electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies (ejcjs)
Conference and Seminar Papers

KenkyuProceedings of a Postgraduate Research Seminar in Japanese Studiesth

Oxford Brookes University Research Centre, Oxford Brookes University, UK, Saturday 28 July, 2001
Post-Graduate Network in Japanese Studies (PGN)

Sleepless in Japan: the kanashibari phenomenon
Anna Schegoleva
Ph.D candidate
School of Oriental and African Studies, London
anna_schegoleva@yahoo.com

I remember with perfect clarity that first night I lost the ability to sleep. I was having a repulsive dream- a dark, slimy dream. I do not remember what it was about, but I do remember how it felt: ominous andterrifying. I woke up at the climactic moment - came fully awake from the start, as if something had dragged
me back at the last moment from a fatal turning point. Had I remained immersed in the dream for anothersecond, I would have been lost forever. After I awoke, my breath came in painful grasps for a time. My arms
and legs felt paralysed. I lay there immobilized, listening to my own laboured breathing, as if I were stretchedout full-length on the floor of a huge cavern.
~ Murakami Haruki, Sleep

People have always been afraid of the dark. In Japan (as in many other countries), a place
where the dead people would leave this world appears as ‘a country of darkness’ (yumi nokuni) in the earliest chronicles. The moments when day turns into night and daylight becomesdarkness have been considered the time for strange creatures to come on stage. It is the time
when spooky stories are told, a time for fairy tales to be told and lullabies sung in order tocalm children. The stories told on these occasions in Japan have always fascinated me for theway that they are not exactly sweet or moralistic but are quite bizarre and even brutal. Kawai
Hayao insists that Japanese fairy tales contain more aesthetic than ethical features (Kawai
1995: 11, 99-121). Still I am wondering how children are expected to get to sleep having justheard stories with names like ‘Tongue-cut sparrow’ or ‘Monkey’s liver’. In my opinion, Japan
seems to show a certain affection for the horror genre. Indeed, the old tradition of kaidan(ghost stories) still has a considerable influence on popular culture: horror books, movies,
manga comics and television programmes are full of ghost stories and widely consumed.
Popular horror movies include the recent Ringu (‘The Ring’) hit, a film in which a haunted
video tape takes the place of forbidden knowledge and everyone who watches it dies a week
later. It was in fact a typical yūrei (ghost) story with one of the characters called Sadako
coming out of her grave to reveal the truth about her death and revenge. Sadako appears only
a few times in short cuts made in amateur video style, although this was enough for her tobecome a cult horror figure in contemporary culture.
29

This year I went to Japan with the intention of investigating and collecting contemporary
ghost stories.1 Collections of school ghost stories, collected and published by Japanesefolklorists and later on made into movies, are full of newly created ghostly creatures andmiraculous tales. One of my main interests was to investigate the way that ghosts and fear of
the supernatural are consumed in Japanese society.
During one of these improvised parties devoted to horror stories - a kowai hanashi (scarystory) night with a group of students - I was told ‘the most frightening tale’. A 3rd year student
described how he got kanashibari: having woken up at night with a feeling of pressure on his
chest, he was unable to move or cry for help, and suddenly saw a figure on his bed. Petrified
with fear, he closed his eyes and realised that this strange creature was pressing on his chest
preventing him from breathing. It was over in some minutes when he finally managed tomove one of his fingers; there was no one else in his room. It happened when he was 19 andhe remembers very well that could not get back to sleep for some time after that. The ensuiing
discussion revealed that half of the young people present had had similar experiences at least
once in their lives. Most of them admitted that they saw something or someone in their rooms
and, being paralysed with fear, could do nothing about the frightening presence.

