THE STUDY OF OLD ICELANDIC
An introduction to the sources
1. The study of Old Icelandic.
Many Old Icelandic texts are important as comparative material for the studyof English literature. There are parallels to Beowulf in Grettis saga, Hrólfs
saga kraka and other works, and other Old English texts have their closest
analogues in Icelandic. The eddas and sagas were an inspiration to a long
succession of later British writers of whom Walter Scott, Thomas Gray, William
Morris and W. H. Auden are perhaps the best known. See:R. W. Chambers, Beowulf: An Introduction (1921).
Beowulf and its Analogues, tr. G. N. Garmonsway and J. Simpson (1968).
W. P. Ker, ‘The Literary influence of the Middle Ages’, Cambridge History of English Literature X (1921), ch. 10, pp. 217–41.
An important element in the development of Anglo-Saxon culture was theGermanic tradition brought to the British Isles by the Anglo-Saxon invadersin the fifth and sixth centuries. Direct information about this Germanic tradition is hard to find in English and German sources of the Middle Ages, but has
been thought clearly identifiable in early Icelandic texts. In particular they
contain information about the religion and mythology of the pagan North which
is a help in understanding the religion of the pagan inhabitants of Germanic
Europe generally. See:
G. Dumézil, Gods of the Ancient Northmen (1973).
J. de Vries, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte I–II (1970).
J. Grimm, Teutonic Mythology I–IV (1883–1900).
Cf. section 4 below.
The Viking Age is usually reckoned to have extended from AD 793 to 1066
(see chronology on pp. 32–33 below). The viking expansion that took place inthis period was an important phase in the history of medieval Europe andviking activities in the British Isles had important consequences for culturaland linguistic development in late medieval England. Political and legal history
in particular was deeply influenced by the viking settlements in Britain. Icelandic sources are of primary importance for the study of the vikings, theirlanguage and traditions. See:
P. Foote and D. Wilson, The Viking Achievement (1970, repr. 1980).
G. Jones, A History of the Vikings (1984).

P. H. Sawyer, The Age of the Vikings (1975).
G. Turville-Petre, The Heroic Age of Scandinavia (1951).
D. M. Wilson and O. Klindt-Jensen, Viking Art (1966).
H. Shetelig and H. Falk, Scandinavian Archaeology (1938).
J. Brøndsted, The Vikings (1965).
J. Simpson, Everyday Life in the Viking Age (1966).
J. Jesch, Women in the Viking Age (1991).
The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings. Edited by Peter Sawyer(1997).
J. Byock, Viking Age Iceland (2001).
Medieval Icelandic literature was also an inspiration for German writers of
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, particularly those like Herder andparticipators in the Sturm und Drang movement who were interested in ‘folkliterature’. Vƒlsunga saga and the poems of the Poetic Edda (see section 4
below), in particular, were used by Richard Wagner in his Ring-cycle. Some
Old French romances were translated into Old Icelandic and the translations
have preserved some material that is no longer extant in the original French(e.g. parts of Thomas of Brittany’s version of the Tristan and Iseult story).
Interesting though the Viking Age is, and important for the history of thewhole of Europe, the history of Iceland itself is also of great significance as
the record of a unique early experiment in non-monarchic government and an
assertion of political freedom and to some extent egalitarianism. The development of the Icelandic commonwealth and Church in the Middle Ages is an
extraordinary story which can be followed in detail in near-contemporary Icelandic records. See section 3 below.
Some of the Icelandic sagas and eddic poems are great works of literaturein their own right. Icelandic prose reached a high level of sophistication in thethirteenth century and the narrative skill of Icelandic saga-writers is unsurpassed in medieval Europe; the sagas have remained a unique and substantial
achievement ever since, deserving to be widely known and studied for theirown sake. See:W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (1908).
W. H. Auden, Secondary Worlds (1968).
Introduction to Njal’s saga, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson(Penguin 1960).
Vésteinn Ólason, Dialogues with the Viking Age (1998).
Sigur›ur Nordal, Icelandic Culture, tr. Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (1990).
Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas (1988).

2

The sagas are primarily notable for their narrative skill, the detachment of thenarrator and the simplicity, even starkness, of their style. The simplicity, however, is not the result of naivety, and often conceals bitter irony. The sagas arenevertheless narrative in what can be called its ‘purest’ form — the story told
apparently for the story’s sake, without any heavy moralising or intrusive analysis. But their content is also interesting and of permanent relevance, since inthem many fundamental issues of perennial importance are treated, such as
the relation between the individual and society, between freedom and authority, between idealism and expedience. These issues are presented in simplified and sometimes bald ways which make it easy to see their universality,
though no naive solutions are offered and the outcome of the underlying complexities is often tragic. Though psychology is not one of the primary interestsof the saga-writers, they have created many memorable and convincing characters and depicted many unforgettable scenes and situations, and in spite of
the simplified picture they give of the world, the sagas are remarkably realistic in their portrayal both of character and social life.

1.1 The Icelandic language.
Translations of many of the major texts in Old Icelandic are available andmuch can be learned from them and from secondary works on the subject. But
there are still many important texts that are difficult of access for those who
do not know the original language. Besides the inherent inadequacy of alltranslations, the fact that one of the primary qualities of the Icelandic sagas istheir style and verbal expression means that in their case more than usual islost in translation, and one of the main pleasures of reading them is blunted.
Not only the style but also the way of thought and even the values of sagawriters are embodied in their actual words, and no translator can reproduce
them accurately. Translation is obviously even less adequate for the poetry.
Most sagas contain some verse, and not only the inherent qualities of the verse
itself are lost in translation, but the interplay and interrelationship of verse andprose are obscured.
Icelandic is also a living language and has changed comparatively little
from the Middle Ages to the present. It is an ideal medium of expression for
narrative prose and it is a great aesthetic experience to read it and hear it.
Many valuable works of literature exist in modern Icelandic and Iceland is an
exciting place to go to and its inhabitants interesting to talk to. Learning the
Icelandic language not only makes it possible to come as close as possible tothe landscape physical and mental of the vikings and farmers of medieval
3

Iceland, it opens up a whole world of experience of which translations andsecondary writings give only a pale reflection.
The Icelandic language is derived from the language of the vikings who
settled in Iceland in the ninth and early tenth centuries. They mostly camefrom Norway, and Icelandic seems to be particularly closely related to thedialect of south-west Norway in the Middle Ages. Other viking colonies hadvery similar languages in the Middle Ages (the Faeroes, Shetland, Orkney, theHebrides, Greenland), but except in the Faeroes, the Norse dialects in them
have since disappeared. Faeroese is now the language still spoken that is mostclosely related to Icelandic.
Norway and the viking colonies in the Atlantic, including Iceland, can be
regarded as a close-knit cultural and linguistic area in the Middle Ages and thelanguage of the western vikings is often called Old Norse, or sometimes Old
West Norse to distinguish it from East Norse, the dialects of Sweden, Denmark and the Baltic islands. Sometimes the term Old Norse is used to mean
the parent language of all the Scandinavian dialects. The term Old Icelandic isused of the language of Iceland before the Reformation (1550), Modern Icelandic of the language from then to the present.
Since the Middle Ages Icelandic has changed less than the other
Scandinavian languages and the sagas are still intelligible to present-day Icelanders. The amount of change that has taken place in pronunciation is however obscured by the fact that the standard spelling adopted in most modern
editions of the sagas and the standard spelling of modern Icelandic (which,like that of English, is rather archaic) are very similar. Medieval texts spelled
as in the original manuscripts are very much more difficult for modern readers
to understand. Changes of syntax and inflections have also taken place, though
they are not very great, and of course a lot of new vocabulary has been introduced since the Middle Ages, though recently the tendency has been to use
native roots to express new concepts.
1.2 The approximate pronunciation of Old Icelandic can be reconstructed fromour knowledge of the values of the Latin alphabetical symbols that were used
to represent the sounds in the Middle Ages, from comparison with related
languages, especially those from which loan words were adopted, from etymology, from the later history of the language and from the study of rhyme
and assonance in poetry. There is also a treatise that describes the sounds ofthe language as they were in the middle of the twelfth century and recommends their spelling (Section 1.4 below).
1.3 In structure, Icelandic is similar to German and Old English; like them, it
has largely retained the system of inflections inherited from Germanic. There4

