Optimizing Material Flows◆特集＊招待論文◆

Optimizing Material Flows

Resource Recovery, Zero Waste and Sustainable Consumption
as Paradigms in Urban Development

マテリアルフローの適正化

資源循環・ゼロ廃棄・持続可能な消費：都市発展の新しいパラダイム

Steffen Lehmann
Professor & Director, Research Centre sd+b, University of South Australia, Adelaide
レーマン , ステッファン
南オーストラリア大学持続可能デザイン＋行動研究センター所長・教授

This paper explores the notion of sustainable urban metabolism and “zero waste”. There is now
a growing interest in understanding the complex interactions and feedbacks between urbanization,material consumption and the depletion of our resources. The link between increasing urbanization andthe increase of waste generation has been established for some time. However, the impact of urban formand density on resource consumption is still not fully understood. Human population on the planet has
increased fourfold over the last hundred years, while – in the same time period – material and energy
use has increased tenfold. Beyond energy efficiency, there are now urgent challenges around the supplyof resources, materials, food and water. After debating energy-efficiency for the last two decades, thefocus has shifted to include resource and material-efficiency.
The topic of reducing urban household consumption and strategies to reducing the material
requirements for buildings (in fact, of the entire construction sector) has only recently emerged as
an urgent field. While there is a general acknowledgment that there is a need for improved urban
governance processes and rethinking of urban development patterns to reduce material consumption
and optimize material flows, this is still a relatively new research field and there is still a lack of reliabledata and comparative methodologies. One of the findings of this paper is that embedding “zero-waste”
requires strong industry leadership, new policies and effective education curricula, as well as raisingawareness (education) and refocusing research agendas to bring about attitudinal change and the
reduction of wasteful consumption.
本論は持続可能な都市新陳代謝とゼロ廃棄を論じたものである。都市化、マテリアル消費、資源枯渇の間に複雑な関係があり、互いのフィードバックに対して関心は高まっている。都市化と都市廃棄物の産出との間に関連性が強いことは一般に知られているが、都市の形態と密度がマテリアルの消費にどのような影響を与えるかに関してまだよくわかっていない。世界人口は最近 100 年の間に４倍増えた。一方、マテリアルとエネルギー消費は 10 倍も増えた。エネルギー効率に加えて、資源、物資、食糧、水の供給にも重大な挑戦が待ち受けている。過去 20 年間、私たちはエネルギー効率をよく議論してきた。近年、それに資源とマテリアル消費も含まれる方向へシフトしている。
都市における世帯消費の削減と建築物のマテリアル需要の削減を緊急な課題として一緒に議論するようになったのは最近のことである。都市ガバナンスを改善し、都市開発の形態を再考し、資源消費を減らし、マテリアルフローを適正化させることに関して、一般的知見がかなり増えてきたが、信頼できるデータと比較できる研究方法はまだない。結論として、ゼロ廃棄を都市発展の主流に乗せるためには、産業界の強いリーダーシップ、新しい政策、有効な教育カリキュラムが必要である。
また、普及啓蒙を強化し、研究課題を再検討し、基本的姿勢を変え、浪費的消費を削減しなければならない。
Keywords: Material flows and waste streams in the urban context, Closed-loop urban metabolism,
Zero waste concepts, Resource recovery, Recycling and reuse, Reducing consumption,
Waste avoidance, Changing behavior

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destinations. Municipalities can create databases toIntroduction
Waste was once seen as a burden on our

track all waste types and to cross reference by facility

industries and communities; however, shifting

type, so the amount and type of waste each facility,

attitudes and better understanding of global

district, or precinct generates can be identified, thus

warming and the depletion of resources have led

pinpointing where reductions are most feasible.

to the identification of waste as a valuable resource

The concept of“zero waste”directly challenges

that demands responsible solutions for collecting,the common assumption that waste is unavoidable andseparating, managing, and recovering. In particular,

has no value by focusing on waste as a“misallocatedover the last decade the holistic concept of a“zeroresource”that has to be recovered. It also focuses

waste”lifecycle has emerged as part of a culturalon the avoidance of waste creation in the first place.

shift and a new way of thinking about the age-old

In Australia for instance, households throw out

problem of waste and the economic obsession withapproximately five billion dollars of food every year.2

endless growth and consumption.

This raises much wider social questions of attitude

A global understanding has emerged, whichand behavior, and has further implications on urban

widely accepts that the broad impact of climate

development. How will we design, build, and operatechange — which includes biodiversity loss:

cities in the future? What role will materials flow

increasing air, water, and soil pollution; deforestation;

and waste play in the“city of tomorrow”? How will

and a shortage of resources and materials — is a

we better engage sustainable urban development

consequence of over-consumption and unsustainable

principles and“zero waste”thinking? These areproduction processes. Emerging complex global

some of the topics discussed in this paper.

issues, such as health and the environment, or
approaches that transcend the traditional boundaries

1 The Link Between Waste, Material
Consumption, and Urbanization

between disciplines. Today, it is increasingly

1.1 Limits to growth: Understanding waste as aunderstood that we need to discuss resource-

resource and part of a closed-cycle urban ecology

efficiency and resource-recovery in the same way

In recent years, the need for more sustainable

that we currently discuss energy - efficiency. Thisliving choices and a focus on behavioral change has

includes waste minimization strategies and the

been increasingly articulated. The estimated yearly

concept of“designing waste out of processes andworld waste production is now around four billion

lifestyles and consumption, and development require1

product[s].”metric tons of waste, of which only twenty percent

At the local level, every municipality or

is currently recovered or recycled.3 Globally, wastecompany can take immediate action to identify its

management has emerged as a huge challenge, andown particular solutions. Separating recyclable

we must take a fresh look at how we can best manage

materials, such as paper, metals, plastics, andthe waste and material streams of cities and urban

glass bottles, and consolidating all identified waste

developments. The issue of our cities’ ever growing

categories into one collection point are some basic

waste production is of particular significance if wemeasures. However, a waste stream analysis shouldview the city as a living eco-system with closed-loop

be conducted, involving an inventory of the entire

management cycles (See: Figures 1 and 3).

waste composition, measurement of the volumes ofAnna Tibaijuka notes that“managing solid waste

different material categories, and their origins andis always in the top five of the most challenging

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Optimizing Material Flows

problems for city managers and it is somewhat

electronic equipment, known as e-waste. Of aboutstrange that it receives so little attention compared16.8 million televisions and computers that reached

to other urban management issues. The quality ofthe end of their useful life in Australia in 2008 andwaste management services is a good indicator of a2009, only about ten percent were recycled.11 Most

city’s governance.”4 Clearly there are some seriousof the highly toxic e-waste still goes into landfills,

implications around the topic of waste. It is obvious

threatening ground water and soil quality, and anthat it is not just about waste recycling, but also waste

unknown proportion is shipped overseas (legally

prevention. Avoidance is the priority, followed byand illegally), mainly to China. About thirty-sevenrecycling and“waste engineering”(up-scaling) tomillion computers, seventeen million televisions, andminimize the amount that goes to waste incineration

fifty-six million mobile phones have already beenand landfills.

buried in landfills around Australia. 12 This waste
contains high levels of mercury and other toxic
materials common to electronic goods, such as lead,

1.2 Waste Disposal in Landfills
Landfill runoff and leachate are a threat to soil

arsenic, and bromide. Several countries are actively

and groundwater, and methane gas discharges —pushing for industry-led schemes for collecting andmainly from organic waste in landfills — are a threat

recycling televisions, printers, and computers, known

to the atmosphere. At the same time, many large

as extended producer responsibility (“EPR”) andcities are producing astronomical amounts of waste

product stewardship.13 In addition, we must expect

daily and are running out of landfill space. The landthat the amount of e-waste created in the developing

available for filling with rubbish is running out andworld will dramatically increase over the next decade.

the situation worldwide is similar, where cities are
running out of space to bury their waste. In the

1.4 Waste Incineration

European Union (“EU”), legislation from Brussels

Incineration of waste has finally gone out ofis making the burial of rubbish in landfill sites morefashion, as it is a waste of finite resources and has theexpensive and increasing the pressure to re-use

disadvantage that it releases poisonous substances,5

and recycle. Unfortunately several countries, such

such as dioxins and toxic ash, into the environment.14

as the United Kingdom, are unlikely to meet theIncinerator ash can often be categorized as

EU deadlines on landfill diversion, as they are nothazardous waste because it is extremely toxic,

6

containing concentrated amounts of lead, cadmium,

Beijing will run out of space in its thirteen landfill

and other heavy metals. 15 Companies producing

sites in the next three years.7 New Delhi is opening

incinerator technology had to face shrinking markets

a new landfill site, as existing sites’ capacity has beenin pollution-conscious northern countries and asdiverting waste away from landfill quickly enough.

8

exhausted. San Francisco has only enough landfill

consequence have been turning to Asia and Latin-

capacity to last until 2014, and the same applies to

America where they still see a lucrative market for

Sydney.