Sleep terror in Japan
Since then I have been asking as many people as possible about their kanashibari experiences.
The stories I have heard differ greatly: from short and simple - ‘this happened to me just like
it normally happens’; funny - ‘I turned on the light and realised that I was speaking to the newposter on my wall’; to some stories that were so terrifying that informants sometimes refused
to speak about them.
I decided to compile a questionnaire to take to schools, starting with usual questions on
relationships in family and class, home chores and school folklore. The questionnaire
included questions about the children’s attitude towards class, homework and classmates, andI also included questions asking whether they were sleeping well, saw bad dreams and how
they got over their nightmares. Finally, I asked whether respondents knew the word
kanashibari, whether they themselves had experienced it, how often it had occurred to them,and what seemed unique about their experience (visions, sounds, smells etc.). Children
seemed to be very excited to entrust their secrets to the foreign sensei. Even while I was
passing the questionnaire around the class, some would come up to me and say: “May I tell
you right away?”
I decided to go to school mostly to get some data and chose primary school students in the 4th
to 6th years of study, mostly because this age group (10 to 12) is considered to be the mostimportant for transmitting school ghost stories. That is how I received the following results.
Children do not sleep very well, because they are worried about their school tasks or feelfrightened of the darkness in the room, or after reading horror books and watching TV
programmes that present a variety of shocking stories. They all knew the expression
kanashibari (except one girl, who was not sure) and learnt the word from computer games,
TV programmes, books, sometimes from friends and in the rarest cases from family members.
One-third of the respondents admitted having had this experience, with two-percent unsure
whether or not it was kanashibari. Interestingly, there was no significant difference in the1

I wish to express my gratitude to the Toshiba International Foundation and EAJS Council for their generous
assistance in making this visit possible.

30

answers of boys and girls although it is usually thought that girls are more susceptible tokanashibari (Matsutani 1999: 48).
At an early stage I realised that the children were not writing much, and there were alsointerviews organised afterwards. First of all I was interested in reasons: what reasons people
would give for experiencing kanashibari. Detailed description of experiences was also highly
desirable, but in a great majority of cases informants would just answer that it happened as ‘itnormally happens’. It is rather unfortunate that kanashibari has become such a topic ofdiscussion these days; people tend to think that their personal experiences can not add muchto what has already been investigated. Further on I quote one of my interviews with an 11year old boy:
‘So you wanted to tell me about your kanashibari experience.’‘Yes, it happened when I was five. I remember lying in my bed, my body being pressed by someone inlong white clothes. I could see my brother sleeping but could not move to free myself or scream forhelp.’‘Was it a male or female figure?
‘I immediately decided that it was a female. I don’t know why.’‘You remember it quite well. How did it end?’‘I felt that I could move my toes, and the same moment the ghost disappeared.’‘Do you think it was a ghost?’‘My brother told me next morning: so you had kanashibari and saw a ghost!’‘Did you tell the other members of your family what had happened?’‘No, but a few years later my mother asked if I had had kanashibari, and I said yes, and told her aboutit.’‘Has it happened to you just once?’‘In fact, the second time it happened soon after I spoke to my mother about kanashibari.’ [Laughs.]‘How old were you?’‘Well, it was about two years ago, so I was nine, I think. But I did not see anything, there was just thisstrange annoying noise, like a glass breaking.’‘Like glass breaking? Was there actually anything like glass around?’‘No, and the noise was constant, not real, like glass broken into pieces - crrraasshhhh, as if something
big and fragile was being dropped on the floor.’‘Were you frightened?’‘No, the second time I knew what was happening and even found it funny, though the noise was ...
bothering me.’‘And the first time, when you were five?’‘I do not remember very well, but I think I should have been afraid.’‘Do you know why people get kanashibari? Or how to get kanashibari?’‘I am not sure, but some of my classmates should know, ask them.’

Of course, I ask his classmates. Their physical experiences do not vary: pressure in the chest
area (or all over the body), immobility, breathing difficulties. Is it possible to call this state‘immobility’ when you can see and move your eyes (in a great majority of cases) or turn yourhead (in some cases)? Variations were represented in visions and sounds. Most common
visions include: Sadako, ghosts (obake), unfamiliar people. Some other examples: spiritualphotographs, suicides, zombies, burglars, frightening things seen on TV. One of the girls(aged 10) saw sleeping pills falling down from the ceiling; there were so many she could
hardly stand the weight. The most impressive is Sadako, the one from the Ringu movie. A
female figure in white clothes, limping up to the sleeper, with her face enclosed by long hair
hanging down from her head, or another cut when we see Sadako doing her hair and smilingin Mona Lisa style in her reflection in the mirror. Just a few seconds later she appears on thescreen leaving such a subliminal influence on spectators that they see her in their nightmares
and experience kanashibari. Another visual representation of kanashibari experience unfamiliar people in the bedroom - calls for thorough psychological research. Someinterviewees see the same figure every time, others see completely different people who comethrough their window and stare at the sufferer paralysed with fear. I do not regard my task as
one of finding an explanation for these ‘hallucinations’, but the mass media influence on the31

