Keio Colloquium
9/5/2020
Handout③

Multiple Case Valuation and Its Implications
永盛貴一（明治学院大学・獨協大学）

3. Multiple Case Valuation via Merge: Japanese
3.1 Introduction(1) The system of multiple Case valuation via Merge is schematically illustrated below.
a.

wo

…

XP[Case1]

b. wo
H2
XP[Case2]

wo
wo
H2

XP[Case1]

H1

Transfer

Internal Merge(2) (i) XP is merged with H1 (a lexical head) and it undergoes IM into the edge of H2(a phase head) at Transfer. (When the complement of H2 undergoes Transfer, thelower XP receives a Case value.)(ii) The higher XP becomes a sister of H2 (a phase head) when its “complement(s)”undergo(es) Transfer. (Since the higher XP is still in narrow syntax, it remains
active and retains the ability to receive another Case value.)(iii) The higher XP receives another Case value (when it undergoes Transfer).
(3) I will argue that Japanese instantiates all the three possibilities shown below.
(i) Case2+Case1: The last Case value received is realized morphologically.
(ii) Case2+Case1: The first Case value received is realized morphologically.
(iii) Case2+Case1: All the Case values received are realized morphologically.
3.2 Japanese Tough-Constructions
3.2.1 Inoue (1978, 2004)(4) Inoue (1978, 2004) classifies Japanese Tough-Constructions (TCs) into four types.
a. Gakusei-ni-wa
kono zisyoga
tukai-yasu-i.
students for-TOP
this dictionary-NOM use-easy-PRES‘This dictionary is easy for students to use.’(Type I)b. Watasi-wa kega-osite-ite,I
TOP hurt-ACC get(Type II)

aruki-niku-i.
walk-hard-PRES
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Handout③‘I hurt my leg, and it is hard for me to walk.’c. Nuno-ga atukute, hari-ga
toori-niku-i.
(Type III)
cloth-NOM thickneedle-NOM pierce-hard-PRES(Lit.) *‘The cloth is thick, and the needle is hard to pierce it through.’d. Eriito-wa tuyoi zasetukano
aziwai-yasu-i.
(Type IV)elites-TOP strong sense of frustratioin-ACC feel tend to-PRES‘Members of the elite tend to have a strong sense of frustration.’(Inoue 2004:76-86)➢ Type I:

The embedded verb is [+self-controllable].
Expresses the speaker’s judgment.

Type II:

The embedded verb is [+self-controllable].
Expresses the subject’s judgment or feeling.

Type III: The embedded verb is [-self-controllable].
Expresses the speaker’s judgment.
Type IV: The embedded verb is [-self-controllable].
Expresses the speaker’s judgment.
Carries the meaning of ‘tend to’.
(5) Let me focus on Type I and Type IV. As for Type I, Inoue (2004) proposes thefollowing syntactic structure.
a. Gakusei-nitotte-wa kono zisyo-ga
tukai-yasu-i.
pupil for-TOP
this dictionary-NOM use-easy-PRES‘For pupils, this dictionary is easy to use.’2

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Handout③b.

CP(CP = complementizer phrase)(C = complementizer phrase)(TopP = topic phrase)(FP = focus phrase)

wo

TopP

C’

wo

FP

C’

wo

TP

C

(TP = tense phrase)

T’
wo

AP

T

(AP = adjectival phrase)

A’i(A = adjective)

woGakuseii-nitotte

A’

wo

vP

A

wo

PROi

v’

yasu-

wo

VP

(vP = a verb phrase with thecapacity of projecting
an external argument)v(VP = a verb phrase immediately
dominating the object)(V = verb)

wo

NP

V

kono zisyo

tukai-(Inoue 2004: 102)(6) (i) The embedded verb tukai- ‘use’ is first raised to v and then raised andincorporated with the adjective yasu- ‘easy’. The result is the complex adjective
tukai-yasu- ‘use-easy’.
(ii) The complex adjective tukai-yasu- ‘use-easy’, being a stative predicate, assigns
nominative Case to its object kono zisyo ‘this dictionary’ (cf. Kuno 1973).
(iii) The nitotte phrase is raised to the topic position and marked with wa.
(7) As for Type IV, Inoue (2004) proposes the following syntactic structure.
a. Awatemono-wa
ziko-ookosi-yasu-i.
hasty people-TOP accident-ACC cause tend to-PRES‘Hasty people tend to cause accidents.’3

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b.