are some individual features in the grammar, however: Icelandic makes greateruse of grammatical suffixes than other Germanic languages, and the definite
article is often suffixed to the noun (húsit = the house); a reflexive suffix isfrequently attached to verbs, creating what is known as a ‘middle voice’ which
has reflexive, passive or reciprocal meaning (verjask = defend oneself; finnask= be found; vegask = kill each other); and particularly in early poetry some
negative suffixes are used both with verbs and occasionally with other parts ofspeech (vara, varat = was not; manngi = no man). Another feature of thelanguage that is particularly likely to give rise to difficulties in translation isthe very frequent idiomatic use of impersonal or subjectless verbs. In addition, adverbial or absolute prepositions are used much more commonly thanin English (though they do occur in English, as in ‘come in’, ‘give up’). These
are similar in function to German separable prefixes, but verbs do not normally have prefixes in Old Icelandic, and an object of such absolute prepositions is often implied (see Part I: Grammar, 3.7.7).
Grammars: The fullest account of the phonology and morphology of Old Icelandic is in A. Noreen, Altisländische und Altnorwegische Grammatik (1923).
The best treatments of syntax are in A. Heusler, Altisländisches Elementarbuch(first published 1913; 3rd edn 1950) and M. Nygaard, Norrøn syntax (1905).
For students who do not read German the best book has till now been E. V.
Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse, rev. A. R. Taylor (1957). A fuller introduction to the grammar is to be found in S. Valfells and J. E. Cathey, Old
Icelandic: An Introductory Course (1981).
For Modern Icelandic:
Stefán Einarsson, Icelandic: Grammar, Texts, Glossary (1949).
Jón Fri›jónsson, A Course in Modern Icelandic (1978).
Stanislaw Bartoszek and Anh-Dao Tran, Icelandic for beginners (1991).
[with tape]
There is also an ancient Linguaphone course.
Dictionaries: The best dictionary of Old Icelandic is J. Fritzner, Ordbog overdet gamle norske Sprog I–III (1883–96); IV, Rettelser og Tillegg, by F. Hødnebø(1972). R. Cleasby and G. Vigfusson, An Icelandic-English Dictionary (1874)
is less reliable. G. T. Zoëga, A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic (1919) isan abridgment of the latter, and is fairly adequate for reading prose texts. For
poetry Sveinbjörn Egilsson, Lexicon Poeticum, rev. Finnur Jónsson (1931), isthe best help. For eddic poetry the glossary in the edition of H. Kuhn, tr. B. La
Farge and J. Tucker (section 4 below) is useful.
The standard dictionary of Modern Icelandic is S. Blöndal, Íslenzk-Dönsk
5Or›abók (1920–24). Árni Bö›varsson, Íslensk or›abók (1985) is handier. For
etymology consult Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon, Íslensk Or›sifjabók (1989) or
Jan de Vries, Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (1977). Two parts (1:a–bam, 2: ban–da) have so far appeared of Ordbog over det norrøne
prosasprog: A Dictionary of Old Norse Prose (1995– ; in progress).
1.4 Icelandic is unusual in having a medieval description of the sounds of thelanguage from early in the literary period. See The First Grammatical Treatise,ed. Hreinn Benediktsson (1972), and ed. Einar Haugen (1972). This treatise
was written in the second half of the twelfth century.
The runic alphabet was used in the North before the Latin alphabet was
introduced with the coming of Christianity in the eleventh century. Runes
were, however, rarely used for recording literary texts and hardly any early
inscriptions survive from Iceland. But there are many in continental Scandinavia from both the Viking Age and earlier (and later) periods. They throwvaluable light on the early history of the Scandinavian languages; rather less(because of their shortness) on early culture in the North. See:R. W. V. Elliott, Runes. An Introduction (1959).
S. B. F. Jansson, The Runes of Sweden (1987).
B. Dickins, Runic and Heroic Poems (1915).
R. I. Page, Runes (1987).
E. Moltke, Runes and their Origin. Denmark and Elsewhere (1985).
1.5 The Scandinavian languages constitute the northern branch of the Germanic group of languages. Gothic represents the eastern branch, English,
German and Dutch are members of the western branch. See:
E. Prokosch, A Comparative Germanic Grammar (1939).
The Germanic languages are members of the Indo-European family of languages, which also includes the Celtic languages (among which are Welsh
and Irish), the Italic languages (including Latin and its derivatives, chiefly
French, Italian and Spanish), the Slavonic languages (including Russian),
Greek, Iranian and Sanskrit. See:W. B. Lockwood, Indo-European Philology (1969).
W. B. Lockwood, A Panorama of Indo-European Languages (1972).
1.6 There are very few dialectal features in Icelandic, and to all intents andpurposes it can be regarded as a language without dialects. On the other hand
there are distinct styles of writing in the Middle Ages which have been characterised as the ‘native’ or ‘popular’ style, used in most of the sagas containing Scandinavian subject-matter, and the ‘learned’ style, which can be further
6

divided into the ‘clerical’ and ‘courtly’ styles, found in some saints’ lives andsagas containing romance material. Latin was certainly one of the influenceson the formation of the literary language of Iceland, and Latin books were
known and translated in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; moreover some
Latin books were composed by Icelanders in the Middle Ages (and later). See:
P. Lehmann, Skandinaviens Anteil an der lateinischen Literatur undWissenschaft des Mittelalters (1936–37); reprinted in Erforschung desMittelalters V (1962).
Arngrímur Jónsson, Opera Latine Conscripta, ed. Jakob Benediktsson,
Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana IX–XII (1950–57).
The use of the Latin alphabet was introduced into Iceland by Christian missionaries, many of whom came from England. Both the form of the alphabet
used and the content of many books was influenced by foreign models, both
English and from other European countries; see sections 6, 8 and 9 below. But
the sagas written in the ‘native’ style are considered to be most characteristicof Icelandic culture and its greatest achievement. Both in the Middle Ages andlater these sagas have been important in the development of an Icelandic
national identity. See section 8 below.

2. Reference books.
The ultimate source of most of our knowledge of the literature and culture ofmedieval Iceland is in manuscripts written in Iceland in the Middle Ages.
Original manuscripts have been lost almost entirely and we are dependent onlater, sometimes much later, copies. A number of sagas are known chiefly
from seventeenth-century paper copies of medieval vellum manuscripts.
The surviving manuscripts, which to begin with were mostly the personal
possessions of Icelandic farmers, were nearly all collected in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries by scholars who, in the wake of the renaissance revivalof interest in the Middle Ages, were particularly concerned with Nordic history.
This was the origin of the modern study of Old Icelandic, and the manuscripts
are now mostly to be found in libraries and institutes in Reykjavík, Copenhagen,
Stockholm and Uppsala, though some have found their way to libraries in
London, Edinburgh, Utrecht, Wolfenbüttel and elsewhere. Some have remained
until quite recently in private hands. The printed catalogues of these collections are listed in H. Bekker-Nielsen, Old Norse-Icelandic Studies: a SelectBibliography (1967), in Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Studies 1971,
36–7, and in K. Schier, Sagaliteratur (1970), xx.
7An account of the Icelandic manuscripts that survive from before 1300 is
given by Hreinn Benediktsson in Early Icelandic Script (1965). He discusses
the handwriting and spelling of these manuscripts and gives specimen reproductions of at least one page of each of them. Many of the most importantmanuscripts have been published in facsimile in one of the following series:
Corpus Codicum Islandicorum Medii Aevi I–XX (1930–56) [CCIMA].
Early Icelandic Manuscripts in Facsimile I– (1958– ).
Íslenzk handrit. Icelandic Manuscripts I– (1956– ).
Manuscripta Islandica I– (1954– ).
Many thirteenth-century manuscripts contain single works (or fragments ofthem), while in the fourteenth century many collections of texts were made inlarge manuscript books. Two of the most important and biggest of these tosurvive are Mö›ruvallabók and Flateyjarbók. The first contains a collectionof Sagas of Icelanders, the second a collection mostly of Kings’ Sagas. They
are reproduced in CCIMA I and V.
Some manuscripts were illuminated. Flateyjarbók, for example, was elaborately decorated. Otherwise it was mostly religious and legal manuscripts,
generally probably commissioned and owned by wealthy churches or maybe
landowners, that were expensively illuminated. Specimens are printed in colour in Halldór Hermannsson, Icelandic Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, CCIMA VII. See also Jónas Kristjánsson, Icelandic Illuminated Manuscripts (1993).
2.1 The standard collected edition of the sagas is in Íslenzk fornrit, 23 volumes
so far, of which the first appeared in 1933; it now contains all the Sagas of
Icelanders, many of the Kings’ Sagas and some Bishops’ Sagas. A two-volume
edition of the Sagas of Icelanders in modern spelling, Íslendinga sögur, appeared in 1985–86, reprinted in three volumes, 1987; this version is available
on CD-rom with concordance (1996) and there is a translation in The Complete
Sagas of Icelanders (5 vols, 1997).
2.2 For books published before 1942 there is a fairly comprehensive list in
Halldór Hermannsson, Cornell University Library, Catalogue of the Icelandic Collection bequeathed by Willard Fiske (1914; Additions 1913–26 [1927]
and 1927–42 [1943]). From 1963 to 1980 there was the annual Bibliographyof Old Norse-Icelandic Studies (now available on line). There are bibliographies of various genres in volumes of Islandica. See also H. Bekker-Nielsen,
Old Norse-Icelandic Studies: a Select Bibliography (1967).
2.3 The following periodicals are mostly in English and contain many usefuland relevant articles:8

Saga-Book
Mediaeval Scandinavia
Islandica
Scandinavian Studies
Scandinavica

Arkiv för nordisk filologi and Alvíssmál are also devoted to northern research,but many of the articles are in German or the Scandinavian languages.
2.4 There is an encyclopaedic work of reference (again not inEnglish) in Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder, I–XXII (1956–78), which has helpful bibliography on many topics. Handier is the one-volume
Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, ed. Phillip Pulsiano (1993). For thegeneral history of Icelandic literature see:Finnur Jónsson, Den oldnorske og oldislandske litteraturs historie I–III(1920–24).
J. de Vries, Altnordische Literaturgeschichte I–II (1964–7).
Stefán Einarsson, A History of Icelandic Literature (1957).
Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide. Ed. Carol J. Clover andJohn Lindow, Islandica XLV (1985).
Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas (1988).
Sigur›ur Nordal, Icelandic Culture. Tr. Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (1990).