way these experiences takes place is obvious. Some informants even say that the first timethey got kanashibari was after watching a TV programme with a detailed explanation of theexperiences. One of the famous TV programmes on kanashibari, which was repeated anumber of times, was Kitano Takeshi’s ‘Unbiribabo’,2 where serious investigation followedjokes on the subject. Celebrity Takeshi was tied to his chair with metal chains crying for help,
and similar jokes are sometimes used in TV dramas and comedy programmes. Thus, the mass
media actively participate in the formation of popular attitudes toward kanashibari and eveninfluence the manner in which kanashibari happens to sufferers.
Another aspect of perceptions of kanashibari is a strange irritating sound. The sound heard
during kanashibari experience (and sometimes claimed to be the spur to wake up) can besomething casual, like breaking glass as mentioned in the interview above, footsteps,
slamming doors, laughter, but with a majority of descriptions I even have trouble finding
English equivalents for these onomatopoeic expressions, e.g. pi:do:n, ga:ga:pi:, kiikii(screech), pi:pi:pi: (peep), ihihihii etc.
From school children I learnt about different ways to experience kanashibari: it is either by
doing evil to others all day, and then punishment in the form of kanashibari comes at night, orby studying too much at nights so that your usual regime is violated. It is said to happen
during daytime naps as well. Among youngsters it is almost a fashion to get kanashibari anddescribe it. At school they try to think of ways and techniques for getting kanashibari. To
start with, it is understood that you have to sleep on your back. Some children say that they
believe that they can get kanashibari the coming night just by writing the words ‘Get lost!’(Usero!) on a piece of paper and then tearing it up and throwing it away. One of the boys told
me that he tried this but never succeeded. Another time I was told that you have to sleep
holding your favourite toy very tight in bed with you. If you go to bed crying there is also a
possibility that you will get kanashibari. When I ask about how they avoid kanashibari, my
young informants are too enthusiastic to get kanashibari to think of avoiding it. If you try tolook for the term kanashibari in Japanese websites, there are a surprising number of students’
homepages which include descriptions of their kanashibari experiences as a part of theireveryday lives. There was a homepage of a kanashibari fan club where visitors discussed how
much they enjoyed the horror of the experience.3
What is the background to the kanashibari phenomenon? Compared with the mass media,
there is surprisingly little mention of it in the academic literature. There are certainly shortchapters devoted to kanashibari in works on dream psychology, mostly explaining it in termsof narcolepsy (e.g. Kitahama 2000). Most probably, the word kanashibari4 goes back toshugendō:5 kanashibari may have been a special technique used to paralyse enemies, but it ishard to say when the expression came into wider use.
We find a detailed description in Murakami Haruki’s novella Sleep, part of which served as aprologue to the current article. The main heroine is said to have suffered of insomnia in her
school years, and is now happily married to the dentist with a son of school age. One night
she gets kanashibari and starts to suffer from insomnia sleep again (Murakami 1994: 83).
I wanted to look at the clock by my pillow, but I couldn’t turn my head far enough. Just then, I deemed
to catch a glimpse of something at the foot of the bed, something like a vague, black shadow. ... It was
2
3‘Unbiribabo’ (English ‘unbelievable’), first broadcast on 8th August, 1988, Kansai TV, Japan.

http://geocities.co.jp/Milkyway-Orion/5877/club.htm. Last visited in March 2000, and thereafter the page
became unavailable.
4
Kanashibari literally means ‘bound (or fastened) in metal’: kana, metal, shibaru, to bind, tie, fasten. Probably a
metaphor for samurai armour, in which it was difficult to move.
5
Shugendō: ‘the way of cultivating spiritual powers’ through ascetic practices in the mountains; a syncretistic
religious tradition.

32

a gaunt old man wearing a skintight black shirt. His hair was black and short. He stood at my bed,
perfectly still. He said nothing, but his piercing eye stared at me. ... This was no longer a dream,
I knew. From that I had already awakened. ... And in reality an old man I had never seen before wasstanding at the foot of my bed. I had to do something - turn on the light, wake my husband, scream.
I tried to move. I fought to make my limbs work, but it did no good. I couldn’t move a finger. Whenit became clear to me that I would never be able to move, I was filled with a hopeless terror, a primalfear such as I had never experienced before, like a chill that rises silently from the bottomless well of
memory. I tried to scream, but I was incapable of producing a sound or even moving my tongue. All
I could do was look at the old man.