CP
wo

TopP

C’

wo

FP

C’

wo

TP

C

wo

AP

T’

wp

vP

wo

NP

awatemono

v’

A’

T

A

i

wi

VP

v yasu-

wo

NP

V

ziko

okosi-(Inoue 2004: 106)(8) (i) The complement verb is raised and incorporated with the tough morpheme inmorphology.) That is, verb-raising does not take place in syntax.
(ii) Since verb-raising does not take place in syntax, the embedded verb assigns
accusative Case to its object.
(9) Two problems:(i) Under Inoue’s (2004) analysis, the object in Type I can never be assigned
accusative Case since the embedded verb is first raised to v and then raised andincorporated with the adjective yasu- ‘easy’.
However, the object in Type I can be assigned accusative Case.
a. Kono pen-ga kodomo-nitotte kyappu-o hazusi-yasu-i.
this pen-NOM child-for
cap-ACC
pull off-easy-PRES‘It is this pen whose cap is easy for children to pull off.’b. Taro-ga(Hanako-nitotte)
okane-owatasi-niku-i.
Taro-NOM Hanako-for
money-ACC hand-difficult-PRES(Lit.) ‘Taro is difficult (for Hanako) to hand some money.’(ii) Under Inoue’s (2004) analysis, the object in Type IV can never be assigned
nominative Case since the embedded verb does not raise in syntax.
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However, the object in Type IV can be assigned nominative Case.1
a. ?Awatemono-wa
ziko-gaokosi-yasu-i.
hasty people-TOP accident-NOM cause tend to-PRES‘Hasty people tend to cause accidents.’
b. Awatemono-wa
kooitta ziko-ga
okosi-yasu-i.
hasty people-TOP this kind of accident-NOM cause tend to-PRES‘Hasty people tend to cause this kind of accident.’
3.2.2 Saito (1982)(10) Saito (1982) argues that “focus” is freely base-generated with nominative Case inJapanese and that the nominative element in Type I serves as the “focus” element
based on the following configurations.2
a.

S1

ei

FOCUS
[NOM.]

S2

b.

S

ei

SUBJECT[NOM.]

VP(Saito 1982: 20)(11) Saito (1982) observes that the nominative element in Type I does not “scramble”
with the object of the sentence.
a. Suzukii-ga Tanakaj-nitotte [PROj [ei] wairo-otukam-ase-yasu-i]
Suzuki-NOM Tanaka-for
bribe-ACC take-cause-easy-PRES‘For Tanaka, Suzuki is easy to bribe.’b. Tanaka-nitotte Suzuki-ga wairo-o tukam-ase-yasu-ic. ??Suzuki-ga wairo-o Tanaka-nitotte tukam-ase-yasu-i
d. ?*Tanaka-nitotte wairo-o Suzuki-ga tukam-ase-yasu-i
e. ?*Wairo-o Tanaka-nitotte Suzuki-ga tukam-ase-yasu-i
f. ?*Wairo-o Suzuki-ga Tanaka-nitotte tukam-ase-yasu-i(Saito 1982: 37)(12) The following examples show that the “focus” element John cannot be scrambled
with the arguments of S2. In this respect, the nominative element in Type I behaves
like the “focus” element.
Although Inoue (1976) regards examples like (9iia) as unacceptable, a slight lexical adjustment improves theacceptability as shown in (9iib).
2
Saito (1982), somewhat tentatively, calls elements such as nihon-ga in (i) ‘focus with nominative Case’ and does
not give any clear definition of it.
(i) Nihon-ga dansei-ga tanmei
desu.
Japan-NOM male-NOM short-life-span copula‘It is in Japan that men have a short life span.’(Saito 1982:5; see also Kuno 1973:67)
5
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a. [S1 John-ga[S2 otooto-ga
buturi-obenkyosite-iru]]
John-NOM
brother-NOM physics-ACC
studying‘It is John whose brother is studying physics.’
b. ?John-ga buturi-o otooto-ga benkyosite-iru
c. ?*Buturi-o John-ga otooto-ga benkyosite-iru
d. *Otooto-ga John-ga buturi-o benkyosite-iru(13) Saito (1982) insightfully observes that there is a marked contrast between Type I
and Type III=IV with respect to the possibility of scrambling. 3
Type III=IV: Scrambling is quite free:a. Eriito-ga
soositazasetukan-o
aziwai-yasu-i.
elite-NOM that kind of frustration-ACC feel-easy-PRES‘Elites easily feel that kind of frustration.’b. ??Soosita

zasetukan-oeriito-ga

aziwai-yasu-i.4(Saito 1982: 37)(14) Saito (1982) concludes from this that the nominative constituent in Type III=IV is
not the “focus” element but the subject of S (i.e., (10b)) and conjectures that atleast Type III=IV does not require the “focus” element.
(15) Saito (1982) further argues that in Type I the “focus” element is obligatory, as theunacceptability of (15b) indicates.
a. Kono hon-gai
Johnj-nitotte [PROj [ei] yomi-yasu-i].
this book-NOM John-forread-easy-PRES‘This book is easy for John to read.’b. *Johnj-nitotte[PROjkono hon-oyomi-yasu-i].
-ACC(Saito 1982: 43)(16) Saito (1982) speculates that when the complement predicate is [+self-controllable],
the TC requires the “focus” constituent with nominative Case and that it is, for