9their out-dated technology. 16

To transport waste on trucks to distantlandfill sites would be very inefficient and damaging

Burning waste with very high-embodied

10

for the environment.

energy is generally not an efficient way of dealing
with materials and resources, and therefore ranks
rightly at the bottom of the waste management

1.3 E-Waste
A particular concern is disposal of electrical andhierarchy. Environmental groups have successfully

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prevented the construction of new waste incinerators

by composting and using the bio-energy to generatearound the world; there is resistance by society toits power.20

the development of new landfills and incineration

Today, recycling fifty to sixty percent of all

17

facilities.

waste has become an achievable standard figure for

Outdated linear systems like burning waste

many cities. For example, the Brazilian model city ofor dumping waste on landfill sites will have to be

Curitiba has managed to recycle over seventy percent

replaced with circular systems, taking nature as itsof its waste since 2000.21 San Francisco boasts themodel. A combination of recycling and compostinghighest diversion rate in the United States, at seventy-

organic waste is much more appropriate. The

seven percent; the city has set a“zero waste”goal bytransformation of waste management has emerged

2020.22

as a lucrative field: in 2006, for example, Sita UK, a

However, recent research from Veolia shows thatsubsidiary of the French group Suez Environment,

recycling in itself is inefficient in solving the problem

signed a £1 billion contract with Cornwall county

as it does not deliver the necessary“decoupling”ofcouncil to manage its waste for the next thirty years,

economic development from the depletion of non-followed by a twenty-eight year, £690 million deal

renewable raw materials.23 Grosse and others argue

with Northumberland. Cumbria county council

that“the depletion of the natural resource of raw

made Shanks its preferred bidder for a £400 million

material is inevitable when its global consumption

contract to manage its waste for twenty-five years inby the economy grows by more than 1 percent per

November 2010. Many other local authority contracts

annum . . . . The only effect of recycling is that the18

curve is delayed.”24 There is evidence that recycling

are up for grabs.

can only delay the depletion of virgin raw materials
for a few decades at best. Research shows that only

1.5 Alternatives to Waste Disposal
In the available literature, one can frequently

recycling rates above eighty percent would allow

find a recommended split for a city’s municipal waste

a significant slowdown of the depletion of natural

management where no waste goes to landf ill is as

resources. 25 Therefore, the role of recycling tofollows:

protect resources is not significant for non-renewable
resources whose consumption tends to grow at a rate

• Recycling and reusing				of more than one percent per year.

minimum sixty percent

Even though recycling is an important com-

• Composting of organic waste			ponent of reducing waste going to landfills andthirty to forty percent

incinerators, sustainable development policies• Incineration of residual waste (waste-to-energy)

cannot rely solely on recycling. Policies must aim at

19

maximum twenty percent

reducing the consumption of each non-renewable raw
material so that the annual growth rate remains under

Organic waste is playing an increasingly

one percent. Decoupling economic development

important role, and composting is an effective way

from materiality seems to be the only long term

to bring back nutrients into the soil. But also forsolution. Recycling is not so much the primaryenergy generation: the small Austrian town ofgoal since the objective is not merely to reduce the

Güssing, for instance, activates the biomass from its

amount of waste in general, but rather to encourage aagricultural waste and has reached energy autonomy

reduction in the quantities of materials used to make34

Optimizing Material Flows

the products that will later become waste.

explored the various waste categories with the urban
waste mix, and their potential public health impacts.32

Increasingly, countries are collecting reliabledata and publishing annual waste reports to monitor
the development of waste management. For instance,

1.7 Waste in the Oceans

the National Waste Report 2010 of Australia brings

As a consequence of increasing global pro-

together for the first time in one document, data

duction, waste is accumulating in the oceans. In

and information on waste management (including

recent years, our oceans have devolved into vast

recycling, reuse, and resource recovery) from acrossgarbage dumps. Every year, around 250 million

Australia.

26

The production of the National Waste

metric tons of plastic products are produced, some

Report was part of the Australian Government’sof which take up to 200 years to degrade, and much

Strategy 16 of the National Waste Policy: Lessof which ends up in the oceans.33 The“Great PacificWaste More Resources, which was launched by the

Garbage Patch”is half the size of Europe (some call

Environment Protection and Heritage Council

it cynically the world’s largest man-made structure),

27(“EPHC”) in November 2009.

and in the Atlantic huge amounts of plastic garbage
have recently been discovered; the highest
concentration found close to Caribbean islands has

1.6 Constantly Growing Amounts of Waste
Global urban population growth is expected

over 200,000 plastic pieces per square kilometer.34 In

to stabilize in 2050 at around nine billion humanthe North and Baltic Seas, dumping has been illegal

beings.

28

However, population growth is far fromfor over two decades, yet the amount of waste foundbeing the main driver of recent economic expansion

in them has not improved.35 It is estimated that eachand the increase of consumption of materials, water,year 20,000 metric tons of waste enters the Northfossil fuels, and resources. The process by whichSea, primarily from ships and the fishing industry.36

emerging countries catch up with the standard of

The thousands of metric tons of waste thrownliving of more advanced economies is, in fact, an

into the sea each year are endangering humans andWhile the worldwide

wildlife.37 Wildlife consumes small pieces of plastic,

international average for waste generation is about 1

which causes many of them to die.38 Experts warn

to 1.5 kg per capita per day, countries like Kuwait andthat we have reached a point where it could become

United Arab Emirates top the list by generating an

dangerous for humans to consume seafood.39 One

average of over 3.5 kg of waste per capita per day. By

problem is the throwaway plastic water bottles

comparison, Australia creates around 3 kg per capita

made of polyethylene terephthalate (“PET”), noteven more powerful actuator.

29

30

per day of solid waste.

only because they significantly contribute to waste

With the constant increase in the world’s

creation and CO 2 emissions from transporting

economic activity, there has been a large increasedrinking water around the globe, but because the31

in the amount of solid waste produced per person.

bottles also release chemicals suspected of being

The mix of industrial and urban waste has become

harmful to humans and animals into the water. 40

ever more complex, and often contains large

This, together with the devastating oil spill in the Gulf

amounts of toxic chemicals, or is contaminated withof Mexico in 2010, shows how advanced humanity’sorganic waste and food waste, making it impossible

destruction of entire ecosystems in the oceans has

to recover and recycle. For instance, the United

become.41

Nations Environment Programme (“UNEP”) has

The international community has been pushing

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for four decades for massive bureaucratic efforts

need for incineration. Waste means inefficiency andaimed at clearing the oceans of waste. In 1973,

lost profit. A large amount of waste from households

the United Nations sponsored a pact for protecting

is organic. Even so, a lot of it ends up in waste dumps

the oceans from dumping, and in 2001, the EU

on the edge of the city where it produces methane

established directives that forbade any dumping

gas for many years thus causing further damage toof maritime waste into the ocean while in port.

42

the climate. This cannot continue.”43

However, such directives have been ineffective andAccording to the“polluter pays”principle,

many experts agree that laws and international efforts

those who generate large amounts of waste should

aimed at protecting the oceans have failed across thebe responsible for bearing the costs. Collecting,board.

sorting, and treating waste incurs huge costs,44 so
the focus has to be on avoiding and minimizing waste

2 Emerging and Innovative Approaches to
Waste Reduction and Management

creation in the first place. Waste management andObviously, the first aim of a sustainable future isof waste being landfilled, while waste segregation

to avoid the creation of waste and to select materials

and recycling have substantial economic benefits andand products based on their embodied energy, theircreate new“green”jobs.45

recycling schemes have greatly reduced the volume

life-cycle assessment, and supply chain analysis.

Today, no other sector of industry uses more

Transportation of input materials, as well as thematerials, produces more waste, and contributes less totransportation of the final product to consumers (orrecycling than the construction sector.46

to the construction site), is a common contributor
to greenhouse gas emissions. The way in which a

2.1

Zero Waste and Closed Loop Thinking in the

product uses resources, such as water and energy,

Construction Sector

influences its environmental impact, while its

There is a growing interest from architects anddurability determines how soon it must enter theurban planners in“zero waste”concepts. Cities arewaste stream. Care needs to be taken in the original

the areas where these concepts can be embedded

selection of input materials, and the type of assembly

into practice by redesigning urban systems withused influences end-of-life disposal options, such as“zero waste”and material flow in mind, transforming

ease of recyclability or take-back by the manufacturer.

existing cities and upgrading recycling infrastructure

Construction components in steel can relatively

in low-to-no carbon city districts. It is time to include

easily be recycled; steel is therefore by far the mostprefabrication and“design for disassembly”building

recycled material worldwide and has the longest

resilience into urban systems. This will change the“residence time.”However, with a huge amount ofdesign, building, and operation of city districts in thewaste from the construction and demolition sector

future.

still going to landfills and incinerators, drastic action

Energy cost is not limited to heating or coolingis required in urban planning to develop intelligent

energy or lighting energy; it is also related to all

circular metabolisms for new districts, and wastematerial flows relevant to buildings. Building

collection and treatment systems.

materials too often use primary resources that

Mal Williams, CEO of Cylch, a major recycling

eventually end up in landfills and waste from thecompany in Wales, points out that“ninety percent

production of construction materials and components

of household waste is actually reusable without thecan be much greater than all other waste streams.47

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Façade systems made of composite materials

EPR, or Product Stewardship, policies come at acurrently create recycling and resource recovery

cost to manufacturers, as they must take financial

problems.

48

No building debris should go toownership of their products from creation to disposal.

landfills; therefore, manufacturers must change the

The rising costs of waste from landfill levies will

composition of materials to make them reusable or

likely become a main driver. Essentially, one needs

recyclable. In addition, concrete companies could

to ask how much packaging is really necessary. Can

switch to using recycled concrete aggregates tothe product be packed in another way? For instance,

make their products more sustainable.