3. The history of Iceland.
The earliest literary source for the history of Iceland is Íslendingabók (Bookof the Icelanders) by Ari ﬁorgilsson, a priest who lived from 1067 or 1068 to
1148. No medieval manuscript of this work survives, but we have seventeenthcentury copies of it transcribed from a manuscript probably written about 1200.
From these it is apparent that the text we have is a revision of a work firstcomposed between 1122 and 1133. It was probably the first narrative prose
work to be written in the Icelandic language (it records that parts of the law
were written down in 1117–18, and the tithe law may have been written downwhen it was introduced in 1096). Only one Icelandic prose author before Ari
is known, Sæmundr the Wise, but it seems that he wrote in Latin. Íslendingabók
is counted the most reliable source for the period of Icelandic history it covers, from the settlement down to 1118.
Ari is often mentioned as an authority by later Icelandic writers, and hemust have written other books, but they do not now survive.
The settlement of Iceland is described in greater detail in Landnámabók (Bookof Settlements), which gives an account of the settlement of the country area by
9area, with information about several hundred individual settlers, their families
and origins, and their principal achievements. Landnámabók survives in several
versions mostly preserved in rather late manuscripts. These versions are all
believed to derive ultimately from a lost book compiled by Styrmir the Wise,prior of the monastery on Vi›ey (d. 1245). It is possible that Styrmir’s compilation
was based on a yet earlier one in which Ari may have had a hand. The surviving
versions of Landnámabók contain summaries of many stories told in the sagas
about Icelanders during the first century of the settlement, but in some cases
these are derived from the sagas themselves and do not therefore necessarily
confirm the events in them as historical. They also contain many anecdotes which
throw light on beliefs and social organisation in the early settlement period. See:Íslendingabók. Landnámabók, ed. Jakob Benediktsson, Íslenzk fornrit
I (1968).
The Book of the Icelanders, ed. and tr. Halldór Hermannsson, Islandica
XX (1930).
The Book of the Settlement of Iceland, tr. T. Ellwood (1908).
The Book of Settlements, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1972).
Íslenzk handrit I and III (1956, 1974) contain facsimiles of the manuscriptsof Íslendingabók and Landnámabók.
There is an excellent account of the early history of Iceland with generous
extracts in translation in G. Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga (1986). There are
extracts from Íslendingabók and Landnámabók in E. V. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse (1957). See also G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953), ch. 4.
3.1 One important chapter of Íslendingabók is devoted to the account of theconversion of Iceland to Christianity in AD 1000 (or 999), an event that had
profound consequences for the subsequent history of the nation and the development of its culture. It made possible literary activity and laid the foundation
for the literary tradition that led to the writing of sagas in the thirteenth century.
Many of the sagas also give accounts of the coming of Christianity, but one of
the fullest is in Kristni saga, which is probably by Sturla ﬁór›arson (1214–1284), compiler also of one of the versions of Landnámabók, and nephew ofSnorri Sturluson. The later history of the church in Iceland is told in Hungrvaka(‘Hunger-awakener’, covering the period 1056–1176, and probably written in
the first years of the thirteenth century) and in various Bishops’ Sagas. See:
Kristnisaga . . . Hungrvaka, ed. B. Kahle, Altnordische Saga-Bibliothek
11 (1905).
Biskupa sögur I–II (1958–78).
10

Byskupa sƒgur I–II, ed. Jón Helgason (1938–78).
Byskupa sögur I–III, ed. Gu›ni Jónsson (1948).
Biskupa sögur I–III, ÍF XV–XVII (1998–2003). IV–V expected soon.
There is a good discussion of the conversion by D. Strömbäck, The Conversion of Iceland (1957).
3.2 The later secular history of Iceland is told in the compilation known as
Sturlunga saga, which includes sagas covering much of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, mostly written within living memory of the events themselves (hence these sagas are known as ‘Sagas of Contemporaries’). The largest
section of this compilation is known as Íslendinga saga, and this is by Sturlaﬁór›arson. It is the best source for the history of Iceland in the thirteenth
century down to the 1260s, the period during which many of the best-known
sagas were first written, and covers the life of Snorri Sturluson (Section 7
below). It can be supplemented, particularly as regards Iceland’s relations
with Norway, by Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, also by Sturla. See:
Sturlunga saga I–II, ed. G. Vigfusson (1878); tr. J. H. McGrew and R.
G. Thomas (1970–74).
Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, ed. G. Vigfusson, tr. G. Dasent, Icelandic
Sagas II and IV, Rolls Series (1887–94).
The best modern introduction to thirteenth-century Iceland is Einar Ól.
Sveinsson, The Age of the Sturlungs, in Islandica XXXVI (1953). There is an
excellent general history of medieval Iceland in Jón Jóhannesson, A Historyof the Old Icelandic Commonwealth (1974).
3.3 The medieval constitution and law of Iceland is recorded in Grágás, preservedin manuscripts of the late thirteenth century (and fragments from the twelfth).
See:
Laws of Early Iceland I–II, tr. A. Dennis et al. (1980–2000).
Bandamanna saga, ed. H. Magerøy (1981), particularly pp. liv–lix.
3.4 Icelanders also wrote sagas about the other viking discoveries and colonies in the North Atlantic: about the Orkney islanders (Orkneyinga saga, tr.
Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards, 1981), the Faeroe Islanders (Færeyinga
saga, tr. G. Johnston, 1975; 1994), the Greenlanders and the attempts to settle in
America (Eiríks saga rau›a, sometimes known as ﬁorfinns saga karlsefnis;Grœnlendinga saga; Grœnlendinga ﬂáttr, sometimes known as Einars ﬂáttr
Sokkasonar). See The Vinland sagas, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann
Pálsson (1965); Eirik the Red and other Icelandic sagas, tr. G. Jones (1961);
and G. Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga (1986).
114. Eddic poetry.
Eddic poetry is gnomic and narrative poetry with legendary subject-matter,
partly mythological and partly about human heroes (who in some cases arereflections of historical figures of the Migration Age of Europe). The poems
are anonymous, composed between the ninth and twelfth centuries. They aremostly in 8-line stanzas and in an alliterative metre similar to that used in Old
English, Old Saxon and some Old High German poetry, but with some metrical variations not found in those languages. About 29 poems are preserved in
one fairly large manuscript collection (though this manuscript, the Codex
Regius, now lacks a section of probably 8 leaves which would have held several
more poems) written about 1270, and a few in a fragment of another similarcollection, AM 748 I 4to. Some further poems of the same kind are preservedor quoted in Heroic Sagas (section 8.1.5 below), and one or two survive as
separate items in manuscripts containing predominantly other kinds of writing (a number are quoted in the Prose Edda, see section 7 below).
Facsimiles: Håndskriftet nr. 2365, 4to gl. kgl. samling . . . (Codex Regius
af den ældre Edda), ed. L. F. A. Wimmer and F. Jónsson (1891). Also
CCIMA X.
Norrœn Fornkvæ›i. Sæmundar Edda, ed. S. Bugge (1867).
Edda. Die Lieder des Codex Regius, ed. G. Neckel, rev. H. Kuhn. I, Text
(1962). II, Kurzes Wörterbuch (1968), is available in English, Glossary
to the Poetic Edda by B. La Farge and J. Tucker (1992).
The Poetic Edda, tr. L. M. Hollander (1962); tr. H. A. Bellows (1923); tr.
C. Larrington (1996).
Most of the poems that are not in the main collection are edited in Eddica
Minora, ed. A. Heusler and W. Ranisch (1903, repr. 1974) and translated in
Old Norse Poems by L. M. Hollander (1936).
4.1 Verse epic did not develop in oral tradition in northern Europe in the Middle
Ages, but heroic lays (short narrative poems about heroes of ancient time)
existed from at least the time of Tacitus (second century AD). Fragments survive
in Old English (The Battle of Finnsburg) and Old High German(Hildebrandslied). The heroic poems of the Edda were arranged by the medieval compiler in a sequence comprising two poems about Helgi Hundingsbani,
one about Helgi Hjƒrvar›sson, seven about Sigur›r (the Siegfried of German
tradition) and Brynhildr, and eight about Gu›rún (his wife) and her family.
One poem is not part of the cycle, but is about the legendary smith Vƒlundr(Wayland). The characters in some of these poems are kings who lived in the
Migration Age and the stories may go back to Gothic tradition of the time of12

Jordanes (6th century AD). Other stories are no earlier than the Viking Age,and one or two of the poems are probably reworkings of old material from aslate as the 12th century. See:
Tacitus, Germania, tr. H. Mattingly (1948).
Runic and Heroic Poems, ed. B. Dickins (1915).
The Poetic Edda I: Heroic Poems, ed. U. Dronke (1968).
J. de Vries, Heroic song and heroic legend (1963).
H. M. Chadwick, The Heroic Age (1912).
W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (1908).
P. Hallberg, Old Icelandic Poetry (1975).
4.2 In the thirteenth century many of the stories preserved in heroic lays wereretold in prose (Heroic Sagas, fornaldarsögur). The oldest of these may havebeen Skjƒldunga saga, about the early kings of Denmark, probably written
towards the end of the twelfth century but now lost in its original form. The
first part of Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla, Ynglinga saga, about the early
kings of Norway and Sweden, was written about 1220. The later examples ofthis genre are more romantic: Vƒlsunga saga is based mainly on the heroic
poems of the Edda, Hervarar saga partly on other similar poems. ﬁi›rekssaga uses German versions of similar material, Karlamagnús saga is largely
translated from Old French chansons de geste. Heroic Sagas written even later
than these, often catalogues of viking adventures rather than traditions of theheroic age, are remoter from old tradition and eventually the genre becomes
one of fantasy and folk-tale and difficult to distinguish from romance.
Fornaldar sögur Nordrlanda I–III, ed. C. C. Rafn (1829–30).
Fornaldarsögur Nor›urlanda I–IV, ed. G. Jónsson (1950).
The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and tr. R. G. Finch (1965).
Saga Hei›reks konungs ins vitra (= Hervarar saga), ed. and tr. C. Tolkien(1960).
Hervarar saga, ed. C. Tolkien and G. Turville-Petre (1956).
Hrólfs saga kraka in Eirik the Red and other Icelandic sagas, tr. G. Jones(1961).
Seven Viking Romances, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1985).
P. Hallberg, ‘Some Aspects of the Fornaldarsögur as a Corpus’, Arkiv för
nordisk filologi 97 (1982), 1–35.
4.3 Mythological poetry like that found in the first ten poems of the Edda (thetenth, Alvíssmál, is in fact placed after Vƒlundarkvi›a, the first of the heroic
poems, in the manuscript), has not survived except in Icelandic recording. It
is, however, clear from the fact that many of the myths in them appear in13