Saito (1982) argues that it is unnecessary to distinguish between Type III and Type IV because the relevant
distinction is pragmatic.
4
The judgment is Saito’s (1982). However, to my ear, (13b) is perfectly acceptable.
3

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some reason, interpreted to be a “property statement” about the required element. 5(17) Saito’s (1982) observations:Type I: The “focus” element with nominative Case is obligatory (for some reason).
Type III=IV: The “focus” element with nominative Case is not obligatory.
3.2.3 External Arguments and Accusative Case
(18) I would like to show that the embedded transitive verb in Japanese TCs projects
an external argument and assigns accusative Case.
(19) Since Kuno (1973), it has been widely known that the reflexive zibun ‘self’ is“subject-oriented.”6
Keni-ga Hanakoj-ni
zibuni/*j-no
Ken-NOM Hanako-DAT
self-GEN(Lit.) ‘Ken gave Hanako self’s book.’hon-obook-ACC

age-ta.
give-PAST(20) Given the subject-orientation property of the reflexive zibun ‘self’, consider thefollowing example (cf. Saito 1982, Montalbetti et al. 1982).
Keni-ga Hanakoj-nitotte zibun*i/j-no himitu-ohanasi-niku-i.
Ken-NOM Hanako-for
self-GENsecret-ACC talk to-difficult-PRES(Lit.) ‘Ken is difficult for Hanako to talk to about self’s secret.’(21) The reflexive zibun ‘self’ refers to the complement of nitotte ‘for’ (i.e., Hanako).7
That is, the complement of nitotte qualifies as a “subject” in the relevant sense. In
Saito’s (1982) explanation for the “property reading” goes as follows. Consider (i) and (ii).
(i) John-ga musuko-ga gakusei-desu.
John-NOM son-NOM
student-copula‘John is such that this son is a student.’(ii) ?*John-ga
musuko-ga odoroi-ta.
John-NOM son-NOM
surprise-PAST‘John is such that his son was surprised.’(Saito 1982: 9)
When the “focus” element (i.e., the first nominative-marked phrase) appears in a sentence, it is usually the case thatsome kind of “property reading” is imposed on it. Saito (1982) states that what constitutes a “property reading”
about John is any sentence that can be a reply to a request for information about John and that when someone saysthat he wants to know about John, we may tell him that John’s son is a student, but we would normally not say thatJohn’s son was surprised yesterday.
6
I tentatively assume that the relevant notion of “subject” is related to an external argument of v (cf. Saito 2009).
5

Toru Ishii reports that the reflexive zibun ‘self’ in this example can also refer to Ken. But the important point hereis that zibun ‘self’ refers to the complement of nitotte ‘for’.
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order to account for this, I assume, following Inoue (2004), that the complementof nitotte ‘for’, which belongs to the matrix sentence, obligatorily controls PRO
in the embedded “SpecvP.”(22) I will further show that the external argument of the embedded transitive verb isalways projected. Taguchi and Niinuma (2009) present three pieces of evidence.
(i) The reflexive zibun ‘self’ can properly be licensed by the missing subjectof the embedded verb.
Zibun-nohon-gayomi-yasu-i.
Self-GEN book-NOM read-easy-PRES(Lit.) ‘Self’s book is easy to read.’(Taguchi and Niinuma 2009: 1878)(ii) Subject honorification is applicable.
Kono hon-ga
o-yomi-ni-nari-yasu-i.
this book-NOM
SH-read-SH-easy-PRES‘This book is easy to read.’(Taguchi and Niinuma 2009: 1879)(iii) The subject of the nagara ‘while’ clause is controlled by the “subject” ofthe matrix clause (cf. Ura 1999, 2000).
a. [PROi

Tanosimi-nagara (demo)], kono hon-ga PROi yomi-yasu-i.
enjoying-while (even)this book NOM
read-easy-PRES(Lit.) ‘While enjoying, this book is easy to read.’(slightly modified from Taguchi and Niinuma 2009: 1879)

b. [PROk/*i ongaku-o kiki-nagara],
Johnk-gaMaryi-o damasi-ta.
PROmusic-ACC listen.to-while John-NOM Mary-ACC cheat-PAST‘While PROk/*i listening to music, Johnk cheated Maryi.
(Ura 2000: 99)(23) We can conclude that the external argument (i.e., PRO) is projected even though
it appears to be missing.
(24) We have already seen that in Type I the embedded transitive verb can assign
accusative Case.
a. Kono pen-ga kodomo-nitotte kyappu-o hazusi-yasu-i.
this pen-NOM child-for
cap-ACC
pull off-easy-PRES‘It is this pen whose cap is easy for children to pull off.’8

