careful coupling
and long-term monitoring for small impacts.
Likewise, long-term instrumentation may prove
essential to understanding the interaction
between the surface and the space environment,
including dust created by human exploration.
Understanding the duration and extent of atenuous dust envelope, as well as the plasma
environment created by interaction between theasteroid and the solar wind, will enable planningfor longer-term exploration.
Testing of planetary protection protocols: NEA
operations may provide a relevant test-bed formartian exploration. Interplanetary contamination
occurs in two directions: “forward” is thetransfer of contaminants from Earth to another
Solar System body, while “back” contaminants
bring extraterrestrial compounds and life to
Earth. For example, long-term survivability ofterrestrial forward contaminants (i.e. spacecrafttransported or human-associated bacteria andviruses) detected in the asteroid environment
can serve as an indicator of survival durations
elsewhere (e.g. Mars). An NEA also presents an
ideal environment to test cleaning protocols forremoving potential “false-positive” results fromexperiments or instruments designed to detect
life on other Solar System bodies. Indeed, NEA
missions may offer opportunities to address
key research and technology development
knowledge gaps identified as important forplanetary protection and human missions.
Understanding asteroid structure as a key toplanetary defence: Large asteroids visited by
spacecraft appear to have remained primarily
intact since their formation during the dawnof the Solar System, although their surfaces
have been modified by impacts. In contrast,
smaller asteroids are considered fragments of26•

Learning how to extract resources to enable
sustainable scientific exploration: Water isperhaps the most straightforward and attractive
target resource for exploration, with its ability
to provide feedstock for breathable air, drinking
supply, and rocket propulsion. Additionally,
water is an interesting subject for scientific study.
However, the majority of water found in asteroids
is most likely in the form of hydrated silicates,with some asteroids containing 10 to 20 percent
bound water. As a result, water extraction will be
a complex process that is ideally suited to human
explorers. The ability to extract this resource will
yield science through its examination and byenabling sustainable human exploration.

•

Learning how to operate safely near the surface
of a low-gravity object: The low gravity of an NEA
is a challenging environment in which to navigate,with highly irregular gravity fields and comparable
non-gravitational forces such as radiationpressure. Missions like Hayabusa, Hayabusa 2,
OSIRIS-REx, and Rosetta have taken cautious
and lengthy approaches to addressing thecomplexity of close encounters with the surfacesof such small Solar System bodies. The presenceof humans will enable effective investigation of
any complications and rapid decision-making inan environment that is not yet fully characterised.
Developing such capabilities and experience will
have direct application to potential future human
exploration of the martian moons.

•

Optimising the Human-Robotic Partnership.
Human crews will be critical to the success of a
mission to an asteroid. Performance of mission
operations must be impeccable given that little
is known of the constraints and challenges of
the harsh asteroid environment, including detailsof the landing and working terrain. To mitigate
mission risk, humans offer flexibility, creativity,
ingenuity, and adaptability as well as finesseand dexterity beyond that of current robots. To

fully leverage the potential of human explorers,
it is essential to: develop interfaces that reduce
the need for human learning and adaptation
related to the machine, and; design the machine

to maximise the effectiveness of the humanmachine system. The optimization of the humanrobotic partnership will also benefit the future
exploration of Mars.

Figure 13: Astronauts visiting an asteroid would be able to handle delicate scientific instrumentation that could provide information on theinternal structure of asteroids. This is of scientific interest, and it can also help with planetary defence.

Conclusion
Missions to asteroids would represent a newchallenge for human endeavours in space, permitting
the type of surface exploration not feasible withorbiting spacecraft. The NEA population exhibits
considerable diversity, providing a wide range ofopportunities for scientific exploration. Additionally,
NEAs have witnessed events and conditions
throughout the history of the Solar System, often
retaining information that larger, evolved planetary
bodies have lost.

unique information on the ancient history of the Sun.
As with the lunar surface, the ability of a trained
explorer to select the best samples to return to Earthis a key component to maximising the science yieldof these missions.
Studies made possible by the presence of humans
include obtaining key information for planetary
defence.
Better understanding of the internal
structure of asteroids, provided by in situ geophysicalexploration, will be key to developing the mitigation
strategies for an Earth-bound asteroid.

Returning carefully selected samples of materials
from Solar System bodies can enable key new
scientific investigations. Meteorites provide asteroid
samples that are biased toward materials strong
enough to survive the journey to Earth’s surface while
subject to contamination from Earth’s atmosphereand processes. A sample collected directly froman asteroid would not undergo this scenario, which
would enable critical new studies such as determining
the content of organic materials and evaluating theirrole in the origins of life on Earth. Additionally, carefulsample collection that is enabled by humans canlead to a better understanding of the thousands ofmeteorites already available for study by scientists,
providing geologic context to these meteorites thathave formed much of the paradigm for the evolutionof the Solar System.