49

To make itin Germany eighty-two percent of all packaging iseasier for architects and planners to specify materials

recycled, an outcome of the legislation Gruener

according to their impact (including impacts caused

Punkt (the“Green Dot”), introduced as early as

by material extraction, or waste creation from the1991 and legislated in 1993.51 Economic growth has

production process), information on materials andbeen decoupled from the amount of waste for thecomponents needs to be readily available.

first time in Germany in 2008. There is a need for

Urban planners frequently raise the question

leadership from government and a select group of

about which is the best scale to operate on forcompanies (this is usually not more than five percent

introducing“zero waste.” The city district as a unitof all companies) to show how packaging can beappears to be a good, effective scale. Neighborhood

reduced or how products can be taken back fromand precinct planning must consider the climate

the consumer once the end of life-cycle has beencrisis, which will mean linking the urban with thereached, as is done with old tires.52

rural community. Planning better cities will also

Fortunately, many companies are now doing

require that composting facilities and recycling

extraordinary things in the area of recycling andcenters are in close proximity to avoid transportingare prolonging the life-cycle of products. For

materials over long distances. Keeping the existing

instance, Ohio-based firm Weisenbach Recycledbuilding stock is important, as the most sustainable

Products, a manufacturer of consumer goods madebuilding is always the one that already exists.

from recycled materials holds numerous patents50

on recycling awareness and pollution prevention

Re-using building components and integratingproducts. It is both a specialty printing firm and an

existing buildings (instead of demolition) is a basic

innovative recycler of waste and scrap, repurposing

principle of any eco-city and eco-building project.

and“up-cycling”such materials as plastic caps, glass

Retrofitting existing districts is, therefore, essential.

bottles, and circuit boards into over six hundred
2.2 Changing manufacturing and packaging processes

promotional items and retail consumer products. 53

New agreements with industry have to be madeAccording to the company ’s president, Danto dramatically reduce waste from packaging. On the

Weisenbach, there has been a changing perception

way towards a“zero waste”economy, manufacturers

in the business world, where you are more valued

will increasingly be made responsible for theif your company is a certified green business, withentire life-cycle of their products, including theira history of environmental leadership: “Evenrecyclability, by introducing an“extended producer

though conservation has been a core principle in our

responsibility”(“EPR”) policy.

culture since we started, we believe it is important

In the future, with EPR, the creator of packaging

that we take a step to formalize our commitment towill have to pay for the collection of that packaging.

sustainable business. The competitive landscape has

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shifted and as more competition enters the field, weBraungart points out that the practice of dumping

want to help our business partners and customers

waste into landfill is a sign of a“failure to design

understand how distinctive we truly are. We createdrecyclable, sustainable products and processes.”58

this report as much for them as for ourselves.”54

In his research, Braungart focuses on flows ofIkea and Woolworth have been setting newenergy, water, materials, nutrients and waste.

standards in this area, and BASF, a chemical

Process-integrated technology, as advocated by thecompany, only puts new products on the market“cradle-to-cradle”approach, includes the cascadingwhen there is evidence that the new product has ause of resources in which high-grade flows are used

55

in high-grade processes and residual waste flows

There have been innovative recycling initiatives forare used in lower-grade processes, thus utilizing themattresses, bicycles, carpets, paints, construction

initial value of a resource in the most efficient way. It

better life-cycle assessment than the previous one.

timber, and furniture.

56

Products will need to be

becomes obvious: all eco-cities have to embed“zeromanufactured differently, with“zero waste”concepts

waste”concepts as part of their holistic, circularand EPR principle in mind.

approach to material flows.

While there are a handful of outstanding

Forty-four percent of all greenhouse gas“GHG”()

examples of EPR, the global picture looks

emissions in the U.S. result from transporting andunfortunately different: too many companies arepackaging products, illustrating the large potential

still resisting the necessary change in productionin this field.59 Bill Sheehan, the executive director of

methods, waste management, and EPR. One major

the Product Policy Institute, noted: “Climate action

reason is the costs involved: product stewardshiphas so far largely focused on transportation, heating

comes at a cost to the manufacturers, who are now

and cooling, and food. Now we know that reducing

becoming responsible for the whole life-cycle of theirwaste offers the largest opportunity to combat global

products, from creation to disposal.

warming.” 60 Joshuah Stolaroff“emphasized the

But a cultural shift is now occurring. While forimportance of improving product design to address

centuries, waste was regarded as pollution that had

climate change‘[b]ecause product design influences

to be collected, hidden, and buried, today, waste is

all stages of the product life cycle. Improving productno longer seen as something to be disposed of, but

design has the most potential to reduce greenhouse

as a resource to be recycled and reused. It is clear

gas emissions associated with products.’”61

that we need to close the material life-cycle loop by“Design for Disassembly”means the possibility

transforming waste into a material resource. Overof reusing entire building components in anotherthe next decades, the Earth will be increasingly

future project, possibly twenty or thirty years after

under pressure from population growth, continuing

construction. 62 It means deliberately enablingurbanization, and shortages of food, water, resources,“chains of reuse”in the design. Recycling resources

and materials. Waste management and material

that have already entered the human economy

flows are some of the major challenges concerning

uses much less energy than does mining andsustainable urban development. There is a growing

manufacturing virgin materials from scratch. For

consensus that waste should be regarded as a

instance, there is a ninety-five percent energy saving“valuable resource and as nutrition.”

57

It haswhen using secondary (recycled) aluminum; eighty-

been argued that the concept of“waste”should befive percent for copper; eighty percent for plastics;

substituted by the concept of“resource.” Michael

seventy-four percent for steel; and sixty-four percent

38

Optimizing Material Flowsfor paper.63 Through reuse and recycling, the energy

reduction.

embodied in waste products is retained, thereby
slowing down the potential for climate change. If

2.3 A Closed-Cycle Urban Economy Will Deliver aburned in incinerators, this embodied energy would

Series of Further Advantages

be lost forever. It becomes obvious that all future

The advantages of the“zero waste”economy

eco-cities will have to integrate existing structures

include the reduction in waste generation, which will

and buildings for adaptive reuse into their mastertherefore reduce CO2 emissions. Moreover, benefits

planning.

will include the creation of closed-loop eco-economies

In closed-loop systems, a high proportion of energy

and urban eco-systems with“green collar”jobs;

and materials will need to be provided from re-used

the transformation of industries towards better

waste, and water from wastewater. We can now move theuse of resources, non-toxic and cleaner production

focus to waste avoidance, behavioral change, and waste

processes, and EPR; creation of economic benefits

Figure 1

The flow of natural resources into cities and the waste produced represents one of the largest challenges to urban
sustainability. Circular metabolisms are more sustainable, compared to linear ones. This also has economic
advantages. Recycling will continue to be an essential part of responsible materials management, and the greater
the shift from a “river” economy (linear throughput of materials), towards a “lake” economy (stock of continuously
circulating materials), the greater the material gains and greenhouse gas reductions. Even so, recycling is only
halfway up the waste hierarchy. The greenhouse gains lying in the upper half (waste avoidance and reduction) are,largely, yet to be tapped. The focus of attention needs now to expand from the downstream of the materials cycle,
from a post-consumer stage, to include the upstream, pre-consumer stage, and behavioral change.64 (Diagram source:
Herbert Girardet, Creating Sustainable Cities, 2 Schumacher Briefings 34 (1999).65

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through the more efficient use of resources; an1972, in their report Limits to Growth.70 Therefore,

increase in support to research durable, local goods,

the core question is about how to best change

and products that encourage reuse; more green

behavior to reduce consumption, therefore avoiding

purchasing; and creation of a product stewardshipthe creation of waste in the first place. How doframework.

we convince society to consume less? Education

The key issue is whether such a system is feasible.

programs aimed at all levels of schooling have proven

What are the costs associated with EPR? It places theeffective. Public education aimed at“zero waste”

responsibility of the future disposal of an item on theparticipation is a key to success. Changing behavior

initial producer of that product instead of on the last

may be easier in smaller towns than in large cities

66

owner, as in traditional segmentation.

This will leadbecause of the scale of education efforts needed to

an increasing number of manufacturers to include

achieve measurable results.

an additional fee in the price to the consumer for the

The increase in world flows of scrap, e-waste,future recovery and the processing of the product atrecovered plastics, and fibers has turned developed

the end of its useful life. It also includes extending

countries into a source of material supply for informal

the responsibilities to consumers to participate intrade in emerging countries.

recycling schemes. A recent survey showed that

Research around the United Nations’ ini-eighty-three percent of Australians wanted a national

tiative, A Decade of Education for Sustainableban on non-biodegradable plastic bags, while seventy-

Development (2005-2014), clearly shows that annine percent wanted electronic waste (“e-waste”) to

important age group for applying behavioral change

67

be legally barred from landfills.

is schoolchildren and adolescents, particularly inCities will always be a place of waste production,

relation to their consumption and waste. The initiative

but there are possibilities available that will help

aims to educate them to become environmental

them achieve“zero waste,”where the waste is

citizens, rather than consumers, and to act as agentsrecycled, reused, or composted (using organicof change within their families and schools.71 Several

waste for biomass). The Masdar-City project in thestudies have found that environmental education

United Arab Emirates is a good example of a projectraises awareness of environmental issues, but doesof a“zero waste”city, as is the large Japanese city

not necessarily lead to changes in young people’sof Yokohama, which reduced its waste by thirty-

behavior or an increased level of concern for thenine percent between 2001 and 2007, despite theenvironment. When adolescents decide on how

68much to consume and what to consume, they usually

They reached their goal by raising public awarenessdo not take into account how much waste they

about wasteful consumption and through the

produce.72 For instance, one study found the highactive participation of citizens and businesses.69 In

importance of convenience in the waste management

Australia, the Zero Waste SA initiative by the South

process for adolescents living in multi-apartment

Australian government, discussed below, is also

dwellings.73 The impact of income on waste disposal

highly commendable.

and recycling behavior is well documented.74 It iscity growing by 165,000 people during this period.

obvious that more research is required into the social
mechanisms that will trigger necessary behavioral

2.4 Behavior Change for Waste Prevention
The growth of the economy cannot continue

and attitudinal changes, particularly in schoolchildren

endlessly as was pointed out by The Club of Rome in

and adolescents.

40

Optimizing Material FlowsAs has already been pointed out, education to

the forefront of waste avoidance in Australia. Zeroraise awareness is essential, but equally important is

Waste SA was established in 2003 and is financed

that the rules of waste separation are well explained.

by levies from landfills.79 The agency pioneered the

The real problem may not be technology, but rather

introduction of the ban on checkout style plastic bags

acceptance and behavior change. What is neededin Australia in May 2009.80

is social innovation rather than a sole focus on

Increasing recycling and reducing consumption

technological innovation. The necessary connection

will require a better understanding of the

between waste policies and emission reductions

composition of household waste. Recent research atare not always well understood and made. The

the University of South Australia indicates that themain barriers to“zero waste”include the following:

composition of waste varies according to the income

short term thinking of producers and consumers,

level of the people producing the waste. For instance,lack of consistency in legislation across the states,

the amount of food waste tends to be less amongprocurement versus sustainability, the attitude thatlower-income earners.81 Such research is pioneering

the cheapest offer gets commissioned, and lack ofand can help reach higher recycling rates by aiding

75

community willingness to pay.

in the development of programs for separation at the

The following case studies include details ofsource point of waste creation.

how some cities and regions are trying to overcome

Although the SA Draft Waste Strategy is at

the barriers to achieving“zero waste.”The cases

the forefront of“zero waste”planning, it is by noare looking at the developed world (Australia andmeans unique. Each of the EU member states must

Denmark) and at two large cities in the developing

compile a waste prevention program by the end ofworld (Delhi and Cairo, both rapidly expanding cities).