related form in Latin in Saxo Grammaticus’ History of the Danes (c.1200)
that they were at one time also known in other parts of Scandinavia if not
more widely, and Icelandic sources are also held to give information about the
mythology of the Germanic peoples in general.
The first four poems in the Edda mainly concern Ó›inn. Vƒluspá is a surveyof cosmology, telling of the creation of the world and its end, ragnarƒk (doomof the gods), after which a new world will appear. Hávamál is largely gnomic,
and perhaps reflects the values of the viking worshippers of Ó›inn, about
whom it includes some narratives told in the first person.
Skírnismál is about the proxy wooing on Freyr’s behalf of the giant-maidenGer›r. The remaining mythological poems are mainly about ﬁórr, except
Lokasenna, in which Loki insults each of the other gods in turn. This poem,
like ﬁrymskvi›a, about ﬁórr’s recovery of his lost hammer, is comic andsatirical, though not all scholars agree that they were therefore not composedin heathen times.
The Poetic Edda II, ed. U. Dronke (1997).
The Elder or Poetic Edda I. The Mythological Poems, ed. and tr. O. Bray
(1908).
Vƒluspá, ed. Sigur›ur Nordal (1978).
Hávamál, ed. D. A. H. Evans with Glossary and Index by A. Faulkes (1986–
87).
ﬁrymskvi›a is edited in E. V. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse (1957).
4.4 Mythological as well as heroic material is found in some skaldic poetry(see section 5 below), in the Prose Edda (see section 7 below), and in the
History of the Danes of Saxo Grammaticus. These literary sources give only apartial view of pagan religion. Knowledge of actual cult and worship has to bebuilt up from the study of place-names and archaeology, supplemented withinformation in historical sagas (Kings’ Sagas, some Family Sagas, particularly Eyrbyggja saga) and early Latin sources such as the ninth-century Lifeof St Ansgar and Adam of Bremen (eleventh century). Some information isfound in Arabic accounts by Muslim travellers who met vikings in Russia andthe south Baltic region. Records of early laws also give some hints. Some ofthis information can be confirmed from later superstition and folk-belief which
can be seen as survivals from heathen times. But on the whole it is easier tofind information about mythology than about religion. Our knowledge of preChristian beliefs and practices is very scanty, and almost non-existent frombefore the Viking Age except for the few statements in Tacitus and other classical writers.

14

Saxo Grammaticus, History of the Danes I–II, tr. P. Fisher, ed. H. E.
Davidson (1979–80).
P. A. Munch, rev. M. Olsen, Norse Mythology (1926).
G. Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North (1964).
H. R. E. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe (1964).
R. I. Page, Norse Myths (1990, 1994).
For St Ansgar, Adam of Bremen and the Arabic sources, see G. Jones, A History of the Vikings (1984), 439–40 and 425–30, and P. G. Foote and D. M.
Wilson, The Viking Achievement (1970), 408–12. See also the articles ‘Adamof Bremen’, ‘Ansgar, St’ and ‘Arabic sources’ in MS. For place-names see M.
Olsen, Farms and Fanes of Ancient Norway (1928).
5. Skaldic Poetry.
The earliest skaldic poetry is from about the same time as the earliest surviving eddic poetry (ninth century), but it remained fashionable longer. Court
poetry, though of a rather literary kind, continued to be composed until thesecond half of the thirteenth century, and religious (Christian) poetry in skaldic
style remained popular throughout the fourteenth century. Skaldic poetry distinguishes itself from eddic poetry in the following respects:
PRESERVATION: Skaldic poems are preserved almost exclusively as quotations,
often of only a single stanza or just a few lines, in sagas (principally Kings’
Sagas and Sagas of Icelanders) and in the Prose Edda (see section 7 below).
Sometimes verses are quoted that are complete poems in themselves(lausavísur), but often only short excerpts are given. In some cases scatteredquotations can be assembled into a more or less complete poem, but only a
few long skaldic poems have been preserved entire. There are no collectionsof skaldic poetry in medieval manuscripts.
The quotations in Kings’ Sagas are generally to corroborate information
given in the prose narrative, and are often in fact the source of that saga author’s information. In Sagas of Icelanders the verses are more often spoken by
the characters in the story, and constitute part of the dialogue, or express thecharacters’ comments on or reaction to events in the story; such verses arethus an integral part of the narrative, or can sometimes be regarded as embellishments of it. The quotations in the Prose Edda are mostly to illustrate particular kinds of poetic diction, although some skaldic poems are also quoted
in it as sources of mythological information.
The majority of skaldic poems preserved must have been handed downorally from the time of composition until they were incorporated in thirteenth15

century written works. In oral tradition they may have been accompanied byprose narrative and have been the core of anecdotes. These could have been
important sources for saga-writers.
ATTRIBUTION: While all eddic poetry is anonymous, most skaldic poetry is
attributed to a named poet, and in many of the quotations in the sagas thepoem is associated with a particular event in the poet’s experience. Many ofthese attributions are probably correct, though some are certainly the result of
mistake or invention. Probably quite a lot of poetry was composed by anonymous poets as dramatic recreations of the attitudes and feelings of charactersin traditional stories. Dating of individual poems is very problematical. Detailsof the lives of many poets are known from the sagas in which they appear.
SUBJECT-MATTER: A few skaldic poems survive on legendary or traditional subjects, but the majority relate to events contemporary with the poet. A large
number of preserved poems are praise poems, either about a king (court poetry),sometimes composed as a memorial after his death, or about a figure fromChristian tradition, or about women or addressed to them. Few of them arenarrative in the ordinary sense, though the praise often involves enumerationof the subject’s achievements, and frequently incorporates accounts of sea
voyages and warfare. It is common for first-person comment to be included,
and in long poems it seems to have been traditional to devote a section or
sections of the poem to the subject of poetry itself and its composition. Somedevotional poetry was composed in skaldic style in the 12th century and later.
STYLE AND METRE: Skaldic poets used a greater variety of metres than eddic
poets, some of them very elaborate and making high demands on the technicalskill of the poet. The most frequent form is called dróttkvætt. This used an 8line stanza normally with six syllables per line, fixed rhythm in the last two
syllables, alliteration linking each pair of lines and internal rhyme within eachline. The diction is also inclined to be very elaborate, with extensive use of
poetical words (heiti) and periphrases (kennings), and with interwoven sentences and clauses (though the syntax within each clause is often not complicated). This metrical and verbal complexity must have made great demandson the audience as well as on the poets, and both were evidently highlysophisticated (though not necessarily learned), and generally must have beenan élite group in society. At some stages there were movements towards greater
simplicity and directness, both in some Christian poems (presumably directed
at a less sophisticated audience) and occasionally in court poetry (particularlyin the tenth and twelfth centuries some poets composed court poetry in a style
closer to that of eddic poems). Many of the kennings in skaldic verse contain16

allusions to heathen mythology, and these seem to have been avoided for awhile after the introduction of Christianity.
There are three kinds of overall structure in skaldic poems. Lausavísur
were single eight-line stanzas complete in themselves, the flokkr was a seriesof such stanzas in a sequence forming a longer poem, a drápa was a sequenceof 20 or more stanzas divided into sections marked by recurring stanzas orparts of stanzas forming a kind of refrain (stef ).
In spite of its complexity, the cultivation of skaldic poetry, at any rate until thethirteenth century, seems to have been an oral and public activity, and there is
no reason to doubt that on many occasions it was composed extempore. But
although it was a highly-valued art and its successful practitioners were highly
honoured and rewarded, even the court poets do not seem to have constituted
a special class in society and were not truly professional poets.
In the literary period sagas were written in which the hero was a famouspoet (and sometimes lover), and biographies of Icelandic poets almost becamea distinct genre. But although these sagas quote a lot of the hero’s poetry, theyusually include verses by others as well, and no attempt seems to have been
made to collect the œuvre of the hero in writing or to compose a true literary
biography.
Many of the early court poets were Norwegians, and skaldic poetry wasprobably cultivated throughout medieval Scandinavia, though little Danish or
Swedish vernacular poetry has been preserved. But from the eleventh century
onwards most surviving skaldic poetry is by Icelanders, though the subjectmatter remains Norwegian to a large extent. The most celebrated early poet is
Egill Skallagrímsson, and the saga about him includes much of his poetry (though
the attributions of many of the poems in the saga have been disputed) as well as
giving a fine portrait of the viking poet. He was not only technically skilful,
but also succeeded in expressing what seem to be genuine emotions in his verse.
G. Turville-Petre, Scaldic Poetry (1969); Origins of Icelandic Literature(1953).
R. Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry, Islandica XLII (1978).
L. M. Hollander, The Skalds, a Selection of their Poems (1968).
C. V. Pilcher, Icelandic Christian Classics (1950).
P. Hallberg, Old Icelandic Poetry. Eddic Lay and Skaldic Verse (1975).
P. Foote and D. Wilson, The Viking Achievement (1970), ch. 10.
W. A. Craigie, The Art of Poetry in Iceland (1937).
Egils saga, Íslenzk fornrit II (1933).
Egil’s saga, tr. G. Jones (1960); tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1976);
tr. C. Fell (1975).
17