The accessibility of NEAs will enable extraction andanalysis of volatiles, with some asteroids thought tocontain 10 to 20 percent bound water. In addition
to their compelling scientific possibilities, efficiently
extracted volatiles represent a resource that could
enable sustainable scientific exploration.
Developing the important capabilities needed toenable future human exploration of low-gravity bodies
involves learning how to operate safely on and near
their surfaces, obtaining samples, characterising
surface properties, and studying geologic history. In
particular, experience gained from the explorationof NEAs would have applications to potential future
human exploration of the martian moons.
Finally, serendipitous discoveries may also occur
as a result of human exploration, as the Apolloexperience demonstrated. Since human beings havenever set foot on the surface of an NEA, the potential
for unanticipated discoveries is substantial.

The presence of humans will permit the handling ofcomplex instruments to be attached to the surface
of an asteroid, as well as the ability to sample below
its surface. These subsurface samples could provide

27

Image courtesy: ESA/DLR/FU Berlin28CHAPTER 6: MARS – THE HORIZON GOAL
destinations of scientific interest in their own right.
Eventually, human missions to the surface of Mars
would provide substantial capabilities to explore
the surface. We expect that crews would be able totraverse to sites up to 100 km away from the original
landing site using robust rovers. A habitat outfittedwith state-of-the-art laboratory facilities could enableastronauts to perform cutting-edge science on thesurface of Mars. A human-robotic partnership duringexploration would further enhance the science returnof these missions.

Human missions to Mars present an unprecedented
opportunity to investigate the closest and most
Earth-like planetary neighbour. Mars has undergone
geologic evolution not unlike that of early Earth,with fundamental differences (such as the lack ofplate tectonic recycling) that have resulted in thepreservation of ancient (> 3.5-billion-year-old) rocks,
offering the best record in the Solar System of thefirst billion years of Earth-like planetary evolution.
The ancient terrains of Mars have recorded evidenceof widespread interaction between neutral waterand crustal rocks, at the time that life first appearedon Earth. A dramatic transition occurred on Mars
approximately 3.8 billion years ago, involving achange to acidic waters, a reduction in geologic
activity, suspension of the magnetic field, anddepletion of the atmosphere - although glacial, winddriven, and volcanic processes continue.

The scientific themes described in Chapter 2 wereframed to address a wide breadth of scientificdisciplines and destinations, many of those themes
naturally also apply to the scientific exploration ofMars. Mars significantly differs from other destinations
given its sheer size, dynamic environment, andpotential for past or extant life. Finding evidenceof life, past or present, would be an extraordinary
discovery and would allow us to study the only otherexample of known life. The primary goal of this white
paper, though, is to detail science enabled by nearterm human exploration.

Human missions to Mars could develop step-wisefrom a staging post in the Mars vicinity, from which
teleoperation of robotic assets on the surface will
provide significant operational efficiencies. Such astaging post might take the form of a base on theMars moons Phobos and Deimos, which are also two

Figure 14: The Curiosity Rover needed five years to make its 14-km journey to Mt. Sharp on Mars. In its 13 years of operation, the Opportunity Rover has covered 43 km of martian terrain. Conversely, the crew of Apollo 17 traversed nearly 32 km across the lunar surface in justthree days. (Image courtesy of NASA)29

image courtesy of NASA30

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
The previous chapters describe the breadth ofscientific opportunities made available by thepresence of humans and associated infrastructureat destinations highlighted in the Global Exploration
Roadmap. As an ongoing process that reflects
the continuing maturity of planning, ISECG has
developed Design Reference Missions (DRMs) that
represent notional missions to the GER destinations
and respond to the goals, objectives, and strategic
considerations of participating agencies. The
purpose of the DRMs is to represent a realistic scale
for missions to these locations rather than describe
the plans of agencies. As such, they are useful as aframework for required engineering solutions as well
as a guide to understanding the amount and typeof science that could be achieved by that class of
exploration.

Moon can advance science questions regarding
volatile delivery to the inner Solar System as well as
the delivery of key building blocks required for life.
Concerning human missions to an NEA, the scienceaddressed will hinge upon the asteroid that isselected. The scientific community has clearly
formulated its interest in visiting different asteroids
in their native orbits to maximise the scientific return.
Mars is unparalleled as a horizon goal for human
exploration and scientific value, but the actual pathto the red planet is still being developed. In order toachieve this goal, more in-depth study utilizing ourcurrent capabilities is required.
Looking forward, it should be understood that future
activities will most likely address a subset of thescientific opportunities described in this paper, andthat this subset will reflect specific mission scope
and associated capabilities. The implementationof actual missions will be a focus of international
partnership and cooperation with new partners,
similar to the very successful ISS partnership. In
parallel, participating agencies will choose scientificpriorities and instrumentation to ensure that theendeavour of human space exploration continues todeliver outstanding science for the benefit of citizens
on Earth.