Later on this unknown old man turns out to hold a pitcher and he starts pouring water from it
on a poor woman’s feet. She sees and hears the water, but can not feel it, and believes her feetwill rot and melt away. She closes her eyes and lets out a scream which has remained trappedin her body, but when she opens her eyes the old man is gone. Gradually she becomes able tomove again but is too terrified to sleep.

What the doctors say
Medical scientists differentiate sleep terrors (which include incubus attacks) from REM (rapid
eye movement) sleep disorders. Sleep terror sufferers sit up suddenly during sleep and emit a
scream. The expression ‘sleep terror’ has replaced ‘night terror’ since attacks also occur
during daytime naps (Chokroverty 1999: 640).
Nightmares occur mainly in the second half of the night within REM sleep.6 During REM
sleep (the period when rapid eye movement takes place) the body ‘turns itself off’ anddisconnects from the brain. This is a safety measure, so that people do not physically act out
their dreams, and it means that people are effectively paralyzed during part of their sleep.
Even automatic reflexes, like kicking when the knee is tapped, do not function during REM
sleep.
Sleep paralysis seems to occur when the body is in REM sleep and so is paralyzed anddisconnected from the brain, while the brain has emerged from sleep and is either awake orhalf awake. Usually after a minute or two the spell is broken and the person is able to moveagain, as the brain and body reestablish their connection. Just what is going on in the brain
during sleep paralysis is unclear.
According to positive science, sleep paralysis used to be considered a form of narcolepsy.
Since the connection between narcolepsy and kanashibari is not clear and in many cases
kanashibari sufferers do not have narcolepsy, it came to be called isolated sleep paralysis.
The fact that the term kanashibari is so widespread in Japan - and it would be absurd to claimthat almost half of the population was sick - has roused academic interest. Not surprisingly,
these are mainly Japanese scholars. Fukuda’s research (1991) has shown that ‘thephenomenon is apparently more common (about 40% of normal respondents) than previously
appreciated.’ Fukuda also suggests that sleep paralysis is related more to disturbed sleep andwaking cycles than to narcolepsy and should be considered as a physiological phenomenon
rather than a pathological one, due to its high prevalence in the normal population (Fukuda
1991: 956). They also found no significant gender differences with regard to the phenomenon,and so further analyses were done using scores for the sexes combined. In addition, research
was carried out with the aim of finding personality differences between groups of people with
6

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep - sleep stage, characterised by suppression of muscle activity and thepresence, by definition, of rapid eye movements. Because of the combination of intense central nervous system
excitation and inhibition of motor activity, this stage has at times been called ‘paradoxical sleep’. It normallyaccounts for 20 to 25 percent of total sleep time.

33

and without kanashibari experience. Again, no significant differences was found except aslight tendency for paranoia among those who have had the experience. The scientists
suggested that these psychopathological traits might be reactions to the disorder and its effects(ibid.: 960).
The case has been investigated in scientific circles for more than two decades but neither
medical specialists nor psychologists have reached any straightforward conclusions. It is still
unknown, for example, whether this state can be referred to as being asleep or awake. The
visions patients have are called hypnagogic hallucinations. In fact, the label ‘patients’ might
be misleading since they do not seem to have any anomalies. All in all, kanashibari does notseem to be associated with any serious psychopathology. However, this probability should not
be taken as an indication that kanashibari is of little consequence and does not deserve
attention; the anguish of the sufferers is great and speaks of the need for research on etiology
and treatment (Arikawa 1999: 373). Experts have trouble even saying definitively whether aperson is asleep or awake during sleep paralysis.
What interest can there be in an investigation that seems to yield so few results? Is there any
logic in what the sufferers are complaining about: hallucinations, feeling of presence, andfear?
A process of rather intense research of the phenomenon has led scientists to the question ofwhether the experience has to do with cultural background or folklore. Thus, they hope to finda correlation of sleep paralysis with cases of alien abduction, which mainly happen during
sleep. Al Cheyne, a professor of psychology at Waterloo University in Ontario, Canada,
argues that people refer to ‘the most plausible account in their repertoire to explain theirexperience.’ According to Cheyne, since trolls or witches are old-fashioned, aliens from outerspace are more appropriate to the modern mind, and ‘so a light on a broomstick is replaced bya teleportation to a waiting spaceship.’Sleep paralysis researchers say that as many as sixty-percent of intense abduction experiences
are linked to sleep, and some of the reported symptoms - noises, smells, paralysis, levitation,
terror, images of frightening intruders - are very similar to those of sleep paralysis. The
person experiencing the paralysis certainly feels completely awake and ‘sees’ the room
clearly, but laboratory experiments in Japan show that sometimes people experiencing sleep
paralysis do not even open their eyes.
Sleep paralysis sometimes runs in families and appears to have a genetic component.
Although it is normally harmless, some scholars believe it may be linked to a pattern of
unexplained deaths among the Hmong and other groups in Southeast Asia. The victims areusually healthy young people who die in their sleep, sometimes after fighting for breath but
without thrashing around, and their faces show grimaces of terror.