Bjarne Fidjestøl, Selected Papers (1997).
Russell Poole, ed., Skaldsagas: Text, Vocation and Desire in the Icelandic
Sagas of Poets (2001).
The whole corpus of non-eddic verse is collected in Den norsk-islandske
skjaldedigtning A I–II, B I–II, ed. Finnur Jónsson (1912–15). There is a fullstudy of kennings in R. Meissner, Die Kenningar der Skalden (1921). Finnur
Jónsson, Lexicon Poeticum (1931) is a dictionary of skaldic usage. See L. M.
Hollander, A Bibliography of Skaldic Studies (1958).
6. The twelfth century and learned literature.
The most productive period of early Icelandic literature, the ‘classical’ period, is the thirteenth century, and the literature of that century is largely secular narrative. But there was also a lot of literary activity in the twelfth century,
mostly clerical, utilitarian or didactic, and much of it discursive (i.e. nonnarrative).
The sources of much of this early literature were foreign, and indeed manyof the books produced were translations. Many Icelandic clerics received education abroad, though schools were also established at the two bishop’s seesin Iceland and at the monasteries (of which there were five established in thetwelfth century). It was probably the normal European curriculum that was
taught in these ecclesiastical institutions, though schools of a kind may haveexisted in some large landowners’ houses too, where history and native traditions may have been given more emphasis. But a number of early historical
works are by priests or are associated with one of the monastic centres, andsome were written in Latin, like the lost works of Sæmundr the Wise and theearliest biography of Óláfr Tryggvason by the monk Oddr Snorrason.
The principal historical works of the twelfth century are Ari’s Íslendingabók
and Hryggjarstykki. The latter was an account of Norwegian history in the
mid-twelfth century. Little is known about its author, Eiríkr Oddsson, and his
work only survives as extracts in Heimskringla and Morkinskinna (a thirteenthcentury compilation of Kings’ Sagas). Towards 1200 Norwegians started towrite surveys of their country’s history — short Norwegian texts of this kindsurvive in both Latin and Norse, though Latin works by Icelandic authors onkings of Norway are known only through vernacular histories derived fromthem. In Iceland the first sagas of individual kings were compiled in the late
twelfth century. One of the most important early Kings’ Sagas was Sverris
saga, chiefly the work of Karl Jónsson, abbot of the monastery at ﬁingeyrar innorthern Iceland from 1169 to 1181 and 1190 to 1207, who had personal contact with the king. An early version of Landnámabók may also have been
18

compiled in the twelfth century, and Icelandic genealogies were certainly being
written down then. Veraldar saga was written about the middle of the century,and is a world chronicle largely based on Latin sources.
Among the most extensive narratives in the vernacular in this period weresaints’ lives. These were mostly translated from Latin, though towards theend of the century lives of native saints came to be written (Icelandic bishops);
and the earliest texts on the Norwegian missionary kings Óláfr Tryggvasonand Óláfr Haraldsson are more like saints’ lives than biographies. The firstsagas about contemporary Icelanders were produced at the end of the
century.
But a good deal of what was written in the twelfth century was not narrative. Homilies, partly translations, partly adaptations of foreign works, were
written and collected for use by Icelandic clergy. Some theological treatises
were translated, as were the Dialogues of Pope Gregory the Great. Treatises
on geography, astronomy, chronology, the calendar and mathematics were
produced, mostly based on Latin works, and Physiologus (a bestiary) and other‘scientific’ treatises were translated. The most original was the First Grammatical Treatise (see sections 1.4 above and 7 below). This scholarly activity
continued during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and many such works,preserved in late manuscript compilations like Hauksbók (early fourteenth
century), probably existed in Icelandic in the twelfth century. Such works
were also compiled in Norway, where the two most significant contributions
were Stjórn, containing translations of parts of the Old Testament and a huge
early fourteenth-century paraphrase of and commentary on the earliest books;
and Konungs skuggsjá (King’s mirror, c.1250), an account of the duties of themerchant, the courtier and the king.
The laws were first compiled and codified in the twelfth century, and annals
may have been started, though most of the surviving annals are from a later
period.
An idea of the literary activity of early Iceland can be obtained from thelist of the surviving manuscripts written in Iceland before 1300 in Hreinn
Benediktsson, Early Icelandic Script (1965), i–liii. See also:
G. Turville-Petre, Origins of Icelandic Literature (1953).
G. Turville-Petre, ‘Notes on the Intellectual History of the Icelanders’,
History XXVII (1942), 111–123.
D. Strömbäck, ‘The Dawn of West Norse Literature’, Bibliography of Old
Norse-Icelandic Studies (1963), 7–24.
The Icelandic Physiologus, ed. Halldór Hermannsson, Islandica XXVII(1938), 1–15.
19

The Hólar Cato, ed. Halldór Hermannsson, Islandica XXXIX (1958), ix–
xxxiv.
O. Widding, H. Bekker-Nielsen, L. K. Shook, ‘The Lives of the Saints in
Old Norse Prose. A Handlist’, Mediaeval Studies XXV (1963), 294–337.
First Grammatical Treatise, ed. Einar Haugen (1972); The First Grammatical Treatise, ed. Hreinn Benediktsson (1972).
7. Snorri Sturluson (1178–1241).
With the possible exception of Sturla ﬁór›arson (3.1, 2 above), Snorri is really the only medieval Icelandic author about whom we have enough biographical information and by whom enough writings survive to allow us tobuild up a full picture of the writer and his œuvre. He therefore emerges as themost eminent medieval Icelandic author. He is thought to have written theProse Edda and Heimskringla, and the separate Saga of St Óláfr, and maybe
also Egils saga (on this see section 5 above). Snorri was also a poet, and a fairamount of his verse survives in Háttatal (the third part of the Prose Edda), in
Sturlunga saga and Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar (see section 3.2 above), andin the Third and Fourth Grammatical Treatises.
For biographical sources see Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Prologue andGylfaginning, ed. A. Faulkes (1982), xxxiii; this edition is available in paperback, published by the Viking Society for Northern Research (2000). Three further volumes comprise the other parts of the Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson,
Edda: Skáldskaparmál, ed. A. Faulkes, 2 vols (Viking Society for Northern
Research 1998) and Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Háttatal, ed. A. Faulkes(Clarendon Press 1991, repr. Viking Society for Northern Research 1999).
The standard edition of the Prose Edda is still Edda Snorra Sturlusonar I–III(1848–87). There is a complete translation in Snorri Sturluson, Edda, tr. A. Faulkes,
Everyman’s Library (1987).
Heimskringla is edited in Íslenzk fornrit XXVI–XXVIII; tr. L. M. Hollander (1964); tr. S. Laing, Everyman’s Library 717, 722, 847 (1961, 1964). See
D. Whaley, Heimskringla. An Introduction. Viking Society for Northern Research (1991).
As part of the Prose Edda, or in association with it in some manuscripts,
there are preserved a number of skaldic poems, including some with mythological or legendary content, some eddic poetry, including some poems not in
the Codex Regius of the eddic poems, and the four Grammatical Treatises;
see sections 1.4, 4 and 5 above and Snorri Sturluson, Edda (1982), vii. These
last are particularly important for understanding attitudes to poetry and language in medieval Iceland.
208. The Sagas.
Because so much early Icelandic literature is anonymous, and because of the
difficulties of dating individual works, it is scarcely possible to approach it
author by author or chronologically. It is similarly difficult to locate works
either geographically or sociologically. Some are clearly clerical works, andmay have originated in one of the Icelandic monasteries or cathedral schools,
others are secular, but may nevertheless have been written by clerics (cf. section
6 above). Some works are aristocratic in tone, but except for those clearly
written for a Norwegian audience, it is difficult to distinguish works written
for a ruling class from those intended for a wider public, and there were nourban audiences. The Alﬂingi, though undoubtedly important for the development of literature and culture as the meeting-place for people from all parts ofIceland and all levels of society, was not a permanent institution and no works
seem to have originated in association with it except possibly Íslendingabók,
Landnámabók, and the law codes; and there was no royal court in Iceland.
Most scholars therefore describe the literature in terms of genre or subjectmatter. Since most prose authors were self-effacing and non-committal, toorder them in terms of the history of ideas is also impracticable, though mostscholars try to distinguish pre-Christian from post-Christian texts, and to determine which ones were influenced by foreign romance. It is no longer common to try to distinguish literature of oral origin from works composed inwriting, though some claim to distinguish oral elements in the written documents we possess and orality and literacy are still much discussed.
The saga is the characteristic narrative form, and modern writers would
define it as a long prose narrative. Shorter narratives were not distinguished asa separate genre in medieval times, but these are now known as ﬂættir, originally ‘strands’; sg. ﬂáttr. They are found dealing with most of the subjects that
also appear in saga form and are often classified with the sagas under thosesubjects.
Einar Ól. Sveinsson, Dating the Icelandic sagas (1958).
K. Schier, Sagaliteratur (1970).
8.1 All sagas are written as though they are history, but some can be distinguished as containing more genuine historical information than others.
8.1.1 The Kings’ Sagas are mostly about the kings of Norway. Some, e.g.
Kn‡tlinga saga, are about the kings of Denmark. Jómsvíkinga saga is about
events in the Baltic as well as Norway, but is in some respects more of a
Heroic Saga than a King’s Saga. Sagas about Norwegian kings are mostly
found in compilations, some of them of massive size and covering many reigns,
21