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b. Taro-ga(Hanako-nitotte)
okane-owatasi-niku-i.
Taro-NOM Hanako-for
money-ACC hand-difficult-PRES(Lit.) ‘Taro is difficult (for Hanako) to hand some money.’(25) We can further show that the embedded transitive verb assigns an externalargument and assigns accusative Case at the same time.
(i) The reflexive zibun ‘self’ + accusative Case
Kono-kaizyoo-(de)-ga
Guurudo-nitotte zibun-no sonata-oensousi-yasu-i.
this concert hall-(at)-NOM Gould-for
self-GEN sonata-ACC play-easy-PRES(Lit.) ‘It is at this concert hall that it is easy for Gould to play self’s sonatas.’(ii) Subject honorification + accusative Case
Sono yuubinkyoku-kara-ga Yamada-sensei-nitottekozutumi-othat post office-from-NOM
Yamada-Professor-for package-ACC
o-okuri-ni-nari-yasu-i.
SH-send-SH-easy-PRES(Lit.) ‘It is from that post office that it is easy for Prof. Yamada to send packages.’(iii) The nagara ‘while’ clause + accusative CaseMe-otoji-nagara (demo), kono-hon-ga
peeji-omekuri-yasu-i.
eye-ACC close-while (even) this book-NOM page-ACC flip through-PRES(Lit.) ‘While closing (your) eyes, this book is such that it is easy to flip throughthe pages (of it).’
3.2.4 O-Ga/Ni-Ga Stacking(26) Now I show that accusative Case (-o) and nominative Case (-ga) can be stacked
in Japanese TCs (see section 3.2.6).8,9
Atarasii ryuukoo-o-dake-ga wakamono-nitotte oikake-yasu-i.
new fashion-ACC-only-NOM young people-for follow-easy-PRES‘Only the new fashion is easy for young people to follow.’(27) I also show that dative Case (-ni) and nominative Case (-ga) can be stacked in8

I would like to thank Ryoichiro Kobayashi for bringing this kind of example to my attention.

I will not enter into the detailed syntactic structure of nominal phrases like NP-Acc-dake-Nom, for want of better
understanding of nominal-internal syntax. For some relevant discussion, see Aoyagi (2006).
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Handout③

Japanese TCs (see section 3.3.3).10
Hanako-ni-dake-ga
Taro-nitotte
hon-oHanako-DAT-only-NOM Taro-for
book-ACC‘Only Hanako is easy for Taro to give some books.’age-yasu-i.
give-easy-PRES(28) It is worth pointing out here that multiple Case valuation is also found in KoreanTCs (cf. Gerdts and Yoon 1989, Yoon 1996).
a. [IP e [VP Chelswui- eykey [PROi New York-eyse
Seoul-lo ka-ki]-ka
Chelswu-DAT
New York-from Seoul-to go-NML-NOM
Sangtanghi elyep-ta]]verydifficult-DECL‘It is very difficult for Chelswu to go to Seoul from New York.’b. [IP NY-(eyse)-kaj [VP Chelswui-eykey [PROi tj Seoul-lo ka-ki]-ka
NY-(from)-NOM
Chelswu-DAT
Seoul-to go-NML-NOM
sangtanghi elyepta]]
very
difficult‘It is from New York that going to Seoul is very difficult for Chelswu.’c. [IP Chelswu-eykey-(man)-ii [VP ti PROi New York-eyse Seoul-lo ka-ki]-ka
Chelswu-DAT-(only)-NOM
New York-from Seoul-to go-NML-NOM
sangtanghi elyepta]]
very
difficult‘It is (only) Chelswu for whom it is very difficult to go from New York to Seoul.’(Yoon 1996: 113)
3.2.6 Derivations(29) Now I discuss the derivations of Japanese TCs.
To sum up the properties:(i) The embedded transitive verb projects an external argument and assigns
accusative Case.
(ii) The nitotte phrase belongs to the matrix clause and controls PRO merged at“SpecvP.” (cf. Inoue 2004).
(iii) In Type I, “focus with nominative Case” is obligatory (for some reason), while
in Type III=IV, it is not obligatory (cf. Saito 1982).
(iv) Japanese TCs exhibit multiple Case valuation.
10

Following Sadakane and Koizumi (1995), I assume that ni in (27) is a structural Case marker.
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Handout③

Case Valuation Rules:
a. When a nominal is merged with a lexical head, its case feature is valued as
accusative.
b. When a nominal is merged with a phase head (v or n), its case feature is valued
as nominative or genitive.
c. Otherwise, the case feature of a nominal is valued as dative.
(Zushi 2016: 48)(30) The derivation of Type I proceeds as follows.
a. Atarasii ryuukoo-ga wakamono-nitotte
oikake-yasu-i.
new fashion-NOM
young people-for
follow-easy-PRES‘Only the new fashion is easy for young people to follow.’
b.

wo
wo
nP
wo
PRO
wo
v
atarasii ryuukoo[vCase]nP
Vatarasii ryuukoo[uCase]

Transfer
Internal Merge

c.

wo
wo
nP
v
PRO
atarasii ryuukoo[vCase]
Transfer

d.