Kanashibari outside Japan
Sleep paralysis was once thought to be very rare, but recent studies in Canada, Japan, China
and the United States have suggested that it may strike at least 40 or 50 percent of all people
at least once in their lives, and a study in Newfoundland, Canada, found that more than 60
percent had experienced it. There, as in Japan, people have a name for the condition and somescholars believe that people are therefore more likely to identify it when it happens to them.
In Newfoundland, it is called ‘old hag’ because it is associated with visions of an old witch
sitting on the chest of a paralysed sleeper, sometimes throttling the neck with her hands.

34

An experience that I initially considered unique to Japan is in fact worldwide. The
uniqueness of the Japanese case is basically in the existence of verbal expressions for theexperience. The use of the word kanashibari has even been welcomed by some foreign
residents in Japan. Only on coming to Japan have they found that they are not alone in theirsuffering. Relieved, they discuss their experiences on the Internet, and there are Japanesewebsites for kanashibari fans, where you can sometimes learn about dangerous experiments
for bringing on kanashibari in sleep.
Interestingly enough, I could not find many Japanese sources on the subject, which was quite
surprising because the kanashibari case itself is quite common and being widely discussed inJapan. In this respect, I did not have problems with identifying my subject, unlike Hufford’s
research on the ‘old hag’ phenomenon in Newfoundland (Hufford 1982). His book contains
interviews, theoretical work and archival material, regarded as pioneering research on thesubject.
In China, the experience is called bei guai chaak (‘being pressed by a ghost’). Charles
Emmons, who did research in Hong Kong on so called ‘paranormal experiences’, observes(Emmons 1982: 144-56):
Although I have not seen anything on this in description of traditional Chinese culture, several peoplein Hong Kong told me about the concept of bei guai chaak. Others who did not use the phrase itself
nevertheless reported experiences of a similar nature. Bei guai chaak involves a feeling of immobility,
as if a weight were pressing down on the body. People sometimes say that they actually see a ghost on
top of them.

Recently, during a Japan Research Centre seminar at the School of Oriental and African
Studies, the similarity between kanashibari and shamanic trances occurred to me. Thus, thedescription of so-called shamanic disease in Korea resembled some features of kanashibari:pressure in the chest area, immobilisation, breathing difficulties (Park 2000). It is useful tocompare these with three cardinal features of the malady (nightmare), which J. A. Hadfield(1954:177) quotes from Ernest Jones (1930): (a) agonizing dread, (b) a sense of oppression orweight at the chest which interferes alarmingly with respiration, (c) conviction of helplessparalysis, together with other subsidiary symptoms such as palpitation. Is it possibly
something in common with paranormal events and these physical features of kanashibari?
Don’t we refer to the experience mostly in terms that we already know?
What strikes me is the way that people having similar physical experiences have quite
different visions and interpret them according to their cultural backgrounds. Haunted houses
in medieval Europe, a witch sitting on a sleeper’s body in Newfoundland, alien abductions allaround the world causing (or caused by?) the UFO boom in the 1980s, shamanic trances, theprevalence of kanashibari in Japan. Do all these features belong to the same category of
expeience, or are we again trying to explain something ‘mystical’ from a rational point ofview?
Kanashibari in contemporary Japanese society is sometimes formed and even caused by mass
media culture. Considered to be common and sometimes appealing these days, it remains oneof the most frightening phenomena people can experience. Imagine waking up to see an
unknown person (or people) in your bedroom and being absolutely helpless to do anything
about this disturbing presence. Patients reporting these symptoms to their doctors would havebeen put in a mental hospital a few decades ago, whereas nowadays the experience might be
explained away as spirit possession.
One of the important questions to emerge is whether the experience formulates or influences
belief or whether it is belief which creates the experience? My feeling is that as the experience35