like Heimskringla, Fagrskinna, Morkinskinna, Flateyjarbók (the two last are
noteworthy for containing many ﬂættir about Icelanders). In most cases they
are based on earlier sagas but with many accretions. Sagas of individual kings
have mostly been incorporated in the compilations, but there survive various
versions of the sagas of the missionary kings Óláfr Tryggvason and St Óláfr,
and some ‘biographies’ written by contemporaries of kings of the twelfth andthirteenth centuries (Sverrir, Hákon Hákonarson).
8.1.2 The Bishops’ Sagas and Sagas of Contemporaries are about events in
twelfth- and thirteenth-century Iceland written usually within living memoryand generally taken to be factually reliable. Most of the Sagas of Contemporaries are collected in Sturlunga saga. Some of the Bishops’ Sagas are in effectSaints’ Lives (8.1.5; see also sections 3 and 6 above).
8.1.3 The Sagas of Icelanders (or ‘Family Sagas’) relate to the ‘Saga-Age’ (AD
930–1030). As history they are inevitably less reliable than the Kings’ andBishops’ Sagas and the Sagas of Contemporaries, though earlier ones are
assumed to be more accurate than later ones. They are artistic literary works
rather than folk-tales, but with a good deal of history in them. They are probably best taken as intelligent guess-work about the past, reconstructions of theprobable course of events according to such sources, literary and oral, as wereavailable. But they are shaped by the attitudes of the thirteenth-century authors. As a genre they are more like documentaries than historical novels or
histories. Novels are about the possible but not actual, whether set in the present
or past. Fantasy is about the desirable but not possible. Sagas are about theprobable (but not provable) events of the past, narrated realistically. Invention
in sagas is therefore different from that in fiction, where both author and audience know that the story is not true. In sagas the invention is of what wasthought by the author and accepted by the audience as most likely to havebeen true. See:W. H. Auden, Secondary Worlds (1968).
M. I. Steblin-Kamenskij, The Saga Mind (1973).
Differences can be discerned between groups of sagas from different areas of
Iceland in length (those from the eastern fjords are shorter), in the inclusion ofverses (more common in those from the north and north-west) and in the degree of realism (greatest in some of those from the south). It is also worth
noting that all the Sagas of Icelanders are anonymous, whereas a number of theKings’ and Bishops’ Sagas are by named authors.
The following deal with the Sagas of Icelanders as a genre:
P. Hallberg, The Icelandic Saga (1962).
22

P. Schach, Icelandic Sagas (1984).
T. M. Andersson, The Icelandic Family Saga. An Analytic Reading (1967).
T. M. Andersson, ‘The Icelandic Sagas’. In Heroic Epic and Saga: An
Introduction to the World’s Great Folk Epics. Ed. F. J. Oinas (1978),144–71.
T. M. Andersson, ‘The Displacement of the Heroic Ideal in the Family
Sagas’, Speculum 45 (1970), 575–93.
D. Pearsall, ‘The Story and its Setting’, Literature and Western Civilization. The Medieval World (1973), 371–406.
‘Landscape in the sagas’, Times Literary Supplement 29th August 1936.
J. Byock, Feud in the Icelandic Saga (1982).
J. Byock, Medieval Iceland. Society, Sagas, and Power (1988).
Vésteinn Ólason, Dialogues with the Viking Age (1998).
There are essays on various sagas in Sagas of Icelanders. A Book of Essays, ed. John Tucker (1989).
8.1.4 For sagas about other areas of viking settlement, see 3.4 above.
8.1.5 The Heroic Sagas (or Mythical-Heroic Sagas, also sometimes Legendary Sagas, in Modern Icelandic fornaldarsögur, ‘sagas of ancient time’) areabout events before the settlement of Iceland (and therefore take place in continental Scandinavia or other parts of Europe). They, especially the later ones,
tend to be more fantastic than Sagas of Icelanders. Earlier ones are often basedon traditional eddic-type heroic poems. Some can be labelled Viking Sagas;
the material for others goes back to the Migration Age. See 4.2 above.
8.1.6 Romances came to be translated in Norway and Iceland in the thirteenth
century. The first is thought to have been Tristrams saga, dated 1226, andbased on the earliest French version of the Tristan and Iseult story, parts ofwhich are no longer extant in the original; other Old French texts too survive
only in Norse translation. Many were translated for the Norwegian court andare associated with the patronage of King Hákon Hákonarson (reigned 1217–
63). They are mostly translated from Old French poems, but into Norse prose,and they are called ‘sagas’ like other prose narratives. A collection of Breton
lais was made, known as Strengleikar, and a number of Arthurian romanceswere made into sagas. Foreign texts of other kinds too were translated, such as
Alexanders saga (from Gautier of Chatillon’s Alexandreis), Rómverja saga(based on Sallust and Lucan), Trójumanna saga (from Latin versions of theTroy story), Stjórn (based on the historical books of the Old Testament),
Gy›inga saga (based on Maccabees and a life of Pontius Pilate), Breta sƒgur
(from the Latin of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniæ). Many23

of the originals of such sagas, whether written in French or Latin, were compiled in the British Isles. Thus material from the Matter of Britain, the Matterof France, and the Matter of Rome were all made into Icelandic sagas. Saints’
Lives were also translated, mostly from Latin prose.
The later romances compiled in Iceland were free reworkings of romanceand sometimes heroic material and can more accurately be described as fantasies. King Sverrir called them lygisƒgur (‘lying sagas’; see ﬁorgils saga, 8.2).
Romances as a whole are usually known as riddara sögur (‘Sagas of Knights
or Chivalry’). See:
M. Schlauch, Romance in Iceland (1934).
H. G. Leach, Angevin Britain and Scandinavia (1921).
8.1.7 Nearly all prose narratives therefore were called sagas, whatever their
origin, except annals and surveys of history like Íslendingabók andLandnámabók, or discursive works like the Grammatical Treatises and writings on geography and other learned subjects. Poems, whether narrative ornot, are not normally called sagas either.
8.2 One of the longest-lasting controversies about the sagas concerns their
origins, particularly those of the Sagas of Icelanders. It used to be taken for
granted that they were composed orally and transmitted orally over several
generations before being written down in the thirteenth century. More recently
many scholars have argued that they are more likely to have been composed,
like other extended narratives in the Middle Ages and later, by learned literaryauthors using both oral and literary sources. The argument has a bearing on
the reliability of the sagas both as historical sources for the events of earlytimes and as sources of information about social and religious conditions during the first century of Icelandic history; it also has implications as to theproper way to approach them as literary works. There are two important medieval documents that are often quoted in this connection, though the references to sources and origins in the sagas themselves cannot be relied upon too
much. See ﬁorgils saga ok Hafli›a, ed. U. Brown (1952), 17–18 (also in
Islandica XXXI (1945), 14); and ﬁorsteins ﬂáttr sƒgufró›a, Íslenzk fornrit
XI, 335–6 (a version of this story is translated in J. Simpson, The Northmen
Talk (1965), 6–7). Snorri Sturluson’s prologue to Heimskringla and other authorial prologues in the saga literature can also be quoted. See:P. G. Foote, ‘Some account of the present state of saga-research’,
Scandinavica 4 (1965), 115–26.
P. G. Foote, ‘Sagnaskemtan: Reykjahólar 1119’, Saga-Book XIV (1953–7),
226–39.
24

Hermann Pálsson, Sagnaskemtun Íslendinga (1962).
Sigur›ur Nordal, The Historical Element in the Icelandic Family Sagas(1957).
T. M. Andersson, The Problem of Icelandic Saga Origins (1964).
K. Liestøl, The Origin of the Icelandic Family Sagas (1930).
Preben Meulengracht Sørensen, Saga and Society (1993).
Sverrir Tómasson, Formálar íslenskra sagnaritara á mi›öldum (1988).
[English summary on pp. 398–413]
8.2.1 Another controversy has centred on the extent of foreign influence on
the sagas, in particular about whether they can be regarded as having their
origin in imitation of foreign romances, or even saints’ lives. Some have believed that, as in other countries, books in Iceland must all have been written
by clerics; others argue that the sagas are a secular genre and that there musthave been a body of writers distinct from and uninfluenced by the learnedclass of clerics, and that there must have been a separate audience for secularliterature from that for which religious literature was compiled. Certainly mostwriters about whom we know anything in the twelfth century seem to havebeen clerics, while in the thirteenth century there was a separation between
secular and religious authority and many of the writers were secular. Even so,
it should not be forgotten that secular authors would generally have had thesame basic education as clerical authors, and it would not necessarily havemade much difference to their writing which they were. See:L. Lönnroth, European Sources of Icelandic Saga-Writing (1965).
An interesting theory was put forward by Sigur›ur Nordal in Sagalitteraturen(1953; Nordisk Kultur VIII B), that in the twelfth century saints’ lives provided romance and sensational entertainment for the unsophisticated, while
scholars wrote dry historical works. In the thirteenth century there was a unification of the imaginative tendency with realism and historicity in the sagas,
but later the two tendencies diverged again and Icelandic literary culture fragmented once more into romance and fantasy on the one hand and annals andhistory on the other. Many of the datings on which this theory was based,
however, have since been called into question.
8.2.2 The sagas are admired not only for their realism and authorial detachment but also for their restrained style, which is generally simple and lacking
in the more obvious rhetorical devices except understatement and irony. Not
all sagas conform to this ‘saga style’ to the same degree, however, and it isclear that there was a fashion for ornaments of style in the later thirteenth
century that affected all kinds of saga-writing, though particularly religious
25and chivalric narratives. Attempts have been made to divide sagas into clerical, courtly and popular narratives, though the relationship of such divisions
to social conditions in medieval Iceland is not clear.
8.3.1 Hrafnkels saga is particularly important because the arguments about
the origins of the sagas have tended to focus particularly on it, and it has been
the subject of intensive investigation, e.g.:
Sigur›ur Nordal, Hrafnkels saga Freysgo›a (1958).
P. Halleux, Aspects littéraires de la saga de Hrafnkell (1963).
The text of this saga is edited in E. V. Gordon, An Introduction to Old Norse(1957), and translated by Hermann Pálsson (1971).
8.3.2 The greatest and longest of the Sagas of Icelanders is Njáls saga. Thereis a facsimile of one of the many medieval manuscripts in Manuscripta
Islandica 6, and a text in Íslenzk fornrit XII. The translation by Magnus
Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson has a useful introduction. Several interesting books have been written about this saga:
Einar Ól. Sveinsson, Njáls saga. A Literary Masterpiece (1971).
R. F. Allen, Fire and Iron (1971).
L. Lönnroth, Njáls saga. A Critical Introduction (1976).
Other major sagas that are particularly worth reading are Egils saga (see section
5 above), Laxdœla saga (Íslenzk fornrit V, translations in Penguin Classics
and Everyman’s Library), Eyrbyggja saga (Íslenzk fornrit IV, translation by
P. Schach and L. M. Hollander, 1959, and in Penguin Classics, 1989), andGrettis saga (Íslenzk fornrit VII, translation in Three Icelandic Outlaw Sagas,
Everyman Paperbacks, 2001).
9. Late medieval and modern Icelandic literature.
In the later Middle Ages copies of the old literature were assiduously made,but as far as new writing was concerned, the traditional forms of composition
were replaced by new ones. Little new prose was written except for annals,
some lives of saints and bishops, and fictional sagas. These last were imitations of earlier Sagas of Icelanders, Heroic Sagas and Romances, with a gooddeal of mixing of these types. The later sagas became more and more likefairy-tales. One new kind of prose that was introduced was the exemplum, theshort anecdote or fable (ævint‡ri), used to illustrate a moral teaching. Collections of these were translated from Latin and Middle English in the fourteenth
century and had a certain popularity. Religious legends were also popular.
26