2013, as required by the 2008 revision of the“Waste
Framework Directive.” 82 The EU guidelines are

2.5 Case Studies of Waste Management

intended to support the formulation of such programs

Case 1: South Australia’s Leadership in Waste

based on thirty best practices identified by theEuropean Commission.83

Management and Resource Recovery
After five years of development, South Australia(“SA”) has produced the Draft South Australia’s Waste

Case 2: The Waste Situation in New South Wales,

Strategy 2010-2015, which incorporates“zero waste”
76

principles.

Australia: A Looming Crisis?

The strategy offers strong guidelines forAustralia is the third highest generator of waste

SA’s waste recycling and waste avoidance efforts.

per capita in the world. 84 During 2006-2007, only

The strategy focuses on two objectives: “Firstly itaround fifty percent of waste collected in the stateseeks to maximize the value of our resources, andof New South Wales (“NSW”) was recycled. 85

secondly it seeks to avoid and reduce waste.” 77

Landfilling waste is an inexpensive option compared

These two objectives are inter-related, and someto treating and recycling, but has dangerous sideof the actions contained in the Strategy apply toeffects. For instance, electronic waste is still fillingboth objectives, including new proposed targets for

up Australian and U.S. landfills (something notmunicipal solid waste, commercial and industrial

allowed in the EU for ten years), contaminating

waste, and construction and demolition waste

soil and groundwater with toxic heavy metals. 86

streams.78 Zero Waste SA is one of the few“zeroIn the meantime, a waste crisis is looming: thewaste”government agencies in the world and is at

City of Sydney’s four landfill sites (Eastern Creek,

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Belrose, Jacks Gully, and Lucas Heights) arereaching capacity and will be full by 2015.

87

Case 3: Waste Management Case Study from

After

Aalborg, Denmark

the landfills reach capacity, the city’s annual two

Developed countries such as Germany, Themillion metric tons of waste will have to be moved

Netherlands, Japan, Switzerland, and Denmark have

250 kilometers south, by rail, to Tarago.

88

The state

been called the“worldwide leaders in advanced

government has been inactive and has failed towaste management technologies.”94 For instance,

make the recycling shift. It lacks recycling policies

in some Japanese municipalities up to twenty-fourand investment in recycling technology. Recycling

different categories of waste are separated.95

needs to be less expensive for citizens than disposal

It is time that we better integrate the linkages

in landfills, and strong economic incentives are

between material flow, use, and recovery withrequired, as are strategies to get households toenergy and water consumption. To date, little

dramatically reduce the creation of waste. This canresearch has been done on measuring the impact

be achieved, for instance, by reducing bin sizes,of waste treatment systems themselves and waste

raising awareness and by introducing the three-bin

management changes over the longer term.

system to separate organic/garden waste, recycling,

However, the Danish city of Aalborg has proven thatand residual waste.

better waste management can reduce greenhouse

While Sydney’s landfill sites are rapidly fillinggas (“GHG”) emissions and that a municipality

up, and the NSW government has currently no clear

can produce significant amounts of energy withplan to address the crisis, Sydney’s waste is forecast

sustainable waste-to-energy concepts.96 Two Danish

to keep growing by at least 1.4 percent a year due toresearchers, Poulsen and Hansen, used historical data

89

from the municipality of Aalborg to gain a longer-term

Although curbside recycling collected in NSW

overview of how a“joined-up”approach to waste canincreased from 450,000 metric tons in 2000 to

impact a city’s CO2 emissions.97 Their assessment

690,000 metric tons in 2007, this increase must be

included sewage sludge, food waste, yard waste, andmuch greater to have any significant impact on theother organic waste. In 1970, Aalborg’s municipal

population increase and increasing consumption.

waste problem.

90

To make things worse, the NSW

organic waste management system showed net GHG

government has“raised over $260 million in waste

emissions by methane from landfill of almost one

levies but returned just $40 million of that to local

hundred percent of the total emissions.98 Between

councils for recycling initiatives.”91 By contrast, the1970 and 2005, the city changed its waste treatment

state government of Victoria provides better support:

strategy to include yard waste composting, and theit raised $43 million in landfill levies and channeledcity’s remaining organic waste was incinerated forit straight back to the agencies responsible for

combined-heat and-power (“CHP”) production. 99

waste management. Despite the smaller levy,

Poulsen stated that“[o]f this, waste incineration

Victoria recycled almost twenty percent more waste

contributed eighty percent to net energy production

than NSW in 2009.

92

The federal government will

and GHG turnover, wastewater treatment (including

introduce a National Waste Policy in 2011 aiming forsludge digestion) contributed another ten percent,93

a sixty-six percent landfill reduction by 2014 andwhile other waste treatment processes (composting,hopes are high that this will bring about the urgently

transport, and land application of treated waste)required changes.

had minor impacts.” 100 “Generally, incineration
with or without energy production, and biogas

42

Optimizing Material Flows

production with energy extraction, are the two mostprotection and more effective ways to use them.

important processes for the overall energy balance.

Several essential metals and resources are alreadyThis is mainly due to the substitution of fossil fuel-becoming less available — including platinum, zinc,based energy,”says Poulsen.

101

The researchers

tantalum, lead, copper, cadmium, wolfram, andcalculated“that the energy potential tied up insilicon — and supplies are concentrated in a handfulmunicipal organic waste in Denmark is equivalent toof countries, under the control of a few companies.108

5 percent of the country’s total energy consumption,

This will soon create major challenges for industries

including transport.”

102

They also predicted thatin Europe and the United States that use manyfurther improvements by 2020 were possible,“byof these metals in their manufacturing, such as

reducing energy consumed by wastewater treatment

televisions or computers.

(for aeration), increasing anaerobic digestion and

The depletion of several natural deposits isincineration process efficiency and source separatingdrawing closer. In 2008, the Institut der Deutschen

103

food waste for anaerobic co-digestion.”

Wirtschaft (“IDW”) estimated the availability andAlborg has shown that with an understanding

coverage of essential resources and selected metals,of natural systems, technology can be harnessedas part of a risk assessment for the German industry

to resolve environmental challenges. “Aalborg’s

in response to the threat caused by scarcity of raw

progress shows how far reaching waste management

materials. It found:can be in reaching energy and GHG reduction
goals, and should offer encouragement to other

Raw Material
		

Reserves Available(estimated)cities embarking on greener waste managementLead

20 yearsZinc

22 yearsemission reduction in waste management is very

Tantalum

29 yearslarge. It is estimated that within the EU, municipal

Copper31 years

waste management reduced GHG emissions from

Cadmium

34 years“64 to 28 million metric tons of CO2 per year between

Wolfram

39 years

1990 and 2007, which is equivalent to a drop from

Nickel

44 years109

strategies for the future.”104

The potential for

130 to 60 kilograms CO2 each year per capita.”105
With such innovation in waste treatment, the EU

These metals are becoming scarce andmunicipal waste sector will achieve eighteen percent

consequently more expensive, e.g., iron ore,of the reduction target set for Europe by the Kyoto

lithium, and copper are already much rarer than106

oil.110 In addition, it is also important to know whatagreement before 2012.

resources are used in the products we buy. Manyof the extractive processes for obtaining minerals

2.6 Using Fewer Materials to Better Exploit the Valueof Wasteare harmful to the environment. In addition, forty

In contrast to the Club of Rome’s warning ofpercent of the products in our weekly shopping

1972,

107

today, the“limits to growth”are definedbasket contain palm oil, which, if not produced

by climate change and the depletion of material

sustainably, can cause deforestation of ecologicallyresources. The scarcity of raw materials presents

precious rainforests. 111 A more conscious use

an increasing challenge. With natural resourcesof materials, metals, resources, and products isand materials running out, we need better resource

imperative when supported by reuse and recycling.

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A resource-constrained future can therefore

2.7

Composting Organic Waste and Improving

help lead to recycling-friendly designs with extended

Urban Ecology

producer responsibility; multiple-use devices andOrganic waste is increasingly viewed as a precious

expanded product lifecycles; long-life products andresource, which must be returned to the soil. Compost

buildings, with optimized material use; products

is an important source of plant nutrients and is a low-using less packaging; reduced loss of resources

cost alternative to chemical fertilizers. It has become aduring the product’s life-cycle; and resource recovery

necessary part of contemporary landscape management

through reuse, remanufacturing and recycling.

and urban farming, as it uses “reverse supply chain”

In his research on sustainable consumption, Paul-principles, giving organic components back to the soil,

Marie Boulanger came to the following conclusion:

thus improving the quality of agriculture. Paying attention“There is a gradually emerging consensus thatto the nutrient cycle and to phosphorus replacementtransition towards sustainability will need innovations

is part of sustainable urban agriculture. Although

and changes at three different levels:

industrial composting can help to improve soils, a propercomposting infrastructure needs to be established first.

••

at the technological level where products andIn Sweden, for instance, the dumping of organic waste toservices with a lighter ecological footprint must

landfill has been illegal since 2005.115 All organic waste

replace less eco-efficient ones;

should be used for composting, returned to the soil, or forat the institutional level where non-market

anaerobic digestion to generate energy.

based modes of provision can be promoted•

Food waste is another major concern. Twenty-

alongside marked-based ones;

two percent of all waste in Australia is food waste.116

at the cultural level where less materialistic

New biodegradable packaging helps to facilitatevalues and lifestyles should be developed

processing of food waste. Biodegradable andand fostered without a loss in the welfare ofcompostable solutions for food waste recovery

112

people.”systems, such as using a kitchen caddy with abiodegradable bag that is collected weekly, has

Only holistic and integrated approaches will

become a common solution. Iain Gulland, director

lead to this desirable shift at the technological,of Zero Waste Scotland, points out that“over sixty

institutional, and cultural level. Waste that contains

percent of food waste is avoidable. However, if all

precious minerals, rare earth metals, and otherunavoidable food waste in Scotland was processed

nutrients is now fully understood to be valuable.

by anaerobic digestion, it could produce enoughThe survival path and rebound effect of materials

electricity to run a city the size of Dundee.”117 In

is understood as extremely critical. Faulstich asksSouth Australia more than 90,000 metric tons per

if our landfill sites of today“will become the urban

annum of food waste goes to landfill and on average,

mines of the future?”