has become well-known through the popularisation of the word kanashibari, it has enteredculture as a folk belief, and so the culture has itself come to shape the experience in a rather
unique way. Further investigations on the subject, started with Japanese scholarship on theillusory world of sleep, might lead to discoveries about the reality we live in.

References
Arikawa Hiroko, Donald E. Templer, Ric Brown, W. Gary Cannon and Shane Thomas
Dodson (1999). ‘The structure and correlates of kanashibari’, The Journal of
Psychology 133 (4), 369-375.
Baker Robert and Joe Nickell (1992). Missing pieces: how to investigate ghosts, UFOs,
psychics and other mysteries. Bufallo, NY: Prometheus Books.
Chokroverty Sudhansu (ed.) (1999) [1994]. Sleep Disorders Medicine: Basic Science,
Technical Consideration and Clinical Aspects. Boston and Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann.
Crowe, Catherine (1986) [1848]. The Night-side of Nature, or, Ghosts and Ghost-seers.
Wellingborough, Northamptonshire: The Aquarian Press.
Emmons, Charles (1982). Chinese Ghosts and ESP: a study of paranormal beliefs andexperiences. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press.
Fukuda Kazuhiko (1991). ‘Personality of healthy young adults with sleep paralysis’,
Perceptual and Motor Skills 73, 955-962.
----- (1993) ‘One explanatory basis for the discrepancy of reported prevalences of sleep
paralysis among healthy respondents’, Perceptual and Motor Skills 77, 803-807.
J. A. Hadfield (1954). Dreams and Nightmares. London: Pelican Books.
Hand, Wayland and Gustav Ort (eds.) (1969) Humaniora: Essays in Literature,
Folklore and Bibliography Honoring Archer Taylor. Locust Valley, N.Y.: J.J.
Augustin.
Hersen Michael (1972) ‘Nightmare Behaviour: A Review’, Psychological Bulletin 78:
37-48.
Hufford, David J. (1982) The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centeredstudy of supernatural assault tradition. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press.7
Jones, Ernest (1930) On the Nightmare (The International Psychoanalytical Library, No.
20). London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis.
Kawai Hayao (1995) Dreams, Myths and Fairy Tales in Japan. Einsiedeln: Daimon.
Kitahama Kunio (2000) Hito wa naze, yume wo miru no ka [‘Why do people see
dreams’]. Tokyo: Bungei Shunju
Kondo Masaki (ed.) (1995) Majo no dengonpan [‘Messages from witches’]. Tokyo:
Hakusuisha.
Matsutani Miyoko (ed.) (1999) [1997] Kanashibari resutoran (Kaidan Resutoran 6)[‘Kanashibari restaurant’]. Tokyo: Dōshinsha.
Murakami Haruki (1993) Sleep [‘Nemuri’], in Elephant Vanishes. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf , 73-110.
Park Sun-hee (2000) The medical anthropology study of the process of becoming
a mature Korean shaman, unpublished paper presented at Japan Research Centre
Seminar, School of Oriental and African Studies, 27th November, 2000.
Shapiro, Colin (ed.) (1993) ABC of Sleep Disorders. London: BMJ Publishing Group.
Terillion, Jean-Cristophe and Shirley Marquez-Bonham, Shirley (2000) [1998] ‘Does
recurrent isolated sleep paralysis involve more than cognitive neurosciences?’.
http://www.eden.com/~sbonham/Sse.htm (last revised on March 22, 2000).
7Japanese translation by Fukuda Kazuhiko (1998) Yoru ni tazunareru kyofu / Kitabei no kanashibari taiken ni
kansuru jisshoteki kenkyu. Tokyo: Kawajima shoten. I have used the Japanese version in my research, although
the footnotes refer to the original publication.

36