Although few of the older type of sagas were compiled after the beginningof the fourteenth century, the older sagas were collected and copied and madeinto large compilations in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and weresometimes reworked into new versions. Many thirteenth-century sagas are
now known only in versions made in later centuries. A number of the mostsplendid and important manuscripts are the result of this zealous scribal andeditorial activity of the late Middle Ages in Iceland.
But the most fruitful area for new writing was in poetry. Eddic and skaldic
poetry gave way to ballads (many of them translations or adaptations of foreign
ballads; they had only a limited vogue in Iceland, where they are referred to as
dansar) and rímur. Rímur are a peculiarly Icelandic genre and became a highly
popular form of entertainment that continued until recent times (they are oftensung or chanted). In diction they continue the skaldic tradition, but they are
narrative poems, often very long and divided into sections or fits, and containpassages of lyric called mansöngr. The metres are like ballad metres (rhyming
and in short stanzas) but rhythmically akin to some alliterative metres, andoften highly elaborate. The material was often taken from sagas of various
kinds, with a preference for the spectacularly adventurous, but they have awide variety of subject. Although they became popular and many people cameto know them by heart, they were always a somewhat literary genre, nearly
always using literary sources and quite artificial in style and manner.
Religious poetry too changed in form, and by the fifteenth century theskaldic style had given way to simpler and more straightforward styles. Oneof the most popular poems ever composed in Iceland was EysteinnÁsgrímsson’s Lilja, a long devotional poem from about the middle of the
fourteenth century (translation in Pilcher, 9.2 below) in a metre which had
been introduced in the eleventh century under the influence of Latin hymnody.
Rímur and fictional sagas continued popular until modern times and arefound in many manuscripts.
Some of the later Sagas of Icelanders are edited in Íslenzk fornrit XIII and
XIV. The ballads are edited by Jón Helgason, Íslenzk fornkvæ›i I–VIII (1962–81). They are discussed by Vésteinn Ólason, The Traditional Ballads of Iceland (1982). Some rímur are collected in W. A. Craigie, S‡nisbók íslenzkra
rímna. Specimens of Icelandic Rímur I–III (1952). Most of the later fictionalsagas are collected in Late Medieval Icelandic Romances, ed. A. Loth, Editiones
Arnamagnæanæ B XX–XXIV (1962–5).
9.1 With the renaissance there came about a revival of interest in medieval
Iceland, both in Iceland itself and abroad. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries a number of Icelandic scholars compiled works in Latin
27

(Arngrímur Jónsson, Magnús Ólafsson), which in some cases were publishedabroad. There were also some ‘men of the people’ who contributed to therevival by collecting early texts and writing about them in Icelandic (Björn ofSkar›sá, Jón lær›i). These antiquarians sometimes used texts that are now lost,
so that their work can have particular value to modern scholars. See:
Arngrímur Jónsson, Opera Latine Conscripta, ed. J. Benediktsson,
Bibliotheca Arnamagnæana IX–XII (1950–57).
Two versions of Snorra Edda from the 17th century I–II, ed. A. Faulkes(1977–9).
Eddurit Jóns Gu›mundssonar lær›a I–II, ed. Einar G. Pétursson (1998).
9.2 After the Reformation in Iceland (1550), a large number of (Lutheran) hymns
and other devotional poems were composed; the prose writings on religious
subjects that soon became popular (and were printed in Iceland) were to alarge extent translations (often from German). The most significant of theearly protestant poets was Hallgrímur Pétursson, whose works are still widelyread. Stefán Ólafsson (though like most writers of the period a priest) was amore secular writer. The seventeenth to nineteenth centuries also produced anumber of more or less unlearned ‘peasant’ poets such as Bólu-Hjalmar. See:
Hallgrímur Péturssson, Passíusálmar.
C. V. Pilcher, Icelandic Christian Classics (1950).
Stefán Ólafsson, Kvæ›i I–II (1885–6).
9.3 Iceland has a rich folk-lore, comprising poetry, folk-tales, fairy-tales, riddles, proverbs etc. This was mostly collected from oral tradition in the nineteenth century (though collection continues today) and represents peasant culture largely from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries (when Iceland was under Danish rule), though it may contain some relics of pre-reformation times.
The folk stories in particular give a good picture of Icelandic life in the eighteenth century and are in an elegant prose style.
Íslenzkar ﬂjó›sögur og ævintyri I–II, ed. Jón Árnason (1862, repr. 1954).
Íslenzkar gátur, skemtanir, vikivakar og ﬂulur I–IV, ed. Jón Árnason andÓlafur Daví›sson (1887–1903, repr. 1964).
9.4. Icelandic lyric poetry developed in the nineteenth century largely under
the influence of European romanticism. Some good poetry has been, and continues to be, produced. To begin with, the revival of poetry was closely connected with the nationalist movement and tended to be largely a celebration of
Icelandic tradition, but there is some original work among it.
There has been little drama in Iceland before this century, though some28

plays were written from the late eighteenth century onwards, and it has beenargued that eddic poems represent a primitive form of Scandinavian drama.
Prose fiction has developed in the same period and there have been somedistinguished novelists, particularly Halldór Kiljan Laxness, some of whose
novels have been translated, and Jón Trausti. They are at their best depicting
Icelandic rural life. The saga tradition lies heavy on them.
Many of the books now being published in Iceland are memoirs and recreations of life in Iceland earlier this century.
Halldór Laxness, Independent People (tr. 1945).
Halldór Laxness, Salka Valka (tr. 1936).
Stefán Einarsson, A History of Icelandic Literature (1957).
Icelandic Lyrics. Originals and Translations, ed. Richard Beck (1930).
Icelandic Poems and Stories. Translations from Modern Icelandic Literature, ed. Richard Beck (1943).

General reference and further reading
C. Clover and J. Lindow, eds, Old Norse–Icelandic Literature. A Critical Guide.
Islandica XLV (1985).
M. Clunies Ross, ed., Old Icelandic Literature and Society (2000).
P. Foote, Aurvandilstá: Norse Studies (1984).
E. V. Gordon, ed., An Introduction to Old Norse, 2nd ed. rev. A. R. Taylor (1957).
J. Jesch, Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: the Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions
and Skaldic Verse (2001).
J. Jochens, Old Norse Images of Women (1996).
Jónas Kristjánsson, Eddas and Sagas (1988).
Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder I–XXII (1956–78).
R. McTurk, ed., A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature and Culture (2005).
Sigur›ur Nordal, Icelandic Culture, tr. Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (1990).
P. Pulsiano, ed., Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (1993).
Stefán Einarsson, A History of Icelandic Literature (1957).

Icelandic texts in English editions
Texts with notes and glossary:
Bandamanna saga, ed. H. Magerøy (1981).
Egils saga, ed. Bjarni Einarsson (2003).
Einar Skúlason’s Geisli, A Critical Edition, ed. M. Chase (2005).
Gunnlaugs saga, ed. P. Foote and R. Quirk (1953).
Hávamál, ed. D. Evans, with Glossary and Index by A. Faulkes (1986–87).
Hervarar saga, ed. C. Tolkien and G. Turville-Petre (1956).
Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar, ed. Gu›rún P. Helgadóttir (1987).