wo
wo
T
wo
PP
i
wo
yasuv
nP
wakamono-nitotteatarasii ryuukoo[vCase]➢ Derivation:(i) At Transfer of VP, the nP undergoes IM into the edge of v. (It gets valued as
accusative.)(ii) The “complement” PRO undergoes Transfer. ({atarasii ryuukoo, {PRO, v}}⇒
{atarasii ryuukoo, {v}}⇒{atarasii ryuukoo, v})
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Handout③(iii) At the end of the derivation (i.e., when all the constituents undergo Transfer),
atarasii ryuukoo ‘new fashion’ is revalued as nominative.
➢ Labeling:(i) {V, atarasii ryuukoo}: label = V(ii) {v, {V, atarasii ryuukoo}}: label = v(iii) {PRO, {v, {V, atarasii ryuukoo}}}: label = v (At Transfer of VP, atarasii
ryuukoo ‘new fasion’ undergoes IM into the edge of v. Transfer reduces the set{atarasii ryuukoo, {PRO, {v, {V, tatarasii ryuukoo}}}} into the set {atarasii ryuukoo,{PRO, {v}}}. If a singleton set is equivalent to its member, the set {atarasii ryuukoo,{PRO, {v}}} will be regarded as the set {atarasii ryuukoo, {PRO, v}}. Thus, thelabel of the set {PRO, v} will be determined to v.
(iv) {atarasii ryuukoo, v}: label = v ({atarasii ryuukoo, {PRO, v}}⇒{atarasii
ryuukoo, {v}}⇒{atarasii ryuukoo, v})(v) {yasu-, {atarasii ryuukoo, v}}: label = A(vi) {wakamono-nitotte, {yasu-, {atarasii ryuukoo, v}}}: label = A (Adjuncts areinvisible to LA) (cf. Hornstein 2009, Oseki 2015)(vii) {T, {wakamono-nitotte, {yasu-, {atarasii ryuukoo, v}}}}: label = T(31) The nP receives two Case values in the course of the derivation. The question iswhich to choose. But Saito (1982) observes:
Type I: “Focus with nominative Case” is obligatory (cf. Saito 1982).
➢ Thus, if nominative Case is realized morphologically, the result is fine.
a. Atarasii ryuukoo-ga wakamono-nitotte oikake-yasu-i.
new fashion-NOM
young people-for
follow-easy-PRES‘The new fashion is easy for young people to follow.’b. *Atarasii ryuukoo-o wakamono-nitotte
oikake-yasu-i.
new fashion-ACC
young people-for
follow-easy-PRES‘The new fashion is easy for young people to follow.’(32) Note that if the nP does not undergo IM into the edge of v (30b), it receives onlyaccusative Case. Then, the result is unacceptable due to the lack of “focus withnominative Case,” just as in (31b).
(33) Since the nP receives two Case values, it is possible to realize both of themprovided that they are not adjacent to each other.
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a. *Atarasii ryuukoo-o-ga wakamono-nitotte okikake-yasu-i.
new fashion-ACC-NOM young people-for
follow-easy-PRES‘Only the new fashion is easy for young people to follow.’b. Atarasii ryuukoo-o-dake-ga wakamono-nitotte oikake-yasu-i.
new fashion-ACC-only-NOM young people-for follow-easy-PRES‘Only the new fashion is easy for young people to follow.’➢ A focus particle like dake ‘only’ breaks the adjacency between the stacked Casevalues.
(34) Recall here that in Korean and Cuzco Quechua, stacked Case particles can appear
adjacent to each other.
a. Cheli-hanthey-ka ton-i
isse.
Cheli-DAT-NOM
money-NOM have
‘Cheli has money.’(Levin 2017: 448)

b. Mariya Xwancha-q-ta-ni muna-n [ ti platanu ranti-mu-na-n-ta]
Maria
Juan-GEN-ACC-AF want-2
bananas buy-NML-3-ACC‘Maria wants Juan to buy bananas.’(Lefebvre and Muysken 1988: 144)(35) Thus, I would like to hypothesize that Japanese (but not Korean and Cuzco
Quechua) has the following constraint (cf. Hiraiwa 2014).
A Morphological Constraint in Japanese:
Case particles cannot appear adjacent to each other.
(36) The derivation of Type IV proceeds as follows.
a. Eriito-ga
tuyoi zasetukano
aziwai-yasu-i.
elites-NOM strong sense of frustratioin-ACC feel tend to-PRES‘Members of the elite tend to have a strong sense of frustration.’
b.

wo
wo
nP
wo
v
nP
V
eriito[uCase]tuyoi zasetukan[uCase]
Transfer13

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c.