113

Girardet predicts that ineach household throws out three kilograms of food

future“we will observe the emergence of a newwaste per week.118 The food waste needs to be taken

sustainable industrial society, where new industrial

out of the waste stream and diverted into composting

systems are introduced that better reuse and recycle

or anaerobic digestion systems, which are best done

waste, and which are based on a new circular flow

through public–private partnerships.119

economy.”114

In 2002, William McDonough and Michael
Braungart began promoting their“Cradle-to-Cradle”

44Optimizing Material Flows

Figure 2

Diagram illustrating the input and output of cities, comparing the “conventional” city withthe more sustainable city. (Diagram source: 1 Blue: Water, Energy and Waste, 29; Andrew
Whalley ed., 2010)closed-loop system, arguing for“adapting production
to nature’s model.”120

the very concept of waste: products and materials canThey argue that“[w]aste

be designed of components that return either to soil

equals food. In nature, the processes of every

as a nutrient or to industry for remanufacture at theorganism contribute to the health of the whole. One

same or even a higher level of quality.”121

organism’s waste becomes food for another, andnutrients flow perpetually in regenerative, cradle-

2.8

Informal Waste Management Approaches in the

to-cradle cycles of birth, death, decay, and rebirth.

Developing World

Design modeled on these virtuous cycles eliminates

A staggering ninety-seven percent of global

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growth over the next forty years will happen in Asia,
Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean.

122

large amount of costs of otherwise arranging waste

The

collection, particularly in inaccessible slum areas.

following cities provide examples of how developing

In Delhi, more than ninety-five percent of homes incountries are addressing urban waste problems.

Delhi do not have formal garbage collection.130
For countries like India or Bangladesh, theintroduction of an industrialized clean-up system

2.8.1 Curitiba, Brazil
There are ways to improve waste management andand perfected infrastructure like in the developedchange behavior in developing countries, even if there

world would take jobs from thousands of poor

is no budget for it. For instance, in Curitiba innovative

peasants who are willing to work hard and get dirty

waste collection approaches were developed, such as thecollecting and recycling the waste of the metropolis“Green Exchange Program,” to encourage slum dwellers

in order to feed themselves. An estimated six million

123

The

people in India earn their livelihood through waste

city administration offered free bus tickets and fresh

recycling.131 On top of a low standard of living, theyvegetables to people who collected garbage and brought

now face joblessness with India’s new business-to clean up their areas and improve public health.

124

In addition, children

model approach to waste management — replacing

were allowed to exchange recyclables for school supplies

the preexisting informal Kabari system with a model

waste to neighborhood centers.
or toys.

from developed countries.132 It is an area where India

125

could probably learn from their neighbor China,
since their cities have similar population densities.

2.8.2 Delhi, India
Cities always need to find local solutions
for waste management appropriate to their own

2.8.3 Cairo, Egypt

particular circumstances and needs. In Delhi there

Another interesting example is the Egyptian

is an army of over 120,000 informal waste collectors

city of Cairo, which has grown to over fifteen million(so-called Kabari) in the streets, collecting paper,

people and is one of the most densely populated cities

aluminum cans, glass, and plastic who sell the waste

in the world with 32,000 people per square mile.133 The

to mini-scrap dealers as part of a secondary raw

economy of the“Garbage City,”a slum settlement

126

materials market.

on the outskirts of Cairo, revolves entirely around the

It is an informal industry which processes fifty-collection and recycling of the city’s garbage, mostly

nine percent of Delhi’s waste and supports thethrough the use of pigs by the city’s minority Coptic

In Delhi, theChristian population.134 In“Garbage City”“[f]amilies

private sector does the waste management and thetypically specialize in a particular type of garbage thatbusiness of collecting and recycling is a serious

they sort and sell—one room of children sorting out

one for many of the poor, and a relatively lucrative

plastic bottles, while in the next room women separate

source of income. According to Bharati Chaturved,

cans from the rest.”135 Typically for the urban poor

one out of every 100 residents in Delhi engages ininvolved in the informal waste management sector,

livelihood of countless families.

waste recycling.

128

127

Chaturved also estimated that aanything that can somehow be reused or recycled issingle piece of plastic increases 700 percent in value

saved. Various recycled paper and glass products arefrom start to finish in the recycling chain before

made and sold to the city, while metal is sold to be

it is reprocessed.

129

This informal sector of waste

melted down and reused.

collectors saves the city’s three municipalities a

The involvement of the informal sector in a

46

Optimizing Material Flowscity’s waste management can lead to amazing results

At no cost to the municipality, the informal recycling

and high recycling rates. The circular economic

sector provides livelihoods to huge numbers of thesystem in“Garbage City”is classified as an informal

urban poor, while they save the city as much as

sector, where people do not just collect the trash but

twenty percent of its waste management budget bylive among it. Garbage City is home to over 15,000

reducing the amount of waste that would otherwise

people and most families typically have worked

have to be collected and disposed of by the city.139

for generations in the same area and type of waste

Like the famous“Smokey Mountain”rubbish dump

specialization, and they continue to make enoughin Manila, Philippines, could this place become an

money to support themselves.

136

They collect andofficial recycling center?

recycle the garbage they pick up from apartments
and homes in wealthier neighborhoods. This

3

Conclusion and Outlook: Building the
Cities of the Future - Making “ZeroWaste” a Reality

3.1

Decoupling Waste Generation from Economic

includes thousands of metric tons of organic waste,
which is fed to the pigs.137 By raising the pigs, thepeople provide a service to those who eat pork in the
predominantly Muslim country, while the pigs help

Growthto rid neighborhoods of metric tons of odorous waste

Increased material and energy consumption

138

in all nations, coupled with an inadequate andthat would otherwise accumulate on the streets.

Figure 3

Many developing countries have such active informal sector recycling, reuse, and repair systems, which are achieving
recycling rates comparable to those in developed countries, at no cost to the formal waste management sector, saving
the city as much as twenty percent of its waste management budget. (Image: courtesy of Bas Princen)

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unsustainable waste management system, has

understanding of the determinants of environmental

forced governments, industry, and individuals to put

behavior in key areas where households exert

into practice new measures to achieve responsible,

pressure on the environment, such as energy use,closed loop solutions in waste management andtransport, waste generation, food consumption, andresource recovery. Achieving“zero waste”remains

water use.140

difficult and requires continued and combined
efforts by industry, government bodies, university

3.2 Improving Waste Management and Recovery

researchers, and the people and organizations in our

There are escalating challenges in solid waste

community. More holistic and integrated approaches

management across the globe. We need a new

are required, combined with initiatives for waste

urban development paradigm, where economic andavoidance and segregation of waste at the source,

urban growth is decoupled from the environment.

and improved technologies to increase the useful

Growth doesn’t mean always progress. Soon welife of products. Governments will need to formulate

will need to transform this‘throw-away’society

effective policies to reduce the environmental impacts

into a more sustainable one. The construction andof consumption and production, addressing issues

demolition sector has a particularly urgent need tosuch as household consumption, public procurement,

catch up with other sectors in better managing its

corporate behavior, and technological innovation.

waste stream, to increase its focus on reusing entire

As Berglund noted, we will need to arrive at a betterbuilding components at the end of a building’s life-

Figure 4

Diagram: Waste management is an important key stone in the effort towards achieving holistically a“Sustainable City.” (Diagram: courtesy of the author)

48

Optimizing Material Flowscycle. Increasing the economic value of recycled3commodities, such as rare metals in e-waste, as wellas paper, glass, and plastics, remains an area for
future development and investment.

4

Globalization and the global economy havebeen hiding the social and environmental costs of

5

consumption, but now we have reached a tipping
point. Energy markets will soon compete with

6

material markets for resources. The recycling sector
in Germany employs over 220,000 people in green

7

jobs.141 Waste is increasingly being seen in terms ofcn/environment/news/2009-06/09/content_17917149.

economic sustainability, and it is a policy issue thathtm.
MCD Gets Nod for Bawana Landfill Site, The Hindu,
Aug. 9, 2010, http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tpnational/tp-newdelhi/article560231.ece.
9 John Upton, S.F. Expected to Exhaust Landfill Spaceby 2014, The Examiner, Mar. 27, 2009, http://www.
sfexaminer.com/local/SF-expected-to-exhaust-landfillcapacity-by-2014-41957797.html.
10 See Jack Lauber et al., Comparative Impacts of Local
Waste to Energy Versus Long Distance Disposal of
Municipal Waste 3 (2006), http://www.energyanswers.
com/pdf/awma_final.pdf.
11 Stevie Easton, Manufacturers to Arrange for Recycling ofAustralia’s E-Waste, UPIU, (Aug. 7, 2010), http://www.
upiu.com/articles/manufacturers-to-arrange-recyclingfor-australia-s-e-waste.
12 Jeff Angel, Total Environment Centre, Tipping Point:
Australia’s E-Waste Crisis (2008), available at www.tec.
org.au/component/docman/doc_download/337-tippingpoint-2.
13 Henk de Folter Management Consultancy, Extended
Producer Responsibility in the Electric and Electronic
Equipment Industry (2007), http://milieu.defolter.nl/
English/Note-EPR%20071114s.pdf.
14 Bernt Johnke, Emissions from Waste Incineration,
http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/bgp/
5_3_Waste_Incineration.pdf.
1 5 S e e G r e e n p e a c e I n t e r n a t i o n a l , T h e P ro bl e m ,Greenpeace (Nov. 30, 2004), http://www.greenpeace.
org/international/campaigns/toxics/incineration/theproblem/.
16 Id.
17 See id.
18 Milner, supra note 6.
19 Steffen Lehmann, The Principles of Green Urbanism
262 (2010).
20 Güssing Biomass Fueled Heat and Power Plant,
Renewable Energy Network Austria, Renewable Energy
Network Australia, available at http://www.renet.at/
english/sites/guessing.php.
21 Kira Kuehn, ‘Garbage is Not Garbage’ &“ Bus Tubes”:
Recycling and Transport in the Sustainable City:
Curitiba, Brazil, UW-L Journal of Undergraduate
Research X (2007), http://www.uwlax.edu/urc/JURonline/PDF/2007/keuhn.pdf.
8offers great opportunities for the creation of green
jobs.
This paper has touched on some of the complexities around waste management and the links
between waste management and urban development.
The case studies from South Australia and Aalborg,
Denmark and the informal urban waste management
in developing countries provide hopeful models ofwhat must be achieved globally. It is essential that
we continue to reduce wasteful consumption, avoid
the creation of waste in the first place, promote
the cyclical reuse of materials in the economy,
and maximize the value of our resources to makeresource recovery common practice. High-income
urban lifestyle patterns are causing higher material
flows and consumption. Our objective must be toreconcile the scarcity of our natural resources withthe huge quantities of waste produced by our cities
and industries; waste which we must, unfailingly,
recover.