The current Global Exploration Roadmap DRM
scenario envisions lunar vicinity infrastructure as thedeep space gateway visited by crews in a cadenceof approximately one mission per year. Initially, thegateway would not be permanently occupied, andlong-duration astronaut health investigations will
be limited to the stay time at the gateway. As the
scenario matures, the scope of the gateway will bedefined further, within which potential for specificinstrumentation and a detailed assessment ofscientific opportunities can be addressed. Similarly,
the eventual location of the gateway will determine
its suitability for specific scientific investigations.
While many parameters currently remain open, it isexpected that the scientific activities on board would
make use of the ability to conduct long-duration
experiments on the gateway. This will be combinedwith the advantages associated with periodic crew
presence, allowing for scientific benefits over a wide
range of fields (e.g. radiation experiments and dust/
grain collectors). In addition, significant exploration of
the lunar surface by telepresence of surface robotics
is feasible with this mission scale, and will depend on
gateway capabilities for teleoperation of robots andreceiving samples from the lunar surface.
Mobility is a key factor in the science that is achieved
during lunar surface exploration. The Global
Exploration Roadmap DRM involves a crew living ina pressurized rover, which would essentially serve
as a mobile habitat. From a scientific perspective,
this architecture is particularly enabling for science,with future implications for human exploration of
the martian surface. Such missions will facilitate
regional investigations (e.g. the lunar South PoleAitken Basin) and young lava flows rather than global
exploration. The study of polar ice deposits on theimage courtesy of NASA31

APPENDIX 1: SELECTED INTERNATIONALSCIENCE AND STRATEGY DOCUMENTS

No.
1

Document Title

Year

Moon: The 8th Continent: Final Report of ESA’s Human
2003
Spaceflight Vision Group2
Report of the Commission on the Scientific Case2005
for Human Space Exploration (Royal Astronomical Society, UK)
3
The Global Exploration Strategy
2007
				
4
The Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon:
2007
Final Report (National Academy of Sciences, USA)		
5
NASA Advisory Council Workshop on Science Associated with2007
the Lunar Exploration Architecture
6
Science-Driven Scenario for Space Exploration
2008(European Science Foundation)		
7
New Worlds, new Horizons in Astronomy and Astrophysics
2010(National Academy of Sciences, USA)
8
Vision and Voyages for Planetary Science2011
in the Decade 2013-2022 (National Academy of Sciences, USA)
9
THESEUS – Towards Human Exploration of Space: A European
2012
Strategy Roadmap (EU project, European Science Foundation)		
10
Solar and Space Physics: A Science for a Technological Society
2013(National Academy of Sciences, USA)
11
Science and Challenges of Lunar Sample Return – Workshop
2014
Outcomes and Recommendations
12
Pathways to Exploration: Rationales and Approaches
2014
for a U.S. Program of Human Space Exploration(National Academy of Sciences, USA)13
ESA Space Exploration Strategy
2015
14

Canadian Space Exploration: Science and Space HealthPriorities for Next Decade and Beyond

32

2017

Agency linkESA

ISECG participating
agencies
NASA
NASA
ESA
NASA
NASA

NASA
ESA
NASA

 SA, ASI, CNES,
E
DLR, UKSA
CSA33APPENDIX 2: SCIENCEADVISORY GROUP
The production of this science white paper was supported
by a science advisory group (SAG) that consisted of aninternational cadre of scientists with a breadth of expertise.
A list of the SAG members is shown below.

Co-chairs:
1.

Ben Bussey(NASA, USA)

2.

Jean-Claude Worms(ESF, France)

Members
3.

Gilles Clement(University of Lyon, France)

4.

Ian Crawford(University of London, UK)

5.

Mike Cruise(University of Birmingham, UK)

6.

Masaki Fujimoto(JAXA, Japan)

7.

Dave Hart(University of Calgary, Canada)

8.

Ralf Jaumann(DLR, Germany)

9.

Tim McCoy(Smithsonian Institute, USA)

10.

Clive Neal

(University of Notre Dame, USA)

11.

Gordon Osinski(University of Western Ontario, Canada)

12.

Maria Cristina De Sanctis(INAF, Italy)

13.

Masaki Shirakawa(JAXA, Japan)

34

35

ISECG members:

Publishing services provided by:
European Space Agency
ESTEC, Noordwijk
Directorate of Human Spaceflight and Robotic Exploration
Copyright © 2017 European Space Agency
www.esa.int

Cover image: NASA image modified by ESA

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