wo
wo
T
wo
yasui
v
nP
eriito[uCase]➢ Derivation:(i) The object undergoes Transfer. (It gets valued as accusative.)(ii) The subject is valued as nominative (at the end of the derivation).
➢ Labeling:(i) {V, tuyoi zasetukan}: label = V(ii) {v, {V, tuyoi zasetukan}}: label = v(iii) {eriio, {v, {V, tuyoi zasetukan}}}: label = v ({eriito, {v, {V, tuyoi
zasetukan}}}⇒{eriito, {v}}⇒{eriito, v})(iv) {yasu-, {eriito, v}}: label = A(v) {T, {yasu-, {eriito, v}}}: label = T(37) If tuyoi zasetukan ‘strong sense of frustration’ undergoes IM into the edge of v in(36b), the result is also fine. Consider the derivation.
a.

wp
wo
nP
wo
nP
wo
v
tuyoi zasetukan[vCase]nP
Veriito[uCase]tuyoi zasetukan[uCase]
Transfer
Internal Merge
b.

qp
qp
nP
v
nP
tuyoi zasetukan[vCase]eriito[uCase]
Transfer14

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c.

wo
wo
T
wo
yasui
v
nP
tuyoi zasetukan[vCase]➢ Derivation:(i) At Transfer of VP, tuyoi zasetukan ‘strong sense of frustration’ undergoes IM
into the edge of v. (It gets valued as accusative.)(ii) The “complement” eriito ‘elites’ undergoes Transfer. ({tuyoi zasetukan, {eriito,v}}⇒{tuyoi zasetukan, {v}}⇒{tuyoi zasetukan, v})(iii) At the end of the derivation (i.e., when all the constituents undergo Transfer),
tuyoi zasetukan ‘strong sense of frustration’ gets revalued as nominative.
➢ Labeling:(i) {V, tuyoi zasetukan}: label = V(ii) {v, {V, tuyoi zasetukan}}: label = v(iii) {eriito, {v, {V, tuyoi zasetukan}}}: label = v (At Transfer of VP, tuyoi
zasetukan ‘strong sense of frustration’ undergoes IM into the edge of v. Transfer
reduces the set {tuyoi zasetukan, {eriito, {v, {V, ttuyoi zasetukan}}}} into the set {tuyoi
zasetukan, {eriito, {v}}}. If a singleton set is equivalent to its member, the set{tuyoi zasetukan, {eriito, {v}}} will be regarded as the set {tuyoi zasetukan, {eriito,v}}. Thus, the label of the set {eriito, v} will be determined to v.
(iv) {tuyoi zasetukan, v}: label = v ({tuyoi zasetukan, {eriito, v}} ⇒ {tuyoi
zasetukan, {v}}⇒{tuyoi zasetukan, v})(v) {yasu-, {tuyoi zasetukan, v}}: label = A(vi) {T, {yasu-, {tuyoi zasetukan, v}}}: label = T(38) The object receives two Case values in the course of the derivation. The questionis which to choose. But Saito (1982) observes:
Type III=IV: “Focus with nominative Case is not obligatory (cf. Saito 1982).
(39) If Saito’s (1982) observation is correct, we expect that in Type IV, either accusative
Case or nominative Case can be realized morphologically. This expectation is borneout.
a. Tuyoi zasetukan-oeriito-ga
aziwai-yasu-i.
strong sense of frustration-ACC elite-NOM feel tend to-PRES‘Members of the elite tend to have a strong sense of frustration.’
15

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Handout③

b. Tuyoi zasetukan-ga
eriito-ga
aziwai-yasu-i.11
strong sense of frustration-NOM elite-NOM
feel tend to-PRES‘It is a strong sense of frustration that members of the elite tend to feel.’(40) Note that since the nP receives two Case values, it is possible to realize both ofthem provided that the adjacency between them is broken by a focus particle.
Tuyoi zasetukan-o-dake-ga
eriito-ga
aziwai-yasu-i.
strong sense of frustration-ACC-only-NOM elite-NOM
feel tend to-PRES‘It is only a strong sense of frustration that members of the elite tend to feel.’
3.3 Implications
3.3.1 Scrambling as Multiple Case Valuation(41) The proposed theory implies that scrambling in Japanese can be seen as an
instance of multiple Case valuation where the first Case value received isrealized/retained morphologically.12
a. Taro-ga
Hanako-osikat-ta.
Taro-NOM Hanako-ACC scold-PAST‘Taro scolded Hanako.’
b. Hanakoi-o Taro-ga
Hanako-ACC Taro-NOM‘Taro scolded Hanako.’tisikat-ta.
scold-PAST(42) If we assume that scrambling is an instance of IM and that vP constitutes a phase,the object Hanako in (41b) must undergo IM into the edge of v.13
a.

wo
wo
Hanako[vCase]wo
Taro[uCase]wov
Hanako[uCase]
V
Transfer
Internal Merge

Takaomi Kato points out that in order for (39b) to be (marginally) acceptable, a heavy stress must be put on
tuyoi zasetukan-ga ‘strong sense of frustration’.
12
I would like to thank Naoki Fukui for suggesting this possibility.
11