Endnotes
1

2

Philippe Chalmin & Catherine Gaillochet, From Waste
to Resource: An Abstract of World Waste Survey 2009(2009), http://www.veolia-environmentalservices.com/
veolia/ressources/files/1/927,753,Abstract_2009_GB-1.
pdf.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHabitat), Solid Waste Management in the World’s Cities:
Water and Sanitation in the World’s Cities 2010, U.N.
Doc. HS/105/10E (2010).
Dr. Domonic Hogg, Costs for Municipal Waste Management in the EU, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/studies/pdf/eucostwaste.pdf.
Mark Milner, Rubbish Reaches Its Tipping Point, The
Guardian, Jan. 19, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/
environment/2007/jan/19/waste.
Zhang Yunxing, Beijing Running Out of Landfill Space,
China.org.cn (June 9, 2009), http://www. china.org.

Zero Waste SA, South Australia’s Waste Strategy
2010-2015: Consultation Draft 24 (2010), http://www.
zerowaste.sa.gov.au/upload/about-us/waste-strategy/
DraftWasteStrategyV2.pdf.
David Baker et al., What a Waste: An Analysis ofHousehold Expenditure on Food (2009), http://foodwise.
com.au/media/72673/tai%20what%20a%20waste.pdf.

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22 Zero Waste, SFEnvironment, http://www.sfenvironment.
org/our_programs/overview.html?ssi=3 (last visited Oct.
27, 2010).
23 Philippe Chalmin & Catherine Gaillochet, From Waste
to Resource: An Abstract of World Waste Survey 2009(2009), http://www.veolia-environmentalservices.com/
veolia/ressources/files/1/927,753,Abstract_2009_GB-1.
pdf.
24 Francois Grosse, Is Recycling“ Part of the Solution”?
The Role of Recycling in an Expanding Society and a
World of Finite Resources, 3:1 S.A.P.I.EN.S (2010),
available at http://sapiens.revues.org/index906.html.
25 Id.
26 See Env’t Prot. & Heritage Council, National Waste
Report (2010), http://www.ephc.gov.au/sites/default/
files/WasteMgt_Nat_Waste_Report_FINAL_20_FullRe
port_201005_0.pdf.
27 Id.
28 UN-Habitat, 15th Session of the Committee on
Sustainable Development, Apr. 30-May 11, 2007,
Background Information: Climate Change-The Roleof Cities, http://www.unhabitat.org/documents/csd15/
15thsession1.pdf.
29 See generally Mathis Wackernagel & William Rees, Our
Ecological Footprint (1996) (explaining the concept of“overshooting”). Global world populations in 2010 were
6.8 billion. It is predicted by UN-Habitat to increase
to 9 billion by 2050. While the population in somecountries is shrinking (Japan, Germany, Italy, Russia),
other countries, such as India, have a fast growing
population. The population in India is forecast to
overtake that of China’s by 2050 (India is predicted tohave 1.6 billion people). We will soon reach the limitsof the Earth’s “carrying capacity” (what Wackernagel
and Rees call “overshooting”), for instance, the Earth’s
reduced capacity to supply fresh drinking water toall citizens of a city (as we have seen in Sub-SaharanAfrican cities and in Mexico City). Id. The world’s
population has been growing significantly since around1800 due to the improved control of diseases and longer
life expectancy. As a consequence, numerous scientists
recommend halting further growth in cities in arid, hot
climatic regions. At the same time, global agriculture
is approaching a natural limit. While the amount offood production needs to keep increasing in pace withpopulation growth, there is hardly any undeveloped
farmland left on the planet. Experience shows that birthrates fall when women are well educated, when they
aspire to a career, or when they chose to marry laterand to have only one child. Clearly to slow down thisimmense population growth and to delay a food/water/energy supply disaster, we have to succeed in threeimportant areas: reducing consumption and changing
behavior; improving technology; and limiting population
growth through education programs.
30 See Env’t Prot. & Heritage Council, supra note 26.
31 Municipal solid waste generation has grown significantly
over the last decades as a result of higher incomes,
more intensive use of packaging materials anddisposable goods, and increased purchases of durable
material goods. This problem is projected to continue
to grow, despite current efforts to reduce the material
content of products and to stimulate the reuse of

products and packaging and the recycling of materials
and substances. The international Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
compiles worldwide data, including environmental
statistics and data on waste generation and recycling
rates (environmental indicators), for its thirty member
countries, which can be found at: Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development, http://www.
oecd.org (last visited Nov. 13, 2010).
32 E. Giroult, et al., Public Health Aspects of Municipal
Solid Waste Management, in L. Rosenberg, Int’l Envtl Tech. Ctr., United Nations Env’t Programme,
International Source Book on Environmentally Sound
Technologies for Municipal Solid Waste Management395–406 (1996).
33 Manfred Stepanski & Manfred Wackerlin, Soda Cups
Made of Sugar, Sulzer Technical Review (2008), http://
www.sulzerchemtech.com/en/portaldata/11/Resources//
mixingreaction/publications/2008_1_stepanski_e.pdf.
34 Kara Law et al., Plastic Accumulation in the North
Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, Sci. Express (Aug. 19, 2010),
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/329/5996/
1185?ijkey=o7duXkENkVaDs&keytype=ref&siteid=sci.
35 Ljubomir Jeftic, et al., Marine Litter: A Global
Challenge, United Nations Environment Programme(2010), http://www.unep.org/pdf/unep_marine_littera_global_challenge.pdf.
36 Id.
37 Id.
38 Id.
39 See What You Need to Know about Mercury in Fish and
Shellfish, Envtl. Prot. Agency, http://water.epa.gov/
scitech/swguidance/fishshellfish/outreach/advice_index.
cfm (last updated June 17, 2010).
40 See, e.g., Paul Westerhoff et. al., Antimony Leaching
From Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Plastic Used for
Bottled Drinking Water, 42 Water Research 551 (2008).
41 Recent research explored the connection between the
production of plastic and the amount of plastic waste
found in oceans. Surprisingly, more terrestrial waste
does not necessarily imply more leakage in the sea:
there seems to be no link between an increase indiscarded plastic and concentration of plastic marine
debris. Despite a rapid increase in plastic production anddisposal during the time period of the last ten years, notrend in plastic concentration was observed in the regionof highest accumulation. Law et al., supra note 34.
42 Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, Feb. 17, 1978, 17 I.L.M. 546, 1340 U.N.T.S. 61;
European Directive 2000/59/EC.
43 Interview with Mal Williams, CEO, Cylch, in Syndey,
Austl. (Sept. 14, 2010).
44 See Department of Defense, UFC-1-900-01, Selectionof Methods for the Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling of
Demolition Waste, at 3-1­3-2 (2002), http://www.wbdg.
org/ccb/DOD/UFC/ufc_1_900_01.pdf (noting disposal
costs incurred during demolition alone can amount to up
to 50% of the total demolition cost. This amount takes
into account recycling costs, which include costs forseparation, removal, and recovery of building wastes).
45 See Env’t Prot. & Heritage Council, supra note 26 at 233–35 (noting the large number of and wide variety of job

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Optimizing Material Flows

opportunities created through the promotion of waste
management and recycling).
46 Lehmann, supra note 19 at 261-268.
47 See Envtl. Prot. Agency, Recover Your Resources:
Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle Constr uction and
Demolition Materials at Land Revitalization Projects(2009), http://epa.gov/brownfields/tools/cdbrochure.
pdf (estimating that only 40% of the construction anddemolition building materials were reused, recycled, orsent to waste-to-energy facilities and the remaining 60%
was sent to landfills).
48 See, e.g., Stephen J. Pickering, Recycling Technologies
for Thermoset Composite Materials—Current Status,
37 Composites Part A: Applied Sci. & Mfg. 1206,
1206–07 (2005) (reviewing the problems faced withrecycling thermoset composite materials, which include
the inability to remould thermosetting polymers of thematerial).
49 See Tom Napier, Construction Waste Management, Whole
Bldg. Design Guide, http://www.wbdg.org/resources/
cwmgmt.php (last updated June 9, 2010) (stating that
concrete and masonry materials can be recycled on-sitewith mobile equipment or can be taken to a permanent
recycling facility).
50 The adaptive re-use of existing buildings is always amore sustainable strategy than building new. Insteadof tearing down and rebuilding (which usually means
losing the materials and embodied energy of the existingbuilding), adaptive re-use allows the building to begiven a new lease of life; an approach that was thenorm until a generation ago. Now, our focus needs toreturn to upgrading the existing building stock. Recent
research conducted by the Advisory Council on HistoricPreservation (ACHP) in the U.S. indicates that even if
forty percent of the materials of demolished buildings
are recycled, it would still take over sixty years for agreen, energy-efficient new office building to recover
the energy lost in demolishing an existing building.
Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan, Advisory
Council on Historic Pres., http://www.achp.gov/sustplan.
html (last visited Oct. 22, 2010) (summarizing the
ACHP’s efforts to address issues including energy
efficiency and community livability).
51 See Gruener Punkt, http://www.gruener-punkt.de/en/
duales-system-deutschland-gmbh.html (last visited
Oct. 30, 2010) (providing information on the German
recycling system).
52 See Frequent Questions, Envtl. Prot. Agency, http://
www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/faq.
htm (last updated Feb. 2, 2010) (providing information
on recycling tires, the pollution that can result fromtire fires, and innovative ways tires can be recycled);
see also Australian Packaging Covenant, http://www.
packagingcovenant.org.au (last visited Oct. 30, 2010)(regarding packaging).
53 See Weisenbach Recycled Prod., 2010 Sustainability
Report for year ending December 31, 2009 (2010),
http://www.recycledproducts.com/wsp_i/PDFs/Wei
senbachSustainabililtyReport2010.pdf (stating that
Weisenbach Recycled Products uses “cast-offs collectedfrom other companies, community members, and [its]own internal operations as the raw material for thecreation of new products”).