29

Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Prologue and Gylfaginning, ed. A. Faulkes (2nd edn 2005).
Snorri Sturluson, Edda: Skáldskaparmál, ed. A. Faulkes, 2 vols (1998).
Snorri Sturluson, Háttatal, ed. A. Faulkes (1991, repr. 1999).
Stories from the Sagas of the Kings, ed. A. Faulkes (1980).
Two Icelandic Stories, ed. A. Faulkes (1978).
Two Tales of Icelanders: Ögmundar ﬂáttr dytts og Gunnara Helmings. ¯lkofra ﬂáttr,ed. I. Wyatt and J. Cook (1993).
Vafﬂrú›nismál, ed. T. W. Machan (1989).
Víga-Glúms saga, ed. G. Turville-Petre (1960).
Vƒluspá, ed. S. Nordal, tr. B. Benedikz and J. McKinnell (1978).
ﬁorgils saga ok Hafli›a, ed. U. Brown (1952).
Texts with parallel translation:Ágrip af Nóregskonungasƒgum, ed. M. J. Driscoll (1995).
The Book of the Icelanders, ed. Halldór Hermannsson, Islandica XX (1930).
Clemens saga, ed. H. Carron (2005).
The First Grammatical Treatise, ed. Einar Haugen (1972), ed. Hreinn Benediktsson(1972).
Fourteenth-Century Icelandic Verse on the Virgin Mary (2001), ed. K. Wrightson(2001).
R. Frank, Old Norse Court Poetry, Islandica XLII (1978).
Gunnlaugs saga, ed. P. Foote, tr. R. Quirk (1957).
Guta saga, ed. C. Peel (1999).
Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, ed. G. Vigfusson, tr. G. Dasent, Icelandic Sagas II and
IV, Rolls series (1887–94).
Hávamál, ed. D. E. M. Clarke (1923).
Historia Norwegie, ed. I. Ekrem and L. B. Mortensen, tr. P. Fisher (2003).
Jómsvíkinga saga, ed. N. Blake (1962).
Norse Romance I–III, ed. M. Kalinke (1999).
The Old Norse–Icelandic Legend of Saint Barbara, ed. and tr. K. Wolf (2000).
The Poetic Edda I: Heroic Poems, ed. and tr. U. Dronke (1969).
The Poetic Edda II: Mythological Poems, ed. and tr. U. Dronke (1997).
The Poetry of Arnórr jarlaskáld, ed. and tr. D. Whaley (1998).
Saga Hei›reks konungs ins vitra ( = Hervarar saga), ed. and tr. C. Tolkien (1960).
The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and tr. R. G. Finch (1965).
Translations of the Sagas of Icelanders:
The Complete Sagas of Icelanders I–V, ed. and tr. Vi›ar Hreinsson et al. (1997).
Many of these translations are reproduced by Penguin under the heading ‘World of
the Sagas’, as follows:
The Sagas of Icelanders, introduction by R. Kellogg (2000) [Egils saga, Vatnsdœla
saga, Laxdœla saga, Hrafnkels saga Freysgo›a, Bandamanna saga, Gísla saga,
Gunnlaugs saga, Refs saga, Grœnlendinga saga, Eiríks saga rau›a, ﬂættir]
Egil’s Saga, tr. B. Scudder, introduction by Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir (2004).

30

Gisli Sursson’s Saga and the Saga of the People of Eyri, tr. Vésteinn Ólason, J. Quinn
and M. Regal (2003).
Njál’s saga, tr. R. Cook (2002).
Sagas of Warrior Poets, ed. D. Whaley (2002) [Kormaks saga, Bjarnar sagaHítdœlakappa, Hallfre›ar saga, Gunnlaugs saga, Víglundar saga].
The Saga of Grettir the Strong, tr. Bernard Scudder (2005).
Other translations:
Arrow-Odd: a medieval novel, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1970).
The Book of Settlements, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1972).
T. M. Andersson and W. I. Miller, Law and Literature in Medieval Iceland:
Ljósvetninga saga and Valla-Ljóts saga (1989).
Bar›ar saga, tr. Jón Skaptason and P. Pulsiano (1984).
The Confederates and Hen-Thorir, tr. Hermann Pálsson (1975).
Erik the Red and other Icelandic sagas, tr. G. Jones (1961).
Eyrbyggja saga, tr. P. Schach and L. M. Hollander (1959).
Fagrskinna, tr. A. Finlay (2004).
Fljotsdale saga and the Droplaugarsons, tr. E. Howarth and J. Young (1990).
Gautrek’s Saga, tr. D. Fox and Hermann Pálsson (1974).
Gongu-Hrolfs saga, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1981)
Heimskringla, tr. L. M. Hollander (1964).
A History of Norway and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr, tr. D. Kunin,ed. C. Phelpstead (2001).
Hrafnkel’s Saga and Other Icelandic Stories, tr. Hermann Pálsson (1971).
Hrolf Gautreksson, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1972).
Icelandic Histories and Romances, tr. R. O’Connor (2002).
King Haralds Saga by Snorri Sturluson, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson(1976).
Íslendingabók – Kristni saga. The Book of the Icelanders – The Story of theConversion. tr. S. Grønlie (2007).
Karlamagnús saga: the saga of Charlemagne and his heroes, tr. C. B. Hieatt (1975).
Knytlinga saga: History of the Kings of Denmark, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards(1986).
Laws of Early Iceland I–II, tr. A. Dennis, P. Foote and R. Perkins (1980–2000).
Laxdaela Saga, tr. Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (1975).
The Life of Gudmund the Good, Bishop of Hólar, tr. G. Turville-Petre and E. S.
Olszewska (1942).
Morkinskinna, tr. T. M. Andersson and K. E. Gade, Islandica LI (2000).
Oddr Snorrason, The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason, tr. T. M. Andersson, Islandica LII(2003).
Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney, tr. Hermann Pálsson (1981).
The Poetic Edda, tr. C. Larrington (1996).
The Saga of Bjorn, Champion of the Men of Hitardale, tr. A. Finlay (2000).
The Saga of the Jomsvikings, tr. L. M. Hollander (1988).
The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, tr. J. Byock (1998).

31

The Saga of King Sverri of Norway, tr. J. Sephton (1899, reissued 1994).
The Saga of Tristram and Isond, tr. P. Schach (1973).
The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer, tr. J. Byock(1999).
The Sagas of Kormak and the Sworn Brothers, tr. L. M. Hollander (1949).
Saxo Grammaticus, History of the Danes, tr. P. Fisher, ed. H. E. Davidson (1979–80).
The Schemers and Víga-Glúm: Bandamanna saga and Víga Glúms saga, tr. G.
Johnston (1999).
Seven Viking Romances, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P. Edwards (1985).
J. Simpson, The Northmen Talk (1965).
J. Simpson, Icelandic Folktales and Legends, 2nd ed. (2004).
The Skalds, A Selection of their Poems, tr. L. M. Hollander (1968).
Snorri Sturluson, Edda, tr. A. Faulkes (1987).
Sturlunga saga, tr. J. McGrew and R. G. Thomas (1970–74).
Sven Aggesen, Works, tr. E. Christiansen.
Theodoricus Monachus, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium. An Accountof the Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, tr. D. and I. McDougall (1998).
Three Icelandic Outlaw Sagas. The Saga of Gisli, the Saga of Grettir, the Saga ofHord, tr. A. Faulkes and G. Johnston (2004).
Viga-Glums saga, tr. J. McKinnell (1987).
Vikings in Russia: Yngvars saga and Eymund’s saga, tr. Hermann Pálsson and P.
Edwards (1989).
The Vinland sagas: Grænlendinga saga and Eirik’s saga, tr. Magnus Magnusson andHermann Pálsson (1973).

CHRONOLOGY
Poets fl.

AD

Beowulf written
First viking raid on Northumbria
Beginning of viking settlement in England
Beginning of viking settlement in Iceland
Alfred the Great becomes king of England
Haraldr finehair becomes king of all
Norway930 Foundation of Alﬂingi
963 Division of Iceland into quarters
c. 985 Beginning of settlement of Greenland
995 Óláfr Tryggvason becomes king of Norway
999/1000 Christianity accepted in Icelandc. 1000 Discovery of America by vikingsc. 1005 Fifth court established1010 Burning of Njáll

c. 725793
c. 850c. 870871
c. 88532[Bragi the Old[ﬁjó›ólfr of Hvinir[ﬁorbjƒrn hornklofi[Eyvindr skáldaspillir[Egill, Kormakr[Einarr skálaglamm[Hallfre›r1014 Battle of Clontarf[Sighvatr
1030 Fall of St Óláfr
[Arnórr jarlaskáld
1056 First bishop at Skálaholt. Sæmundr the Wise born[ﬁjó›ólfr Arnórsson
1066 Fall of Haraldr har›rá›i in England. Battle of Hastings
1067 Ari the Wise born
1096 Tithe laws introduced
1106 First bishop at Hólar
1117–18 Laws first written downc. 1125 Íslendingabók compiled
1133 First monastery established (at ﬁingeyrar)c. 1150 Earliest Icelandic manuscript fragments
1153 Archbishopric established at Ni›aróss[Einarr Skúlasonc. 1170 First Grammatical Treatise. Hryggjarstykki
1179 Snorri Sturluson bornc. 1190–1210 Sverris saga
1197 Jón Loptsson dies
1199 Bishop ﬁorlákr of Skálaholt declared saint1200 Bishop Jón of Hólar declared saint1214 Sturla ﬁór›arson born
1215–18 Snorri lawspeaker
1217 Hákon Hákonarson becomes king of Norway
1218–20 Snorri’s first visit to Norwayc. 1220 The Prose Edda
1222–31 Snorri lawspeaker again
1226 Tristrams saga
1237–9 Snorri’s second visit to Norway
1240 Duke Skúli killed
1241 Snorri Sturluson killed 23rd Septemberc. 1250 Oldest surviving manuscript fragment of a saga of Icelanders (Egils saga)
1262–4 Icelanders acknowledge the king of Norway as their sovereign
1263 King Hákon diesc. 1275 Codex Regius of eddic poems. Morkinskinnac. 1280 Njáls saga. Hrafnkels saga
1284 Sturla ﬁór›arson diesc. 1320 Grettis sagac. 1340 Chaucer bornc. 1350 Mö›ruvallabók written[Eysteinn Ásgrímsson
1382 Flateyjarbók begun
1397 Norway and Iceland come under Danish rule1550 Reformation in Iceland
1944 Iceland regains complete independence

33

AD

Sturlung Age

1400

1500

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Kings’ Sagas≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈○○○

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Saints’ lives≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

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Romances
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Learned prose≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

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Rímur
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Christian poetry≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

○

○

○

○

○

○

○

Skaldic poetry⇐≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

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1600
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‘Age of Peace’

Eddic poetry⇐≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈≈

1300

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1200

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‘Saga Age’

1100

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Settlement

1000

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900

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800

The diagram shows the approximate periods during which the various medieval Icelandic literary genres were cultivated. The dottedlines mark the time of the conversion to Christianity (1000), the end of the Commonwealth (1262) and the Reformation (1550).