Whether the final landing site is “SpecTP” or “SpecvP,” the object must undergo IM into the edge of v. Otherwise,
it would be trapped inside the Transfer domain.
16
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Handout③b.

wowo
Hanako[vCase]v
Taro[uCase]
Transferc.

wov
Hanako[vCase]➢ Derivation:(i) The object Hanako undergoes IM into the edge of v at Transfer of VP. (It getsvalued as accusative.)(ii) The “complement” Taro undergoes Transfer. (It gets valued as nominative.)(iii) The object Hanako gets revalued as nominative (at the end of the overall
derivation).
(43) The object receives two Case values. The question is which to choose. If the first
Case value (i.e., accusative Case) is realized, the result is fine. But if the last Casevalue (i.e., nominative Case) is realized, the result is marginal.
a. Hanakoi-o
Taro-ga
Hanako-ACC Taro-NOM‘Taro scolded Hanako.’tisikat-ta.
scold-PAST

b. ??Hanako-ga
Taro-gatisikat-ta.
Hanako-NOM Taro-NOM
scold-PAST‘It is Hanako who Taro scolded.’(44) However, there are numerous examples where the objects can be marked witheither accusative Case or nominative Case.
a. Kono tosyokani-o ookuno-gakusei-ga
this library-ACC
many students-NOM‘Many students use this library.’tib. Kono tosyokani-ga ookuno-gakusei-ga
this library-NOM
many-students-NOM‘Many students use this library.’c. Sono-toorii-o
the road-ACC

takusan-no torakku-ga
many-GEN truck-NOM
17riyou-su-ru.
use-do-PREStitiriyou-su-ru.
use-do-PRES
too-ru.
drive-PRES

Keio Colloquium
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Handout③‘A lot of trucks are driven on the road.’d. Sono-toorii-ga takusan-no torakku-ga
the road-NOM many-GEN-truck-NON‘A lot of trucks are driven on the road.’ti

too-ru.
drive-PRESe. Anoyouna taipu-no jyoseii-o
daremo-ga
that kind-GEN
woman-ACC
everyone-NOM‘Everyone likes that kind of woman.’ti

konom-u.
like-PRES

f. Anoyouna taipu-no jyoseii-ga
daremo-ga
that kind-GEN
woman-NOM everyone-NOM‘Everyone likes that kind of woman.’ti

konom-u.
like-PRES(45) Thus, it seems certain that the awkwardness of (43b) is not due to syntax but rather
due to semantics.
(46) It has been reported in the literature that when an object is marked with nominative
Case, it receives a “focus” interpretation (cf. Saito 1982, Takano 2003, Miyagawa
2010, Nambu et al. 2018). Furthermore, as Saito (1982) points out, when a “focus”
element (i.e., focus with nominative Case) appears in a sentence, it is usually thecase that some kind of “property reading” is imposed on it.
(47) Thus, the interpretation of (43b) will be something like “Hanako has an (intrinsic)
property such that Taro hit her,” which is anomalous (cf. Saito 1982). In contrast,
the interpretation of the acceptable sentence (44b), for instance, will be something
like “This library has an (intrinsic) property such that many students use it,” whichis felicitous.
To sum up:(i) The object can undergo IM into the edge of v at Transfer of VP and receive two
Case values.
(ii) If the first Case value (i.e., accusative Case) is realized, the result is fine (i.e.,
an instance of scrambling). In contrast, if the last Case value (i.e., nominative
Case) is realized, it is interpreted to be “focused” and some kind of “property
interpretation” is imposed on the resulting sentence (cf. Saito 1982).
3.3.2 O-Ni Stacking vs. Ni-Ga Stacking(48) The proposed theory correctly predicts the presence of ni-ga (i.e., dativenominative) stacking and the absence of o-ni (i.e., accusative-dative) stacking in
18

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Handout③

Japanese.14
Zushi’s (2014, 2016) Case Valuation Rules:
a. When a nominal is merged with a lexical head, its case feature is valued as
accusative.
b. When a nominal is merged with a phase head (v or n), its case feature is valued
as nominative or genitive.
c. Otherwise, the case feature of a nominal is valued as dative. (Zushi 2016: 48)(49) Zushi (2014, 2016) argues that dative ni in Japanese is a default Case and assigned
to a nominal phrase which lacks a Case value. That is, dative Case valuation
applies as a last resort.
a. Taro-ga
Hanako-ni
tegami-oTaro-NOM Hanako-DAT letter-ACC‘Taro received a letter from Hanako.’b.

morat-ta.
receive-PAST

ei

Taro

v

ei
ei
v

Hanako

V2

ei

V1

V2

ei

tegami

V1
moraw(Zushi 2014: 87)(50) Derivation:(i) Tegami ‘letter’ is valued as accusative since it is merged with V.
(ii) V2 does not value accusative because it is an applicative head, not a lexical
head. Therefore, (48c) is applied as a last resort and Hanako is valued as
dative.
(iii) Taro is valued as nominative since it is merged with v.
(51) When Hanako is merged into “SpecV2P,” an XP-YP configuration is formed.
Following McGinnis (2001), I assume that the applicative head in structures like(49b) is a phase head. If so, when Hanako is merged into the structure, theapplicative head is created, and hence, the complement (i.e., V1P) undergoes
Transfer. Thus, the label of the set {V2, Hanako} will be determined to V2.