54 Betsy Kraat, Weisenbach Recycled Products“ Up-cycles”
Trash into Treasure, metroGREEN+BUSINESS (Mar.
2, 2010), http://www.metrogreenbusiness.com/news/
green.php/2010/03/02/weisenbach_recycled_products_up_cycles_t (quoting Mr. Weisenbach and providing
background on Weisenbach Recycled Products).
55 See Climate Protection with BASF, BASF 6–7(2009), http://basf.com/group/corporate/en/function/
conversions:/publish/content/sustainability/environment/
climate-protection/images/BASF_Climate_Protection_B
rochure_e.pdf (describing its comprehensive analysis ofgreenhouse gas emissions associated with its operations
for the entire lifecycle of its products); see also Andreas
Künkel, Sustainable Products—Just a Mouse Click
Away, BASF (June 30, 2010), http://www.basf.com/
group/pressrelease/P-10-296 (describing BASF’s new
online tool that assists in determining whether the use of
biodegradable plastics promotes sustainability).
56 E.g, The Ultimate Re-cycling Project 14.09.10, London
Borough of Sutton, http://www.sutton.gov.uk/index.
aspx?articleid=10975&onOff=OFF (last visited Oct.
22, 2010); Mattress Recycling Program Reaches 10,000
Mark, SustainabilityMatters (Oct. 8, 2008), http://www.
sustainabilitymatters.net.au/news/27293-Mattressrecycling-program-reaches-1-mark?topic_id=1066;
Michelle Hucal, Closing the Loop, Envtl. Design +Constr. (Mar. 11, 2003), http://www.edcmag.com/
Articles/Sustainable_Flooring/fdc1f34f5a697010VgnV
CM100000f932a8c0.
57 See Let’s Treat Waste as Valuable ‘Resource’, Says
Averda, AMEinfo (May 30, 2009, 3:59 PM), http://
www.ameinfo.com/198589.html (drawing inspirationfrom McDonough’s philosophy that “[e]verything has
an infinite life cycle. Societies with a linear resource
pattern discard items at a particular stage. Yet that isn’t
the death of the material.”).
58 Presentation by Michael Braungar t at SASBE
Conference, Technical University of Delft, Neth. (June18, 2009).
59 Joshuah Stolaroff, Products, Packaging and USGreenhouse Gas Emissions, Prod. Policy Inst. (2009),
http://www.productpolicy.org/ppi/attachments/PPI_Clim
ate_Change_and_Products_White_Paper_September_20
09.pdf.
60 Press Release, Product Policy Institute, Products andPackaging Contribute 44 Percent of U.S. Greenhouse
Gas Emissions (Sept. 18, 2009), available at http://
www.productpolicy.org/ppi-press-release/products-andpackaging-contribute-44-percent-us-greenhouse-gasemissions.
61 Id. (quoting Stolaroff, supra, note 59).
62 See Design for Disassembly Guidelines, Active
Disassembly Research Ltd. (2005), http://www.
activedisassembly.com/guidelines/ADR_050202_DFDguidelines.pdf (noting that the implementation of designfor disassembly can reduce the amount of resources
required to create new products).
63 Zero Waste and Climate Change, Gov’t of S. Austl.,
http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/about-us/climatechange (last visited Oct. 20, 2010) (citing Recycling
International, which is a reference tool on the world’s
recycling industry).
64 See Margaret Walls, Extended Producer Responsibility

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and Product Design, Res. for the Future, Mar. 2006,
at 1, http://www.rff.org/Documents/RFF-DP-06-08REV.pdf (stating that this shift can “improv[e] productrecyclability and reusability, reduc[e] material usage,
downsiz[e] products, and engag[e] in a host of other‘design for environment’ (DfE) activities.”).
65 Herbert Girardet points out the importance for cities toadopt a circular metabolism: “In nature, waste materials
are absorbed beneficially back into the local environment
as nutrients. Cities don’t do that. They work by way
of taking resources from one place and dumping themsomewhere else causing damage to nature. We need toturn this linear process into a circular process instead.
The recycling of particularly organic waste is important
for the sustainability of large cities. We need to meet thischallenge and create a metabolism that mimics natural
systems. Materials and products that we use need tobe biodegradable. Plastic, which does not decompose
easily, can be produced so that nature can absorb it more
effectively.” Herbert Girardet, Creating Sustainable
Cities, 2 Schumacher Briefings (1999).
66 Id. (noting that this shift could incentivize producers
to consider the environmental effects of their products
during the design stage).
67 Eight in 10 Aussies Want Plastic Bag Ban: Survey, The
Daily Telegraph (May 22, 2009, 12:17 AM), http://www.
dailytelegraph.com.au/news/breaking-news/eightin-10-aussies-want-plastic-bag-ban-survey/storye6freuyi-1225714569177.
68 See The World Bank, Eco2 Cities 205 (2010),
http://issuu.com/world.bank.publications/docs/
9780821380468?mode=embed&layout=http%3A%2F%
2 F s k i n . i s s u u . c o m % 2 F v % 2 F l i g h t % 2 F l ayo u t .
xml&showFlipBtn=true; Masdar City, http://www.
masdarcity.ae/en/index.aspx (last visited Nov. 11, 2010).
69 See The World Bank, supra note 68, at 205.
70 Donella H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth (1972).
71 See UNESCO - Education for Sustainable Development(ED/PEQ/ESD), UN Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development: The DESD at a glance,
ED/2005/PEQ/ESD/3 (2005), available at http://unesdoc.
unesco.org/images/0014/001416/141629e.pdf (statingthat the Decade will (1) promote and improve thequality of education, (2) reorient educational programs,(3) build public understanding and awareness, and (4)provide practical training to move towards meeting theobjectives).
72 See Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson & Yoshie Kaga,
Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures
for Sustainability, The Worldwatch Inst. 57 (2010),
http://blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures/wpcontent/uploads/2010/01/Early-Childhood-Educationto-Transform-Cultures-for-Sustainability-Samuelssonand-Kaga.pdf (describing a case study performed on
young children on waste management in Sweden);Getting Out Gets Results: Environmental Education
Research from Boston and Beyond, Boston Youth Envtl.
Network (2008), http://www.peecworks.org/PEEC/PEEC_Research/035F4D9A-007EA7AB.0/BYEN%20
2008%20Getting%20Out%20Gets%20Results%20web.
pdf (highlighting the importance of student involvement
in exposure to an environmental education).
73 Amy Ando & Anne Y. Gosselin, Recycling in Multifamily

Dwellings: Does Convenience Matter?, CBS BusinessNetwork (2005), http://f indarticles.com/p/articles/
mi_hb5814/is_2_43/ai_n29175444/. See generally
Seonghoon Hong & Richard M. Adams, Household
Responses to Price Incentives for Recycling: Some
Further Evidence, 75 Land Econ. 505 (1999) (studying
the correlation between waste disposal service fees andrecycling rates and waste generation and considering theimpact of the choice of the container size).
74 See generally id. (studying the correlation between waste
disposal service fees and recycling rates and waste
generation and considering the impact of the choice ofthe container size).
75 See Sridhar R. & Shibu K. Nair, Thanal Conservation
Action & Information Network, Zero Waste Kovalamand Employment Opportunities, (2004), http://krpcds.
org/report/ZEROWASTE.pdf (identifying the highcost of waste and the need for long-term planning andsensible decision-making as barriers to zero waste);see also LeeAnne French et al., Zero Waste Strategies
for Gills Onions Sustainable Innovation and Waste
Management, at 16–17 (2010), http://www.bren.
ucsb.edu/research/documents/onions_proposal.pdf(listing technical and economical feasibility, healthsafety requirements, and product quality are the more
prominent barriers to zero waste).
76 Zero Waste SA, South Australia’s Waste Strategy
2010–2015: Consultation Draft (2010), http://www.
zerowaste.sa.gov.au/upload/about-us/waste-strategy/
DraftWasteStrategyV2.pdf.
77 Id. at 15.
78 Id. at 20.
79 Id. at 18-19.
80 Id. at 3.
81 Julian Parﬁtt et al., Food Waste Within Food Supply
Chains: Quantiﬁcation and Potential for Change to2050, 27 Phil. Transactions of the Royal Soc’y of Britain
3065, 3077 (2010), http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.
org/content/365/1554/3065.full.pdf+html. Moreinformation on food waste can be found at the following
web sites: http://www.foodwise.com.au; http://www.
resourcesnotwaste.org; http://www.lovefoodhatewaste.
com; http://www.ozharvest.org.au (last visited Oct. 30,2010).
82 Directive 2008/98/EC, of the European Parliament andof the Council of 19 November 2008 on Waste andRepealing Certain Directives, 2008 O.J. (L 312) 3,
18, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.
do?uri=OJ:L:2008:312:0003:0030:EN:PDF.
83 European Commission DG Environment, Analysisof the evolution of waste reduction and the scopeof waste prevention, Framework contract ENV.G.4/
FRA/2008/0112, at 181 (Mar. 24, 2010), http://ec.europa.
eu/environment/waste/prevention/pdf/draft3_2.pdf.
84 See Env’t Prot. & Heritage Council, supra note 26.
85 4613.0 - Australia’s Environment: Issues and Trends,
Jan 2010, Austr. Bur. of Stat. (Feb. 5, 2010), http://
www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/
4613.0Chapter40Jan+2010.
86 Karen Barlow, Landfills“ Busting at Seams” with
E-Waste, Austl. Broad. Corp. (June 25, 2010, 6:58 PM
AEST), http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/06/0
5/2919217.htm; Patrick McMahon, E-Waste Flooding

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Landfills, USA Today, Jan 21, 2002, http://www.
usatoday.com/news/nation/2002/01/22/usat-recycle.htm.
87 Matthew Bennis, Waste Solution Left to Rot as Landfill
Capacity Runs Out, Sydney Morning Herald (Mar. 21,2010), http://www.smh.com.au/environment/wastesolution-left-to-rot-as-landf ill-capacity-runs-out20100320-qn6z.html (citing State Government of
New South Wales, Public Review Landfill Capacity
and Demand Report (2009), available at http://www.
planning.nsw.gov.au/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=Xtm8jz6
j7W1%3D&tabid= 70&language=en-AU).
88 Id.
89 Id.
90 Matthew Bennis, Microchips, Recycling Ramped Up to
Cut Waste, SYDNEY MORNING HERALD (Mar. 21,2010), http://www.smh.com.au/environment/microchipsrecycling-ramped-up-to-cut-waste-20100320-qn70.html.
91 Bennis, supra note 87.
92 Id.
93 Bennis, supra note 90.
94 HERBERT GIRARDET, CITIES PEOPLE PLANET:URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE
238 (2008).
9 5 YO S H I F U M I F U J I I , S U C C E S S F U L S O U R C E
S E PA R AT I O N I N A S I A N C I T I E S : L E S S O N SFROM JAPAN’S EXPERIENCE AND AN ACTIONRESEARCH IN THAILAND (2008), http://www.ide.
go.jp/English/Publish/Download/Spot/pdf/30/002.pdf.
96 CITY OF AALBORG, AALBORG COMMITMENTSBA S E L I N E R E V I E W 1 9 ( 2 0 0 5 ) , h t t p : / / w w w.
aalborgplus10.dk/media/pdf2005/aalborg_commitments_engelsk.pdf.
97 Tjalfe G. Poulsen & Jens Aage Hansen, Assessing the
Impacts of Changes in Treatment Technology on Energy
and Greenhouse Gas Balances for Organic Waste
and Wastewater Treatment Using Historical Data, 27
WASTE MGMT. & RESEARCH 861, 861-62 (2009).
98 Id.
99 Id.
100 See Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Danish Eco City Proves Waste
Management Can Reverse Greenhouse Trend, SAGE,(Nov. 26, 2009), http://www.uk.sagepub.com/press/2009/
november/26_november2.sp.
101 Id.
102 Id.
103 Id.
104 Id.
105 Id.
106 Id.
107 See The Story of the Club of Rome, THE CLUB OF
ROME, http://www.clubofrome.org/eng/about/4/ (lastvisited Oct. 21, 2010) (detailing the history of the Clubof Rome and warning of the dangers of unrestrained
growth of material consumption in a world of finite
resources).
108 See THE HAGUE CENTRE FOR STRATEGICSTUDIES, SCARCITY OF MINERALS: A
STRATEGIC SECURITY ISSUE 10-11 (2009), http://
www.hcss.nl/en/download/1286/file/HCSS_Scarcity%2
0of%20Minerals.pdf.
109 Data from INSTITUT DER DEUTSCHEN WIRTSCHAFT, http://www.idw-online.de (last visited Oct.
30, 2010).

110 Interview with Martin Faulstich, Professor, Technical
University of Munich, Sydney, Austl. (Mar. 28, 2010).
111 Lucy Siegle, Is it Possible to Avoid Unsustainable Palm
Oil?, THE OBSERVER (Nov. 15, 2009), available at
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/nov/15/
lucy-siegle-sustainable-palm-oil.
112 Paul-Marie Boulanger, Three Strategies for Sustainable
Consumption, 3 SAPIENS No. 2, at 8–9 (2010),
available at http://sapiens.revues.org/index1022.
html#tocto1n1.
113 Interview with Martin Faulstich, Professor, Technical
University of Munich, Sydney, Austl. (Mar. 28, 2010).
114 HERBERT GIRARDET, CITIES PEOPLE PLANET:URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE
238 (2008).
115 Courtney A. Dahl, Connecting Consumption withEnvironmental Impact: Waste Prevention and Pay as You
Throw, a Collective Case Study in Sweden (May 2010)(unpublished Masters thesis, Lund University Centre for
Sustainability Studies), http://www.lumes.lu.se/database/alumni/08.10/Thesis/Dahl_Courtney_Thesis_2010.pdf.
116 OZHARVEST, http://www.ozharvest.org.au (last visited
Oct. 30, 2010); see also The National Waste Report2010 Fact Sheet, DEPT. OF SUSTAINABILITY, ENV’T,
WATER, POPULATION AND COMMUNITIES, AUST.
GOV’T., available at http://www.environment.gov.au/
settlements/waste/publications/pubs/fs-national-wastereport-2010.rtf, (putting food waste at 7.6m metric tons
out of 43.7m metric tons, or about 18 percent).
117 Interview with Iain Gulland, Dir., Zero Waste Scotland,in Sydney, Austl. (Sep. 14, 2010).
118 The National Waste Report 2010 Fact Sheet, supra note
116.
119 Interview with Vaughan Levitzke, Chief Exec. Officer,
Zero Waste SA, Adelaide, Austl. (Oct. 28, 2010).
120 WILLIAM MCDONOUGH & MICHAEL BRAUNGART, CRADLE TO CRADLE: REMAKING THE
WAY WE MAKE THINGS (2002).
121 William McDonough & Michael Braungart, Cradle
to Cradle: Adapting Production to Nature’s Model, inWORLDWATCH INST., STATE OF THE WORLD2 0 1 0 : T R A N S F O R M I N G C U LT U R E S : F RO M
CONSUMERISM TO SUSTAINABILITY 106 (2010).
122 POPULATION REFERENCE BUREAU, 2009 WORLD
POPULATION DATA SHEET (2009), http://www.prb.
org/pdf09/09wpds_eng.pdf.
123 Curitiba, Brazil, INTL CT. FOR SUSTAINABLE
CITIES, http://sustainablecities.net/plusnetwork/pluscities/curitiba-brazil (last visited Oct. 29, 2010).
124 Id.
125 Id.
126 Bharati Chaturved, Ragpickers: The Bottom Rung in the
Waste Trade Ladder, INT’L PLASTICS TASK FORCE,
www.ecologycenter.org/iptf/Ragpickers/indexragpicker.
html (last visited Oct. 30, 2010).
127 The Human Scale of Recycling in India, THE
A RT B L O G ( A p r. 2 , 2 0 0 9 ) , h t t p : / / t h e a r t bl og .
org/2009/04/the-human-scale-of-recycling-in-india.
128 Chaturved, supra note 126.
129 Id.
130 Amelia Gentleman, Picking Up Trash by Hand, andYearning for Dignity, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 27, 2007, http://
www.nytimes.com/2007/09/27/world/asia/27ragpickers.

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html.
131 Chris Bonner, Waste Pickers Without Frontiers(Oct.-Nov. 2008), http://www.wiego.org/papers/
5334%20SALB%20Waste%20Pickers.pdf.
132 Shrija Agrawal, Multi-Billion Dollar Waste Management Companies to Emerge from India (July 27 2010,
10:43:01 IST), VCCIRCLE, http://www.vccircle.
com/500/news/‘multi-billion-dollar-waste-managementcompanies-emerge-india’.
133 Cairo, Egypt Statistics, TOUR EGYPT, http://www.
touregypt.net/cairo/cairostatistics.htm (last visited Nov.
15, 2010).
134 From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manshiyat_naser(last visited Oct. 30, 2010).
135 Id.
136 See Claire A. Williams, Cairo’s Garbage City,
THE WIP (Mar. 10, 2007), http://www.thewip.net/
contributors/2007/03/cairos_garbage_city.html.
137 Sarah Gauch, Eg ypt Dumps ‘Garbage People,’
CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, Jan. 6, 2003, http://www.
csmonitor.com/2003/0106/p07s02-woaf.html.
138 Id.
139 UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME (UN-HABITAT), supra note 4.
140 Christer Berglund, The Assessment of Households
Recycling Costs: The Role of Personal Motives, 56
ECOLOGICAL ECON. 560 (2006).
141 See Daten und Fakten der Abfallwirtschaft in
Deutschland, BUNDESMINISTERIUM FÜR
UMWELT, NATURSCHUTZ UND REAKTORSICHERHEIT, http://www.bmu.de/abfallwirtschaft/doc/6497.php (Sept. 2007) (providing data for theGerman recycling and waste management sector) (inGerman language).

Related web sites (all accessed 10 October 2010)
Web site on reusing building components: www.superuse.org
Web site more general informing about recycling: www.
recyclicity.net
Web site with a focus on new production methods and material
innovation: www.worldchanging.com
Web site on German recycling technologies: www.retechgermany.de
Web site of Ronnie Kahn (Australia) on OZHarvest (delivered 6
mill. meals to people in need, between 2004 and 2010) andthe ‘Love Food Hate Waste’ campaign: www.ozharvest.org
and www.lovefoodhatewaste.com
Web site for European CO2 emissions data: www.euCO2.eu
Web site of Blaine Brownell (USA) on new materials andrecycling methods: www.transmaterial.net
Web sites of John Dee (Australia) on food waste and better
shopping methods: www.dosomething.net and www.
foodwise.com.au
Web site of Kit Strange (UK) on better resource recovery: www.
resourcesnotwaste.org
Web site on reducing packaging: www.packagingcovenant.org.au

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