14

I would like to thank Toru Ishii for helpful discussion.
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Handout③a.

wowo
Hanako[uCase]wo
V2 (= the applicative phase head)
tegami[uCase]
V1
Transferb.

wowo
Taro[uCase]wov
V2
Hanako[uCase]
Transfer

c.

wo
wo
T
v
Taro[uCase]➢ Derivation:(i) Upon completion of the applicative phase, the complement (i.e., V1P) undergoes
Transfer. ({Hanako, {V2, {V, tegami}}}⇒{Hanako, {V2}}⇒{Hanako, V2})(ii) Upon completion of the vP phase, the complement (i.e., {Hanako, V2})
undergoes Transfer. The Case valuation rule (48c) is applied as a last resort andHanako is valued as dative.
(iii) At the end of the overall derivation (i.e., at the point of TP), all the constituents
undergo Transfer. Taro is valued as nominative.
(52) What if tegami ‘letter’ in (51a) undergoes IM into the edge of the applicative head?
a.

wo
wo
tegami[vCase]wo
Hanako[uCase]wo
V2 (= the applicative phase head)
tegami[uCase]
V1
Transfer

Internal Merge

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Handout③b.

wo
wo
tegami[vCase]
V2
Hanako[uCase]
Transferc.

wowo
Taro[uCase]wov
V2
tegami[vCase]
Transfer

d.

wo
wo
T
v
Taro[uCase]➢ Derivation:(i) Tegami ‘letter’ undergoes IM into the edge of the applicative phase at Transfer.
(ii) The “complement” Hanako undergoes Transfer. It is valued as dative as a lastresort since neither (48a) nor (48b) can be applied.
(iii) Upon completion of the vP phase, the complement (i.e., {V2, tegami})
undergoes Transfer. But tegami ‘letter’ has already been assigned accusative
Case. Therefore, it will not receive dative Case since (48c) is a last-resort rule.
(iv) At the end of the overall derivation (i.e., at the point of TP), all the constituents
undergo Transfer. Taro gets valued as nominative.
(53) This correctly predicts that o-ni stacking (i.e., accusative-dative stacking) is absent.
*Taro-gategami-o-dake-nii
Hanako-ni
Taro-NOM letter-ACC-only-DAT Hanako-DAT‘Taro received only a letter from Hanako.’timorat-ta.
receive-PAST(54) The proposed theory can also correctly predict the presence of ni-ga (i.e., dativenominative stacking) stacking.
a. Hanako-ni-dake-gai(Taro-nitotte)tiokane-oHanako-DAT-only-NOM Taro-for
money-ACC‘Only Hanako is hard (for Taro) to give some money.’21

age-niku-i.
give-hard-PRES

Keio Colloquium
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Handout③b.

wowo
Hanako[uCase]wo
V2 (= the applicative phase head)okane[uCase]
V1
Transferc.

wowo
Hanako[vCase]
wo
PRO
wo
v
V2
Hanako[uCase]
Transfer

Internal Merge

d.

wo
wo
Hanako[vCase]v
PRO
Transfer

e.

wo
wo
T
wo Taro-nitottewoyasuv
Hanako[vCase]➢ Derivation:(i) Upon completion of the applicative phase, the complement (i.e., {V, okane})
undergoes Transfer. (The nominal phrase okane ‘money’ gets valued as accusative.)(ii) Upon completion of the vP, Hanako undergoes IM into the edge of v at Transfer.
Hanako at the edge of V2 gets valued as dative since it lacks a Case value atthis point.
(iii) The “complement” PRO undergoes Transfer.
(iv) At the end of the overall derivation (i.e., at the point of TP), all the constituents
undergo Transfer. Hanako at the edge of v gets revalued as nominative because
nominative Case valuation is not a last-resort rule. (Nominative Case is assigned
to Hanako regardless of whether it has received a Case value or not.)(55) The above derivation correctly predicts the presence of ni-ga stacking (i.e., dative22

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Handout③

nominative stacking). The above discussion confirms the view that dative Casevaluation is applied only as a last-resort.
3.4 Conclusion(56) I have argued that Japanese instantiates all the three possibilities shown below.
(i) Case2+Case1: The last Case value received is realized morphologically.
(ii) Case2+Case1: The first Case value received is realized morphologically.
(iii) Case2+Case1: All the Case values received are realized morphologically.
(57) Type I TCs instantiate (i) and (iii), while Type IV TCs instantiate (i), (ii), and (iii).
Scrambling can be seen as (ii).

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Handout③

References
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